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diff --git a/43200-8.txt b/43200-8.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 1b0adfb..0000000 --- a/43200-8.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,20686 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of Cornell Nature-Study Leaflets, by Various - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org - - -Title: Cornell Nature-Study Leaflets - Being a selection, with revision, from the teachers' - leaflets, home nature-study lessons, junior naturalist - monthlies and other publications from the College of - Agriculture, Cornell University, Ithaca, N.Y., 1896-1904 - -Author: Various - -Release Date: July 12, 2013 [EBook #43200] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK CORNELL NATURE-STUDY LEAFLETS *** - - - - -Produced by Juliet Sutherland, Wayne Hammond and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net - - - - - -[Transcriber's Note: - -Italicized text indicated by underscores. - -12-3/4 represents whole and fractional parts of numbers.] - - - - - CORNELL - - NATURE-STUDY LEAFLETS - - BEING A SELECTION, WITH REVISION, FROM THE - TEACHERS' LEAFLETS, HOME NATURE-STUDY - LESSONS, JUNIOR NATURALIST MONTHLIES AND - OTHER PUBLICATIONS FROM THE COLLEGE OF - AGRICULTURE, CORNELL UNIVERSITY, ITHACA, N.Y., - 1896-1904 - - STATE OF NEW YORK--DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE - - NATURE-STUDY BULLETIN NO. 1 - - [Illustration] - - ALBANY - J. B. LYON COMPANY, PRINTERS - 1904 - - - - - LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL. - - - COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE, - CORNELL UNIVERSITY, - ITHACA, N. Y. - - Hon. C. A. WIETING, - _Commissioner of Agriculture_, - Albany, N. Y.: - -SIR.--I submit herewith as a part of the Annual Report of 1903 a number -of the nature-study publications for reprinting. Most of these -publications are out of print and the call for them still continues. -These publications have practically all arisen under your supervision, -and under the directorship of Professor I. P. Roberts. - -Nature-study work should begin in the primary grades. It is a -fundamental educational process, because it begins with the concrete and -simple, develops the power of observation, relates the child to its -environment, develops sympathy for the common and the near-at-hand. By -the time the child has arrived at the fifth or sixth grade he should be -well prepared for specific work in the modern environmental geography, -in the industries, or in other exacter common-life subjects. -Nature-study is a necessary foundation for the best work in biology, -physiography and agriculture. Since it is content work, it is also -equally important as a preparation in all expression work, as in -English, number and reading. In most present-day rural schools it may -well continue through the eighth grade; and, if well taught, it may even -take the place very profitably of some of the "science" of some of the -higher schools. Its particular sphere, however, in a well-developed -school, is below the sixth grade, possibly below the fifth. But even if -the term nature-study ceases at the fifth or sixth grade, the -nature-study method will persist throughout the school course,--the -method of dealing first-hand and in their natural setting with objects, -phenomena and affairs, and of proceeding from the simple and undissected -to the complex and remote. - -The reader should bear in mind that the College of Agriculture has no -organic connection with the public school system of New York State, and -that its nature-study work is a propaganda. From first to last the -College has been fortunate in having the sympathy, aid, and approval of -the State Department of Public Instruction, and now of the new Education -Department. The time is now near at hand when nature-study will be -adequately recognized in the school system of the State, and then the -nature-study work of the College of Agriculture may take new form. - -In these reprinted leaflets the reader will find many methods of -presentation of a great variety of subject-matter. A wide range has -purposely been included, in the hope that any interested teacher may -find at least one or two leaflets that will be suggestive in his own -work. Our own ideas as to what is a valuable leaflet have changed -greatly since the work was begun; and it is to be expected that they -will continue to change with the progress of the work and the -development of the schools. It would be an interesting review if we were -to summarize our own experiences with our own work. The leaflet that is -most praised by the critics may be the least useful in practice. The -greatest danger is that of making the work too complete, too rigid and -too formidable. - -L. H. BAILEY, - -_Director College of Agriculture._ - - - - -CONTENTS. - - - PART I. TEACHERS' LEAFLETS. - - Leaflet. Page. - - The Schoolhouse 9 - L. H. Bailey. - - I. What is Nature-Study? 11 - L. H. Bailey. - - II. The Nature-Study Movement 21 - L. H. Bailey. - - III. An Appeal to the Teachers of New York State 31 - L. H. Bailey. - - IV. What Is Agricultural Education? 45 - L. H. Bailey. - - V. Suggestions for Nature Study Work 55 - Anna Botsford Comstock. - - VI. A Summer Shower 81 - Ralph S. Tarr. - - VII. A Snow Storm 93 - Anna Botsford Comstock. - - VIII. A Handful of Soil: What It Is 99 - Ralph S. Tarr. - - IX. A Handful of Soil: What It Does 115 - L. A. Clinton. - - X. The Brook 125 - J. O. Martin. Introduction by L. H. Bailey. - - XI. Insect Life of a Brook 135 - Mary Rogers Miller. - - XII. Life in an Aquarium 141 - Mary Rogers Miller. - - XIII. A Study of Fishes 157 - H. D. Reed. - - XIV. The Opening of a Cocoon 167 - Mary Rogers Miller. - - XV. A Talk about Spiders 171 - John Henry Comstock. - - XVI. Life History of the Toad 185 - Simon Henry Gage. - - XVII. Life in a Terrarium 207 - Alice I. Kent. - - XVIII. Directions for Collecting and Preserving Insects 213 - Anna Botsford Comstock. - - XIX. Some Tent-Makers 227 - Anna Botsford Comstock. - - XX. Mosquitoes 237 - Mary Rogers Miller. - - XXI. The Ways of the Ant 243 - Anna Botsford Comstock. - - XXII. The Birds and I 253 - L. H. Bailey. - - XXIII. The Early Birds 261 - Louis Agassiz Fuertes. - - XXIV. The Woodpeckers 269 - Anna Botsford Comstock. - - XXV. The Chickadee 279 - Anna Botsford Comstock. - - XXVI. The White-Breasted Nuthatch 283 - Anna Botsford Comstock. - - XXVII. About Crows 287 - Mary Rogers Miller. - - XXVIII. How a Squash Plant Gets Out of the Seed 291 - L. H. Bailey. - - XXIX. How the Trees Look in Winter 297 - L. H. Bailey. - - XXX. One Way of Drawing Trees in Their Winter Aspects 307 - Charles W. Furlong. - - XXXI. Four Apple Twigs 317 - L. H. Bailey. - - XXXII. The Burst of Spring 327 - L. H. Bailey. - - XXXIII. Evergreens and How They Shed Their Leaves 333 - H. P. Gould. - - XXXIV. The Clovers and Their Kin 349 - Anna Botsford Comstock. - - XXXV. How Plants Live Together 361 - L. H. Bailey. - - XXXVI. Planting a Plant 367 - L. H. Bailey. - - XXXVII. Cuttings and Cuttings 369 - L. H. Bailey. - - XXXVIII. A Children's Garden 379 - L. H. Bailey. - - XXXIX. A Hill of Potatoes 385 - I. P. Roberts. - - XL. The Hepatica 391 - Anna Botsford Comstock. - - XLI. Jack-in-the-Pulpit 395 - Anna Botsford Comstock. - - XLII. Indian Corn 397 - Anna Botsford Comstock. - - XLIII. The Ripened Corn 401 - Anna Botsford Comstock. - - XLIV. The Uses of Food Stored in Seeds 409 - Anna Botsford Comstock. - - XLV. The Life History of a Beet 415 - Mary Rogers Miller. - - XLVI. Pruning 417 - Mary Rogers Miller. - - XLVII. Study of a Tree 423 - Anna Botsford Comstock. - - XLVIII. The Maple in February 431 - Anna Botsford Comstock. - - XLIX. The Red Squirrel or Chickaree 435 - Anna Botsford Comstock. - - L. Improvement of School Grounds 437 - John W. Spencer. - - - PART II. CHILDREN'S LEAFLETS. - - The Child's Realm 451 - L. H. Bailey. - - LI. A Snow Storm 453 - Alice G. McCloskey. - - LII. A Plant at School 455 - L. H. Bailey. - - LIII. An Apple Twig and an Apple 467 - L. H. Bailey. - - LIV. Twigs in Late Winter 473 - Alice G. McCloskey. - - LV. Pruning 475 - Alice G. McCloskey. - - LVI. The Hepatica 477 - Alice G. McCloskey. - - LVII. Jack-in-the-Pulpit 479 - Alice G. McCloskey. - - LVIII. Dandelion 481 - Alice G. McCloskey and L. H. Bailey. - - LIX. Maple Trees in Autumn 483 - Alice G. McCloskey. - - LX. A Corn Stalk 485 - Alice G. McCloskey. - - LXI. In the Corn Fields 487 - Alice G. McCloskey. - - LXII. The Alfalfa Plant 489 - L. H. Bailey and John W. Spencer. - - LXIII. The Red Squirrel 495 - Alice G. McCloskey. - - LXIV. Robin 499 - L. H. Bailey. - - LXV. Crows 501 - Alice G. McCloskey. - - LXVI. A Friendly Little Chickadee 503 - Alice G. McCloskey. - - LXVII. The Family of Woodpeckers 505 - Alice G. McCloskey. - - LXVIII. Deserted Birds' Nests 515 - Alice G. McCloskey. - - LXIX. The Poultry Yard: Some Thanksgiving Lessons 517 - Alice G. McCloskey and James E. Rice. - - LXX. Little Hermit Brother 529 - Anna Botsford Comstock. - - LXXI. A Home for Friendly Little Neighbors 537 - Alice G. McCloskey. - - LXXII. Moths and Butterflies 545 - Alice G. McCloskey. - - LXXIII. The Paper Makers 551 - Alice G. McCloskey. - - LXXIV. Some Carpenter Ants and Their Kin 555 - Alice G. McCloskey. - - LXXV. A Garden All Your Own 559 - John W. Spencer. - - LXXVI. The Gardens and the School Grounds 569 - John W. Spencer. - - LXXVII. Something for Young Farmers 573 - John W. Spencer. - - LXXVIII. Bulbs 577 - John W. Spencer. - - LXXIX. A Talk About Bulbs by the Gardener 581 - C. E. Hunn. - - LXXX. Horses 589 - Alice G. McCloskey and I. P. Roberts. - - - - -PART I. - -TEACHERS' LEAFLETS. - - -PUBLICATIONS DESIGNED TO AID THE TEACHER WITH SUBJECT-MATTER, TO -INDICATE THE POINT OF VIEW, AND TO SUGGEST A METHOD OF PRESENTATION. - - - - -THE SCHOOL HOUSE. - -BY L. H. BAILEY. - - -In the rural districts, the school must become a social and intellectual -centre. It must stand in close relationship with the life and activities -of its community. It must not be an institution apart, exotic to the -common-day lives; it must teach the common things and put the pupil into -sympathetic touch with his own environment. Then every school house will -have a voice, and will say: - - I teach - - The earth and soil - To them that toil, - The hill and fen - To common men - That live right here; - - The plants that grow, - The winds that blow, - The streams that run - In rain and sun - Throughout the year; - - And then I lead, - Thro' wood and mead, - Thro' mold and sod, - Out unto God - With love and cheer. - - I teach! - - - - -LEAFLET I. - -WHAT IS NATURE-STUDY?[1] - -BY L. H. BAILEY. - - -[1] Paragraphs adapted from Teachers' Leaflet, No. 6, May 1, 1897, and -from subsequent publications. - -[Illustration] - -Nature-study, as a process, is seeing the things that one looks at, and -the drawing of proper conclusions from what one sees. Its purpose is to -educate the child in terms of his environment, to the end that his life -may be fuller and richer. Nature-study is not the study of a science, as -of botany, entomology, geology, and the like. That is, it takes the -things at hand and endeavors to understand them, without reference -primarily to the systematic order or relationships of the objects. It is -informal, as are the objects which one sees. It is entirely divorced -from mere definitions, or from formal explanations in books. It is -therefore supremely natural. It trains the eye and the mind to see and -to comprehend the common things of life; and the result is not directly -the acquiring of science but the establishing of a living sympathy with -everything that is. - -The proper objects of nature-study are the things that one oftenest -meets. Stones, flowers, twigs, birds, insects, are good and common -subjects. The child, or even the high school pupil, is first interested -in things that do not need to be analyzed or changed into unusual forms -or problems. Therefore, problems of chemistry and of physics are for the -most part unsuited to early lessons in nature-study. Moving things, as -birds, insects and mammals, interest children most and therefore seem to -be the proper objects for nature-study; but it is often difficult to -secure such specimens when wanted, especially in liberal quantity, and -still more difficult to see the objects in perfectly natural conditions. -Plants are more easily had, and are therefore usually more practicable -for the purpose, although animals and minerals should by no means be -excluded. - -If the objects to be studied are informal, the methods of teaching -should be the same. If nature-study were made a stated part of a rigid -curriculum, its purpose might be defeated. One difficulty with our -present school methods is the necessary formality of the courses and the -hours. Tasks are set, and tasks are always hard. The best way to teach -nature-study is, with no hard and fast course laid out, to bring in some -object that may be at hand and to set the pupils to looking at it. The -pupils do the work,--they see the thing and explain its structure and -its meaning. The exercise should not be long, not to exceed fifteen -minutes perhaps, and, above all things, the pupil should never look upon -it as a "recitation," nor as a means of preparing for "examination." It -may come as a rest exercise, whenever the pupils become listless. Ten -minutes a day, for one term, of a short, sharp, and spicy observation -lesson on plants, for example, is worth more than a whole text-book of -botany. - -The teacher should studiously avoid definitions, and the setting of -patterns. The old idea of the model flower is a pernicious one, because -it does not exist in nature. The model flower, the complete leaf, and -the like, are inferences, and pupils should always begin with things and -phenomena, and not with abstract ideas. In other words, the ideas should -be suggested by the things, and not the things by the ideas. "Here is a -drawing of a model flower," the old method says; "go and find the -nearest approach to it." "Go and find me a flower," is the true method, -"and let us see what it is." - -Every child, and every grown person too, for that matter, is interested -in nature-study, for it is the natural way of acquiring knowledge. The -only difficulty lies in the teaching, for very few teachers have had -experience in this informal method of drawing out the observing and -reasoning powers of the pupil without the use of text-books. The teacher -must first of all feel in natural objects the living interest which it -is desired the pupils shall acquire. If the enthusiasm is not catching, -better let such teaching alone. - -Primarily, nature-study, as the writer conceives it, is not knowledge. -He would avoid the leaflet that gives nothing but information. -Nature-study is not "method." Of necessity each teacher will develop a -method; but this method is the need of the teacher, not of the subject. - -Nature-study is not to be taught for the purpose of making the youth a -specialist or a scientist. Now and then a pupil will desire to pursue a -science for the sake of the science, and he should be encouraged. But -every pupil may be taught to be interested in plants and birds and -insects and running brooks, and thereby his life will be the stronger. -The crop of scientists will take care of itself. - -It is said that nature-study teaching is not thorough and therefore is -undesirable. Much that is good in teaching has been sacrificed for what -we call "thoroughness,"--which in many cases means only a perfunctory -drill in mere facts. One cannot teach a pupil to be really interested in -any natural object or phenomenon until the pupil sees accurately and -reasons correctly. Accuracy is a prime requisite in any good -nature-study teaching, for accuracy is truth and it develops power. It -is better that a pupil see twenty things accurately, and see them -himself, than that he be confined to one thing so long that he detests -it. Different subjects demand different methods of teaching. The method -of mathematics cannot be applied to dandelions and polliwogs. - -The first essential in nature-study is actually to see the thing or the -phenomenon. It is positive, direct, discriminating, accurate -observation. The second essential is to understand why the thing is so, -or what it means. The third essential is the desire to know more, and -this comes of itself and thereby is unlike much other effort of the -schoolroom. The final result should be the development of a keen -personal interest in every natural object and phenomenon. - -Real nature-study cannot pass away. We are children of nature, and we -have never appreciated the fact so much as we do now. But the more -closely we come into touch with nature, the less do we proclaim the fact -abroad. We may hear less about it, but that will be because we are -living nearer to it and have ceased to feel the necessity of advertising -it. - -Much that is called nature-study is only diluted and sugar-coated -science. This will pass. Some of it is mere sentimentalism. This also -will pass. With the changes, the term nature-study may fall into disuse; -but the name matters little so long as we hold to the essence. - -All new things must be unduly emphasized, else they cannot gain a -foothold in competition with things that are established. For a day, -some new movement is announced in the daily papers, and then, because we -do not see the head lines, we think that the movement is dead; but -usually when things are heralded they have only just appeared. So long -as the sun shines and the fields are green, we shall need to go to -nature for our inspiration and our respite; and our need is the greater -with every increasing complexity of our lives. - -All this means that the teacher will need helps. He will need to inform -himself before he attempts to inform the pupil. It is not necessary that -he become a scientist in order to do this. He goes as far as he knows, -and then says to the pupil that he cannot answer the questions that he -cannot. This at once raises him in the estimation of the pupil, for the -pupil is convinced of his truthfulness, and is made to feel--but how -seldom is the sensation!--that knowledge is not the peculiar property of -the teacher but is the right of any one who seeks it. Nature-study sets -the pupil to investigating for himself. The teacher never needs to -apologize for nature. He is teaching merely because he is an older and -more experienced pupil than his pupil is. This is the spirit of the -teacher in the universities to-day. The best teacher is the one whose -pupils the farthest outrun him. - -In order to help the teacher in the rural schools of New York, we have -conceived of a series of leaflets explaining how the common objects can -be made interesting to children. Whilst these are intended for the -teacher, there is no harm in giving them to the pupil; but the leaflets -should never be used as texts from which to make recitations. Now and -then, take the children for a ramble in the woods or fields, or go to -the brook or lake. Call their attention to the interesting things that -you meet--whether you yourself understand them or not--in order to teach -them to see and to find some point of sympathy; for every one of them -will some day need the solace and the rest which this nature-love can -give them. It is not the mere information that is valuable; that may be -had by asking someone wiser than they, but the inquiring and sympathetic -spirit is one's own. - -The pupils will find their regular lessons easier to acquire for this -respite of ten minutes with a leaf or an insect, and the school-going -will come to be less perfunctory. If you must teach drawing, set the -picture in a leaflet before the pupils for study, and then substitute -the object. If you must teach composition, let the pupils write on what -they have seen. After a time, give ten minutes now and then to asking -the children what they saw on their way to school. - -Now, why is the College of Agriculture at Cornell University interesting -itself in this work? It is trying to help the farmer, and it begins with -the most teachable point--the child. The district school cannot teach -technical professional agriculture any more than it can teach law or -engineering or any other profession or trade, but it can interest the -child in nature and in rural problems, and thereby join his sympathies -to the country at the same time that his mind is trained to efficient -thinking. The child will teach the parent. The coming generation will -see the result. In the interest of humanity and country, we ask for -help. - -How to make the rural school more efficient is one of the most difficult -problems before our educators, but the problem is larger than mere -courses of study. Social and economic questions are at the bottom of the -difficulty, and these questions may be beyond the reach of the educator. -A correspondent wrote us the other day that an old teacher in a rural -school, who was receiving $20 a month, was underbid 50 cents by one of -no experience, and the younger teacher was engaged for $19.50, thus -saving the district for the three months' term the sum of $1.50. This is -an extreme case, but it illustrates one of the rural school problems. - -One of the difficulties with the rural district school is the fact that -the teachers tend to move to the villages and cities, where there is -opportunity to associate with other teachers, where there are libraries, -and where the wages are sometimes better. This movement is likely to -leave the district school in the hands of younger teachers, and changes -are very frequent. To all this there are many exceptions. Many teachers -appreciate the advantages of living in the country. There they find -compensations for the lack of association. They may reside at home. Some -of the best work in our nature-study movement has come from the rural -schools. We shall make a special effort to reach the country schools. -Yet it is a fact that new movements usually take root in the city -schools and gradually spread to the smaller places. This is not the -fault of the country teacher; it comes largely from the fact that his -time is occupied by so many various duties and that the rural schools do -not have the advantage of the personal supervision which the city -schools have. - - -_Retrospect and Prospect after five years' work._[2] - -[2] From Bull. 206, Sixth Report of Extension Work, 1902. - -To create a larger public sentiment in favor of agriculture, to increase -the farmer's respect for his own business,--these are the controlling -purposes in the general movement that we are carrying forward under the -title of nature-study. It is not by teaching agriculture directly that -this movement can be started. The common schools in New York will not -teach agriculture to any extent for the present, and the movement, if it -is to arouse a public sentiment, must reach beyond the actual farmers -themselves. The agricultural status is much more than an affair of mere -farming. The first undertaking, as we conceive the problem, is to awaken -an interest in the things with which the farmer lives and has to do, for -a man is happy only when he is in sympathy with his environment. To -teach observation of common things, therefore, has been the fundamental -purpose. A name for the movement was necessary. We did not wish to -invent a new name or phrase, as it would require too much effort in -explanation. Therefore, we chose the current and significant phrase -"nature-study," which, while it covers many methods and practices, -stands everywhere for the opening of the mind directly to the common -phenomena of nature. - -We have not tried to develop a system of nature-study nor to make a -contribution to the pedagogics of the subject. We have merely -endeavored, as best we could, to reach a certain specific result,--the -enlarging of the agricultural horizon. We have had no pedagogical -theories, or, if we have, they have been modified or upset by the actual -conditions that have presented themselves. Neither do we contend that -our own methods and means have always been the best. We are learning. -Yet we are sure that the general results justify all the effort. - -Theoretical pedagogical ideals can be applied by the good teacher who -comes into personal relations with the children, and they are almost -certain to work out well. These ideals cannot always be applied, -however, with persons who are to be reached by means of correspondence -and in a great variety of conditions, and particularly when many of the -subjects lie outside the customary work of the schools. - -Likewise, the subjects selected for our nature-study work must be -governed by conditions and not wholly by ideals. We are sometimes asked -why we do not take up topics more distinctly agricultural or economic. -The answer is that we take subjects that teachers will use. We would -like, for example, to give more attention to insect subjects, but it is -difficult to induce teachers to work with them. If distinctly -agricultural topics alone were used, the movement would have very little -following and influence. Moreover, it is not our purpose to teach -technical agriculture in the common schools, but to inculcate the habit -of observing, to suggest work that has distinct application to the -conditions in which the child lives, to inspire enthusiasm for country -life, to aid in home-making, and to encourage a general movement towards -the soil. These matters cannot be forced. In every effort by every -member of the extension staff, the betterment of agricultural conditions -has been the guiding impulse, however remote from that purpose it may -have seemed to the casual observer. - -We have found by long experience that it is unwise to give too much -condensed subject-matter. The individual teacher can give subject-matter -in detail because personal knowledge and enthusiasm can be applied. But -in general correspondence and propagandist work this cannot be done. -With the Junior Naturalist, for example, the first impulse is to inspire -enthusiasm for some bit of work which we hope to take up. This -enthusiasm is inspired largely by the organization of clubs and by the -personal correspondence that is conducted between the Bureau and these -clubs and their members. It is the desire, however, to follow up this -general movement with instruction in definite subject-matter with the -teacher. Therefore, a course in Home Nature-study was formally -established under the general direction of Mrs. Mary Rogers Miller. It -was designed to carry on the experiment for one year, in order to -determine whether such a course would be productive of good results and -to discover the best means of prosecuting it. These experimental results -were very gratifying. Nearly 2,000 New York teachers are now regularly -enrolled in the Course, the larger part of whom are outside the -metropolitan and distinctly urban conditions. Every effort is made to -reach the rural teacher. - -In order that the work may reach the children, it must be greatly -popularized and the children must be met on their own ground. The -complete or ideal leaflet may have little influence. For example, I -prepared a leaflet on "A Children's Garden" which several people were -kind enough to praise. However, very little direct result was secured -from the use of this leaflet until "Uncle John" began to popularize it -and to make appeals to teachers and children by means of personal talks, -letters and circulars. So far as possible, his appeal to children was -made in their own phrase. The movement for the children's garden has now -taken definite shape, and the result is that more than 26,000 children -in New York State are raising plants during the present year. Another -illustration of this kind may be taken from the effort to improve the -rural school grounds. I wrote a bulletin on "The Improvement of Rural -School Grounds," but the tangible results were very few. Now, however, -through the work of "Uncle John" with the teachers and the children, a -distinct movement has begun for the cleaning and improving of the school -grounds of the State. This movement is yet in its infancy, but several -hundred schools are now in process of renovation, largely through the -efforts of the children. - -The idea of organizing children into clubs for the study of plants and -animals, and other outdoor subjects, originated, so far as our work is -concerned, with Mr. John W. Spencer himself an actual, practical farmer. -His character as "Uncle John" has done much to supply the personality -that ordinarily is lacking in correspondence work, and there has been -developed amongst the children an amount of interest and enthusiasm -which is surprising to those who have not watched its progress. - -The problems connected with the rural schools are probably the most -difficult questions to solve in the whole field of education. We -believe, however, that the solution cannot begin directly with the rural -schools themselves. It must begin in educational centres and gradually -spread to the country districts. We are making constant efforts to reach -the actual rural schools and expect to utilize fully every means within -our power, but it is work that is attended with many inherent -difficulties. We sometimes feel that the agricultural status can be -reached better through the hamlet, village, and some of the city schools -than by means of the little red school house on the corner. By appeals -to the school commissioners in the rural districts, by work through -teachers' institutes, through farmers' clubs, granges and other means we -believe that we are reaching farther and farther into the very -agricultural regions. It is difficult to get consideration for purely -agricultural subjects in the rural schools themselves. Often the school -does not have facilities for teaching such subjects, often the teachers -are employed only for a few months, and there is frequently a sentiment -against innovation. It has been said that one reason why agricultural -subjects are taught less in the rural schools of America than in those -of some parts of Europe, is because of the few male teachers and the -absence of school gardens. - -We have met with the greatest encouragement and help from very many of -the teachers in the rural schools. Often under disadvantages and -discouragements they are carrying forward their part of the educational -work with great consecration and efficiency. In all the educational work -we have been fortunate to have the sympathy and co-operation of the -State Department of Public Instruction. We do not expect that all -teachers nor even a majority will take up nature-study work. It is not -desirable that they should. We are gratified, however, at the large -number who are carrying it forward. - -This Cornell nature-study movement is one small part of a general -awakening in educational circles, a movement which looks towards -bringing the child into actual contact and sympathy with the things with -which he has to do. This work is taking on many phases. One aspect of it -is its relation to the teaching of agriculture and to the love of -country life. This aspect is yet in its early experimental stage. The -time will come when institutions in every State will carry on work along -this line. It will be several years yet before this type of work will -have reached what may be considered an established condition, or before -even a satisfactory body of experience shall have been attained. Out of -the varied and sometimes conflicting methods and aims that are now -before the public, there will develop in time an institution-movement of -extension agricultural teaching. - -The literature issued by the Bureau of Nature-Study is of two general -types: that which is designed to be of more or less permanent value to -the teacher and the school; and that which is of temporary use, mostly -in the character of supplements and circulars designed to meet present -conditions or to rally the teachers or the Junior Naturalists. The -literature of the former type is now republished and is to be supplied -gratis to teachers in New York State. The first publication of the -Bureau of Nature-Study was a series of teachers' leaflets. This series -ran to twenty-two numbers. It was discontinued in May, 1901, because it -was thought that sufficient material had then been printed to supply -teachers with subjects for a year's work. It was never intended to -publish these leaflets indefinitely. Unfortunately, however, some -persons have supposed that because these teachers' leaflets were -discontinued we were lessening our efforts in the nature-study work. The -fact is that later years have seen an intensification of the effort and -also a strong conviction on the part of all those concerned that the -work has permanent educative value. We never believed so fully in the -efficiency of this kind of effort as at the present time. - - - - -LEAFLET II. - -THE NATURE-STUDY MOVEMENT.[3] - -BY L. H. BAILEY. - - -[3] Reprinted from the Proceedings of the National Educational -Association, 1903. Paper read in general session at Boston, July, 1903. - -The nature-study movement is the outgrowth of an effort to put the child -into contact and sympathy with its own life. - -It is strange that such a movement is necessary. It would seem to be -natural and almost inevitable that the education of the child should -place it in intimate relation with the objects and events with which it -lives. It is a fact, however, that our teaching has been largely exotic -to the child; that it has begun by taking the child away from -its natural environment; that it has concerned itself with the -subject-matter rather than with the child. This is the marvel of marvels -in education. - -Let me illustrate by a reference to the country school. If any man were -to find himself in a country wholly devoid of schools, and were to be -set the task of originating and organizing a school system, he would -almost unconsciously introduce some subjects that would be related to -the habits of the people and to the welfare of the community. Being -freed from traditions, he would teach something of the plants and -animals and fields and people. Yet, as a matter of fact, what do our -rural schools teach? They usually teach the things that the academies -and the colleges and the universities have taught--that old line of -subjects that is supposed, in its higher phases, to lead to "learning." -The teaching in the elementary school is a reflection of old academic -methods. We really begin our system at the wrong end--with a -popularizing and simplifying of methods and subjects that are the -product of the so-called higher education. We should begin with the -child. "The greatest achievement of modern education," writes Professor -Payne, "is the gradation and correlation of schools, whereby the ladder -of learning is let down from the university to secondary schools, and -from these to the schools of the people." It is historically true that -the common schools are the products of the higher or special schools, -and this explains why it is that so much of the common-school -work is unadapted to the child. The kindergarten and some of the -manual-training, are successful revolts against all this. It seems a -pity that it were ever necessary that the ladder of learning be "let -down;" it should be stood on the ground. - -The crux of the whole subject lies in the conception of what education -is. We all define it in theory to be a drawing out and a developing of -the powers of the mind; but in practice we define it in the terms of the -means that we employ. We have come to associate education with certain -definite subjects, as if no other sets of subjects could be made the -means of educating a mind. One by one, new subjects have forced -themselves in as being proper means for educating. All the professions, -natural science, mechanic arts, politics, and last of all agriculture, -have contended for a place in educational systems and have established -themselves under protest. Now, any subject, when put into pedagogic -form, is capable of being the means of educating a man. The study of -Greek is no more a proper means of education than the study of Indian -corn is. The mind may be developed by means of either one. Classics and -calculus are no more divine than machines and potatoes are. We are much -in the habit of speaking of certain subjects as leading to "culture;" -but this is really factitious, for "culture" is the product only of -efficient teaching, whatever the subject-matter may be. So insistent -have we been on the employing of "culture studies" that we seem to have -mistaken the means of education for the object or result of education. -What a man is, is more important than what he knows. Anything that -appeals to a man's mind is capable of drawing out and training that -mind; and is there any subject that does not appeal to some man's mind? -The subject may be Sanskrit literature, hydraulics, physics, -electricity, or agriculture--all may be made the means whereby men and -women are educated, all may lead to what we ought to know as culture. -The particular subject with which the person deals is incidental, for - -"A man's a man for a' that and a' that." - -Is there, then, to be no choice of subjects? There certainly is. It is -the end of education to prepare the man or woman better to live. The -person must live with his surroundings. He must live with common things. -The most important means with which to begin the educational process, -therefore, are those subjects that are nearest the man. Educating by -means of these subjects puts the child into first-hand relation with his -own life. It expands the child's spontaneous interest in his environment -into a permanent and abiding sympathy and philosophy of life. I never -knew an exclusive student of classics or philosophy who did not deplore -his lack of touch with his own world. These common subjects are the -natural, primary, fundamental, necessary subjects. Only as the -child-mind develops should it be taken on long flights to extrinsic -subjects, distant lands, to things far beyond its own realm; and yet, -does not our geography teaching still frequently begin with the universe -or with the solar system? - -In the good time coming, geography will not begin with a book at all, -as, in fact, it does not now with many teachers. It may end with one. It -will begin with physical features in the very neighborhood in which the -child lives--with brooks and lakes and hills and fields. Education -should begin always with objects and phenomena. We are living in a -text-book and museum age. First of all, we put our children into books, -sometimes even into books that tell about the very things at the child's -door, as if a book about a thing were better than the thing itself. So -accustomed are we to the book-route that we regard any other route as -unsystematic, unmethodical, disconnected. Books are only secondary means -of education. We have made the mistake of considering them primary. This -mistake we are rapidly correcting. As the book is relegated to its -proper sphere, we shall find ourselves free to begin with the familiar -end of familiar things. - -Not only are we to begin with common objects and events, but with the -child's natural point of contact with them. Start with the child's -sympathies; lead him on and out. We are to develop the child, not the -subject. The specialists may be trusted to develop the subject-matter -and to give us new truth. The child is first interested in the whole -plant, the whole bug, the whole bird, as a living, grooving object. It -is a most significant fact that most young children like plants, but -that most youths dislike botany. The fault lies neither in the plants -nor in the youths. A youth may study cells until he hates the plant that -bears the cells. He may acquire a technical training in cells, but he -may be divorced from objects with which he must live, and his life -becomes poorer rather than richer. I have no objection to minute -dissection and analysis, but we must be very careful not to begin it too -early nor to push it too far, for we are not training specialists: we -are developing the power that will enable the pupil to get the most from -his own life. As soon as the pupil begins to lose interest in the plant -or the animal itself, stop! - -There is still another reason for the study of the common things in -variety: it develops the power to grasp the problems of the day and to -make the man resourceful. A young man who has spent all his time in the -schoolroom is usually hopelessly helpless when he encounters a real -circumstance. I see this remarkably illustrated in my own teaching, for -I have young men from the city and from farms. The farm boy will turn -his hand to twenty things where the city boy will turn his to one. The -farm boy has had to meet problems and to solve them for himself: this is -sometimes worth more than his entire school training. Why does the farm -boy make his way when he goes to the city? - -It is no mere incident to one's life that he be able to think in the -thought of his own time. Even though one expect to devote himself wholly -to a dead language, in school he should study enough natural science and -enough technology to enable him to grasp living problems. I fear that -some institutions are still turning out men with mediæval types of mind. - -Now, therefore, I come again to my thesis,--to the statement that the -end and purpose of nature-study is to educate the young mind by means of -the subjects within its own sphere, by appealing to its own sympathetic -interest in them, in order that the person's life may be sweeter, -deeper, and more resourceful. Nature-study would not necessarily drive -any subject from the curriculum; least of all would it depreciate the -value of the "humanities;" but it would restore to their natural and -proper place the subjects that are related to the man. It would begin -with things within the person's realm. If we are to interest -children--or grown-ups, either, for that matter--we must begin by -teaching the things that touch their lives. Where there is one person -that is interested in philology, there are hundreds that are interested -in engines and in wheat. From the educational point of view, neither the -engine nor the wheat is of much consequence, but the men who like the -engines and who grow the wheat are immeasurably important and must be -reached. There are five millions of farms in the United States on which -chickens are raised, and also thousands of city and village lots where -they are grown. I would teach chickens. I would reach Men by means of -the Old Hen. - -How unrelated much of our teaching is to the daily life is well shown by -inquiries recently made of the children of New Jersey by Professor Earl -Barnes. Inquiries were made of the country school children in two -agricultural counties of the State as to what vocation they hoped to -follow. As I recall the figures, of the children at seven years of age -26 per cent desired to follow some occupation connected with country -life. Of those at fourteen years, only 2 per cent desired such -occupation. This remarkable falling off Professor Barnes ascribes in -part to the influence of the teacher in the country schools, who is -usually a town or city girl. The teacher measures everything in terms of -the city. She talks of the city. She returns to the city at the end of -the week. In the meantime, all the beauty and attractiveness and -opportunity of the country may be unsuggested. Unconsciously both to -teacher and pupil, the minds of the children are turned toward the city. -There results a constant migration to the city, bringing about serious -social and economic problems; but from the educational point of view the -serious part of it is the fact that the school training may unfit the -child to live in its normal and natural environment. It is often said -that the agricultural college trains the youth away from the farm; the -fact is that the mischief is done long before the youth enters college. - -Let me give another illustration of the fact that dislike of country -life is bred very early in the life of the child. In a certain rural -school in New York State, of say forty-five pupils, I asked all those -children that lived on farms to raise their hands; all hands but one -went up. I then asked those who wanted to live on the farm to raise -their hands; only that one hand went up. Now, these children were too -young to feel the appeal of more bushels of potatoes or more pounds of -wool, yet they had thus early formed their dislike of the farm. Some of -this dislike is probably only an ill-defined desire for a mere change, -such as one finds in all occupations, but I am convinced that the larger -part of it was a genuine dissatisfaction with farm life. These children -felt that their lot was less attractive than that of other children; I -concluded that a flower garden and a pleasant yard would do more to -content them with living on the farm than ten more bushels of wheat to -the acre. Of course, it is the greater and better yield that will enable -the farmer to supply these amenities; but at the same time it must be -remembered that the increased yield itself does not arouse a desire for -them. I should make farm life interesting before I make it profitable. - -Of course, nature-study is not proposed merely as a means of keeping -youth in the country; I have given these examples only to illustrate the -fact that much of our teaching is unrelated to the circumstances in -which the child lives--and this is particularly true of teaching in the -rural schools. Nature-study applies to city and country conditions -alike, acquiring additional emphasis in the country from the fact that -what we call "nature" forms the greater part of the environment there. -But the need to connect the child with itself is fundamental to all -efficient teaching. To the city child the problems associated with the -city are all-important; but even then I should give much attention to -the so-called "nature subjects;" for these are clean, inspiring, -universal. "Back to nature" is an all-pervading tendency of the time. - -We must distinguish sharply between the purposes of nature-study and its -methods. Its purposes are best expressed in the one word "sympathy." By -this I do not mean sentimentalism or superficiality or desultoriness. -The acquiring of sympathy with the things and events amongst which one -lives is the result of a real educational process--a process as vital -and logical and efficient as that concerned in educating the older pupil -in terms of fact and "science." Nature-study is not "natural history," -nor "biology," nor even elementary science. It is an attitude, a point -of view, a means of contact. - -Nature-study is not merely the adding of one more thing to a curriculum. -It is not co-ordinate with geography, or reading, or arithmetic. Neither -is it a mere accessory, or a sentiment, or an entertainment, or a -tickler of the senses. It is not a "study." It is not the addition of -more "work." It has to do with the whole point of view of elementary -education, and therefore is fundamental. It is the full expression of -personality. It is the practical working out of the extension idea that -has become so much a part of our time. More than any other recent -movement, it will reach the masses and revive them. In time it will -transform our ideals and then transform our methods. - -The result of all this changing point of view I like to speak of as a -new thing. Of course, there is no education that is wholly new in kind; -and it is equally true that education is always new, else it is dead and -meaningless. But this determination to cast off academic methods, to put -ourselves at the child's point of view, to begin with the objects and -phenomena that are near and dear to the child, is just now so marked, -and is sure to be so far-reaching in its effects, that I cannot resist -the temptation to collect these various movements, for emphasis, under -the title of the "new education." - -"Nature-study" is another name for this new education. It is a revolt -from the too exclusive science-teaching and book-teaching point of view, -a protest against taking the child first of all out of its own -environment. It is a product of the teaching of children in the -elementary schools. The means and methods in nature-study are as varied -as the persons who teach it. Most of the criticism of the movement--even -among nature-study folk themselves--has to do with means and methods -rather than with real ideals. We are now in the epoch when we should -overlook minor differences and all work together for the good of a -common cause. There is no one subject and no one method that is best. - -While it is not my purpose to enter into any discussion of the methods -of teaching nature-study, I cannot refrain from calling attention to -what I believe to be some of the most serious dangers, (1) I would first -mention the danger of giving relatively too much attention to mere -subject-matter or fact. Nowhere should the acquiring of mere information -be the end of an educational process, and least of all in nature-study, -for the very essence of nature-study is spirit, sympathy, enthusiasm, -attitude toward life. These results the youth gains naturally when he -associates in a perfectly free and natural way with objects in the wild. -Science-teaching has fallen short of its goal in the elementary -schools--and even in the colleges and universities--by insisting so much -on the subject-matter that the pupil is overlooked. In standing so -rigidly for the letter, we have missed the spirit. President Eliot has -recently called attention to this danger: "College professors heretofore -have been apt to think that knowledge of the subject to be taught was -the sufficient qualification of a teacher; but all colleges have -suffered immeasurable losses as a result of this delusion." (2) A second -danger is the tendency to make the instruction too long and too -laborious. As soon as the child becomes weary of giving attention, the -danger-point is reached; for thereafter there is loss in the spirit and -enthusiasm, however much may be gained in dry subject-matter. I believe -that even in high schools and colleges we make mistakes by demanding too -long-continued application to one subject. Short, sharp, enthusiastic -exercises, with pith and point, of five to ten minutes' duration, are -efficient and sufficient for most purposes, particularly with beginners. -(3) A third danger is the practice of merely telling or explaining. Set -the child to work, and let the work be within his own realm. Pollen, -lichens, capsules, lymphatics, integuments--these are not within the -child's range; they smack of the museum and the text-book. Yet it -appears to be the commonest thing to put mere children at the subject of -cross-fertilization; they should first be put, perhaps, at flowers and -insects. I wish that in every schoolroom might be hung the motto, -"Teaching, not telling." (4) A fourth point I ought to mention is the -danger of clinging too closely to the book habit; this I have already -touched on. We are gradually growing out of the book slavery, even in -arithmetic and grammar and history. This means a distinct advance in the -abilities of the teacher. Of all subjects that should not be taught by -the book, nature-study is chief. Its very essence is freedom from -tradition and "method." I wish that there were more nature-study books; -but they are most useful as sources of fact and inspiration, not as -class texts. The good teacher of nature-study must greatly modify the -old idea of "recitations." I wish to quote again from President Eliot: -"Arithmetic is a very cheap subject to teach; so are spelling and the -old-fashioned geography. As to teaching history in the old-fashioned -way, anybody could do that who could hear a lesson recited. To teach -nature-studies, geometry, literature, physiography, and the modern sort -of history requires well-informed and skillful teachers, and these cost -more than the lesson-hearers did." (5) Finally, we must come into -contact with the actual things, not with museums and collections. -Museums are little better than books unless they are regarded as -secondary means. The museum has now become a laboratory. The living -museum must come more and more into vogue,--living birds, living plants, -living insects. The ideal laboratory is the out-of-doors itself; but for -practical school purposes this must be supplemented. The most workable -living laboratory of any dimensions is the school garden. The true -school garden is a laboratory plat; time is coming when such a -laboratory will be as much a part of a good school equipment as -blackboards and charts and books now are. It will be like an additional -room to the school building. Aside from the real school garden, every -school premises should be embellished and improved as a matter of -neighborhood and civic pride; for one cannot expect the child to rise -above the conditions in which he is placed. All these dangers cannot be -overcome by any "system" or "method;" they must be solved one by one, -place by place, each teacher for himself. Whenever nature-study comes to -be rigidly graded and dressed and ordered, the breath of life will be -crushed from it. It is significant that everywhere mere "method" is -giving way to individualism. - -In time, the methods of teaching nature-study will crystallize and -consolidate around a few central points. The movement itself is well -under way. It will persist because it is vital and fundamental. It will -add new value and significance to all the accustomed work of the -schools; for it is not revolutionary, but evolutionary. It stands for -naturalness, resourcefulness, and for quickened interest in the common -and essential things of life. We talk much about the ideals of -education; but the true philosophy of life is to idealize everything -with which we have to do. - - - - -LEAFLET III. - -AN APPEAL TO THE TEACHERS OF NEW YORK STATE.[4] - -BY L. H. BAILEY. - - -[4] Supplement to Home Nature-Study Course, March, 1904. (Vol. V, No. -6.) - -[Illustration] - -The kernel of modern educational development is to relate the -school-training to the daily life. Much of our education is not -connected with the conditions in which the pupils live and is extraneous -to the lives that they must lead. The free common schools are more -recent in development than universities, colleges and academies and they -are even yet essentially academic and in many ways undemocratic. They -teach largely out of books and of subjects that have little vital -relation with things that are real to the child. The school work is -likely to be exotic to the pupil. The child lives in one world, and goes -to school in another world. - -Every subject has teaching-power when put into pedagogic form. The -nearer this subject is to the child, the greater is its teaching power, -other conditions being comparable; and the more completely does it put -him into touch with his environment and make him efficient and happy -therein. In time, all subjects in which men engage will be put in form -for teaching and be made the means of training the mind. The old -subjects will not be banished, but rather extended; but the range of -subjects will be immensely increased because we must reach all people in -terms of their daily experience. How all these subjects are to be -handled as school agencies, we cannot yet foresee, nor is it my purpose -now to discuss the question; but it is certain that the common things -must be taught. And the common subjects are as capable of being made -the means of developing the imagination and the higher ideals as are -many of the traditional subjects. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 1. Junior Gardeners beginning the work of cleaning -up a New York school ground._] - -Great numbers of our people are in industrial and agricultural -environments. By means of the industrial and agricultural trades they -must live. These trades must be made more efficient; and the youth must -be educated to see in them more than a mere livelihood. These industrial -and agricultural subjects must be put more and more into schools. My own -interest lies at present more with the agricultural subjects, and these -are the occasion for this appeal. The so-called "industrial" and -commercial subjects have already been put into schools with good effect: -the agricultural subjects now must come within the school horizon. - -Probably one million and more of the people of New York State live on -farms. This is approximately one in seven of our entire population. -Moreover, every person is interested in the out-of-doors and in the -things that grow therein. The future agricultural efficiency of New York -State will depend on the school training more than on any other single -factor; and on the agricultural efficiency of the State will depend, to -an important extent, its economic supremacy. New York is the fourth -State in total agricultural wealth, being exceeded only by Illinois, -Iowa and Ohio. All the country children should be reached in terms of -the country. Most of our school books are made for the city and town -rather than for the country. The problem of the development of the rural -school is the most important single educational problem now before us; -and it is essentially an agricultural problem. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 2. Junior Gardeners at work in a New York school -ground. The grounds are now ready for planting. The mail carrier now -calls and the pupils take the mail home._] - -My appeal, therefore, is to every teacher in New York State, whether in -country or city--for the city teacher makes public opinion, helps to set -educational standards, and many of the country children go to school in -the cities. I do not wish to press agriculture into the schools as a -mere professional subject, but I would teach--along with the customary -school work--the objects and phenomena and affairs of the country as -well as of the city. The schools lead away from the country rather than -towards it. All this I do not regard as a fault of the schools, but -merely as a limitation due to the fact that the schools are still in -process of evolution. It requires time to adapt a means to an end, and -the schools are not to be criticised. But we must do our best to hasten -the evolution. Schools, colleges and universities have only begun to -reach the people effectively: these institutions must eventually touch -every vital and homely problem, for they are to be the controlling -factors in our civilization. Any subject that is worthy a person's -attention out of school is also worthy his attention in school. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 3. Sugar beets and a fourteen-year-old -experimenter. (Supt. Kern, Illinois.)_] - -I heard a good story the other day of an occurrence of many years ago -illustrating the fact that school training may be wholly exotic to the -pupil. The story was told in Ogdensburg, and Heuvelton is near by. The -class in geography was on exhibition, for there were visitors. The -questions were answered quickly: "How far is it from Rome to Corinth?" -"From Rome to Constantinople?" "From Paris to Rome?" A visitor was -asked whether he had any questions to propound. He had one: "How far is -it from Heuvelton to Ogdensburg?" No one answered; yet the visitor -said that none of the pupils would be likely to go from Rome to -Constantinople, but that every one of them would go from Heuvelton to -Ogdensburg. - -Not only must the school teach in terms of its own environment, but more -and more it must become the intellectual and social center of the -neighborhood or district. Every modern rural school building should be -attractive enough to induce clubs of many kinds to hold meetings in it. -In the old "lyceum" days the school house was an important gathering -place. These days are mostly past, but better days should be coming: the -school should connect at every point with the life of the community. Any -event, however small, that centers the attention of the people at the -school house is a beginning and is worth while. A year ago the children -and teacher in one of our district schools began the work of "cleaning -up" the premises. The picture (Fig. 1) shows them at work. Later, when -the grounds were renovated and ready for the planting, boxes were placed -for the reception of the mail for those who do not live on the carrier's -route: this is the beginning of a centering of attention at the school -house. I think that the boxes might have been more attractive and -perhaps better placed, but this will come in time: a beginning has been -made. When once the people of any community come to think of the school -house as a meeting-place for old folks as well as for children, what may -we not expect of the rural school? We need adult education as well as -juvenile education. - -I have now no course of study to propose for agricultural or -country-life subjects in the schools, but I would like to know how many -teachers in the State desire to take up certain work of this nature as -an experiment. The College of Agriculture will be glad to suggest the -kind of work, if need be. The western states are undertaking this work: -we must not be behind. It is endorsed by Superintendent Skinner, as will -be seen from the letter published at the close of this pamphlet. - -To be effective and meaningful, this work should deal directly with the -things,--handling the things, studying the things, learning from the -things. This is nature-study. To commit to memory something about things -is of little consequence. We are too closely committed to books. We are -often slaves to books. Books are only secondary or incidental means of -educating, particularly in nature-study subjects. We have known the -book-way of educating for so long a time that many of us have come to -accept it as a matter of course and as the only way. A New York school -man recently told me an incident that illustrates this fact singularly -well. In the Cattaraugus Indian Reservation he opened a school in which -at first he employed only manual-training and nature-study work. Soon -one of the children left school. The teacher sought the mother and asked -why. The mother replied that there was no use in sending the child to -school because the teacher had given it no books to study. So slavishly -have we followed the book-route that even the Indian accepts it as the -only road to schooling! - -[Illustration: _Fig. 4. Prize corn and a ten-year-old experimenter in -one of Supt. Kern's districts, Illinois.]_ - - -SCHOOL-GARDENS. - -Many lines of work might be suggested for an occasional period. Perhaps -the best one for spring is a school-garden. In time, every good school -will have its garden, as it now has charts and blackboards and books. A -school-garden is a laboratory-room added to the school house. It may be -five feet square or ten times that much. The children prepare the -land,--lessons in soils, soil physics; sow the seed,--lessons in -planting, germination, and the like; care for the plants,--lessons in -transplanting, struggle for existence, natural enemies, conditions that -make for the welfare of the plants. The older pupils may be organized -into experiment clubs, as they are being organized in parts of Illinois -(see article on "Learning by Doing," by Supt. O. J. Kern, Review of -Reviews, Oct., 1903, p. 456). We can help you in this school-gardening -work. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 5. "Learning by doing." A new kind of school work -in Illinois, under the direction of Supt. Kern._] - - -OTHER WORK. - -If not school-gardens, take up other lines of work,--study the school -premises, the nearby brook or field, an apple tree, or any other common -object or phenomenon. If there is any special agricultural industry in -the neighborhood, discuss it and set the pupils at work on it. Any of -these common-day subjects will interest the children and brighten up the -school work; and the pursuit of them will teach the children the -all-important fact that so few of us ever learn,--the fact that the -commonest and homeliest things are worthy the best attention of the best -men and women. - - -IMPROVING THE SCHOOL GROUNDS. - -Just now, the improving of school grounds is a pressing subject. As a -preliminary to the actual improving of the grounds, suppose that the -following problems were set before the pupils: - -1. _Exercises on the Grounds._ - -1. _Area._--Measure the school grounds, to determine the lengths and -widths. Draw an outline map showing the shape. The older pupils may -compute the square surface area. The distances may be compared, for -practice, in feet, yards and rods. (Arithmetic.) - -[Illustration: _Fig. 6. Using the Babcock milk test at Professor -Hollister's School, Corinth, N. Y._] - -2. _Contour._--Is the area level, or rough, or sloping? Determine how -great the slope is by sighting across a carpenter's level. In what -direction does the ground slope? Is the slope natural, or was it made by -grading? The older pupils may draw a cross-section line, to a scale, to -show what the slope is. (Geography.) - -3. _Fences._--What parts of the area are fenced? What kind of fence? -Total length of fence? Give opinion whether this fence is needed, with -reasons. Is the fence in good repair? If not, what should be done to -remedy it? (Arithmetic, language.) - -4. _Soil._--What is the nature of the soil--clay, sand, gravel, field -loam? Was subsoil spread on the surface when the grounds were graded? Is -the soil poor or rich, and why do you think so? Is it stony? What can -be done to improve the soil? (Geography, language.) - -5. _Ground cover._--What is on the ground--sod or weeds, or is it bare? -What do you think would be the best ground cover, and why? (Geography, -language.) - -6. _Trees and bushes._--How many trees and bushes are there on the -ground? Were they planted, or did they come up of themselves? Make a map -showing where the principal ones are. Name all the kinds, putting the -trees in one list and the bushes in another. Do any of the trees need -pruning, and why? State whether any of them have been injured or are -unhealthy. (Geography, language.) - -7. _Tenants._--What animals live or have lived on the school premises? -What birds' nests do you find (these may be found in winter)? Hornets' -nests? Perhaps you can find cocoons or egg-masses of insects in winter, -and the active insects themselves in spring and fall. What birds visit -the place? Do rabbits or mice or moles or frogs inhabit the premises? -(Geography, language.) - -8. _Natural features._--Describe any strong natural features, as rocks, -ponds, streams, groves. What views do you get from the school grounds? -(Geography, language.) - - -2. _Exercises on the School Structures._ - -9. _Buildings._--How many buildings are on the grounds, including sheds, -etc.? Give the sizes in lengths and widths. Brick or wood? Color? Make a -map or chart showing the position of these structures, being careful to -have the buildings properly proportioned with reference to the entire -area. (Language, geography.) - -10. _Repairs needed._--Describe what condition the structures are in. -Tell whether repairs are needed on foundations, side walls, roof, -belfry, chimney, steps, doors, windows, paint. (Language.) - -11. _Flag pole._--Where is your flag pole? Could it be in a better -place? How tall is it above ground? How much in diameter at the base? -What kind of wood? Painted? How deep in the ground? When was it put up? -What repairs does it need? (Language.) - - -3. _General Exercises._ - -12. _History._--When was the land set aside for a school? When was the -school house built? Who built it? (History, language.) - -13. _Cost._--Try to find out what the land cost. What the building cost. -Are they worth as much now? (History, language.) - -14. _Government._--Determine what officers have general control of the -school. How did they come to be officers? How long do they hold office? -What are the duties of each? Determine whether your school receives any -aid from the State. (Government.) - -15. _Improvement._--Tell what you think should be done to improve the -school grounds and the school structures. (Language.) - -16. _Photographs._--The teacher or some pupil should photograph the -school premises, and send the picture to us. We want at least one -picture of every rural school house and grounds in the State. Even a -very poor photograph is better than none. - -_Experiment Garden._--Every school ground should have at least one small -plat on which the children can grow some plant that is useful in that -community. Just now alfalfa is demanding much attention from farmers, -and it is certain soon to become a very important farm crop in New York -State. It is used for pasturage and for hay. When once established, it -lives for years. It is allied to clover and is a handsome plant for any -school grounds. Will not the teacher suggest to the children that they -make an alfalfa bed along one side of the school grounds? It will be -attractive and will teach many lessons to pupils and parents even if it -is only a few square feet in size. We want to put an alfalfa plat on -every rural school ground in the State. _We will supply the seed free._ -Alfalfa is easy to grow if only a few essential principles are kept in -mind. We will send full directions to any one who applies. From year to -year we will give nature-study lessons on these alfalfa plats. - -We are anxious to start work of the above kind. It can be done at any -time of the year. We are already in touch with more than 400 school -grounds, but we want to reach every rural school ground in the State. -_Will not the teacher send to us the best piece of work done by any -pupil in any of the foregoing sixteen problems?_ These papers we will -file, as showing the conditions of the premises of the particular -school. They will enable us to see the progress that is being made from -year to year in the improvement of your school premises. They will also -enable us better to give advice, when called upon to do so. Sometimes we -can send to the particular school a man to give advice on the spot. -Sending the best reports to the University will be a reward to the most -diligent pupils. Send all reports to John W. Spencer, Nature-Study -Bureau, Ithaca, N. Y. - -We desire to put in the rural school houses of the State some good -pictures of country and farm scenes. These pictures will be artistic -reproductions of meritorious photographs, and large enough to hang on -the walls of the school room. With each picture will be sent -instructions for framing in order to make the picture more attractive. -We shall choose eight such pictures for distribution the present school -year. _We will send one of these pictures free to any rural school in -the State that takes up two of the problems given above; and all of them -to schools that take up the sixteen problems._ We expect to publish -lists of all schools, with teachers' names, that take up this work in -improving the premises of rural schools. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 7. Junior Naturalists making ready for planting. -Tompkins Co., N. Y._] - -To one who is not teaching in the public schools, all this work seems to -be simple enough. Such persons are likely to be impatient that more -rapid progress is not made in introducing agricultural and common-life -subjects into the schools. But the teacher knows that all this work -requires patience and skill. It cannot as yet be forced into the schools -and still retain spontaneity and vitality. It must come gradually, and -prove itself as it goes. Probably all public school teachers are now -agreed that the schools should be put closely in line with the life of -their various communities. The questions now to be solved are chiefly -those of means and methods, and of arousing the school constituencies to -the new points of view. A full and free discussion of the whole subject -is now needed. The time is hardly yet ripe for very definite courses of -study in these new fields. Many schools are already teaching these new -subjects with entire success: these schools can serve the cause by -making their experience public. - - -LETTERS ON THE SUBJECT. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 8. Junior Gardeners at work in one of the New York -Schools._] - -However, this circular is merely an appeal. It is an inquiry for -suggestions and co-operation. I desire to know what can be accomplished -in the schools of New York State in the direction of inspiring and -useful work for children that live in the country or are interested in -the country. I am sure that something needs to be done: just what is -most feasible and best the teachers must largely determine. As further -suggestions, I append two letters from New York teachers: - -_From A. M. Hollister, Principal of the Corinth Public Schools, Saratoga -Co., N. Y._ - - "I am sending you under separate cover a picture of my class at - work with the Babcock test machine (Fig. 6). We have used the - machine both as a means of instruction in physics and chemistry - and as a general demonstration before the different classes in the - school. It beautifully illustrates some very important principles - of physics and chemistry. The most marvellous effect, however, has - been shown in the quality of the milk sold in the village. Milk - was sold showing a test as low as 2.9 per cent butter fat. Almost - as soon as the first testing was reported, the milk showed 3.8 per - cent butter fat. Milk has been sent to the school from a number - of dairymen with request for a test on particular cows that the - parties might base their purchases of cows on the results of the - test. - - "In regard to the gardening with some of our boys, I would say - that both boys and parents are much interested in the subject. We - shall doubtless start about forty gardens of one-tenth acre each. - The boys are to keep an exact account of all expenses to study - methods, and to do all the work. I am anticipating results in a - number of directions. The boys will be given something to do and - to interest themselves in, which of itself is an important thing - for a village boy. It will also develop a power of observation and - ingenuity. We wish to get all the information we can on potato, - tomato and squash culture. Other things will be suggested during - the winter." - - - _Approval of the Superintendent of Public Instruction._ - - (_Published by permission._) - - "For many years I have been making earnest efforts to induce - teachers, pupils and patrons to improve and beautify the school - buildings and school surroundings of our State. Some progress has - been made, but much remains to be done. - - "I heartily welcome the coöperation of every agency which can - contribute to this result. We must interest parents and teachers - in this work, but to obtain the best results I have always found - that we must first interest the children. Once a spirit of - enthusiasm is awakened in the children, it is easy to keep them - interested and busy. - - "I have long appreciated the earnest assistance of representatives - of Cornell University in arousing the interest of pupils, and I - heartily commend the plan outlined by the College of Agriculture - to make a study of the schoolhouse and school grounds a practical - part of the daily education of the child. A child's surroundings - have much to do with his education. The result of such systematic - study as is suggested must surely be a steadily increasing - determination to remedy defects and correct any evil which may - exist. When the attention of children is directed to existing - conditions which bring discomfort, it will not be difficult to - induce them to devise ways and means to improve matters. - - "I shall watch the result of your efforts with deep interest, and - stand ready to coöperate with you in every way. - - "Very sincerely yours, - - "CHARLES R. SKINNER, - - "ALBANY, _Dec._ 17, 1903. - - _State Superintendent._" - - - - -LEAFLET IV. - -WHAT IS AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION?[5] - -BY L. H. BAILEY. - - -[5] Cornell Countryman, June, 1904. - -Agricultural education has made great progress within the past few -years. Methods are crystallizing and at the same time the field is -enlarging. We once thought of agricultural education as wholly special -or professional, but we now conceive of it as an integral part of -general and fundamental educational policy. As a college or university -subject it is necessarily technical and semi-professional; but college -work must articulate with the common-school work, as language and -science now articulate with the schools. That is, agricultural subjects -are now to be considered as a part of primary and secondary school work, -leading naturally to special work in the same subjects for those who -desire technical training. In the schools the subjects are to be treated -non-professionally, as primary means of educating the child. The reason -for using these subjects as means of educating lies in the principle -that the child should be educated in terms of its own life rather than -wholly in subjects that are foreign to its horizon and experience. It is -most surprising that, while the theory of education is that the person -shall be trained into efficiency, we nevertheless have employed subjects -that have little relation to the individual child's effectiveness. - -Not long since my father showed me a letter that he received from a -school girl in 1851. It read as follows: "I seat myself expressly for -the purpose to finish this letter which has been long begun. I go to -school room to Mr. Wells and study parsing mental Philosophy grammar and -penciling." This sounds as if it came from "The Complete Letter-Writer." -This person lived on a farm. She lives on a farm to this day. Her -parents and grandparents lived on a farm. The family had no expectation -of living elsewhere than on a farm. Yet, in her entire school life, I -presume there was not a single hour devoted to any subject directly -connected with the farm or with the country. If her studies touched life -in any way that she could comprehend, it was probably in habits of -thought of the city and of the academician rather than in anything that -appealed to her as related to the life she was to lead. It is small -wonder that the farm has been devoid of ideals, and that the attraction -has been to leave it. The direction of the stream determines the course -of the river. - -The future course of education will develop many means of training the -child mind. Heretofore these means have been few and the result has been -narrow. We shall see agricultural, commercial, social subjects put into -pedagogic form and be made the agencies whereby minds are drawn out. -These will be at least as efficient as the customary methods that we -happen thus far to have employed. How much of one or how much of another -is a detail that must be left to the future. Nor does it follow that the -old-time subjects are to pass away. They will be an important part of -the system, but not the whole system. These new subjects are now coming -into the schools as rapidly, perhaps, as they can be assimilated. It is -a general feeling that our schools already are overcrowded with -subjects; and this may be true. The trouble is that while we are -introducing new ideas as to subjects, we are still holding to old ideas -as to curriculums and courses of study. We will break up our schools -into different kinds; we will employ more teachers; we will not endeavor -to train all children alike; we will find that we may secure equal -results from many kinds of training; we will consider the effect on the -pupil to be of much greater importance than the developing of the -particular subject that he pursues; there are many men of many minds; -some system will be evolved whereby individual capabilities will be -developed to the full; the means will be related to the pupil: one of -the factors will be subjects making up the environment of the pupil that -lives in the country. - -My plea, therefore, is that agricultural and country life subjects -become the means of educating some of the pupils of at least some of the -schools. To be sure, we have already introduced "natural science" into -many of the schools, but, for the most, part, this has worked down from -the college and, necessarily, it usually stops at the high school. We -need something much more vital for the secondary schools than science as -commonly taught. The great nature-study movement is an expression, as -yet imperfect, of the feeling that there should be some living -connection between the school life and the real life. - -A college of agriculture, therefore, is as much interested in the common -schools as a college of arts and sciences is. It should be a part of a -system, however informal that system may be, not an establishment -isolated from other educational agencies. But even as a college it will -reach more persons than it has ever reached in the past. In any -self-sustaining commonwealth it is probable that one-third of the people -must be intimately associated with the soil. These people need to be as -well-trained as those who follow the mechanic trades or the professions. -It is immensely difficult to put these agricultural subjects into -teachable form and to reach the agricultural people in a way that will -mean much to them, because agriculture is a compound of many wonderfully -diverse trades in every conceivable kind of natural conditions. Nor can -one institution in each large state or province hope eventually to reach -all these people, any more than one institution can reach all those who -would best be taught in terms of books. But there must be at least one -institution that is well equipped for the very highest kind of effort -in these fields; Congress long ago recognized this fact in the -establishment of the land-grant colleges, and all persons who are -informed on agricultural education also now recognize it. The -agricultural colleges have been handicapped from the first for lack of -funds. It is now coming to be recognized that the highest kind of effort -in these colleges cannot be sustained on a farm that pays for itself nor -by means that are copied from the customary college work in "humanities" -and "science." If it is to be efficient, agricultural education of a -university grade is probably more expensive to equip and maintain than -any other kind of education. - -Once it was thought that the agricultural college should be wholly -separate from any "classical" institution. The oldest of the existing -American agricultural colleges, the Michigan institution, is established -on this principle. So are the Massachusetts, Iowa and Pennsylvania -colleges and a number of others. It is natural that this should have -been the feeling in the original movement for the establishment of these -colleges, for the movement was itself a protest and revolt from the -existing education. Time, however, has put agricultural subjects on an -equal pedagogical plane with other subjects, and there is no more -reason why the agriculture should be segregated by itself than that the -architecture or law or fine arts should be. The agricultural colleges -connected with universities are now beginning to grow rapidly. This is -illustrated in the great development of the agricultural colleges at the -universities in Illinois, Wisconsin, Minnesota, Nebraska, Missouri, -Ohio, and elsewhere. It was once thought that the agricultural student -would be "looked down upon" in a university or in a college with other -departments. This was once true. It was true once, also, of the student -in natural science and mechanic arts. Pioneers are always marked men. -The only way to place agricultural students on an equality with other -students is to place them on an equality. - -These remarks are made in no disparagement of the separate agricultural -colleges, but only to illustrate the character of the growth of -agricultural education. No doubt the separate colleges blazed the way. -They stand for an idea that we would not like to dispense with. Every -state and territory has one college founded on the land grant, and in -the Southern states there are two, one for the whites and one for the -blacks; in nearly half of the states these colleges are separate -institutions. But the fact remains that the college connected with the -university is to have the broader field in the future. Its very -connection dignifies it and gives it parity. It draws on many resources -that the separate college knows not of, unless, indeed, the separate -college develops these resources for itself. The tendency, therefore, is -for every ambitious separate college to develop the accessory resources, -in the way of equipment in general science, literature, the arts; for -agricultural education is constantly coming to be of a higher grade. The -separate agricultural and mechanical colleges are rapidly becoming -essentially industrial universities, giving general training but with -the emphasis on the technical subjects. - -It is strange how far this principle of education by isolation has been -carried in the development of the agricultural colleges. Not only have -the colleges been separated from other educational enterprises, but in -many cases they have been planted far in the open country, partly on the -theory that the farm boy, of all others, should be removed from -temptation and from the allurements of other occupations. It was the -early theory, also, that the agricultural student must be compelled to -do manual labor in order that he be put in sympathy with it and that his -attention be isolated from tendencies that might divert him from -farming. These methods seem to have rested on the general theory that -if you would make a man a farmer you must deprive him of everything but -farming. It would be interesting to try to estimate how much this -general attitude on the part of the agricultural colleges was itself -responsible for the very inferiority of position that the agricultural -student was supposed to occupy. This attitude tended to maintain a -traditional class distinction or even to create such a distinction. -Agricultural education must be adapted to its ends; but it must also be -able to stand alone in competition with all other education without -artificial props. It is no longer necessary that the agricultural -student wear blinders. - -On the other hand, the farm point of view must be kept constantly before -the student, as the engineering point of view is kept before the student -in a college of civil engineering; but we are coming to a new way of -accomplishing this. Mere teaching of the sciences that underlie -agricultural practice will not accomplish it; nor, on the other hand, -will drill in mere farm practice accomplish it. It is not the purpose of -an agricultural college to make men farmers, but to educate farmers. We -are not to limit the student's vision to any one occupation, but to make -one occupation more meaningful and attractive than it has ever been -before. From the farmer's point of view a leading difficulty with the -college course is that it sometimes tends to slacken a man's business -energy. One cannot at the same time pursue college studies and -commercial business; and yet farming is a business. In a four years' -course some students are likely to incur certain habits of ease that are -difficult to overcome upon their return to the farm. How much this is a -fault of the courses of instruction and how much a personal equation of -the student is always worth considering. But if this is a fault of -college work it is generic and not peculiar to colleges of agriculture. -Experience has now shown that a compulsory labor system is no preventive -of this tendency, at least not with students of college and university -age. Student labor is now a laboratory effort, comparable with -laboratory work in medicine or mechanic arts. The mature student must -have some other reason for laboring than merely a rule that labor is -required. However, it is yet largely an unsolved problem with the -agricultural colleges as to just how the stirring business side of -farming can be sufficiently correlated with the courses of study to keep -the student in touch and sympathy with affairs. With the passing of -compulsory student labor there has no doubt been a reaction in the -direction of too little utilization of the college farm in schemes of -education; but we shall now get back to the farm again, but this time on -a true educational basis. - -Nothing is more significant of the development of the agricultural -colleges than the recent splitting up of the professorships. From -agricultural chemistry as a beginning, in one form or another, there -have issued a dozen chairs, first one subject and then another being -separated as a teachable and administrative entity. Even the word -"agriculture" is now being dropped from the professorships, for this is -a term for a multitude of enterprises, not for a concrete subject. -Horticulture was one of the first protuberances to be lopped off; and -even this must very soon be divided into its component parts, for there -is little relationship between the effort that grows apples and that -grows orchids or between the market garden and landscape gardening. Even -the chair of agronomy, the newest department of the colleges, must soon -be separated into its units. Forty years ago mechanic arts was -undivided. Who then would have prophesied such professorships as -experimental engineering, electrical engineering, marine engineering, -railroad engineering, naval architecture, machine design? The progress -of the dividing up of the mechanic arts and civil engineering marks the -rate of our progress, in the terms of the Land Grant Act, "to promote -the liberal and practical education of the industrial classes in the -several pursuits and professions in life." All trades, classes and -professions are to be reached with a kind of education that is related -to their work. One by one we are reaching persons in all walks and all -places. Socially, there are centuries of prejudice against the farmer. -When education is finally allowed to reach him in such a way as to be -indispensable to him, it will at last have become truly democratic. - -In this spirit agriculture is divided into its teachable units. The -lists of divisions of the teaching force or curriculum in the larger -agricultural colleges illustrate this admirably. In Illinois, for -example, the title of professors and instructors are associated with -such divisions as thremmatology, agronomy, pomology, olericulture, -floriculture, soil physics, dairy husbandry, dairy manufacture, horses, -beef cattle, swine husbandry, farm crops. At Cornell the coördinate -departments of instruction in the College of Agriculture are classified -as agricultural chemistry, economic entomology, soils, agronomy, -horticulture, animal husbandry with its sub-department of poultry -husbandry, dairy industry, agricultural engineering and architecture, -the farm home, rural economy and sociology, out-door art (including -landscape gardening), nature-study for teachers, besides miscellaneous -courses--making altogether thirteen divisions. The courses now offered -in the Cornell College of Agriculture, not including the winter-courses, -are 76, of which 71 are to be given in the next academic year. Nearly -all these courses comprise a half-year's work. - -While all this subdividing represents progress there are disadvantages -attending it, because it tends to give a partial view of the subject. -The larger number of farmers must engage in general "mixed husbandry" -rather than in specialties. Farming is a philosophy, not a mere process. -The tendency of the inevitable subdividing of the subjects is to force -the special view rather than the general view, as if, in medicine, -students were to become specialists rather than general practitioners. -The farm-philosophy idea was represented by the older teachers of -agriculture. Of these men Professor Roberts is a typical example, and -his work in making students to be successful, all-around farmers is not -yet sufficiently appreciated. Much of this farm philosophy is now coming -into the courses of instruction under the titles of rural economy, rural -economics, rural sociology and the like. I have sometimes thought that -the time may come when we will again have professors of "agriculture" -who will coördinate and synthesize the work of the agronomist, soil -physicist, chemist, dairyman and others. However, the dividing has not -yet worked any harm, and perhaps my fears are ungrounded; and it is -certain that with increasing knowledge and specialization the courses of -instruction must still further divide. - -Another most significant development in agricultural education is the -change in attitude towards the college farm. Once it was thought that -the college estate should be run as a "model farm." However, a farm that -sets a pattern to the farmer must be conducted on a commercial basis; -yet it is manifest that it is the province of a college to devote itself -to education, not primarily to business. A farm cannot be a "model" for -all the kinds of farming of the commonwealth; and if it does not -represent fairly completely the agriculture of the state, it misses its -value as a pattern. At all events the pattern-farm idea is practically -given up. It is then a question whether the farm shall be used merely to -"illustrate,"--to display kinds of tools, examples of fences and -fields, breeds of stock. This conception of the college farm is -comparable with the old idea of "experiments" in agricultural chemistry: -the teacher performed the experiments for the students to see. The -prevailing idea of the college farm is now (or at least, I think, soon -must be) that it shall be used as a true laboratory, as the student in -chemistry now works first-hand with his materials instead alone of -receiving lectures and committing books. Is a student studying cattle? -The herds are his for measurements, testing as to efficiency, studying -in respect to heredity, their response to feeding, their adaptability to -specific purposes, and a hundred other problems. Cattle are as much -laboratory material for the agricultural student as rocks are for the -geological student or plants for the botanical student. Technical books -were once kept only in libraries; now they are kept also in laboratories -and are laboratory equipment. College museums were once only for -display; now they are also for actual use by the student. Barns are -laboratories, to be as much a part of the equipment of a college of -agriculture as shops are of mechanic arts. They should be in close -connection with the main buildings, not removed to some remote part of -the premises. Modern ideas of cleanliness and sanitation are bound to -revolutionize the construction and care of barns. There is no reason why -these buildings should be offensive. It was once thought that dissecting -rooms and hospitals should be removed from proximity to other buildings; -but we have now worked these laboratories integrally into the plans of -colleges. Time has now come for a closer assembling of the college barns -with the college classrooms. Likewise the entire farm is no doubt to be -used in the future as a laboratory, at least in the institutions of -university grade--except such part as is used for pure investigation and -research. Where, then, shall the student go to see his model barn? To -these farms themselves; here a stock farm; there a fruit farm; elsewhere -a dairy farm. The shops in the colleges of mechanic arts have long since -come to be true laboratories; they do not engage in railroading or -manufacturing. They do not try to "pay their way;" if they do pay their -way this fact is only an incidental or secondary consideration. A -college of agriculture is a teaching institution: it must have equipment -and laboratories. - -It will be seen that the word "agriculture" has taken on a new and -enlarged meaning. The farmer is not only a producer of commodities: he -is a citizen, a member of the commonwealth, and his efficiency to -society and the state depends on his whole outlook. Also his personal -happiness depends on his outlook. He must concern himself not alone with -technical farming, but also with all the affairs that make up an -agricultural community: good roads, organizations, schools, mail routes, -labor movements, rural architecture, sanitation, the æsthetic aspect of -the country. One will be struck with the new signification of -"agriculture" if he scan the titles of publications that issue from -governmental agricultural departments, agricultural experiment stations, -agricultural nature-study bureaus, agricultural colleges. - -I cannot close this sketch without calling attention to the fact that -the college of agriculture has obligations to the farmers of its -commonwealth. The very fact that every college of agriculture in North -America is supported by public funds imposes this obligation. Moreover, -the colleges of agriculture and mechanic arts stand for true democratic -effort, for they have a definite constituency that they are called upon -to aid. It is desirable that as many persons as possible shall assemble -at the college itself, but those who cannot go to college still have the -right to ask for help. This is particularly true in agriculture, in -which the interests are widely separated and incapable of being combined -and syndicated. Thereupon has arisen the great "extension" movement -that, in one way or another, is now a part of the work of every -agricultural college. Education was once exclusive; it is now in spirit -inclusive. The agencies that have brought about this change of attitude -are those associated with so-called industrial education, growing -chiefly out of the forces set in motion by the Land Grant Act of 1862. -This Land Grant is the Magna Charta of education: from it in this -country we shall date our liberties. - - - - -LEAFLET V. - -SUGGESTIONS FOR NATURE-STUDY WORK.[6] - -BY ANNA BOTSFORD COMSTOCK. - - -[6] Syllabus of Lectures: Nature-Study (Animal and Plant Life), Mrs. A. -B. Comstock. - -[Illustration] - -Suggestions for nature-study must necessarily be more or less general. -Nature-study should be a matter of observation on the part of the -pupils. The teacher's part is to indicate points for observation and not -to tell what is to be seen. - -After the child has observed all that it is possible for him to see, the -remainder of the story may be told him or may be read. - -The objects of nature-study should be always in the teacher's mind. -These are, primarily, to cultivate the child's power of observation and -to put him in sympathy with out-of-door life. - -Having these objects clearly in mind, the teacher will see that the -spending of a certain amount of time each day giving lessons is not the -most important part of the work. A great amount of nature-study may be -done without spending a moment in a regular lesson. In the case of all -the things kept in the schoolroom--_i. e._, growing plants, insects in -cages and aquaria, tame birds and domestic animals--the children will -study the problems for themselves. The privilege of watching these -things should be made a reward of merit. - -The use of nature-study readers should be restricted. The stories in -these should not be read until after the pupils have completed their own -observations on the subjects of the stories. - -Stories about adventures of animals and adventures with animals may -always be read with safety, as these do not, strictly speaking, belong -to nature-study. They belong rather to literature and may be used most -successfully to interest the child in nature. - -Blackboard drawings and charts should be used only to illustrate objects -too small for the pupil to see with the naked eye. The pupil must also -be made to understand that the object drawn on the board is a real -enlargement of the object he has studied with his unaided eye. - -The use of a simple lens often contributes much interest to the work of -observation. The compound microscope may be used to show some -exceptionally interesting point, as the compound eyes of insects, the -scales on the butterfly's wing, or the viscid thread of the spider. But -this is by no means necessary. Nature-study work does not actually -require the use of either microscope or lens, although the latter is a -desirable adjunct. - -The great danger that besets the teacher just beginning nature-study is -too much teaching, and too many subjects. In my own work I would rather -a child spent one term finding out how one spider builds its orb web -than that he should study a dozen different species of spiders. - -If the teacher at the end of the year has opened the child's mind and -heart in two or three directions nature-ward, she has done enough. - -In teaching about animals, teach no more of the anatomy than is -obviously connected with the distinctive habits of each one; _i. e._, -the hind legs of a grasshopper are long so that it can jump, and the -ears of a rabbit are long so that it can hear the approach of its foes. - -While it is desirable for the teacher to know more than she teaches, in -nature-study she may well be a learner with her pupils since they are -likely any day to read some page of nature's book never before read by -human eyes. This attitude of companionship in studying with her pupils -will have a great value in enabling her to maintain happy and pleasant -relations with them. It has also great disciplinary value. - - -_Reasons for and against graded courses in nature-study._ - -The question whether there should be a graded course in nature-study is -decidedly a query with two answers. - -The reasons why there should not be a graded course, are: - -1st. The work should be spontaneous and should be suggested each day by -the material at hand. Mother Nature follows no schedule. She refuses to -produce a violet one day, an oriole the next, and a blue butterfly on -the third. - -2d. A graded course means a hard and fast course which each teacher must -follow whether or not her tastes and training coincide with it. - -3d. There is no natural grading of nature-study work. A subject suited -for nature-study may be given just as successfully in the first as in -the fifth grade. - -There is only one reason why a nature-study course should be graded, and -that is so cogent that it outweighs all the reasons on the other side: -the training of the grade teacher in nature-study is at present so -limited in subject-matter that if the course were ungraded the same work -would be given over and over in the successive grades until the pupils -became utterly weary of it. To many a pupil in the lower grades to-day, -nature-study means the sprouting of beans and peas and nothing more. As -a matter of experience, we believe that after a nature-study subject is -once studied it should be dropped entirely, the pupil should not again -meet it in the schoolroom until he finds it in its respective science in -the high school or college. On this account, we have been persuaded that -a graded course, or at least a consecutive course, is necessary. - -The following suggestions about grading the course are given with a hope -of being helpful, and not because we believe that the courses indicated -are necessarily the best courses possible. We have graded each subject -so that a teacher may follow her own tastes and inclinations, and may -not be forced to teach zoology when her interests are entirely with -botany, or vice versa. - -We have tried to give a distinctive trend to the observations for each -year, and have suggested a line along which the work may be done. - -As a matter of fact, however, the time to study any living thing is when -you chance to find it. If you find an interesting caterpillar or cricket -or bird, study it, whatever your grade of work. The probabilities are -that it may be long before you chance upon these same species again. - -It has been the experience of most teachers that the lower grades are -much more interested in nature-study than are the higher. Especially are -the seventh and eighth grades difficult to interest. Therefore, we have -made this part of the course economic in its bearing, hoping that this -may appeal to the grown-up feeling of pupils of these grades. - - -INSECTS. - -FIRST GRADE. - -The first year of work with insects may well be restricted to -familiarizing the pupils with the three most striking phases in the life -of insects with complete metamorphosis, _i. e._, the larvæ, the pupæ, -and the winged insects. Moths and butterflies are especially adapted for -this work with the small children. - -_Fall work._--In September there are still many caterpillars feeding. -Bring them in the schoolroom and feed them in breeding cages. For -different forms of cheap breeding cages, see Insect Life, pp. 326-330; -Cornell Teachers' Leaflet, No. 5 (No. XIX, this volume); Lessons in -Nature-Study, p. 45. - -During October many of the hairy caterpillars will be found hurrying -along in quest of suitable winter quarters. These should be brought in -and put in box cages having sand or dirt in the bottom. They are seeking -secluded corners in which to curl up and hide during the cold weather. -Some of them pass the winter in their cocoons, and some do not. Insect -Life, pp. 239-241; Manual for Study of Insects, pp. 317-324; Moths and -Butterflies, (_b_), pp. 191-198. - -Bring in as many cocoons as possible. November or December, after the -leaves have fallen from the trees, is the best time in which to hunt for -the cocoons of _Cecropia_, _Promethea_, and _Cynthia_. Insect Life, pp. -194-196; Moths and Butterflies, (_b_), pp. 119-180. - -Teach the pupils the difference between the cocoon and the pupa. The -pupa is the quiescent form of the insect. The cocoon is the silken bag -covering it, and is always made by the caterpillar before it changes to -a pupa. - -If possible bring in some butterfly larvæ. In September many may be -found. The cabbage butterfly especially is always with us. Insect Life, -p. 245. Also the larvæ of the black swallow-tail may be easily found. -Insect Life, p. 243; Everyday Butterflies, p. 130; Moths and -Butterflies, (_b_), p. 39. - -Show the children (do not tell them) that the butterfly caterpillars do -not make cocoons, but that the naked pupa is suspended by a silk button, -and in some cases also by a silk thread. - -Many teachers complain that but few of the moths are able to get out of -the cocoons. The usual reason for this is that in the heated atmosphere -of the schoolroom the cocoons become too dry. To obviate this, the -cocoons should be dipped in water every week or two. - -_Spring work._--During the spring term use the apple-tree -tent-caterpillars. Cornell Teachers' Leaflet, No. 5 (No. XIX, this -volume); Moths and Butterflies, (_b_) p. 201. Show the four stages of -the insect: egg, caterpillar, pupa, and moth. Pay especial attention to -the way in which the caterpillars grow. - -_Summary of methods._--This whole year's work may be done with no -regular "lessons," and all the time required will be the care of the -breeding cages and the time given to hunting for the caterpillars and -cocoons. The child's reading may be selected from the many stories of -the caterpillars, moths and butterflies. Yet be very careful to make -each child understand that he himself is studying out the especial story -of each caterpillar and cocoon in the schoolroom. - - -SECOND GRADE. - -The plan for the second year is to continue the study of the -life-histories of insects. The pupil, having learned the different -stages of the moths and butterflies, should learn that all insects do -not experience such marvelous changes of form. - -_Fall work._--Arrange a breeding cage like figs. 288, 289, Insect Life, -p. 329, placing fresh sod in the flower pot and covering the lamp -chimney with a square of wire netting. Push the glass chimney down into -the earth so as to allow no crevices through which the insects may -escape. In such a cage, place grasshoppers and crickets of all sizes, -and study their growth. Insect Life, pp. 33-37. - -Show the pupils that the young grasshopper looks like the old one except -that the wings are shorter; the same is true of crickets. Keep the sod -damp so the grass will not become dry; and when it gets too old replace -it with other sod. A good way to keep these insects alive and to keep -the children interested in them is to plant wheat and grass seed in -several flower pots, and then to move the glass chimney from pot to pot, -giving the insects fresh pasturage when needed. - -As early as possible start some aquaria. Cornell Teachers' Leaflet, No. -11 (No. XII, this volume); Insect Life, pp. 330-332. - -The mosquito is one of the most available insects for study in the -aquarium. Insect Life, pp. 131-136; Lessons in Nature-Study, p. 12. - -The nymphs of dragon flies and damsel flies and many others may be -studied during the entire winter. Insect Life, pp. 140-142; Cornell -Teachers' Leaflet, No. 11 (No. XII, this volume); Outdoor Studies, p. -54. Those that have cannibalistic habits should be kept apart, each one -in a separate jar. They may be fed by dropping into the jar a bit of raw -beefsteak tied to the end of a string. The purpose of the string is that -the uneaten meat may be withdrawn before it decays. It should not be -left in the water more than twenty-four hours. The insects do not need -feeding more than twice a week. - -_Spring work._--In the spring get new material for the aquaria. In pools -where there are many dead leaves look for the caddice worms that build -the log cabin cases, for these may be kept in aquaria that have no -running water. Insect Life, p. 149. - -While we advise the introduction of the aquaria during the second year, -their use should be continued during the following four grades; there -are always new things to study in ponds and streams, and nothing so -fascinates a child as watching the movements of these little denizens of -the water. - -_Summary of methods._--There need be no set lessons in the work of the -second year, unless the teacher in a few words, now and then, chooses to -call attention to certain things as the occasion seems to demand. The -object of the year's work is to teach the pupil the life histories of -insects which have no quiescent or pupa stage, and this should be -accomplished by simple observation of specimens bred in the schoolroom. - - -THIRD GRADE. - -The general subject of this year's work may well be the Homes of -Insects. This is a most interesting topic, and if well taught will -inspire the pupils to much individual observation and collecting. - -The questions to be asked concerning insect homes are: - -Of what material are they made? How are they made? What is the purpose -of the home? Is it made by the insect for itself to live in, or is it -made by the mother for the protection of her young? Is it made as a -protection for the insects while they are eating, or do they go out to -feed and come back only to rest and spend the night or day? - -_Fall work._--Leaf rollers: Insect Life, p. 206; Ways of the Six-Footed, -p. 119. - -Leaf miners: Insect Life, p. 208; Ways of the Six-Footed, p. 29. - -Galls: Insect Life, p. 210; Outdoor Studies, pp. 18, 38-39. - -Fall web worm: Insect Life, p. 200. - -Scallop shell moth: Insect Life, p. 201. - -Nests of silver spotted skipper: Insect Life, p. 203; Everyday -Butterflies, p. 190. - -Bag worms: Insect Life, p. 204. Ant lions: Outdoor Studies, p. 81. - -Carpenter bees: Ways of the Six-Footed, p. 108. - -Tiger beetle larvæ: Insect Life, pp. 270-272. - -All kinds of cocoons are found by the children. Ask concerning the -cocoons: Where did you find them? Were they in protected places? Why? - -Of these nests there are many more than those mentioned above. In fact, -to one who sees what he looks at, every plant, every tree, every fence -corner and every foot along the country path contains many most -interesting homes. The leaf rollers and leaf miners are the most common -and most easily found of all. - -_Spring work._--The spring work in this subject may be to study the way -in which caddice worms make their houses; take a caddice worm out of its -house and watch it build another. This is a new phase of the study of -caddice worms. Ways of the Six-Footed, p. 133. - -Study the homes of beetles under sticks and stones, and find the homes -of the engraver beetles under bark. Insect Life, p. 216. This work must -necessarily be done by the pupils out of school hours, and their -discoveries and specimens of homes should be made topics for lessons for -the whole school. - -During this term begin a butterfly calendar, made on the same plan as -the bird calendar. A collection of butterflies might be started for the -schoolroom in connection with the calendar. Study the specimens caught -and determine whether they hibernated as adults or chrysalids. If their -wings are battered and torn, they spent the winter as adults. If they -are bright in colors and their wings perfect, they spent the winter in -the chrysalis state. - -Hints for collecting insects: Cornell Teachers' Leaflet, No. 7 (No. -XVIII, this volume); Insect Life, pp. 283-314 and pp. 48-49. How to Know -the Butterflies. - -_Summary of methods._--The work in the third grade, as outlined, -requires a lesson period now and then when single specimens are brought -in by individual pupils. Each pupil should examine the specimen, and -after that the lesson may be given. - - -FOURTH GRADE. - -After having studied Insect Homes, the pupils will be ready to take up -the broader subject, How Insects Live. The work of this year may be -given on this subject. - -In order to study the life-histories of insects, the pupils should know -some things about insect anatomy. If the work as indicated in the -previous grades has been followed, the pupils know the number of legs, -wings, and compound eyes most insects have, without ever having killed a -specimen or having received a special lesson in insect anatomy. Now -teach the children how insects breathe and how they eat. Show the -spiracles on the body of any caterpillar which is not hairy; they may be -seen on the abdomen of a grasshopper or of a butterfly that has not too -many large scales to cover them. - -After they have seen these spiracles or breathing pores, give a lesson, -illustrated by chart or blackboard, showing that these holes lead to the -breathing tubes of the body. Manual for the Study of Insects, pp. 73-75. - -To show how insects eat, allow the pupils to watch the following insects -in the breeding cages while feeding: a grasshopper; a leaf beetle -(potato beetle is a good example); any caterpillar; an ant; and a wasp. -Show that all these have mouth parts made for biting. Let the pupils see -an aphid sucking the juice of a plant; this may be done by bringing in a -twig infested by aphids. Let the pupils see the water bugs in the -aquarium eat. Insect Life, pp. 123-131, and pp. 137-140. Let them watch -a fly, a honey bee, and, if possible, a butterfly or moth, eat. All -these have mouth parts made for sucking. All this work should be -original investigation on the part of the pupils. - -After the pupils find out how insects breathe and eat, let them see how -each insect lives a life adapted to its own peculiar needs. Try to feed -some cabbage worms on clover or grass. Then try turnip or mustard -leaves, and watch the result. Change the potato beetle larvæ to some -other plant, and watch the result. - -Let the pupils first find out how the insects breathe in the water. Each -insect in the aquarium tells a different story as to its way of getting -air. The teacher will find all these stories indicated in the chapters -in Insect Life devoted to pond and brook insects. - -Call especial attention to protective coloring of insects. Show that -when an insect resembles its surroundings in color it is thereby -enabled to escape its enemies; or, if need be, is enabled to creep upon -its prey unobserved. - -Note the color of the grasshopper in the road; color of meadow -grasshopper; color of the caterpillars of the cabbage butterfly (green -and hard to find). Notice the shape and color of walking sticks; color -of the katydids. Note the bright color of the larvæ of potato beetle. -Why? (They are distasteful to birds, and their colors advertise the -fact.) Study the Monarch butterfly and the Viceroy. Everyday -Butterflies, p. 95 and p. 297; Ways of the Six-Footed, p. 39. Bring out -strongly in all this work that the insect in order to live must have its -special food plant and must escape notice of its enemies. This is the -proper place to begin the study of the valuable work done by birds in -destroying insects. - -In addition to this general work, study especially the wasps. - -Solitary Wasps: Mud daubers. Bring in their nests and examine them. Ways -of the Six-Footed, p. 96. How are the nests provisioned, and for what -purpose were they made? Find, if possible, nests of other solitary -wasps. Insect Life, p. 218, p. 262, p. 264. - -Social Wasps: Bring in a deserted nest of yellow-jackets. Of what is it -made? How? What for? Do the wasps store honey? Do they live as a colony -during the winter? All these questions may be answered by a pupil who -knows of a yellow-jackets' nest in the fall and watches it during the -winter. For the teacher there are discussions of these insects in Manual -for Study of Insects, pp. 660-664. Wasps and their Ways. - -Continue the butterfly collection and the butterfly calendar. - -_Spring work._--In the spring, begin a collection of moths for the -schoolroom. Insect Life, p. 50. Caterpillars and Moths. - -In the spring, notice when the first house-flies appear. What happens to -the house-fly in winter? (Send for Circular No. 35, second series, Div. -of Entomology of Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C., for the -life-history of the house-fly.) Explain that one female destroyed early -in the season means thousands fewer late in the season. - -Encourage the children to bring to the schoolroom all sorts of flies -and compare them with the house-fly. The object of this is to -teach something of the wonderful variety of forms among small and -inconspicuous insects. Make a collection of flies for the schoolroom. -For description of flies, see Insect Life, pp. 83-84. - -A good plan for the spring work is to keep the pupils interested in the -first appearance, after the vicissitudes of winter, of each insect which -it is possible for them to find. Note that insects do not appear before -their food plants appear. - -_Summary of objects and methods._--The questions to be answered during -the whole year's work are: How do the Insects live,--on what do they -feed? How do they escape their enemies? What happens to them in winter? -How are the new broods started in the spring? The work is chiefly -observation, but occasional lessons may be given and stories may be told -to keep the interest in the work from flagging. - - -FIFTH GRADE. - -_Fall work._--Study the Bees and Ants. - -Fit up ants' nests. Insect Life, p. 278. - -Teach the whole life-history by allowing the pupils to colonize the -nests. Manual for Study of Insects, pp. 633-639; Insect Life, p. 271. -Make observations upon the _eggs, pupæ, workers, males, females_. What -are the winged forms that appear in swarms in June and July. - -Let the pupils observe the relation of ants to aphids. This may be done -on almost any shrub or roadside plant. Home Nature-Study Lesson 1904, -No. 8. - -The teacher should read Sir John Lubbock's "Ants, Bees and Wasps." - -Many stories on these subjects may be told and read, especially those -concerning the habits of exotic ants and ant wars which the children are -not likely to see; also of the slave-making ants. These slave-making -ants are quite common in New York State; their nests may be found under -stones. They resemble the brown mound-builder ant; the slaves are black. - -_Spring work._--In the spring work in this grade, study the habits of -the honey bee. An observation hive is desirable but not necessary. Bring -in the honeycomb filled with honey. If there are apiarists in your -neighborhood, they will gladly give you specimens of brood in the comb. -Read The Bee People and the Manual for Study of Insects, p. 673. - -Develop all the facts of the wonderful life in the hive by letting the -pupils observe them as far as possible. Then give them the many -interesting stories: - -Story of the Workers. - -Story of the Queen. - -Story of the Drone. - -Story of the Bee Larva. - -Story of Honey Making. - -Story of Wax and Comb Making. - -Story of the Swarm. - -In connection with the study of the honey bee, study the bumble bee. -Manual for Study of Insects, pp. 672-673; Insect Life, p. 256. Begin -with the study of the big queen that appears in May or June. Show that -she is of great benefit to us and must not be harmed or frightened. Let -the bumble bee's nest be a problem for summer observation, and finish -the study in the next grade in the fall. - -_Summary of objects and methods._--The work of this year should have for -its objects the harmonious life of social insects; their unselfish work -for each other; their devotion to their respective colonies; their ways -of building and of defending their habitations. - -The work should be based upon observations made by the pupils in and out -of the schoolroom. Many lessons should be given, mostly in the form of -stories. Ways of the Six-Footed, pp. 55-94. - - -SIXTH GRADE. - -_Fall work._--Study the spiders. Lessons in Nature-Study, p. 103; Insect -Life, pp. 223-232. Cornell Teachers' Quarterly, final number (No. XV, -this volume). - -In order to study spiders, they need not be handled with bare hands. -While all spiders are venomous to the same extent, perhaps, that a -mosquito or a bee is venomous, there is only one species in the eastern -United States (and that is very rare) the bite of which need be feared -by human beings. - -The use of spiders in nature-study does not have to do with handling -living specimens, but rather with the habits of the different species -and the building of the webs. In catching spiders to bring into the -schoolroom, use the method indicated by Professor Kellogg in -Nature-Study Lessons. Capture the specimen by the use of a pill box: -take the box in one hand and the cover in the other, and catch the -spider by suddenly closing the box over it. - -The pupils should be made to observe the chief differences between -spiders and insects; _i. e._, spiders have two regions of the body -instead of three as in insects; eight legs instead of six, simple eyes -instead of compound. Compare spiders with daddy-long-legs. - -If the teacher chooses to kill a specimen and show the arrangement of -the eyes and the spinnerets under the microscope, she may do so. This is -not necessary, although I have seen it done successfully in the sixth -grade. Diagrams and blackboard drawings may be used instead of the -microscope. - -Let the pupils observe the uses of silk by the spider: - -1. Snare for prey. 2. To enwrap prey when first entangled. 3. Nests for -eggs. 4. Lining for habitations. 5. Means of locomotion. - -Introduce the grass spider into the schoolroom in glass jars containing -grass sod, and let the pupils observe it at work. - -Encourage a study of cobwebs. Capture the owner of an orb web, and bring -it in a glass jar to the schoolroom. Try to give it its natural -environment; _i. e._, some sort of frame or branch of tree on which it -may fasten its web. - -The orb web: 1. How is it made? 2. Of how many kinds of silk? 3. The way -the spiral thread is arranged as shown by drawings. 4. The position of -the spider on the web. 5. The way the spider passes from one side of the -web to the other. 6. The way it treats its prey when the victim is once -entangled. - -The engineering ability shown in making this web is one of the most -marvelous things in all the realm of animal life. These observations may -well cover two months of this term. - -Study the ballooning spiders, the jumping spiders, the running spiders, -and the crab spiders. Study as many egg-sacs of spiders as possible. - -Another topic for study during the fall term is the Songs of Insects. -Insect Life, p. 235. Bring in the katydids, crickets, and meadow -grasshoppers, place them in cages containing green sod, and observe them -while they are singing. Note that only the males sing. Show the ears of -the crickets, katydids, and meadow grasshoppers in the elbows of their -front legs. The ear of the grasshopper is on the side of the segment of -the abdomen next to the thorax. Ways of the Six-Footed, pp. 3-27. - -Study snowy tree cricket. Manual for Study of Insects, p. 118. - -If possible, get a cicada as these insects continue to sing through the -warm days of September. Show the cover to the drums on the lower side of -the common cicada. Cornell Nature-Study Bulletin, No. 1, p. 24 (No. VI, -this volume). This can be made a most interesting subject, and pupils -should be encouraged to do observation work outside of school. - -Begin a general collection for schoolroom. - -_Spring work._--Continue making a general collection for the schoolroom, -and specialize in this direction. When an insect is brought in and added -to the collection, if the teacher knows the insect, a lesson should be -given on its life and habits. This connecting of the life and habits of -the insects with the collection of dead specimens is of greater value -from a nature-study point of view than the collection itself. - -_Summary of methods._--While this year's work must be based on the -observations of the pupils in the schoolroom and out-of-doors, yet many -interesting lessons may be given by the teacher. - - -SEVENTH GRADE. - -The study of this entire year may be the relation of insects to flowers. -Most of the references are given in the Plant-life work for this grade. - -The insect work may be limited to: What insects visit flowers? How do -they carry pollen? How does each kind of insect reach the nectar? Which -insects are robbers, and which are true pollen carriers? The use of -pollen by insects. Outdoor Studies, pp. 7-12. - -Take up the study of golden rod and its insect visitors, _i. e._, let -the pupils watch a bunch of golden rod and note all the insect visitors. -For directions concerning this work see Outdoor Studies, pp. 29-46. - -In the same way take up the study of asters and the late flowers, and -their insect visitors. Describe the visitor; what it does; what part of -the plant it visits. - -_Summary of objects and methods._--The object of this whole year's work -is to show the beautiful inter-relation between insects and flowers. The -studies must necessarily be made in the field. But many delightful -lessons may be given on the structure of flowers, that make of greatest -use to the flowers the work of insect visitors. - - -EIGHTH GRADE. - -The object of this year's work is the economic side of insect-study. -Many pupils do not continue these studies to high school or college. Yet -if they have homes with gardens or trees in city or country, they must -learn to cope with the many insect enemies that feed upon cultivated -plants. They should also learn to discriminate between insect friends -and foes. They should learn the best methods of combating the foes and -preserving the friends. - -Explain first that in fighting an insect enemy we must know how it eats. -If it inserts its beak in the stem of the plant there is no use trying -to kill it by putting poison on the leaves. - - -COMMON INSECT FOES. - -To be studied in the schoolroom: - -_Fall work._--Codlin-moth. Insect Life, p. 180. Show work on an apple, -and give methods of destroying it. - -Plum curculio. Insect Life, p. 182. - -The pomace flies. Insect Life, p. 184. - -Scale insects. Manual for Study of Insects, pp. 165-174. - -Potato beetle. Manual for Study of Insects, p. 176. - -_Spring work._--Tussock moths and canker worms. Circular No. 9, 2d -Series, Dept. Agr., Div. of Ent., Washington, D. C.; Cornell Teachers' -Circular, No. 1. - -Cabbage worms. How to Know the Butterflies. - -Currant worms. Manual for Study of Insects, pp. 613-614. - -Plant lice or aphids. Insect Life, pp. 177-178. - -Carpet beetle. Circular No. 5, 2d Series, Dept. Agr., Washington, D. C.; -Manual for Study of Insects, p. 539. - -Clothes moth. Manual for Study of Insects, pp. 257-258; Circular No. 36, -2d Series, Dept. Agr., Washington, D. C. - -Tent caterpillar. Cornell Teachers' Leaflet, No. 5 (No. XIX, this -volume). - -A study of spraying should be made. Insects and Insecticides, pp. 39-56. -Spray Calendar, distributed free by the Cornell Agricultural Experiment -Station. - -Important Insecticides. Farmers' Bulletin No. 127, Dept. Agr., -Washington, D. C. - - -INSECT FRIENDS. - -_Fall work._--Lady bugs. Insect Life, p. 179. - -Aphis lions. Insect Life, p. 178; Ways of the Six-Footed, p. 125. - -Red clover and the bumble bee. - -Parasitic insects. Manual for Study of Insects, pp. 621-630. - -_Spring work._--Bees and orchard in blossom. - -_Summary of methods._--The observations may be made in the schoolroom or -out-of-doors. There should be observations of experiments in spraying. -This may be accomplished in most localities by encouraging the pupils to -visit orchards undergoing the operation of spraying. However, by means -of syringe or watering pot, the infested plants brought into the -schoolroom may be sprayed and the results noted. Lessons should be given -on the importance of preserving insect friends while we are destroying -insect enemies. - - -OTHER ANIMALS ADAPTED FOR NATURE-STUDY. - -_The Toad and Frog._ The study of either of these two species is -delightful spring work for any grade. Cornell Teachers' Leaflet, No. 9 -(No. XVI, this volume); Wilderness Ways, p. 25. - -_Salamanders or Efts._ Familiar Life of the Roadside. - -_Fishes._ Observations upon goldfish or minnows kept in an aquarium -should be made the basis of lessons upon the life of fishes. Study: (1) -The shape of the body; see how it is especially adapted to rapid -movement through the water. (2) The shape and arrangement of the fins, -and their uses. (3) How the fish propels itself through the water. (4) -How the fish breathes. (5) The shape of the fish's mouth, and how and -what it eats. (6) Experiment to ascertain the ability of the fish to see -and hear. Cornell Teachers' Leaflet, No. 21 (Nos. XIII and XXXVI, this -volume). - -Encourage observations of habits of different species of fish common in -our ponds and streams. Study their eggs and the places where they are -found. Teach the children the reason for the game laws, and impress upon -them a true respect for those laws. Food and Game Fishes. - -_Mice._ Some house mice in an improvised cage may be placed in the -schoolroom, and the habits of the little creatures observed. Give them -paper to see how they make their nests. Note how and what they eat, and -how they clean themselves. Note shape of teeth and their use. If -possible, study the wild mice. Squirrels and Other Fur Bearers, p. 111; -Wild Life, p. 171. - -_Squirrels and Chipmunks._ The work on these animals must be based on -out-of-door observations. Try to get the pupils to discover for -themselves answers to the following questions: How and where do they -travel? What do they eat? Where and how do they carry their food? Do -they store it for winter? If so, where? What do they do in winter? -Squirrels and Other Fur Bearers, p. 15, p. 134; Wild Neighbors, p. 1. - -_Rabbits._--A domesticated rabbit should, if possible, be kept in the -schoolyard so that the pupils may make their own observations upon its -habits. Let them study: How and what it eats. The shape of its teeth. -The form and use of the ears. How does it travel? What sort of tracks -does it make, and why? From these observations lead the pupils to think -of the life of the wild rabbit, how it is adapted to escape from its -enemies and to get its food. Ways of Wood Folk, p. 41; Story of -Raggylug. - -_Guinea pigs._--These little animals are easily kept in the schoolroom, -and, though not particularly interesting in their habits, they prove -attractive to the smaller children and may be studied in the same way as -the other animals. - -_Domestic animals._--These need not be studied in the schoolroom, as the -pupils, if they have opportunity, can make the observations at home. -Studies of the horse, cow, pig, sheep, and goat, and also the cat and -dog may be made most interesting. Such questions as these may be asked -concerning each: What is the characteristic form of the animal? What is -its clothing? What does it eat? How are its teeth adapted to its food? -What is its chief use to man? How does it travel, slow or fast? How are -its feet adapted to its way of running or walking? Has it a language? -How many emotions can it express by sound? How many can it express by -action? How does it fight, and what are its weapons? What sort of life -did its wild ancestors live? How did they get their food, and how did -they escape from their enemies? - -_Summary of methods of nature-study of animals._--Study only so much -anatomy as is clearly adapted to the animal's ways of living. -Observations made by the pupils should be arranged into lessons by -either pupil or teacher. Such lessons make excellent English themes, and -they may be adapted to any grade. - - -BIRDS. - -Begin the study of birds by the careful study of some domesticated -species that may be observed closely and for a long period. The hen is -perhaps the best for this purpose. Study carefully all of the -adaptations of her anatomy to her life necessities. Study shape of her -body; the feathers; the bill; her food; how she eats; drinks; the shape -of her feet; their covering; how she sees; hears; smells; sleeps; study -the life of a chick; study the language of chick, hen and cock; -embryology of a chick. Study a robin or some bird that builds near -houses. Note all its habits from the time it appears in spring until -autumn. - -Bird houses and bird protection. Usefulness of birds. Our Native Birds, -Lange. Publications of U. S. Dept. Agr. - -_Summary of methods._--It is much more important that the pupil know the -habits of one species than that he should know by name many species. -Therefore encourage patient watching and careful observation concerning -the things which birds do. Such observations may be made into lessons by -pupil or by teacher for the benefit of all the pupils. First Book of -Birds, and Second Book of Birds; Bird Lore; The Story of the Birds; Bird -Neighbors. - - -PLANTS. - -FIRST GRADE. - -_Fall term._--Let the children study the different forms and the -colors of leaves. By no means teach the botanical terms for all the -shapes of leaves; simply let the children gather and bring in all -the different kinds of leaves they can find. Let them draw the -different forms in their blank books. Press leaves and mount -them. - -The object of this work is to give the child an idea of the great -number of leaf forms and colors, and to get him interested in -observing them. References: Botany, Bailey, pp. 90-100; Lessons -with Plants, pp. 79-90; Gray's How Plants Grow, chapter on -Leaves and Forms of Leaves; Elements of Botany, pp. 89-93. - -_Winter and spring terms._--Let the children study vegetables. -The following questions should be answered concerning a vegetable. -What part of the plant is it? Does it grow below or above ground? -What sort of leaf has it? What sort of flower? What sort of fruit -or seed? Lessons with Plants, pp. 353, 356, 364; First Studies, -pp. 50, 51, 174; Botany, Bailey, pp. 31-37; Cornell Teachers' Quarterly, -No. 7 (No. XXXIX, this volume). - - -SECOND GRADE. - -Teach the use of the flower. Do this by bringing in all flowers -possible, and show that as the flower fades the fruit becomes evident. -Let the pupils observe for themselves the fact that the flower -exists for the sake of the fruit. Interest the pupils in all kinds of -fruits and seeds. This is not the place to teach seed dispersion, -but simply the forms and colors of fruits and seeds. Let the -pupils also observe that insects carry pollen from flower to flower. -Do not give the explanation of this to children of this age, but let -them see the bees at work. - -For this work see Plant World, by Mrs. Bergen, pp. 80-107. - -Let the pupils observe the following things in plant physiology: - -Flowers sleep: Botany, Bailey, p. 50; Lessons with Plants, p. 402; -Plants, Coulter, pp. 9, 10, 48; Elements of Botany, p. 98. - -Plants turn toward the light: Elements of Botany, p. 100; Botany, -Bailey, p. 50; First Studies, p. 136. - -Effect of frost on flowers and leaves. - -_Winter and spring work._--Seed germination: First Studies, pp. 1-24; -Lessons with Plants, pp. 316-331; Botany, Bailey, pp. 164-171; Cornell -Teachers' Leaflet, No. 1 (No. XXVIII, this volume); Plants, p. 307; -Lessons in Nature-Study, p. 22. - -Let the pupils observe in the field: Position of leaves when first open. -A Reader in Botany, by Newell, Part I, p. 84. - -Position of leaves and flowers in the rain. First Studies, p. 135; -Elements of Botany, pp. 175-176; Plants, p. 51. - - -THIRD GRADE. - -_Fall work._--The fall work of this grade may be (1) The way flowers -make fruit, _i. e._, the way the fruit is formed from the flower. (2) -The dispersion of seeds. - -Fruits. First Studies, pp. 168-171; Lessons with Plants, pp. 251-310; -Botany, Bailey, pp. 147-157. - -Seed dispersion. First Studies, p. 176; Plant World, pp. 133-156; Little -Wanderers, by Morley; Seed Dispersal, by Beal; Cornell Teachers' -Quarterly, No. 2 (No. VIII, this volume); Seed Travelers, by Weed; -Botany, Bailey, p. 158. - -Let the pupils observe: "How some plants get up in the world." First -Studies, p. 150; Lessons with Plants, p. 396; Botany, Bailey, p. 108. - -_Spring work._--Opening of the buds. Lessons with Plants, pp. 48-63; -First Studies, p. 33. - -Arrangement of buds. Lessons with Plants, pp. 63-69. - -Expansion of bark. Lessons with Plants, pp. 69-72. - - -FOURTH GRADE. - -The object of this year's work may be the teaching of the value of -earth, air, light, and water upon plants. - -_Fall work._--Experiments to show these to be carried on in schoolroom. -Experiments to show value of earth to plants: - -(1) Plant seeds in fertile earth; poor earth; clean sand or sawdust. - -(2) Plant seeds in sawdust and on cotton batting placed on water in a -jar. - -Experiments to show use of light to plants: - -(1) Sow seeds in two boxes of earth prepared just alike. Place one in -the window, one in a dark closet, and note results. - -(2) Place house plants from greenhouse in a window, and note change of -position of leaves. - -(3) The story of the sunflower. - -Experiments showing use of water to plants: - -(1) Place a very much wilted cut plant in water, and note result. - -(2) Place seeds in earth which is dry, and in earth which is -kept moist. - -(3) Plant seeds on batting floating on a tumbler of water, and note -results. - -These experiments should extend over several weeks. - -_Winter and spring work._--Begin the study of trees. Choose some tree in -the schoolyard, if possible, and make this the basis of the work. The -following is an outline for the study of a maple tree: Begin -observations in January. Make drawings of the tree, showing the -relations of branches to trunk and general outline. Note the following -details: The color of trunk and branches in January, and the color in -February and March; when the buds begin to swell; the arrangement of -buds; watch closely to determine whether a bud develops into a blossom -or a leaf; the peculiarities of bark on trunk and branches; do the -leaves or the blossoms appear first; the shape and color of the -blossoms; draw them and study them thoroughly; the color and position of -the leaves when they first appear; draw the different stages of the -unfolding of the leaves; keep a calendar of all the year's history of -the tree; when in full leaf make another drawing of the whole tree; -study the tree from below, and if possible from above, to show -arrangement of leaves in reference to light; make drawings of the fruit -when it is formed; study how it travels; when the first autumn tints -appear; make colored drawings of the tree in its autumn foliage, and -note when leaves begin to fall and when the branches are finally bare; -note different form of maple in the open and maple in the forest. - -In connection with the year's history of the tree, study the tree from -an economic point of view. Make a special study of sugar-making in -connection with the maple tree. Study maple wood. To do this get a -quarter section of a piece of maple log and study the grain lengthwise -and in cross sections. Study all the industries possible in which maple -is used. Devote one notebook to all the work on the maple tree, and at -the end summarize the observations. For drawing of trees, see Cornell -Teachers' Leaflet, No. 12 (Nos. XXIX and XXX, this volume). Home -Nature-Study, Vol. V, Nos. 2, 5. - - -FIFTH GRADE. - -The work during this grade may be devoted to plant physiology. For this -work use First Studies of Plant Life, Atkinson. The experiments -described in this book are simple and excellent; they give the pupil -definite knowledge of the life processes of plants, and the use to the -plant of roots, stems, leaves, flowers, and fruit. - -Continue studies of trees. Select some other species than the one -studied during the last grade. Study it in the same way. Note the -differences between the two. Two or three contrasting species may thus -be studied. - - -SIXTH GRADE. - -Having studied in the previous year the uses of different parts of the -plant, the pupil will be fitted now to take up the general subject of -weeds. - -Take some common forms and let the pupils observe that they grow where -other plants do not grow, or that they drive out other plants; then -study the special reasons why each kind of weed is able to do these -things. Botany, Bailey, pp. 214-222; Elements of Botany, pp. 196-205. - -During the autumn another subject for study in this grade is -_Mushrooms_. Lead the pupils to see how these flowerless plants produce -seed, and let them bring in as many forms as possible. Do not try to -teach which mushrooms are poisonous. Lessons with Plants, p. 347; -Mushrooms, by Atkinson. - -_Winter work._--Evergreen trees. Cornell Teachers' Leaflet, No. 13 (No. -XXXIII, this volume). - -_Spring work._--The spring work may well be the making of a calendar for -trees and plants. Keep a record each day of the leafage of plants, the -appearance of weeds, and the appearance of blossoms of fruit trees and -all common flowers. Record which appear first, leaves or blossoms. - -This work will be good preparation for the study of the "struggle for -existence," which comes in the next grade. - - -SEVENTH GRADE. - -The work for this year, both fall and spring, may be the study of the -cross fertilization of flowers. Choose a few of the common flowers, and -let the pupils study the means by which pollen is carried from flower to -flower. - -In studying any flower fertilized by insects always ask: Where is the -nectary? Where in relation to the nectary are the stigma and the -anthers? What path must the insect follow in order to get the nectar? Do -the flowers attract insects by color? By fragrance? What insects do you -find visiting the flowers studied? Lessons with Plants, pp. 224-245; -Plants, Coulter, pp. 109-137; Elements of Botany, pp. 182-196; Readers -in Botany, Newell, Part II, p. 86; Plant World, Bergen, pp. 57-127; Ten -New England Blossoms, Weed. - -The cross fertilization of flowers is only one adaptation for succeeding -in the struggle for existence. - -Study as many other ways of insuring the continuance of a plant as is -possible. Botany, Bailey, pp. 197-217; Lessons with Plants, pp. 15-20; -Elements of Botany, pp. 199-212. - -Study plant communities. Botany, Bailey, pp. 219-227; Plant Relations, -pp. 146, 162, 168; Plant Structures, p. 313; Cornell Teachers' Leaflet, -No. 19 (No. XXXV, this volume). - - -EIGHTH GRADE. - -It seems to be the experience of most teachers that pupils of the -seventh and eighth grades are with difficulty kept interested in -nature-study. This is probably due to the fact that the methods suited -to earlier grades are not suited to these. Pupils of this age, now -feeling "grown up," are attracted only by more mature work. They may be -interested in some of the following subjects: - -_Horticulture and Gardening._--Cornell Teachers' Leaflets. -Garden-Making; The Pruning-Book; The Principles of Fruit-Growing; The -Principles of Vegetable-Gardening, all by Bailey. Plant Culture, by -Goff. - -_Forestry._--Relations of forests to preservation of rain-fall and -streams. Preservation of Forests. Use of Forests. Reforesting waste -lands, etc. A Primer of Forestry by Pinchot, United States Department -Agriculture. A First Book of Forestry, Roth. - -_Ferns._--Study and make collections of all the ferns of the locality. -Make drawings of each fern and its fruiting organs, and press and mount -the specimens with full accounts of habits and locality of the plant. -How to Know the Ferns, Mrs. Parsons; Gray's Botany; Our Ferns, Clute. - - -BIBLIOGRAPHY.[7] - -[7] This list comprises some of the books that have been helpful to me. -It is not intended to be complete. Good new books are constantly -appearing. The teacher should endeavor to keep up with the new books. - -INSECTS. - -Every Day Butterflies. S. H. Scudder. Houghton, Mifflin & Co. $2.00. - -Insect Life. J. H. Comstock. D. Appleton & Co. $1.25. - -Lessons in Nature-Study. Jenkins & Kellogg. W. B. Harrison, $1.00. - -Manual for Study of Insects. J. H. Comstock. Comstock Pub. Co. $3.75. - -Moths and Butterflies. (a) Julia P. Ballard. Putnam's Sons. $1.50. - -Moths and Butterflies. (b) Mary C. Dickerson. Ginn & Co. $2.50. - -Stories of Insect Life. Weed & Murtfeldt. Ginn & Co. 35 cents. - -Outdoor Studies. James B. Needham. American Book Co. 40 cents. - -Bee People. Margaret W. Morley. A. C. McClurg. $1.25. - -The Butterfly Book. W. J. Holland. Doubleday, Page & Co. $3.00. - -Caterpillars and Their Moths. Eliot and Soule. The Century Co. $2.00. - -Wasps and Their Ways. Margaret W. Morley. Dodd, Mead & Co. $1.50. - -The Ways of the Six-Footed. Anna Botsford Comstock. Ginn & Co. 40 cents. - -How to Know the Butterflies. J. H. and Anna Botsford Comstock. D. -Appleton & Co. $2.25. - - -ANIMALS OTHER THAN INSECTS. - -Animal Life. Jordan & Kellogg. D. Appleton & Co. $1.25. - -Familiar Fish. Eugene McCarthy. D. Appleton & Co. $1.50. - -Story of the Fishes. James N. Baskett. D. Appleton & Co. 65 cents. - -Familiar Life of the Roadside. Schuyler Mathews. D. Appleton & Co. -$1.75. - -Squirrels and Other Fur Bearers. John Burroughs. Houghton, Mifflin & Co. -$1.00. - -Wild Life in Orchard and Field. Harper & Bros. Wild Neighbors. The -Macmillan Co. Ernest Ingersoll. $1.50 each. - -Kindred of the Wild. Roberts. L. C. Page. $2.00. - -Wild Life Near Home. Dallas Lore Sharp. The Century Co. $2.00. - -Four Footed Americans. Wright. The Macmillan Co. $1.50. - -American Animals. Stone & Cram. Doubleday, Page & Co. -$4.00. - -Food and Game Fishes. Jordan & Evermann. Doubleday, Page & Co. $4.00. - -Various books that deal with animals from the story or narrative point -of view will be found to be interesting and helpful. They are often -useful in arousing an interest in the subject. There are many good -animal books not mentioned in the above list. - - -Birds. - -Bird Homes. A. R. Dugmore. Doubleday, Page & Co. $2.00. - -Bird Life (with colored plates). Frank M. Chapman. D. Appleton & Co. -$5.00. - -Bird Neighbors. Neltje Blanchan. Doubleday, Page & Co. $2.00. - -Birds of Village and Field. Florence Merriam. Houghton, Mifflin & Co. -$2.00. - -First Book of Birds. Olive Thorne Miller. Houghton, Mifflin & Co. $1.00. - -Second Book of Birds. Olive Thorne Miller. Houghton, Mifflin & Co. -$1.00. - -Our Native Birds. D. Lange. The Macmillan Co. $1.00. - -Story of the Birds. James N. Baskett. D. Appleton & Co. 65 cents. - -How to Attract the Birds. Neltje Blanchan. Doubleday, Page & Co. $1.35. - -The Bird Book. Eckstorm. D. C. Heath & Co. 80 cents. - -The Relations of Birds to Man. Weed & Dearborn. Lippincott. $2.50. - -The Woodpeckers. F. H. Eckstorm. Houghton, Mifflin & Co. $1.00. - -Bird Lore. A magazine. The Macmillans. Houghton, Mifflin & Co. $1.00. - - -PLANT LIFE. - -Botany; an Elementary Text for Schools. L. H. Bailey. The Macmillan Co. -$1.00. - -Corn Plants. F. L. Sargent. Houghton, Mifflin & Co. 60 cents. - -Elements of Botany. J. Y. Bergen. Ginn & Co. $1.10. - -Familiar Flowers of Field and Garden. S. Mathews. D. Appleton & Co. -$1.75. - -First Studies in Plant Life. George F. Atkinson. Ginn & Co. 70 cents. - -Flowers and Their Friends. Margaret W. Morley. Ginn & Co. 60 cents. - -Flowers of Field, Hill and Swamp. C. Creevey. Harper & Bros. $2.50. - -Glimpses at the Plant World. Fanny D. Bergen. Ginn & Co. 35 cents. - -A Guide to the Wild Flowers. Alice Lounsberry. Frederick A. Stokes Co. -$2.50. - -How Plants Grow. Asa Gray. American Book Co. 80 cents. - -How to Know the Ferns. Mrs. Frances Theodore Parsons. Chas. Scribner's -Sons. $1.50. - -Our Ferns in Their Haunts. Clute. Stokes Co. $2.00. - -How to Know the Wild Flowers. Mrs. Wm. Starr Dana. Chas. Scribner's -Sons. $2.00. - -Lessons With Plants. L. H. Bailey. The Macmillan Co. $1.10. - -Little Wanderers. Margaret W. Morley. Ginn & Co. 35 cents. - -Mushrooms. George F. Atkinson. Andrus & Church, Ithaca, N. Y. $3.00. - -Plants; a text-book of botany. J. M. Coulter. D. Appleton & Co. $2.00. - -Plants and Their Children. Mrs. Wm. Starr Dana. American Book Co. 65 -cents. - -Reader in Botany. J. H. Newell. 2 vols. Ginn & Co. 70 cents. - -Seed Dispersal. W. J. Beal. Ginn & Co. 40 cents. - -Ten New England Blossoms. Clarence M. Weed. Houghton, Mifflin & Co. -$1.25. - -With the Wild Flowers, $1.00; Field, Forest and Wayside Flowers, $1.50. -Maud Going. Baker, Taylor & Co. - -Flowers and Their Insect Visitors. Gibson. Newson & Co. $1.00. - - -TREES. - -A Guide to the Trees. Alice Lounsberry. Frederick A. Stokes Co. $2.50. - -Familiar Trees and Their Leaves. S. Mathews. D. Appleton & Co. $1.75. - -Our Native Trees. Our Native Shrubs. Harriet Keeler. Chas. Scribner's -Sons. $2.00 each. - -A Primer of Forestry. Pinchot. U. S. Dept. Agri. - -Getting Acquainted with the Trees. J. H. McFarland. Outlook Co. $1.75. - -The First Book of Forestry. Roth. Ginn & Co. $1.00. - -Among Green Trees. Julia E. Rogers. Mumford. $3.00. - -Trees, Shrubs and Vines. Parkhurst. Chas. Scribner's Sons. $1.50. - -Practical Forestry. John Gifford. D. Appleton & Co. $1.20. - - * * * * * - -The Nature-Study Idea. L. H. Bailey. Doubleday, Page & Co. $1.00. - -Science Sketches. David Starr Jordan. McClurg & Co. $1.50. - -Poetry of the Seasons. Mary I. Lovejoy. Silver, Burdette & Co. 60 cents. - -Nature in Verse. Mary I. Lovejoy. Silver, Burdette & Co. 60 cents. - -Nature Pictures by American Poets. The Macmillan Co. $1.25. - -Arbor Day Manual. Charles Skinner. Bardeen & Co. $2.50. - -Songs of Nature. John Burroughs. McClure, Phillips & Co. $1.50. - -Among Flowers and Trees. Wait & Leonard. Lee & Shepherd. $2.00. - - - - -LEAFLET VI. - -A SUMMER SHOWER.[8] - -BY R. S. TARR. - - -[8] Teachers' Leaflet, No. 14: Cornell Nature-Study Bulletin, June, -1899. - -[Illustration] - -A Rainstorm comes, the walks are wet, the roads are muddy. Then the sun -breaks through the clouds and soon the walks are no longer damp and the -mud of the road is dried. Where did the water come from and where has it -gone? Let us answer these questions. - -A kettle on the stove is forgotten and soon a cracking is heard; the -housewife jumps to her feet for the kettle is dry. The kettle was filled -with water, but it has all boiled away; and where has it gone? Surely -into the air of the room, for it can be seen issuing as "steam" and then -disappearing from view, as if by magic. The heat of the fire has changed -the liquid water to a gas as invisible as the air itself. This gas is -_water vapor_. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 9. A glass of cold water on which vapor has -condensed in drops._] - -Do you wish to prove that the water vapor is there, although unseen? -Then, if the day is cool, watch the window and notice the drops of water -collect upon it. Or, if the day is warm, bring an ice-cold glass or -pitcher into the room and see the drops collect upon it (Fig. 9). People -sometimes say, when drops of water collect on a glass of cold water, -that the glass is "sweating;" but see whether the same thing will not -happen with a cold glass that does not contain water. - -These two simple observations teach us two very important facts: (1) -That heat will change liquid water to an invisible vapor, or gas, which -will float about in the air of a room; and (2) that cold will cause some -of the vapor to change back to liquid water. - -Let us observe a little further. The clothes upon the line on wash day -are hung out wet and brought in dry. If the sun is shining they probably -dry quickly; but will they not dry even if the sun is not shining? They -will, indeed; so here is another fact to add to our other two, namely -(3) that the production of vapor from water will proceed even when the -water is not heated. - -This change of water to vapor is called _evaporation_. The water -evaporates from the clothes; it also evaporates from the walks after a -rain, from the mud of the road, from the brooks, creeks and rivers, and -from ponds, lakes, and the great ocean itself. Indeed, wherever water is -exposed to the air some evaporation is taking place. Yet heat aids -evaporation, as you can prove by taking three dishes of the same kind -and pouring the same amount of water into each, then placing one on the -stove, a second in the sun, and a third in a cool, shady place, as a -cellar, and watching to see which is the last to become dry. - -About three-fourths of the earth's surface is covered by water, so that -the air is receiving vapor all the time. In fact, every minute thousands -of barrels of water-vapor are rising into the atmosphere from the -surface of the ocean. The air is constantly moving about, forming winds, -and this load of vapor is, therefore, drifted about by the winds, so -that the air you are breathing may have in it vapor that came from the -ocean hundreds or even thousands of miles away. You do not see the -vapor, you are perhaps not even aware that it is there; yet in a room 10 -feet high and 20 feet square there is often enough vapor, if it could -all be changed back to water to fill a two-quart measure. - -There is a difference in the amount of vapor from time to time. Some -days the air is quite free from it, and then clothes will dry rapidly. -On other days the air is damp and humid; then people say it is "muggy," -or that the "humidity is high." On these muggy days in summer the air is -oppressive because there is so much vapor in it. Near the sea, where -there is so much water to evaporate, the air is commonly more humid or -moist than in the interior, away from the sea, where there is less water -to evaporate. - -We have seen that there is some vapor in all air, and that there is more -at some times than at others. We have also seen how it has come into the -air, and that cold will cause it to condense to liquid water on cold -window panes and on water glasses. There are other ways in which the -vapor may be changed to liquid. - -After a summer day, even when there has been no rain, soon after the -sun sinks behind the western horizon the grass becomes so damp that -one's feet are wet in walking through it. The dew is "falling." During -the daytime the grass is warmed by the sun; but when the sun is gone it -grows cooler, much as a stove becomes cool when the fire is out. This -cool grass chills the air near it and changes some of the vapor to -liquid, which collects in drops on the grass, as the vapor condenses on -the outside of a glass of ice water. - -In the opposite season of the year, on a cold winter's day, when you -step out of a warm house into the chilly air, a thin cloud, or fog, -forms as you expel the air from your lungs, and you say that you can -"see your breath." What you really see are the little drops of water -formed as the vapor-laden breath is chilled on passing from the warm -body to the cold air. The vapor is condensed to form a tiny mist. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 10. A wreath of fog settled in a valley with the -hilltops rising above it._] - -Doubtless you have seen a wreath of fog settling in a valley at night; -or in the morning you may have looked out upon a fog that has gathered -there during the night (Fig. 10). If your home happens to be upon a -hillside, perhaps you have been able to look down upon the fog nestled -there like a cloud on the land, which it really is. Such a fog is caused -in very nearly the same way as the tiny fog made by breathing. The damp -air in the valley has been chilled until the vapor has condensed to form -tiny mist or fog particles. Without doubt you can tell why this fog -disappears when the sun rises and the warm rays fall upon it. - -On the ocean there are great fogs, covering the sea for hundreds of -miles; they make sailing dangerous, because the sailors cannot see -through the mist, so that two vessels may run together, or a ship may be -driven upon the coast before the captain knows it. Once more, this is -merely condensed vapor caused by chilling air that has become laden with -vapor. This chilling is often caused when warm, damp winds blow over the -cold parts of the ocean. - -This leads the way to an understanding of a rain storm; but first we -must learn something about the temperature of the air. The air near the -ground where we live is commonly warmer than that above the ground where -the clouds are. People who have gone up in balloons tell us so; and now -scientific men who are studying this question are in the habit of -sending up great kites, carrying thermometers and other instruments, in -order to find out about the air far above the ground. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 11. Fog clouds among the valleys in the mountains, -only the mountain peaks projecting above them._] - -It is not necessary, however, to send up a kite or a balloon to prove -this. If your home is among mountains, or even among high hills, you can -prove it for yourself; for often, in the late autumn, when it rains on -the lower ground, it snows upon the mountain tops, so that when the -clouds have cleared away the surface of the uplands is robed in white -(Fig. 12). In the springtime, or in the winter during a thaw, people -living among these highlands often start out in sleighs on a journey to -a town, which is in the valley, and before they reach the valley their -horses are obliged to drag the sleigh over bare ground. It is so much -warmer on the lower ground that the snow melts away much more quickly -than it does among the hills. - -The difference in temperature is, on the average, about one degree for -every three hundred feet, so that a hill top rising twelve hundred feet -above a valley would have an average temperature about four degrees -lower than the valley. Now some mountains, even in New York, rise -thousands of feet above the surrounding country. They rise high into the -regions of cold air, so that they are often covered with snow long -before any snow has fallen on the lowlands; and the snow remains upon -them long after it has disappeared from the lower country (Fig. 12). - -[Illustration: _Fig. 12. A mountain whitened by snow on the top, while -there is no snow at the base._] - -Some mountains are so lofty that it never rains upon them, but snows -instead; and they are never free from snow, even in mid-summer. If one -climbs to the top of such peaks he finds it always very cold there. -While he is shivering from the cold he can look down upon the green -fields where the birds are singing, the flowers blossoming and the men, -working in the fields, are complaining of the heat. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 13. A mountain peak snow capped, and covered on the -very crest by a cloud._] - -One who watches such a mountain as this, or in fact any mountain peak, -will notice that it is frequently wrapped in clouds (Fig. 13). Damp -winds blowing against the cold mountains are chilled and the vapor is -condensed. If one climbs through such a cloud, as thousands of people -have done when climbing mountains, he often seems to pass through -nothing but a fog, for really many clouds are only fogs high in the air. -(Fig. 14). - -But very often rain falls from these clouds that cling to the mountain -sides. The reason for this is easy to understand. As the air comes -against the cold mountains so much vapor is condensed that some of the -tiny fog particles grow larger and larger until they become mist -particles, which are too heavy to float in the air. They then begin to -settle; and as one particle strikes against another, the two unite, and -this continues until perhaps a dozen have joined together so as to form -a good-sized drop, which is so heavy that it is obliged to fall to the -ground as rain. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 14. Clouds clinging to the mountain sides. If one -were climbing these mountains he would find himself, in passing through -the clouds, either in a fog or a mist._] - -Let us now look at our summer storms. These do not form about mountain -peaks; yet what has been said about the mountains will help us to -understand such showers. - -It is a hot summer day. The air is muggy and oppressive, so that the -least exertion causes a perspiration, and even in the shade one is -uncomfortably hot. Soon great banks of clouds appear (Fig. 15),--the -"thunder heads,"--and people say "a thunder shower is coming, so that we -will soon have relief from this oppressive heat." The clouds draw near, -lightning is seen and thunder heard, and from the black base of the -cloud, torrents of water fall upon the earth. If we could have watched -this cloud from the beginning, and followed it on its course, we would -have seen some facts that would help explain it. Similar clouds perhaps -began to form over your head in the early afternoon and drifted away -toward the east, developing into thunder storms many miles to the east -of you. - -On such a day as this, the air near the ground is so damp that it gives -up vapor easily, as you can prove by allowing a glass of ice water to -stand on a table and watching the drops of water gather there, causing -the glass to "sweat" (Fig. 9). The sun beats down upon the heated ground -and the surface becomes like a furnace, so that the air near the ground -is warmed. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 15. A "thunder head," or cumulus cloud._] - -Air that is warm is lighter than cool air, and, being lighter, will -rise, for the heavy cool air will settle and push it up, as a chip of -wood will rise in a pail of water, because it is lighter than the water -which pushes it to the top. This is why the warm air rises from a -furnace, or a stove, or a lamp. It is the reason why the hot air rises -through a house chimney; undoubtedly you can find other illustrations, -as ventilation, and can find abundant opportunity to prove that warm air -will rise. - -The warm, moist air near the ground becomes so light that the -heavy air above settles down and pushes it up, so that an uprising -current of air is formed above the heated ground, much as an -uprising current of hot air rises through the chimney when the -stove is lighted. Rising thousands of feet into the sky the warm -air reaches such a height, and finally comes to a place so cool, that -some of the vapor must be condensed, forming fog particles, which -in turn form a cloud. - -On such a day, if you will watch a cloud, you will notice that its base -is flat (Fig. 15); and this flat base marks the height above ground -where the temperature of the atmosphere is low enough to change the -vapor to fog particles. Of course the air still rises somewhat above -this base and continues to get cooler, and to have more and more vapor -condensed. This makes a pile of clouds resting on a level base, but with -rounded tops (Fig. 15). Sometimes the base of these summer clouds, -called cumulus clouds, is a mile above the ground and their tops fully a -mile higher than this. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 16. Photograph of a lightning flash._] - -Just as on the mountain side, where the drops grow larger until they -must fall, so here, fog particles grow to drops of such a size that they -are too heavy to float. This growth is often aided by the violent -currents of air, which sometimes tumble and toss the clouds about so -that you can see the commotion from the ground. These currents blow one -particle against another, forming a single drop from the collision of -two; then still others are added until the rain drop is so heavy that it -must fall. - -But sometimes the air currents are so rapid that the drops are carried -on up, higher and higher, notwithstanding the fact that they are heavy. -Then they may be carried so high, and into air so cold, that they are -frozen, forming hail. These "hailstones" cannot sink to the ground until -they are thrown out of the violent currents, when they fall to the -ground, often near the edge of the storm. - -Some hailstones are of great size; you will find it interesting to -examine them. If you do this, notice the rings of clear and clouded ice -that are often to be seen. These are caused when the hail, after -forming, settles to a place where it melts a little, then is lifted -again by another current, growing larger by the addition of more vapor. -This continues until finally the ice ball sinks to the ground. - -There is thunder and lightning in such storms. Few things in nature are -grander than these, and those who will watch the lightning flash will -see many beautiful and interesting sights (Fig. 16). Sometimes the flash -goes from cloud to cloud, again from the cloud to the ground. No one -knows exactly why the lightning comes; but we do know that it is an -electric spark, something like that which one can often see pass from -the trolley to the wire of an electric car line. The main difference is -that the spark in a thunder storm is a powerful lightning bolt that -passes over a space of thousands of feet and often does great damage -where it strikes. - -The thunder is a sound which may be compared to the crack heard when a -spark passes from the trolley, though of course the noise is very much -louder. The crack of the lightning echoes and reverberates among the -clouds, often changing to a great rumble; but this rumbling is mainly -caused by the echo, the sound from the lightning being a loud crack or -crash like that which we sometimes hear when the lightning strikes near -by. - -Some of the vapor of the air, on condensing, gathers on solid objects -like grass, or glass; but some, as fog, floats about in the air. Really -this, too, is often gathered around solid objects. Floating about in the -air are innumerable bits of "dust" which you can see dancing about in -the sunlight when a sunbeam enters a dark room. Some of these "dust" -particles are actual dust from the road, but much of it is something -else, as the pollen of plants, microbes, and the solid bits produced by -the burning of wood or coal. - -Each bit serves as a tiny nucleus on which the vapor condenses; and so -the very "dust" in the air aids in the formation of rain by giving -something solid around which the liquid can gather. The great amount of -dust in the air near the great city of London is believed to be one of -the causes for the frequent fogs of that city. - -That there is dust in the air, and that the rain removes it, is often -proved when a dull hazy air is changed to a clear, bright air by a -summer shower. Watch to find instances of this. Indeed, after such a -hazy day, when the rain drops first begin to fall, if you will let a few -drops fall upon a sheet of clean white paper, and then dry it, you will -find the paper discolored by the dust that the rain brought with it. So -the rain purifies the air by removing from it the solids that are -floating in it. - -These are only a few of the things of interest that you can see for -yourself by studying the air. Watch the sky; it is full of interest. See -what you can observe for yourself. Watch especially the clouds, for they -are not only interesting but beautiful (Fig. 17). Their forms are often -graceful, and they change with such rapidity that you can notice it as -you watch them. Even in the daytime the colors and shadows are -beautiful; but at sunrise and at sunset the clouds are often changed to -gorgeous banks of color. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 17. A sky flecked with clouds high in the air._] - -Watch the clouds and you will be repaid; look especially for the great -piles of clouds in the east during the summer when the sun is setting -(Fig. 18). Those lofty banks, tinged with silver and gold, and rising -like mountains thousands of feet into the air, are really made of bits -of fog and mist. Among them vapor is still changing to water and rain -drops are forming, while violent currents are whirling the drops about, -and perhaps lifting them to such a height that they are being frozen -into hailstones. Far off to the east, beneath that cloud, rain is -falling in torrents, lightning is flashing and thunder crashing, though -you cannot hear it because it is so far away. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 18. The cloud banks of a thunder storm on the -horizon._] - -You see the storm merely as a brightly lighted and beautifully colored -cloud mass in the sky; but the people over whom it is hanging find it a -threatening black cloud, the source of a furious wind, a heavy rain, and -the awe-inspiring lightning. To them it may not be beautiful, though -grand in the extreme; and so, too, when the summer thunder shower visits -you in the early evening, you may know that people to the west of you -are probably looking at its side and top and admiring its beauty of form -and color. - -The storm passes on, still to the eastward, and finally the cloud mass -entirely disappears beneath the eastern horizon; but if you watch, you -will see signs that it is still there, though out of sight; for in the -darkness of the night you can see the eastern horizon lighted by little -flashes, the source of which cannot be seen. You call it "heat -lightning," but it is really the last signal that we can see of the -vanishing thunder storm, so far away that the sound of the crashing -thunder cannot be heard. - -You watch the mysterious flashes; they grow dimmer and dimmer and -finally you see them no more. Our summer shower is gone. It has done -what thousands of others have done before, and what thousands of others -will do in the future. It has started, moved off, and finally -disappeared from sight; and as it has gone it has told us a story. You -can read a part of this story if you will; and in reading it will find -much that interests. - - - - -LEAFLET VII. - -A SNOW STORM.[9] - -BY ANNA BOTSFORD COMSTOCK. - - - The snow had begun in the gloaming, - And busily all the night - Had been heaping field and highway - With a silence deep and white. - Every pine and fir and hemlock - Wore ermine too dear for an earl, - And the poorest twig on the elm-tree - Was ridged inch deep with pearl. - From sheds new-roofed with Carrara - Came Chanticleer's muffled crow - The stiff rails were softened to swan's-down - And still fluttered down the snow. - --_Lowell._ - -[9] Home Nature-Study Course, December, 1903. - -[Illustration] - -The storm which Lowell describes so delightfully is the first soft, -gentle snow fall that comes in November or early December. "The silence -deep and white" settles like a benediction over the brown, uneven -landscape, and makes of it a scene of enchantment. Very different from -this is the storm that comes when the winter cold is most severe and -winter winds most terrific. Then the skies are as white as the fields, -with never a sign of blue; if the sun appears at all, it shines cold -instead of warm, and seems but a vague white spot behind the veil of -upward, downward whirling snowflakes; the wild wind takes the "snow -dust" in eddies across the fields and piles it at the fences in great -drift billows with overhanging crests. On such a day the snow is so cold -and dry, the clouds so low and oppressive, the bare trees so brown and -bleak, that we shiver even though we gaze on the dreary scene from the -window of a warm and comfortable room. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 19. Snow crystals enlarged._] - -But another change is sure to come. Some February day the wind will veer -suddenly to the south and breathe warm thawing breaths over the white -frozen world. Then will the forests appear in robes of vivid blue-purple -against the shining hills; and in the mornings the soft blue of the -horizon will shade upward into rose-color and still upward into yellow -and beryl green; these hues are never seen on the forest or in the sky -except when the snow covers the earth to the horizon line. The eye that -loves color could ill afford to lose from the world the purples and -blues which bring contrast into the winter landscape. - -The snow storm to our limited understanding, begins with a miracle--the -miracle of crystallization. Why should water freezing freely in the air -be a part of geometry, the six rays of the snow crystal growing at an -angle one to another, of sixty degrees? Or as if to prove geometry -divine beyond cavil, sometimes the rays include angles of twice sixty -degrees. Then why should the decorations of the rays assume thousands of -intricate, beautiful forms, each ray of a flake ornamented exactly like -its five sisters? And why should the snowflake formed in the higher -clouds of the upper air be tabular in shape but still, in cross section, -show that it is built on the plan of six radii? Look at it as we will, -the formation of a crystal is a beautiful mystery and is as unfathomable -as is the mystery of life. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 20. Snow crystals enlarged._] - -I am indebted to the courtesy of Mr. R. G. Allen, Section Director for -New York of the U. S. Weather Bureau, for suggestions in making out the -following questions. The beautiful pictures of snow crystals -illustrating this lesson were made from photographs taken by Mr. W. A. -Bentley of Jericho, Vt. It is our desire to interest all teachers in -the natural history of a snow storm, to the end that "they may love the -country better and be content to live therein." - -A thermometer hung in a sheltered, open place away from the warmth of -the house is a necessary preliminary to the proper observation of the -phenomena of a snow storm. - -Dark woolen cloth is the best medium on which to catch and observe snow -crystals. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 21. "With a silence deep and white."_] - -QUESTIONS ON A SNOW STORM. - -1. What causes snow? - -2. At what temperature do snow crystals form? - -3. How do the clouds appear before a snow storm? - -4. What is the temperature of the air before the storm? - -5. What is the direction of the wind before the storm? - -6. Does the storm come from the same direction as the wind? - -7. What are the conditions of the wind and temperature when the snow -crystals are most perfect in form? - -8. What are these conditions when the snow crystals are matted together -in great flakes? - -9. What are these conditions when the snow crystals appear sharp and -needle-like? - -10. Are the snow crystals of the same storm similar in structure and -decoration? - -11. What is the difference in structure between a snowflake and a hail -stone? - -12. What is sleet? - -13. What is the difference between hoar frost and snow? - -14. Does the temperature rise or fall during a snow storm? - -15. Is it colder or warmer after a snow storm has passed than it was -before it began? - -16. What are the conditions of weather which cause a blizzard? - -17. Why does a covering of snow prevent the ground from freezing so -severely as it would if bare? - -18. Why is snow a bad conductor of heat? - -19. Pack snow in a quart cup until it is full and let it melt; then tell -how full the cup is of water. What do you infer from this? - -20. Have you ever observed the grass to be green beneath snow drifts? -Tell why. - -21. Does snow evaporate as well as melt? - -22. How does snow benefit the farmer and the fruit grower? - -23. Do the snow storms in your locality come from one general direction -all winter? - - - - -LEAFLET VIII. - -A HANDFUL OF SOIL: WHAT IT IS.[10] - -BY R. S. TARR. - - -[10] Nature-Study Quarterly, No. 2: Leaflet 15. - -[Illustration] - -Wind drifts a seed from the parent plant until it settles to the ground, -perhaps in a field or by the roadside, or even in the schoolyard. There -it remains through the long winter; but with the return of spring, -encouraged by the warm sunlight, the seed awakens from its dormant -condition, breaks open the seed-cover and sends leaves into the air and -roots into the ground. No one planted the seed; yet the plant has made -its way in the world and it thrives until it has given to other seeds -the same opportunity to start in life. - -Had the seed fallen upon a board or a stone it might have sent out -leaves and roots; but it could never have developed into a plant, for -something necessary would have been lacking. What is there in the soil -that is so necessary to the success of plant life? How has it come to be -there? What is this soil that the plants need so much? These are some of -the questions which we will try to answer. - -One readily sees that the soil furnishes a place in which the plants may -fix themselves,--an anchorage, as it were. It is also easy to see that -from the soil the plants obtain a supply of water; and, moreover, that -this water is very necessary, for the vegetation in a moist country -suffers greatly in time of drought, and few plants are able to grow in a -desert region because there is so little water. You can make a desert in -the schoolroom and contrast it with moist soil by planting seeds in two -dishes of soil, watering one, but furnishing no water to the other. - -That water is necessary to plants is also proved by the plant itself. -The sap and the moisture which may be pressed out of a grass stem or an -apple are principally water taken from the soil by the roots. But there -is more than water, for the juice of an apple is sweet or sour, while -the sap and juice of other plants may be sweet or bitter. There are -substances dissolved in the water. - -It is these dissolved substances that the plants need for their growth, -and they find them ready for use in the soil. There is a plant-food -which the roots seek and find, so that every plant which sends roots -into the soil takes something from it to build up the plant tissue. The -sharp edges of some sedges, which will cut the hand like a dull knife, -and the wood ashes left when a wood fire is burned, represent in part -this plant-food obtained from the soil. - -Let us take a handful of soil from the field, the schoolyard, or the -street and examine it. We find it to be dirt that "soils" the hands; and -when we try to brush off the dirt, we notice a gritty feeling that is -quite disagreeable. This is due to the bits of mineral in the soil; and -that these are hard, often harder than a pin, may often be proved by -rubbing soil against a piece of glass, which the hard bits will often -scratch, while a pin will not. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 21. A boulder-strewn soil of glacial origin with -one of the large erratics on the right similar to those which early -attracted attention to the drift. See page 105._] - -Study this soil with the eye and you may not see the tiny bits, though -in sandy soils one may easily notice that there are bits of mineral. -Even fine loamy and clay soils, when examined with a pocket lens or a -microscope, will be found to be composed of tiny fragments of mineral. -It is evident that in some way mineral has been powdered up to form the -soil; and since the minerals come from rocks, it is the rocks that have -been ground up. That powdered rock will make just such a substance as -soil may be proved by pounding a pebble to bits, or by collecting some -of the rock dust that is made when a hole is drilled in a rock. Much the -same substance is ground from a grindstone when a knife is sharpened on -it, making the water muddy like that in a mud hole. - -It will be an interesting experiment to reduce a pebble to powder and -plant seeds in it to see whether they will grow as well as in soil; but -in preparing it try to avoid using a sandstone pebble, because sandy -soils are never very fertile. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 22. A glacial soil, containing numerous transported -pebbles and boulders, resting on the bed rock._] - -Not only is soil made up of bits of powdered rock, but it everywhere -rests upon rock (Fig. 25). Some consider soil to be only the surface -layers in which plants grow; but really this is, in most places, -essentially the same as the layers below, down even to the very rock, so -that we might call it all soil; though, since a special name, _regolith_ -(meaning stone blanket), has been proposed for all the soft, soil-like -rock-cover, we may speak of it as regolith and reserve the word soil for -the surface layers only. - -In some places there is no soil on the bare rocks; elsewhere the -soil-cover is a foot or two in depth; but there are places where the -regolith is several hundred feet deep. In such places, even the wells do -not reach the bed rock; nor do the streams cut down to it; but even -there, if one should dig deep enough, he would reach the solid rock -beneath. - -How has the hard rock been changed to loose soil? One of the ways, of -which there are several, may be easily studied whenever a rock has been -exposed to the air. Let us go to a stone wall or among the pebbles in a -field, for instance, and, chipping off the surface, notice how different -the inside is from the outside. The outer crust is rusted and possibly -quite soft, while the interior is harder and fresher. Many excellent -examples of this may be found in any stony field or stone wall. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 23. The bed of a stream at low water, revealing the -rounded pebbles that have been worn and smoothed by being rolled about, -thus grinding off tiny bits which later are built into the -flood-plains._] - -As hard iron rusts and crumbles to powder when exposed to the weather; -so will the minerals and the rocks decay and fall to bits; but rocks -require a very much greater time for this than does iron. It happens -that the soil of New York has not been produced by the decay of rock; -and, therefore, although the soils in many parts of the world have been -formed in this way, we will not delay longer in studying this subject -now, nor in considering the exact way in which rocks are enabled to -crumble. - -Another way in which rocks may be powdered may be seen in most parts of -New York. The rains wash soil from the hillsides causing the streams to -become muddy. In the streams there are also many pebbles, possibly the -larger fragments that have fallen into the stream after having been -broken from the ledges. The current carries these all along down the -stream, and, as they go, one piece striking against another, or being -dragged over the rocks in the stream bed, the pebbles are ground down -and smoothed (Fig. 23), which means, of course, that more mud is -supplied to the stream, as mud is furnished from a grindstone when a -knife or scythe is being sharpened on it. On the pebbly beaches of the -sea or lakeshore much the same thing may be seen; and here also the -constant grinding of the rocks wears off the edges until the pebbles -become smooth and round. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 24. Near view of a cut in glacial soil, gullied by -the rains, and with numerous transported pebbles embedded in the rock -flour._] - -Supplied with bits of rock from the soil, or from the grinding up of -pebbles and rocks along its course, the stream carries its load onward, -perhaps to a lake, which it commences to fill, forming a broad delta of -level and fertile land, near where the stream enters the lake. Or, -possibly, the stream enters the sea and builds a delta there, as the -Mississippi river has done. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 25. A scratched limestone pebble taken from a -glacial soil._] - -But much of the mud does not reach the sea. The greatest supply comes -when the streams are so flooded by heavy rains or melting snows that the -river channel is no longer able to hold the water, which then rises -above the banks, overflowing the surrounding country. Then, since its -current is checked where it is so shallow, the water drops some of its -load of rock bits on the flood-plain, much as the muddy water in a -gutter drops sand or mud on the sidewalk when, in time of heavy rains, -it overflows the walk. - -Many of the most fertile lands of the world are flood-plains of this -kind, where sediment, gathered by the streams farther up their courses, -is dropped upon the flood-plains, enriching them by new layers of -fertile soil. One does not need to go to the Nile, the Yellow, or the -Mississippi for illustrations of this; they abound on every hand, and -many thousands of illustrations, great and small, may be found in the -State of New York. Doubtless you can find one. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 26. The grooved bed rock scratched by the movement -of the ice sheet over it._] - -There are other ways in which soils may be formed; but only one more -will be considered, and that is the way in which most of the soils of -New York have been made. To study this let us go to a cut in the earth, -such as a well or a stream bank (Figs. 22 and 24). Scattered through the -soil numerous pebbles and boulders will doubtless be found; and if these -are compared with the bed rock of the country, which underlies the soil -(Fig. 22), some of them will be found to be quite different from it. For -instance, where the bed rock is shale or limestone, some of the pebbles -will no doubt be granite, sandstone, etc. If you could explore far -enough, you would find just such rocks to the north of you, perhaps one -or two hundred miles away in Canada; or, if your home is south of the -Adirondacks, you might trace the pebbles to those mountains. - -On some of these pebbles, especially the softer ones, such as limestone, -you will find scratches, as if they had been ground forcibly together -(Fig. 25). Looking now at the bed rock in some place from which the soil -has been recently removed, you will find it also scratched and grooved -(Fig. 26); and if you take the direction of these scratches with the -compass, you will find that they extend in a general north and south -direction, pointing, in fact, in the same direction from which the -pebbles have come. - -All over northeastern North America and northwestern Europe the soil is -of the same nature as that just described. In our own country this kind -of soil reaches down as far as the edge of the shaded area in the map -(Fig. 27), and it will be noticed that all of New York is within that -area excepting the extreme southwestern part near the southern end of -Chautauqua lake. - -Not only is the soil peculiar within this district, but there are many -small hills of clay or sand, or sometimes of both together (Figs. 33 -and 34). They rise in hummocky form and often have deep pits or -kettle-shaped basins between, sometimes, when the soil is clayey enough -to hold water, containing tiny pools. These hills extend in somewhat -irregular ranges stretching across the country from the east toward the -west. The position of some of these ranges is indicated on the map (Fig. -27). - -For a long time people wondered how this soil with its foreign pebbles -and boulders, altogether called "drift," came to be placed where it is; -they were especially puzzled to tell how the large boulders, called -erratics (Fig. 21), should have been carried from one place to another. -It was suggested that they came from the bursting of planets, from -comets, from the explosion of mountains, from floods, and in other ways -equally unlikely; but Louis Agassiz, studying the glaciers of the Alps -and the country round about, was impressed by the resemblance between -the "drift" and the materials carried by living glaciers. - -Agassiz, therefore, proposed the hypothesis that glaciers had carried -the drift and left it where we now find it; but for many years his -glacial hypothesis met with a great deal of opposition because it seemed -impossible that the climate could have changed so greatly as to cover -what is now a temperate land with a great sheet of ice. Indeed, even -now, although all who have especially studied the subject are convinced, -many people have not accepted Agassiz's explanation, just as years ago, -long after it was proved that the earth rotated each day, many people -still believed that it was the sun, not the earth, that was moving. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 27. Map showing the extent of the ice sheet in the -United States. Position of some of the moraines indicated by the heavily -shaded lines._ (_After Chamberlain._)] - -The glacial explanation is as certain as that the earth rotates. For -some reason, which we do not know, the climate changed and allowed ice -to cover temperate lands, as before that time the climate had changed so -as to allow plants like those now growing as far south as Virginia to -live in Greenland, now ice covered. When the ice of the glacier melted -away it left many signs of its presence; and when the temperate latitude -plants grew in Greenland they left seeds, leaves and tree trunks which -have been imbedded in the rocks as fossils. One may now pick the leaves -of temperate climate trees from the rocks beneath a great icecap. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 28. A view over the great ice plateau of Greenland, -with a mountain peak projecting above it._] - -To one who studies them, the signs left by the glacier are as clear -proof as the leaves and seeds. From these signs we know that the climate -has changed slowly, but we have not yet learned why it changed. - -There are now two places on the earth where vast glaciers, or ice -sheets, cover immense areas of land, one in the Antarctic, a region very -little known, the other in Greenland, where there is an ice sheet -covering land having an area more than ten times that of the State of -New York. Let us study this region to see what is being done there, in -order to compare it with what has been done in New York. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 29. The edge of a part of the great Greenland ice -sheet (on the left) resting on the land, over which are strewn many -boulders brought by the ice and left there when it melted._] - -In the interior is a vast plateau of ice, in places over 10,000 feet -high, a great icy desert (Fig. 28), where absolutely no life of any -kind, either animal or plant, can exist, and where it never rains, but -where the storms bring snow even in the middle of summer. Such must have -been the condition in northeastern America during the glacial period. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 30. A scratched pebble taken from the ice of the -Greenland glacier._] - -This vast ice sheet is slowly moving outward in all directions from the -elevated center, much as a pile of wax may be made to flow outward by -placing a heavy weight upon the middle. Moving toward the north, east, -south and west, this glacier must of course come to an end somewhere. In -places, usually at the heads of bays, the end is in the sea, as the end -of our glacier must have been off the shores of New England. From these -sea-ends, icebergs constantly break off; these floating away toward the -south, often reach, before they melt, as far as the path followed by the -steamers from the United States to Europe. Between the bays where the -glacier ends in the sea, the ice front rests on the land (Fig. 29), as -it did over the greater part of New York and the states further west. -There it melts in the summer, supplying streams with water and filling -many small ponds and lakes. The front stands there year after year, -sometimes moving a little ahead, again melting further back so as to -reveal the rocks on which it formerly rested. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 31. A part of the edge of the Greenland glacier, -with clean white ice above, and dark discolored bands below where laden -with rock fragments. In the foreground is a boulder-strewn moraine._] - -The bed rock here is found to be polished, scratched and grooved just -like the bed-rock in New York; and the scratches extend in the direction -from which the ice moves. Resting on the rock are boulders and pebbles -(Fig. 22), sometimes on the bare rock, sometimes imbedded in a clay as -they are in the drift. As we found when studying the soil in our own -region, so here the pebbles are often scratched, and many of them are -quite different from the rock on which they rest. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 32. Hummocky surface of the boulder-strewn moraine -of Greenland._] - -Going nearer to the ice we find the lower part loaded with pebbles, -boulders and bits of clay very like those on the rocks near by. Fig. 30 -shows one of these, scratched and grooved, which I once dug from the ice -of this very glacier. The bottom of the ice is like a huge sandpaper, -being dragged over the bed rock with tremendous force. It carries a -load of rock fragments, and as it moves secures more by grinding or -prying them from the rocks beneath. These all travel on toward the edge -of the ice, being constantly ground finer and finer as wheat is ground -when it goes through the mill. Indeed the resemblance is so close that -the clay produced by this grinding action is often called _rock flour_. - -Dragged to the front of the ice, the rock bits, great and small, roll -out as the ice melts, some, especially the finest, being carried away in -the water, which is always muddy with the rock flour it carries; but -much remains near the edge of the ice, forming a _moraine_ (Figs. 31 and -32). This moraine, dumped at the edge of the glacier, very closely -resembles the hummocky hills of New York (Figs. 33 and 34), mentioned -above, which are really moraines formed at the ice-edge during the -glacial period. While their form is quite alike, the New York moraines -are generally less pebbly than the Greenland moraines, because the -Greenland glacier carries less rock flour than did the glacier which -covered New York. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 33. A view over the hummocky surface of a part of -the moraine of the great American ice sheet in Central New York._] - -In the Greenland glacier, as you can see in Fig. 31, there is much dirt -and rock; in the glacier of the glacial period there was even more. When -it melted away the ice disappeared as water, but the rock fragments of -course fell down upon the rock beneath and formed soil. If over a -certain region, as for instance over your home, the ice carried a great -load of drift, when this gradually settled down, as the ice melted, it -formed a deep layer of soil; but if the glacier had only a small load a -shallow soil was left. Again, if the ice front remained for a long time -near a certain place, as near your home, it kept bringing and dumping -rock fragments to form moraines, which, of course, would continue to -grow higher so long as the ice dumped the rock fragments, much as a sand -pile will continue to grow higher so long as fresh loads are brought and -dumped. - -There are other causes for differences in the glacial soils, but most of -them cannot be considered here. One of them is so important, however, -that it must be mentioned. With the melting of so much ice, vast floods -of water were caused, and these came from the ice, perhaps in places -where there are now no streams, or at best only small ones. These rapid -currents carried off much of the rock flour and left the coarser and -heavier sand, gravel, or pebbles, the latter often well rounded, with -the scratches removed by the long-continued rolling about in the glacial -stream bed. - -One often finds such beds of sand or gravel in different parts of the -State, telling not only of ice where it is now absent, but of water -currents where is now dry land. The rock flour was in some cases carried -to the sea, elsewhere to lakes, or in still other places deposited in -the flood-plains of the glacier-fed rivers. Now some of this rock flour -is dug out to make into bricks. - -Enough has been said to show that the soils of New York were brought by -a glacier, and to point out that there are many differences in thickness -as well as in kind and condition of the soil. The agriculture of the -State is greatly influenced by these differences. In some cases one part -of a farm has a deep, rich soil, another part a barren, sandy, pebbly or -boulder-covered soil (Fig. 21), while in still another part the bed rock -may be so near the surface that it does not pay to clear the forest from -it. Moreover, some farms are in hummocky moraines, while others, near -by, are on level plains (Fig. 34), where a broad glacial stream built up -a flood-plain in a place where now the stream is so small that it never -rises high enough to overflow the plain. - -There are even other differences than these, and one who is familiar -with a region is often puzzled to explain them; but they are all due to -the glacier or to the water furnished by its melting, and a careful -study by a student of the subject of Glacial Geology will serve to -explain them. Each place has had peculiar conditions and it would be -necessary to study each place much more carefully than has been done -here in order to explain all the differences. - -Not only is agriculture influenced greatly by the differences in the -soil from place to place, but also by the very fact that they are -glacial soils. Being made up of partly ground-up rock fragments the -soils are often stony and difficult to till. Unlike the soil of rock -decay, the particles of which the glacial soil is made have been derived -by mechanical grinding, not by chemical decay and disintegration. There -has been less leaching out of the soluble compounds which make plant -foods. These are stored up in the rock fragments ready for use when -decay causes the proper changes to produce the soluble compounds which -plants require. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 34. Hummocky moraine hills in the background and a -level gravel plain--an ancient glacial-stream flood-plain--in -foreground._] - -Slowly the glacial soils are decaying, and, as they do so, are -furnishing plant-food to the water which the roots greedily draw in. So -the glacial soil is not a mere store house of plant-food, but a -manufactory of it as well, and glacial soils are therefore "strong" and -last for a long time. That decay is going on, especially near the -surface, may often be seen in a cut in the soil, where the natural blue -color of the drift is seen below, while near the surface the soil is -rusted yellow by the decay of certain minerals which contain iron. - -Few materials on the earth are more important than the soil; it acts as -the intermediary between man and the earth. The rocks have some -substances locked up in them which animals need; by decay, or by being -ground up, the rocks crumble so that plants may send roots into them and -extract the substances needed by animals. Gifted with this wonderful -power the plants grow and furnish food to animals, some of which is -plant-food obtained from the rocks; and so the animals of the land, and -man himself, secure a large part of their food from the rocks. It is -then worth the while to stop for a moment and think and study about -this, one of the most marvelous of the many wonderful adjustments of -Nature, but so common that most persons live and die without even giving -it more than a passing thought. - - - - -LEAFLET IX. - -A HANDFUL OF SOIL: WHAT IT DOES.[11] - -BY L. A. CLINTON. - - -[11] Nature-Study Quarterly, No. 2: Leaflet 15, October, 1899. - -[Illustration] - -The more one studies the soil, the more certainly it will be found that -the earth has locked up in her bosom many secrets, and that these -secrets will not be given up for the mere asking. As mysterious as the -soil may appear at different times, it always is governed by certain -laws. These principles once understood, the soil becomes an open book -from which one may read quickly and accurately. - - -USES OF THE SOIL. - -The soil has certain offices to perform for which it is admirably -fitted. The most important of these offices are: - - 1. To hold plants in place; - 2. To serve as a source of plant-food; - 3. To act as a reservoir for moisture; - 4. To serve as a storehouse for applied plant-food or fertilizer. - -Some soils are capable of performing all these offices, while others are -fitted for only a part of them. Thus a soil which is pure sand and -almost entirely deficient in the essential elements of plant-food, may -serve, if located near a large city, merely to hold the plants in -position while the skillful gardener feeds the plants with specially -prepared fertilizers, and supplies the moisture by irrigation. - -Early in the study of soils an excursion, if possible, should be made -into the woods. Great trees will be seen and under the trees will be -found various shrubs and possibly weeds and grass. It will be noticed -that the soil is well occupied with growing plants. The surface will be -found covered with a layer several inches thick of leaves and twigs. -Beneath this covering the soil is dark, moist, full of organic matter, -loose, easily spaded except as roots or stones may interfere, and has -every appearance of being fertile. - - -SOIL CONDITIONS AS FOUND IN MANY FIELDS. - -After examining the conditions in the forest, a study should be made of -the soil in some cultivated field. It will be found that in the field -the soil has lost many of the marked characteristics noticed in the -woodland. In walking over the field, the soil will be found to be hard -and compact. The surface may be covered with growing plants, for if the -seeds which have been put into the soil by the farmer have not -germinated and the plants made growth, nature has quickly come to the -rescue and filled the soil with other plants which we commonly call -weeds. It is nature's plan to keep the soil covered with growing plants, -and from nature we should learn a lesson. The field soil, instead of -being moist, is dry; instead of being loose and friable, it is hard and -compact, and it appears in texture entirely different from the woodland -soil. The cause of the difference is not hard to discover. In the woods, -nature for years has been building up the soil. The leaves from the -trees fall to the ground and form a covering which prevents washing or -erosion, and these leaves decay and add to the humus, or vegetable -mould, of the soil. Roots are constantly decaying and furnish channels -through the soil and permit the circulation of air and water. - -In the field, nature's lesson has been disregarded and too often the -whole aim seems to be to remove everything from the soil and to make no -returns. Consequently the organic matter, or humus, has been used up; -the tramping of the horses' feet has closed the natural drainage canals; -after the crop is removed, the soil is left naked during the winter and -the heavy rains wash and erode the surface, and remove some of the best -plant-food. After a few years of such treatment, the farmer wonders why -the soil will not produce as liberally as it did formerly. - -_Experiment No. 1._--The fact that there is humus, or vegetable mould, -in certain soils can be shown by burning. Weigh a potful of hard soil -and a potful of lowland soil, or muck, after each has been thoroughly -dried. Then put the pots on the coals in a coal stove. After the soil is -thoroughly burned, weigh again. Some of the difference in weight may be -due to loss of moisture, but if the samples were well dried in the -beginning, most of the loss will be due to the burning of the humus. - - -CONDITIONS WHICH AFFECT FERTILITY. - -There are certain conditions which affect soil fertility and of these -the most important are: - - Texture; - Moisture-content; - Plant-food; - Temperature. - - -TEXTURE AND ITS RELATION TO FERTILITY. - -By texture is meant the physical condition of the soil. Upon good -texture, more than upon any other one thing, depends the productivity of -the soil. When the texture is right the soil is fine, loose, and -friable; the roots are able to push through it and the feeding area is -enlarged. Each individual particle is free to give up a portion of its -plant-food, or its film of moisture. The conditions which are found in -the woods' soil are almost ideal. - -_Experiment No. 2._--The importance of good texture may be well shown in -the class room. Pots should be filled with a soil which is lumpy and -cloddy, and other pots with the same kind of material after it has been -made fine and mellow. After seeds are planted in the different pots, a -careful study should be made of the length of time required for -germination and of the health and vigor of the plants. - -_Experiment No. 3._--The greater part of our farming lands do not -present ideal conditions as regards texture. Clay soils are especially -likely to be in bad condition. If samples of the various soils can be -collected, as sand, loam, clay, etc., it may be clearly shown how -different soils respond to the same kind of treatment. With a common -garden trowel, the soils should be stirred and worked while wet, and -then put away to dry. After drying, the conditions presented by the -soils should be noted, also the length of time required for the soils to -become dry. Whereas the sand and the loam will remain in fairly good -condition when dry, the clay will have become "puddled," _i. e._, the -particles will have run together and made a hard, compact mass. Thus it -is found in practice that clay soils must be handled with far more care -and intelligence than is required for the sand and loams, if the texture -is to be kept perfect. - -_Experiment No. 4._--If, in the experiment above suggested, the clay -soil is mixed with leaf-mould, or humus soil, from the woods, it will -be found to act very differently. The vegetable matter thus mixed with -the mineral matter prevents the running together of the particles of -clay. - -Two principles, both important as relating to soil texture, now have -been illustrated. Soils must not be worked when they are so wet that -their particles will cohere, and organic matter, or humus, must be kept -mixed with the mineral matter of the soil. In practical farm operations, -if the soil can be made into a mud ball it is said to be too wet to -work. The required amount of humus is retained in the soil by -occasionally plowing under some green crop, as clover, or by applying -barn manures. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 35. The glass of water at the right has received -lime and the clay has been flocculated; the other was not treated._] - -Clay soils are also frequently treated with lime to cause them to remain -in good condition and be more easily tilled. Lime causes the fine -particles to flocculate, or to become granular, _i. e._, several -particles unite to form a larger particle, and these combinations are -more stable and do not so readily puddle, or run together. A mud-puddle -in clay soil will remain murky until the water has evaporated entirely. -Let a little water-slaked lime be mixed with the muddy water, and the -particles of clay will be flocculated and will settle to the bottom; -thus the water will become clear. - -_Experiment No. 5._--Into two glasses of water put some fine clay soil; -thoroughly stir the mixture (Fig. 35). Into one glass thus prepared put -a spoonful of water-slaked lime; stir thoroughly, then allow both -glasses to remain quiet that the soil may settle. Notice in which glass -the water first becomes clear, and note the appearance of the sediment -in each. - - -THE MOISTURE IN THE SOIL. - -In Leaflet VI has been given the history of a thunder shower. We are not -told much about the history of the water after it reaches the earth. If -we go out immediately after a heavy shower, we find little streams -running alongside the road. These little streams unite to make larger -ones, until finally the creeks and rivers are swollen, and, if the rain -was heavy enough, the streams may overflow their banks. In all these -streams, from the smallest to the largest, the water is muddy. Where did -this mud come from? It was washed largely from the cultivated fields, -and the finest and best soil is certain to be the first to start on its -voyage to the valleys or to the sea. If the farmer had only learned -better the lesson from nature and kept his fields covered with plants, a -large part of the loss might have been prevented. A rain gauge should be -kept in every school yard, so that every shower can be measured. It can -then be easily determined by the pupils how many tons of rain fall upon -the school grounds, or how much falls upon an acre of land. It will be a -matter of surprise that the amount is so great. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 36. a. Soil too dry. b. Soil in good condition. c. -Soil too wet._] - -Not all the water which falls during a summer shower is carried off by -surface drainage, since a considerable part sinks into the soil. As it -passes down, each soil grain takes up a portion and surrounds itself -with a little film of water, much as does a marble when dipped into -water. If the rain continues long enough, the soil will become saturated -and the water which cannot be retained, will, under the influence of -gravity, sink down to the lower layers of soil until it finally reaches -the level of the free water. From this free water, at varying depths in -the soil, wells and springs are supplied. If the soil were to remain -long saturated, seeds would not germinate, and most cultivated plants -would not grow because all the air passages of the soil would be filled -with water (Fig. 36). The water which sinks down deep into the soil and -helps to supply our wells is called free water. That part which is held -as a film by the soil particles (as on a marble) is called capillary -water. After the rain is over and the sun shines, a part of the moisture -which is held by the particles near the surface is lost by evaporation. -The moisture which is below tends to rise to restore the equilibrium; -thus there is created a current toward the surface, and finally into the -air; the moisture which thus escapes aids in forming the next thunder -storm. - -_Experiment No. 6._--Humus enables the soil to take up and hold large -quantities of water. To illustrate this, two samples of soil should be -obtained, one a humus, or alluvial, soil, rich in organic matter, and -the other a sandy soil. Put the two samples where they will become -thoroughly air dry. Procure, say five pounds each of the dry soils, and -put each into a glass tube over one end of which there is tied a piece -of muslin, or fine wire gauze. From a graduated glass pour water slowly -upon each sample until the water begins to drain from the bottom of the -tube. In this way it can be shown which soil has the greater power of -holding moisture. Both samples should then be set away to dry. By -weighing the samples each day, it can be determined which soil has the -greater power of retaining moisture. This experiment may be conducted -not only with sand and humus, but with clay, loam, gravel, and all other -kinds of soil. - -_Experiment No. 7._--A finely pulverized soil will hold more -film-moisture than a cloddy soil. To illustrate the importance of -texture as related to moisture, soil should be secured which is cloddy, -or lumpy. One tube should be filled, as heretofore described (Exp. No. -6), with the lumpy soil, and the other tube with the fine soil which -results from pulverizing the lumps, equal weights of soil being used in -each case. From a graduated glass pour water upon each sample until the -drainage begins from the bottom. Notice which soil possesses greater -power of absorbing moisture. Put the samples away to dry, and by careful -weighing, each day, it can be determined which soil dries out more -readily. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 37. "Foot-prints on the sands of time."_] - -[Illustration: _Fig. 38. A cross section through one of the -foot-prints._] - -The prudent farmer will take measures to prevent the escape of this -moisture into the air. All the film-moisture (on the soil particles) -needs to be carefully conserved or saved, for the plants will need very -large amounts of moisture before they mature, and they can draw their -supply only from this film-moisture. We can again apply the lesson -learned in the woods. The soil there is always moist; the leaves form a -cover, or blanket, which prevents the evaporation of moisture. -Underneath an old plank or board, the soil will be found moist. If we -can break the connection between the soil and the air, we can check the -escape of moisture. A layer of straw over the soil will serve to prevent -the loss of moisture; yet a whole field cannot be thus covered. It has -been found that the surface soil, if kept loose, say about three inches -of the top soil can be made to act as a blanket or covering for the soil -underneath. Although this top layer may become as dry as dust, yet it -prevents the escape, by evaporation, of moisture from below. It is a -matter of common observation that if tracks are made across a freshly -cultivated field, the soil where the tracks are will become darker (Fig. -37). This darker appearance of the soil in the foot-marks is due to the -moisture which is there rising to the surface. The implement of tillage -makes the soil loose, breaking the capillary connection between the -lower layers of soil and the surface; thus the upward passage of the -water is checked. Where the foot-print is, the soil has been again -pressed down at the surface, the particles have been crowded closer -together, and capillarity is restored to the surface so that the -moisture is free to escape (Fig. 38). In caring for flower-beds, or even -in growing plants in a pot in the school-room, it is important that the -surface of the soil be kept loose and mellow. Far better in a flower -garden is a garden rake than a watering pot. - -_Experiment No. 8._--To show the importance of the surface mulch, fill -several pots with a sandy loam soil, putting the same weight of soil -into each pot. In one pot, pack the soil firmly; in another pot, pack -the soil firmly and then make the surface loose. These pots of soil may -then be put away to dry; by daily weighing each it can be readily -determined what effects the various methods of treatment have upon the -moisture-holding power of soils. - -_Experiment No. 9._--The above experiment may be varied by covering the -soil in some of the pots with leaves, or straw, or paper, care being -taken that the added weight of the foreign matter is properly accounted -for. - - -SOIL TEMPERATURE. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 39. The moss-grown lawn or grass plot._] - -If a kernel of corn be placed in the ground in early spring before the -soil has become warm, the seed will not germinate. Abundance of moisture -and oxygen may be present, but the third requisite for germination, -proper temperature, is lacking. The soil is very slow to become warm in -the spring, and this is due to the large amount of water which must be -evaporated. During the winter and spring, the rain and melting snow have -saturated the soil. The under-drainage is deficient so there is no way -for the escape of the surplus water except by evaporation, and -evaporation is a cooling process. A well-drained soil is thus warmer -than a poorly-drained one. - -The atmosphere is much quicker to respond to changes in temperature than -is the soil. In the spring, the air becomes warm while the soil -continues cold, and the rains which fall during this time are warmed by -passing through the warm air. Then in sinking through the soil the -rain-water parts with some of its heat which makes the soil warmer. -During mid-summer the soil becomes very warm, and it is not affected by -cool nights, as is the atmosphere. Consequently as a summer rain may be -several degrees cooler than the soil, the water in passing through the -soil takes up some of the heat; thus the soil conditions are made more -favorable for plant growth. Therefore, soil temperature is regulated -somewhat by the rainfall. - -_Experiment No. 10._--The color of a soil also affects its temperature, -a dark soil being warmer than a light colored soil. By having -thermometers as a part of the school room equipment, interesting -experiments may be conducted in determining the effect of color and -moisture upon the temperature of soils. - - -AIR IN THE SOIL. - -Although that part of the plant which we can see is entirely surrounded -by air, it is also necessary that the soil be in such a condition that -it can be penetrated by the air. Indeed, growth cannot begin in a soil -from which the air is excluded. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 40. The clover roots penetrate the soil deeply._] - -_Experiment No. 11._--To prove this, put clay soil in a pot and plant -seeds; then wet the surface of the soil and puddle or pack the clay -while wet and watch for the seeds to germinate and grow. At the same -time put seeds in another pot filled with loose, mellow, moist soil. - -Frequently, after the farmer has sown his grain, there comes a heavy, -beating rain, and the surface of the soil becomes so packed that the air -is excluded and the seeds cannot germinate. If plants are grown in pots -and the water is supplied at the top, the soil may become so hard and -compact as to exclude the air and the plants will make a sickly growth. -The surface soil must be kept loose so that the air can penetrate it. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 41. After the clover dies the soil is in better -condition for its having lived._] - -On many lawns it may be noticed that the grass is not thriving. It has a -sickly appearance, and even the application of fertilizer does not seem -to remedy the conditions. Perhaps the ground has become so hard that the -air cannot penetrate and the grass is being smothered. If the surface of -the soil can be loosened with a garden rake, and clover seed sown, much -good may be accomplished. The clover is a tap-rooted plant, sending its -main root deep into the soil. - -After the death of the plant, the root decays, and the nitrogen which is -stored in it can be used as food by the other plants. Most useful of -all, however, in such cases, the decay of the tap-root of the clover -makes a passage deep into the soil and thus allows the air to enter. -Consult Figs. 39-41. - - - - -LEAFLET X. - -THE BROOK.[12] - -BY J. O. MARTIN. - -INTRODUCTION BY L. H. BAILEY. - - -[12] Nature-Study Quarterly, No. 5: Leaflet 18. June, 1900. - -[Illustration] - -A brook is the best of subjects for nature-study. It is near and dear to -every child. It is a world in itself. It is an epitome of the nature in -which we live. In miniature, it illustrates the forces which have shaped -much of the earth's surface. Day by day and century by century, it -carries its burden of earth-waste which it lays down in the quiet -places. Always beginning and never ceasing, it does its work as slowly -and as quietly as the drifting of the years. It is a scene of life and -activity. It reflects the sky. It is kissed by the sun. It is caressed -by the winds. The minnows play in the pools. The soft weeds grow in the -shallows. The grass and the dandelions lie on its sunny banks. The moss -and fern are sheltered in the nooks. It comes one knows not whence; it -flows one knows not whither. It awakens the desire of exploration. It is -a realm of mysteries. It typifies the flood of life. It goes "on -forever." - -In many ways can the brook be made an adjunct of the school-room. One -teacher or one grade may study its physiography; another its birds; -another may plat it. Or one teacher and one grade may devote a month or -a term to one phase of it. Thus the brook may be made the center of a -life-theme. - -L. H. B. - - -I. A BROOK AND ITS WORK. - -On a rainy day most of us are driven indoors and thus we miss some of -nature's most instructive lessons, for in sunshine or rain the great -mother toils on, doing some of her hardest labor when her face is -overcast with clouds. Let us find our waterproofs, raise our umbrellas, -bid defiance to the pattering rain, and go forth to learn some of the -lessons of a rainy day. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 42. The brook may be made the center of a -life-theme._] - -Along the roadside, the steady, down-pouring rain collects into pools -and rills, or sinks out of sight in the ground. The tiny streams search -out the easiest grade and run down the road, digging little gullies as -they go. Soon these rills meet and, joining their muddy currents, flow -on with greater speed down the hillside until they reach the bottom of -the valley and go to swell the brook which flows on, through sunshine or -rain. The water which sinks into the ground passes out of sight for a -time, but its journey is also downward toward the brook, though the -soil, acting as a great sponge, holds it back and makes it take a slower -pace than the rushing surface water. This slower-moving underground -water percolates through the soil until it comes to a layer of rock, -clay, or other impervious substance, along the slope of which it flows -until it is turned again to the surface in the form of a spring. Perhaps -this spring is one of those clear, cold pools, with the water bubbling -up through its sandy bottom, from which we love to drink on a hot -summer's day; or, again, it is a swampy spot on the hillside where the -cat-tails grow. In whatever form it issues from the ground, a tiny rill -carries away its overflow, and this sooner or later joins the brook. - -The brook, we see, is simply the collected rainfall from the hillsides, -flowing away to join the river. It grows larger as other brooks join it, -and becomes a creek and finally a river. But where is the dividing line -between brook, creek, and river? So gradually does the brook increase in -volume that it would be difficult to draw any dividing line between it -and the larger streams. And so with the rills that formed the brook: -each is a part of the river, and the names rill, brook, creek, and river -are merely relative terms. - -Brooks are but rivers on a small scale; and if we study the work that a -brook is doing, we shall find it engaged in cutting down or building up, -just as the river does, although, owing to the smaller size of the -brook, we can see most of these operations in a short distance. Let us -take our way through the wet grass and dripping trees to the brookside -and see what work it is doing. - -The countless rain-born rills are pouring their muddy water into the -brook and to-day its volume is much greater than when it is fed, as it -is in fair weather, by the slower-moving underground water of the -springs. It roars along with its waters no longer clear but full of clay -and sand ("mud" as we call it). - -If we should dip up a glassful of this muddy water, we should find that -when it had settled there remained on the bottom of the glass a thin -deposit of sediment. The amount of this sediment is small, no doubt, for -a single glassful, but when we think of the great quantity of water -constantly flowing by, we can see that considerable sediment is going -along with it. But this sediment in suspension is not all the load that -the brook is moving. If you will roll up your sleeve, plunge your hand -to the bottom of the brook and hold it there quietly, you will feel the -coarser gravel and small stones rolling along the bottom. - -All this load of sand and gravel comes, as we have seen, from the valley -sides, the banks of the brook, and from its bed. It is moving downward -away from its original resting place; and what is the result? For -thousands upon thousands of years, our brook may have been carrying off -its yearly load of sediment; and though each day's labor is small, yet -the added toil of centuries has been great. The result of this labor we -can see in the great trough or valley through which the brook flows. -Tennyson speaks of the ceaseless toil of the brook in the following -words: - - "I chatter, chatter, as I flow - To join the brimming river, - For men may come and men may go, - But I go on forever." - -[Illustration: _Fig. 43. A brook cutting under its bank and causing a -landslide._] - -We have seen how the rills and torrents bring into the brook their loads -of sand, clay, and gravel; now let us walk along the bank and see what -the brook is doing to increase this load. Just here there is a sudden -turn in the channel and so sharp is the curve that the rushing stream is -not able to keep in mid-channel, but throws itself furiously against the -outer bank of the curve, eating into the clay of which it is composed, -until the bank is undermined, allowing a mass of clay to slide down into -the stream bed, where it is eaten up and carried away by the rushing -water (Fig. 43). Farther on, the brook dashes down a steep, rocky -incline, and if we listen and watch we may hear the thud of boulders -hurled along, or even see a pebble bound out of the muddy foaming water. -These moving pebbles strike against each other and grind along the -bottom, wearing out themselves as well as the large unmovable boulders -of the rocky bed of the brook. Thus the larger stones are ground down, -rounded at first but in time reduced to sand, adding in this way to the -moving burden of the brook. By this slow process of cutting and -grinding, the deep rock gorges of New York state, like those at Watkins, -Ithaca, Au Sable Chasm, and even the mighty gorge of Niagara, have been -made. The Grand Canyon of the Colorado, over a mile in depth, is one of -the greatest examples of stream cutting to be found in the world. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 44. A pile of brook debris deposited by the -checking of the current._] - -Now the brook leads us into a dripping woodland, and just ahead we can -hear the roar of a little waterfall, for at this point the cutting -stream flows upon the bed rock with its alternating bands of hard and -soft rock through which the busy brook is cutting a miniature gorge. -Here is a hard layer which the stream has undermined until it stands out -as a shelf, over which the water leaps and falls in one mass with a drop -of nearly ten feet. Watch how the water below boils and eddies; think -with what force it is hammering its stone-cutting tools upon the rocky -floor. Surely here is a place where the brook is cutting fast. Notice -that swirling eddy where the water is whirling about with the speed of a -spinning top; let us remember this eddy and when the water is lower we -will try to see what is happening at its bottom. - -On the other side of the woods our brook emerges into a broad meadow; -let us follow it and see what becomes of its load, whether it is carried -onward, or whether the tired brook lays it down occasionally to rest. -Out of the woods, the brook dashes down a steep incline until the -foaming tide comes to rest in a deep pool. What becomes of the large -pebbles which have been swept down? Do they go on or do they stop? If -you go to the outlet of the pool you will see that the water is coming -out with nothing in its grasp but the fine clay and sand, the gravel and -pebbles having been dropped by the less rapid current of the pool. This -is one of the most important of the brook's lessons, for anything that -tends to check the current makes it drop some of the sediment that it -carries (Fig. 44). Yonder is an old tree stump with its crooked roots -caught fast on the bottom; the mid-stream current rushes against it only -to be thrown back in a boiling eddy, and the waters split in twain and -flow by on either side with their current somewhat checked. In the rear -of the stump is a region of quiet water where the brook is building up a -pile of gravel. Farther on, the banks of the brook are low and here the -waters no longer remain in the channel, but overflow the low land, -spreading out on either side in a broad sheet. The increased friction of -this larger area reduces the current, and again we see the brook laying -down some of its load. The sand and gravel deposited here is spread out -in a flat plain called a _flood plain_, because it is built up when the -stream is in flood. It is on the large flood plains of rivers that many -of our richest farm lands occur. These receive, each spring when the -stream is in flood, a fresh coating of soil mixed with fragments of -vegetable matter, and thus grow deeper and richer year by year. The -flood plains of the Mississippi and of the Nile are notable examples of -this important form of stream deposit. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 45. A delta built by a tiny rill flowing from a -steep clay bank._] - -And now let us make one more rainy-day observation before going back to -our warm, dry homes. Just ahead on the other side of that clump of -alders and willows lies the pond into which the brook flows and where -its current is so checked that it gives up almost all its burden of -sediment. Close to the shore it has dropped its heaviest fragments, -while the sand and clay have been carried farther out, each to be -dropped in its turn, carefully assorted as to size and weight. Here you -can see that the stream has partly filled this end of the pond, and it -is now sending its divided current out over the deposit which it has -made in a series of branching rivulets. This deposit is called a _delta_ -(Fig. 45), and deltas are another important form of stream deposits. In -the lakes and ponds, deltas may grow outward until the lake is filled, -when the stream will meander across the level plain without much current -and hence without much cutting power (Fig. 46). In the sea, great deltas -are being formed in some places, like those at the mouths of the -Mississippi, the Nile, and the Ganges. Large areas of dry land have thus -been built. Deltas, like flood plains, afford rich farming lands when -they are built high enough to remain above the water. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 46. A brook flowing across a pond which has been -filled._] - -Here let us end our study of the brook for to-day, and wait until the -rain ceases and the water runs clear again; then we can see the bottom -and can also learn by contrast how much more work the brook has been -doing to-day than it does when the volume of water is less. - -On the road home, however, we can notice how the temporary streams, as -well as the everflowing brook, have been cutting and depositing. See -where this tiny rill has run down that steep clay bank until its -current was checked at the foot. Notice how it has spread out its -sediment in a fan-shaped deposit. This form of deposit is sometimes made -by larger streams, especially in a mountainous country with plains at -the foot of the slopes. They are called _alluvial fans_ or _cone deltas_ -(Fig. 47), but they are not as important as flood plains and deltas. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 47. A brook building a delta into a lake. Formerly -the brook flowed straight ahead, but its own delta has caused it to -change its direction._] - -The first dry, sunny morning that comes we visit the brook again. It no -longer roars, but its clear waters now sing a pleasant melody as they -ripple along the stony bed. We can see at a glance that comparatively -little work is going on to-day, and yet if we look closely, we shall see -glittering particles of sand moving along the bottom. The clear water, -however, allows us to study the bottom which before was hidden by the -load of mud. - -First we see the rounded boulders and pebbles of all sizes which must -have been rolled about for a long time to make them so smooth. Some of -them are so very hard that we cannot even scratch them with our knives; -others are soft and easily broken. What would be the effect of rolling -together stones of such varying hardness? We must think of these stones -as the tools with which the brook cuts and grinds, for water without -sediment can do little more than slightly to dissolve the rock. - -Let us go at once to the little waterfall, for we shall be curious to -see what lies at the bottom of the whirling eddy that drew our attention -yesterday. As we look down into the sunlit pool we see that the eddy is -gone, for the volume of water is not great enough to cause it to -revolve, but there in the rock on the bottom is a deep basin-like hole. -In the bottom of this hole we shall see a number of well-rounded stones, -with perhaps some sand and gravel. These stones are the tools which, -whirled about by the eddying water, have cut the basin-like holes. Holes -of this sort are common in rocky stream beds, especially in the -neighborhood of falls or in places where falls have once been; they are -called _pot-holes_ and represent another form of stream cutting (Fig. -48). - -[Illustration: _Fig. 48. A pot-hole cut in the rock of a stream's bed._] - -Next let us visit the flood plains which we saw forming when the water -was high. Now we shall find the brook flowing in its channel with the -flood plain deposits left high and dry. If we dig down into the flood -plain, we shall see that it is made up of successive layers varying in -thickness and in the size of the fragments. Each of these layers -represents a period of high water and the size of the fragments in the -layer tells us something of the strength of the current, and therefore -of the intensity of the flood. Some layers are thicker than others, -showing a longer period of flood, or perhaps several floods in which -there was little variation. This _stratification_, as it is called, is -one of the peculiarities of water deposits and it is due to the -assorting power of currents which vary in force. If we were to cut into -the delta we should find the same thing to be true,--a regular -succession of layers, though sometimes confused by changes in direction -of flow. - -To-day we shall notice something which escaped our attention when it was -held by the rushing torrent--the valley bottom is much wider than the -bed of the stream; if we keep our eyes open we shall see the explanation -of this in the abandoned channels, where, owing to some temporary -obstructions, the stream has been turned from side to side of the -valley, now cutting on one bank and now on the other. In this turning -from side to side the cutting area of the stream is increased, and it -goes on widening its valley as well as cutting it downward. - -And now we have learned some of the most important ways in which the -busy brook is toiling; but there are other points which we might have -seen, and in some brooks there are special features to be noted. -However, we have learned that the brook is no idler, that its main work -is to conduct to the ocean the rain that falls upon the earth's surface, -and that in doing this it is wearing down the hills, carrying them away -only to build up in other places. The cheerful song of the brook takes -on a new meaning as we lie in the shade and watch it hurry by. It is not -the song of idleness nor of pleasure, but like the song with which a -cheerful and tireless worker seeks to make its task lighter. - - - - -LEAFLET XI. - -INSECT LIFE OF A BROOK.[13] - -BY MARY ROGERS MILLER. - - -[13] Nature-Study Quarterly, No. 5: Leaflet 18, June, 1900. - -[Illustration] - -What wader, be he boy or water-fowl, has not watched the water-insects? -How they dart hither and thither, some skimming the surface, others -sturdily rowing about in the clear shallows! The sunlight fastens, for -an instant, their grotesque reflections on the smooth bottom, then -away--the shadow is lost, except for the picture it left in the memory -of the onlooker. - -The splashing, dashing wader, with his shout and his all-disturbing -stick, stands but a poor chance of making intimate acquaintances among -water-folk. Your true brook-lover is a quiet individual except when -occasion demands action. The lad who, from the vantage ground of a -fallen log or overhanging bank, looks down on the housekeeping affairs -of his tiny neighbors has the right spirit. Indeed, I doubt whether -these little folk are aware of his presence or curiosity. - -Time was when the enjoyment of brook-life was limited to boys. White -aprons, dainty slippers and fear of being called "Tom-boy" restrained -the natural impulses of the "little women." Happily that day is past, -and it no longer looks queer for girls to live in the open air and -sunshine, free to chase butterflies and hunt water-bugs with their -brothers. - -My brooks abound in swift eddies, perfect whirlpools in miniature, and -water-falls of assorted sizes. They have also their quiet reaches, where -whirligig beetles perform their marvelous gyrations, and bright-eyed -polliwogs twirl their tails in early May. On the banks are ferns and -mosses; sometimes willows and alders form a fringing border. - -The heart-leaved willows along many brooksides are found to bear at the -tips of many of their branches, knob-like bodies which look like pine -cones. (Fig. 49.) Now everybody knows that willows bear their seeds in -catkins. Why, then, should so many brookside willows thrust these cones -in our faces? On cutting one of the cones open, we learn the secret. A -tiny colorless grub rolls helplessly out of a cell in the very centre of -the cone. It is the young of a small gnat, scarcely larger than a -mosquito, and known as a "gall gnat." The cone-shaped body on the willow -branch is called a "pine-cone willow-gall." The little gray gnat comes -out in the spring. Any one can collect the galls from the willows and -keep them in some kind of cage in the house until the gnats come forth. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 49. Knob-like bodies resembling pine cones._] - -The pine-cone gall is an enlarged and deformed bud. The twig might have -developed into a branch but for the presence of the little larva. The -scales of the cone are the parts which under more favorable conditions -would have been leaves. The brook-lover cannot afford to miss the -pine-cone willow-galls. - -Wandering along the brookside in spring or early summer, one is -surprised to find so many insect visitors darting about in the air. -There are dragon-flies of many shapes, sizes and colors; dainty -damsel-flies perch airily on reeds, their gleaming wings a-flutter in -the sunshine; sometimes a nervous mud-wasp alights for a moment, and -then up and away. The dragon-flies seem intent on coming as near to the -water as possible without wetting their wings. They pay no heed to other -visitors, yet how easily they escape the net of the would be collector! -Let them alone. Their business is important if we would have a new -generation of dragon-flies to delight the eye next year. The eggs of -these creatures are left in the water and the young ones are aquatic. If -you would know more of them, dip down into the stream in some sluggish -bay. Dip deep and trail the net among the water plants. Besides -dragon-fly nymphs there will be caddice-worm cases like tiny cob-houses, -water-boatmen, back-swimmers, and giant water-bugs.[14] These are -insects characteristic of still or sluggish water, and are found in -spring and summer. - -[14] These and other forms found in still or slow flowing water are -described and pictured in Leaflet No. XII, Life in an Aquarium. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 50. Water-striders have long, thin legs._] - -The insects which skip lightly over the surface of the water where the -current is not too strong, are water-striders. (Fig. 50.) Some are short -and stout, others slender-bodied; but all have long thin legs. Their -color is nearly black. As they scurry about in the sunshine the -delighted watcher will sometimes catch a glimpse of their reflections on -the bottom. Six oval bits of shadow, outlined by rims of light; there is -nothing else like it! Be sure you see it. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 51. The dobson makes no pretensions to beauty. -(Natural size)._] - -Let us leave the quiet, restful pools and the sluggish bays, and follow -the hurrying water to the rapids. Every stone changes the course of the -current and the babble makes glad the heart of the wayfarer. Let us -"leave no stone unturned," until we have routed from his favorite haunt -that genius of the rapids, the dobson. (Fig. 51.) These creatures bear -other common names. They are prized by fishermen in the black bass -season. Dirty brown in color and frankly ugly in appearance and -disposition, these larvæ, for such they are, have little to fear from -the casual visitor at the water's edge. When a stone is lifted, the -dobsons beneath it allow themselves to be hurried along for some -distance by the current. The danger over, they "catch hold" and await -their prey farther down stream. In spite of their vicious looking jaws -these insects are not venomous. At the very worst they could do no more -than pinch the finger of the unwary explorer. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 52. May-fly nymph._ (_Three times natural size_).] - -When the dobson is full grown, it is called a hellgrammite fly or horned -corydalis. It has lost none of its ugliness, though it has gained two -pairs of thin, brownish-gray wings, and flies about in the evening. It -has been known to create some consternation by flying in at an open -window. It is harmless and short-lived in the adult stage. - -Upturned stones are likely to bring to view other strangers. Lying close -against these wet stony surfaces one usually finds young May-flies. -(Fig. 52.[15]) These, like the young dragon-flies, are called _nymphs_. - -[15] Figures 52, 53 and 54 are adapted from Dr. R. Leuckart's Zoological -Charts. - -When they are ready to leave the water they make their way to the shore, -and, clinging to some convenient tree trunk or building, they shed their -nymph skins. I have seen trees and buildings on the banks of the St. -Lawrence river literally covered with these cast skins. In the early -morning in June and July one may watch the molting process, the -unfolding of the gauzy wings, and the unsheathing of the long filaments. -(Fig. 53.) - -Do not believe that May-flies are harmful. They are sometimes too -numerous for comfort at summer resorts where myriads of them swarm about -the lights; but stories of their stinging and biting are entirely -without foundation. They are short-lived in the adult stage. The name of -the family to which they belong, _Ephemeridæ_, suggests their ephemeral -existence. It is of these that poets have sung. - -Stone-fly nymphs, also, cling closely to the flat stones. The cast skins -of these are frequently found on the banks of streams. They resemble -the May-fly nymphs but can be identified by a comparison with these -illustrations. (Fig. 54.) - -Sometimes on the very brink of a cataract one will see what appear like -patches of loose black moss. Strangely enough, these are the larvæ of -black-flies, related to the terrible black-fly of the north woods. The -black-fly larvæ can live only in the swiftest water. There they pass -through their transformations and succeed in emerging into their aërial -stage, in spite of the rushing current. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 53. The May-fly sheds its nymph skin._ (_Twice -natural size._)] - -All these things and many more are seen by those who frequent the water -brooks. Observers cannot tell all they see, for some things are too deep -for words. They can and do say to one and all, "Come, let us visit the -brook together. The water and all that dwell in it and round about, -invite us and make us welcome." - -[Illustration: _Fig. 54. Stone-fly, showing one pair of wings. The -lower figure is a nymph._ (_Twice natural size._)] - - - - -LEAFLET XII. - -LIFE IN AN AQUARIUM.[16] - -BY MARY ROGERS MILLER. - - -[16] Teachers' Leaflet No. 11. May, 1898. - -[Illustration] - -There is no more fascinating adjunct to nature-study than a well-kept -aquarium. It is a never-ending source of enjoyment, interest and -instruction to students of any age. Children in the kindergarten or at -home will watch with delight the lively occupants, which cut all sorts -of queer capers for their amusement, and older people may read some of -nature's choicest secrets through the glassy sides of the little water -world. To many, the word aquarium suggests a vision of an elaborately -constructed glass box, ornamented with impossible rock-work and strange -water plants, or a globe in which discouraged and sickly-looking -gold-fish appear and disappear, and take strange, uncanny shapes as they -dart hither and thither. - -Such forms of aquaria have their place in the world, but they are not -suited to the needs of an ordinary school-room. Every school may have -some sort of an aquarium if the teacher and pupils are willing to give -it some daily thought and care. Without such attention a fine aquarium -may become an unsightly and disagreeable object, its inhabitants -unhealthy and its beauty and usefulness lost. - -The great fundamental principle underlying success in making and -maintaining an aquarium is this: _imitate nature_. We all know how much -easier it is to formulate a principle, and even to write a book about -it, than to put it into practice. Most of us have not had the time and -opportunity for the close observation of nature necessary to interpret -her methods and to imitate her. It is to those teachers who are anxious -to learn what nature has to teach and who wish to lead their pupils to a -higher and wider conception of life, that these suggestions are offered. - -Four things are important in making and keeping an aquarium: - -1. The equilibrium between plant and animal life must be secured and -maintained. It is probable that an aquarium in an elementary school is -mainly used for the study of animal life; but animals do not thrive in -water where no plants are growing. Nature keeps plants and animals in -the same pond and we must follow her lead. The plants have three -valuable functions in the aquarium. First, they supply food for the -herbivorous creatures. Second, they give off a quantity of oxygen which -is necessary to the life of the animals. Third, they take up from the -water the harmful carbonic acid gas which passes from the bodies of the -animals. Just how the plants do this is another story. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 55. A museum-jar aquarium. (More animal life would -make a better equilibrium._)] - -2. The aquarium must be ventilated. Its top should be broad and open. -Every little fish, snail and insect wants air, just as every boy and -girl wants it. A certain quantity of air is mixed with the water, and -the creatures must breathe that or come to the surface for their supply. -How does Mother Nature manage the ventilation of her aquaria,--the ponds -and streams? The plants furnish part of the air, as we have said. The -open pond, whose surface is ruffled by every passing breeze, is -constantly being provided with fresh air. A tadpole or a fish can no -more live in a long-necked bottle than a boy can live in a chimney. - -3. The temperature should be kept between 40° and 50° Fahr. Both nature -and experience teach us this. A shady corner is a better place for the -aquarium than a sunny window on a warm day. - -4. It is well to choose such animals for the aquarium as are adapted to -life in still water. Unless one has an arrangement of water pipes to -supply a constant flow of water through the aquarium, it is better not -to try to keep creatures that we find in swift streams. - -Practical experience shows that there are certain dangers to guard -against,--dangers which may result in the unnecessary suffering of the -innocent. Perhaps the most serious results come from overstocking. It is -better to have too few plants or animals than too many of either. A -great deal of light, especially bright sunlight, is not good for the -aquarium. A pond that is not shaded soon becomes green with a thick -growth of slime or algæ. This does not look well in an aquarium and is -likely to take up so much of the plant-food that the other plants are -"starved out." The plants in the school-room window may provide shade -for the aquarium, just as the trees and shrubs on its banks shade the -pond. If we find green slime forming on the light side of our miniature -pond, we should put it in a darker place, shade it heavily so that the -light comes in from the top only, and put in a few more snails. These -will make quick work of the green slime, since they are fond of it, if -we are not. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 56. A rectangular glass aquarium._] - -Some of the most innocent-looking "water nymphs" may be concealing -habits that we can hardly approve. There are some which feed on their -smaller and weaker neighbors, and even on the members of their own -families. We know that such things go on in nature, but if we wish to -have a happy family we must keep the cannibals by themselves. - -After an aquarium has been filled with water and the inhabitants well -established, it is not necessary to change the water, except in case of -accident. The water that is lost by evaporation has to be replaced. It -should be poured in gently in order not to disturb the water and destroy -its clearness. If a piece of rubber tubing is available, a practical use -of the siphon can be shown and the aquarium replenished at the same -time. It is a good plan to use rain water, or clear water from a pond, -for this purpose. - -A piece of thin board or a pane of glass may be used as a cover to keep -the dust out of the aquarium. This need not fit tightly or be left on -all the time. A wire netting or a cover of thin cotton net would keep -the flying insects from escaping, and it might be tied on permanently. -Dust may be skimmed off the top of the water or may be removed by laying -pieces of blotting paper on the surface for a moment. - -If any of the inhabitants do not take kindly to the life in the -aquarium, they can be taken out and kept in a jar by themselves--a sort -of fresh air and cold water cure. If any chance to die they ought to be -removed before they make the water unfit for the others. Bits of -charcoal in the water are helpful if a deodorizer or disinfectant is -needed. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 57. A home-made aquarium._] - -Experience, the dear but thorough teacher, is of more value to every one -of us than many rules and precepts. Nothing can rob us of the pleasure -that comes of finding things out for ourselves. Much of the fun as well -as much of the success in life comes from overcoming its difficulties. -One must have a large store of patience and courage and hopefulness to -undertake the care of an aquarium. After it is once made it is less -trouble to take care of than a canary or a pet rabbit. But most things -that are worth doing require patience, courage and hopefulness, and if -we can add to our store of any of these by our study of life in an -aquarium we are so much the better for it. - -Two kinds of aquaria will be found useful in any school. Permanent -ones--those which are expected to continue through a season or through a -whole year if the school-room is warm enough to prevent freezing; and -temporary ones--those which are for lesson hours or for the study of -special forms. - -If some one phase in the life of any aquatic animal is to be studied -during a short period, it is well to have special temporary aquaria. -Also, when a talk on some of the occupants of the larger aquarium is to -be given, specimens may be placed in small vessels for the time being -and returned later. For such purposes glass tumblers can be used, or -small fruit jars, finger bowls, broken goblets set in blocks of wood, -ordinary white bowls or dishes, tubs, pails or tanks for large -fishes,--in fact any wide-mouthed vessel which is easy to get. Special -suggestions will be made in connection with the study of some of the -water insects and others. - -A permanent aquarium need not be an expensive affair. The rectangular -ones are best if large fishes are to be kept, yet they are not -essential. Here, again, it is easier to write directions for the -construction of a perfect aquarium than it is for the most patient -teacher, with the help of the boys who are handy with tools, to put -together a box of wood and glass that will not spring a leak some day -and spoil everything. But failures do not discourage us; they make us -only more determined. If a rectangular water-tight box is out of the -question, what is the next best thing? One of the busiest laboratories -in New York State has plants and animals living in jars of all shapes -and sizes,--fruit jars, glass butter jars, candy jars, battery jars, -museum jars, and others of like nature. There are rectangular and round -aquaria of various sizes kept by all firms who deal in laboratory -supplies, and if some money is to be spent, one of these is a good -investment. Fig. 56 shows one of these rectangular ones, and Fig. 57 -shows a round one of small size which is useful and does not cost much. - - -A GOOD SCHOOL AQUARIUM. - -A cheap, substantial aquarium for general use may be made of glass and -"angle" or "valley" tin. Pieces of glass are always handy and the tin -can be had at any tin-shop. The tinsmith will know just how to cut, -"angle" and solder it. - -The following directions for making an aquarium of this kind are -supplied us by Professor C. F. Hodge of Clark University. He has made -and used them for years with great satisfaction in the university -laboratory and in graded schools. - -The illustration (Fig. 58, 59) shows various sizes. A good all-round -size has these dimensions: 12 inches high, 15 inches long and 8 inches -wide. One may use spoiled photographic plates for small desk aquaria, in -which to watch the development of "wigglers," dragon-fly nymphs or other -water insects. Lids of wire screen are shown on some of the aquaria in -the picture (1, 2 and 3). - -_To make the frame._--If the aquarium is to be 10 x 8 x 5 inches, we -shall need two pieces of glass for sides 10 x 5 inches, two for ends 8 x -10, and one for bottom 8 x 5; and two strips of tin 3/4 inch wide, 28 -inches long, and four strips 10-3/8 inches long. These should be angled -by the tinner, and out of them we shall make the frame. The 28-inch -strips should be cut with tinner's snips half way in two at 10-3/8, -5-3/8, 10-3/8 and 5-3/8 inches, cutting off the end at the last mark. -This keeps the top and the bottom of the frame each in one piece. Next -we bend them into shape. When the corners are well squared they should -be soldered. The four 10-3/8 pieces make the vertical corners and we -will solder them in place. An easy way to be sure that each angle is -square is to hold it in a mechanic's square while soldering it. - -[Illustration: _Figs. 58, 59. Permanent aquarium made of tin and -glass._] - -_To set the glass._--Lay the aquarium cement (see recipe) on evenly all -around the bottom of the frame and press the bottom glass into place. -Put in the sides and ends in the same way. Next carefully put a few very -limber twigs into the aquarium to hold the glass against the frame till -the cement takes hold. Cut off the extra cement with a knife and smooth -it nicely. Cover the frame with asphaltum varnish or black lacquer. In -a week it will be ready to use. - -Double thick glass must be used for large aquaria. - -_Cement._--Shun all resinous cements that require to be put on hot. The -following is a recipe for cement used in successful angle tin aquaria, -for both salt and fresh water: - - 10 parts, by measure, fine, dry, white sand, - 10 parts plaster of Paris, - 10 parts litharge, - 1 part powdered resin. - -Stir well together and, as wanted, mix to consistency of _stiff_ putty -with _pure_ boiled linseed oil. - -The formula given by the U. S. Fish Commission is recommended: - - 8 parts putty, - 1 part red lead, - 1 part litharge. - -Mix, when wanted, to consistency of _stiff_ putty, with raw linseed oil. - -After reading all these directions and getting the idea of an aquarium, -one should think the whole matter out for himself and make it just as he -wants it. Directions are useful as suggestions only. The shallow form is -better for raising toads, frogs and insect larvæ; the deeper aquaria -show water plants and fishes to better advantage. - - -INHABITANTS OF THE AQUARIUM. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 60. Eel-grass._] - -It is now time to begin to think about what shall be kept in the -aquarium. At the bottom a layer of sand, the cleaner the better, two or -three inches deep will be needed. A few stones, not too large, may be -dropped in on top of this first layer, to make it more natural. The -water plants come next and will thrive best if planted securely in the -sand. The most difficult thing is to get the water in without stirring -things up. A good way is to pour the water in a slow stream against the -inside of the aquarium. The best way is to use a rubber tube siphon, but -even then the water ought not to flow from a very great height. If the -aquarium is large, it had better be put in its permanent place before -filling. - -The aquarium will soon be ready for snails, polliwogs, and what ever -else we may wish to put into it. In the course of a few days the plants -will be giving up oxygen and asking for carbon dioxid. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 61. Duck-weed._] - -_Plants that thrive and are useful in aquaria._--Many of the common -marsh or pond plants are suitable. The accompanying illustrations show a -few of these. Nothing can be prettier than some of these soft, delicate -plants in the water. The eel-grass, or tape grass (Fig. 60), is an -interesting study in itself, especially at blossoming time when the -spiral stems, bearing flowers, appear. - -Any who are especially interested in the life-history of this plant may -read in reference books a great deal about what other observers have -learned from the plant concerning its methods of growth and development. -The best that we learn will be what the plant itself tells us day by -day. - -Some of the best reference books on both plant and animal life are found -in the New York State Teachers' Library and can be obtained by teachers -through the school commissioners. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 62. Water plants._] - -Every boy and girl who likes to taste the fresh, peppery plants which -they find growing in cold springs, knows watercress. If the aquarium is -not too deep, this plant will grow above the surface and furnish a -resting place for some snail which, tired perhaps by its constant -activity, enjoys a few minutes in the open air. - -Duck-weed or duck's-meat (Fig. 61) grows on the surface, dangling its -long thread-like roots in the water. A little of it is enough. Too much -would keep us from looking down upon our little friends in the water. - -The parrot's feather (Fig. 62, A) is an ornamental water plant that can -be obtained from a florist; a plant that looks very like it grows in our -ponds. It is called water-milfoil. - -The water purslane, B, or the common stoneworts, _Nitella_ and _Chara_, -D, E, the waterweed, F, and the horn-wort, C, appear graceful and pretty -in the water. If you do not find any of these, you are sure to find -others growing in the ponds in your neighborhood which will answer the -purpose just as well. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 63. Snail._] - -_Animals that may be kept in aquaria._--_The snail._ The common pond -snail with the spiral shell, either flat or conical, can be found -clinging to the stems of the cat-tails or flags and to floating rubbish -in ponds or swamps. If these are picked off carefully and taken home in -a pail of water they will be valuable inhabitants for the aquarium. They -are vegetable feeders and unless there is some green slime in the water, -cabbage or lettuce leaves may be put where the snails can get them. The -eggs of the snail are excellent food for fishes, and if a few could be -secured for special study, their form, habits and development may be -made delightful observation and drawing lessons. Snails can be kept out -of the water for some time on moist earth. Land snails and slugs should -be kept on wet sand and fed with lettuce and cabbage leaves. The common -slug of the garden is often injurious to vegetation. It may always be -tracked by the trail of slime it leaves behind it. Gardeners often -protect plants from those creatures by sprinkling wood-ashes about them. - -_Minnows._ Every boy knows where to find these spry little fellows. They -can be collected with a dipper or net and will thrive in an aquarium if -fed with earth worms or flies or other insects. If kept in small -quarters where food is scarce, they will soon dispatch the other -occupants of the jar. They will, however, eat bits of fresh meat. If the -aquarium is large enough, it would hardly be complete without minnows. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 64. Snail with conical shell._] - -_Cat fish._--It will not be practicable to keep a cat fish in the -permanent aquarium. If one is to be studied it can be obtained at any -fish market or by angling, the latter a slow method, but one which will -appeal to every boy in the class. The cat fish should be kept in a tub, -tank, or large pan of water, and if not wanted for laboratory work, they -might be fried for lunch, as cat fish are very good eating. - -_Gold fish_ are a special delight if kept in large aquaria. These may -often be obtained from dealers in the larger cities. Those who wish -other fish for study should be able to get information from the New York -State Fish Culturist, concerning the species that are suited to life in -still water, and how to get and take care of them. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 65. "Frog spawn."_] - -_The clam._--If empty clam shells are plenty on the bank of some stream -after a freshet, a supply of clams may be obtained by raking the mud or -sand at the bottom of the stream. They can be kept in a shallow pan, and -if the water is warmish and they are left undisturbed for a time, they -will move about. If kept in a jar of damp sand they will probably bury -themselves. They feed on microscopic plants and might not thrive in the -permanent aquarium. - -_Crawfish or crayfish._--These can be collected with nets from under -stones in creeks or ponds. They can live very comfortably out of the -water part of the time. There is small chance for the unsuspecting snail -or water insect which comes within reach of the hungry jaws of the -crawfish, and the temporary aquarium is the safest place for him. Many -who live near the ocean can obtain and keep in sea water the lobster, a -cousin of the crawfish, and will find that the habits of either will -afford much amusement as well as instruction. The school boy generally -knows the crawfish as a "crab." - -[Illustration: _Fig. 66. A useful net for general collecting._] - -_The frog._--The study of the development of the common frog is -accompanied with little or no difficulty. To be sure there are some -species which require two or three years to complete their growth and -changes, from the egg to the adult, yet most of the changes can be seen -in one year. Frogs are not at all shy in the spring, proclaiming their -whereabouts in no uncertain tones from every pond in the neighborhood. -The "frog spawn" can be found clinging to plants or rubbish in masses -varying in size from a cluster of two or three eggs to great lumps as -large as the two fists. The "spawn" is a transparent jelly in which the -eggs are imbedded. Each egg is dark colored, spherical in shape, and -about as large as a small pea. The eggs of the small spotted salamander -are found in similar masses of jelly and look very much like the frog's -eggs. If a small quantity of this jelly-like mass be secured by means of -a collecting net or by wading in for it, it may be kept in a flat white -dish with just enough clean, cool water to cover it, until the young -tadpoles have hatched. As they grow larger a few may be transferred to a -permanent aquarium prepared especially for them in a dish with sloping -sides, and their changes watched from week to week through the season. -The growing polliwog feeds on vegetable diet; what does the full grown -frog eat? - -[Illustration: _Fig. 67. The predaceous diving-beetle._] - -_Insects that can be kept in aquaria._--Insects are to many the most -satisfactory creatures that can be keep in aquaria. They are plentiful, -easy to get, each one of the many kinds seems to have habits peculiar to -itself, and each more curious and interesting than the last. - -Some insects spend their entire life in the water; others are aquatic -during one stage of their existence only. Those described here are a few -of the common ones in ponds and sluggish streams, of the central part of -the state of New York. If these cannot be found, others just as -interesting may be kept instead. One can hardly make a single dip with a -net without bringing out of their hiding places many of these "little -people." - -The predaceous diving-beetle (Fig. 67) is well named. He is a diver by -profession and is a skilled one. The young of this beetle are known as -"water-tigers" (Fig. 68), and their habits justify the name. Their food -consists of the young of other insects; in fact it is better to keep -them by themselves unless we wish to have the aquarium depopulated. When -the tiger has reached his full size, his form changes and he rests for a -time as a pupa; then comes forth as a hard, shiny beetle like Fig. 67. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 68. A water-tiger._] - -The water-scavenger beetle (Fig. 69), so called because of its appetite -for decayed matter, is common in many ponds. It has, like the diving -beetle, a hard, shiny back, with a straight line down the middle, but -the two can be distinguished when seen together. The young of this -beetle look and act something like the water-tigers, but have not such -great ugly jaws. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 69. A water-scavenger beetle._] - -There are three other swimmers even more delightful to watch than those -already mentioned. The water-boatmen (Fig. 70), with their sturdy -oar-like legs and business-like way of using them, are droll little -fellows. They are not so large as the back-swimmers. Fig. 71 shows a -back-swimmer just in the act of pulling a stroke. These creatures swim -with their boat-shaped backs down and their six legs up. We must be -careful how we handle the back-swimmers, for each one of them carries a -sharp bill and may give us a thrust with it which would be painful, -perhaps poisonous. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 70. Water-boatman._] - -The water-scorpion (Fig. 72) is a queer creature living in a neighborly -way with the boatmen and back-swimmers, though not so easy to find. Do -not throw away any dirty little twig which you find in the net after a -dip among water plants near the bottom of a stream or pond. It may begin -to squirm and reveal the fact that it is no twig but a slender-legged -insect with a spindle-shaped body. We may handle it without danger, as -it is harmless. This is a water-scorpion, and his way of catching his -prey and getting his air supply will be interesting to watch. He is not -shy and will answer questions about himself promptly and cheerfully. -Fig. 72 will give an idea of the size and appearance of this insect. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 71. A back-swimmer._] - -No water insect except the big scavenger beetle can begin to compare in -size with the giant water-bug (Fig. 73). We may think at first that he -is a beetle, yet the way he crosses his wings on his back proves him a -true bug. In quiet ponds these giants are common enough, but the boy or -girl who "bags" a full-grown one at the first dip of the net may be -considered lucky. - -The boatmen, back-swimmers and giants all have oars, yet are not -entirely dependent on them. They have strong wings, too, and if their -old home gets too thickly settled, and the other insects on which they -feed are scarce, they fly away to other places. The giant water-bug -often migrates at night, and is attracted to any bright light he sees in -his journey. This habit has given him the popular name of -"electric-light bug." - -[Illustration: _Fig. 72. Water-scorpion._] - -[Illustration: _Fig. 73. Giant water-bug._] - -Among the insects which spend but part of their life in the water, we -shall find many surprises. It made us feel queer when we learned that -the restless but innocent-looking wiggler of the rain-water barrel was -really the young of the too familiar mosquito. The adult mosquito -leaves its eggs in tiny boat-shaped masses on the surface of stagnant -water, where food will be abundant for the young which soon appear. Some -time is spent by the wigglers in eating and growing before they curl up -into pupæ. Insects are rarely active in the pupa stage. The mosquito is -one of the very few exceptions. From these lively pupæ the full-grown -mosquitoes emerge. Fig. 74 shows a small glass tumbler in which are seen -the three aquatic stages of the mosquito's life and an adult just -leaving the pupa skin. Nothing is easier than to watch the entire -development of the mosquito, and the changes must be seen to be fully -enjoyed and appreciated. It would be interesting to note the differences -between the mosquitoes that come out of the small aquaria. A supply of -wigglers may be kept in the permanent aquarium where they serve as food -for the other insects. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 74. Temporary aquarium, containing eggs, larvæ and -pupæ of mosquito._] - -Every child knows the dragon-fly or darning-needle, and none but the -bravest of them dare venture near one without covering ears or eyes or -mouth, for fear of being sewed. Many and wide-spread are the -superstitions concerning this insect, and it is often difficult to bring -children to believe that this creature, besides being a thing of beauty, -is not only harmless but actually beneficial. If they knew how many -mosquitos the darning-needle eats in a day they would welcome instead of -fearing the gay creature. - -The young of the dragon-fly live a groveling existence, as different as -can be from that of their sun-loving parents. Their food consists of -mosquito larvæ, water-fleas and the like, and their method of catching -their prey is as novel as it is effective. Pupils and teacher can get -plenty of good healthy entertainment out of the behavior of these -awkward and voracious little mask-wearers. The first dip of the net -usually brings up a supply of dragon-fly nymphs and of their more -slender cousins, the damsel-fly nymphs. The latter have expanded -plate-like appendages at the hind end of the body which distinguish them -from the dragon-fly nymphs. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 75. The life history of a dragon-fly as seen in an -aquarium._] - -The transformation of one of these young insects into an adult is one of -the most interesting observation lessons that can be imagined for a warm -spring morning. If a dragon-fly nymph should signify its intention of -changing its form in my school-room, I should certainly suspend all -ordinary work and attend to him alone. Each child should see if possible -this wonderful transfiguration. - -Floating in the water of a pond or stream one may find a little bundle -of grass or weed stems, with perhaps a tiny pebble clinging to the mass. -Close examination will prove this to be the "house-boat" of one of our -insect neighbors, the caddice-worm. Contrasting strangely with the -untidy exterior is the neat interior, with its lining of delicate silk, -so smooth that the soft-bodied creature which lives inside is safe from -injury. The commonest of the many forms of houses found here are those -illustrated in Figs. 76 and 77. These will find all they wish to eat in -a well-stocked aquarium. When full grown they will leave the water as -winged creatures, like Fig. 78, and return to its depths no more. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 76. Case of caddice-worm._] - -[Illustration: _Fig. 77. Another caddice-worm case._] - -[Illustration: _Fig. 78. Caddice-fly._] - -There is surely no lack of material furnished by Mother Nature -for the study of aquatic life. Every one who really believes in its -usefulness can have an aquarium, and will feel well repaid for the -time and effort required when the renewed interest in nature is -witnessed which this close contact with living beings brings -to every student. Let us take hold with a will, overcome the -difficulties in the way, and teacher and pupils become students -together. - - - - -LEAFLET XIII. - -A STUDY OF FISHES.[17] - -BY H. D. REED. - - -[17] Nature-Study Quarterly, No. 8: Leaflet 21. January, 1901. - -[Illustration] - -The first forms of animal life which attract the young naturalist's -attention are doubtless the birds. These are most interesting to him -because of their beautiful colors, their sweet songs, and the grace with -which they fly. But who has watched the fishes in a brook or an aquarium -and is not able to grant them a place, in beauty, grace and delicate -coloration, equal to the birds? To be sure, fishes cannot sing, yet -there are so many other interesting facts in connection with their -habits and life-histories that it fully makes up for their lack of -voice. - - -THE PARTS OF A FISH. - -While observing a living fish and admiring its beauty, it will probably -occur to some of us that a fish consists only of a head and tail. Yet -this is not all. Between the head and tail is a part that we may call -the trunk. It contains the digestive and other organs. There is no -indication of a neck in a fish. Any such constriction would destroy the -regular outline of the animal's body and thus retard the speed with -which it moves through the water. But head, trunk and tail are not all. -There are attached to the outer side of the fish's body certain -appendages that are called fins. - -Before discussing some of the different kinds of fishes and their -habits, it will be necessary to learn something about fins, for the fins -of all fishes are not alike. When a fish moves through the water, it -bends its tail first to one side and then to the other. This undulatory -movement, as it is called, pushes the fish's body ahead. One can observe -the movements easily upon a specimen kept alive in an aquarium jar. At -the extreme end of the tail there is a broad, notched fin which aids -the tail in propelling and steering the body. We will call this the -_tail_ or _caudal_ fin (Fig. 79 B). In most of our common fishes there -are seven fins--six without the caudal. The first of these six is a -large fin situated near the middle of the back. This is the _back_ or -_dorsal_ fin (Fig. 79 A). Sometimes we may find a fish that has two -dorsal fins. In this case the one nearest the head is called first -dorsal and the next one behind it the second dorsal. Near the head, in a -position corresponding to our arms, is a pair of fins which are called -the _arm_ or _pectoral_ fins (Fig. 79 E). Farther back towards the tail, -on the under side of the fish, is another pair, corresponding in -position to the hind legs of a quadruped. This pair is called the _leg_ -or _pelvic_ fins (Fig. 79 D). Just behind the pelvic fins is a single -fin, situated on the middle line of the body. This is the _anal_ fin -(Fig. 79 C). The pectoral and pelvic fins are called paired fins because -they are in pairs. The others which are not in pairs are called median -fins, because they are situated on the middle line of the body. The -paired fins serve as delicate balancers to keep the body right side up -and to regulate speed. They are also used to propel the body backwards. -After naming the different fins of the fish in the schoolroom aquarium, -it will be interesting to observe the uses of each. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 79. Diagram of a fish to show: A, dorsal fin; B, -caudal fin; C, anal fin; D, pelvic fins; E, pectoral fins; L, lateral -line._] - -On the side of the body, extending from the head to the caudal fin, is, -in most fishes, a line made up of a series of small tubes which open -upon the surface. This is called the _lateral line_, and acts in the -capacity of a sense organ (Fig. 79 L). Is the lateral line straight or -curved? Does it curve upwards or downwards? Does the curvature differ in -different kinds of fishes? Do all the fishes you find possess a lateral -line? Is the lateral line complete in all fishes, _i. e._, does it -extend from the head to the caudal fin without a single break? - -WHERE FISHES SPEND THE WINTER. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 80. 1, Shiner; 2, Barred Killifish; 3, Black-nosed -Dace; 4, Creek Chub; 5, Young of Large-mouthed Black Bass; 6, -Varying-toothed Minnow._] - -As winter approaches and the leaves fall and the ground becomes frozen, -the birds leave us and go farther south into warmer climates where food -is more abundant. We are all familiar with this habit of the birds, but -how many of us know or have even wondered what the fishes have been -doing through the cold winter months while the streams and ponds have -been covered with ice? Before the warmth of spring comes to raise the -temperature of the streams, let us go to some familiar place in a brook -where, during the summer, are to be found scores of minnows. None are to -be found now. The brook shows no signs of ever having contained any -living creatures. Suppose we go farther up or down the stream until we -find a protected pool the bottom of which is covered with sediment and -water-soaked leaves. With our net we will dip up some of the leaves and -sediment, being sure that we dip from the very bottom. On looking over -this mass of muddy material we may find a fish two or three inches long, -with very fine scales, a black back, a silvery belly and a blackish or -brown band on the side of the body extending from the tip of the nose to -the tail. This is the _Black-nosed Dace_ (Fig. 80). If specimens of this -fish are caught very early in the spring, one will be able to watch -some interesting color changes. As the spawning time approaches, the -dark band on the sides and the fins change to a bright crimson. -Sometimes the whole body may be of this gaudy color. During the summer -the lateral band becomes orange. As the season goes, the bright colors -gradually fade until finally, in the fall and winter, the little -black-nose is again clothed in his more modest attire. A great many of -the fishes, and especially the larger ones, seek some deep pond or pool -in the stream at the approach of winter, and remain near the bottom. If -the pond or stream is so deep that they do not become chilled they will -remain active, swimming about and taking food all winter. But when the -stream is very shallow and the fishes feel the cold, they settle down to -the bottom, moving about very little and taking little or no food. The -carp collect in small numbers and pass the winter in excavations that -they make in the muddy bottom. If the débris thrown up by the water -across the marshy end of a lake be raked over during the winter, one -will probably find some of the smaller catfishes spending the season in -a semi-dormant state. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 81. The Common Catfish or Bullhead._] - -Some interesting experiments may be tried with the fishes in the -aquarium jar. Keep them for a few days where it is cold and then bring -them into a warmer room and note the difference in their activity. - - -THE COMMON CATFISH OR BULLHEAD. - -This sleepy old fellow differs in many respects from most of our common -fishes. He has no scales. About the mouth are eight long whisker-like -appendages, called barbels (Fig. 81). Perhaps he is called catfish -because he has whiskers about his mouth like a cat. Any one who has ever -taken a catfish from the hook probably knows that care is needed in -order not to receive a painful prick from the sharp spines in his -pectoral and dorsal fins. - -There is nothing aristocratic about the catfish. In warm pools and -streams where the water is sluggish and the muddy bottom is covered with -weeds, he may be found moving lazily about in search of food. His taste -is not delicate. Animal substance, whether living or dead, satisfies -him. When in search of food he makes good use of his barbels, especially -those at the corners of his mouth, which he uses as feelers. The catfish -will live longer out of water than most of our other food fishes. They -will live and thrive in water which is far too impure for "pumpkin -seeds" or bass. They spawn late in the spring. The mother fish cares for -her young much as a hen cares for her chickens. When they are old enough -to take care of themselves, she weans them. - - -THE COMMON SUNFISH OR PUMPKIN SEED. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 82. The common Sunfish or Pumpkin Seed._] - -Some evening just at sunset visit a quiet pool in a nearby stream. Drop -in your hook baited with an "angle worm" and presently the dancing cork -shows that you have a "bite." On "pulling up" you find that you really -have a fish. It is a beautiful creature, too--thin flat body shaped -something like the seed of a pumpkin. His back is an olive green -delicately shaded with blue. His sides are spotted with orange, while -his belly is a bright yellow. His cheeks are orange-color streaked with -wavy lines of blue. Just behind his eye on his "ear-flap" is a bright -scarlet spot. This is the common _Sunfish_ or _Pumpkin Seed_ (Fig. 82). -He is a very beautiful, aristocratic little fellow, "looking like a -brilliant coin fresh from the mint." - -Keep him alive in an aquarium jar with a shiner. Compare the two fishes, -as to the size and shape of their bodies and fins. Feed them different -kinds of food, such as worms, insects and crackers, and try to discover -which they like best and how they eat. - -The sunfishes prefer quiet waters. They lay their eggs in the spring of -the year. The male selects a spot near the banks of the stream or pond -where the water is very shallow. Here he clears a circular area about a -foot in diameter. After making a slight excavation in the gravel or -sand, the nest is completed. The eggs are then deposited by the female -in the basin-like excavation. He watches his nest and eggs with great -diligence, driving away other fishes that chance to come near. - - -THE BLACK BASSES. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 83. Adult Small-mouthed Black Bass._] - -The black basses are not usually found in small streams where it is most -pleasant for teachers and pupils to fish. They are fishes that seek the -rivers and lakes. There are two kinds of black bass, the _Large-mouthed_ -and the _Small-mouthed_. As the name indicates, the two may be -distinguished by the size of the mouth. In the large-mouthed black bass -the upper jaw extends to a point behind the eye, while in the -small-mouthed species it extends to a point just below the middle of the -eye (Fig. 83). - -Both kinds of black bass may be found in the same body of water. The -character of the bottoms over which they are found, however, differs. -The small-mouthed prefers the stony bars or shoals. The large-mouthed, -on the contrary, selects a muddy bottom grown over with reeds. They feed -upon crayfish ("crabs"), minnows, frogs, worms, tadpoles and insects. -Our black basses are very queer parents. They prepare a nest in which -the eggs are deposited. Both male and female are very courageous in the -defense of their eggs and young. As soon as the young fishes are able to -take care of themselves the parent fishes leave them, and after that -time may even feed upon their own children. - - -THE STICKLEBACK. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 84. A Stickleback._] - -The sticklebacks are queer little fellows indeed (Fig. 84). The slender -body, extremely narrow tail, and the sharp, free spines in front of the -dorsal fin, give them at once the appearance of being both active and -pugnacious little creatures. The sticklebacks are detrimental to the -increase of other fishes since they greedily destroy the spawn and young -of all fishes that come within their reach. They build nests about two -inches in diameter, with a hole in the top. After the eggs are laid the -male defends the nest with great bravery. The little five-spined brook -stickleback in the Cayuga Lake basin, N. Y., is most commonly found in -stagnant pools, shaded by trees, where the water is filled with decaying -vegetable matter,--the so-called "green frog-spawn" (spirogyra), and -duck weed. If you supply the sticklebacks with plenty of fine vegetable -material, you may induce them to built a nest in the aquarium jar, but -they must be caught and placed in the jar early in the season before -they spawn. - - -THE JOHNNY DARTERS. - -In New York State, every swift stream which has a bed of gravel and flat -stones ought to contain some one of the Johnny darters, for there are a -great many different kinds (Fig. 85). They are little creatures, -delighting in clear water and swift currents where they dart about, -hiding under stones and leaves, or resting on the bottom with their -heads up-stream. The body of a darter is compact and spindle-shaped, -gradually tapering from the short head to a narrow tail. The eyes are -situated nearly on top of the head. The color of the darters varies -greatly with the different kinds. Some are very plain, the light ground -color being broken only by a few brown markings. Others are gorgeous in -their colorings, it seeming as if they had attempted to reproduce the -rainbow on their sides. Such kinds are indeed very attractive and are -ranked with the most beautifully colored of all our common fishes. When -a darter swims, he appears bird-like, for he flies through the water -much as a bird flies through the air. He does not use his tail alone in -swimming, as the catfish, the sunfish, the stickleback, and most of the -other fishes do, but flies with his pectoral fins. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 85. A Johnny Darter._] - -You surely must have a Johnny darter in your aquarium jar. The Johnnies -are true American fishes. Though small, they face the strong currents -and eke out a living where their larger cousin, the yellow perch, would -perish. There are many interesting facts which may be learned from the -Johnny darters when kept alive in an aquarium. When not actually moving -in the water, do the Johnnies rest on the bottom of the jar or remain -suspended in the middle apparently resting on nothing, as the other -aquarium fishes do? When a fish remains still in the middle of the jar -he does so because he has a well-developed air-bladder to help buoy him -up, and when a fish dies it is the air-bladder which causes him to turn -over and rise to the top. Now if the Johnnies always rest on the bottom -of the jar when not swimming and if one happens to die and does not rise -to the top we may know that, if he has an air-bladder at all, it is only -a vestigial one. It would be interesting also to find out for ourselves -whether a Johnny darter can really "climb trees" (I mean by trees, of -course, the water plants in the aquarium jar), or if he can perch upon -the branches like a bird. - - -THE MINNOWS. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 86. A convenient form of aquarium jar supplied with -water plants. The bottom is covered with clean sand and flat stones._] - -All the small fishes of the brooks are called minnows, or more often -"minnies," by the boy fisherman. The boy believes that they grow into -larger fishes. This is not true. The minnows are a distinct group of -fishes and, for the most part, small ones. They do not grow to be bass -or pike or sunfishes or anything else but minnows. Some of the minnows, -however, are comparatively large. Two of these are the _Creek Chub_ -(Fig. 80), and the _Shiner_ (Fig. 80). The chub is the king of the small -brooks, being often the largest and most voracious fish found in such -streams. His common diet probably consists of insects and worms, but if -very hungry he does not object to eating a smaller fish. During the -spawning season, which is springtime, the male chub has sharp, horny -tubercles or spines developed upon the snout. We are able to recognize -the creek chub by means of a black spot at the front of the base of the -dorsal fin. - -The shiner or red-fin has much larger scales than the chub. The back is -elevated in front of the dorsal fin, giving him the appearance of a -hump-back. His sides are a steel-blue with silvery reflections. While -the shiner is not the largest, it is almost everywhere one of the most -abundant brook fishes. In spring the lower fins of the male become -reddish. Like the chub, he has small horny tubercles developed on the -snout. - - -RANDOM NOTES. - -Did you ever see a fish yawn? Watch a shiner in your aquarium. Sometimes -you may see him open his mouth widely as though he was very sleepy. -Again you may find him resting on the bottom of the jar taking a nap. -Fishes cannot close their eyes when they sleep for they have no eyelids. - -A convenient way to collect fishes for the schoolroom aquarium is to use -a dip net. The ordinary insect net will do, but it is better to replace -the cheese-cloth bag by a double thickness of mosquito-bar, thus -enabling one to move the net through the water more rapidly. By dipping -in the deep pools, among grasses and under the banks with such a net one -can soon obtain fishes enough to stock an aquarium (Fig. 86). The -aquarium jar should never be placed in the sun. It is better to have -only three or four fishes in an aquarium at one time. Some flat stones -on the bottom of the jar will afford them convenient hiding places. - -For further notes on aquaria, consult Leaflet No. XII. - -[Illustration] - - - - -LEAFLET XIV. - -THE OPENING OF A COCOON.[18] - -BY MARY ROGERS MILLER. - - -[18] Nature-Study Quarterly, No. 4: Leaflet 17. March, 1900. - -[Illustration] - -Among the commonest treasures brought into the schools by children in -the fall or winter are the cocoons of our giant silk-worms. If one has a -place to put them where the air is not too warm or dry, no special care -will be necessary to keep them through the winter. Out-door conditions -must be imitated as nearly as possible. If early in the fall one is -fortunate enough to meet one of these giants out for a walk, it is the -simplest thing in the world to capture him and watch him spin his -marvelous winter blanket. Two members of this family of giant insects -are quite common in this state, the largest the Cecropia, called -sometimes the Emperor, and the Promethea. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 87. Cocoon of the Cecropia moth. It sometimes hangs -from a twig of a fruit tree._] - -The Cecropia moth often measures five or six inches across--a veritable -giant. Its main color is dusty brown, with spots and bands of cinnamon -brown and white. On each wing is a white crescent bordered with red and -outlined with a black line. The body is heavy and covered with thick, -reddish-brown hairs, crossed near the end with black and white lines. On -its small head are two large feathery feelers or antennæ. The Cecropia -moth emerges from the cocoon, full grown, in early summer, when out of -doors. Those kept in the house often come out as early as March. The -eggs are deposited by the adults upon apple, pear, cherry, maple and -other shade and fruit trees. Professor Comstock says that the spiny -caterpillars which hatch from the eggs in about two weeks, are known to -feed upon the leaves of some fifty species of plants. One could -therefore hardly make a mistake in offering refreshment to these -creatures, since they are anything but epicures. The full-grown -caterpillar, having spent the summer eating and growing, with now and -then a change of clothes, is often three inches long and an inch in -diameter. It is a dull bluish green in color. On its back are two rows -of wart-like protuberances (tubercles), some yellow, some red, some -blue. As there is nothing else in nature which is just like it, one need -have no difficulty in recognizing the Cecropia in its different phases. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 88. End of cocoon of Cecropia, inside view, showing -where the moth gets out._] - -The cocoon which this giant silk-worm weaves is shown in Fig. 87. It may -be found on a twig of some tree in the dooryard, but sometimes on a -fence-post or equally unexpected place. Inside the cocoon the brown -pupa, alive but helpless, waits for spring. - -After the moth comes out it is interesting to examine the structure of -the cocoon, and to discover how the moth managed to free itself without -destroying the silken blanket (Fig. 88). - -Swinging loosely from last summer's twigs in lilac bushes, and on such -trees as wild cherry and ash, one often finds the slender cocoons of the -Promethea moth (Fig. 89). We cannot help admiring the skill and care -displayed by the spinner of this tidy winter overcoat. The giant -silk-worm which spun it chose a leaf as a foundation. He took care to -secure himself against the danger of falling by fastening the leaf to -the twig which bore it by means of shining strands of silk. It is easy -to test the strength of this fastening by attempting to pull it loose -from the twig. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 89. Cocoon of Promethea moth fastened to a twig -with silk._] - -The moths which come from these cocoons do not always look alike, yet -they are all brothers and sisters. The brothers are almost black, while -the wings of the sisters are light reddish brown, with a light gray wavy -line crossing the middle of both wings. The margins of the wings are -clay-colored. On each wing is a dark velvety spot. The adults emerge in -spring and are most often seen in the late afternoon. Their flight is -more spirited than that of the Cecropia, which moves very sedately, as -becomes a giant. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 90. Cocoon of Promethea, cut open lengthwise to -show the valve-like device at upper end through which the adult moth -pushes its way out._] - -The caterpillars of this species, the young Prometheas, feed during the -summer on leaves of wild cherry, ash and other trees. They grow to be -about two inches long, and are distinguished from others by their pale -bluish green color and yellow legs. They also have rows of wart-like -elevations on their backs, some black and shining, four of a bright red -and one large and yellow near the hindmost end. - - * * * * * - -The life of these giant insects is divided into four distinct stages: -the egg, deposited by the adult moth usually on or near the food plant; -the larva, or caterpillar stage, when most of the eating and all the -growing is done; the pupa, passed inside the cocoon woven by the larva; -and the adult, a winged moth. - -The life-cycle or generation is one year, the winter being passed in the -pupa stage. The insect lives but a short time in the adult stage and the -egg stage is but two or three weeks. Most of the summer is devoted to -the caterpillar phase of its life. - -These creatures are entirely harmless. They seldom appear in numbers -sufficient to make them of economic importance. - - - - -LEAFLET XV. - -A TALK ABOUT SPIDERS.[19] - -BY J. H. COMSTOCK. - - -[19] Nature-Study Quarterly, No. 9: Leaflet 22. May, 1901. - -[Illustration] - -Of all our little neighbors of the fields there are none that are more -universally shunned and feared than spiders, and few that deserve it -less. There is a wide-spread belief that spiders are dangerous, that -they are liable to bite, and that their bites are very venomous. Now -this may be true of certain large species that live in hot countries; -but the spiders of the Northern United States are practically harmless. - -It is true, spiders bite and inject venom sufficient to kill a fly into -the wound made by their jaws. But they are exceedingly shy creatures, -fearing man more than they are to be feared. If an observer will refrain -from picking up a spider there is not the slightest danger of being -bitten by one; and excepting a single uncommon species no spider is -known in this part of the country whose bite would seriously affect a -human being. - -On the other hand, spiders do much to keep in check various insect -pests, and hence must be regarded as our friends. It is, however, from a -different point of view that we wish to look upon them at this time. It -is as illustrations of remarkable development of instinctive powers, and -of wonderful correlation of structure and habit, that we would have the -reader study these creatures. The teacher of nature-study can find no -more available or more fertile field from which to take subjects for -interesting children in the world about us. Let us then put aside our -fears and go into the fields and see whether we can learn something of -the ways of these spinners. - - -THE FUNNEL-WEB WEAVERS. - -Often on summer mornings the grass of the roadsides and fields is seen -to be carpeted with little sheets of glistening silk, the webs of the -grass-spider. None were observed the day before; and we wonder at the -sudden appearance of this host of weavers. Later in the day the webs -have vanished! Have the weavers rolled them up and carried them off? We -remember that there was an especially fine one near the end of the -veranda steps; we examine the place carefully and find that it is still -there, but not so conspicuous as it was. The warm sun has dissipated the -dew which rendered visible to our dull eyes the tapestry of the fields. -Now that our eyes are opened we can find the webs everywhere and are -impressed with a suspicion that perhaps ordinarily we see very little of -what is around us. - -We examine one of the webs carefully and find that it is a closely woven -sheet made of threads running in all directions; that it is attached to -spears of grass, and supported by numerous guy lines, and that from one -side a funnel-like tube extends downwards. If, while we are watching, an -insect alights on the sheet, there darts from the tunnel, where she was -concealed, the owner of the web, a dark-colored spider; and the insect -must be agile if it escapes. - -If you attempt to catch the spider it retreats to its tunnel; and when -you examine the tunnel the spider is not there. You find that the tube -is open below, that there is a back door by which the spider can escape -when hard pressed. - -We call those spiders that makes webs of this kind _The Funnel-web -Weavers_. They are long-legged, brown spiders, which run on the upper -surface of their webs; these are usually made on grass, but sometimes -they are found in the angles of buildings, and in quite high places. - - -THE COBWEB WEAVERS. - -The webs that we most often find in the corners of rooms are of a -different kind and are made by the members of a family known as _The -Cobweb Weavers_. In these webs there is not such a definite sheet of -silk as in those of the funnel-web weavers, but instead a shapeless maze -of threads extending in all directions. Many of the cobweb weavers, -however, make their webs in the fields on bushes, and weave in them a -flat or curved sheet, under which the spider hangs back downward. The -funnel-web weavers run right side up; the cobweb weavers hang inverted. -Some of the cobweb weavers do not remain in their webs, but have a nest -in a neighboring crack or corner, from which they rush to seize their -prey, and sometimes there is a funnel-shaped tube leading to their nest. -But these spiders differ from the true funnel-web weavers in running -back downwards on the lower side of their webs. - - -THE ORB WEAVERS. - -The spider webs that most often excite admiration are those in which the -supporting threads radiate from a center like the spokes of a wheel, and -bear a spiral thread. Such webs are known as orb-webs; and the family of -spiders that make them, _The Orb Weavers_. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 91. Nearly completed orb-web._] - -Few if any of the structures built by lower animals are more wonderful -than these webs; but they are so common that they are often considered -hardly worthy of notice. If they occurred only in some remote corner of -the earth, every one would read of them with interest. - -The webs or nets of the different species of orb weavers differ in the -details of their structure; but the general plan is quite similar. There -is first a framework of supporting lines. The outer part of this -framework is irregular, depending upon the position of the objects to -which the net is attached; but the central part is very regular, and -consists of a number of lines radiating from the center of the net (Fig. -91). All of these supporting lines are dry and inelastic. Touch them -with your pencil and you find that they neither stretch nor adhere to -it. Upon these radiating lines there is fastened in a very regular -manner a thread which is sticky and elastic. This will adhere to your -pencil, and will stretch several times its normal length before -breaking. Usually this sticky thread is fastened to the radiating lines -so as to form a spiral; but a few species make nets in which it is -looped back and forth. And even in the nets where the greater part of -the thread is in a spiral there are in most cases a few loops near the -lower margin (Fig. 91). Examine the next orb-web you find and see -whether it is true in that case. - -Many of the orb weavers strengthen their nets by spinning a zigzag -ribbon across the center. This ribbon is made by spreading apart the -spinnerets, the organs from which the silk is spun, and which will be -described later. Ordinarily the tips of the spinnerets are held close -together so that they form a single thread, but by spreading them apart -many threads can be spun at once, thus forming a ribbon. - -Some orb weavers are not content with making a simple zigzag band across -the center of the net, but weave an elaborate bit of lace in this -position. Fig. 92 is from a photograph of the center of the net of one -of these spiders, which was found near Ithaca. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 92. Lace-like hub of an orb-web._] - -In studying the various kinds of orb-webs one should pay particular -attention to the center of the web; for this part differs greatly in the -webs of the different species. There is usually a _hub_ composed -entirely of dry and inelastic silk woven in an irregular manner; outside -of this there are several turns of a spiral thread which is also dry; -this constitutes the _notched zone_, a name suggested by the fact that -the spiral line is attached for a short space to each radius it crosses, -thus giving the line a notched course. In many cases it is here, on the -hub and the notched zone, that the spider waits for its prey; and it is -obvious that sticky silk in this place would be objectionable. Between -the notched zone and the _spiral zone_, the part furnished with the -sticky spiral thread, there is a clear space, the _free zone_, crossed -only by the radii. This gives the spider an opportunity to pass from one -side of the web to the other without going around the entire web. - -Some orb weavers do not wait upon the hub but have a retreat near one -edge of the net, in which they hang back downwards. While resting in -these retreats they keep hold of some of the lines leading from the net, -so that they can instantly detect any jar caused by an entrapped insect. - -When an insect in its flight touches one of the turns of the sticky line -the line adheres to it, but it stretches so as to allow the insect to -become entangled in other turns of the line. If it were not for this -elasticity of the sticky line, most insects could readily tear -themselves away before the spider had time to reach them. - -In running over its net the spider steps upon the radii, carefully -avoiding the sticky line; otherwise it would destroy its own net. The -rapidity with which a spider can cross its net without touching the -sticky line is remarkable. - -In making its web an orb weaver first spins a number of lines extending -irregularly in various directions about the place where its orb is to -be; this is the outer supporting framework. Often the first line spun is -a bridge between two quite distant points, as the branches of two -separate bushes. How did the spider cross the gulf? It has no wings. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 93. Nearly completed orb-web._] - -The bridge building can be easily seen on a warm summer evening, the -time at which the spiders are most active repairing their old nets and -building new ones. The spider lifts the hind end of its body and spins -forth a thread; this is carried off by the wind, until, finally striking -some object, it becomes fast to it. The spider then pulls in the slack -line, like a sailor, and when the line is taut fastens it to the object -on which it is standing, and the bridge is formed. - -After making the outward framework, the radiating lines are formed. A -line is stretched across the space so as to pass through the point which -is to be the center of the orb. In doing this the spider may start on -one side, and be forced to walk in a very roundabout way on the outer -framework to the opposite side. It carefully holds the new line up -behind it as it goes along, so that it shall not become entangled with -the lines on which it walks; one or both hind feet serve as hands in -these spinning operations; for, as the spider has eight feet, it can -spare one or two for other purposes than locomotion. When the desired -point is reached the slack is pulled in and the line fastened. The -spider then goes to the point where the center of the orb is to be, and, -fastening another line, it walks back to the outer framework, and -attaches this line an inch or two from the first. In this way all of the -radiating lines are drawn. The next step is to stay these radii by a -spiral line, which is begun near the center, and attached to each radius -as it crosses it. The turns of this spiral are as far apart as the -spider can conveniently reach. - -All of the threads spun up to this stage in the construction of the web -are dry and inelastic. The spider now proceeds to stretch upon this -framework a sticky and elastic line, which is the most important part of -the web, the other lines being merely a framework to support it. In -spinning the sticky line, the spider begins at the outer edge of the -orb, and passing around it, fastens this line to each radius as it goes. -Thus a second spiral is made. The turns of this spiral are placed quite -close together, and the first spiral, which is merely a temporary -support, is destroyed as the second spiral progresses. Fig. 93 -represents a web in which the second spiral is made over the outer half -of the radii. In this figure, _aa_ represents the temporary stayline; -_bb_, the sticky spiral; and _cc_, the fragments of the first spiral -hanging from the radii. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 94. Wasp, with head, thorax and abdomen -separated._] - -[Illustration: _Fig. 95. Spider, showing division of the body into -cephalothorax and abdomen._] - -[Illustration: _Fig. 96. Lower side of cephalothorax of a spider;_ md_, -mandible;_ mx_, maxilla;_ p_, palpus;_ l_, lower lip;_ s_, sternum._] - - -THE PARTS OF A SPIDER. - -Spiders differ much in appearance from the true insects. In the insects -the body is composed of three regions: the head; the thorax, to which -the legs are attached; and the abdomen or hind part of the body (Fig. -94). In the spiders the head and thorax are grown together, forming a -region which is known as the _cephalothorax_; to this the _abdomen_ is -joined by a short, narrow stalk (Fig. 95). Spiders differ also from -insects in the number of their legs, spiders having eight legs and -insects only six. - -Spiders have two pairs of jaws, which, except in the Tarantula family, -move sidewise like the jaws of insects. The first pair of jaws are -called the _mandibles_. Each mandible consists of two segments, a strong -basal one and a claw-shaped terminal one, at the tip of which the poison -gland opens (Fig. 96). The second pair of jaws is known as the -_maxillæ_. These jaws are situated just behind the mandibles, one on -each side of the mouth. Each maxilla bears a large feeler or _palpus_. -These palpi vary greatly in form; frequently, especially in females, -they resemble legs; hence many spiders appear to have five pairs of -legs. In the male spiders the last segment of the palpus is more or less -enlarged, ending in a complicated, knob-like structure (Fig. 97). It is -thus easy to determine the sex of a spider by merely examining the -palpi. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 97. Maxilla and palpus of male house-spider._] - -[Illustration: _Fig. 98. Head of spider, showing eyes and mandibles._] - -The greater number of spiders have four pairs of eyes (Fig. 98), but -there may be only one, two, or three pairs; and certain cave spiders are -blind. The eyes appear like little gems set in the front of the -cephalothorax. They are most prominent in the jumping spiders, which -stalk their prey on plants, logs, fences, and the sides of buildings. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 99. Spinnerets of a spider._] - -[Illustration: _Fig. 100. A group of spinning tubes._] - -[Illustration: _Fig. 101. Viscid silk from an orb-web._] - -[Illustration: _Fig. 102. Spinnerets and cribellum of a curled-thread -weaver._] - -The most characteristic feature of spiders is their spinning organs. The -silk is secreted in glands within the abdomen, and while in the body it -is a fluid. It passes out through the _spinnerets_, which are situated -near the hind end of the abdomen. There are two or three pairs of -spinnerets. These are more or less finger-like in form, and sometimes -jointed (Fig. 99). Upon the end of each spinneret there are many small -tubes, the _spinning tubes_ (Fig. 100), from which the silk is spun. -Some spiders have as many as one hundred and fifty or two hundred of -these spinning tubes on each spinneret. - -Ordinarily the tips of the spinnerets are brought close together, so -that all of the minute threads that emerge from the numerous spinning -tubes unite to form a single thread. Hence this tiny thread, which is so -delicate that we can see it only when the light falls on it in a -favorable way, is composed of hundreds of threads. It is not like a -rope, composed of separate strands; for all the minute threads fuse -together into a single thread. The change in the silk from a fluid to a -solid cord, strong enough to support the weight of the spider, must take -place quickly after the silk comes in contact with the air on leaving -the spinning tubes; the minute size of the threads coming from the -spinning tubes doubtless facilitates this change. - -Sometimes a spider will spread its spinnerets apart, and thus spin a -broad ribbon-like band. We have seen a spider seize a large grasshopper -which was entangled in its web, and rolling it over two or three times, -completely envelop it in a sheet of silk spun from its spread-apart -spinnerets. We have already described bands spun by orb weavers across -the hub of the net in this way. - -It is supposed that the two kinds of silk spun by the orb weavers are -spun from different spinnerets, and that the viscid silk comes from the -front pair. When this silk is first spun, the viscid matter forms a -continuous layer of liquid on the outside of it. But very soon this -layer breaks up into bead-like masses--in a way similar to that in which -the moisture on a clothes line on a foggy day collects into drops (Fig. -101). - -There are two families of spiders that have spinning organs differing -from those of all other spiders. They have in front of the usual -spinnerets an additional organ, which is named the _cribellum_ (Fig. -102, c). This bears spinning tubes like the other spinnerets, -but these tubes are much finer. These spiders have also on the -next-to-the-last segment of the hind legs one or two rows of curved -spines; this organ is the _calamistrum_ (Fig. 103). By means of the -calamistrum these spiders comb from the cribellum a band of loose -threads which form a part of their webs. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 103. Last two segments of hind leg of spider, -showing calamistrum._] - - -THE CURLED-THREAD WEAVERS. - -The spiders possessing a cribellum and a calamistrum represent two -families, one of which makes irregular webs; the other, those which are -of definite form. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 104. Web of a curled-thread weaver._] - -An irregular web of a curled-thread weaver is shown in Fig. 104, from a -photograph. In this web the framework is of ordinary silk; and upon this -framework is placed a band of curled or tangled threads (Fig. 105). An -insect alighting on a net of this kind is likely to get its feet caught -in the tangled silk, and to be held fast till the spider can pounce upon -it. Nets of this kind are found on bushes and on the sides of buildings. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 105. Fragment of a curled-thread weaver's web, -enlarged._] - -There are two quite distinct types of regular webs made by spiders -possessing a cribellum and a calamistrum. One is a round web which -resembles at first sight those of the orb weavers; but it differs from -the ordinary orb-web in that the spiral thread is made of curled or -hackled silk. These webs are nearly horizontal, and are usually made -between stones or in low bushes; they are not common. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 106. Web of the triangle spider._] - -The other type is represented by the web of the triangle spider. This -web is most often found stretched between the twigs of a dead branch of -pine or hemlock. At first sight it appears like a fragment of an orb-web -(Fig. 106); but a little study will show that it is complete. The -accompanying figure, by Dr. B. G. Wilder, who first described the habits -of this spider ("Popular Science Monthly," 1875) illustrates the form of -the web. It consists of four plain lines corresponding to the radiating -lines of an orb-web, and a series of cross lines, which are spun by the -cribellum and calamistrum. Each cross line is composed of two lines, -about 1/500 of an inch apart. These double lines take the place of the -curled threads woven by other members of the family to which the -triangle spider belongs. From the point where the radiating lines meet, -a strong line extends to one of the supporting twigs. Near this twig the -spider rests, pulling the web tight so that there is some loose line -between its legs, as shown in the enlarged figure. When an insect -becomes entangled in one of the cross lines, the spider suddenly lets go -the loose line so that the whole web springs forward, and the insect is -entangled in other cross lines. The spider then draws the web tight and -snaps it again. This may be repeated several times before the spider -goes out upon the web after its prey. - -The triangle spider is a tiny fellow, and so closely resembles the color -of the dead branch near which it rests that it is very difficult to -find; its web is more easily seen, though it usually requires careful -searching to discover it. - - -THE MOTHERHOOD OF SPIDERS. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 107. Egg-sac of a spider._] - -As a rule young spiders are forced to shift for themselves, and a very -hard time they have; but of this we have not space to write. With -spiders, the mother's care is devoted chiefly to furnishing protection -to her helpless eggs. These are placed in silken sacs, which are often -very elaborate in construction and protected with great care. - -The most common egg-sacs are those found in the fields attached to -stones and pieces of wood (Fig. 107). They are disk-shaped objects, -silvery in color, and about the size of an old-fashioned three-cent -piece. - -The egg-sacs of the cobweb weavers can be found suspended in their webs; -and those of the orb weavers, in various situations. Fig. 108 represents -the large egg-sac of one of the orb weavers. This is made in the autumn, -and contains at that season a large number of eggs--five hundred or -more. These eggs hatch early in the winter; but no spiders emerge from -the egg-sac until the following spring. If egg-sacs of this kind be -opened at different times during the winter, the spiders will be found -to increase in size but diminish in numbers as the season advances. In -fact, a strange tragedy goes on within these egg-sacs: the stronger -spiders calmly devour their weaker brothers, and in the spring those -that survive emerge sufficiently nourished to fight their battles in the -outside world. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 108. Egg-sac of an orb weaver._] - -The females of the _Running Spiders_ not only make a carefully -constructed egg-sac, but also care for the young spiders for a time. The -running spiders are the large dark-colored, hairy spiders, often found -under stones and rubbish; they are so-called because they capture their -prey by running. The females of most of the species (those of the genus -_Lycosa_) drag after them their egg-sac, which is attached to the -spinnerets (Fig. 109); and when the young hatch, they climb on their -mother's back, and are carried about for a time. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 109. Lycosa and egg-sac._] - -One of the running spiders (_Dolomedes_) carries her egg-sac with her -mandibles until the young are ready to emerge. At this time the mother -fastens the egg-sac in a bush, and spins irregular threads about it, -among which the young spiders remain for a time (Fig. 110). In the -specimen figured, the egg-sac was concealed in the upper part of the -web. - - -THE BALLOONING SPIDERS. - -In warm autumn days, innumerable threads can be seen streaming from -fences, bushes, and the tips of stalks of grass, or floating through the -air. These are made by the _Ballooning Spiders_, which are able to -travel long distances, hundreds of miles, through the air by means of -these silken threads. - -The ballooning spider climbs to some elevated point, and then, standing -on the tips of its feet, lifts its body as high as it can, and spins out -a thread of silk. This thread is carried up and away by a current of -air. When the thread is long enough the force of the air current on it -is sufficient to bear the spider up. It then lets go its hold with its -feet and sails away. That these spiders travel long distances in this -manner has been shown by the fact that they have been seen floating -through the air at sea far from land. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 110. Nursery of Dolomedes. _] - - - - -LEAFLET XVI. - -LIFE HISTORY OF THE TOAD.[20] - -BY S. H. GAGE.[21] - - -[20] Teachers' Leaflet, No. 9, May, 1897. - -[21] It was the desire of the author to tell the story of this leaflet -in pictures as well as in words, and he wishes to express his -appreciation of the enthusiasm and ability with which the illustrations -were executed by Mr. C. W. Furlong. - -In this edition are added half-tone reproductions of photographs to -bring out more completely the life story. - -On account of its economic importance, and because the marvelous changes -passed through in growing from an egg to a toad are so rapid that they -may all be seen during a single spring term of school, the common -or warty toad has been selected as the subject of a leaflet in -nature-study. Toads are found everywhere in New York, and nearly -everywhere in the world; it is easy, therefore, to get abundant material -for study. This animal is such a good friend to the farmer, the -gardener, the fruit-grower, the florist and the stock-raiser that every -man and woman, every boy and girl, ought to know something about it. - -Furthermore, it is hoped and sincerely believed that the feeling of -repugnance and dislike, and the consequent cruelty to toads, will -disappear when teachers and children learn something about their -wonderful changes in form, structure and habits, and how harmless and -helpful they are. Then, who that knows of the chances, the dangers and -struggles in the life of the toad, can help a feeling of sympathy; for -after all, how like our human life it is. Where sympathy is, cruelty is -impossible, and one comes to feel the spirit of these beautiful lines -from Coleridge's "Ancient Mariner:" - - "_He prayeth best who loveth best - All things both great and small; - For the dear God who loveth us - He made and loveth all._" - -It was William Harvey, the discoverer of the circulation of the blood, -who first clearly stated the fact that every animal comes from an egg. -This is as true of a toad as of a chicken. - -The toad lives on the land and often a long way from any pond or stream, -but the first part of its life is spent in the water; and so it is in -the water that the eggs must be looked for. To find the eggs one should -visit the natural or artificial ponds so common along streams. Ponds -from springs or even artificial reservoirs or the basins around -fountains, also may contain the eggs. The time for finding the eggs -depends on the season. The toad observes the season, not the almanac. In -ordinary years, the best time is from the middle of April to the first -of May. - -One is often guided to the right place by noticing the direction from -which the song or call of the toad comes. The call of the toad is more -or less like that of the tree toads. In general it sounds like -whistling, and at the same time pronouncing deep in the throat, -bu-rr-r-r-r-. If one watches a toad while it makes its call, one can -soon learn to distinguish the sound from others somewhat similar. It -will be found that different toads have slightly different voices, and -the same one can vary the tone considerably, so that it is not so easy -after all to distinguish the many batrachian solos and choruses on a -spring or summer evening. It will be noticed that the toad does not open -its mouth when it sings, but, instead, the resonator or vocal sac under -its mouth and throat is greatly expanded. One must be careful to -distinguish the expansion of the mouth in breathing from the expansion -of the vocal sac. See the left hand toad in the drawing (Fig. 111) for -the vocal sac, and the toad in hibernation (Fig. 121) for the expansion -of the mouth in breathing. It is only the males that possess the vocal -sac, so that the toad chorus is composed solely of male voices. - -The eggs are laid in long strings or ropes which are nearly always -tangled and wound round the water plants or sticks on the bottom of the -pond. If the pond is large and deep, the eggs are laid near the shore -where the water is shallow. If the eggs have been freshly laid in clear -water the egg ropes will look like glass tubes containing a string of -jet black beads. After a rain the eggs are obscured by the fine mud that -settles on the transparent jelly surrounding them, but the jelly is much -more evident than in the freshly laid egg strings. - -Secure enough of the egg string to include 50 or 100 eggs and place it -in a glass fruit dish or a basin with clean water from the pond where -the eggs were found. Let the children look at the eggs very carefully -and note the color and the exact shape. Let them see whether the color -is the same on all sides. If the eggs are newly laid they will be nearly -perfect spheres. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 111. The toad in various stages of development from -the egg to the adult_] - -Frogs, salamanders and tree toads lay their eggs in the same places and -at about the same time as the toad we are to study. Only the toad lays -its eggs in strings, so one can be sure he has the right kind. The -others lay their eggs in bunches or singly on the plants, so they never -need be mistaken for the ones sought. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 112. Just hatched toad tadpoles climbing up where -the water is better aerated._] - -The eggs which are taken to the school house for study should be kept -in a light place; an east, south or west window is best. - -It requires only a short time for the eggs to hatch. In warm weather two -to four days are usually sufficient, but in the cool days of April it -may require ten days. As the changes are so very rapid, the eggs ought -to be carefully looked at two or three times a day to make sure that all -the principal changes are seen. If a pocket lens or a reading glass is -to be had it will add to the interest, as more of the details can be -observed. But good sharp eyes are sufficient if no lens is available. - -_Hatching._--Watch and see how long it is before the developing embryos -commence to move. Note their change in form. As they elongate they move -more vigorously till on the second or third day they wriggle out of the -jelly surrounding them. This is hatching, and they are now free in the -water and can swim about. It is curious to see them hang themselves up -on the old egg string or on the edge of the dish (Fig. 112). They do -this by means of a peculiar v-shaped organ on their heads. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 113. Older toad tadpoles with their heads up._] - -How different the little creatures are, which have just hatched, from -the grown up toad which laid the eggs! The difference is about as great -as that between a caterpillar and a butterfly. - -_Tadpoles, polliwogs._--We call the young of the frog, the toad and the -tree toad, tadpoles or polliwogs. The toad tadpoles are black. As they -increase in size they may become greyish. Those raised in the house are -usually darker than those growing in nature. - -The tadpoles will live for some time in clear water with apparently -nothing to eat. This is because in each egg is some food, just as there -is a large supply of food within the egg shell to give the chicken a -good start in life. But when the food that the mother supplied in the -egg is used up, the little tadpoles would die if they could not find -some food for themselves. They must grow a great deal before they can -turn into toads; and just like children and other young animals, to grow -they must have plenty of food. - -_Feeding the tadpoles._--To feed the tadpoles it is necessary to imitate -nature as closely as possible. To do this, a visit to the pond where the -eggs were found will give the clue. Many plants are present, and the -bottom will be seen to slope gradually from the shore. The food of the -tadpole is the minute plant life on the stones, the surface of the mud, -or on the outside of the larger plants. - -One must not attempt to raise too many tadpoles in the artificial pond -in the laboratory or school-room or there will not be enough food, and -all will be half starved, or some will get the food and the rest will -starve to death. While there may be thousands of tadpoles in the natural -pond, it will be readily seen that, compared with the amount of water -present, there are really rather few. - -Probably many more were hatched in the school-house than can be raised -in the artificial pond. Return the ones not put in the artificial pond -to the natural pond. It would be too bad to throw them out on the ground -to die. - -_Comparing the growth of the tadpoles._--Even when one does his best it -is hard to make an artificial pond so good as the natural one for the -tadpoles, and the teacher will find it very interesting and stimulating -to compare the growth and change in the tadpoles at the school-house -with those in the natural pond. - -As growth depends on the supply of food and the suitability of the -environment, it is easy to judge how nearly the artificial pond equals -the natural pond for raising tadpoles. It will be worth while to take a -tadpole from the natural pond occasionally and put it in with those at -the school-house, so that the differences may be more strikingly shown. -There is some danger in making a mistake here, however, for there may be -three or four kinds of tadpoles in the natural pond. Those of the toad -are almost jet black when young, while the others are more or less -brownish. If one selects only the very black ones they will probably be -toad tadpoles. - -Every week or oftener, some water plants, and perhaps a small stone -covered with the growth of microscopic plants, and some water, should be -taken from the pond to the artificial pond. The water will supply the -place of that which has evaporated, and the water plants will carry a -new supply of food. If the water in the artificial pond in the -school-room does not remain clear, it should be carefully dipped out and -fresh clear water added. It is better to get the water from the pond -where the eggs were laid, although any clear water will answer; but do -not use distilled water. - -The growth and changes in form should be looked for every day. Then it -is very interesting to see what the tadpoles do, how they eat, and any -signs of breathing. - -All the changes from an egg to a little toad (Fig. 111), are passed -through in one or two months, so that by the first of June the tadpoles -will be found to have made great progress. The progress will be not only -in size, but in form and action. - -One of these actions should be watched with especial care, for it means -a great deal. At first the little tadpoles remain under water all the -time, and do not seem to know or care that there is a great world above -the water. But as they grow larger and larger, they rush up to the -surface once in awhile and then dive down again, as if their lives -depended on it. The older they grow the oftener do they come to the -surface. This is even more marked in the large tadpole of the bullfrog. -What is the meaning of this? Probably most of the pupils can guess -correctly; but it took scientific men a long time to find out just why -this was done. The real reason is that the tadpole is getting ready to -breathe the free air above the water when it turns into a toad and lives -on the land. At first the little tadpoles breathe the air dissolved in -the water, just as a fish does. This makes it plain why an artificial -pond should have a broad surface exposed to the air. If one should use a -narrow and deep vessel, like a fruit jar, only a small amount of air -could be taken up by the water and the tadpoles would be half -suffocated. - -As the tadpoles grow older they go oftener to the surface to get the air -directly from the limitless supply above the water, as they will have to -do when they live wholly in the air. - -_Disappearance of the tail._--From the first to the middle of June the -tadpoles should be watched with especial care, for wonderful things are -happening. Both the fore and hind legs will appear, if they have not -already. The head will change in form and so will the body; the color -will become much lighter, and, but for the tail, the tadpole will begin -to look something like its mother. - -If you keep an especially sharp lookout, do you think you will see the -tail drop off? No, toad nature is too economical for that. The tail -will not drop off, but it will be seen to get shorter and shorter every -day; it is not dropping off, but is being carried into the tadpole. The -tail is perfect at every stage; it simply disappears. How does this -happen? This is another thing that it took scientific men a long time to -find out. - -It is now known that there are two great methods for removing parts of -the body no longer needed. In the first method the living particles in -the body which are able to wander all around, as if they were inspectors -to see that everything is in order, may go to the part to be removed and -take it up piece by piece. These living particles are known as white -blood corpuscles, wandering cells, phagocytes, leucocytes and several -other names. In the other method, the blood and the lymph going to the -part to be removed dissolve it particle by particle. Apparently the toad -tadpole's tail is dissolved by the blood and lymph rather than being -eaten up by the phagocytes, although the phagocytes do a part of the -work. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 114. Transforming tadpole of the green tree toad to -show the rapidity of tail absorption._ (_Change in 24 hours. Natural -size._) - -_HVLA--Natural size. Change in 24 hours; 28 mm. of tail absorbed in 24 -hours; 1-1/6 mm. per hour. Common toad shortens the tail about 1/5 mm. -per hour._] - -Now, when the tadpole is ready to dispense with its tail, the blood and -lymph and the phagocytes take it up particle by particle and carry it -back into the body where it can be used just as any other good food -would be. This taking in of the tail is done so carefully that the skin -epithelium or epidermis is never broken, but covers up the outside -perfectly all the time. Is not this a better way to get rid of a tail -than to cut it off? - -If you look at the picture of the disappearance of the tail in the toad -tadpole (Fig. 115) and in the tree-toad tadpole (Fig. 114), you will get -an idea how rapidly this takes place. It is easier to see the actual -shortening if the tadpoles are put in a white dish of clear water -without any water plants. The tadpoles do not eat anything while they -are changing to toads, so they will not need to be fed. - -_Beginning of the life on the land._--Now, when the legs are grown out, -and the tail is getting shorter, the little tadpole likes to put its -nose out of the water into the air; and sometimes it crawls half way -out. When the tail gets quite short, often a mere stub, it will crawl -out entirely and stay for some time in the air. It now looks really like -a toad except that it is nearly smooth instead of being warty, and is -only about as large as the end of a child's little finger (Fig. 115). - -Finally, the time comes when the tadpole, now transformed into a toad, -must leave the water for the land. - -What queer feelings the little toad must have when the soft, smooth -bottom of the pond and the pretty plants, and the water that supported -it so nicely are all to be left behind for the hard, rough, dry land! -But the little toad must take the step. It is no longer a tadpole, or -half tadpole and half toad. It cannot again dive into the cool, soft -water when the air and the sunshine dry and scorch it. As countless -generations of little toads have done before, it pushes boldly out over -the land and away from the water. - -If one visits the natural pond at about this season (last half of June, -first of July), he is likely to see many of the little fellows hopping -away from the water. And so vigorously do they hop along that in a few -days they may be as far as a mile from the pond where they were hatched. -After a warm shower they are particularly active, and are then most -commonly seen. Many think they rained down. "They were not seen before -the rain, so they must have rained down." Is that good reasoning? - -The little toad is careful and during the hot and sunny part of the day -stays in the shade of the grass or leaves or in some other moist and -shady place. If it staid out in the sun too long it would be liable to -dry up. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 115. Toad development in a single season_ (_1903_). - -_1-18. Changes and growth, April to November. 1-13. Development in 25 to -60 days._ - -_15-18. Different sizes, October 21, 1903. 9, 14. Different sizes, July -30, 1903._ - -_10, 11. The same tadpole,--11, 47 hours older than 10._ - -_12, 13. The same tadpole,--13, 47 hours older than 12._] - - -FOOD ON THE LAND. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 116. Toad catching a winged insect, and -illustrating how the tongue is extended and brought in contact with the -insect. Several other creatures that the toad might eat are shown in -various parts of the picture._] - -In the water the tadpole eats vegetable matter; but when it becomes a -toad and gets on the land it will touch nothing but animal food, and -that must be so fresh that it is alive and moving. This food consists of -every creeping, crawling or flying thing that is small enough to be -swallowed. While it will not touch a piece of fresh meat lying on the -ground, woe to moving snail, insect or worm that comes within its reach! - -It is by the destruction of insects and worms that the toad helps men so -greatly. The insects and worms eat the grain, the fruits and the -flowers. They bite and sting the animals and give men no end of trouble. -The toad is not partial, but takes any live thing that gets near it, -whether it is caterpillar, fly, spider, centipede or thousand-legged -worm; and it does not stop even there, but will gobble up a hornet or a -yellow jacket without the least hesitation. - -It is astonishing to see the certainty with which a toad can catch these -flying or crawling things. The way the toad does this may be observed by -watching one out of doors some summer evening or after a shower; but it -is more satisfactory to have a nearer view. Put a large toad into a box, -or better, into a glass dish with some moist sand on the bottom. In a -little while, if one is gentle, the toad will become tame, and then if -flies and other insects are caught with a sweep net and put into the -dish and the top covered with mosquito netting one can watch the process -of capture. It is very quickly accomplished, and one must look sharply. -As shown in the little picture (Fig. 116), the toad's tongue is -fastened at the front part of its mouth, not back in the throat as with -men, dogs, cats and most animals. It is so nicely arranged that it can -be extended for quite a distance. On it is a sticky secretion, and when, -quick as a flash, the tongue is thrown out or extended, if it touches -the insect, the insect is caught as if by sticky fly paper, and is taken -into the mouth. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 117. Toad making a meal of an angle worm._] - -Think how many insects and worms a toad could destroy in a single -summer. Practically every insect and worm destroyed adds to the produce -of the garden and the farm, or takes away one cause of discomfort to men -and animals. One observer reports that a single toad disposed of -twenty-four caterpillars in ten minutes, and another ate thirty-five -celery worms within three hours. He estimates that a good-sized toad -will destroy nearly 10,000 insects and worms in a single summer. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 118. Two newts feasting on tadpoles._] - - -ENEMIES--THE SHADOW SIDE OF LIFE. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 119. In danger from a crow._] - -So far nothing has been said about the troubles and dangers of the -toad's life. Fig. 111 is meant to show the main phases in the -life-history. If one looks at it perhaps he may wonder what becomes of -all the tadpoles that first hatch, as only two toads are shown at the -top. Is not this something like the other life-histories? How many -little robins or chickens die and never become full-grown birds! Well, -the dangers to the toad begin at once. Suppose the eggs are laid in a -pond that dries up before the little toads can get ready to live on the -land; in that case they all die. The mother toads sometimes do make the -mistake of laying the eggs in ponds that dry up in a little while. You -will not let the artificial pond at the school-house dry up, will you? -Then sometimes there is an especially dry summer, and only those that -transform very early from tadpoles to toads are saved. - -In the little picture (Fig. 118) is shown another source of danger and -cause for the diminution in numbers. The newts and salamanders find -young tadpoles very good eating and they make way with hundreds of them. -Some die from what are called natural causes, that is, diseases, or -possibly they eat something that does not agree with them. So that while -there were multitudes of eggs (1,000 or more from each toad), and of -just hatched tadpoles, the number has become sadly lessened by the time -the brood is ready to leave the water. - -Then when they set foot on land, their dangers are not passed. They may -be parched by summer's heat or crushed under the feet of men or cattle. -Birds and snakes like them for food. Figs. 119 and 120 show some of -these dangers. Is it a wonder, then, that of all the multitudes of -tadpoles so few grow up to be large toads? - -We have so few helpers to keep the noxious insects in check, it is not -believed that any boy or girl who knows this wonderful story of a toad's -life will join the crows, the snakes and the salamanders in worrying or -destroying their good friends. - - -MOULTING AND HIBERNATION. - -There are two very interesting things that happen in the life of many of -the lower animals; they happen to the toad also. These are moulting, or -change of skin, and hibernation, or winter sleep. Every boy and girl -ought to know about these, and then, if on the lookout, some or all of -the things will be seen. - -_Moulting._--Probably everybody who lives in the country has seen a -snake's skin without any snake in it. It is often very perfect. When the -outside skin or cuticle of a snake or a toad gets old and dry or too -tight for it, a new covering grows underneath, and the old one is shed. -This is a very interesting performance, but the toad usually sheds it in -a retired place, so the process is not often seen. Those who have seen -it say that a long crack or tear appears along the back and in front. -The toad keeps moving and wriggling to loosen the old cuticle. This -peels the cuticle off the sides. Now, to get it off the legs and feet, -the toad puts its leg under its arm, or front leg, and in that way pulls -off the old skin as if it were a stocking. But when the front legs are -to be stripped the mouth is used as is sometimes done by people in -pulling off their gloves. Do you think it uses its teeth for this -purpose? You might look in a toad's mouth sometime, and then you would -know. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 120. Snakes frequently swallow toads hind legs -foremost, as shown in the picture. This is especially true of the garter -snake, which is a great enemy of the toad._] - -It is said that when the skin is finally pulled off the toad swallows -it. This is true in some cases; at least it is worth while keeping watch -for. It is certain that the toad sometimes swallows the cast skin; it is -also certain that in some cases the cast skin is not swallowed. After a -toad has shed his old skin, he looks a great deal brighter and cleaner -than before, as if he had just got a new suit of clothes. If you see -one with a particularly bright skin, you will now know what it means. - -_Hibernation._--The toad is a cold-blooded animal. This means that the -temperature of its blood is nearly like that of the surrounding air. -Men, horses, cows, dogs, are said to be warm-blooded, for their blood is -warm and of about the some temperature whether the surrounding air is -cold or hot. - -When the air is too cool, the toad becomes stupid and inactive. In -September or October a few toads may be seen on warm days or evenings, -but the number seen becomes smaller and smaller; and finally, as the -cold November weather comes on, none are seen. Where are they? The toad -seems to know that winter is coming, that the insects and worms will -disappear, so that no food can be found. It must go into a kind of -death-like sleep, in which it hardly moves or breathes. This winter -sleep or hibernation must be passed in some safe and protected place. If -the toad were to freeze and thaw with every change in the weather it -would not wake up in the spring. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 121. Toad in the winter sleep._ (_Natural size_).] - -The wonderful foresight which instinct gives it, makes the toad select -some comparatively soft earth in a protected place where it can bury -itself. The earth chosen is moist, but not wet. If it were dry the toad -would dry up before spring. It is not uncommon for farmers and gardeners -to plough them up late in the fall or early in the spring. Also in -digging cellars at about these times they are found occasionally. - -In burying itself the toad digs with its hind legs and body, and pushes -itself backward into the hole with the front legs. The earth caves in as -the animal backs into the ground, so that no sign is left on the -outside. Once in far enough to escape the freezing and thawing of -winter, the toad moves around till there is a little chamber slightly -larger than its body; then it draws its legs up close, shuts its eyes, -puts its head down between or on its hands, and goes to sleep and sleeps -for five months or more. - -When the warm days of spring come it wakes up, crawls out of bed and -begins to take interest in life again. It looks around for insects and -worms, and acts as if it had had only a comfortable nap. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 122. The same toad awake in the spring._ (_Natural -size_).] - -The little toad that you saw hatch from an egg into a tadpole and then -turn to a toad, would hibernate for two or three winters, and by that -time it would be quite a large toad. After it had grown up and had -awakened from its winter sleep some spring, it would have a strong -impulse to get back to the pond where it began life as an egg years -before. Once there it would lay a great number of eggs, perhaps as many -as a thousand or two, for a new generation of toads. And this would -complete its life cycle. - -While the toad completes its life cycle when it returns to the water and -lays eggs for a new generation, it may live many years afterward and lay -eggs many times, perhaps every year. - -Many insects, some fish and other animals, die after laying their eggs. -For such animals the completion of the life cycle ends the life-history -also. But unless the toad meets with some accident it goes back to its -land home after laying the eggs, and may live in the same garden or -dooryard for many years, as many as eight years, and perhaps longer. -(See Bulletin No. 46, Hatch Experiment Station of the Massachusetts -Agricultural College, Amherst, Mass.) - - -ERRONEOUS NOTIONS ABOUT THE TOAD. - -If one reads in old books and listens to the fairy tales and other -stories common everywhere, he will hear many wonderful things about the -toad, but most of the things are wholly untrue. - -One of the erroneous notions is that the toad is deadly poison. Another -is that it is possessed of marvelous healing virtues, and still another, -that hidden away in the heads of some of the oldest ones are the -priceless toad-stones, jewels of inestimable value. - -_Giving warts._--Probably every boy and girl living in the country has -heard that if one takes a toad in his hands, or if a toad touches him -anywhere he will "catch the warts." This is not so at all, as has been -proved over and over again. If a toad is handled gently and petted a -little it soon learns not to be afraid, and seems to enjoy the kindness -and attention. If a toad is hurt or roughly handled a whitish, acrid -substance is poured out of the largest warts. This might smart a little -if it got into the mouth, as dogs find out when they try biting a toad. -It cannot be very bad, however, or the hawks, owls, crows and snakes -that eat the toad would give up the practice. The toad is really one of -the most harmless creatures in the world, and has never been known to -hurt a man or a child. - -A boy might possibly have some warts on his hands after handling a toad; -so might he after handling a jack-knife or looking at a steam engine; -but the toad does not give the warts any more than the knife or the -engine. - -_Cows giving bloody milk._--It is a common belief in the country that if -one kills a toad his cows will give bloody milk. Cows will give bloody -milk if the udder is injured in any way, whether a toad is killed or -not. There is no connection whatever between the bloody milk and a -killed toad. - -_Living without air and food._--Occasionally one reads or hears a story -about a toad found in a cavity in a solid rock. When the rock is broken -open it is said that the toad wakes up and hops around as if it had -been asleep only half an hour. Just think for a moment what it would -mean to find a live toad within a cavity in a solid rock. It must have -been there for thousands, if not for millions of years, without food or -air. The toad does not like a long fast, but can stand it for a year or -so without food if it is in a moist place and supplied with air. It -regularly sleeps four or five months every winter, but never in a place -devoid of air. If the air were cut off the toad would soon die. Some -careful experiments were made by French scientific men, and the stories -told about toads living indefinitely without air or food were utterly -disproved. - -It is not difficult to see that one working in a quarry might honestly -think that he had found a toad in a rock. Toads are not very uncommon in -quarries. If a stone were broken open and a cavity found in it, and then -a toad were seen hopping away, one might jump at the conclusion that the -toad came out of the cavity in the rock. Is not this something like the -belief that the little toads rain down from the clouds because they are -most commonly seen after a shower? - - -SURVEYS AND MAPS. - -In considering the suggestions made in this leaflet, we thought of the -hundreds of schools throughout the state and wondered whether there -might not be some difficulty in finding the ponds where the toads lay -their eggs, and in finding some of the things described in the other -leaflets. - -The teachers and students in Cornell University found this difficulty in -1868 when the University opened. The great Louis Agassiz came to the -University at the beginning to give a course of lectures on natural -history. The inspiration of his presence and advice, and of those -lectures, lasts to this day. - -Agassiz, and the University teachers, who had many of them been his -pupils, saw at once that the region around Ithaca must be full of -interesting things; but they did not know exactly where to find them. -Agassiz himself made some explorations, and the professors and students -took hold of the work with the greatest enthusiasm. They explored the -beautiful lake, the streams, hills, valleys, gorges, ponds and marshes. -Careful notes were kept of the exact locality where every interesting -thing was found and simple maps were made to aid in finding the places -again. Finally, after several years, knowledge enough was gained to -construct an accurate map for the use of all. A part of this map, -showing only the most important features, is put into this leaflet to -serve as a guide (Fig. 123). - -It will be seen that the University is made the starting point. With a -few hints it is believed that every school can make a good beginning -this year on a natural history survey of the region near its -school-house, and in the preparation of a map to go with the survey. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 123. Simple map showing the position of Cornell -University, the city of Ithaca, Cayuga Lake, and the roads and streams -and ponds near the University. From W. R. Dudley's map in "The Cayuga -Flora." Scale, 1 centimeter to the kilometer._ - -_U. Cornell University._ - -_U. L. University Lake in Fall Creek._ - -_R. Reservoir supplied from University Lake, and supplying the campus._ - -_E. P. East Pond where the eggs of the toad, tree toad, frogs and -salamanders are found._ - -_F. P. Forest Home Pond. A very favorable place for eggs, tadpoles, -etc._ - -_Inlet. The inlet of the lake. The lampreys are abundant near Fleming's -meadow._] - -_Preparation of the map._--It is well to have the map of good size. A -half sheet of bristol board will answer, but a whole sheet is better. -About the first thing to decide is the scale to which the map is to be -drawn. It is better to have the scale large. Twelve inches to the mile -would be convenient. Divide the map into squares, making the lines quite -heavy. If so large a scale were used it would be advantageous for -locating places to have the large squares divided into square inches, -but much lighter lines should be used so that there will be no confusion -with the lines representing the miles. - -_Locating objects on the map._--The corner of the school-house -containing the corner stone should be taken as the starting point. If -there is no corner stone, select the most convenient corner. Put the -school-house on the map anywhere you wish; probably the center of the -map would be the best place. In the sample map the University is not in -the center, as it was desired to show more of the country to the south -and west than to the north and east. - -The map should of course be made like other maps, so it will be -necessary to know the four cardinal points of the compass before -locating anything on it. Perhaps the school-house has been placed facing -exactly north and south or east and west, that is, arranged with the -cardinal points of the compass; if so, it will be the best guide. If you -are not sure, determine with a compass. With it the points can be -determined very accurately. Having determined the points of compass, -commence to locate objects in the landscape on the map as follows: Get -their direction from the starting point at the corner of the -school-house, then measure the distance accurately by running a bicycle -on which is a cyclometer, straight between the starting point and the -object. The cyclometer will record the distance accurately and it can be -read off easily. If no bicycle with a cyclometer is available, one can -use a long measuring stick, a tape measure or even a measured string; -but the bicycle and cyclometer are more convenient and accurate, -especially when the distances are considerable. - -Suppose the distance is found to be one-sixth of a mile due west. It -should be located two inches west of the corner taken as the starting -point. If the direction were south-west, then the two inches would be -measured on the map in that direction and located accordingly. Proceed -in this way for locating any pond or marsh, forest or glen. Now, when -the places are located on the map, you can see how easy it would be for -any one to find the places themselves. While the exact position should -be determined if possible and located, one does not often take a -bee-line in visiting them, but goes in roads, often a long distance -around. In locating the objects on the map, every effort should be made -to get them accurately placed, and this can be done most easily by -knowing the distances in a straight line. - -It is hoped that every school in the state will begin this year making a -natural history survey and a map of the region around its school-house. -The map will show but few locations, perhaps, but it can be added to -from year to year, just as the University map has been added to; and -finally each school will have a map and notes showing exactly where the -toads lay their eggs, where fish and birds are; and where the newts and -salamanders, the different trees and flowers, rocks and fossils may be -found. - -If the dates are kept accurately for the different years, one can also -see how much variation there is. Indeed, such nature-study will give a -sure foundation for appreciating and comprehending the larger questions -in natural science, and it will make an almost perfect preparation for -taking part in or for appreciating the great surveys of a state or a -country. It is believed that if accurate information were collected and -careful maps made by the different schools, the Empire State could soon -have a natural history survey and map better than any now in existence -in any state or country. - -_To the Teacher:_ - -_It is the firm belief of those who advocate nature-study that it is not -only valuable in itself, but that it will help to give enjoyment in -other studies and meaning to them. Every pupil who follows out the work -of this leaflet will see the need of a map of the region around the -school-house. This will help in the appreciation of map work generally._ - -_So many of the beautiful and inspiring things in literature are -concerning some phase of nature, that nature-study must increase the -appreciation of the literature; and the noble thoughts in the literature -will help the pupils to look for and appreciate the finer things in -nature._ - -_It is suggested that as many of the following selections as possible be -read in connection with the leaflet:_ - -_"The Fiftieth Birthday of Agassiz," by Longfellow._ - -_The "Prayer of Agassiz," by Whittier. Professor Wilder, who was -present, assures the author that this describes an actual occurrence._ - -_This "Silent Prayer" is also mentioned in an inspiring paragraph by -Henry Ward Beecher in the Christian Union, 1873._ - -_The first part of Bryant's "Thanatopsis," Coleridge's "Ancient_ -_Mariner," Burns' "On Scaring Some Water Fowl in Loch-Turit," and "To a -Mouse."_ - -_Cowpers "The Task," a selection from book vi., beginning with line 560. -This gives a very just view of the rights of the lower animals._ - -_In connection with the disappearance of the tail, read Lowell's -"Festina Lente," in the Biglow Papers. For older pupils, Shakespeare's -picture of the seven ages in the human life cycle might be read. "As You -Like It," Act II, Scene II, near the end, commencing, "All the world's a -stage," etc._ - -_Kipling's Jungle Books, and the works of Ernest Thompson-Seton and -William J. Long will help one to see how the world might look from the -standpoint of the animals._ - -_One of the most satisfactory books to use in connection with -nature-study is Animal Life, by President David Starr Jordan and -Professor Kellogg. This gives the facts that every teacher ought to know -in connection with the processes of reproduction._ - -_Attention is also called to A. H. Kirkland's Bulletin No. 46 of the -Hatch Experiment Station of the Massachusetts Agricultural College, and -to the Nature-Study Leaflet on the Toad, by Dr. C. F. Hodge, of Clark -University, Worcester, Mass._ - -[Illustration: _Fig. 124. From egg back to toad._] - - - - -LEAFLET XVII. - -LIFE IN A TERRARIUM.[22] - -BY ALICE I. KENT. - - And Nature, the old nurse, took - The child upon her knee, - Saying: "Here is a story-book - Thy Father has written for thee." - - --_Longfellow to Agassiz._ - - -[22] Nature-Study Quarterly No. 8: Leaflet 21, January, 1901. - -[Illustration] - -[Illustration: _Fig. 125. Life in the terrarium._] - -Fortunate are the children and the teachers who are so placed that -Nature's story book is close at hand. But city children and their -teachers need not despair, for Nature, the old nurse, is loving and -bountiful and will rewrite, in living characters, many a page from the -wondrous book, for those who care to read. One such a page may be a -terrarium--a confined plot of earth on which things may live and grow -(from _terra_, "earth," as aquarium is from _aqua_, "water"). Within its -narrow confines, the whole drama of the beautiful life of many a tiny -creature may be rewritten. - -Here is a fragment of the drama, as written in one terrarium. - -This terrarium was made from an old berry crate (Figs. 125, 126). When -the children saw it first, last fall, this is what it looked like: a -large rectangular box, grass-green in color, thirty-nine inches long, -eighteen inches wide, and fifteen inches high. The long sides were of -glass, the short sides and top of green wire netting. The top could be -removed like the lid of a box. It stood upon a pedestal-table provided -with castors. In the bottom of the terrarium were three inches of rich -soil, covered with the delicate green of sprouting grass-seed. In one -corner was a mossy nook, and in another a mass of thistles and clover. -At one end, a small cabbage was planted and at the other lay several -sprays of glossy pin-oak. Suspended from the top, was a large spray of -purple thistles. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 126. Butterfly-time in the terrarium world._] - -Among the thistles in the corner, ten pendants of vivid green, bright -with golden points, could be seen. They were the chrysalids of the -monarch, or milkweed, butterfly. Among the cabbage leaves, were many of -the pale green eggs and several of the caterpillars of the cabbage -butterfly. Among the sprays of oak in the corner, several oak -caterpillars were feeding. - -Before many days had passed, the drama of life began. One by one, the -chrysalids of the milkweed butterfly paled in color and, becoming -transparent, showed through their whitened walls the orange-colored -wings of the developing butterflies within. They then burst, freeing -their gorgeous tenants. This happened until there were seven butterflies -in the terrarium. As two of these proved discontented with their new -home, they were set free. The five others spent the little round of -their aërial life seemingly happy and satisfied. They lived from three -to six weeks and showed some individuality in their tastes and habits. -Sometimes they chose the mossy corner for their resting place. On other -occasions they preferred the netting at the ends and top of the -terrarium. In fact, the netting at the ends of the terrarium was a -source of pleasure to these butterflies, as it served as a secure -resting place and an agreeable and convenient pathway to the top. One of -them spent nearly all its life on the thistles suspended from the top. -These thistles were kept fresh a long time by placing their stems in a -large sponge which was frequently drenched with water. - -The butterflies showed some individuality in their eating also. Thistle, -clover, golden-rod, nasturtiums, and honey-suckle were offered to them. -The thistle and the golden-rod were most frequently visited, and next to -these the nasturtiums were most favored. Another fact noted was that -most of the butterflies continued to visit the flower first chosen. -When, however, a thick syrup of sugar and water was offered to them, the -flowers were much neglected, only one butterfly persisting in -flower-visiting. Golden-rod was its choice. If the syrup was fresh-made -every morning and was placed in a convenient spot, the butterflies never -failed to sip it. They generally slept clinging to the wire-netting at -the ends or top of the terrarium. - -In the meantime, the cabbage began to attract the watchful eyes of the -wondering children. As it had industriously sent out many tiny roots, it -proved a safe and satisfactory home for its hidden occupants. Soon, one -by one, the caterpillars began to appear at the edges of the uppermost -leaves. They began small tours in the vicinage of the cabbage, and, -finally, as with the butterflies, the end wire nettings proved to be an -easy pathway to the top of the terrarium. Here several found good -resting places, and slowly changed to chrysalids. - -One day a cabbage butterfly obligingly flew in at the open window. It -was caught and placed in the terrarium. It, too, proved to be very fond -of sugar syrup. One morning the syrup was accidentally spilled on the -wooden ridge at the bottom of the terrarium outside of the netting. The -butterfly was so hungry that it could not wait for food more -conveniently placed; so it stretched its tongue out, full length, -through the netting, and in that way obtained it. The children were -surprised to find its tongue somewhat longer than its body. - -At this time, the cabbage was removed so that the eggs and the remaining -young caterpillars could be observed. The protecting coloring of the -eggs and caterpillars was first noticed. One little boy at first -announced that the caterpillars were green because they were not ripe, a -good example surely of the danger of reasoning from analogy! - -Very soon the inhabitants of this terrarium world began to increase. A -father and two mother grasshoppers and a young one, with his "armor on," -came to live there; also a "woolly bear," several other species of -caterpillars, several species of beetles, a big horse-fly, some -lady-bugs, and a cicada. About this time too, some very unwelcome -immigrants appeared. These were the ichneumon flies. So numerous did -they become in a very short time, that they threatened desolation to -this prosperous community. Nature's methods were then scrutinized and -the services of two tree-toads were sought. Their response was immediate -and cordial. Soon not an ichneumon fly could be found. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 127. Hand over hand._] - -The grasshoppers were partial to celery, over-ripe bananas, and -moisture. Three days after they became inhabitants of this miniature -world, the mother grasshopper dug a hole in the ground and laid eggs. -The observing children then had before them living illustrations of the -three stages of grasshopper life. - -The tree-toads were both amusing and accommodating. They, too, liked the -wire netting at the ends of the terrarium, and delighted the children by -climbing up foot over foot, or hand over hand, like odd four-handed -sailor boys (Fig. 127.) This brought into plain view the tiny suckers on -their feet. - -After the ichneumon flies had disappeared, a new difficulty arose. The -ground became mouldy, and the grass died down. The terrarium was then -placed by an open window and left there several hours for a number of -days until it was thoroughly dried out. Then bird-seed was planted and -the ground was watered thereafter with a small plant syringe. This gave -sufficient, but not excessive moisture, and it was one of the pleasures -of the children to imitate a rainy day in the terrarium world. And it -was a pleasing experience, for there were splashes of water on the glass -sides and many shining drops on the netting and verdure, which soon grew -several inches tall; there was the same delightful odor of rich fresh -earth that one enjoys during summer rains, and the sunshine touched with -brilliancy the gay fall flowers and the gorgeous outspread wings of the -butterflies. - -At this time the terrarium had an annex in the shape of a wooden box, a -foot square, with a gauze top. Here lived two mother spiders with their -egg-balls carefully hung on the cobweb beams of their homes. One day a -beautiful yellow silk egg-ball was found out of doors, and when it was -carefully opened to show the eggs with which it was filled, the -gratifying discovery was made that these eggs were hatching. They were -very tiny and very numerous. They were inclosed in a silken pouch and -were the exact color of its lining. When resting the little spiders -seemed to hold their legs under the body, and they were so small and so -like the egg in general appearance that if they had not run about when -disturbed they would never have been discovered. As soon as the egg ball -was opened they exploited their one talent, for they ran out on the -fingers of the person who held the ball and then suspended themselves by -almost invisible threads from all parts of the fingers. When they were -to be returned to the egg-ball they were gently pushed up. They then -obligingly ran back into their silken home, which was carefully closed -as before. These little ones were kept a week or ten days and were then -allowed to escape and establish homes for themselves. The life history -of the spider was thus seen, although, unfortunately, our adult spiders -did not belong to the same species as the young ones. - -To return to the terrarium: It was now early in November and each day -found one or more of the terrarium inhabitants missing. One of the -caterpillars disappeared and a cocoon made of its own hair was found in -its place; several chrysalids were found on the top of the terrarium; -the butterflies and the grasshoppers, one by one, went into that sleep -from which there is no awakening; and a number of the other creatures -disappeared. The children finally concluded that the latter had gone to -sleep in the ground. The grasshoppers and the tree-toads were the last -to take their rest, but just before they answered Mother Nature's call -to slumber, a large garden toad came to bear them company. - -He was a very interesting toad for he bore signs of having lived through -what must have been almost a tragedy. He had lost the lower half of one -front leg and had the scar of a long gash on his throat. These -disfigurements seemed not to cause him the least unhappiness, for he had -a very bright wide-awake expression and was as plump and complacent as a -toad should be. The loss of his leg caused him a little inconvenience, -for he sometimes lost his balance when hopping and fell on his back. He -occasionally found it difficult to right himself at once, but a few -vigorous kicks and jumps generally placed him right side up. Three days -after he became a member of the terrarium community, he, too, heard -Mother Nature's call to bed, and partially buried himself. Each day he -covered himself more completely, until finally only the top of his head -and two sleepy eyes were to be seen. One day, about a week afterward, he -disappeared entirely. He proved to be a very restless sleeper, and -frequently showed himself during the sunniest parts of nearly every day -all winter, occasionally coming entirely out of his earthy covering. He -served as a sort of barometer all winter, appearing in bright and -disappearing in gloomy weather. He never, however, left the spot he had -chosen for his bed. - -"Winter is the night of the year," and the little terrarium world -indoors exemplifies it as truly as the great fields of Nature's domain -out of doors. The soil is dry and hard in this miniature world and the -verdure has dried down to palest green and brown. In its earthy bed, the -caterpillars, beetles, and other creatures lie cosily asleep, and with -the masses of tiny eggs, await the vivifying touch of spring. - - - - -LEAFLET XVIII. - -DIRECTIONS FOR COLLECTING AND PRESERVING INSECTS.[23] - -BY ANNA BOTSFORD COMSTOCK. - - -[23] Teachers' Leaflet No. 7, June, 1897. - -[Illustration] - -It is the purpose of this leaflet to give a few suggestions to aid those -pupils of the secondary schools who desire to make collections of -insects. - -There are several good reasons why children should be encouraged to make -collections of flowers, birds and insects; and the least of these -reasons is the possession of such a collection on the part of the child. -Making a collection of natural history specimens should only be the -means to an end, _i. e._, training the child to observe. When eyes are -opened to the wonders of nature, every roadside, brook and woodland is -fraught with interest which is undreamed of by those who are -nature-blind. It is sad to think of the hosts of people who go through -this beautiful world having eyes but seeing not, having ears but hearing -not. The eyes must be unsealed in youth, when the mind is alert and -receptive if the man or woman is to find in later life that Nature is -not only a resource and recreation but an ever faithful friend holding -out comforting arms to those who are weary in soul and body. - -Not only does the study of nature open the child's eyes, but it also -teaches him the value of accuracy. The young naturalist soon understands -that an observation is worth nothing unless it is truthful. On the other -hand, nature-study cultivates the imagination. The wonders in the lives -of insects, plants, and birds are so illimitable that almost anything -_seems_ possible. Few indeed are the studies wherein the fire kindled by -imaginative _seeming_ is guarded and checked by the facts of actual -_seeing_. - -There are a few points in favor of beginning with insects when the child -first attempts making a collection of natural objects. Insects are to be -found everywhere and are easily caught; it requires no technical skill -to preserve them, as is the case with birds; they retain their natural -forms and colors better than do flowers. To secure the desired results -for the pupil when he is making his collection of insects, the teacher -should take care that he makes his observations incidentally, thus -subserving the true methods of nature-study, which is to teach the child -while he remains unconscious of the fact that he is being taught. The -teacher, therefore, should ask the young collector, "Where did you catch -this butterfly?" "Where did you find this beetle?" "Upon what plant or -flower did you find this bug?" "Did you hear this cricket chirp? If so, -how did he do it?" etc., etc.; thus making him tell orally or in a -written language lesson the things he has seen while collecting. The -differences in the appearance and structure of the insects caught should -also be brought out by questions. These questions may be adapted to -pupils of any age, and the success of this part of the work must ever -depend upon the interest and genius of the teacher. - -The objection is sometimes raised that collecting and killing insects -and birds incite the child to cruelty and wanton destruction of life. -This seems good _a priori_ reasoning, but experience does not confirm -it. We have always found that those who collect and take an interest in -insect life are much more careful about killing or hurting insects than -are other people; the entomologist of all men takes the greatest pains -to avoid stepping upon the caterpillar or cricket in his path; also the -young ornithologists who have come under our observation show the -greatest devotion to the rights and interests of birds. Our experience -is that as soon as the child begins to take an interest in insects he -begins to see matters from their point of view, and this insures a -proper regard for their right to life. It will be well, however, for the -teacher to impress upon the pupil that he should kill no insect that is -not desired for his collection. - -The articles necessary for collecting insects are few and inexpensive. -One net and one killing bottle may do service for a grade or an entire -country school, thus reducing the expense to a minimum. - - -INSECT NET. FIG. 128. - - -_Materials required._ - -1. A handle about three feet long; an old broom handle will do. - -2. A piece of tin three inches wide, long enough to reach around the -handle. - -3. A piece of No. 3 galvanized wire 3 feet 6 inches long. - -4. One-sixth of a yard of heavy sheeting. - -5. Three-quarters of a yard of cheese cloth. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 128. Insect net._] - -Bend the wire into a ring about a foot in diameter and bend back about 3 -inches of each end of the wire so they may be inserted into a hole -drilled into the end of the handle. The piece of tin should be fastened -around the end of the handle where the wire is inserted to hold it -securely in place. If practicable, a tinsmith should be called upon to -help in bending the wire and fastening it to the handle. After this is -done, take the sheeting and fold it over the wire double, using only -enough to fit around the wire without gathering; the object of this -heavy cloth is to prevent the net from wearing out quickly. Make the -cheese cloth into a bag with rounded bottom and just wide enough to fit -the facing of sheeting, to which it should be sewed securely, and the -net is finished. - - -HOW TO USE THE NET. - -To be successful, the net must be swung swiftly. Insects have many eyes -and are very wide awake and have no desire to be caught; therefore, the -collector must be very active if he gets anything. One method of using -the net is called "sweeping;" to do this take the handle about a foot -and a half above the ring and pass the net quickly back and forth -striking it against the grass in front of you as you walk through open -fields; the net must be turned at each stroke and kept in rapid motion -or the insects will escape. After a time the net should be examined and -the insects put in the killing bottle. - -Another method of using the net is called "beating." This method is used -in collecting insects from bushes, and consists of lifting the net, -mouth upward, and striking it sharply against the branches or leaves, -thus jarring the insects into it. - -To use the net in water, sweep the water plants as quickly as possible. -In running streams, overturn stones, holding the net just below them -with the mouth up stream. An old dipper made into a sieve by perforating -the bottom with an awl is a good utensil for collecting water insects. - - -THE KILLING BOTTLE. FIG. 129. - -It is desirable to kill the insects in a humane way, so that they will -not suffer by the process; it is also desirable that they should not -revive after they are pinned, both for their own sakes as well as for -the sake of the feelings of the collector. The best way to secure -painless and sure death for the insects is by the means of a "cyanide -bottle." - -[Illustration: _Fig. 129. Killing bottle._] - - -_Materials needed for a killing bottle._ - -1. A bottle with a wide mouth; a morphine bottle or a small olive or -pickle bottle will do. Even a glass fruit-can holding a pint will answer -very well, although taking off and putting on the cover consumes more -time than is desirable. - -2. A cork that will fit the bottle tightly and is long enough to handle -easily. - -3. Two cents' worth of cyanide of potassium. - -4. One cent's worth of plaster of Paris. - -These latter materials may be procured from any drug store. - -Place the lump of cyanide of potassium in the bottle and pour in enough -water to cover it. Add immediately enough plaster of Paris to soak up -all the water; leave the bottle open in a shady place for an hour and -then wipe the dry plaster of Paris from its sides, put in the cork, and -it is ready for use. The plaster of Paris forms a porous cement, which, -while it holds the cyanide fast in the bottom, also allows the fumes of -the poison to escape and fill the bottle. It should be labelled -"poison," for cyanide of potassium is very poisonous. If kept corked -when not in use, a killing bottle made like this will last a whole -season. - -The first rule in using the killing bottle is this: do not kill any more -insects than you need for your collection. The second rule is: do not -breathe the fumes of the bottle, for they smell badly and are not good -for you. When you uncork the bottle to put an insect in it, hold it away -from your face and cork it up again as quickly as possible. - -Some insects may be caught from flowers, etc., directly into the bottle -by holding it uncorked beneath them for a moment; the fumes of the -poison soon overcome them and they drop into the bottle. In taking -insects from the net, hold the bottle in the right hand and the cork in -the left; insert the bottle into the net and place the mouth of it over -an insect crawling on the inside of the net, then put the cork on the -outside of the net into the mouth of the bottle, net and all, for a -moment until the insect falls into the bottom of the bottle; then remove -the cork and take the rest of the imprisoned insects in the same way. -Insects should be left in the bottle at least an hour, and may be left -in there over night without injury to the specimens. - - -INSECT PINS. FIG. 130. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 130. Insect pins, 1, 3, 5, are German insect pins. -2 is a steel mourning pin._] - -After the insects are caught they should be pinned so that they may be -arranged in the collection in an orderly manner. Common pins are not -good for pinning insects; they are too thick and they corrode very soon, -covering the specimens with verdigris. Regular insect pins are desirable -as they are very slender and do not corrode so quickly. These may be -obtained of any dealer in entomological supplies at a cost of fifteen -cents per hundred. - -Ask for the German insect pins Nos. 1, 3 and 5. If these pins are too -expensive you can use the black steel mourning pins. These come in -shallow boxes one by two inches square and have round glass heads and -the boxes are labelled "Germany;" these may be procured from any dry -goods store. However, insects pinned with any beside regular insect pins -cannot be sold or exchanged. - -All insects except beetles should be pinned through that part of the -body just back of the head, as shown in Figs. 137, 139, 140, 141. -Beetles should be pinned through the right wing-cover, as shown in Fig. -138. About one-fourth of the pin should project above the back of the -insect. Very small insects may be gummed to a narrow strip of card board -and the pin put through the card board. - - -LABELLING SPECIMENS. - -Specimens should be labelled with the date of capture and the locality. -Thus the butterfly, Fig. 141, would be labelled thus: - - Ithaca, N. Y. - Aug. 12, 1896. - -The paper on which this label is written should be slipped upon the pin -with which the butterfly is pinned and placed just below the insect. -Labels should be as small as possible and be neatly cut. - - -INSECT BOXES. - -For the beginner nothing is more convenient than an empty cigar box, -which may be obtained at any store where cigars are sold. (Fig. 131.) -The bottom of the box should be covered with some soft, firm material -into which pins may be pushed without bending them. There are many such -materials. Sheet cork or pressed peat may be obtained of dealers in -entomological supplies. Some ingenious boys use regular bottle corks, -cut into cross sections about 1/4 inch thick. Others take the pith of -dried corn-stalks divided in half lengthwise. The cheapest and most -easily procurable of the purchasable materials is cork linoleum. This is -for sale in most carpet stores. Get the quality that is about 1/4 inch -thick, which costs about $1 per yard; put it into the box cork-side up. -Any of these materials can be fastened to the bottom of the box with -glue or with tacks. In all cases they should be covered neatly with -white paper, for the insects appear better against a white background. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 131. A convenient box for the use of the young -collector._] - -For permanent collections, wooden boxes with glass tops are much safer; -and as the insects may be seen through the glass these boxes are more -practical for school collections. This kind of a box is shown in Fig. -132. Its sides are 18 by 16 inches and its height is three inches -outside measure. The upper edge of the sides of the bottom part of the -box is made with a tongue which fits into a groove made in the lower -edge of the sides of the cover. This is done so that the top and bottom -parts of the box shall fit very closely together in order that museum -pests cannot get in and destroy the specimens. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 132. Insect box made of wood, with glass top._] - -[Illustration: _Fig. 133. A cross-section of the side of insect box Fig. -132, showing method of construction and giving measurements._] - -In Fig. 133 is a cross section through one side of the box, showing how -it should be made and giving measurements. In the drawing the glass is -fitted into a groove in the inner side of the cover. This glass might be -puttied in like a window pane if it is found difficult to make the -groove. The corners of the box may be mitred and dove-tailed, or mitred -and nailed; the latter is more easily done. Any carpenter or cabinet -maker can make this box. Great care must be taken to use only thoroughly -seasoned wood in its construction; otherwise the bottom will be sure to -warp and shrink and leave cracks through which the museum pests will -enter. - -The cost of such a box will vary from $0.75 to $1. Basswood should be -used for its construction; pine is not at all suitable on account of the -resin in it. Screw eyes may be put into these boxes and they may be hung -on the walls of the schoolroom like pictures. - - -MUSEUM PESTS. - -These are small beetles which find their way through the narrowest -crevice into the insect boxes and lay their eggs on the pinned insects. - -The larvæ when they hatch work within the specimens at first but after a -time destroy the bodies entirely. The presence of these little rascals -may be detected by dust on the bottom of the box just below the -infested insect. As soon as this dust is observed, pour into one corner -of the box a tablespoonful of carbon bisulfide, or benzine, and close -the box quickly. The teacher or parent should put the substances into -the boxes, as the first is a poison and both are very inflammable. As a -method of preventing the beetles from attacking the collection it is -well to fasten a "moth ball" into one corner of the box. These may be -obtained at a drug store. - - -SPREADING-BOARD. FIG. 134. - -Butterflies and moths look much better in a collection when their wings -are extended at right angles to the length of the body. To arrange them -thus we have to use what is termed a spreading-board. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 134. A spreading-board._] - - -_Materials needed for a medium sized spreading-board._ - -1. Two strips of pine or other soft wood 18 inches long, 1-1/2 inches -wide and 1/2 inch thick. - -2. One strip of wood 18 inches long, 3-1/4 inches wide and 1/2 inch -thick. - -3. Two cleats 3-1/4 inches wide, 3/4 inch high and 1/2 inch thick; and -two cleats 1 inch wide and as high and thick as the others. - -4. A strip of cork or linoleum 17 inches long and a little less than an -inch wide. - -To construct the spreading-board, take the two narrow strips of wood, -place them one-fourth inch apart and on the under side fasten them -across the ends of the longer cleats. Then on the same side as the -cleats tack the piece of cork or linoleum over the space between the -strips of board, and as the cleats are one-half inch wide the linoleum -should cover all the space left. Then midway the boards fasten the two -smaller cleats. Fig. 135 shows a cross-section of the spreading-board -just in front of these two middle cleats. Now it is ready for the -bottom board which will fit exactly if directions are followed, and this -completes it. The space between the two upper boards is wide enough to -take in the body of the moth or butterfly. The cork or linoleum below -the space will hold firmly the pin on which the butterfly is impaled. -The cleats hold the top and bottom boards apart and so protect the -points of the pins. Spreading-boards may be made much smaller or much -larger to suit moths of different sizes; the space between the top -boards must always be large enough to admit the body of the insect. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 135. A cross-section of spreading-board in front of -the cleat "d" in Fig. 134._] - -To use the spreading-board: Insert the pin with the butterfly on it into -the linoleum just far enough so that the body of the insect will be in -the space between the boards up to the wings, Fig. 135. Place the wings -out flat on the board and fasten them there with narrow strips of paper -pinned across them, Fig. 134, _a_. While held down by these strips of -paper arrange them so that the hind margins of the front wings shall -cover the front margins of the hind wings and shall be in a line at -right angles to the body; then pin larger pieces of paper over the rest -of the wings, Fig. 134, _b_. Sometimes isinglass is used instead of -paper to hold the wings down, Fig. 134, _c_. The insects should be left -on the spreading-board at least three days; and when the board has -insects on it, it should be kept in a box where the museum pests and -mice cannot get at it. - -Sometimes when the moths are not spread soon after being killed, they -become so stiff that the wings cannot be moved without breaking them. In -such cases the insects should be put on paper in a jar which has some -wet sand in the bottom and which can be covered tightly. The air in such -a can is so moist that in two or three days the insect will become -limber and may be spread with ease. - - -WHERE TO COLLECT INSECTS. - -The border of a piece of woods where many shrubs and weeds are growing -is an especially good place for collecting many kinds of insects. Any -place where there is a great variety of plants and flowers will give a -variety of insects. Banks of streams and underneath stones in the fields -are good places for collecting. - - -WHEN TO COLLECT INSECTS. - -The best time of the year is during the summer months. The best time of -day is in the forenoon after eight o'clock, and in the twilight at -evening. - -At night many moths may be caught by making a paste of sugar and water -(unrefined sugar is best) and painting it upon tree trunks with a brush -after sunset. The paste should cover a space two inches wide and several -inches long. After dark seek these places cautiously with a lantern and -moths will be found sucking the paste; these may be caught with the -killing bottle if you move carefully so as not to frighten them; they do -not seem to mind the light of the lantern. - -Electric street-lights attract many insects which may be caught -in the net. A lamp set in an open window is also a very good lure -on warm nights in the spring and summer. - - -ARRANGING THE INSECTS IN BOXES. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 136. a, Cricket. b, Grasshopper._] - -After collecting insects comes the desire to arrange them properly, -putting together in neat rows those that resemble each other. To -classify insects correctly requires much study. The scope of this -leaflet admits of only a few suggestions about the most common insects. - -_Dragon Flies._--There are many kinds of these, but they all have four -wings, finely netted and transparent, the hind wings being as large or -larger than the front wings. These are perfectly harmless insects. - -_Grasshoppers, Crickets and Katydids._--These are known to all, Fig. -136. There are two families of grasshoppers: those with long horns or -antennæ and those with short antennæ. Katydids, crickets, cockroaches -and walking-sticks are near relatives to the grasshoppers. - -_Bugs._--These insects have the front pair of wings thick and heavy at -the base and thin and transparent at the tips, Fig. 137, _b_. The -squash-bug, the chinch-bug, and the electric-light bug are examples of -these. Some bugs have the front wings entirely thin and transparent and -sloping like a steep roof over the back of the insect, like the cicada, -Fig. 137, _a_; and the Brownie bug, Fig. 137, _c_, _d_. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 137. a, Cicada. b, Stink-bug. c, Leaf-hopper. d, -Leaf-hopper--front view._] - -[Illustration: _Fig. 138. Beetles--showing the pin through the right -wing cover. a, Snapping beetle. b, Wood-boring beetle. c, Water -beetle._] - -[Illustration: _Fig. 139. Flies--showing the knobs just below the wings. -Note that flies have only two wings. a, Crane fly. b, Pomace -fly--enlarged._] - -_Beetles._--These have hard wing-covers which meet in a straight line -down the back and have a pair of thin wings folded under them, Fig. -138. The "June bug" or "May beetle" and the potato beetle are good -examples of beetles. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 140. a, Wasp. b, Bee. Note these have four wings._] - -[Illustration: _Fig. 141. The Red Admiral butterfly. Note the knobbed -antennæ._] - -_Flies._--These have only two wings, usually transparent. Behind each of -these wings a short thread with a knob on it extends out on each side of -the body instead of hind wings, Fig. 139. House-flies, horse-flies and -mosquitoes are examples of flies. - -_Bees, Wasps and Ants._--Bees, wasps and the winged form of ants have -four transparent wings, Fig. 140. Some flies resemble bees and wasps, -but if examined it will be found that they have only two wings instead -of four. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 142. The Cabbage butterfly._] - -[Illustration: _Fig. 143. The Bass-wood leaf-roller moth._] - -_Butterflies and Moths._--Butterflies and moths may be told apart by -the following character: The antennæ or horns of the butterflies are -always threadlike and knobbed at the tip, Figs. 141, 142, while the -antennæ of moths are in various shapes, but never bear knobs at the -tips, Figs. 143, 144, 145, 146. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 144. The Imperial moth. A common night-flying -moth._] - -[Illustration: _Fig. 145. An under-wing moth._] - -[Illustration: _Fig. 146. The Luna moth. A common night-flying -species._] - - -DEALERS IN ENTOMOLOGICAL SUPPLIES. - -The following is a list of the dealers in entomological supplies that -have advertisements in the current American entomological journals: - -A. Smith & Sons, 269 Pearl Street, New York, N. Y. - -John Akhurst, 78 Ashland Place, Brooklyn, N. Y. - -M. Abbott Frazar, 93 Sudbury Street, Boston, Mass. - -Entomological Society of Ontario, Victoria Hall, London, Ont. - -Queen & Co., 1010 Chestnut Street, Philadelphia, Pa. - -The Bausch & Lomb Optical Company, 515-543 N. St. Paul Street, -Rochester, N. Y. - - - - -LEAFLET XIX. - -SOME TENT-MAKERS.[24] - -BY ANNA BOTSFORD COMSTOCK. - - -[24] Teachers' Leaflet No. 5, June, 1897. - -It is unfortunate that there is, throughout the country, a prevailing -dislike for the small creatures called "worms." This dislike is, in most -instances, the result of wrong training, and is by no means a natural -instinct. As evidence of this, witness the joy with which the small boy -or even the small girl, handles "bait" when preparing to go fishing; -although of all common "worms" surely the angle-worm is least attractive -from any point of view. A still more striking example is the hardihood -with which young fishermen catch the dobson to use as a lure for -bass--for the dobson is not only very ugly in appearance but is also -vicious, often pinching severely the careless fingers of its captors. -Thus the dislike for insects being the result of the point of view, it -should be the first duty of the teacher to remove this repulsion. In the -lesson which follows there is no occasion for teacher or pupils to touch -the insects unless they choose to do so; but an attempt is made to -arouse an interest in the habits and ways of insect life. If we can -succeed in arousing the child's interest in the actions of a -caterpillar, he will soon forget his dislike for the "little brothers" -which live upon foliage and which experience miraculous changes of form -during their short lives. - -In selecting the Apple-tree Tent Caterpillar for this lesson we have -been guided by the following facts: First, it is to be found in early -spring; second, its life-history from egg to cocoon is accomplished -within the limits of the spring term of our schools; third, it is common -everywhere; fourth, it is an important insect from an economic point of -view, and the children may be taught how to keep it out of the orchards, -thus making the lesson of practical use. - -In this lesson the teacher is encouraged to use her own methods and -originate new ones to make the work interesting. The Leaflet is meant -for the exclusive use of the teacher and the text should not be shown to -the pupils. The pictures on page 235 are to be shown to the pupils at -the teacher's discretion. When answers are herein given to the questions -asked, they are meant to aid the teacher in drawing out the correct -replies from the children. - - -MATERIALS NEEDED. - -1. A pocket lens or a tripod lens is desirable, but not a necessity. -These lenses may be bought from or ordered through any jeweler or -bookseller. They cost from twenty-five cents to one dollar each. It is -worth while for any teacher to possess one of these magnifiers as a -means of interesting her pupils in many things. - -2. A bottle, a broad-bottomed one being preferable so that it will not -tip over easily. This bottle is to be filled with water in which a small -branch of the apple tree may be placed to keep it fresh. A common ink -bottle will do to begin with. Fig. 147. - -3. A wooden or pasteboard box, twelve or fourteen inches square,--a soap -box or hat box will do. In place of a cover, nail or paste mosquito -netting or cheese cloth over the top; remove the bottom so that the box -may be placed over the bottle and the branch of apple in it. This is -called a "breeding-cage," and its use is to keep the insects from -straying about the schoolroom. - -4. A twig bearing the egg-mass of the tent caterpillar. These are easily -found before the leaves appear on the apple tree or the wild cherry -tree. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 147. The bottle with the twigs bearing the -egg-masses. The tent is being woven below._] - - -METHODS OF USING THE LEAFLET. - -The teacher should give the pupils a preliminary talk on tents. Speak of -the tents used by Indians, by armies, by circuses, by campers, and -describe them each in turn. The teacher should use all the facts at her -disposal, and all her ingenuity to get the children interested in this -subject. Spend a little time for two or three days in discussing tents, -and get the pupils to tell orally or in essays all they know about -tents. When sufficient interest is thus aroused, tell them this: "The -reason we have talked about tents is that we are going to study some -little folks who make tents and live in them. Their tents are not made -of bark like the Indian's or of canvas like the soldier's, but are made -of the finest silk, which is spun and woven by the tenters themselves. -These silken tents are not pitched upon the ground and fastened down by -ropes and pegs, for these folk, like the Swiss Family Robinson, live in -trees. Many people live in one of these tree tents, and they are all -brothers and sisters. Now, just where these tents are made, and how they -are made, and what sort of little people make them are things which we -shall find out if we watch carefully and patiently." - - -LESSON I.--THE EGGS. FIG. 149, _a_. - -The teacher, having found the egg-mass, should show it to the pupils and -let them, during play hours, collect some for themselves. Say that they -are eggs, but explain no further. Get the children to examine the -egg-masses; ask the following questions: - -On what part of the trees are these egg-masses found? - -What is the shape of the egg-mass? (Bring out the fact that they look -like a portion of the twig swollen or budded.) - -What is the color of the egg-mass? - -Is there much difference in color between the egg-mass and the branch? - -Has this similarity in color any use? (Develop the idea that the shape -and the color of the egg-mass make it resemble the twig so closely as to -hide it from birds or any animal that would be likely to eat the eggs.) - -Does the egg-mass shine? - -Why does it shine? _Answer._ Because there is a coat of varnish around -the eggs. - -Why was varnish put around the eggs? (Get the answer by asking why -varnish is put on wood. Varnish is put around the eggs to preserve them -and to keep them dry during the rains and snows of autumn and winter.) - -If the eggs are near the hatching period the varnish will have scaled -off, revealing the tiny white eggs; if not, let the teacher remove the -varnish with a knife or pin, thus exposing the eggs. If the teacher has -a lens the children should view the eggs through it. Exhibit the picture -Fig. 149, b, which represents the eggs greatly enlarged showing the -net-work of cement which holds them in place. Ask the children to -compare the shape of these eggs with that of bird's eggs, and bring out -the fact that these are thimble-shaped. Then ask the pupils to guess -what sort of mother laid these eggs, cemented them fast with a network, -and then covered them with a coat of waterproof varnish. After -sufficient interest is aroused on this point, explain to them: "One day -last July a little moth or miller was flitting about the tree from which -these twigs were taken. If we could have been there and caught her we -should have found her a pretty little creature with four wings covered -with down and a soft fuzzy body. In color she was a pale rosy-brown, and -had two bands of pale yellow across each front wing." (Call attention to -the picture of the moth, Fig. 149, e.[25]) - -[25] If a specimen of the moth could be obtained, it would be much more -interesting to the children than the picture. The teacher can collect or -breed the moths in July to use the next spring to illustrate the lesson. - -"This is the little mother which laid her eggs in a ring around the twig -and covered them with a waterproof coat to keep them safe and sound -until this spring, when they will hatch." - -What will come out of these eggs when they hatch? The teacher should not -answer this question, but let the pupils watch the eggs and discover the -answer for themselves. - -Place the twig with the egg-mass upon it in the bottle of water (Fig. -147). It will be best if this twig is a part of a forked branch, so that -the caterpillars may make their web upon it (Fig. 148). As soon as the -eggs hatch ask the following questions: - -What sort of young ones hatch out of the eggs? - -Are they like their mother? - -What color are they? - -Why are their heads so large? _Answer._ So that they can gnaw the lid -off the egg and thus get out. - -Why should the young ones of a pretty moth be little black caterpillars? - -(Leave this answer for future investigation.) - -After the caterpillars hatch it will be necessary to bring in each day -fresh apple twigs with buds and leaves on them so as to feed the little -prisoners. It is very desirable that they be kept alive until they have -begun their web and have molted at least twice. If they show a -disposition to wander off, put the breeding cage over the bottle and -branch and so keep them confined with their food. - -To supplement the study of the imprisoned caterpillars, study should be -made at the same time of the insects out of doors and under natural -conditions. If none appear upon an apple or wild cherry tree near the -school-house, the teacher should transfer a colony to such a tree (Fig. -148). This may be done by fastening a twig with an egg-mass upon it to a -branch of the tree. If too late to get the unhatched eggs, get a nest -with the small worms in it and tie that to the convenient branch -instead. This study of the insects out of doors is very necessary in -discovering their normal habits. - - -LESSON II. THE CATERPILLARS. FIG. 149, _c_. - -If the eggs hatch before the leaves appear, upon what do the -caterpillars feed? - -How long is it after hatching before the caterpillars commence to make -their tent? - -Where is the tent always formed? - -_Answer._ In the fork of the branches. - -Why is this so? - -_Answer._ The forking branches offer a convenient support upon which to -stretch the tent: and when, as in the case out of doors, the tent is -spread in a fork of the larger limbs, these limbs afford two branching -roads for the caterpillars to follow in searching for food. - -Let the pupils make drawings of the tent as soon as it is large enough -to be seen well. - -What is the color of the caterpillars when they are a week old? - -Upon what do they feed? - -At what time of day do they feed? - -When on a tree, how far from their tent do they go for food? - -Are the paths over which the caterpillars travel when searching for food -marked in any way? - -[Illustration: _Fig. 148. A young colony of tent-makers on a cherry -tree._] - -_Answer._ This caterpillar spins a silken thread wherever it goes and -therefore leaves a trail of silk behind it. - -Of what is the tent made? - -Compare the tent with a spider's web and note the differences. - -Where does the silk come from, of which the tent is made? - -_Answer._ The silk glands of the caterpillar are situated near the -mouth, while those of the spider are on the rear end of the body. - - -LESSON III. HOW THE INSECTS GROW. - -The caterpillars shed their skins about five times. The first molt -occurs about three days after they hatch; the second molt about four -days later; and the third molt about six days after the second. After -each molt, the color and markings of the caterpillars are somewhat -changed. During some of the molts the pupils should watch a caterpillar -change his skin. After the class has seen this operation the teacher may -give the following lesson: - -Where is your skeleton? - -What is it made of? - -What is it for? Bring out the fact that the skeleton is a support for -the muscles and organs of the body. - -Where is an insect's skeleton? Get as many answers to this question as -possible, then explain: - -The insect's skeleton is on the outside of its body instead of a skin, -and the flesh and muscles are supported by it on the inside instead of -on the outside like our own. As this skeleton is hard it cannot stretch; -as the insect grows and gets too large the shell bursts open and the -insect walks out of it. Now underneath this old hard skeleton a new one -is formed, which is soft and flexible at first, and so stretches to -accommodate the growing insect. After a little time this new skeleton -also hardens and has to be shed when it is too small to suit its owner. - -Notes should be made by the pupil upon the change of color and markings -after the different molts, and the process of molting should be -described. - - -LESSON IV. THE PUPA. FIG. 149, _d_. - -In ordinary seasons, about the middle of May, the caterpillars get their -growth. If those in the breeding cage have died or have not thrived, -bring in a few full-grown caterpillars from the orchard and put them on -some branches in the breeding cage. Give them fresh food each day as -long as they will eat; also place some sticks and chips on the bottom -of the breeding cage for the worms to "spin up" on. Then have the -children observe the following things: - -How do the caterpillars begin their cocoons? - -Where are the cocoons made? - -How are they made? - -Draw a picture of a cocoon. - -About a week after a cocoon is made, open it carefully with a pair of -scissors so as not to hurt the inmate, and let the pupil see the change -that has come over the caterpillar. - -Have the pupils describe the pupa. - -Let the pupils make drawings of the pupa. - -The moths will hardly emerge from the cocoons until after the close of -the school term. The children should be encouraged to gather the cocoons -from the fences around the orchards and from the sticks and the branches -on the ground and to carry them home. The cocoons may be placed in -pasteboard boxes and kept until the moths emerge, about the middle of -July. - - -LESSON V. DESTROYING THE CATERPILLARS. - -After the caterpillars are fully grown and all the processes of growth -have been observed by the pupils, the teacher should give a lesson upon -the injury which they do to trees and the necessity of keeping the -orchards free from these pests. This lesson should be given guardedly so -as not to encourage the children to cruelty in killing insects. The -teacher should always try to inculcate in the child reverence for life, -that wonderful force, which we can so easily take from a creature but -which we can never give back. It is better to appeal to the child's -sense of justice in giving this lesson. The teacher may vary it to suit -her own ideas, but in substance it might be given somewhat as follows: - -"All life is sacred; the smallest worm has as good a right to live in -the sight of God as you or any child has. Life should never be taken -except when necessary. However, no one has the right to interfere with -the rights of another. Neither the child nor the worm has any right to -trespass upon the property of any one else." - -"Let us see whether these caterpillars are trespassers or not. The -farmer works hard to earn the money to buy the land upon which the -orchard is planted; he works hard to earn the money with which to buy -the young trees; he works hard to set out the trees and cultivate the -orchard; therefore the orchard and the fruit of it are his property, and -he has a right to drive away all thieves. If men or children steal the -fruit, he has a right to appeal to the law and have them fined or -imprisoned. If worms come and injure the tree by eating up the foliage, -he has a right to keep them out if he can. The leaves are necessary to -the tree, for if they are destroyed the tree cannot get the air it needs -to keep it vigorous and enable it to mature its fruit. We have seen that -these caterpillars destroy the leaves, and thus do great injury to the -apple crop. We therefore have a right to destroy these little robbers, -as that is the only way we can keep them out of our orchards." - -How can the caterpillars be destroyed? - -The egg-masses can be collected in winter and early spring from young -orchards, and burned. - -Tie bits of suet or fresh fat pork to the branches of the trees and thus -induce chickadees, nuthatches, and woodpeckers to visit the orchard in -winter. These birds will destroy eggs and cocoons of the tent -caterpillar, and of other insect pests also. - -In large, old trees, we must wait until later. Ask the pupils the -following questions: - -At what times did we find the worms in their tents? _Answer._ Early -morning; late afternoons; and during cold, dark days. - -If we should destroy the tents in the middle of a warm, sunny day, what -would happen? _Answer._ The caterpillars, being out feeding on the -leaves, would not be hurt, and as soon as they came back would make -another tent. - -If the tent is destroyed in the early morning or late afternoon or on a -cold, dark day, what would happen? _Answer._ The caterpillars, all being -in the tent, would be destroyed. - -How may the tents be destroyed? _Answer._ By wiping them out with a long -pole on one end of which is wound a rag saturated with kerosene. Or by -burning them out with a torch. - -Is it best to destroy the caterpillars early in the season, while they -are still small, or to wait until they are large and are about ready to -pupate. - -If the trees were sprayed with Paris green in the early spring, what -would happen? _Answer._ The caterpillars would be killed as soon as they -began to eat, when they were first hatched. - -When these caterpillars feed on the leaves of wild cherry they are doing -no damage to an orchard. Therefore, when the tents appear on wild cherry -trees have we any right to destroy them? _Answer._ The wise and careful -farmer does not allow wild cherry trees to grow along his fences if -they will become breeding places for insect enemies which will next year -attack his orchards. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 149. The Curious History of a Tent Caterpillar. a, -The masses of eggs on the twigs of an apple tree. b, The eggs enlarged. -c, A full grown caterpillar. d, Cocoons. e, The moth, or adult insect._] - - - - -LEAFLET XX. - -MOSQUITOES.[26] - -BY MARY ROGERS MILLER. - - "Nature-Study is learning those things in nature that are best - worth knowing, to the end of doing those things that make life - most worth living." - - --PROFESSOR HODGE in _Nature-Study and Life_. - - -[26] Home Nature-Study Course, Vol. IV, No. 23, May, 1902. - -[Illustration] - -Spite of all the efforts of scientists and nature-students to popularize -the mosquito, its reputation as a public nuisance is as well sustained -as ever, and it seems destined to remain as unpopular as were its -ancestors. There is no doubt that these creatures "abound" and that -"they are great annoyances to both man and animals," as Dr. Howard tells -us in "The Insect Book;" but he has laid a new and even more deadly sin -at their door in stating, as he does in no uncertain terms, that "they -are active agents in the transfer of disease." - -There seems to be no escape from the attention of these persistent "imps -o' evil." Though we travel to far Alaska or to icy Greenland we cannot -be free. Since we are doomed to existence in the same world with the -mosquito it behooves us to discover, if possible, some way to turn the -creature to account for our entertainment or instruction. Forget for the -moment that you despise mosquitoes, and let us study their ways. By -making its life history the subject of some of our lessons we may at -least learn how the mosquito lives and develops; and later we can turn -this knowledge to practical account. Since for many generations these -creatures have made the human race the subject of insistent study, it is -no more than fair that the tables should be turned! - -You are not good nature-students until you have recognized and overcome -your prejudices. You read the life history of the rabbit and you think -you hate its enemies. You watch a family of foxes with their cunning -ways, and the mother's care for her young and you cannot help -sympathizing with them in their struggle for existence. Every creature -in its turn becomes interesting to you when you find yourself wondering -about how it makes its home, rears its young, and gets its food. As you -get nearer to nature you will cease to feel any pride in the fact that -you "hate" snakes, mosquitoes, and all such "varmints." Indeed that -hatred, born of ignorance, will have given place to sympathy and -interest. You have a new point of view. - -One of the first questions asked of the returning animals in early -spring is, "How have you spent the winter?" The bluebird and the robin -show no signs of weariness after their long flight from the South. The -"woolly bear" caterpillars look just as they did in October. The early -butterflies are a trifle worn and shabby after their hibernation. But -who has thought to inquire where and how the mosquito has spent the cold -season? "Who cares," one may say, "so long as they don't stay around -where we are as they did last summer?" - -[Illustration: _Fig. 150. Mosquito's wing._] - -Suppose we make it our business from now on to care about such things, -and to inquire into the ways our plant and animal neighbors have of -living and of getting a living. Are you quite sure that the mosquitoes -have not spent their winter under your protection? If in April you had -had occasion to frequent either garret or cellar there you might have -found them. By dozens and scores they were waiting for the return of -warm weather to free them. Many of them winter not as eggs, larvæ, or -pupæ, but as winged adults, as _mosquitoes_. This rather interferes with -the prevalent notion that mosquitoes live but for a day. Would that this -were true, and might that day be short! - -[Illustration: _Fig. 151. Raft of eggs, greatly enlarged._] - - -THE LIFE HISTORY OF THE MOSQUITO. - -The life history of a mosquito is in four chapters, some of which are -exceedingly short, others long. The length of each may be varied by the -weather and the season. Moisture and warmth are particularly -advantageous to the rapid development of these creatures. Ten days in -hot weather may be sufficient time for the growth of a generation of -them, from egg to adult. There are many generations in a year. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 152. The larva or wiggler._] - -The larvæ of mosquitoes are aquatic. They live in stagnant water -everywhere, in ponds, swamps, ditches, puddles, rain-water barrels, and -horse-troughs. In early spring the female mosquito that has wintered in -your garret will probably go to the nearest rain-water barrel or -water-tank. She finds her way by instinct, before the sun is up. When -you go to replenish your pitcher you will find a little flat cluster of -eggs like a tiny raft floating on the surface (Fig. 151). It is -dark-colored and the chances are you will not see it unless it gets into -your pitcher. By two o'clock in the afternoon there may be from two to -four hundred lively little wigglers in the water. Possibly they will -wait until the following day. They all hatched from the eggs of one -mosquito. They hitch and twitch about in the water, coming often to the -surface and hanging there for a moment (Fig. 152). You call them -"wigglers." But did you ever wonder why they wiggle, why they come so -often to the surface, and why they thrust up the little tube which -projects from near the end of the body? Did you ever ask what they find -to eat in the water, and how they eat it? - -[Illustration: _Fig. 153. The active pupa._] - -The larval stage lasts about ten days in hot summer weather, but longer -when the days are cool. Then comes a change in form into the pupa (Fig. -153). The creature is still active and aquatic, though no food is taken. -It does not stay long away from the surface while in this stage. -Finally, after two or more days as a pupa, the full-grown mosquito -emerges and takes wing, leaving its pupa case floating on the top of the -water like a forlorn little derelict. - - -ENEMIES OF THE MOSQUITO. - -Besides man, the mosquito has many natural enemies. In the water -especially they fall easy victims to the thousand-and-one insect ogres. -The nymphs of dragon-flies are especially fond of wigglers, and there -has been much said and written about raising dragon-flies as a safeguard -against mosquitoes. Most of the predaceous insects which live in still -water feed on young mosquitoes, while the adults often fall prey to -their more swiftly flying insect neighbors. - - -HOW TO STUDY THE MOSQUITO. - -Over and around the tumbler place a piece of close-woven mosquito -netting to confine the adult insects. A glass tumbler two-thirds full of -rain-water, a little cluster of eggs, or a half dozen wigglers, a keen -observer, and you have a nature-study opportunity not to be surpassed in -the finest laboratory. If you have already seen a part of the life -history, do not be satisfied until you have completed your chain of -observations. Get the eggs; watch the hatching, the molting, the -transformations. See every stage. Learn something new every time you -look at the wiggler or the mature mosquito. It is not at all necessary -that you let these insects escape into the school-room and cause -trouble. - -Those who wish more minute description, with many illustrations of -mosquitoes of different kinds, should obtain from the Division of -Publications, Department of Agriculture, the published results of Dr. L. -O. Howard's studies of mosquitoes. In this pamphlet, from which the -drawings in this lesson are copied, the subject of the transfer of -disease germs by mosquitoes is very thoroughly discussed, with pictures -which distinguish between the common mosquito and those which transfer -malaria and other diseases. - -Those scientists who had to do with the naming of the many species of -mosquitoes had certainly a sense of humor. One would think they named -the creatures according to the mildness or malignity of their bite. A -few of the names are as follows: - - Culex excitans - Culex pungens - Culex irritans - Culex stimulans - Culex perturbans - Culex excrucians - - -THE CRUSADE AGAINST MOSQUITOES. - -BY M. V. SLINGERLAND. - -There is now a world-wide crusade against mosquitoes, extending from the -wilds of Africa through the noted malarial districts of Italy to -America. In America a National Mosquito Extermination Society has been -formed. This extensive crusade is due to the practical demonstration -that some kinds of mosquitoes may transmit malaria, yellow fever and -probably other diseases of human beings. - -All mosquitoes must have water in which to develop, and the warfare -against them consists largely in destroying their watery breeding -grounds. This is being done on a large scale, either by draining or by -filling in marshes, pools, and similar places which often swarm with the -"wigglers." Large areas of such mosquito-breeding waste lands in New -Jersey and on Long Island are thus being reclaimed and the mosquito -nuisance largely abated. - -Aquaria, rain barrels, tanks, small ponds and similar places can be kept -free from the "wigglers" by introducing small fish, as gold fish or -silver fish, sunfish, "killies," roaches or minnows. An interesting and -instructive object lesson could be given by putting a few minnows from a -near-by brook into the school aquarium or into a specially prepared -glass dish well stocked with the "wigglers." - -One can easily prevent mosquitoes from breeding in rain barrels or tanks -by covering them with mosquito netting. - -Another practicable and successful method is to pour or sprinkle -kerosene oil every two or three weeks in a thin film over the surface of -cesspools, rain barrels, tanks, ponds or any other body of sluggish -water where the "wigglers" are found. This oil film kills the "wigglers" -(both larvæ and pupæ) by preventing them from getting to the surface to -breathe, and it also prevents the mother mosquito from laying her eggs -on the water. There are patent preparations or oils which penetrate all -through the water, killing the "wigglers" but spoiling the water for -general use, so that such oils are usually applied only to infested -cesspools, sewer basins, or manure pits. - -By a little concerted effort of local officials, individuals, or by the -school children in applying whichever of the above methods is most -practicable, much interesting and valuable work could be accomplished -and the pestiferous mosquito largely eliminated in many localities. - - - - -LEAFLET XXI. - -THE WAYS OF THE ANT.[27] - -BY ANNA BOTSFORD COMSTOCK. - - -[27] Home Nature-Study Course, Vol. V, No. 1. October, 1903. - -[Illustration] - -For many years ants have been recognized as among the most interesting -of the little animals that people our fields. However, not until -recently have we begun to understand, even in a small measure, their -economic importance and the part they play in maintaining the balance in -insect life. Therefore, we shall give a few studies of ants and their -ways, and as a knowledge of their habits is necessary to begin with, we -will take up the ant-nest first. - - -AN ANT-NEST. - -Two panes of glass laid flat one on the other with a space between of -one-eighth of an inch or less, these panes covered with a piece of dark -paper or wood to keep out the light and then placed on something that -will allow them to be surrounded by water; a bit of blotting paper -two inches square, dampened and placed at one end of the glass -chamber--these are all the materials and the art necessary for the -construction of a perfectly equipped ant-nest. - -Once we wished to make an ant-nest hurriedly, and this is the way we did -it: we chose an agate wash basin (Fig. 154), as this would not rust, and -filled it half-full of water; in this we made an island, by placing in -it a three-pint agate basin turned bottom side up. We took two discarded -negatives, size 4x5 inches, and cleaned off the films; then we placed -one of the pieces of glass on the basin-island, took the stumps of four -burnt matches and placed one on each side of this glass near its edge; -then we placed the other piece of glass on top, letting it rest on the -matches to make a chamber just high enough for the ants to live in -comfortably. This done, we took the cover of a cigar-box and cut it -down to the size of the negatives, put a screw-eye in the center to lift -it by and placed it on top of the upper glass to make the chamber below -quite dark. Then we took a trowel and fruit-can and went after some -inhabitants for our island. We went to an open pasture and turned over -stones until we found beneath one a heap of yellowish grain-like pupæ -and little translucent whitish bodies, which we knew were larvæ, all -being cared for by swarms of worker-ants. One of us pushed the trowel -beneath, taking up dirt and all, while the other held the can open, into -which the trowel was emptied. We hastened back and as gently as -possible, taking care to hurt none of our little captives, placed the -contents of the can on the top of the nest. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 154. An improvised ant-nest._] - -As the first thought of an ant is never for its own safety, but for the -safety of its infant sisters, the little workers began to hunt for a -safe and dark place in which to stow away their charges. In running -about they soon discovered the space between the two pieces of glass and -in a few hours the young ones were moved into the new quarters. Then we -cleaned away the earth on top of the nest, and by lifting the cover we -were able to see all that was going on within. The water in the -wash-basin prevented any of our uneasy captives from escaping, as these -little people, so clever in most things, have never yet mastered the art -of swimming. - -I have an ant-nest on my table as I write, shown in Fig. 156. Instead of -matches to keep the two pieces of glass apart I have a narrow strip of -canton flannel glued around the edge of the glass floor except for two -little doors at the opposite corners; there is also a narrow strip of -cloth partitioning the chamber into two rooms with a door at one end. -One room I left empty and in the other I placed a bit of blotting paper -which I keep damp by occasionally adding a few drops of water. The nest -is placed upon a piece of plank 18 inches square. Around the plank near -the edge is a groove about an inch deep made with a chisel and kept full -of water, so that my ants have a castle with a moat. It was necessary to -paint this bit of plank thoroughly, above and below, to keep it from -warping. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 155. Ant-nest, on a piece of plank, which has a -moat near its edge to confine the insects._] - -The ants in my nest I found on a hillside beneath a stone; they are -brownish with yellow legs and a little less than a quarter of an inch in -length. They were stupid at first and would not discover the chamber -prepared for them, but persisted in hiding their young under bits of -earth which were brought in with them. So I made a scoop of a sheet of -writing paper and with it placed a heap of the young, with a few of the -nurses, in the empty chamber, then put on the glass ceiling and cover -and left them. In a few hours the whole colony had moved into this -chamber, but evidently it was not humid enough for the health of the -young, and by the next morning the pupæ and larvæ and eggs were all in -the other chamber arranged around the edges of the blotting paper. - -What I have seen of interest in this nest on my table would fill a small -volume, if written out in detail. Just now a worker approached a pupa, -that appears through the lens like a little bag of meal tied at one end -with a black string; she examined it carefully with her antennæ and -concluded it needed to be moved, and, though it is as large as she, -picked it up in her jaws and carried it to a position which she regarded -as more favorable. Then she approached a larva which looks like a little -crook-neck squash, inquired as to its needs with her antennæ and then -cleaned it with her tongue, as a cat licks a kitten, and fed it. Her -next duty was to pick up a whole bunch of little white oblong eggs and -scurry off with them to get them out of the light. Then she stopped to -help another worker to straighten out the soft legs and antennæ of a -pale, new sister that was just emerging from the pupa skin. By the time -I had seen as much as this I felt it my duty to replace the cover, as -the light greatly disturbs the little captives. It is said that if a -yellow glass be used for the upper piece, the ants feel that they are in -darkness, and their actions may be watched constantly without disturbing -them. - -For a permanent nest, it is necessary to secure a queen, which lays all -the eggs for the colony. She may be recognized by her larger size and -may sometimes be found in a nest under the stones. However, it is so -difficult to obtain a queen that I more often bring in the young and the -workers; the latter will be content as long as they have the babies to -feed and bring up; when finally this is accomplished, I usually take my -colony back to its nest in the field, where it is made most welcome. -This may seem sentimental, but after you have watched these little -people working so hard and taking such devoted care of their baby -sisters and doing so many wise things in their home, you will be loth to -let the tiny creatures die of discouragement because they have nothing -else to do, and you will be still more loth to let them loose to -scatter, bewildered and helpless, over a strange earth. However, I have -to be very careful and mark the nest to which they belong, for if I -should put them near another colony, my poor captives would soon die -inglorious deaths. - -Food which we provide for the ants in captivity should be varied and -should be put on the island, rather than in the nest as we may thus be -able to better clean away the refuse. Crackers or bread soaked in -sweetened water, sponge cake, berry-jam, sugar, bits of raw meat, yolks -of hard boiled eggs crushed, freshly killed insects or earth-worms, all -may prove acceptable to our little friends. Their food may be soft but -should not be in a fluid state. - - -QUESTIONS ABOUT ANTS. - -_If you have not made an ant-nest and observed the ant as indicated, -make some field observations. These may be made with the naked eye, or -with a tripod lens. Such a lens costs about thirty-five cents._ - -1. Have you ever seen an ant-hill? If so, describe it. - -2. Do all ants build mound nests? - -3. In what situations have you found ant-nests? - -4. How many kinds of ants do you know? - -5. Have you ever seen winged ants? If so, describe the experience. - -6. What is the reason for a winged form of ants? - -7. Have you observed ants meet and "converse" with each other? If so, -how did they do it? - -8. Have you seen the ants carrying their young? If so, how do they do -it? - -9. If you have made an ant-nest, tell what you have seen going on within -it. - -10. Tell any experiences you have had with ants, that show their -courage, energy or cleverness. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 156. Uncovered ant-nest, viewed from above, looking -through the glass ceiling._ - -_The white pieces around the edges and at the center are strips of -canton flannel, forming walls and partition to the nest. Note the doors -at the lower left and upper right hand corners and at lower end of the -partition. The piece of blotting paper in the chamber at the left -chanced to have a picture of an eagle upon it. The small white objects -are pupæ, assorted in heaps._] - - -ANTS AND THEIR HERDS.[28] - -[28] Home Nature-Study Course, Vol. V, No. 8, May, 1904. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 157. Rose infested with aphids or plant-lice._] - -Very soon after the green leaves come, one may notice that the ants seem -to be greatly interested in getting to the tops of trees, bushes and -vines. If one watches for only a short time, he may see them hastening -up and down with that important ant-air which says plainly, "There now, -don't hinder me, I haven't a moment to waste." If we should follow with -our eyes one of these hurried six-footed Marthas on her way up a tree, -we would find that her business was that of milk-maid. Her cows are -there pasturing on the leaves overhead, and she hastens to them coaxing -for the milk, which is a clear drop of sweet honeydew. For many years -entomologists repeated the statement that the honeydew secreted by -aphids or plant-lice for the use of the ants came from the two little -tubes on the back of the insect. It is easy to see how this mistake came -about; the tubes were there, and so was the honeydew; the tubes -suggested a cow's udder, and as the ants use the honeydew the natural -inference was that it came from the tubes. This interesting error has -been printed in so many honorable books, that it has become a classic. -As a matter of fact, the caterpillars of our little, blue butterflies do -have glands on the abdomen which secrete honeydew for the use of the -ants; but the honeydew of the plant-lice, like honey itself, is -manufactured in the alimentary canal, and issues from it. Observations -have shown that each individual plant-louse may produce from five to -seven drops of honeydew in twenty-four hours. If our cows could produce -as much in proportion, then a good Holstein would give something like -six thousand pounds of milk per day, and would be a highly profitable -animal to have in the dairy. Although the honeydew does not come from -the little tubes on the back of the plant-louse, yet those tubes have -their uses. I once observed a young spider approaching an aphid, which -was facing its enemy. As the spider approached, the aphid lifted its -abdomen, and thrust one of these tubes over directly in the spider's -face, and on this tube there suddenly appeared a little ball of yellow -wax. The whole act was so like a pugilist thrusting his fist in his -enemy's face that I laughed. The spider retreated and the aphid let its -abdomen fall back in its natural position, but the little wax ball -remained for some time on the tip of the tube. A German scientist, Mr. -Busgen, of the University of Jena, discovered that a plant-louse smeared -the eyes and jaws of his enemy, the aphis-lion, with this wax which -dried as soon as applied. In action it was something like throwing a -basin of paste at the head of an attacking party. Mr. Busgen discovered -that the aphis-lion thus treated was obliged to stop and clean himself -before he could go on with his hunt, and meantime the aphid walked off -in safety. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 158. A stable made by ants for plant-lice._] - -The honeydew is excreted in such quantities that often the pavement -beneath trees may be seen to be spattered by the drops of this sweet -rain. It seems to be excreted solely for attracting the ants. In return -for this, the ants give care and protection to their herds. They -sometimes take them into their nests and care for them. In one case, at -least, one species of ant builds for one species of aphid (which lives -upon dogwood) a little mud stable which protects the aphids from all -enemies. This stable is neatly placed at the fork of the twigs and has a -little circular door by which the ants may enter (Fig. 158). The -lady-bug larvæ and the ant-lions both feed voraciously on the aphids; an -ant will attack single-handed one of these depredators, although it be -much larger than herself, and will drive it away or perish in the -attempt. - -Some so-called practical people say, "Let us study only those things in -Nature that affect our pocketbook, and not waste our time studying -irrelevant things." If this spirit had animated scientists from the -first, many of the most important economic discoveries would never have -been made. This relation of ants to aphids is an example to the point. -For a hundred years has the fact been known that ants use the aphids for -their cows, and the practical men said, "This is a very pretty story, -but what we want is some method of killing the aphids." It remained for -Professor Forbes, of Illinois, to show the practical application of this -"pretty story" in the life history of the corn-root plant-louse, which -did great damage to the corn crop of the West. These plant-lice winter -in the ground wherever they chance to be left by the dying roots of the -last year's crop, and with their soft bodies could never work their way -in the hard earth and to the roots of the newly-planted corn in the -spring. Professor Forbes discovered that the ants in these infested -fields make mines along the principal roots of the new corn; and that -they then go out and collect the plant-lice, and place them in these -burrows, and there watch over them and protect them. - - -OBSERVATION LESSON ON THE RELATION OF ANTS TO PLANT-LICE. - -_A reading-glass or lens may be used to advantage in making these -observations._ - -_Find some plant near at hand that is infested by aphids in order to -note from time to time the relation of ants to these little creatures. -Some aphids on the petiole and leaves of the Virginia Creeper on our -piazza once afforded me a convenient field for daily observation._ - -1. How does the ant approach the aphid and ask for honeydew? - -2. Does she wait long if there is no response? - -3. Does the ant step on the aphids as she runs about among them? - -4. What are the colors of the aphids you have observed? - -5. On what plants were they feeding? - -6. What sort of mouth parts have the aphids? - -7. What part of the plant is their food, and how do they get it? - -8. Why does not Paris green applied to the leaves on which aphids are -feeding kill them? - -9. Have you seen the lady-bird larvæ or the ant-lions destroying aphids? -Explain. - -10. Have you ever seen the little wax balls on the tubes of the -plant-lice? If so, did you note when and why they were produced? - -11. Have you ever seen an ant attacking the enemies of plant-lice? -Describe. - -12. How do you think this relation of ants to aphids affects -agriculture? - -13. Study what the ants do for the aphids which infest your rose bushes. -Do you infer from this that it is well to exterminate the ant colonies -in your flower garden? - -14. Do you know how to clear your plants of plant-lice? If so, how? If -not send to Cornell or some other experiment station for a spray -bulletin. - - - - -LEAFLET XXII. - -THE BIRDS AND I.[29] - -BY L. H. BAILEY. - - -[29] Teachers' Leaflet No. 10, May, 1898. - -[Illustration] - -The springtime belongs to the birds and me. We own it. We know when the -Mayflowers and the buttercups bloom. We know when the first frogs peep. -We watch the awakening of the woods. We are wet by the warm April -showers. We go where we will, and we are companions. Every tree and -brook and blade of grass is ours; and our hearts are full of song. - -There are boys who kill the birds, and girls who want to catch them and -put them in cages; and there are others who steal their eggs. The birds -are not partners with them; they are only servants. Birds, like people, -sing for their friends, not for their masters. I am sure that one cannot -think much of the springtime and the flowers if his heart is always set -upon killing or catching something. We are happy when we are free; and -so are the birds. - -The birds and I get acquainted all over again every spring. They have -seen strange lands in the winter, and all the brooks and woods have been -covered with snow. So we run and romp together, and find all the nooks -and crannies which we had half forgotten since October. The birds -remember the old places. The wrens pull the sticks from the old hollow -rail and seem to be wild with joy to see the place again. They must be -the same wrens that were here last year and the year before, for -strangers could not make so much fuss over an old rail. The bluebirds -and wrens look into every crack and corner for a place in which to -build, and the robins and chipping-sparrows explore every tree in the -old orchard. - -If the birds want to live with us, we should encourage them. The first -thing to do is to let them alone. Let them be as free from danger and -fear as you or I. Take the hammer off the old gun, give pussy so much to -eat that she will not care to hunt for birds, and keep away the boys who -steal eggs and who carry sling-shots and throw stones. Plant trees and -bushes about the borders of the place, and let some of them, at least, -grow into tangles; then, even in the back yard, the wary cat-bird may -make its home. - -For some kinds of birds we can build houses. Some of the many forms -which can be used are shown in the pictures at the end of this Leaflet. -Any ingenious boy can suggest a dozen other patterns. Although birds may -not appreciate architecture, it is well to make the houses neat and -tasty by taking pains to have the proportions correct. The floor space -in each compartment should be not less than five by six inches, and six -by six or six by eight may be better. By cutting the boards in multiples -of these numbers, one can easily make a house with several compartments; -for there are some birds, as martins, tree swallows, and pigeons that -like to live in families or colonies. The size of the doorway is -important. It should be just large enough to admit the bird. A larger -opening not only looks bad, but it exposes the inhabitants to dangers of -cats and other enemies. Birds which build in houses, aside from doves -and pigeons, are bluebirds, wrens, tree-swallows, martins, and sometimes -the chickadees. For the wren and the chickadee the opening should be an -inch augur hole, and for the others it should be about one-and-a-half -inches. Only one opening should be provided for each house or -compartment. A perch or door-step should be provided just below each -door. It is here that the birds often stop to arrange their toilets; and -when the mistress is busy with domestic affairs indoors the male-bird -often sits outside and entertains her with the latest neighborhood -gossip. These houses should be placed on poles or on buildings in -somewhat secluded places. Martins and tree-swallows like to build their -nests twenty-five feet or more above the ground, but the other birds -usually prefer an elevation less than twelve feet. Newly made houses, -and particularly newly painted ones, do not often attract the birds. - -But if the birds and I are companions I must know them more intimately. -Merely building houses for them is not enough. I want to know live and -happy birds, not dead ones. We are not to know them, then, by catching -them, or stuffing them, or collecting their eggs. Persons who make a -business of studying birds may shoot birds now and then, and collect -their eggs. But these persons are scientists and they are grown-up -people. They are trying to add to the sum of human knowledge, while we -want to know birds just because we want to. But even scientists do not -take specimens recklessly. They do not rob nests. They do not kill -brooding birds. They do not make collections merely for the sake of -making them; and even their collections are less valuable than a -knowledge of the bird as it lives and flies and sings. - -Boys and girls should not make collections of eggs, for these -collections are mere curiosities, as collections of spools and marbles -are. They may afford some entertainment, to be sure, but one can find -amusement in harmless ways. Some persons think that the securing of -collections makes one a naturalist, but it does not. The naturalist -cares more for things as they really are in their own homes than for -museum specimens. One does not love the birds when he steals their eggs -and breaks up their homes; and he is depriving the farmer of one of his -best friends, for birds keep insects in check. - -Stuffed birds do not sing and empty eggs do not hatch. Then let us go to -the fields and watch the birds. Sit down on the soft grass and try to -make out what the robin is doing on yonder fence or why the wren is -bursting with song in the thicket. An opera-glass or spy-glass will -bring them close to you. Try to find out not only what the colors and -shapes and sizes are, but what their habits are. What does the bird eat? -How much does it eat? Where is its nest? How many eggs does it lay? What -color are they? How long does the mother bird sit? Does the father bird -care for her when she is sitting? How long do the young birds remain in -the nest? Who feeds them? What are they fed? Is there more than one -brood in a season? Where do the birds go after breeding? Do they change -their plumage? Are the mother birds and father birds unlike in size or -color? How many kinds of birds do you know? - -These are some of the things that every boy or girl wants to know; and -we can find out by watching the birds! There is no harm in visiting the -nests, if one does it in the right way. I have visited hundreds of them -and have kept many records of the number of eggs and the dates when they -were laid, how long before they hatched, and when the birds flew away; -and the birds took no offense at my inquisitiveness. These are some of -the cautions to be observed: Watch only those nests which can be seen -without climbing, for if you have to climb the tree the birds will -resent it. Make the visit when the birds are absent, if possible; at -least, never scare the bird from the nest. Do not touch the eggs or the -nest. Make your visit very short. Make up your mind just what you want -to see, then look in quickly and pass on. Do not go too often; once or -twice a day will be sufficient. Do not take the other children with you, -for you are then likely to stay too long and to offend the birds. - -Now let us see how intimately you can become acquainted with some bird -this summer. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 159._] - -[Illustration: _Fig. 162._] - -[Illustration: _Fig. 160._] - -[Illustration: _Fig. 163._] - -[Illustration: _Fig. 161._] - -[Illustration: _Suggestions for home-made bird houses._] - -[Illustration: _Fig. 164._] - -[Illustration: _Fig. 165._] - -[Illustration: _Fig. 166._] - -[Illustration: _Fig. 167._] - -[Illustration: _Fig. 168._] - -[Illustration: _Fig. 169._] - -[Illustration: _Fig. 170._] - -[Illustration: _Fig. 171._] - -[Illustration: _Fig. 172._] - -[Illustration: _Improvised bird houses._] - -[Illustration: _Fig. 173._] - -[Illustration: _Fig. 176._] - -[Illustration: _Fig. 174._] - -[Illustration: _Fig. 175._] - -[Illustration: _Fig. 177._] - -[Illustration: _Suggestions for home-made bird houses._] - - - - -LEAFLET XXIII. - -THE EARLY BIRDS.[30] - -BY L. A. FUERTES. - - -[30] Nature-Study Quarterly, No. 4: Leaflet 17, March, 1900. - -[Illustration] - -After a long winter, many of us are too impatient for spring to wait for -the swelling of the buds, the opening of the early flowers, and the -springing of the grass. Several weeks lie between the end of winter and -the truly genial spring days, and during this interval we look for -something to herald the settled spring season. And the thing which gives -us that for which we are unconsciously looking, more than all other -signs, is the arrival of the birds. Who has not warmed to the quavering -call of the first blue-bird, or been suddenly thrilled some early spring -day with the sunny notes of the song-sparrow! - -In the southern part of this State, notably in the lower Hudson Valley, -the winter is spent by several birds which elsewhere we are accustomed -to see only after the winter has passed. Among these are the blue-bird, -robin, song-sparrow, white-throated-sparrow, meadow-lark, and possibly -the purple-finch. But in most of the State we must wait until the first -or second week in March before we can be sure of seeing any of them. It -is a question which of the earlier birds will first make its appearance, -as these early migrants are much less regular in their movements than -those that come late in April and in May, after the weather has become -settled. Many a robin and blue-bird arrives during some early warm -"spell," to find himself suddenly surrounded by flying snow and blown -about by cold winds. But these and a few other hardy ones seem able to -stand such rebuffs with great equanimity, and the momentary shining of a -fickle March sun will often evoke some pent-up song-sparrow's notes from -the shelter of a hedge or thicket. Robins, blue-birds, song-sparrows, -cowbirds, meadow-larks, phoebes, bronzed grackles, kingfishers, and -doves may be looked upon as the vanguards of the hosts of migrating -birds that come to us each year, and the first four or five may be -expected almost any time after the first week in March. If the winter -has been late, these may not appear until the middle or even the latter -part of the month, in which case one is busy keeping track of the -arrivals, as the other birds have caught up then, and all come nearly at -the same time. - -It is unnecessary to give detailed descriptions of robins, bluebirds, -and song-sparrows, as nearly everyone is familiar with them; but some of -the other early comers may be more easily recognized if some field -impressions of them be given. - - * * * * * - -Almost any warm day in early March we may hear a thin, clear "tsssss" in -a high piping key, and on looking up see from one to five black birds, -about the size of orioles, flying in a strange undulating manner--some -up and some down, with the wings held close to their sides during the -"drop" in their flight. They are cowbirds. The flock may swirl into the -top of a tree and sit close together. (Fig. 178.) If this happens within -eyeshot, stop and watch them for a moment. One or two of the males are -almost certain to utter the ridiculous song of the species, which, like -that of their relatives, the grackles, is accompanied by the most -grotesque of actions. The bird spreads its wings to their utmost, -spreads and elevates the tail, stretches its neck upwards and forwards, -and then, quivering and tottering, nearly falls forward off the perch. -The only sound which accompanies this absurd action is a faint chuckling -"clk-sfs'k," which is scarcely to be heard a hundred feet away. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 178. Cowbirds._] - - * * * * * - -With the cowbirds we may expect the arrival of the bronzed grackles, -which resemble them much in flight, but are larger and come in far -larger flocks--sometimes ten, sometimes a hundred or more. Their arrival -is known by the vigorous calls they utter while flying, a loud bass -"jook." When seen squabbling in the spruce trees or in the bare branches -of the willows fringing the streams, the males are likely to be giving -their "song." It is scarcely more of a note than the cowbird's, a rusty -squeak, and it is accompanied by a contortion in the same manner. It is -not such a pronounced effort, however, and is often only a slight -shudder and shrug of the shoulders. They feed, like cowbirds, mostly on -the ground, and walk about most sedately in the grass like small crows. -In tall grass, however, they waddle too much to be graceful. When taking -flight they spread their long pointed tails in a very peculiar and -characteristic manner--not out in a horizontal plane, like most birds, -but up at the sides in the shape of a gardener's trowel, which gives -them an extraordinary appearance. - - * * * * * - -The redwings begin to come into the marshes soon after the grackles, and -are at that time in full feather and song. Their rich, deliberate -"clonk-ka lrrrrrrr," interlarded with the clear piping whistles of some -of the flock, makes a concert of bird-notes very dear to all who are -familiar with it. In their scarlet and black velvet dress these birds -are impossible to mistake, whether seen chasing over the marshes, -singing from an elm-top, or balancing with spread tail upon some tall -reed stalk. - - * * * * * - -There is a bird-note so often and so justly mistaken for that of the -phoebe that the error certainly merits correction. The spring song of -the chick-a-dee (which may be heard on almost any warm day all winter, -and is very easy to call forth by even a poorly whistled imitation) is a -clear, pure "^[=eee]_{[=eee]}" or "[--__ __]" which really says -"Phoebe" much more plainly than the true phoebe note, this latter -being much lower in tone, and only to be heard after March is well on, -and almost always in the vicinity of running streams and brooklets; -while the gay little chick-a-dee whistles at any time or place that -suits his versatile fancy. - - * * * * * - -[Illustration: _Fig. 179. Meadow larks._] - -The mellow flute notes of the meadow larks (Fig. 179) float to us from -the middle of some large, open field, and are among the most beautiful -bits of bird music we ever hear. They are not to be represented by -notes, and can only be most inadequately described. There is great -variation in the sequence of notes, but all are beautifully clear and -ringing, and have a decided tinge of what would be sadness if it were -not so sweet. The bird flies in a very characteristic manner, never -raising the wings above the plane of the back, and when seen below the -horizon line always shows the white feathers in the tail. His saffron -breast and black breast-mark seldom show on the living birds, and the -mottled brown back is a wonderful safeguard against his many overhead -enemies. - - * * * * * - -Two or more doves may be seen winging their headlong flight through the -air. These are among the swiftest of birds, and are generally out of -eyeshot almost before you have seen them. (That is one way of knowing -what they are.) In flight, they look like small pigeons with very long -graduated tails, and when, in some old orchard or open wood, you see one -rise from the ground into a tree, the white lateral feathers in the tail -make an easily recognizable mark. (Fig. 180.) Their cooing notes are -well known--a high-pitched "overtone," followed by several long -bell-toned "[(ooooo],--[(ooooo]," notes. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 180. Mourning doves._] - - * * * * * - -About April 1 to 10, you may hear a scratching in the dead leaves among -the underbrush in any thickly grown tangle, and upon cautiously coming -up you may discover the authors--not big grouse as you may have -supposed, but a flock of fine, vigorous fox-sparrows on their way to -their northern breeding grounds. They are bright bay fellows, with -boldly blotched brown and white breasts, diligently scattering the -leaves for their food of seeds, spiders, ants, and various insects. If -you have been fortunate enough not to have been seen you may hear their -song, which is one of the finest of our sparrow songs, readily -recognizable as such, though not resembling any of its fellows--a clear, -vigorous carol, often ending abruptly with a rather unmusical "clip." -If, however, they have seen you, you will be treated to a sharp "tseep!" -and a rear view of a flock of rapidly retreating birds, for they are not -sociable (with us, at least), and generally take a hint to move on -before you know of their presence. They do not stay long with us on -their migration, and seeing them one day is no indication that you can -find them the next. - - * * * * * - -Although the white-throated sparrows spend the winter in our southern -counties, they do not start their northward journey as early as we might -expect, and it is not until the first part of April that we may be sure -of finding them. I have one list, indeed that shows their first -appearance on May first! - -They are to be found in places similar to those which the fox-sparrows -choose, and are very similar to them in habits, but the boldly striped -head and gray breast are very distinctive marks. Almost all of our -native sparrows have a call note, the "tsweep" note, which is hard to -distinguish in the different species without much patient listening--and -I doubt if any person is infallible in this distinction. The -white-throat has this note, as well as the song-sparrow, tree-sparrow (a -winter-bird), fox-sparrow, white-crown, chippy, field-sparrow, -grass-finch, in fact all our brown-backed sparrows. But the song of the -white-throat is his own, and may be heard frequently during his very -leisurely journey through our state. His Canadian name, "Peabody bird" -is descriptive of his notes, "-- _.., _.., _.." When a number get -together and whistle, as if they were singing a round, it makes a very -sweet concert. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 181. White-throated sparrow._] - - * * * * * - -One of the foremost birds in the spring movement is the grass-finch -(vesper-sparrow or bay-winged bunting). It is to be found in open fields -and along roadside fences, in company with meadow larks, and its sweet -song may be heard almost any warm evening after the middle of April. -Unlike most of our birds, this sparrow sings at its best late in the -afternoon and during twilight, which perhaps makes its song seem the -sweeter. It is rather a gentle song, though to be heard at some -distance, carrying quite as far as that of the song-sparrow. Although -the quality of voice is somewhat similar in these two birds, -the grass-finch lacks the merry abandon that characterizes the -song-sparrow's song, but has instead a deeper chord, which is called by -some people sadness. The bird may be easily recognized in the fields by -the white tail-feathers, which always show in flight. It is about the -size and general color of the song-sparrow. - - * * * * * - -By the time the foregoing birds are comparatively common, and the maple -buds are bursting and the lilacs swelling, the gay purple finch appears. -He is not purple at all, but has a crimson head, which fades on the -lower breast through rosy pink into pure white. He is fond of spruces -and larches, feeding greedily on the tender buds as well as on the ants -and scale insects that infest them. His song is a fine one, and in -addition to the charm of being poured forth in full flight, is so long -and intricate that one finds himself holding his breath as the burst of -melody continues, as if to help the little fellow catch up with his -music. - - * * * * * - -Along the banks of some lake or stream, sitting idly on a telegraph pole -or wire, rising and settling, elevating and depressing his long parted -top-knot, a patriarchal old kingfisher may be seen silently awaiting the -gleam of a shiner in the water below (Fig. 182). Or perhaps you may -first see him flying like a big woodpecker, screaming his chattering cry -high in the air, or scaling close to the water under the fringing -hemlock branches that overhang the stream. His large size, slate-blue -back, loud notes, and characteristic flight make him a hard bird to -mistake in any case. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 182. Kingfisher._] - - * * * * * - -There are many other birds which pass us on their way north, but they -herald rather the summer than the breaking of spring. The following list -of spring migrations is taken from Mr. Chapman's "Handbook of the Birds -of Eastern North America," and was compiled for use about New York City. -The dates nearly coincide with those I have found about the central part -of the State, and are, in the main, only a few days in advance of those -for the northern counties. The latter dates in the column are about what -may be taken for the middle tier of counties. - -It is the earnest hope of the writer that these few very brief -sketches may be of use to those interested in entering the delightful -field of the study of birds; your experience may and probably -will be different from that which I have cited, which only goes to -show that everyone must really see for himself, and not only that, -but by so doing may make new observations and get new ideas on -practically all of even our best known birds. Birds are not, as a -rule, hard to watch, and the patience it requires to sit still and -"be a stump" long enough for birds to cease noticing you is soon -and amply repaid by the new insight into an unknown realm -which is sure to follow. - -LIST OF BIRDS COMPRISING THE SPRING MIGRATION. - -(Until April 20--Approximate.) - -(_Taken from Chapman's Handbook of Birds of Eastern North -America._) - - Date of arrival. - - Feb. 15-Mar. 10. Purple Grackle. - Rusty Grackle. - Red-winged Blackbird. - Robin. - Bluebird. - - Mar. 10-20 Woodcock. - Phoebe. - Meadow Lark. - Cowbird. - Fox-sparrow. - - Mar. 20-31 Wilson's Snipe. - Kingfisher. - Mourning Dove. - Swamp-sparrow. - Field-sparrow. - - April 1-10 Great Blue Heron. - Purple Finch. - Vesper-sparrow. - Savanna-sparrow. - Chipping-sparrow. - Tree Swallow. - Myrtle Warbler. - American Pipit. - Hermit Thrush. - - April 10-20 Yellow-bellied Woodpecker. - Barn Swallow. - Yellow Palm Warbler. - Pine Warbler. - Louisiana Water Thrush. - Ruby-crowned Kinglet. - - - - -LEAFLET XXIV. - -THE WOODPECKERS.[31] - -BY ANNA BOTSFORD COMSTOCK. - - -[31] Home Nature-Study Course, Vol. IV, No. 30, March, 1903. - -[Illustration] - -It is best to follow some definite line of bird study for an entire -year. All of the observations that could be made in a single month on -any bird would give but an inadequate idea of its habits. To know the -life of a bird, one must study it month by month for at least one year. - -The woodpeckers seem a most attractive group for our study. They are not -only very interesting, but of great importance to the farmer, orchadist -and forester. There are five common species in New York State that we -all may learn to know, and then make observations of our own on their -habits. These species are the downy, the hairy, the sapsucker, the -flicker and the redhead. The way to begin our observations in winter is -to tie a piece of suet to the branch of some tree easily observed from -our windows. Such a bird feast as this is on a branch of a chestnut oak -in front of my office window, and though I never have time to watch more -than momentarily the birds that come there to eat, yet each glance tells -me something of their ways, and my own day's work is much brighter and -happier therefor. The "downy" (Fig. 183), as he is universally called, -comes with his mate every day and they eat greedily of the suet; when -they first arrive they are so absorbed in working this food mine that I -sometimes stand directly beneath and watch them without frightening -them. Perhaps they know that I am the friend who invited them to -breakfast. Anyway, as soon as they leave the suet they hunt -industriously over my tree, finding there all of the hidden insects, and -thus they keep my oak clean and pay for their breakfast. Occasionally -the hairy woodpecker comes, a self-invited guest to the suet banquet. To -the untrained eye he looks very like an over-grown downy, as he is by -two or three inches the longer; but his outer tail feathers are -entirely white, while the downy's are barred with black; usually the red -cap of the hairy is divided by a black stripe. The hairy is said to be a -shy bird, but I have seen him several times this winter at a suet party -near dwellings. - -In April there is likely to appear in any region of New York State a -bird which is often mistaken for the downy or hairy, although it is very -different in both coloring and habits. This is the sapsucker, the only -woodpecker of bad repute (Fig. 184). However, I am sure its deeds are -not nearly so black as they are painted. The male sapsucker has a bright -red crown and chin and throat, his breast is yellow, and he is also -yellowish on the back; while the males of the downy and hairy are -red-capped and black and white with no yellow. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 183. Downy woodpecker._] - -[Illustration: _Fig. 184. Sapsucker._] - -QUESTIONS ON WOODPECKERS TO BE ANSWERED IN MARCH. - -1. What is the difference in appearance between the male and female -downy? - -2. How does the downy travel down a tree; does it go head-first? What -food have you seen it eat? - -3. How does the downy use its tail in going up and down the tree trunk? - -4. Have you approached a woodpecker closely enough to see how its toes -are arranged? If so, describe them. - -5. How does it manage its head to make its blows forceful? - -6. Are you able to discriminate between the hairy and the downy when you -see them? How? - -7. Do you know the difference in the notes of the hairy and downy? -Explain. - - -DOWNY, SAPSUCKER AND RED-HEAD.[32] - -[32] Home Nature-Study Course, Vol. IV, No. 31, April, 1903. - -This morning I was awakened by the beating of a drum over in the woods. -My ear was not yet sufficiently trained so that I knew whether my -drummer was Mr. Downy or Mr. Hairy, yet I strongly suspected the former. -The tattoo of the Sapsucker (which does not nest here) James Whitcomb -Riley has aptly characterized as "Weeding out the lonesomeness." This is -exactly what the drumming of woodpeckers in the early spring means. The -male selects some dried limb of hard wood and there beats out his -well-known signal which advertises far and near, "Wanted, a wife." And -after he wins her he keeps on drumming to cheer her, while she is busy -with her family cares. The woodpecker has no voice for singing, like the -robin or thrush, and realizing his deficiency, he does not insist on -singing like the peacock, whether he can or no. He chooses rather to -devote his voice to terse and business-like conversation, and when he is -musically inclined he turns drummer. He is rather particular about his -instrument, and, having found one that pleases him in tone, returns to -it day after day. - -In case the drumming I heard this morning was an advertisement for a -wife, I am interested to know what has become of Mrs. Downy, who has -been true to her mate all winter. Does, perhaps, the springtime bring -divorce as well as marriage? Mr. Burroughs tells of a downy that was -absolutely brutal in his treatment of his mate in winter, not allowing -her to live in his neighborhood. Be this as it may, the downy and the -hairy woodpeckers that have feasted upon my suet this winter have -invariably come in pairs, and while only one at a time sits at meat, and -the lord and master is somewhat "bossy," yet they seem to get along as -well as most married pairs. - -The sapsucker is a woodpecker that has strayed from the paths of -virtue; he has fallen into temptation by the wayside, and instead of -drilling a hole for the sake of the grub at the end of it he drills it -for its own sake. He is a tippler and sap is his beverage. He is -especially fond of the sap of the mountain ash, apple, thorn apple, -canoe birch, red maple, red oak and white ash. He drills his holes in -beautiful rows, and sometimes girdles a limb or tree, and for this he is -pronounced a rascal by men who have themselves ruthlessly cut from our -land millions of trees that should now be standing. However, the -sapsucker does not live solely on sap and the soft cambium layer of the -tree; he also feeds on insects wherever he finds them. When feeding -their young, sapsuckers are true flycatchers, getting the insects while -on the wing. If you find a sapsucker girdling a tree in your orchard or -a birch on your lawn, just protect the trees with a wire netting, and -let the sapsucker catch mosquitoes for you instead, and remember that he -belongs to a good family and is entitled to some consideration, even if -he has taken to drink. - -The red-head (Fig. 185) is well named, for his helmet and visor show a -vivid, glowing crimson that stirs the sensibilities of the color lover. -He is readily distinguished from all other woodpeckers because his -entire head and the bib under his chin are red. For the rest, he is a -beautiful dark metallic blue and white. He is a most adept drummer, and -his roll is a long one. One that I observed last spring selected a dead -limb at the top of an oak tree and there he drummed merrily every -morning. He is an adaptable fellow and has been known to drum on tin -roofs and lightning rods, thus braving the dangers of civilization for -the sake of better music. Though he can rattle so well when he is -musically inclined, he is not, after all, much of a woodpecker, for he -lives mostly on insects which he catches while they are crawling or on -the wing, and he also likes nuts. He is especially fond of beech nuts, -and, being a thrifty fellow as well as musical, in time of plenty he -stores up food against time of need. He places his nuts in crevices and -forks of branches, in holes in trees, and other hiding places. Lets us -watch him this spring and see whether we can discover what he eats. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 185. The Red-headed Woodpecker._] - -QUESTIONS ABOUT WOODPECKERS TO BE ANSWERED IN APRIL AND MAY. - -1. Have you observed any species of woodpecker drumming? - -2. Have you been able to see the drum? If so, describe it. - -3. Are you able to distinguish between the tapping of the woodpecker -when searching for food, and his drumming when he is making music? - -4. If you have made any observations on the sapsucker, please give them. - -5. Have you seen the sapsucker at work? If so, did the holes girdle the -tree? Were the holes round or square? - -6. Have you seen the red-head this spring? - -7. Describe the way the woodpecker uses its tail when climbing a tree. - -8. Send for Bulletin No. 7, of the United States Department of -Agriculture, Division of Ornithology, called "Food of Woodpeckers." Read -this Bulletin and answer these questions: Does the sapsucker do more -harm than good? What special benefit to us is the red-head? Which is the -most useful of our woodpeckers? - - -THE FLICKER OR YELLOW HAMMER.[33] - -[33] Home Nature-Study Course, Vol. IV, No. 32, May, 1903. - -The first time I ever saw a flicker I said, "What a wonderful meadow -lark, and what is it doing on that ant hill?" But another glance -revealed to me a red spot on the back of the bird's neck, and as soon as -I was sure that this was not a bloody gash I knew it belonged to no -meadow lark. The golden brown plumage dotted with black, the under wings -of luminous yellow, the white spot above the tail, the ashen gray back, -and, above all, the oriental ornaments of crescents,--one brilliant red -across the back of the neck, one black across the breast,--all conduce -to make the flicker one of our most showy and beautiful birds. The -flicker has many names, such as golden-winged woodpecker, yellow hammer, -highhole, and yarup or wake-up, and many others. It earned the name of -highhole because of its way of excavating its nest high up in trees, -usually between ten and twenty-five feet from the ground. It especially -loves an old apple tree as a site for a nest, and most of our large, old -orchards of New York State may boast of a pair of these handsome birds -during the nesting season of May and June. However, the flicker is not -above renting any house he finds vacant which was made by other birds -last year. The flicker earned his name of "yarup" or "wake-up" from his -spring song, which is a rollicking jolly "wick-a-wick-a-wick." As a -business bird the flicker shines in the rather extraordinary line of -eating ants. It has a tongue equipped almost exactly like the tongue of -the animal called the ant eater, and it often may be seen using it with -great effectiveness in catching the little communal laborers. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 186. Young Flickers._] - -Those who have observed the flicker during the courting season declare -him to be the most silly and vain of all the bird wooers. Mr. Baskett -says, "When he wishes to charm his sweet-heart he mounts a very small -twig near her, and lifts his wings, spreads his tail, and begins to nod -right and left as he exhibits his mustache to his charmer, and sets his -jet locket first on one side of the twig and then the other. He may even -go so far as to turn his head half around to show her the pretty spot on -his 'back hair.' In doing all this he performs the most ludicrous -antics, and has the silliest of expressions of face and voice as if in -losing his heart, as some one phrases it, he had lost his head also." - - -SUMMARY OF THE STUDY OF WOODPECKERS. - -We have now studied our five species of woodpeckers common in New York -State, and I trust that you know them all by sight. When you are -teaching the children about the woodpecker, there are many interesting -stories to tell about the way that his form is adapted to his life. Some -of these stories are as follows: First. The woodpecker's bill, which is -a drill and chisel, and how he uses it for getting at the grub or the -borer in the wood, and for making the hole for the nest, and for -drumming when he feels musical. Second. The tongue, which is a barbed -spear, and has a wonderful spring attachment of bones which allows it to -be thrust far out. This tongue is fitted in each case to get the kind of -food which sustains its owner. Third. The feet have a special -arrangement of toes which allows the bird to cling tenaciously to a tree -trunk. Study the way the fourth toe, which may be compared to our little -finger, has been moved around backward so that it acts as another thumb. -Fourth. Study how the tail made of stiff feathers is particularly -adapted to act as a brace, helping the bird to climb a tree. In studying -all these things I would especially recommend you to a little book -called, "The Woodpeckers" by Fannie Hardy Eckstrom, published by -Houghton, Mifflin & Co., price $1.00. - - -QUESTIONS ON THE FLICKER. - -1. Have you ever seen a flicker? - -2. Do you know its song? - -3. Has the flicker a straight bill like the downy's? - -4. What are the differences between the male and female flicker? - -5. Have you ever seen a flicker catching ants? Describe. - -6. Do you think the flicker is a beneficial bird? If so, why? - -7. Have you ever seen a flicker's nest? Describe. - -8. Do you know how the flicker feeds its young? Explain. - -9. Describe the difference in color between the male and female of the -(a) downy, (b) the hairy, (c) the redhead, (d) the sapsucker, (e) and -the flicker. - -10. How can you tell the difference between a flicker and a meadow lark -during flight? - -[Illustration: _Downy's long tongue._] - - - - -LEAFLET XXV. - -THE CHICKADEE.[34] - -[34] Home Nature-Study Course, Vol. V, No. 3, December, 1903. - -BY ANNA BOTSFORD COMSTOCK. - - - _He is the hero of the woods; there are courage and good nature - enough in that compact little body, which you may hide in your - fist, to supply a whole groveful of May songsters. He has the - Spartan virtue of an eagle, the cheerfulness of a thrush, the - nimbleness of Cock Sparrow, the endurance of the seabirds - condensed into his tiny frame, and there have been added a - pertness and ingenuity all his own. His curiosity is immense, and - his audacity equal to it; I have even had one alight upon the - barrel of the gun over my shoulder as I sat quietly under his - tree._--ERNEST INGERSOLL. - -[Illustration] - -However careless we may be of our friends when we are in the midst of -the luxurious life of summer, even the most careless among us give -pleased attention to the birds that bravely endure with us the rigors of -winter. And when this winged companion of winter proves to be the most -fascinating little ball of feathers ever created, constantly overflowing -with cheerful song, our pleased attention changes to active delight. -Thus it is that in all the lands of snowy winters the chickadee -is a loved comrade of the country wayfarer; that happy song, -"chick-a-dee-dee-dee," finds its way to the dullest consciousness and -the most callous heart. - -One day in February we were, with much enjoyment, wading through a -drifted highway that skirted a forest, the least twig of which bore a -burden of soft snow. Over all hung that silence of winter which is the -most "silent silence" that rests upon the earth anywhere outside the -desert. No breeze swayed a creaking branch or shook from it the snow in -soft thud to the white carpet below. Even the song of the brook was -smothered beneath coverlets of ice and pillows of drift. We stood fast, -awed by the stillness, when suddenly it was broken by the thrilling -notes of the chickadees. We could hardly credit our senses, for it -seemed as if the woods was a hopeless place for any living creature that -morning. But there before our eyes was a flock of these courageous birds -hunting for food on the leeward sides of boles and branches left bare -and black in the recent storm. Their tiny weights sent the snow in -showers from the terminal twigs, which phenomenon was greeted with -triumphant song while the cheerful midgets hunted the relieved branches -topside and bottomside for any lurking tidbit. As we watched them, -Emerson's poem came to mind: - - "Piped a tiny voice near by, - Gay and polite, a cheerful cry-- - Chick-chickadeedee! saucy note - Out of sound heart and merry throat, - As if it said, 'Good-day, good Sir! - Fine afternoon, old passenger! - Happy to meet you in these places - Where January brings few faces.'" - -No wonder that the great American philosopher was attracted by this -other American philosopher who sings when he is cold and hungry. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 187. A chickadee at the entrance to its nest._] - -Besides its usual song the chickadee has a song that says "phoebe" much -more distinctly than does the song of the phoebe itself. Few people -recognize this, and often in February or early March it is announced in -the local newspaper, "The phoebe-birds were heard to-day" though it may -be weeks yet before these birds arrive. The two songs may be easily -distinguished by even the ear untrained to music. In the phoebe song of -the chickadee, the last syllable is at least one note lower than the -first and has a falling inflection; while the last syllable of the -phoebe bird's song is at least a half note higher than the first and has -a rising inflection. - -Not long since I visited the deserted nest of a devoted pair of -chickadees. It was cuddled down in the bottom of a hole that -opened on the very top of a fence post, and, one would imagine, -must have been wet more than once while inhabited. However, -a large family was raised there during the past season and much -enjoyment was derived from watching the many fubsy birdlings -that found home and comfort in that unattractive retreat. I -looked upon them with special interest, for I was sure they would -visit the suet on my trees this winter and thus become friendly -neighbors. - -As soon as the trees are bare, nail or tie bits of suet to branches -which may be observed from your windows. I know of no investment which -pays such enormous dividends both to pleasure and pocket as do suet -restaurants in orchards patronized by chickadees. Every child, at home -or school, will be attracted by this experiment. - - -QUESTIONS ON THE CHICKADEE. - -1. Describe the colors of the chickadee above; below; wings; tail; -throat and head. - -2. Describe the differences in coloring between the chickadee and the -nuthatch. - -3. What is the shape of the chickadee's beak and for what is it adapted? - -4. Does it frequent the trunks of trees, or the twigs? - -5. Describe its actions when hunting for food on a twig. - -6. What is the chief food of the chickadee? - -7. Why is it of special value to the farmer? - -8. What are the differences in the winter and summer habits of the -chickadee? - -9. Do you know the "phoebe" note of the chickadee? - -10. Where do these birds build their nests and of what material? - -11. What are the colors and markings on the eggs? - -12. When is the nesting season? - - - - -LEAFLET XXVI. - -THE WHITE-BREASTED NUTHATCH.[35] - -BY ANNA BOTSFORD COMSTOCK. - - -[35] Home Nature-Study Course, Vol. V, No. 4, January, 1904. - - The busy nuthatch climbs his tree, - Around the great bole spirally, - Peeping into wrinkles gray, - Under ruffled lichens gay, - Lazily piping one sharp note - From his silver mailèd throat. - - --MAURICE THOMPSON. - -"_With more artless inquisitiveness than fear, this lively little -acrobat stops his hammering or hatching at your approach, and stretching -himself out from the tree until it would seem he must fall off, he peers -down at you, head downward, straight into your upturned opera-glass. If -there is too much snow on the upper side of a branch watch how he runs -along underneath it like a fly, busily tapping the bark, or adroitly -breaking the decayed bits with his bill, as he stretches for the -spider's eggs, larvæ, etc., hidden there; yet somehow, between -mouthfuls, managing to call out his cherry quank! quank! hank! hank!_" - ---NELTJE BLANCHAN. - -[Illustration] - -A voice outside is calling at me; I cannot describe it accurately, but -it is making delightful woodsy remarks that make me long to throw aside -the pen and go out and wander where the snow is making still softer the -carpet of dead leaves on the forest floor. It is not a musical note but -it is most enticing and translates into sound the picture of -bare-branched trees and the feeling of enchantment that permeates the -forest in winter. Neltje Blanchan says the voice reiterates "quank, -quank," others say it is "nay, nay"--but no nasal sound of the human -voice, and no spelling of the English language adequately represent this -call of the white-breasted nuthatch. - -On the tree in front of the window I can see the owner of this sylvan -voice. He is a little bird blue-gray above with black head and black and -white V-trimmings on the back of his suit and with soft, white breast. -He is flitting blithely from tree to tree enjoying the snow storm and -coming often to the suet feast which I have spread for him and for his -little feathered kin. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 188. The nuthatch, one of the winter birds._] - -We have been having exciting times at the suet banquet this morning. The -building in which my office is, stands on a high knoll near the -forest-covered brink of a deep gorge. Thus my window is opposite the -tops of the trees. One of our nature-study staff, a brave and gallant -knight, who loves birds and knows that I love to watch them, climbed two -of these trees at imminent risk of breaking his neck in order to place -this suet just opposite my window. The whole chickadee family and four -nuthatches, and Sir Downy and Madam Hairy had been reveling in the feast -all the morning when suddenly one after another three crows appeared -upon the scene. My heart sank as I saw them eying the suet with -interest. Nearer and nearer they hopped from branch to branch. I pounded -on the window and called out, "Go away" in both the crow and the English -language, all in vain. One crow braver or hungrier than the others with -one defiant eye on me flapped confidently down and sought to carry the -suet off in his beak; to his surprise it was tied on. That seemed -suspicious and when we raised the window and leaning far out explained -matters he lifted slowly with a jeering "caw" that said plainly "I'll -call sometime when you are not at home" and with that he and his -companions disappeared up the gorge. The invited guests at the suet -table were less disturbed than was I, and I suppose it is rather -inconsistent to feed the chickadees and let the ravens go hungry. But -this suet will last the little birds a month while it would hardly -furnish a breakfast for three crows; and in philanthropic enterprises -one is obliged to draw the line somewhere even at the cost of -consistency. - -I will return to my nuthatch, who, by the way, has just hammered off a -piece of suet and thrust it into a crevice of the bark on the tree -bole. Why does he do that: is it for convenience in eating or is it an -attempt to store up some of his dinner for future need? Anyway it is bad -manners, like carrying off fruit from _table d' hote_. But he is polite -enough in another respect; every time after eating the suet he wipes his -beak on his branch napkin with great assiduity, first one side and then -the other, almost as if he were sharpening it. The woodpeckers are -similarly fastidious in cleaning suet off their beaks. - -The loud note of the nuthatch, seeming to be out of proportion to the -size of the bird is, by no means, its only note. Yesterday we observed a -pair hunting over the branches of an elm over our heads, and they were -talking to each other in sweet confidential syllables "wit, wit, wit," -entirely different from the loud note that is meant for the world at -large. - -The nuthatches and chickadees hunt together all winter. This is no -business partnership, but one of congeniality based upon similar tastes. -Thus it is that the two birds are often confused. There is, however, a -very noticeable character that distinguishes them at the first glance. -Strange to say the nuthatch has also been confused with the sapsucker -and has gained unjust obloquy thereby. How any one with eyes could -confuse these two birds is a mystery, for they resemble each other in no -particular nor in general appearance. - -While the nuthatch finds much of its food on trees, yet Mr. Torrey tells -of seeing one awkwardly turning over the fallen leaves for hidden -cocoons and other things quite worth his while; and Mr. Baskett tells of -having seem them catch flies in the air and becoming quite out of breath -at this unusual exercise. - -Audubon made some most interesting observations on the nuthatch. He says -they may sleep hanging head downward. He also says of their nesting -habits that "both birds work together, all the time congratulating each -other in the tenderest manner. The male, ever conspicuous on such -occasions, works some, and carries off the slender chips chiseled by the -female. He struts around her, peeps into the hole, cherups at intervals, -or hovers about her on the wing. While she is sitting on her eggs, he -seldom absents himself many moments; now with a full bill he feeds her, -now returns to be assured that her time is pleasantly spent." - -The red-breasted nuthatch is sometimes associated with its -white-breasted cousin; it is a smaller bird and is essentially a -northern species. The nuthatches get their name from their habit of -wedging nuts and acorns into bark and then hatching them open. From -every standpoint the nuthatches are most desirable acquaintances, and we -cannot spend our time to better advantage than in getting familiar with -their interesting habits. - - -QUESTIONS ON THE WHITE-BREASTED NUTHATCH. - -1. Describe from your own observations the colors of the nuthatch above -and below. - -2. (a) What is the most noticeable character that distinguishes the -nuthatch from the chickadee? (b) Does the nuthatch usually frequent the -bole or the twigs of a tree? (c) Is there any difference in this respect -between the habits of the nuthatch and the chickadee? - -3. Does the nuthatch alight with its head down or up? - -4. Does it travel down or up? Does it always go in a spiral? - -5. What is its food? - -6. Does it open nuts for the meat or the grubs within? - -7. Does it use its tail as a brace in climbing trees as does the -woodpecker? - -8. Where does it build its nest? - -9. What is the color of the eggs? - -10. Why does it seem less common in summer than in winter? - -11. How does it use its feet when resting on a tree trunk? - -12. Has it any special development of the feet to help it in traveling -on tree trunks? - -13. Do you know the note of the nuthatch? Describe. - -14. How would you spell its note? - -15. How does the nuthatch help the farmer and fruit grower? - - - - -LEAFLET XXVII. - -ABOUT CROWS.[36] - -BY MARY ROGERS MILLER. - - -[36] Home Nature-Study Course, Vol. IV, No. 27, December, 1902. - -[Illustration] - -Thousands and thousands of crows fast asleep amongst the branches of a -grove of pines! The trees themselves look dark and sombre against the -snowy hillside, but when the assemblage of dusky birds has gathered -there, the shadows thicken and the darkness settles like a pall. Soon -all is hushed and silent. - -Would you not go miles to see such a sight? - -Yet maybe you have lived for years within easy walking distance of a -great crow "dormitory" without even suspecting its existence. You may -have watched the crows flying overhead every morning and then again -every afternoon, without noticing that they came from the same direction -each morning and returned at nightfall. This was just my experience -until I began to care about crows and their ways. Now I know that there -is a sleeping roost a mile or so up one of our wooded valleys and the -oldest inhabitant tells me that he remembers seeing "more'n a million" -crows up there in winters when he was a boy. Undoubtedly generation -after generation of crows return to these sleeping places; certain -localities have probably been so used for centuries. - -Although we have crows here all winter they may not be the same -individuals that spent the summer here. The center of crow population in -the eastern United States from November till February is the -neighborhood of Chesapeake Bay. There the food supply is more abundant -than where the ground is snow-covered in winter, and thither the crows -migrate in innumerable armies. Dormitories from ten to thirty acres in -extent and accommodating from ten thousand to three hundred thousand -crows each have been found in that region. - -Why crows gather thus in companies either small or large is undoubtedly -due to their natural sociability. The opportunities for exhibition of -conversational powers offered by such a custom seems to be greatly -appreciated by every crow. Such a babel as they raise when in early -morning their watchman rouses them from sleep! They appear to be -reviling him for his untimely interruption. For several minutes the -woods fairly ring with their loud, coarse shouts. Then, as if resigned -to their fate, they take flight towards the feeding grounds. By sunset -they all congregate again and after recounting their adventures, settle -down early to sleep. - -In open winters crows fare well enough. Seeds and berries are easy to -get and considerable grain may be found in harvested fields. But like -barnyard fowls, crows are omnivorous. After the grasshoppers disappear, -a supply of animal food is hard to get. The silken egg-sacs of spiders -are often found torn open and rifled, while suspiciously near by are the -tracks of crows. Undoubtedly rabbits and field mice would unite with the -spiders in declaring the crow to be their deadly enemy. - -That crows eat corn is undeniable. The farmers know it to their sorrow, -the bird's champions reluctantly admit it, the crow himself goes openly -into the field, both in winter and summer, with no intent to conceal his -intentions. And yet this universally acknowledged habit will bear -investigation. Upon the real or supposed injury done to sprouting corn -and to roasting-ears, the farmer and his sons base their animosity -toward crows and rejoice at the wholesale or retail slaughter of these -birds. Carefully prepared estimates show conclusively that the crow is -the farmer's friend. Only _three per cent_ of the total food of the crow -consists of corn in any form, while _twenty-six per cent_ consists of -insects such as grasshoppers, May beetles (June bugs, whose young are -the white grubs), cutworms and other injurious kinds. On such evidence -as this would not an unprejudiced jury acquit the crow? - -The best way to establish the crow in this new and true relationship to -the farmer, is to interest the boys and girls in studying crows and -their ways. To make a fair judgment, one must collect evidence. Mere -hearsay is not always to be depended on. Justice and truth are worth -working for. The case of the Crow _vs._ the Farmer, will give -opportunity for the practice of both of these virtues. - - -WINTER BIRDS.[37] - -[37] Quiz on Lesson No. 27, December, 1902. - -The winter is not so devoid of life as we sometimes think. There are -mammals in the woods and coverts, fishes in the lakes and deep brooks, -birds in the forest and the open. Let us devote one early midwinter -lesson to the birds. Have the children make particular observations on -the English sparrow. Other birds may be observed, as, for example, our -old friend the crow. All these birds touch the life of the farmer and -the nature-lover. Those students who are so situated that a study of -crows is impossible may substitute English sparrows, chickadees, -woodpeckers or any other winter birds. - -A bulletin entitled "The Common Crow" was issued by the U. S. Department -of Agriculture in 1895. Students in this course can obtain one copy each -by sending ten cents to Superintendent of Documents, Union Building, -Washington, D. C. Do not send stamps. - -Do crows winter in your vicinity? - -Are you able to verify the statements made in the lesson concerning the -flight in opposite directions in morning and evening? Give observations -made since receiving this lesson. - -Is there a crow dormitory in your vicinity? (Inquire of old residents -and keep a close watch.) - -Watch a crow on the wing. If he is flying low, try to count the big wing -feathers. Note here any peculiarities of this bird's way of flying. - -How does a crow hold on to a limb when asleep? - -What characteristics have crows and chickens in common? - -How do they differ? - -Compare feathers, bills and feet of chickens and crows. - -Look for crow tracks in the snow. Where have you seen them? Can you -always tell which way the bird was going? How? Sketch the tracks on -separate sheet. - -How long is the longest toe, including the claw? Which toe is this? - -Is the track ever longer than the toe itself? If so, why? - -Have you ever seen the scratches in the snow made by the stiff wing -feathers when the crow takes its flight from the ground? - -Count the scratches. - -What food have you seen crows eating? - -Watch during the whole month and mention any new items you can add to -their bill of fare. - -Have you ever seen crow's nests? Where? When? - -Describe the nest, eggs and nestlings, if you have seen them. (These are -things to look for during the spring and summer.) - -Does the plumage of the yearling crow differ from that of the older -birds? - -Do males and females differ in color? - -Crows are said to possess remarkably well developed brains. What -evidence have you of their sagacity, fearlessness, cunning or greed? - -What other winter birds have you seen this year? - -Give on separate sheet an account of a winter walk. - - - - -LEAFLET XXVIII. - -HOW A SQUASH PLANT GETS OUT OF THE SEED.[38] - -BY L. H. BAILEY. - - -[38] Teacher's Leaflet No. 1, December, 1896. The first Cornell -nature-study leaflet. For a discussion of the title of this leaflet and -what it signifies pedagogically, consult "The Integument Man," in "The -Nature-Study Idea." (Doubleday, Page & Co.) - -[Illustration] - -If one were to plant seeds of a Hubbard or Boston Marrow squash in loose -warm earth in a pan or box, and were then to leave the parcel for a week -or ten days, he would find, upon his return, a colony of plants like -that shown in Fig. 189. If he had not planted the seeds himself or had -not seen such plants before, he would not believe that these curious -plants would ever grow into squash vines, so different are they from the -vines which we know in the garden. This, itself, is a most curious -fact,--this wonderful difference between the first and the later stages -of nearly all plants, and it is only because we know it so well that we -do not wonder at it. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 189. Squash plant a week old._] - -It may happen, however,--as it did in a pan of seed which I sowed a few -days ago--that one or two of the plants may look like that shown in Fig. -190. Here the seed seems to have come up on top of the plant; and one is -reminded of the curious way in which beans come up on the stalk of the -young plant. If we were to study the matter, however,--as we may do at a -future time--we should find a great difference in the ways in which the -squashes and the beans raise their seeds out of the ground. It is not -our purpose to compare the squash and the bean at this time, but we are -curious to know why one of these squash plants brings its seed up out of -the ground whilst all the others do not. In order to find out why it is, -we must ask the plant, and this asking is what we call an experiment. We -may first pull up the two plants. The first one (Fig. 189) will be seen -to have the seed-coats still attached to the very lowest part of the -stalk below the soil, but the other plant has no seed at that point. We -will now plant more seeds, a dozen or more of them, so that we shall -have enough to examine two or three times a day for several days. A day -or two after the seeds are planted, we shall find a little point or -root-like part breaking out of the sharp end of the seed, as shown in -Fig. 191. A day later this root part has grown to be as long as the seed -itself (Fig. 192), and it has turned directly downwards into the soil. -But there is another most interesting thing about this germinating seed. -Just where the root is breaking out of the seed (shown at _a_ in Fig. -192), there is a little peg or projection. In Fig. 193, about a day -later, the root has grown still longer, and this peg seems to be forcing -the seed apart. In Fig, 194, however, it will be seen that the seed is -really being forced apart by the stem or stalk above the peg for this -stem is now growing longer. The lower lobe of the seed has attached to -the peg (seen at _a_, Fig. 194), and the seed-leaves seem to be backing -out of the seed. Fig. 195 shows the seed a day later. The root has now -produced many branches and has thoroughly established itself in the -soil. The top is also growing rapidly and is still backing out of the -seed, and the seed-coats are still firmly held by the obstinate peg. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 190. Squash plant which has brought the seed-coats -out of the ground._] - -[Illustration: _Fig. 191. Germination just beginning._] - -[Illustration: _Fig. 192. The root and peg._] - -[Illustration: _Fig. 193. Third day of root growth._] - -[Illustration: _Fig. 194. The plant breaking out of the seed._] - -Whilst we have been seeing all these peculiar things in the seeds which -we have dug up, the plantlets which we have not disturbed have been -coming through the soil. If we were to see the plant in Fig. 195, as it -was "coming up," it would look like Fig. 196. It is tugging away in -getting its head out of the bonnet which is pegged down underneath the -soil, and it has "got its back up" in the operation. In Fig. 197 it has -escaped from its trap and it is laughing and growing in delight. It must -now straighten itself up, as it is doing in Fig. 197, and it is soon -standing proud and straight, as in Fig. 189. We now see that the reason -why the "seed" came up on the plant in Fig. 190, is that in some way the -peg did not hold the seed-coats down (see Fig. 195), and the expanding -leaves, being pinched together must get themselves loose as best they -can. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 195. The operation further progressed._] - -There is another thing about this interesting squash plant which we must -not fail to notice, and this is the fact that these first two leaves of -the plantlet came out of the seed and did not grow out of the plant -itself. We must notice, too, that these leaves are much smaller when -they are first drawn out of the seed-coat than they are when the -plantlet has straightened itself up. That is, these leaves increase very -much in size after they reach the light and air. The roots of the -plantlet are now established in the soil and are taking in food which -enables the plant to grow. The next leaves which appear will be very -different from these first or seed leaves. - -These later ones are called the true leaves. They grow right out of the -little plant itself. Fig. 199 shows these true leaves as they appear on -a young Crookneck squash plant, and the plant now begins to look much -like a squash vine. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 196. The plant just coming up._] - -[Illustration: _Fig. 197. The plant liberated from the seed-coats._] - -[Illustration: _Fig. 198. The plant straightening up._] - -We are now curious to know how the stem grows when it backs out of the -seeds and pulls the little seed-leaves with it, and how the root grows -downwards into the soil. Now let us pull up another seed when it has -sent a single root about two inches deep into the earth. We will wash it -very carefully and lay it upon a piece of paper. Then we will lay a -ruler alongside of it, and make an ink mark one-quarter of an inch from -the tip, and two or three other marks at equal distances above (Fig. -200).[39] We will now carefully replant the seed. Two days later we will -dig it up, when we shall most likely find a condition somewhat like that -in Fig. 201. It will be seen that the marks E, C, B, are practically the -same distance apart as before and they are also the same distance from -the peg AA. The point of the root is no longer at DD, however, but has -moved on to F. The root, therefore, has grown almost wholly in the end -part. - -[39] NOTE.--Common ink will not answer for this purpose because it -"runs" when the root is wet; indelible ink, used for marking linen or -for drawing, should be used. It should also be said that the root of the -common pumpkin and of the summer bush squashes is too fibrous and -branchy for this test. It should be stated also that the root does not -grow at its very tip, but chiefly in a narrow zone just back of the tip; -but the determination of this point is rather too difficult for the -beginner, and, moreover, it is foreign to the purpose of this tract. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 199. The true leaves developing._] - -[Illustration: _Fig. 200. Marking the root._] - -[Illustration: _Fig. 201. The root grows in the end parts._] - -[Illustration: _Fig. 202. The marking of the stem, and the spreading -apart of the marks._] - -Now let us make a similar experiment with the stem or stalk. We will -mark a young stem, as at A in Fig. 202; but the next day we shall find -that these marks are farther apart than when we made them (B, Fig. 202). -The marks have all raised themselves above the ground as the plant has -grown. The stem, therefore, has grown between the joints rather than -from the end. The stem usually grows most rapidly, at any given time, at -the upper or younger part of the joint (or internode); and the joint -soon reaches the limit of its growth and becomes stationary, while a new -one grows out above it. - -[Illustration] - - - - -LEAFLET XXIX. - -HOW THE TREES LOOK IN WINTER.[40] - -BY L. H. BAILEY. - - -[40] Teacher's Leaflet No. 12, January, 1899. - -[Sidenote: _To the teacher._--We want the country child to have a closer -touch with nature in the winter time. Teach him to see, to know, and to -care for the trees when they are leafless. This leaflet will suggest how -you may interest him. - -You can also intensify his interest in the subject, and at the same time -increase his knowledge of drawing, by having him make skeleton or -outline drawings of the trees about the schoolhouse or the home. Leaflet -XXX gives suggestions for drawing. - -You can correlate this work with geography by giving the distribution or -range of the different kinds of trees. Indicate the limit of -distribution northward, southward, eastward, westward; also the regions -in which the species is most abundant. The common manuals of botany will -help you in this work; or you may consult the many excellent special -books on trees. - -In teaching nature-study, remember that a great part of its value lies -in the enthusiasm and zeal with which you handle it. Try, also, to -develop the æsthetic sense of the pupil; but do not teach mere -sentiment.] - - -[Illustration] - -Only the growing and open season is thought to be attractive in the -country. The winter is bare and cheerless. The trees are naked. The -flowers are under the snow. The birds have flown. The only bright and -cheery spot is the winter fireside. But even there the farmer has so -much time that he does not know what to do with it. Only those who have -little time, appreciate its value. - -But the winter is not lifeless and charmless. It is only dormant. The -external world fails to interest us because we have not been trained to -see and know it; and also because the rigorous weather and the snow -prevent us from going afield. In the spring, summer, and fall, the hours -are full to overflowing with life and interest. On every hand we are in -contact with nature. If the farmer's winter is to be more enjoyable the -farmer must have more points of contact with the winter world. One of -the best and most direct of these points of sympathy is an interest in -the winter aspects of trees. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 203. Small-fruited Shagbark Hickory._] - -[Illustration: _Fig. 204. Pignut Hickory. This and Fig. 203 are from -"Lessons with Plants."_] - - -a. THE STRUCTURE OF THE TREE-TOP. - -In the summer time we distinguish the kinds of trees chiefly by means of -the shape and the foliage. In winter the foliage is gone; but the shape -remains, and the framework of the tree is also conspicuous. Trees are as -distinct in winter as in summer; and in some respects their characters -are more apparent and pronounced. - -Observe the outline of a tree against the dull winter sky. It does not -matter what kind of tree it is. Note its height, shape, and size of top, -how many branches there are, how the branches are arranged on the main -trunk, the direction of the branches, whether the twigs are few or many, -crooked or straight. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 205. Slippery Elm. The expression is stiff and -hard._] - -Having observed these points in any tree, compare one kind of tree with -another and note how they differ in these features. Compare an apple -tree with an elm, an elm with a maple, a basswood with a pine, a poplar -with a beech, a pear tree with a peach tree. - -Having made comparisons between very dissimilar trees, compare those -which are much alike, as the different kinds of maples, of elms, of -oaks, of poplars. As your powers of observation become trained, compare -the different varieties of the same kind of fruit trees, if there are -good orchards in the vicinity. The different varieties of pears afford -excellent contrasts. Contrast the Bartlett with the Flemish Beauty, the -Kieffer with the Seckel. In apples, compare the Baldwin with the Spy, -the King with the Twenty Ounce. The sweet and sour cherries show marked -differences in method of branching. Fruit men can tell many varieties -apart in winter. How? - -Two common hickories are shown in Figs. 203 and 204. How do they differ? -Do they differ in length of trunk? General method of branching? -Direction of branches? Character of twig growth? Straightness or -crookedness of branches? - -Contrast the slippery elm (Fig. 205) and the common or American elm -(Fig. 211). The former has a crotchy or forked growth, and long, stiff, -wide-spreading branches. The latter is more vase-like in shape. The -branches are willowy and graceful, with a tendency to weep. - -Compare the oaks. The white and scarlet oaks have short trunks when they -grow in fields, and the main branches are comparatively few and make -bold angles and curves. The swamp white oak (Fig. 206), however, has a -more continuous trunk, with many comparatively small, horizontal, and -tortuous branches. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 206. Swamp White Oak._] - -With Fig. 206 compare the pepperidge (Fig. 207). This is one of the most -unusual and interesting of all our native trees. It grows in swales. It -has a very tough-grained wood. The autumn foliage is deep red and -handsome. The peculiarities of the tree are the continuation of the -trunk to near the summit, and the many lateral, short, deflected, -tortuous branches. - -Consider the structure of the sassafras in Fig. 208. The great branches -stand off nearly at right angles to the trunk, and are bushy and twiggy -at the ends. Each large branch if cut off at its base and stood upright -would look like an independent tree, so tree-like are its branches. -Observe how much more bushy the sassafras is than any of the other trees -already figured. Compare it in the method of branching and the -twigginess with the slippery elm (Fig. 205). - -[Illustration: _Fig. 207. Pepperidge or Sour Gum. The oddest of New York -trees._] - -But there is still greater brushiness in the thorn-apple (Fig. 209). In -twigginess Figs. 208 and 209 are very unlike, however. Pick out the -differences. Observe the very short and spur-like twigs in the -thorn-apple; also notice how soon the trunk is lost in the branches. - -With all the foregoing pictures compare the steeple-like form of the -Lombardy poplar (Fig. 210). The tree is frequent along roadsides and -about yards. What is its structure? Observe it as it stands against the -winter sky. There is nothing else in our northern landscape so straight -and spire-like. If you know a beech tree standing in a field, contrast -it with the Lombardy poplar. These two trees represent extremes of -vertical and of horizontal branching. - -Aside from the general structure of the tree-top, the pupil will become -interested in the winter color of the tree and in the character of the -bark. How does the bark differ between elms and maples, oaks and -chestnuts, birches and beeches, hickories and walnuts? Why does the bark -separate in ridges or peel off in strips? Is it not associated with the -increase in diameter of the trunk? The method of breaking of the bark -is different and peculiar for each kind of tree. - -Look at these things; and think about them. - - -THE EXPRESSION OF THE TREE. - -Consciously or unconsciously, we think of trees much as we think of -persons. They suggest thoughts and feelings which are also attributes of -people. A tree is weeping, gay, restful, spirited, quiet, sombre. That -is, trees have expression. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 208. Sassafras. Type of a bushy-topped tree._] - -The expression resides in the observer, however, not in the tree. -Therefore, the more the person is trained to observe and to reflect, -the more sensitive his mind to the things about him, and the more -meaning the trees have. No one loves nature who does not love trees. We -love them for what they are, wholly aside from their uses in -fruit-bearing or shade-giving. A knowledge and love of trees binds one -close to the external world. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 209. Thorn-apple. One of the most picturesque -objects in the winter landscape._] - -How shall one increase his love of trees? First, by knowing them. He -learns their attributes and names. Knowing them in winter, as already -suggested, is one of the ways of becoming acquainted. Second, by -endeavoring to determine what thought or feeling they chiefly express. -The slippery elm is stiff and hard. The American elm is soft and -graceful. The Lombardy poplar is prim and precise. The oak is rugged, -stern, and bold. The pepperidge is dejected. The long white branches of -a leaning buttonwood standing against a distant forest, suggest some -spectre hurrying away from the haunts of men. - -Trees which have very strong expressions, or which are much unlike -others, are said to have character. They are peculiar. Of such trees are -oaks, pepperidges, Lombardy poplars, button woods, old apple trees. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 210. Group of Lombardy Poplars. From Bulletin 68._] - -A tree with very strong characters is said to be picturesque. That is, -it is such an object as an artist delights to put into a picture. Trees -which are very unsymmetrical, or knotty, gnarled, or crooked, are -usually picturesque. Of all common trees, none is more picturesque than -an old apple tree. Observe its gnarled and crooked branches, and the -irregular spaces in its top. - -Encourage the pupil to extend his observation to all the trees about -him, especially to such as are common and familiar. Teach him to observe -the growths of bushes and trees in the fence-rows which lie on his way -to school; and to observe carefully and critically. How do gooseberry -bushes differ from currant bushes, and raspberries from blackberries? -Observe the lilac bush and the snowballs. How is the snow held on the -different kinds of evergreens--as the pines, spruces, arbor-vitæ? See -how the fruit-spurs on pears and plums stand out against the sky. -(Consult Leaflet No. XXXI, "Four Apple Twigs.") Are there any bright -colors of branch and twig to relieve the bareness of the snow? Do you -see any warmth of color in the swales where the willows and osiers are? -Do you see old plumes of grass and weeds standing above the snow? Do -they bring up any visions of summer and brooks and woods? - -[Illustration] - - - - -LEAFLET XXX. - -ONE WAY OF DRAWING TREES IN THEIR WINTER ASPECT.[41] - -BY C. W. FURLONG. - - -[41] Teacher's Leaflet, No. 12, January, 1899. - -The few suggestions which are set forth in these pages are based upon -two assumptions:--first, that the teacher has some knowledge of the most -salient principles of elementary perspective; and second, that she has a -love for all things beautiful. It is feasible to deal here not to any -extent with art in either its abstract or its concrete form, but only -with drawing. - -Drawing, in its simplest analysis, is the ability to record objects as -they appear to the normal eye. - -Art is more complicated. It includes many elements, a few of which are -composition, expression of movement, and action. The very thought, -feeling, and refinement of the artist must be expressed in his work. He -must tell not only what he sees, but also what he feels. He interprets -nature through his own moods. - -There are no outlines in nature. The boundaries, shapes, and character -of various forms are determined by the difference of their color values, -and the contrasts of light and shade. Yet an outline drawing is the -simplest means of representing form and proportion. Although inadequate -in many respects, this somewhat conventional rendering is important to -the beginner, for it is necessary that the child be taught to observe -forms and proportions correctly; and these impressions may be recorded -most simply and definitely by outline drawings. Michael Angelo -emphasized its importance in these words: "The science of drawing or of -outline is the essence of painting and all the fine arts, and the root -of all the sciences." - -To a great extent, one may show in an outline drawing the character and -texture of surfaces. Our main object should be to train the boys and -girls to observe in order to acquire a correctness of perception, for -"education amongst us consists too much in telling, not enough in -training." - -[Illustration: _Fig. 211. The American Elm, one of the most typical of -vase-form trees._] - -One of the greatest difficulties is to impress upon the minds of -beginners the fact that they must think while they look and draw. Insist -upon the pupil's looking repeatedly at the object. It is better to -observe for five minutes and draw for one, than to observe for one and -draw for five. - -Make the drawing lesson more interesting by telling the class something -about the object which they are to draw, involving in the story facts -that will impress upon their minds some of the most salient -characteristics of the object. Encourage the children to discuss the -object, drawing out facts for their own observation. Certain kinds of -trees, like certain races of people, have a general similarity, yet -every single tree has an individuality of its own. - -Apply a few essential questions that will help to determine at least the -kind of tree it is, the race to which it belongs; for first we must get -its general character, seeing its big proportions and shape; and later -must search for its individualities. - -Is it tall for its greatest width? - -How far does the trunk extend before dividing? - -At what height do the lowest branches arise? - -What is their general direction? - -Do they appear to radiate from the trunk? - -How do they appear to radiate from the trunk? - -How do the main branches compare in size with the trunk? - -Are they crooked or straight? - -The manner of branch growth must be studied carefully. - -We see in our elm (Fig. 211) that the trunk divides at about a fourth of -its height into several main branches, while in the case of the -pepperidge (Fig. 207) the trunk extends to the very top of the tree, the -branches being small in proportion to the trunk, not varying much in -size, and taking an oblique downward direction. Notice the weird -expression of these trees with their crookedly bent tops, one side of -each trunk being almost devoid of branches. - -The trunk of the sassafras (Fig. 208) continues nearly to the top of -this tree, while the large branches, though unsymmetrical, give it a -well-balanced appearance. - -Again in our picture of the thorn-apple (Fig. 209), we are at once -impressed with its irregular form, the branches on the left taking a -more oblique direction than those of the other side, the trunk dividing -a little short of half the height of the tree. - -For an example, let our subject be an elm tree (Fig. 211); our drawing -to be rendered in outline. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 212. Blocking-in the elm tree (Fig. 211). The first -work which the artist does when he draws the tree._] - -[Illustration: _Fig. 213. Working in the details with sharp lines. The -original pencil sketch is not followed exactly._] - -_Material._--Almost any good drawing paper, white or buff in color, will -answer our purpose; 9x12 is a good size. Our pencil should be of medium -grade lead (F. or HB.) of any standard make, Kohinoor preferred. - -If procurable, we should have a light drawing board 17x22 inches (here -is an opportunity for the carpenters) to place the paper on, otherwise a -very stiff piece of cardboard; or a large geography book might answer. -It is best, however, to fasten our paper, which we cannot do in using -the book. For fastening the paper use four thumb tacks for the corners. - -A Faber or multiplex pencil eraser is needed; also a sponge eraser with -which to remove the light lines and clean the drawing before lining it -in. - -_Our position._--Our point of view will depend upon our subject, but it -is not well to be so near as to necessitate raising the head in order to -see the top of the tree. If we take longer than one sitting for our -drawing (which I do not think advisable, as we must not choose too -complicated a subject), we must mark our position in order to obtain -again the same point of view. - -_Position of the drawing-board._--Our paper must be placed on the board -with its edges parallel to those of the board. The drawing-board should -be held perpendicular, or nearly so, to the direction in which it is -seen, for if the board is tilted far backward, it will be fore-shortened -and our tree will probably have been drawn longer than it should be. - -_How to look._--The tendency of the beginner is to see and draw too much -in detail. It is most essential that we look first for the large shapes, -the greatest dimensions; next for the smaller ones; last for detail. It -is not well for the pupils to work too close to their drawings. They -should occasionally sit well back in their seats or get up and stand -behind the seats to obtain the general effect of their drawing, to see -that the big shapes are right and that the character of the tree has not -been lost. - -As an aid to placing our drawing so as best to fill the space it has to -occupy, we may use what the French call a _cherche-motif_, the English, -a finder. This is nothing more than a small piece of stiff paper or -cardboard about 5x8 inches, in which is cut a small rectangular opening -about 3/4x1 inch; the size and proportion may vary somewhat. We may look -through this opening, the card acting as a frame to our picture. This -will help us to decide whether our subject will look better placed the -horizontal or the vertical way of the paper and how much of the subject -to include and where to place it in that space. We may include more or -less in the finder by varying its distance from the eye. - -Now, I am sure we should not place ourselves within a dozen yards of our -tree if we wished to get its general effect; therefore, we must have -plenty of foreground in our drawing. We must give the eye a chance to -look, allowing plenty of space between the lowest point of our drawing -and the lower edge of our paper. - -As the height of tree we are to draw (Fig. 211) is greater than its -greatest width, we find that it will fill the space best if placed the -vertical way of the paper. After indicating the extreme height and width -by four light marks, before carrying the drawing further we must test -these proportions by comparing the width with the height, always testing -the shorter dimension into the longer, viz.: - -_To test the drawing._--Close one eye. The pencil may be used to test -the drawing by holding it in front of you at arm's length (as in Fig. -214) perpendicular to the direction in which the object is seen; also -revolving it in a plane perpendicular to the direction in which the -object is seen, in order to compare one dimension with another. For -example, hold your pencil horizontally at arm's length so that its blunt -end covers the outermost left-hand point of the elm. Slide your thumb -along the pencil till it covers the extreme right-hand point; retain -that measurement (keeping the same position in your chair, pencil always -at arm's length); revolve the pencil in the same plane until it -coincides with the height of the elm, at the same time lowering it so -that the end of the thumb covers the lowest point of the tree; note -carefully the point that the blunt end covers; raise the pencil so that -the end of the thumb covers that point, noting again where the blunt end -occurs and notice how many times, and how much over, the width goes into -the height. In our elm (Fig. 211) we find that the width goes about once -and six-sevenths into the height, or a little short of twice. If the -latter statement is preferred, we must bear in mind the proportion left -over. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 214. How to test the drawing._] - - -Do not use the scale side of a ruler or marks on the pencil or object -used in order to test the proportions, and never transfer measurements -from the object used in testing to your paper. A scale or other -mechanical means should not be used in free-hand drawing. The teacher -should have a spool of black thread and should give a piece about 2 feet -6 inches long to each pupil. An eraser, a knife, or some small article -may be attached to one end of the thread. By holding the weighted thread -as a plumb-line in front of us, we have an absolutely vertical line; so -by having it intersect a desired point of our tree we may obtain the -relative positions to the right and left of other points above and below -this intersected point. - -_Blocking-in._--We may conceive of the general shape of our elm by -looking at it with half closed eyes. It appears in silhouette. Now -imagine lines joining its outermost points; this will give the general -mass or shape of our tree. Now if we represent the outermost points -contained in these lines by sketching lightly these "blocking-in" lines, -as they are called, we obtain the general shape of the elm (Fig. 212). -We must emphasize the fact that these blocking-in lines are to be -sketched in lightly by holding the pencil near the blunt end, using a -free-arm motion. Now before going farther we again test these new points -to see if they occupy their correct positions in relation to the height -and width. Do not, however, transfer the measurements from the pencil to -the paper. This test is only to obtain the proportion of one dimension -to another. Having tested these smaller dimensions we may draw lightly -the main branches. - -After having indicated their general direction and character of growth, -we may indicate some of the smaller branches and twigs (Fig. 213). All -this work should be carried out without erasing; all corrections should -be made by slightly darker lines. - -Let us now sharpen our pencils to a good point and go over the drawing -with a fine dark line, carefully studying the character and spirit of -the tree. Now erase the lighter and superfluous lines, as the dark lines -remain distinct enough to indicate our drawing. - -_Lining-in._--We may now take our pencil nearer the point and proceed to -line-in the drawing, going over it with a definite, consistent line. If -desirable, we may accent and bring out certain parts of the tree more -strongly than others by darker or shade lines and short, strong markings -called accents. These are especially effective at the junction and -underside of branches, and where one wishes to give the object a -nearer appearance. A soft, broad, grey line may be obtained by using a -softer pencil (B) and the drawing given variety by breaking lines here -and there. We should be cautious in using them, however; but lack of -space does not permit further discussion of the subject of accented -outlines. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 215. The outline drawing complete, and the first -pencil marks erased._] - -Allow the pupils to make short ten- or fifteen-minute "time sketches" of -trees. In these it is the spirit and general effect of the tree that we -must strive for. Above all, we must allow our little draughtsmen to give -their own interpretation of the tree. A helpful suggestion as to -proportion, etc., would be in place, but we must allow their -individuality to have as much play as possible. - -The suggestions given on these pages are necessary for the beginner. -Some of them are hard facts; but it lies with the teacher to develop the -æsthetic and artistic qualities lying dormant in the pupil, ready to be -moulded and started in the right direction. - -If you have confined the pupils to the flat copy, break away from it; -allow them to create. Let them see the beautiful things all about them. -They will respond. Let them draw from nature and still life. Train them -to observe. - -The early summer days, just before school closes, with their bright -sunlight and strong shadows, make many subjects interesting as -light-and-shade drawings. Fall, with its brilliant coloring, gives us a -chance to use the color-box, while the early winter twilights will bring -many an interesting silhouette before our boys and girls, and next day -during the drawing hour these impressions may be carried out in pen and -ink. - -The most successful teacher will be the one of sympathetic nature whose -love reaches out to the boys and girls, as well as to all things -beautiful. The most successful teacher will be the one who endeavors to -place the children where they may view nature sympathetically and in the -most intimate relationship. - - - - -LEAFLET XXXI. - -FOUR APPLE TWIGS.[42] - -BY L. H. BAILEY. - - -[42] Teachers' Leaflet No. 3, March, 1897. - -[Illustration] - -As I walked through an apple orchard the other day for the first time -since the long winter had set in, I was struck by the many different -shapes and sizes of the limbs as I saw them against the blue-gray of the -February sky. I cut four of them in passing, and as I walked back to the -house I wondered why the twigs were all so different; and I found myself -guessing whether there would be any apples next summer. - -I have had pictures made of these four little apple limbs. Let us look -them over and see whether they have any story to tell of how they grew -and what they have set out to do. - - -I. - -One of these twigs (Fig. 216) was taken from a strong young tree which, -I remember, bore its first good crop of apples last year. This simple -twig is plainly of two years' growth, for the "ring" between the old and -new wood is seen at B. That is, the main stem from the base up to B grew -in 1895, and the part from B to the tip grew in 1896. But the buds upon -these two parts look very unlike. Let us see what these differences -mean. - -We must now picture to ourselves how this shoot from B to 10 looked last -summer while it was growing. The shoot bore leaves. Where? There was one -just below each bud; or, to be more exact, one bud developed just above -each leaf. These buds did not put out leaves. They grew to their present -size and then stopped. The leaves fell. - -What are these buds of the tip shoot preparing to do in 1897? We can -answer this question by going back just one year and seeing what the -buds on the lower (or older) part of the shoot did in 1896. On that part -(below B) the buds seem to have increased in size. Therefore, they must -have grown larger last year. There were no leaves borne below these -buds in 1896, but a cluster of leaves came out of each little bud in the -spring. As these leaves expanded and grew, the little bud grew on; that -is, each bud grew into a tiny branch, and when fall came each of these -branches had a bud on its end to continue the growth in the year to -come. What we took to be simple buds at 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, are, therefore, -little branches. - -But the strangest part of this wonderful little twig has not yet been -seen,--the branches are of different sizes, and three of them (7, 8, 9) -have so far outstripped the others that they seem to be of a different -kind. It should be noticed, too, that the very lowermost bud (at 1) -never grew at all, but remained perfectly dormant during the entire year -1896. It will be seen, then, that the dormant bud and the smallest -branches are on the lower part of the shoot, and the three strong -branches are at the very tip of the last year's growth. - -If, now, we picture the twig as it looked in the fall of 1895, we shall -see that it consisted of a single shoot, terminating at B. It had a -large terminal bud (like those at 7, 8, 9, 10), and this bud pushed on -into a branch in 1896, while three other buds near the tip did the same -thing. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 216.--A two-year-old shoot from a young apple tree. -Half size._] - -Why did some of these branches grow to be larger than others? "Simply -because they were upon the strongest part of the shoot, or that part -where the greatest growth naturally takes place," some one will answer. -But this really does not answer the question, for we want to know why -this part of the shoot is strongest. Probably the real reason is that -there is more sunlight and more room on this outward or upward end. In -1897,--if this shoot had been spared--each of these four largest twigs -(7, 8, 9, 10) would have done the same thing as the parent twig did in -1896: each would have pushed on from its end, and one or two or three -other strong branches would probably have started from the strong -side-buds near the tips, the very lowest buds would, no doubt, have -remained perfectly inactive or dormant for lack of opportunity, and the -intermediate buds would have made short branches like 2, 3, 4, 5, 6. In -other words, the tree always tries to grow onward from its tips, and -these tip shoots eventually become strong branches, unless some of them -die in the struggle for existence. What, now, becomes of the little -branches lower down? - - -II. - -From another apple tree I took the twig shown in Fig. 217. We see at -once that it is very unlike the other one. It seems to be two years old, -one year's growth extending from the base up to 7, and the last year's -growth extending from 7 to 8; but we shall see upon looking closer that -this is not so. The short branchlets at 3, 4, 5, 7 are very different -from those in Fig. 216. They seem to be broken off. The fact is that the -broken ends show were apples were borne in 1896. The branchlets that -bore them, therefore, must have grown in 1895, while the main branch, -from 1 to 7, grew in 1894. It is plain, from the looks of the buds, that -the shoot from 7 to 8 grew last year, 1896. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 217. A three-year-old shoot and the fruit-spurs. -Half size._] - -Starting from the base, then, we have the main twig growing in 1894; the -small side branches growing in 1895; these little branches bearing -apples in 1896; and the terminal shoot also growing in 1896. Why was -there no terminal shoot growing in 1895? Simply because its tip -developed a fruit-bud (at 7) and therefore could not send out a branch; -for there are two kinds of buds,--the small, pointed leaf-bud and the -thick, blunt fruit-bud. If the branchlets 3, 4, 5, 7 are two years old, -the dormant buds--1, 2--must be of the same age. That is, for two long -years these little buds have been waiting (if I may use the expression) -for some bug to eat off the buds and leaves above, or some accident to -break the shoot beyond them, so that they might have a chance to grow; -but they have waited in vain. - -We have now found, therefore, that the little side shoots upon apple -twigs often become fruit-branches or fruit-spurs, while the more -ambitious branches above them are making a great display of stem and -leaves. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 218.--A fruit-spur which has borne six apples. Half -size._] - -But will these fruit-spurs bear fruit again in 1897? No. The bearing of -an apple is hard work, and these spurs did not have enough vitality left -to make fruit-buds for the next year; but as they must perpetuate -themselves, they have sent out small side buds which will bear a cluster -of leaves and grow into another little spur in 1897, and in that year -these new spurs will make fruit-buds for bearing in 1898. The side bud -is plainly seen on spur 5, also on spur 4, whilst spur 7 has sown a -seed, so to speak, in the bud at 6. It is plain, therefore, why the tree -bears every other year. - - -III. - -There was one tree in the orchard from which the farmer had not picked -his apples. Perhaps the apples were not worth picking. At any rate, the -dried apples, shriveled and brown, are still hanging on the twigs, and -even the birds do not seem to care for them. I broke off one of these -twigs (Fig. 218). Let us see how many apples this interesting twig has -borne. We can tell by the square-cut scars. An apple was once borne at -1, another at 2, another at 4, another at 5, another at 6, and another -at 7,--and at 7 there will be a scar when the apple falls. Six apples -this modest shoot has borne! And I wonder how many of them got ripe, or -how many were taken by the worms, or how many were eaten by the little -boys and girls on their way to school! - -A peculiar thing happened when the fruit was growing at 2. Two side buds -started out, instead of one, and both of them grew the next year. But -one of the little branchlets fell sick and died, or a bug nipped off its -end, or it starved to death; and its memory is preserved by the little -stick standing up at 3. The other branchlet thrived, and eventually bore -apples at 4, 5, 6, and 7. - -I have said that these fruit-spurs bear only every other year; then, if -this branch has borne six apples consecutively, it must be twelve years -old. The truth is that it is about twenty years old, for some years it -failed to bear; but the age cannot be traced out in the picture, -although any little boy or girl with bright eyes could soon learn to -trace out yearly rings on the shoot itself. - - -IV. - -The last shoot that I got that day has a whole volume of history in it, -and I cannot begin to tell its story unless I should write a small book. -But we will trace out its birthdays and see how many apples it has -borne. It is shown in Fig. 219, and because it is so long I have had to -break it into several pieces to get it on the page. It begins at A, and -is continued at B, C, D, E, and F. - -Let us count the yearly rings and see how old the whole limb is. These -rings are at 28, 26, D, 12, 1,--five of them; and as the shoot grew one -year before it made any ring, and another year made no increase in -length--as we shall presently see--the whole branch must be seven years -old. That is, the limb probably started in 1890.[43] Let us begin, then, -at A, and follow it out. - -[43] It is really impossible to tell whether the shoot started from the -limb A in 1889 or 1890, without knowing the age of A; for the spur may -have developed its blossom bud at the end in either the first or second -year of its life. That is, young fruit-spurs sometimes make a blossom -bud the very year they start, but they oftener "stand still" the second -year and delay the blossom bud until that time. - -1890. Started as a spur from the main branch, A, and grew to 1. - -1891. Apple borne at 1. This apple did not mature, however, as we can -readily see by the smallness of the scar. In this year, two side buds -developed to continue the spur the next year. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 219. A seven-year-old apple twig and its curious -history. (Half size.)_] - -1892. Ceased to be a fruit-spur, and made a strong growth on to 12. For -some reason, it had a good chance to grow. Perhaps the farmer pruned the -tree, and thereby gave the shoot an opportunity; or perhaps he plowed -and fertilized the land. - -In the meantime, one of the side buds grew to 3, and the other to 7, and -each made a fruit-bud at its end. - -1893. Shoot grew lustily,--on to D. - -The fruit-bud at 3 bore an apple, which probably matured, as shown by -the scar 2. Two side buds were formed beneath this apple, to continue -the spur next year. - -The fruit-bud at 7 bloomed, but the apple fell early, as shown by the -small scar. Two side buds were formed. - -The buds upon the main shoot--1 to 12--all remained dormant. - -1894. Shoot grew from D to beyond E. - -Side bud of 2 grew to 4, and made a fruit-bud on its end; the other side -bud grew on to 5, and there made a fruit-bud. - -Side bud of 7 grew on to 10, and the other one to 8, each ending in a -fruit-bud. - -Buds on old shoot--1 to 12--still remained dormant. - -Some of the buds on the 1893 growth--12 to D,--remained dormant; but -some of them made fruit-spurs,--14, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23. - -1895. Shoot grew from beyond E to 28. - -Flowers were borne at 4 and 5; but at 4 the fruit fell early, for the -five or six scars of the flowers can be seen, showing that no one of -them developed more strongly than the other; that is, none of the -flowers "set." A fairly good fruit was probably borne at 5. At the base -of each, a bud started to continue the spur next year. - -Upon the other spur, flowers were borne both at 8 and 10. At 10 none of -the flowers set fruit, but a side bud developed. At 8 the fruit -partially matured, and a side bud was also developed. - -The buds upon the old stem from 1 to 12 still remained dormant. - -Some of the spurs on the 1893 growth--12 to D--developed fruit-buds for -bearing in 1896. - -Some of the buds on the 1894 growth--D to beyond E--remained dormant, -but others developed into small fruit-spurs. One of these buds, near the -top of the 1894 growth, threw out a long shoot, starting from E; and -the bud at 26 also endeavored to make a long branch, but failed. - -1896. Main shoot grew from 28 to the end. - -The side bud below 4 (where the fruit was borne the year before) barely -lived, not elongating, as seen above 3. This branch of the spur is -becoming weak and will never bear again. The side bud of 5, however, -made a fairly good spur and developed a fruit-bud at its end, as seen at -6. - -The side bud of 10 grew somewhat, making the very short spur 11. This -branchlet is also getting weak. The bud of 8, however, developed a -strong spur at 9. Both 11 and 9 bear fruit-buds, but that on 11 is -probably too weak ever to bear fruit again. In fact, the entire spurs, -from 1 to 6 and 1 to 9, are too weak to be of much account for -fruit-bearing. - -This year several of the spurs along the 1893 growth--12 to D--bore -flowers. Flowers were borne from two buds on the first one (at 13 and -14), but none of the flowers "set." One of the little apples that died -last June still clings to the spur at 14. A side bud (15) formed to -continue the spur in 1897. Flowers were borne at 16, 20, 21, and 23, but -no apples developed. Upon 16 and 20 the flowers died soon after they -opened, as seen by the remains of them. Upon 23, one of the flowers set -an apple, but the apple soon died. The spurs 17 and 18 are so weak that -they have never made fruit-buds, and they are now nearly dead. The spurs -19 and 22 have behaved differently. Like the others, they grew in 1894 -and would have made terminal fruit-buds in 1895, and would have borne -fruit in 1896; but the terminal buds were broken off in the fall or -winter of 1894, so that two side buds developed in 1895, and each of -these developed a fruit-bud at its end in 1896 in the spur 19, but only -one of them developed such a bud in 22. Upon these spurs, therefore, the -bearing year has been changed. - -Upon the growth of 1894--D to beyond E--only three spurs have developed, -nos. 24, 25, 26. These started out in 1895, and two of them--25 and -26--have made large fat buds which are evidently fruit-buds. The shoot -at E grew on to EE, and all the buds on its lower two-year-old portion -remained dormant. - -On the 1895 growth--from beyond E to 28--all the buds remained dormant -save one, and this one--27--made only a very feeble attempt to grow into -a spur. - -The buds upon the 1892 growth--1 to 12--are still dormant and waiting -for an opportunity to grow. - -What an eventful history this apple twig has had! And yet in all the -seven years of its life, after having made fifteen efforts to bear -fruit, it has not produced a single good apple! The fault, therefore, -does not lie in the shoot. It has done the best it could. The trouble -has been that the farmer either did not give the tree enough food to -enable it to support the fruit, or did not prune the tree so as to give -the twig light and room, or allowed apple-scab or some other disease to -kill the young apples as they were forming. I am wondering, therefore, -whether, when trees fail to bear, it is not quite as often the fault of -the farmer as it is of the trees? - - - - -LEAFLET XXXII. - -THE BURST OF SPRING.[44] - -BY L. H. BAILEY. - - -[44] Nature-Study Quarterly No. 4, Leaflet 17, March, 1900. - -[Illustration] - -Spring is coming! The buds will burst and the birds will sing! - -How do the buds burst? Watch them as the spring opens; or, if you are -impatient, cut long twigs and place them in bottles of water in a -living-room, and the buds will swell. First, notice what the winter buds -are like,--that they are spherical, or oblong, or conical bodies lying -close to the limb and tightly covered with scales. Notice that there is -a mark or scar beneath the bud, showing where a leaf was borne. - -It is excellent practice to collect winter twigs of different kinds of -trees and bushes, and to compare the form and color of the shoots, and -the size, shape, color, and make-up of the buds. Lay the twigs side by -side on the table and notice how one differs from the other. What part -of the twig grew last year? Notice the "ring" at the base of the last -year's growth. After all the differences are noted, put the twigs in -water, as you would a bouquet. Sometimes flowers and leaves will appear. -If the twigs are two or three feet long, the buds are more likely to -grow, for then there is sufficient supply of food in them. Change the -water frequently, and cut off the lower ends of the twigs so that a -fresh surface will be exposed to the water. It will be two to five weeks -before the buds open, depending mostly on the kind of plant. - -Mark one bud on a maple, or apple, or lilac, or other plant, by tying a -string about the twig. Look at it carefully from day to day: observe how -it opens, and what comes out of it. - -The pupil should know that a winter twig has interest. - - * * * * * - -The bud may be peach or apricot. Soon the bud begins to swell at its -top. The scales open. A white lining appears. This lining soon protrudes -(Fig. 220). Soon the lining opens. We see that it is a flower. Or -perhaps the peach bud sends out a green shoot rather than a flower. -There must be two kinds of peach and apricot buds,--a flower-bud and a -leaf-bud. Can you tell them apart? The flower-bud is thicker and -rounder. Usually one stands on either side of a leaf-bud. But the -leaf-bud may stand alone. Find one: any peach tree or apricot tree will -have leaf-buds, but all may not have flower-buds. As the bud expands and -the flower or leaf appears, notice that the bud-scales fall away. Do -these scales leave scars? And do not these scars, standing together, -make the "ring" which marks the beginning of the new growth? - -[Illustration: _Fig. 220. Opening of an apricot bud._] - - * * * * * - -Observe a pear bud. Notice that the scales elongate as the bud swells. -You can see the white bases of the scales, marking the new growth (Fig. -221). If it is a leaf-bud the scales may become three-fourths of an inch -long before they fall. But sooner or later, they are cast, and their -places are marked by scars. If it is a flower-bud, notice that several -flowers come out of it. In the apricot and peach, there is only one -flower in each bud. Each of these little pear flowers is closed up like -a bud and elevates itself on a stalk before it opens: and this stalk -becomes the stem of the pear fruit. But this pear flower-bud contains -leaves as well as flowers. Fig. 222 shows what comes out of a pear bud. -This, then, is a mixed flower-bud,--it contains both leaves and flowers. -The apricot and the peach bear true or simple flower-buds. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 221. Opening of a pear bud._] - -[Illustration: _Fig. 222. What came out of a pear bud._] - - * * * * * - -Watch apple buds. The scales do not elongate as in the pear, but the -flower-buds are mixed. Fig. 223 shows the expanding cluster from an -apple flower-bud. Four flowers will open; and there are six leaves. If -the buds are made to open in the house on severed twigs, the leaves do -not grow so large before the flowers expand, for the twig does not -contain sufficient food. Fig. 224 is a photograph of an apple twig which -I had in my window one winter's day. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 223. Opening of an apple bud._] - -[Illustration: _Fig. 224. Apple flowers in midwinter._] - - * * * * * - -Examine a hickory twig. The illustration (Fig. 225) shows the "ring" -marking the beginning of the annual growth. See the large leaf-scars. -Notice that the terminal bud is much the largest. It is the one which -will grow. The other buds will remain dormant unless they are forced -into growth by the death of the terminal bud or by other unusual -circumstances. Notice that buds differ in size on shoots of all plants; -consider that not all the buds are to grow: there is a struggle for -existence. When the hickory bud expands, some of the scales fall away; -but some of the inner parts enlarge into leaf-like bodies, as shown in -Fig. 226. In some hickories these bodies become two or three inches long -before they fall. Hickories open very late in the season. The Norway -maple, commonly planted on lawns, behaves in a similar way. Observe the -sugar maple. - - * * * * * - -[Illustration: _Fig. 225. Shoot of a hickory._] - -[Illustration: _Fig. 226. The opening of a hickory bud._] - -A twig of the common elm is shown in Fig. 227. Notice the "ring." See -the two kinds of buds. We suspect that the three larger ones are -flower-buds. With the very first warm days--before the robin has built -her nest--these three buds will burst; soon the red-brown tassels will -hang on the leafless twigs. Each tassel is a flower. Several flowers -come from each bud. We see them in Fig. 228; and the leaf-buds have -elongated somewhat. Watch for the fruits or seeds that blow about the -walks so early in spring; and note how the leaves come out. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 227. Twig of elm._] - -[Illustration: _Fig. 228. Blossoms of the elm._] - - * * * * * - -With the first breath of spring, the "pussy willows" come. And what are -the "pussies"? They are clusters of flowers. So snugly are the little -flowers wrapped in wool, that the "pussies" are silken-soft as they -begin to expand. Fig. 229 is a willow shoot. Find one when the buds -first begin to burst. Notice the big brown-black scale that covers the -bud as a shield and falls when the "pussy" first begins to appear. - - * * * * * - -And now what is a winter bud? It is a miniature shoot or flower, resting -for the time, and snugly wrapped for the long winter. It was made last -season. It is ready to leap into growth the moment the warm rain of -spring wakens it. A good hand lens will show the embryo branch, if a -section is made of the bud. - -This bud is not only ready-formed but is ready-fed. The winter shoots -contain starch. On a cut surface of a dormant twig, apply a drop of -tincture of iodine; note the bluish color, which is indicative of -starch. This starch is insoluble; but with the first awakening of life, -it changes into sugar, which is soluble and is transferred to the -growing part. The burst of spring is made possible by means of this -stored food. Notice the azalea in the florist's window (Fig. 230). The -large flower-buds were formed the year before, and it is a short -operation to "force" them into bloom. The flowers come in advance of the -leaves; therefore these leaves could not have made the food required for -the bloom. The blooming of the apple twig (Fig. 224) in the winter shows -that the food is in the twig and buds. Once I drew a branch of a tree -into a room and fastened it there. It made leaves and began to grow -while the tree to which it was attached was perfectly dormant (Fig. -231). - -[Illustration: _Fig. 230. Bloom of azalea._] - - * * * * * - -[Illustration: _Fig. 229. The opening of a pussy willow._] - -Not only are the buds ready-formed and ready-fed, but they are covered. -Snugly is the tender, growing part protected. Pull away the scales of a -winter bud one by one. Observe how closely they are placed. Often the -chinks are filled with a packing of wool, or are sealed with varnish. -Dip the bud in water: then see whether the water permeates the -covering. The chief value of the bud covering is not to protect from -freezing, as commonly supposed, but to prevent the soft growing parts -from drying out. - -The plants are waiting for spring. They are ready. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 231. Branch of a tree bearing leaves inside a -window, when the tree itself is dormant._] - - - - -LEAFLET XXXIII. - -EVERGREENS AND HOW THEY SHED THEIR LEAVES.[45] - -BY H. P. GOULD. - - -[45] Teacher's Leaflet No. 13, February, 1899. - -[Sidenote: _Note to the teacher._--This leaflet has two particular -objects: to teach how evergreens shed their leaves, and to enable you to -distinguish a few of the evergreens which are most commonly met. These -studies (and those suggested in Leaflet No. XXIX) should be the means of -adding much cheer to the winter. Encourage pupils to make collections of -cones, to observe when they shed their seeds, and how long (how many -seasons) they remain attached to the branch. Remember that mere -identification of the kinds of trees is not the highest type of -nature-study. - -Cones are good subjects for free-hand drawing. Beginners should draw -them in outline, omitting the shading. Encourage pupils to draw single -leaf-clusters of the different pines, cautioning them to show the right -number of leaves in each case.] - -[Illustration] - -Cone-bearing evergreens are familiar to everyone; yet this familiarity -is usually with the trees as entire objects. We do not often stop to -analyze a tree in order to find out what gives it its characteristic -appearance or to see what makes it look as it does. - -We shall often find, if we stop to look, that much of the character of a -tree,--that is, its general appearance or the way in which it impresses -us,--is due to the leaves and to their arrangement on the branches. This -is true of many of the evergreen trees. - -Why are certain kinds of trees called evergreen in distinction from -those which are said to be deciduous? The reason is obvious. One kind is -always green from the presence of foliage, while the other sheds all of -its leaves every season. The evergreen trees, like the pines and the -spruces and the firs, always appear to be well covered with foliage; -hence it does not often occur to us that these trees shed their leaves. -And yet perhaps we can recall happy hours when we used to play beneath -some large pine tree where the ground was carpeted with pine "needles." - -The falling of the leaves of the maple trees or the oaks is a familiar -sight, but who has seen the spruce leaves fall, and who can tell when -the pine needles drop? - -That the evergreen trees do shed their foliage, as truly as the maples -and the elms do, we will not question, for we can see the fallen leaves -under any tree. Look up into the top of a spruce or pine. See that the -interior is bare of foliage. The leaves are towards the ends of the -branches, where they receive sunlight. Yet the branches which are now in -the interior once bore leaves, for we can see the leaf-scars. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 232. Shoot of the common white pine, one-third -natural size._] - -It will be interesting to find out something about the leaves of our -common evergreens. Let us look at some of them. - - -THE WHITE PINE. - -In Fig. 232 is shown a white pine branch. Notice that the leaves are -borne in bunches or clusters of five. Each bunch of leaves is produced -in the axil (or angle) of a minute scale-like body, but this scale can -best be seen and studied on the very young growth. It has been worn away -or broken from the older growth by the wind and the rain and the other -forces of nature. - -Another strange fact should be well observed. The leaves of the maples -and other deciduous trees are borne only on the present season's -growth; but this is not the case in the pines, and kindred trees. If we -trace back the growth of the past two or three years, we may find that -there are as many leaves on the wood that is two years old as there are -on the last season's growth; and in many cases we can find leaves on the -part of the branch that is three years old. This means that the pine -leaves or needles are two and sometimes three years old when they fall. -The Fig. 232 shows the falling of the leaves from the different years' -growth. The part of the branch between the tip and A is the last -season's growth; between A and B it is two years old; the part between B -and C is three years old. The part that grew four seasons ago--beyond -C--has no leaves. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 233. Cone of white pine. It has shed its seeds. -Half natural size._] - -The different seasons' growth is indicated not by distinct "rings" as in -the case of deciduous trees, but by the branching. Each whorl of -branches about a limb represents the end of a season's growth. A young -pine tree, or the younger limbs of an old tree, shows this character -very plainly. - -Do the leaves of the pines and of the other evergreen trees fall at the -end of the growing season, as the leaves of most of the deciduous trees -do? Or do they gradually become lifeless and fall at any season, from -the force of the wind and other natural forces? Tie a large sheet of -cloth in the top of some evergreen tree, in such a way as to form a -receptacle to catch the leaves. Do you catch leaves in winter as well as -in summer? Do you find leaves on the snow? - -As there are several different kinds of pines, we must picture carefully -in our minds the foliage of the white pine, for it is different from -that of any others. The leaves are soft and very slender, and from three -to four inches long. The base of each cluster of leaves is at first -surrounded by a small sheath. A scar is left when the leaves drop and -these scars can often be seen on parts of the branches that are eight or -ten years old. Do the leaves of other kinds of trees make a scar when -they fall? - -The white pine cones, in which the seeds are borne, are conspicuous -objects. They are five or six inches long and slightly curved. It will -be interesting to find out whether the seeds ripen the same year in -which they are formed. Perhaps a cone still containing seeds can be -secured. Carefully tear it apart and see where the seeds are attached. -Red squirrels sometimes eat the pine seeds. A white pine cone, which has -shed its seeds, is shown in Fig. 233. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 234. Shoot of common pitch pine. One-half natural -size._] - -This kind of pine is found widely scattered in New England, New York, -and westward to Minnesota and Iowa and along the Alleghany Mountains as -far south as Georgia; also in some parts of Canada. It is a valuable -lumber tree. - - -THE PITCH PINE. - -This kind of pine is very different, in many respects, from the white -pine. Let us find some of the differences. Instead of having leaves in -bunches of five, it has them in clusters of three, and the base of each -cluster is inclosed by a scaly sheath which does not fall away as in the -case of the white pine; neither does the little scale-like body upon the -branch, in the axil of which the leaf-cluster is borne, fall away, but -it may be found just below the leaf, and even on branches that are -several years old. Sometimes a sheath is found with only two leaves. We -shall want to know, too, how old the leaves are when they fall. Do they -remain on the tree longer than the white pine leaves do? - -[Illustration: _Fig. 235. Cone of pitch pine. One-half natural size._] - -Again, instead of being soft and slender as the white pine leaves are, -we shall find that these leaves are rigid and thick in comparison, and -stand out straight from the branches. The shape of the leaves is also -distinct from that of the white pine needles. See whether you can find -any other differences. - -A pitch pine branch is shown in Fig. 234. The part between the tip and A -is the past season's growth. Observe the foliage on the part that is two -years old. Part of it has fallen. We often find it on growth which is -older than this; but in this specimen there are no leaves on the -three-year wood. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 236. Pitch pine. One-third natural size._] - -The cone of the pitch pine is very unlike that of the white pine. Fig. -235 gives a good idea of one that has shed its seeds. Compare this with -Fig. 233; or, better, examine the two kinds of cones side by side. The -pitch pine cones are sometimes borne in clusters of two or more and -they persist,--that is, remain on the tree for several years after the -seeds have ripened and scattered. - -Notice how the new cones are borne with reference to last season's -growth. Are they attached to the tip of a branchlet? Or are they closely -attached to the side of a branch? Figs. 236 and 237 will help us answer -this question. The little cones in Fig. 237 near the tip of the twig, -are just beginning to form. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 237. Pitch pine, showing young cones. Half natural -size._] - -The pitch pine usually grows in sandy or rocky soil and is found in the -United States along the Atlantic coast to Virginia, along the mountains -to Georgia, westward to Western New York, Eastern Ohio, Kentucky, and -Eastern Tennessee. It has little value as timber, because it does not -grow large enough. - - -SCOTCH AND AUSTRIAN PINES. - -In the same manner other pines may be studied. Fig. 238 shows a cone and -a bit of foliage of the Scotch pine, and Fig. 239 the Austrian pine. -These cones grew the past season and are not yet mature. After they -ripen and shed the seeds which they contain, they will look somewhat -like the cone in Fig 235. The Scotch pine has short and blue-green -needles. The Austrian pine is coarser, and has long dark-green needles. - -There are but two leaves in a cluster on these kinds of pines and we -shall find that the sheath which incloses the base of the leaf-cluster -is more conspicuous than in either the white or the pitch pine. Do the -leaves persist in the Scotch and Austrian pines longer than they do in -the others we have examined? Study the cones of these and other pines. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 238. Scotch pine. Half natural size._] - -The Scotch and Austrian pines are not native to this country, but are -much grown for ornament. They can be found in almost any park and in -many other places where ornamental trees are grown. - - -THE NORWAY SPRUCE. - -The leaves of spruce trees are borne very differently from those of the -pines. Instead of being in clusters of two or more, they are single and -without a sheath at the base; neither are there scale-like bodies on the -branches where the leaves are borne. Notice, too, that the leaves have a -very short stem or petiole. - -The leaves of the Norway spruce are about one inch long, although the -length varies more or less in different parts of the tree and in -different trees. They are rather stiff and rigid and sharp-pointed. In a -general way, the leaves are four-sided, though indistinctly so. - -It will be interesting to study the position which the leaves take on -the branches. A hasty glance might give us the impression that the -leaves are not produced on the under side of the branches; but a more -careful examination will convince us that there are nearly as many on -the under side as on the upper. The leaves are all pointing outward from -the branch and as nearly upward as is possible. In other words, the -leaves grow toward the light. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 239. Austrian pine. One-third natural size._] - -We must not forget to see how long the leaves of the Norway spruce -persist and to find out when the leaf-scars disappear. We can find -leaves that must surely be six or seven years old and sometimes we can -find them even older than this. The leaf scars, too, remain a long time. -The falling of the leaves is illustrated in Fig. 240. It shows the -extremities of a limb which is eight years old. The part between the tip -and A is last season's growth; between A and B it is two years old; and -beyond B is a part that grew three seasons ago. The section beyond C is -six years old; from C to D is seven years of age. The four years' growth -of this limb not shown in the drawing was as densely covered with -foliage as is the part shown in the upper figure; but there are not many -leaves between C and D (seven years old) and none on the eight-year-old -wood (except those on the branchlets, and these are younger). - -The cone of the Norway spruce is nearly as long as that of the white -pine, but it is not so rough and coarse as the white pine cone is. The -cones are usually borne on the tips of small branchlets, although -occasionally one is borne in the manner shown in Fig. 241. The cones -usually fall the first winter. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 240. Twig of the common Norway spruce. Half natural -size._] - -The Norway spruce is not a native of this country, but like the Scotch -and Austrian pines, it was introduced from Europe and is grown very -widely as an ornamental tree. It is the commonest evergreen in yards and -parks. - - -THE BLACK SPRUCE AND ITS KIN. - -There are several different kinds of spruces which we find growing in -our forests and swamps, and sometimes these are planted for ornament. A -sprig of foliage and a cone of one of these,--the black spruce,--is -shown in Fig. 242. The foliage is not very unlike that of the Norway -spruce, but the cones are very small in comparison. They are about one -inch long, though they vary considerably in size. Before they open they -are oval or plum-shaped; but when mature and the scales of the cone have -expanded, they are nearly globular. They are often borne in clusters, as -well as singly, and persist for many years after the seeds have fallen. -The position of the cones will depend upon their age. When young they -point upward, but they gradually turn downward. - -In general appearance the white spruce resembles the black very closely. -The leaves of the white spruce have a whitish or dusty looking tinge of -color and when crushed or bruised give forth a peculiar, disagreeable -odor. The cones vary in length from an inch to two inches, and in shape -are more cylindrical or finger-shaped than the cone of the black spruce. - -The foliage of the red spruce lacks the whitish tinge of color of the -white spruce and the cones, which are from one inch to two inches in -length, are obovate in shape--that is, the widest place is through the -upper part of the cone, and from this point it gradually tapers to the -tip. They seldom persist longer than the second summer. - -The leaves of all these different kinds of spruces vary greatly in -length, thickness, and sharpness of point, according to the part of the -tree on which they grow, and their surroundings. The shedding of the -leaves on these or other spruces can be determined as easily as in the -Norway spruce. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 241. Cone of Norway spruce. Half size._] - -These three spruces like a cold climate and grow in many sections of the -northern United States and Canada and farther south in the mountains. -They are sometimes all found growing together, but the black spruce -likes best the damp, cold swamps, while the others grow best on the -drier and better drained lands. The black spruce is commonest. The red -spruce is least known. - - -THE BALSAM FIR. - -This is another evergreen tree which grows naturally in the cold, damp -grounds of the northern United States and Canada, and to some extent in -the eastern states as far south as West Virginia. - -The foliage is borne in much the same manner as that of the spruces; yet -there are interesting differences in the characters of these two kinds -of leaves. Perhaps the most noticeable difference is in the shape; and -the color of the fir leaves will attract our attention because the under -side is a silvery color, while the upper side is green. What is the -nature of the tip of the leaf and how does it compare with the pines and -spruces in this respect? Does the leaf have a stem or petiole or is it -attached directly to the branch without any stem? How are the leaves -shed? - -[Illustration: _Fig. 242.--Black spruce. Half natural size._] - -The cones are about three inches long and present a rather delicate -appearance. It will be interesting to determine the position of the -cones, that is, the direction in which they point, and to learn whether -it is the same when they are young as it is after they have matured. - -The grayish colored bark of the trunk and limbs bears many "blisters" -from which Canada balsam is obtained. - - -THE HEMLOCK. - -A hemlock twig is an interesting object. It may have many characters in -common with the spruce and fir; yet the impression which we get from it, -or from a large hemlock tree, is entirely distinct. The arrangement of -the leaves and the gracefulness of the drooping branchlets are most -pleasing. We are led to examine it more closely. We notice that the -leaves appear to be borne in two more or less regular rows,--one on -each side of the branch or twig; but in reality they come from all sides -of the branch, and it is the position which the leaves assume that gives -this two-rowed appearance. - -The leaves have a short stalk or petiole, and this stalk rests along the -side of the branchlet in such a direction that the leaves are placed in -single rows on either side of the branch. The petioles of the leaves are -nearly parallel with the branch while the leaves often make a decided -angle with the petiole. This fact can best be brought out by carefully -examining a small twig. - -While we are noting the arrangement of the leaves on the branchlets, we -should also notice the points of similarity and difference between these -leaves and those of the spruces and firs. We shall find that there is -more in common, at least so far as shape and color are concerned, -between the hemlock and the fir than between the hemlock and the spruce. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 243. Spray of the hemlock. Two-thirds natural -size._] - -The small, delicate cones, borne on the tips of the branchlets, will -also attract our attention (Fig. 243.) We may wonder at their small -size, for they are only about three-quarters of an inch long, and very -delicate; yet a second glance at the tree will impress us with the -number of cones which the tree bears, and we conclude that, although the -cones may be small, yet there are so many of them that there will be no -lack of seeds. - -It is more difficult to trace the age of a hemlock limb than of many -other kinds of trees, yet we can easily determine that many of the -leaves are several years old when they fall. - -The bark of the hemlock is used in tanning hides for leather. The tree -is much used for lumber. Where does it grow? - - -THE ARBOR-VITÆ. - -One might almost wonder, at first sight, if the arbor-vitæ (often, but -wrongly, called the white cedar) has any leaves at all. It does possess -them, however, but they are very different in size and shape from any of -the others that we have examined. They are small scale-like bodies, -closely pressed together along the sides of the branchlets, in four -rows. Leaves pressed to the branches in this manner are said to be -"appressed." The leaves of the arbor-vitæ are so close together that -they overlap one another. The leaves are of two distinct shapes, -sometimes known as the surface leaves and the flank leaves. The former -are located on what appears to be the flattened surface of the -branchlets, while the latter are on the sides or edges. See Fig. 244. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 244. The Arbor-vitæ. Nearly full size._] - -If we carefully look at the leaves, we shall notice a raised spot near -the point or tip. This is said to be a resin gland. This gland can be -seen more plainly on the surface leaves that are two years old. - -Most of the leaves persist for at least two and sometimes three years; -but even older ones can be found. These older leaves, however, exist not -as green, active leaves, but merely as dried and lifeless scales. These -lifeless leaves are probably detached from the branches by the forces of -nature. - -The cones are even smaller than the hemlock cones. They are borne in the -axils of the leaves in the same manner as the branchlets and are not -conspicuous unless one is close to the tree. - -The arbor-vitæ is much planted for hedges and screens, as well as for -other ornamental purposes. There are many horticultural varieties. The -tree is abundant in a wild state in New York. - - -SUMMARY OF THE KINDS OF COMMON EVERGREENS. - -_The white pine_ (Pinus Strobus).--Leaves in clusters of five, soft and -slender; cones five or six inches long, slightly curved; bark smooth -except on the trunks and larger limbs of old trees, where it is -fissured. - -_The pitch pine_ (Pinus rigida).--Leaves in clusters of three, from -three to four inches long, rather rigid; cones two to three inches long, -often in clusters of two or more but frequently borne singly, persisting -long after the seeds have been shed; bark more or less rough on the -young growth and deeply fissured on the trunks of old trees. - -_The Scotch pine_ (Pinus sylvestris).--Leaves usually in clusters of -two, from two to four inches long, rigid, of a bluish-green hue when -seen in a large mass on the tree; cones two to three inches long and the -scales tipped with a beak or prickle. - -_The Austrian pine_ (Pinus Austriaca).--Leaves in clusters of two, five -or six inches long and somewhat rigid, dark green in color, and -persisting for four or five years; cones about three inches long, -conical in shape; and scales not beaked or pointed as in the Scotch -pine. - -_The Norway spruce_ (Picea excelsa).--Leaves borne singly, about one -inch long, dark green, four-sided; cones about six inches long, and -composed of thin scales, and usually borne on the tips of branchlets. -The small branches mostly drooping. - -_The black spruce_ (Picea nigra).--In general appearance, this is not -very unlike the Norway spruce, but the small branches stand out more -horizontally and the cones are only one or one and one-half inches long, -recurving on short branches. The cones persist for several years after -shedding the seed. - -_The white spruce_ (Picea alba).--Leaves about one inch long, having a -glaucous or whitish tinge; twigs stout and rigid, of a pale -greenish-white color; cones from one to two and one-half inches long, -more or less cylindrical or "finger-shaped," and easily crushed when -dry. - -_The red spruce_ (Picea rubra).--The foliage lacks the whitish tinge of -the white spruce and is of a dark or dark yellowish color; twigs stouter -than those of the black spruce and not so much inclined to droop; cones -about one inch long, obovate, and usually falling by the second summer. - -_The hemlock_ (Tsuga Canadensis).--Leaves about one-half inch long, flat -with rounded point, green on the upper side, whitish beneath, and borne -on short appressed petioles; cones about three-quarters of an inch long, -oval or egg-shaped, and borne on the ends of small branchlets and often -persisting for some time. - -_The balsam fir_ (Abies balsamea).--Leaves narrow, less than one inch -long, borne singly, very numerous and standing out from the branchlets -in much the way of the spruce; cones about three inches long, -cylindrical, composed of thin scales, and standing upright on the -branches, or recurved; bark smooth, light green with whitish tinge. - -_The arbor-vitæ_ (Thuya occidentalis).--Leaves very small, scale-like, -and over-lapping one another in four rows, adhering closely to the -branchlets; the cones oblong and small,--a half-inch or less in -length,--and composed of but few scales. - - - - -LEAFLET XXXIV. - -THE CLOVERS AND THEIR KIN.[46] - -BY ANNA BOTSFORD COMSTOCK. - - The pedigree of honey does not concern the bee, - A clover any time to him is aristocracy. - - --EMILY DICKINSON. - - -[46] Home Nature-Study Course, Vol. V, No. 8, May, 1904. - -[Illustration: _White clover._] - -There is a deep-seated prejudice that usefulness and beauty do not -belong together;--a prejudice based obviously on human selfishness, for -if a thing is useful to us we emphasize that quality so much that we -forget to look for its beauty. Thus it is that the clover suffers great -injustice; it has for centuries been a most valuable forage crop, and, -therefore, we forget to note its beauty, or to regard it as an object -worthy of æsthetic attention. This is a pitiful fact; but it cheats us -more than it does the clover, for the clover blossoms not for us, but -for the bees and butterflies as well as for itself. As I remember the -scenes which have impressed me most, I find among them three in which -clover was the special attraction. One was a well-cultivated thrifty -orchard carpeted with the brilliant red of the crimson clover in bloom. -One was a great field of alfalfa spread near the shore of the Great Salt -Lake, which met our eyes as we came through the pass in the Wasatch -Mountains after days of travel in dust-colored lands; the brilliant -green of that alfalfa field in the evening sunlight refreshed our eyes -as the draught of cold water refreshes the parched throat of the -traveller in a desert. And another was a gently undulating field in our -own State stretching away like a sea to the west, covered with the -purple foam of the red clover in blossom; and the fragrance of that -field settled like a benediction over the acres that margined it. But we -do not need landscapes to teach us the beauty of clover. Just one clover -blossom studied carefully and looked at with clear-seeing eyes, reveals -each floweret beautiful in color, interesting in form, and perfect in -its mechanism for securing pollination. - -The clover is especially renowned for its partnerships with members of -the animal kingdom. It readily forms a partnership with man, thriftily -growing in his pastures and meadows, while he distributes its seed. For -ages it has been a special partner of the bees, giving them honey for -carrying its pollen. Below the ground it has formed a mysterious -partnership with microbes, and the clover seems to be getting the best -of the bargain. - -For many years clover was regarded as a crop helpful to the soil, and -one reason given was the great length of the roots. Thus the roots of -red clover often reach the depth of several feet, even in heavy soil, -which they thus aerate and drain, especially when they decay and leave -channels. But this is only half the story; for a long time people had -noted that on clover roots were little swollen places or nodules, which -were supposed to have come from some disease or insect injury. The -scientists became interested in the supposed disease, and they finally -ascertained that these nodules are filled with bacteria, which are the -underground partners of the clovers and other legumes. These bacteria -are able to fix the free nitrogen of the air, and make it available for -plant-food. As nitrogen is the most expensive of the fertilizers, any -agency which can extract it from the free air for the use of plants is -indeed a valuable aid to the farmer. Thus it is that in the modern -agriculture, clover or some other legume is put on the land once in -three or four years in the regular rotation of crops, and it brings back -to the soil the nitrogen which other crops have exhausted. An -interesting fact about the partnership between the root bacteria and the -clover-like plants is that the plants do not flourish without this -partnership, and investigators have devised a method by which these -bacteria may be scattered in the soil on which some kinds of clover are -to be planted, and thus aid in growing a crop. This method is to-day -being used for the introduction of alfalfa here in New York State. But -the use of clover as a fertilizer is not limited to its root factory for -capturing nitrogen; its leaves break down quickly and readily yield the -rich food material of which they are composed, so that the farmer who -plows under his second-crop clover instead of harvesting it, adds -greatly to the fertility of his farm. - -The members of three distinct genera are popularly called clovers: The -True Clovers (_Trifolium_), of which six or seven species are found in -New York State, and more than sixty species are found in the United -States. The Medics (_Medicago_), of which four species are found here. -The Melilots (_Melilotus_), or sweet clovers, of which we have two -species. - - -THE TRUE CLOVERS. (_Trifolium._) - -[Illustration: _Fig. 245. The common red clover._] - -_The Red Clover (Fig. 245). (Trifolium pratense._[47])--This beautiful -dweller in our fields came to us from Europe, and it is also a native of -Asia. It is the clover most widely cultivated in New York State for -fodder, and is one of our most important crops. Clover hay often being a -standard of excellence by which other hay is measured. The export of -clover seed from the United States has sometimes reached the worth of -two million dollars per year, and this great industry is supposed to be -carried on with the aid of that other partner of the red clover, the -bumblebee. Bumblebees had to be imported into Australia before clover -seed could be produced there. The whole question of the relation of the -bumblebee to the pollination of clover no doubt needs to be re-studied, -for recent observations have led to the contesting of prevailing -opinions. It has been supposed that the failure of the clover seed crop -in some places is due to the destruction of bumblebees; whether this is -true or not, we are certain that bumblebees visit clover blooms, and the -teacher can observe for himself. - -[47] Pronounced _Trifol' -ium praten' -se_, the second or specific name -with three syllables. - -There is a more perennial form of red clover, known as variety -_perenne_. It is distinguished from the common form of red clover by its -taller growth and mostly less hairy herbage, and by the fact that the -flower-head is usually somewhat stalked. Some persons regard it as a -hybrid of red and zig-zag clover. - -_Zig-Zag Clover. (T. medium.)_--This is another species of red clover, -resembling the one just discussed, except that its flower-head rises on -a long stalk above the upper leaves, while the red clover has the -flower-head set close to these leaves. The color of the blossom is -darker than in red clover, and the flower-head is looser. The stems of -the zig-zag clover are likely to be bent at angles and thus it gets its -name. It is a question whether this species is really grown on farms. It -is probable that some or all of the clover that passes under this name -is _Trifolium pratense_ var. _perenne_. At all events, the zig-zag -clover seems to be imperfectly understood by botanists and others. - -_Crimson Clover--Scarlet Clover (Fig. 246). (T. incarnatum.)_--While -this beautiful clover grows as a weed in the southern parts of our -State, it has only recently begun to play an important part in our -horticulture. It is an annual, and its home is the Mediterranean region -of Europe. It thrives best in loose, sandy soils, and in our State is -chiefly used as a cover-crop for orchards, and to plow under as a -fertilizer. It usually has bright, crimson flowers, arranged in a long, -pointed head, and its brilliant green fan-shaped leaves make it the most -artistically decorative of all our clovers. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 246. Crimson clover._] - -_Buffalo Clover (Fig. 247). (T. reflexum.)_--This is sometimes taken for -a variety of the red clover, but only a glance is needed to distinguish -it. While the head is perhaps an inch in diameter the flowerets are not -directed upward and set close as in the red clover, but each floweret is -on a little stalk, and is bent abruptly backward. The flowers are not -pink. The standard is red, while the wings and keel are nearly white. -The leaves are blunt at the tip. It grows in meadows in western New York -and westward. This species is native to this country. - -_Alsike Clover. (T. hybridum.)_--This is a perennial and grows in low -meadows and waste places from Nova Scotia to Idaho. It was introduced -from Europe. It is especially valuable in wet meadows, where the red -clover would be drowned. The blossoms of the alsike look like those of -the white clover except that they are a little larger and are pink; but -the long branching mostly upright stems are very different in habit from -the creeping stems of the white clover; the blossoms are very fragrant. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 247. Three clovers, respectively, Buffalo, Yellow, -and Rabbit-foot clover._] - -_The White Clover. (T. repens.)_--This beautiful little clover, whose -leaves make a rug for our feet in every possible place, is well known to -us all. It is the clover best beloved by honey-bees, and the person who -does not know the distinct flavor of white clover honey has lost -something out of life. While in hard soil the white clover lasts only -two or three years, on rich, moist lands it is a true perennial. While -it was probably a native in the northern part of America, yet it is -truly cosmopolitan and may be found in almost all regions of the -temperate zones. Very likely the common stock of it is an introduction -from Europe. By many this is considered to be the original shamrock. - -_The Yellow, or Hop Clover (Fig. 247). (T. agrarium.)_--This friendly -little plant, filling waste places with brilliant green leaves and small -yellow flower-heads, is not considered a clover by those who are not -observant. But if the flowerets in the small, dense heads are examined, -they will be seen to resemble very closely those of the other clovers. -The stems are many-branched and often grow a foot or more in height. The -flowers are numerous, and on fading turn brown, and resemble the fruit -of a pigmy hop vine, whence the name. Its leaves are much more pointed -than those of the medics, with which it might be confused because of its -yellow flowers. - -_Low Hop Clover, or Hop Trefoil. (T. procumbens.)_--This resembles the -above species, except that it is smaller and also more spreading, and -the stems and leaves are more downy. - -_The Least Hop Clover. (T. dubium.)_--This may be readily distinguished -from the above species by the fact that its yellow flowerets occur from -three to ten in a head. This is said by some to be the true shamrock, -although the white clover is also called the shamrock. - -_The Rabbit-Foot, or Stone Clover (Fig. 247). (T. arvense.)_--This is -another clover not easily recognized as such. It grows a foot or more in -height and has erect branches. The leaflets are narrow and all arise -from the same point. The flowerets occur in long, dense heads. The calyx -is very silky, and the lobes are longer than the white corollas, thus -giving the flower-head a soft, hairy look, something like the early -stages of the blossom of the pussy willow. Because of its appearance it -is often called "pussy clover." - - -THE MEDICS. (_Medicago._) - -_Alfalfa (Fig. 248). (Medicago sativa.)_--This is the veteran of all the -clovers, for it has been under cultivation for twenty centuries. It is a -native of the valleys of western Asia. In America it was first -introduced into Mexico with the Spanish invasion. It was brought from -Chile to California in 1854, where it has since been the most important -hay crop. In fact, there is no better hay than that made from alfalfa. -It was probably introduced into the Atlantic States from southern -Europe, and has grown as a weed for many years in certain localities in -New England and the Middle States; only recently has it been considered -a practicable crop for this climate, although it was grown in Jefferson -Co., N. Y., in 1791. Its special value is that it is a true perennial, -and may be cut three times or more during a season, and when once -established it withstands hot, dry weather. It is of marvelous value to -the semi-arid regions. The alfalfa flower is blue or violet, and grows -in a loose raceme. The plant grows tall and its stems are many branched. -This and all these medics are introduced from Europe. - -_Black or Hop Medic. (M. lupulina.)_--This would hardly be called a -clover by the novice. The long stems lie along the ground, and the tiny -yellow flower-heads do not much resemble the clover blossom. It is a -common weed in waste places in our State. It is perennial. - -_The Toothed Medic. (M. denticulata.)_--Instead of having the yellow -flowerets in a dense head, this species has them in pairs or perhaps -fours, or sometimes more. It is widely distributed as a weed, and is -also introduced as a pasture plant for early grazing. It is of little -value as hay. - -_The Spotted Medic. (M. Arabica.)_--This very much resembles the -preceding species except that the leaves are likely to have on them -conspicuous dark spots near the center. Like the preceding species it is -an annual and a weed, and has also been introduced as a plant for early -grazing. This and the toothed medic are known to farmers under the name -of bur-clover. The reason for this name is found in the seed-pod, which -is twisted in a spiral and has an outer margin of curved prickles. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 248. Alfalfa, foliage and flowers._] - - -THE MELILOTS, OR SWEET CLOVERS. (_Melilotus._) - -In driving or walking along the country roads, we may find ourselves -suddenly immersed in a wave of delightful fragrance, and if we look for -the source we may find this friendly plant flourishing in the most -forbidding of soils. Growing as a weed, it brings sweet perfume to us, -and at the same time nitrogen, aeration and drainage to the hopeless -soil, making rich those places where other weeds have not the temerity -to attempt to grow. When the soil is generous, the sweet clover often -grows very tall, sometimes as high as ten feet. It is a cheerful, -adaptable and beneficial plant, and I never see it without giving it a -welcome, which, I am sorry to say, I cannot always grant to other -roadside wayfarers. The sweet clovers are European. - -_The White Sweet Clover (M. alba)_ is sometimes called Bokhara clover -and has white flowers (Fig. 249). - -_The Yellow Sweet Clover (M. officinalis)_ has yellow blossoms. It has -interesting old English names, such as Balsam Flowers, King's Clover and -Heartwort. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 249. White sweet clover._] - - -QUESTIONS ON THE CLOVERS. - -_Two general kinds of types of studies are to be made of the clovers: -identification studies, whereby you will come to know the kinds of -clover; life history studies, whereby you will come to know under what -conditions the plants live and thrive. The latter is the more important, -but the former usually precedes it, for one is better able to discover -and discuss the biological questions when he is acquainted with the -species. The following questions will bring out some of the important -biological aspects:_ - -1. How many of the true clovers, the medics, and the sweet clovers do -you know? - -2. Send me properly labelled pressed specimens of the leaves and -blossoms of the clovers that you have been able to find. - -3. Dig a root of red clover and find the nodules on it. Please describe -them. - -4. What methods does the U. S. Department of Agriculture employ to -inoculate the soil with bacteria so that alfalfa may grow? - -5. How do clover roots protect the land from the effects of heavy rains? - -6. How do the clover plants conserve the moisture in the soil? - -7. How does this conservation of moisture aid the farmer and orchardist? - -8. What is a cover-crop, and what are its uses? - -9. Why do farmers sow red clover with grass seed? - -10. How do the habits of the stems of white clover differ from those of -other clovers? - -11. Why is white clover so desirable for lawns? - -12. Compare the floweret of the red clover with the sweet pea blossom -and describe the resemblance. - -13. Study a head of white clover from the time it opens until it is -brown, and tell what changes take place in it day by day. - -14. What has happened to the flowerets that are bent downward around the -stalk? - -15. Watch one of these flowerets deflect, and describe the process. - -16. How many flowerets do you find in a head of red clover? Of white -clover? Of alsike? - -17. Which flowerets open first in a head of red clover? - -18. Describe a clover seed. Describe a seed of alfalfa. - -19. What insects do you find visiting the red clover blossoms? The white -clover blossoms? - - -ALFALFA, OR LUCERNE.[48] - -[48] Home Nature-Study Course, New Series, Vol. I, No. 1, October, 1904. - -The alfalfa plant is just now coming into great prominence in New York -State. Every teacher, particularly in the rural schools, will need to -know the plant and to have some information about it. - -_What alfalfa is._--It is a clover-like plant. It is perennial. It has -violet-purple flowers. The leaves have three narrow leaflets. It sends -up many stiff stems, 2 to 3 feet high. The roots go straight down to -great depths. - -_Why it is important._--It is an excellent cattle food, and -cattle-raising for dairy purposes is the leading special agricultural -industry in New York State. In fact, New York leads all the States in -the value of its dairy products. Any plant that is more nutritious and -more productive of pasture and hay than the familiar clovers and grasses -will add immensely to the dairy industry, and therefore to the wealth of -the State. Alfalfa is such a plant. It gives three cuttings of hay year -after year in New York State, thereby yielding twice as much as clover -does. In the production of digestible nutrients per acre ranks above -clover as 24 ranks above 10. When once established it withstands -droughts, for the roots grow deep. - -Alfalfa is South European. It was early introduced into North America. -It first came into prominence in the semi-arid West because of its -drought-resisting qualities, and now it has added millions of dollars to -the wealth of the nation. Gradually it is working its way into the East. -It is discussed in the agricultural press and before farmers' -institutes. Last year the College of Agriculture offered to send a small -packet of seeds to such school children in New York State as wanted to -grow a little garden plat of it. About 5,000 children were supplied. The -teacher must now learn what alfalfa is. - -In nearly every rural community, sufficient alfalfa can be found for -school purposes. In many places it has run wild along roadsides. - -On these plants make the following observations: - -1. Under what conditions have you found alfalfa growing? How did the -plant come to grow there,--sown, or run wild? - -2. Describe the form of the root. How does the root branch? - -3. Do you find the little tubercles or nodules on the roots? On what -part of the roots? How large? How numerous? - -4. The crown of the plant (at the surface of the ground),--describe it, -and how the tops and the roots start from it. - -5. The stems,--how many from each crown, whether erect or prostrate, how -they branch. - -6. The leaves,--simple or compound? Form? Edges entire or fine toothed? -Do the leaves "sleep" at night, as those of clover do? - -7. Do you find any distinct spots on the leaves? What do you think is -the cause of them? - -8. Flowers,--how borne (whether singly or in clusters), color, form, -resemblance to any other flowers you may know. Do they vary in color? - -9. If possible, find the seed-pods and seeds, and describe. - -10. Make inquiries as to whether alfalfa is becoming well known in your -vicinity. - - -_Agricultural Account of Alfalfa._ - -You may be asked some practical questions about alfalfa; therefore we -give you a brief agricultural account of it. If you desire further -information, write to the College of Agriculture, Ithaca, N. Y., for -Bulletin 221, "Alfalfa in New York." - -Alfalfa is grown mostly for hay. It is not adapted to pasture, because -the new growth springs from the crown at the surface of the ground, and -if this is destroyed the growth will not be renewed vigorously. New York -is a hay-producing State. Grain feeds can be grown more cheaply in the -West. It is of great importance to the State, therefore, if a better -hay-producing plant can be found. We have seen that New York leads the -States in dairy cattle. Other livestock also is abundant. Last year more -than half a million horses and mules were fed in the State. - -Success has not attended efforts to grow alfalfa in all parts of New -York. This is due to two principal reasons: (1) farmers have not known -the plant and its habits well enough to give it the care and treatment -it demands; (2) the soils of many localities, because of their physical -condition or composition, are not suitable for the plant. - -The alfalfa seedling is not a strong plant. It cannot compete with weeds -nor overcome adverse conditions of moisture; it cannot adapt itself to -conditions resulting from poor preparation of land, and it is not -vigorous in its ability to get food from any source. Care must be given -to the preparation of the land in order that sufficient moisture may be -supplied during the early stages of growth and that there may be an -abundance of quickly available plant-food. After growth has started, -alfalfa has the power to get some of its nitrogen from the air through -the nodules which grow upon its roots; yet during the early stages of -growth it is essential that the soil be supplied with all elements of -plant-food in available form. - -While alfalfa requires an abundance of moisture for its best growth and -development, yet it will not grow in soils that hold water for any -considerable length of time. Such soils are usually those with an -impervious subsoil or hard-pan, or those of clay or silt structure which -retain free water to the exclusion of air. Therefore, it is important -that alfalfa soils be well and uniformly drained, either by natural -conditions or by underground drains. One other essential of prime -importance is that the soil be neutral or alkaline in its reaction; in -other words, that it contain no free acid. Limestone or blue-grass soils -are ideal in this regard for alfalfa. If acid is present, the difficulty -may be corrected either wholly or in part by the application of 500 to -2,000 pounds of lime per acre. - -As in most other legumes (members of the family Leguminosæ, including -peas, beans, clovers), there is a peculiar relationship existing between -the plant and excrescences or nodules upon its roots. These nodules are -essential to the normal growth and development of the plant. They -contain bacteria, and these bacteria have the power of "fixing" or -appropriating the free atmospheric nitrogen in the soil. Legumes are -"nitrogen-gatherers," whereas most other plants secure their nitrogen -only from decomposing organic matter. Failure to have the soil -inoculated with the proper bacteria for alfalfa is the cause for many -failures with the crop. In most instances when the plants do not make -satisfactory growth, or have a yellow, dwarfed appearance, the trouble -can be traced to the absence of these bacteria from the soil, and hence -to a lack of nodules on the roots. The relationship existing between the -plant and the organism is one of mutual benefit. Each kind of leguminous -plant seems to have its characteristic bacterium, which grows on no -other plant, although this question is not thoroughly settled. - -Farmers are becoming aware of this requisite in alfalfa culture and -usually supply it in two different ways. The older method is to take the -surface soil from an old alfalfa field, where the plants have grown well -and where nodules are to be found on the roots, and to sow it on the -land to be seeded at the rate of one hundred or more pounds per acre. In -this way the soil becomes inoculated with the bacteria, and as the young -plants spring into growth the bacteria develop on the roots. Another -method is to inoculate the seed before sowing with artificial cultures -of the bacteria. Both of these methods are usually successful, and if -soil conditions are right the chances for failure are few. - -Alfalfa should be cut when it opens into flower. At this time the stems -and leaves contain their highest percentage of nutrients, the leaves do -not so easily fall off in curing, and the stems are not so woody. -Besides these reasons, if cutting be delayed until after flowering, the -plant may not spring quickly into subsequent growth. - -Disease does not spare the alfalfa plant. Both leaves and roots are -attacked, the leaf spot being serious. The parasitic dodder is a serious -enemy in some parts of New York State. - - - - -LEAFLET XXXV. - -HOW PLANTS LIVE TOGETHER.[49] - -BY L. H. BAILEY. - - -[49] Nature-Study Quarterly No. 6: Leaflet 19, October, 1900. - -[Illustration] - -To the general observer, plants seem to be distributed in a promiscuous -and haphazard way, without law or order. This is because he does not see -and consider. - -The world is now full of plants. Every plant puts forth its supreme -effort to multiply its kind. The result is an intense struggle for an -opportunity to live. - -Seeds are scattered in profusion, but only the few can grow. The many do -not find the proper conditions. They fall on stony ground. In Fig. 250 -this loss is shown. The trunk of an elm tree stands in the background. -The covering of the ground, except about the very base of the tree, is a -mat of elm seedlings. There are thousands of them in the space shown in -the picture, so many that they make a sod-like covering which shows -little detail in the photograph. Not one of these thousands will ever -make a tree. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 250. A carpet of young elms, all of which must -perish._] - -Since there is intense competition for every foot of the earth's surface -that is capable of raising plants, it follows that every spot will -probably have many kinds of plant inhabitants. Plants must live -together. They associate; they become adapted or accustomed to each -other. Some can live in shade; they thrive in the forest, where -sun-loving plants perish. Others prefer the sun, and thereby live -together. There are plant societies. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 251. A plant society waiting for the spring._] - -[Illustration: _Fig. 252. Weak, narrow-leaved grasses grow in the -cat-tail forest._] - -Every distinct or separate area has its own plant society. There is one -association for the hard-tramped dooryard,--knot-weed and broad-leaved -plantain with interspersed grass and dandelions; one for the -fence-row,--briars and choke-cherries and hiding weeds; one for the dry -open field,--wire-grass and mullein and scattered docks; one for the -slattern roadside,--sweet clover, ragweed, burdock; one for the meadow -swale,--smartweed and pitchforks; one for the barnyard,--rank pigweeds -and sprawling barn-grass; one for the dripping rock-cliff,--delicate -bluebells and hanging ferns and grasses. Indefinitely might these -categories be extended. We all know the plant societies, but we have not -considered them. - -In every plant society there is one dominant note. It is the -individuality of one kind of plant which grows most abundantly or -overtops the others. Certain plant-forms come to mind when one thinks of -willows, others when he thinks of an apple orchard, still others when he -thinks of a beech forest. The farmer may associate "pussly" with -cabbages and beets, but not with wheat and oats. He associates cockle -with wheat, but not with oats or corn. We all associate dandelions with -grassy areas, but not with burdock or forests. - -It is impossible to open one's eyes out-of-doors, outside the paved -streets of cities, without seeing a plant society. A lawn is a plant -society. It may contain only grass, or it may contain weeds hidden away -in the sward. What weeds remain in the lawn? Only those which can -withstand the mowing. What are they? Let a bit of lawn grow as it will -for a month, and see what there is in it. A swale, a dry hillside, a -forest of beech, a forest of oak, a forest of hemlock or pine, a weedy -yard, a tangled fence-row, a brook-side, a deep quiet swamp, a lake -shore, a railroad, a river bank, a meadow, a pasture, a dusty -roadway,--each has its characteristic plants. Even in the winter, one -may see these societies,--the tall plants still asserting themselves, -others of less aspiring stature, and others snuggling just under the -snow (Fig. 251). - -[Illustration: _Fig. 253. The wild grape covers the treetop, and the -children play in the bower. The grape is searching for light._] - -Often these societies are in the nature of overgrowth and -undergrowth--one society living beneath another. Of such are forest -societies. Few woods are so dark that some plants do not grow on the -ground, unless they are evergreen or coniferous woods. Even in humbler -communities, the overgrowth and undergrowth are usually apparent if one -looks closely. Separate the cat-tails in the dense swamp and see the -weak and narrow-leaved grasses growing between (Fig. 252). Note the -clover, young grasses, and other plants between the grass in the meadow: -the farmer says that his meadow has good "bottom." - -Some plants even grow on top of other plants. It is their way of getting -light. Of such are the climbers. Note the mantle which the wild grape -throws over the trees (Fig. 253). Often the supporting tree is smothered -and killed. - -When an area is newly cleared, many plants rush for it. Quickly it is -covered with ambitious growths,--pokeweeds, fireweeds, thistles, briars, -nettles. Often each plant occupies large places alone, making clumps or -patches. These patches are plant colonies,--made up mostly of one -species or kind (Fig. 254). But as the struggle tightens, other plants -insinuate themselves into the colony and it is broken up; a mixed -population results. Sometimes these colonies are broken up by the shade -of trees and tall bushes which have come up near them, for all neglected -areas, in this part of the world, tend to return to forest if they are -not mown, pastured or burned. Mown and pastured areas run into grass, -for the grass withstands the cutting and grazing. In burned areas the -struggle begins anew when the fire has passed. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 254. A colony of clotbur._] - -Plant societies are easy to study for the school. The study of them -appeals to the desire for exploration and adventure, and adds zest to -the excursion. Go to a swale, swamp, roadside, forest, weedy field, or -other place, and ask the pupil to note: (1) that the flora of the place -is unlike that of places with different physical features; (2) that -these particular plants grow together because they can all survive -under similar conditions; (3) what these conditions are,--whether sun, -shade, dry soil, wet soil, sand, clay, rock; (4) what particular plant -is most abundant or gives character to the society. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 255. Two plant societies,--the close-bitten sward -and the rushy pond._] - -Study one society thoroughly. Make lists of the kinds of plants and of -the relative numbers of each. If the names of the plants are not known, -call them by numbers; make dried specimens of them for reference. When -another society is visited, repeat these observations, and compare one -society with another. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 256. The edge of the road. Trees and bushes crowd -the drive-way, and a ribbon of grass and weeds has pushed itself to the -very margin._] - -_Ask every plant why it grows there._ - - - - -LEAFLET XXXVI. - -PLANTING A PLANT.[50] - -BY L. H. BAILEY. - - -[50] Nature-Study Quarterly, No. 8: Leaflet 21, January, 1901. - -[Illustration] - -Most persons are interested in plants, even though they do not know it. -They enjoy the green verdure, the brilliant flower, the graceful form. -They are interested in plants in general. I wish that every person were -interested in some plant in particular. There is a pleasure in the -companionship, merely because the plant is a living and a growing thing. -It expresses power, vitality. It is a complete, self-sufficient -organism. It makes its way in the world. It is alive. - -The companionship with a plant, as with a bird or an insect, means more -than the feeling for the plant itself. It means that the person has -interest in something real and genuine. It takes him out-of-doors. It -invites him to the field. It is suggestive. It inculcates a habit of -meditation and reflection. It enables one to discover himself. - -I wish that every child in New York State had a plant of his own, and -were attached to it. Why cannot the teacher suggest this idea to the -pupils? It may be enough to have only one plant the first year, -particularly if the pupil is young. It matters little what the plant is. -The important thing is that it shall be alive. Every plant is -interesting in its way. A good pigweed is much more satisfactory than a -poor rosebush. The pupil should grow the plant from the beginning. He -should not buy it ready grown, for then it is not his, even though he -own it. - -It is well to begin with some plant that grows quickly and matures -early. One is ambitious in spring, but his enthusiasm may wither and die -in the burning days of summer. If possible, grow the plant in the free -open ground; if this is not feasible, grow it in a pot or box or tin -can. Take advantage of the early spring enthusiasm. Choose hardy and -vigorous plants: sow the seeds when the "spirit moves." - -If a pupil is interested in kitchen-garden vegetables, recommend lettuce -and radish, or a potato. If in flowers, suggest sweet pea, bachelor's -button or blue-bottle, annual phlox, candytuft, China aster. If in -fruits, suggest strawberry. - - * * * * * - -We desire to inaugurate a general movement for the planting of plants. -The school ground should be planted. Private yards should be planted. -Roadsides should be planted. In some cities and villages there are -committees or other organizations whose object it is to encourage the -planting of public and private places. Sometimes this organization is -connected with the school interest, sometimes with a local horticultural -or agricultural society, sometimes with a business men's organization. -There should be such a committee in every village and town. We wish that -the teachers might help in this work, for they would not only be lending -their aid to planting, but also be interesting their pupils in some -concrete and useful work, and teaching them the value of public spirit. -Arbor Day should be more than a mere ceremonial. It should be a means of -awakening interest in definite plans for the adornment of the -neighborhood and of directing the attention of the children -nature-ward. - - -LEAFLET XXXVII. - -CUTTINGS AND CUTTINGS.[51] - -BY L. H. BAILEY. - - -[51] Nature-Study Quarterly No. 3: Leaflet 16, January, 1900. - -[Illustration] - -Perhaps no subject connected with the growing of plants awakens so much -popular wonder and inquiry as their propagation by means of cuttings and -grafts. We assume that propagation by means of seeds is the natural way, -and therefore do not wonder, notwithstanding that it is wonderful. We -assume that propagation by cuttings is wholly unnatural, and therefore -never cease to wonder, notwithstanding that this is less wonderful than -the other. To common minds, common things are not wonderful. Mere -commonplace familiarity takes away the charm, for such minds have no -desire of inquiry. The well trained mind goes beneath the surface, and -wonders at everything; and this wonder, grown old and wise, is the -spirit of science. - -A plant does not have a definite number of parts, as an animal does. It -may have ten branches or fifty. Each of these branches may do what every -other branch does--produce leaves, flowers, fruits, seeds. It is not so -with the higher animals, for in them each part may do something which -some other part cannot do: if the part is a leg, it runs; if an ear, it -hears. Each part serves the whole animal; and it cannot reproduce the -animal. But in the plant, each branch lives for itself: it grows on the -parent stock; or, if it is removed, it may grow in the soil. And if it -grow in the soil, it is relieved of competition with other branches and -grows bigger: it makes what we call a plant. - -Having thus bewildered my reader, I may say that a bit of a plant stuck -into the ground stands a chance of growing; and this bit is a cutting. -Plants have preferences, however, as to the kind of bit which shall be -used; but there is no way of telling what this preference is except by -trying. In some instances this preference has not been discovered, and -we may say that the plant cannot be propagated by cuttings. Most plants -prefer that the cuttings be made of the soft or growing wood, of which -the "slips" of geraniums and coleus are examples. Others grow equally -well from cuttings of the hard or mature wood, as currants and grapes; -and in some instances this mature wood may be of roots, as in the -blackberry. Somewhat different principles underlie the handling of these -two kinds of cuttings; and these principles we may now consider. We -shall find it excellent practice to set the pupils to making cuttings -now and then. If we can do nothing more, we can make cuttings of -potatoes, as the farmer does; and we can plant them in a box in the -window. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 257. Geranium cutting. One-half natural size._] - - -THE SOFTWOOD CUTTING. - -The softwood cutting is made from tissue which is still growing, or at -least from that which is not dormant. It must not be allowed to wilt. It -must, therefore, be protected from direct sunlight and dry air until it -is well established; and if it has many leaves, some of them should be -removed, or at least cut in two in order to reduce the evaporating -surface. Keep the soil uniformly moist; and avoid soils which contain -much decaying organic matter, for these soils are breeding places of -fungi which attack the soft cutting and cause it to "damp off." - -For most plants, the proper age of maturity of wood for the making of -cuttings may be determined by giving the twig a quick bend; if it snaps -and hangs by the bark, it is in proper condition; if it bends without -breaking it is too young and soft or too old; if it splinters, it is too -old and woody. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 258. Carnation cutting. Natural size._] - -The tips of strong upright shoots usually make the best cuttings. -Preferably each cutting should have a joint or node near its base; and -if the internodes are short, it may comprise two or three joints. Allow -one to three leaves to remain at the top. If these leaves are large, -cut them in two. - -Insert the cutting half or more its length in clean sand or gravel. -Press the earth firmly about it. Throw a newspaper over the bed to -exclude the light--if the sun strikes it--and to prevent too rapid -evaporation. See that the soil is moist clear through, not on top only. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 259. Rose cutting. More than one-half natural -size._] - -Mason's sand is good earth in which to start cuttings. Or fine -gravel--sifted of most of its earthy matter--may be used. If the -cuttings are to be grown in a window, put three or four inches of the -earth in a shallow box or a pan. A soap box cut in two lengthwise, so -that it makes a box four or five inches deep--like a gardener's flat--is -excellent. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 260. Cutting-bed, showing carnations and roses._] - -If the box does not receive direct sunlight, it may be covered with a -pane of glass to prevent evaporation; and then the children may see the -plants more readily. But take care that the air is not kept too close, -else the damping-off fungi may attack the cuttings and they will rot at -the surface of the ground. See that the pane is raised a little at one -end to afford ventilation; and if water collects in drops on the under -side of the glass, remove the pane for a time. Cuttings of common -plants, as geranium, coleus, fuchsia, carnation, should be kept in a -living-room temperature. - -The pictures are better than words. The line across them shows where the -soil comes. There are softwood cuttings of the geranium (Fig. 257), the -carnation (Fig. 258), and the rose (Fig. 259); and there is a gardener's -cutting bed (Fig. 260) with cuttings of carnations and roses. - -Be patient. As long as the cuttings look bright and green, they are -safe. It may be a month before roots form. When roots have formed, the -plants will begin to make new leaves at the tip. Then they may be -transplanted into other boxes or into pots. The verbena in Fig. 261 is -just ready for transplanting. Each child will want a plant. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 261. Verbena cutting ready for transplanting. -Two-thirds natural size._] - -It is not always easy to find growing shoots from which to make the -cuttings. The best practice is to cut back some old plant severely, then -keep it warm and well watered, and thereby force it to throw out new -shoots. The old geranium plant from the window garden, or the one taken -up from the lawn bed, may be served this way. See Fig. 262. This may -seem hard treatment, but that is all the old plant is good for; it has -passed its usefulness for bloom. The best plants of the geranium and the -coleus and many window plants are those which are not more than one year -old. The cuttings that are made in January, February, or March will give -compact blooming plants for the next winter; and thereafter new ones -take their place. - -Some plants may be propagated by means of cuttings of leaves. The Rex -begonias or "beefsteak geraniums" are the commonest examples. The large, -nearly mature leaf is divided into triangular pieces, each piece -containing at its point a bit of the leaf-base (top of the leaf-stalk). -This kind of cutting is shown in Fig. 263. This base is sometimes split -(as at o) by gardeners to hasten the formation of roots. Only the tip of -the cutting is stuck into the sand; otherwise it is treated like other -softwood cuttings. - - -THE HARDWOOD CUTTING. - -Many plants grow readily from cuttings of ripe or dormant wood. The -willows cast their branchlets in snow and wind, and these, falling in -pleasant places propagate their kind; and thus the river sides and the -lake shores become willow-crowned. - -Grapes, currants, gooseberries, poplars readily take root from the -hardwood. Fig. 264 shows a currant cutting. It has only one bud above -the ground. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 262. Old geranium plant cut back to make it throw -out shoots from which cuttings can be made._] - -The best results are attained when the cuttings are made in the fall, -and then buried until spring in sand in the cellar. They are not idle -while they rest. The lower end calluses or heals, and the roots form -more readily when the cutting is planted in the spring. But if the -children are interested, take cuttings at any time in winter, plant them -in a deep box in the window, and watch. They will need no shading or -special care. - -When plants of any variety are scarce, the cuttings may be shorter. -Sometimes they are reduced to a single "eye" or bud, with an inch or two -of wood attached; and these single-eye cuttings are planted much as one -plants seeds. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 263. Begonia leaf cutting. Natural size._] - - -THE GRAFT. - -If the cutting were planted in a plant rather than in the soil, we -should have a graft; and the graft might grow. In this case, the cutting -would not make roots, but it would grow fast to the other plant, and the -twain would become one. When the cutting is inserted in a plant it is no -longer called a cutting, but a cion; and the plant in which it is -inserted is called the stock. The completed thing--the cion growing in -the stock--is a graft. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 264. Currant cutting. One-third natural size._] - -Plants are particular as to their companions, when it comes to such -close relationships as these. They choose the stocks upon which they -will grow; but we can find out what their choice is only by making the -experiment. There are queer things about it. The pear grows well on the -quince, but the quince does not grow so well on the pear. The pear grows -on some of the hawthorns, but it is an unwilling subject on the apple. -Tomato plants will grow on potato plants and potato plants on tomato -plants. When the potato is the root, both tomatoes and potatoes may be -produced; when the tomato is the root, neither potatoes nor tomatoes -will be produced. Chestnuts are said to grow on some kinds of oaks. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 265. Cion for cleft-grafting. One-half natural -size._] - -Why do we graft? Think a bit. If I sow seeds of a Baldwin apple, I shall -probably have as many kinds of apples as I have trees. Some of these -apples may be like the Baldwin, and they may not. That is, apple seeds -do not reproduce the particular variety. They will not be held to any -stricter account than merely to produce apples; these apples may range -all the way from toothsome kinds to Ben Davis. The nurseryman knows -this, and he does not wait for the trees to bear in the hope that they -will produce something to his liking. So he grafts them when they still -are young,--takes a cion from the kind which he wishes to perpetuate. So -it happens that all the Baldwins and the Kings and the Russets, and all -other named varieties, are growing on alien roots; and what kinds of -fruits these stocks would have produced no one will ever know, because -their heads were cut off in youth and other heads were put on to order. -In this way apples and pears and plums and peaches and cherries and -apricots are propagated, for they will not grow readily from cuttings. -But raspberries and blackberries and gooseberries and currants and -grapes grow willingly from cuttings, and they are not grafted by the -nurseryman. - -The forming, growing tissue of the trunk is the cambium, lying on the -outside of the woody cylinder, beneath the bark. In order that union may -take place, the cambium of the cion and the stock must come together. -Therefore, the cion is set in the side of the stock. I once knew a man -who believed that everything was designed for some useful purpose. The -hole in the pith bothered him, until he discovered that a cion just -filled it. He grafted his trees accordingly; but the experiment was -productive of nothing except pithy remarks. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 266. Cleft-graft. One-half natural size._] - -There are many ways of shaping the cion and of preparing the stock to -receive it. These ways are dictated largely by the relative sizes of -cion and stock, although many of them are matters of mere personal -preference. The underlying principles are two: see that there is close -contact between the cambiums of cion and stock; cover the wounded -surfaces to prevent evaporation and to protect the parts from disease. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 267. The graft waxed._] - -On large stocks the common form of grafting is the cleft-graft. The -stock is cut off and split; and in one or both sides a wedge-shaped cion -is firmly inserted. Fig. 265 shows the cion; Fig. 266, the cions set in -the stock; Fig. 267, the stock waxed. It will be seen that the lower -bud--that lying in the wedge--is covered by the wax; but being nearest -the food supply and least exposed to weather, it is the most likely to -grow: it pushes through the wax. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 268. Shield-budding. One-half natural size._] - -The wax is made of beeswax, resin, and tallow. The hands are greased, -and the wax is then worked until it is soft enough to spread. For the -little grafting which any school would do, it is better to buy the wax -of a seedsman. However, grafting is hardly to be recommended as a -general school diversion, as the making of cuttings is; and this account -of it is inserted chiefly to satisfy the general curiosity on the -subject. But we hope that now and then a youngster will make the effort -for himself, for nothing is more exciting than to make a graft grow all -by one's self. - -Cleft-grafting is done in spring, as growth begins. The cions are cut -previously, when perfectly dormant, and from the tree which it is -desired to propagate. The cions are kept in sand or moss in the cellar. -Limbs of various sizes may be cleft-grafted--from one-half inch up to -four inches in diameter; but a diameter of one inch is the most -convenient size. All the leading or main branches of a tree top may be -grafted. If the remaining parts of the top are gradually cut away and -the scions grow well, the entire top will be changed over to the new -variety in three or four years. Each cion may be a different variety; -but there is no difference in the operation or the treatment of the -tree. - -On young or small stocks, like nursery trees, the cleft-graft is not -practicable, and a different form of grafting is employed; but the -teacher will not care to be confused with further details. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 269. The bud set in the matrix. One-half natural -size._] - -We have seen that a cutting may be reduced to a single bud; so may a -cion. If the bud-cion has very little or no wood attached, and is -inserted underneath the bark, the operation is known as budding. The -commonest form of budding is shown in Figs. 268, 269, 270. This is the -method known as shield-budding, because the bud, with its attached -bark, is shield-shaped (Fig. 268). A T-shape incision is made in the -stock, and under the bark the bud is inserted (Fig. 269); then the wound -is tightly bound with soft cord or bast (Fig. 270). Budding may be -performed whenever the bark will "slip" and when well grown buds can be -secured,--that is, either in spring or late summer. It is usually -performed at the latter season; and then the bud does not throw out a -shoot the same season, but merely grows fast to the stock. The next -spring it throws out a shoot and makes a trunk; and in the meantime the -stock has been cut off just above the bud. That is, the bud-shoot takes -the place of the top of the stock. - -Shield-budding is performed only on small and young stocks. It is -usually exclusively employed in the propagation of stone fruits, as -cherries, peaches, plums, apricots, for experience has proved that it is -preferable to other forms of grafting. It may also be employed for other -fruit trees. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 270. The bud tied._] - -How is a peach tree made? In 1898 a pit or seed is saved. In the spring -of 1899 it is planted. The young tree comes up quickly. In August, 1899, -the little stock has one bud--of the desired variety--inserted near the -ground. In the spring of 1900 the stock is severed just above the bud: -the bud throws out a shoot which grows to a height of four or six feet; -and in the fall of 1900 the tree is sold. It is known as a year-old -tree; but the root is two years old. - -How is an apple tree made? The seed is saved in 1898, planted in 1899. -The seedlings do not grow so rapidly as those of the peach. At the end -of 1899 they are taken up and sorted; and in the spring of 1900 they are -planted. In July or August, 1900, they are budded. In the spring of 1901 -the stock is cut off above the bud; and the bud-shoot grows three or -four feet. In 1902 the shoot branches, or the top begins to form; and in -the fall of 1902 the tree may be sold as a two-year-old, although most -persons prefer to buy it in 1903 as a three-year-old. In some parts of -the country, particularly in the west, the little seedling is grafted in -the winter of 1899-1900 in a grafting-room; and the young grafts are set -in the nursery row in the spring of 1900, to complete their growth. - -I have now given my reader an elementary lesson in horticulture; but I -shall consider it of little avail if it is not transformed into -practice for the children. February is the gardener's time for the -starting of his cutting-beds, in which to grow plants for the summer -bloom. Ask the children to bring the old geraniums and fuchsias and -coleus, and other favorites. Keep them in a warm window; cut them back; -see that they are well watered; then take the cuttings when the time -comes. The children will be interested to watch the fortunes of the -different cuttings. They will be interested in Vergil's couplet, as set -to rhyme in old-fashioned English: - - Some need no root, nor doth the Gardner doubt, - That Sprigs though headlong set, will timely sprout. - - - - -LEAFLET XXXVIII. - -A CHILDREN'S GARDEN.[52] - -BY L. H. BAILEY. - - -[52] Teachers' Leaflet No. 4, April, 1897. - -[Illustration] - -We want every school child in the State to grow a few plants. We want -every one of them to learn something of why and how plants grow; and the -best and surest way to learn is to grow the plants and to watch them -carefully. We want everyone to become interested in everything that -lives and grows. It does not matter so very much just what kinds of -plants one grows as it does that he grows something and grows it the -best that he knows how. We want the children to grow these plants for -the love of it,--that is, for the fun of it,--hence we propose that they -grow flowers; for when one grows pumpkins and potatoes, and such things, -he is usually thinking of how much money he is going to make at the end -of the season. Yet, we should like some rivalry in the matter in every -school, and we therefore propose that a kind of a fair be held at the -school-house next September, soon after school begins, so that each -child may show the flowers which he has grown. What a jolly time that -will be! - -Now, we must not try to grow too many things or to do too much. -Therefore, we propose that you grow sweet peas and China asters. They -are both easy to grow, and the seeds are cheap. Each one has many -colors, and everybody likes them. Now let us tell you just how we should -grow them. - -_1. The place._--Never put them--or any other flowers--in the middle of -the lawn,--that is, out in the center of the yard. They do not look well -there, and the grass roots run under them and steal the food and the -moisture. I am sure that you would not like to see a picture hung up on -a fence-post. It has no background, and it looks out of place. The -picture does not mean anything when hung in such a spot. In the same -way, a flower bed does not mean anything when set out in the center of -a lawn. We must have a background for it, if possible,--a wall upon -which to hang it. So we will put the flower bed just in front of some -bushes or near the back fence, or alongside the smoke-house, or along -the walk at the side of the house, or in the back yard. The flowers will -not only look better in such places, but it will not matter so much if -we make a failure of our flower bed; there are always risks to run, for -the old hen may scratch up the seeds, the cow may break into the yard -some summer night, or some bug may eat the plants up. - -Perhaps some of the children may live so near to the school-house that -they can grow their plants upon the school grounds, and so have sweet -peas and asters where there are usually docks and smartweeds. Grow them -alongside the fence, or against the school-house if there is a place -where the eaves will not drip on them. - -_2. How to make the bed._--Spade the ground up deep. Take out all the -roots of docks and thistles and other weeds. Shake the dirt all out of -the sods and throw the grass away. You may need a little manure in the -soil, especially if the land is either very hard or very loose and -sandy. But the manure must be very fine and well mixed into the soil. It -is easy, however, to make sweet pea soil so rich that the plants will -run to vine and not bloom well. - -Make the bed long and narrow, but not narrower than three feet. If it is -narrower than this the grass roots will be likely to run under it and -suck up the moisture. If the bed can be got at on both sides it may be -as wide as five feet. - -Sow the seeds in little rows crosswise the bed. The plants can then be -weeded and hoed easily from either side. If the rows are marked by -little sticks, or if a strong mark is left in the earth, you can break -the crust between the rows (with a rake) before the plants are up. The -rows ought to be four or five inches further apart than the width of a -narrow rake. - -_3. How to water the plants._--I wonder if you have a watering-pot? If -you have, put it where you cannot find it; for we are going to water -this garden with a rake! We want you to learn, in this little garden, -the first great lesson in farming,--how to save the water in the soil. -If you learn that much this summer, you will know more than many old -farmers do. You know that the soil is moist in the spring when you plant -the seeds. Where does this moisture go to? It dries up,--goes off into -the air. If we could cover up the soil with something, we should prevent -the moisture from drying up. Let us cover it with a layer of loose, dry -earth! We will make this covering by raking the bed every few -days,--once every week anyway, and oftener than that if the top of the -soil becomes hard and crusty, as it does after a rain. Instead of -pouring water on the bed, therefore, we will keep the moisture in the -bed. - -If, however, the soil becomes so dry in spite of you that the plants do -not thrive, then water the bed. Do not _sprinkle_ it, but _water_ it. -Wet it clear through at evening. Then in the morning, when the surface -begins to get dry, begin the raking again to keep the water from getting -away. Sprinkling the plants every day or two is one of the surest ways -to spoil them. - -_4. When and how to sow._--The sweet peas should be put in just as soon -as the ground can be dug, even before frosts are passed. Yet good -results can be had if the seeds are put in as late as the 10th of May. -In the sweet pea garden at Cornell last year, we sowed the seeds on the -20th of April. This was about right. The year before, we sowed them on -the 30th. If sown very early, they are likely to bloom better, but they -may be gone before the middle of September. The blooming can be much -prolonged if the flowers are cut as soon as they begin to fade. - -Plant sweet peas deep,--two or three or sometimes even four inches. When -the plants are a few inches high, pull out a part of them so that they -will not stand nearer together than six inches in the row. It is a good -plan to sow sweet peas in double rows,--that is, put two rows only five -or six inches apart,--and stick the brush or place the chicken-wire -support between them. - -China asters may be sown from the middle of May to the first of June. In -one large test at Cornell, we sowed them the 4th of June, and had good -success; but this is rather later than we would advise. The China asters -are autumn flowers, and they should be in their prime in September and -early October. - -Sow the aster seed shallow,--not more than a half inch deep. The tall -kinds of asters should have at least a foot between the plants in the -row, and the dwarf kinds six to eight inches. - -Sometimes China asters have rusty or yellow spots on the undersides of -their leaves. This is a fungous disease. If it appears, have your father -make some ammoniacal carbonate of copper solution and then spray them -with it; or Bordeaux mixture will do just as well or better, only that -it discolors the leaves and flowers. - -_5. What varieties to choose._--In the first place, do not plant too -much. A garden which looks very small when the pussy willows come out -and the frogs begin to peep, is pretty big in the hot days of July. A -garden four feet wide and twenty feet long, half sweet peas and half -asters, is about as big as most boys and girls will take care of. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 271. A clump of weeds in the corner by the -house,--motherwort and Virginia creeper. How pretty they are!_] - -In the next place, do not get too many varieties. Four or five kinds -each of peas and asters will be enough. Buy the named varieties,--that -is, those of known colors,--not the mixed packets. If you are very fond -of reds, then choose the reddest kinds; but it is well to put in at -least three colors. The varieties which please you may not please me or -your neighbor, so that I cannot advise you what to get. - -Of China asters, the Comet type--in various colors--will probably give -the most satisfaction. They are mostly large-growing kinds. Other -excellent kinds are the Perfection and Peony-flowered, Semple or -Branching, Chrysanthemum-flowered, Washington, Victoria, and, for early, -Queen of the Market. Odd varieties are Crown, German Quilled, Victoria -Needle, and Lilliput. Very dwarf kinds are Dwarf Bouquet or Dwarf -German, and Shakespeare. - -One of the chief merits of the China aster is the lateness of bloom, -allowing the flowers to be used in the schools after they open in the -fall. An excellent flower for sowing during May is the common annual -Phlox (_Phlox Drummondii_ of the catalogues). Poppies are also -satisfactory, but the flowers do not last long. Petunias are excellent -and Balsams, Clarkias, Coreopsis (or Calliopsis), and Zinnias may be -sown. - -Now, let us see how many boys and girls in New York State will raise -sweet peas and China asters this year! And we should like them to write -us all about it. - - - - -LEAFLET XXXIX. - -A HILL OF POTATOES.[53] - -BY I. P. ROBERTS. - - -[53] Nature-Study Quarterly, No. 7: Leaflet 20, January, 1901. - -[Illustration] - -Plant a hill of potatoes. You can do it in the school-room. Plant in a -box or a flower-pot. Keep the box warm, and do not let the soil dry out. -Plant whole tubers and pieces of tubers. Plant pieces of various sizes. -Plant some that have no "eyes." Plant shallow--so that the tuber is just -covered with soil--and deep. Watch the results. - -All plants are abundantly supplied with means for reproducing their -kind: some by seed, some by multiplication at the crown or base or by -roots, others by means of underground stems; and some, as the potato, -have two or more means of reproduction. In its wild or partially -improved state the potato is abundantly supplied with fruit, "seed -balls," borne on the top of the stalks. The seeds of a single ball will -often produce many varieties of potatoes; but they cannot be depended -upon to reproduce the parent stock. Farmers seldom attempt to raise -potatoes from the seeds; when they do it is for the purpose of securing -new varieties. The common method of reproduction is to plant a part or -all of an enlarged underground stem, that is, a part of the "potato" or -tuber. - -When the soil is reasonably porous and fertile, a strong root may start -at the seed-piece and descend more or less directly into the subsoil. In -most cases, however, the roots spread laterally. This is a good -illustration of how plants may vary in their root habits in order to -adapt themselves to their environment. Notice where the roots form on -the plants you are growing. Few farmers know where they form. -Distinguish the true or feeding roots from the underground stems. -Determine how many tubers form on each underground stem. Dig up a hill -of potatoes from the garden before school closes. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 272. Underground part of potato plant in mellow -soil._] - -A single eye, with a portion of the tuber attached to furnish -nourishment to the bud until sustenance can be secured from newly formed -rootlets, may produce one, occasionally more, strong upright stems. A -most interesting study of manifold reproduction may be made even in the -winter time by planting in a fertile soil a piece of potato containing a -single eye (Fig. 273). As soon as the rootlets begin to start, divide -each eye and piece into two parts and re-plant. In a few days after the -rootlets have again started, divide the two pieces into four and -re-plant. This operation may be performed again and again, until many -plants suitable for transplanting in the open may be secured from a -single eye. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 273. Piece of tuber for planting, bearing a single -eye._] - -Demonstrate that the potato contains starch. This can be done by -applying a drop of dilute iodine to a freshly cut surface of the tuber: -the starch grains turn blue-black. Five cents' worth of iodine purchased -at the drug-store will be sufficient for many tests. Dilute it about -one-half with water. This starch, after being changed to sugar, -supplies the young plant with nourishment. Dig up the pieces you have -planted and see which start first, shoots or roots. - -The "potato" is an enlarged underground stem provided with numerous buds -similar to those on the stems of plants above ground. These buds are -placed spirally on the underground stem or tuber with a considerable -degree of uniformity. As on the stems of other plants, the buds are less -numerous and weaker at the base and most numerous and vigorous at the -top or upper end. On a smooth well developed long potato, the spiral -arrangement of the buds may be illustrated by sticking a tooth-pick or -pin in each eye, beginning at the base or stem end, and connecting the -pins with a string (Fig. 274). - -[Illustration: Fig. 274. How to illustrate the spiral arrangement of the -eyes.] - - -FARM NOTES ON THE POTATO. - -Now that we have seen the potato growing in the school-room, some -information may be given respecting its treatment in the field as a -crop. - -Potatoes are easily raised, even under adverse conditions, although they -respond quickly to superior fertility and tillage. The average yield in -the United States during the last ten years was 76.6 bushels an acre, -although from three to four hundred bushels an acre are not uncommon -under superior tillage when soil and climate are at their best. - -The area devoted to potatoes during the last decade was two and a half -million acres annually. Potatoes do best on a moderately moist and deep -soil and in a climate relatively cool. - -Since the period of growth is short, varying from three to five months, -they should be planted in soil which has an abundance of readily -available plant-food. Notice in Fig. 272 that most of the underground -stems which have produced potatoes leave the main stem about four inches -below the surface and but a short distance above the seed-piece. This -suggests that the seed should be planted about four inches deep. To -produce three hundred bushels of potatoes requires the exhalation of -over three hundred tons of water: therefore water or moisture is of -quite as much importance in securing large yields as plant-food. - -It is best to prepare the land deeply, to plant deep, and then to -practice nearly or quite level culture. The practice of hilling up -potatoes, so common in most parts of the country, is to be discouraged, -usually, because it is wasteful of moisture and the tubers do not grow -in the coolest part of the soil. For very early potatoes, hilling-up may -be allowable. Till the soil very often to save the moisture. For the -philosophy of this, see Leaflet No. IX. - -Not infrequently the potato is seriously injured by blights which attack -the leaves. The early blight, which usually appears in June, may destroy -some of the foliage, thereby checking growth. The late blight, which -also attacks the foliage, is far more serious. It differs little in -outward appearance from the early blight. In rare cases the vines are so -seriously injured that no potatoes are formed. The potato rot or blight -did great damage to the potato in many localities in the United States -in 1845. In 1846 the blight appeared in Ireland and virtually destroyed -the entire crop. Before this date the potato had become the chief food -supply of the peasantry. The cultivation of oats as a food crop had been -universal before the introduction of the potato, but oats furnished so -little food on a given area as compared to the potato that the -cultivation of them at the time the blight appeared had been very -largely abandoned. The loss of the potato crop produced widespread -famine. The most conservative estimate of the numbers who perished for -want of food or by disease caused by a meager diet of unhealthy and -innutritions food is set down at six hundred thousand during the two -years of the potato blight. This disease was not so destructive in 1847 -as in 1846; and by 1848 it had virtually disappeared. Some one has said -that if Great Britain had expended one dollar for investigating the -diseases of potatoes where she had spent a thousand dollars for -perfecting the engines of war, the terrible famine might have been -averted. We now think it a relatively easy matter to keep the blight in -check by thorough spraying with Bordeaux mixture. - - -HOW THE POTATO HAS BEEN IMPROVED. - -All plants have their origin in pre-existing plants. While the young -plant is always similar to the one from which it was derived, it is -never exactly like its parent in every detail. This arises from the fact -that all of the conditions under which the parent plant and its -offspring grow are never exactly alike. The variations or differences in -the plants are usually exceedingly small in a single generation; but -occasionally they are wide, in which case they are called "sports" and -are usually difficult to perpetuate. If successive generations of plants -are reared under continuously improved conditions, there will be a -continuous and accumulating variation from generation to generation, -which in time may come to be so great as to make it difficult to -discover a marked similarity between the wild and the cultivated forms -of the same plant. - -When conditions are undisturbed by man there is found to be a fierce -struggle for existence. The hardiest or those best suited to the -conditions preponderate, and this without any reference to the wants of -mankind. The farmer steps in and selects those plants which give promise -of being most useful or most beautiful and then decreases or eliminates -the struggle for these selected plants, by destroying the plants which -are least desirable, by fertilizing and tilling the soil, by conserving -moisture, and by improving the physical conditions of the land, thereby -making it more comfortable for the plants which he has chosen. The -selected or "improved" plant, by reason of being more comfortable and -better nourished, tends to vary in one or more directions from the wild -and unimproved types. Whenever these variations tend towards greater -productiveness, better quality or enhanced beauty, selection is again -made of such specimens as give promise of supplying the wants and -gratifying the desires of civilized man. The bettered conditions of the -plant, by reason of man's effort, do not usually result in producing -like variation along all lines. One part of the plant as the flower, the -fruit, or the stem, varies more than the other parts. All this tends to -break up a single type or stock into many varieties. There are hundreds -of varieties of potatoes all traceable to a single wild species. The -kind and quantity of nourishment supplied plays the most important part -of any single factor in producing variation. - -The general character of the cultivated potato plant as to leaf, stem, -root, and habit of growth, is virtually the same as the wild plant, -variation having been directed and accentuated along the line of -increasing the size and quality of the underground tubers. This habit of -producing enormously enlarged underground stems has been operating so -long that the plant has inherited the power of transmitting this -acquired quality to the succeeding plants. The most improved varieties -seldom produce seed balls, because growth has been directed so largely -toward enlarging and multiplying the tubers. By selecting tubers with -shallow buds or eyes and avoiding those with deep, sunken eyes, -varieties have been produced with few eyes or buds, and these set not in -deep indentations but nearly even with the surface of the potato. - - * * * * * - -As a school-room subject, the potato is not very tractable, unless we -study merely the tubers. If the school is in session in summer, the -growing plant may be had. Then it will be found to be an interesting and -profitable exercise to set the children at the problem of determining -the root-system of the potato plant. How do the roots look? Does the -plant have a tap-root, or do the roots spread laterally? Are the tubers -borne on roots? Or on underground stems? Why do you think so? Does the -tuber terminate the branch? What relation, in position, do the -tuber-bearing branches bear to other parts of the underground system? Do -you think that the tuber-bearing branches aid in collecting food from -the soil? - -The top of the plant may be studied in the same spirit,--branching, -leaves, flowers, berries. - -If the growing plant cannot be had, study tubers. Compare as to size, -shape, color, character of eyes, whether scabby or smooth. Use them as -objects in drawing. - -Plant tubers in the school-room, in boxes or flower pots. This Leaflet -will suggest some interesting observations. - -How important is the potato crop in the State and nation? The pupil can -use his mathematics here. - - - - -LEAFLET XL. - -THE HEPATICA.[54] - -BY ANNA BOTSFORD COMSTOCK. - - -[54] Home Nature-Study Course, Vol. IV, No. 30, March, 1903. - -[Illustration] - -As children are always especially interested in the wild flowers in -spring, I have thought best to study a few of the woodland blossoms. The -wonderful processes of plant life are as well shown in these as in any. -The hepatica is among the first which greets us in the spring, and we -will study this first. - -There are several ways of getting acquainted with a plant: one is to -go-a-visiting, and another is to invite the plant to our own home, -either as guest on the window-sill, or as a tenant of the garden. When -we visit the hepatica in its own haunts it is usually with the longing -for spring in our hearts that awakens with the first warm sunshine and -which is really one of the subtlest as well as greatest charms of living -in a climate that has a snowy winter. As we thread our way into the -sodden woods, avoiding the streams and puddles that are little glacial -rivers and lakes from fast disappearing snow-drifts still heaped on the -north sides of things, we look eagerly for signs of returning life. The -eye slowly differentiates from the various shades of brown in the floor -of the forest a bit of pale blue or pink purple that at first seems as -if it were an optical delusion; but as we look again to make sure, lo! -it is the hepatica. There it is, rising from its mass of purple brown -leaves, leaves that are always beautiful in shape and color and suggest -patterns for sculpture like the acanthus or for rich tapestries like the -palm-leaf in the Orient. There the brave little flower stands with its -face to the sun and its back to the snow-drift and looks out on a gray -brown world and nods at it and calls it "good." - -It is when the hepatica is our guest that we have a better opportunity -for studying its form and features. Take up a hepatica root in the fall -and pot it and place it in a cool cellar until March 1. Then give it -light, warmth, and moisture on your table and see how gladly it will -blossom and tell its secrets. Or perhaps if we are not sufficiently -forehanded to get the root in the fall we can get it during a thaw in -March when we go foraging for spring feelings in winter woods. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 275. Hepatica, harbinger of spring._] - -When finally a bud has uncuddled and lifted itself into a flower, it -will tell us the story of leaves in different disguises, and we may be -able to notice whether the pollen ripens and is all distributed when the -flower begins to fade and fall. We may note also the number of seeds and -examine one of them with a lens. It is what the botanists call an akene, -which simply means just one seed with a tight envelope about it. We have -a careless habit of forgetting all about plants after their blossoms -fade unless their fruits or seed are good to eat or good to look at. -This is as inconsistent as it would be to lose all interest in the farm -before the fields were planted. After the flower is gone the plant must -mature its seeds and somehow must sow them. We will study the hepatica -through the summer and autumn, for we must know what is happening to it -every month. - - -QUESTIONS CONCERNING THE HEPATICA TO BE ANSWERED DURING MARCH AND APRIL. - -1. In what situations are the hepaticas found? - -2. How does the hepatica prepare for the winter and store up energy for -blossoming early in the spring? - -3. How early do you find blossom buds down in the center of the plant? -Did you ever look for these buds in the fall? - -4. Do the flowers come out of the crown bud? - -5. Are the leaves that come up late in the spring as fuzzy when they -first appear as those that come up early? - -6. Make out as complete a life-history of the hepatica as you can,--how -it sows itself, where it grows, how long it lives, with what plant it -keeps company. - - - - -LEAFLET XLI. - -JACK-IN-THE-PULPIT.[55] - -BY ANNA BOTSFORD COMSTOCK. - - -[55] Home Nature-Study Course, Vol. IV, No. 31, April, 1903. - - "Jack-in-the-Pulpit preaches to-day - Under the green trees, just over the way. - Squirrel and song sparrow high on their perch - Hear the sweet lily bells ringing to church. - Come, hear what his reverence rises to say, - In his low, painted pulpit this calm Sabbath day, - Fair is the canopy over him seen, - Penciled by nature's hand, black, brown, and green." - - _J. G. Whittier._ - -[Illustration: _Fig. 276. Jack-in-the-Pulpit._] - -[Illustration] - -At one time or another, perhaps all of us are given to the belief that -all flowers blossom for our especial enjoyment. It is hard to think back -for a thousand years and imagine hepaticas blooming on our New York -hills; yet no doubt, they blossomed then in far greater numbers than -they do to-day. Many of our native plants played their part in -sustaining the lives of the native Americans, and that little preacher, -Jack-in-the-pulpit, was a turnip long before he was a preacher. Indian -turnip was his name in the days of our ancestors because the Indians -boiled his bulb-like root and the ripe berries, thus making them a less -peppery and a more palatable food. - -The St. Nicholas Magazine was for so many years the organ through which -Jack preached so many sermons to children all over our land that -he is even to-day one of the best loved of the woodland flowers. -Whittier, in his "Child Life," and Lucy Larcom have both celebrated -Jack-in-the-pulpit in song, and these verses should be given to the -children when they are studying the habits of this interesting plant. - -Jack-in-the-pulpit is a wild cousin of the over-civilized calla lily. It -is interesting to study the way the flowers resemble each other, and -this you and the children will be able to study for yourselves. It will -teach you that the showy parts of a blossom may be merely a protection, -and an advertisement for the true flower hidden within. - - -QUESTIONS CONCERNING JACK-IN-THE-PULPIT. - -1. Where do you find this plant, in dry or in wet locations? - -2. What is the shape of the root? Is it pleasant to the taste? - -3. How do the leaves look when they first appear above the ground? - -4. How far are the leaves developed when the flowers appear? - -5. Does the tip of the hood fold over at first? - -6. Do you see a resemblance to the calla lily when you bend the tip of -the hood backward? Compare or contrast the two plants. - -7. How many leaves has Jack-in-the-pulpit? Are they simple or compound? - -8. What are the colors of the "pulpits" in your locality? - - - - -LEAFLET XLII. - -INDIAN CORN.[56] - -BY ANNA BOTSFORD COMSTOCK. - - -[56] Home Nature-Study Course, Vol. IV, No. 32, May, 1903. - -_"Hail! Ha-wen-ni-yu! Listen with open ears to the words of thy people. -Continue to listen. We thank our mother earth which sustains us. We -thank the winds which have banished disease. We thank He-no for rain. We -thank the moon and stars which give us light when the sun has gone to -rest. We thank the sun for warmth and light by day. Keep us from evil -ways that the sun may never hide his face from us for shame and leave us -in darkness. We thank thee, oh, mighty Ha-wen-ni-yu that we still live. -We thank thee that thou hast made our corn to grow. Thou art our creator -and our good ruler, thou canst do no evil. Everything thou doest is for -our happiness."_ - -[Illustration] - -Thus prayed the Iroquois Indians when the corn had ripened on the hills -and valleys of New York State long before it was a state, and even -before Columbus had turned his ambitious prows westward in quest of the -Indies. Had he found the Indies with their wealth of fabrics and spices -he would have found there nothing so valuable to the world as has proved -this golden treasure of ripened corn. - -The origin of Indian corn, or maize, is shrouded in mystery. There is a -plant which grows on the tablelands of Mexico which is possibly the -original species, but so long had maize been cultivated by the American -Indians that it was thoroughly domesticated when America was discovered. -In those early days of American colonization it is doubtful, says -Professor John Fiske, if our forefathers could have remained here had it -not been for Indian corn. No plowing nor even clearing was necessary for -the successful raising of this grain. The trees were girdled, thus -killing their tops to let in the sunlight; the rich earth was scratched -a little with a primitive tool and the seed put in and covered; and the -plants that grew therefrom took care of themselves. If the pioneers had -been obliged to depend alone upon the wheat and rye of Europe which -would only grow with good tillage they might have starved before they -had gained a foothold on our forest-covered shores. While maize has -never been a popular grain in European countries outside of the -southermost parts, yet on the great continents of Africa and Asia it -was welcomed from the first, and is now largely grown. It has ripened -for so many centuries on the slopes of the Himalayas that if you were to -ask one of the natives to-day how long it had grown there he would -answer you "always." - -It is fitting that a grain which is so peculiarly adapted to be the aid -and support of a great civilization should grow upon a plant of such -dignity and beauty as is the maize. The perfect proportions of the -slender stalk to the long gracefully curving leaves; the plumed tassels -swaying and bowing to every breeze and sending their pollen showers to -the waiting skeins of silk hidden below; the ripened ear with its exact -rows of shining yellow grains wrapped in silken husks; all these make -the corn plant as delightful to the eye as it is intrinsically important -to the welfare of nations. No more wonderful lesson in plant growth can -we find for our study than this lesson of the Indian corn. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 277. Parts of corn kernel._] - - -LESSON ON INDIAN CORN FOR SPRING AND SUMMER. - -Secure a kernel of corn and cut it in halves (Fig. 277) and with the -naked eye you will be able to see there the young plant pressed close to -its stored up food, which, though largely composed of starch, also has -in it proteids and oil. You will see that this food is dry and thus -cannot be used by the young plant, for plants, whether young or old, -must take their nourishment in a fluid condition. Soak the seed and see -how soon the young plant passes on the moisture to soften the food so -that it may imbibe it and grow. Fill a tumbler with earth and plant a -grain of corn next to the glass so that you may be able to see how it -grows. - - -CORN STALKS, LEAVES AND ROOTS. - -1. Which appears first, root parts or leaf? - -2. How does the leaf look when it first comes up? - -3. How old is the corn when the blossom stalks begin to show above the -leaves? - -4. Does the stalk break more easily at the joints than elsewhere? -Measure the distances between the joints in a stalk of young corn and -two weeks later measure these distances again, and compare your figures. -From these measurements tell whether the plant grows only at the top, or -has it several growing places? - -5. Are the joints nearer each other at the bottom or at the top? - -6. Where do the bases of the leaves clasp the stalks? - -7. Tell why this arrangement gives strength to the stalk. - -8. Do you see a little growth at the base of the leaf that prevents the -rain from flowing down between the stalk and the clasping leaf? This is -called the rain-guard. How might it damage the plant if the water should -get in between the leaf and stem? - -9. What is the structure of the leaf and direction of the ribs? - -10. How does this structure keep the long leaf from being torn to pieces -by the wind? - -11. Note the ruffled edge of the leaf. Lay such a leaf flat on a table -and bend it this way and that, and note how this fullness allows it to -bend without breaking the edges. What advantage is this to the plant? - -12. Study the roots of a corn plant. How far do they extend into the -ground? Describe them. - -13. Study the brace roots that come off the stalk an inch or more above -the ground. Of what utility are these to the plant? - -14. Bend down a stalk of growing corn and place a stone on it near its -base so as to hold it down, and note how it acts. Does it commence to -lift itself up straight from the joint, or from a place between the -joints? - -15. Cut off the water supply from a plant, or watch the corn during a -drought and tell how the leaves behave. - -16. Do they offer as much surface to the air for evaporation when they -are curled? Is this the way the plant protects itself by retaining this -moisture during a dry time? - -17. Do the stalks or leaves grow after the ears begin to form? - -18. Do you find "suckers" growing; if so what is the variety? - - -FLOWERS. - - There are two kinds of flowers on the corn: the tassels bearing - the pollen, and the ears bearing the ovules which develop into - seeds. Study first the tassel. Observe the flowerets through a - lens if you have one and note that the pollen sacs open a little - at one side instead of at the tip so that the wind is needed in - order to shake out the pollen. It is estimated that on each corn - plant there may be developed eighteen million pollen grains and - two thousand ovules. The pollen-tube must penetrate the whole - length of each thread of corn-silk in order to reach the ovules. - -19. What agency carries the pollen grains to the ear? - -20. What would happen to a field of corn if the farmer cut off all the -tassels as soon as they were formed? - -21. Find a tassel before it appears and study it. Secure an ear when -only an inch or two long and study it. These should be studied as flower -parts. - -22. How early can you find the ear? Look at every joint and tell how -many ears you find on a young stalk. - -23. In studying the ear, take first the husk. Does it resemble the leaf -in structure? What is the difference between the outer and the inner -husks? - -24. Do you believe that the husk is a modified leaf; if so why? In the -young ear does each thread of silk extend out to the end of the ear; if -so why? - -25. Is there a thread of silk for each kernel in the ear? - -26. Study corn when it is in the "milk." Is the taste sweet? - -27. Does this sweet taste continue as the kernel matures? - -28. How is the stalk modified to fit the ear? - - -ENEMIES. - - The corn has many difficulties to contend with: there are heavy - winds, too much or too little rain, hail, and, worst of all, - frosts which not only kill it when it is first planted, but - also hurt it before it is matured. The corn has living enemies - also, such as wire-worms and cut-worms. Our forefathers were - much troubled with the mischief which crows did in pulling corn. - However, many of our observing farmers to-day say that only in - rare instances do the crows injure corn much. The work done by - cut-worms is often attributed to crows. - -29. Please note in your locality what difficulties the corn has to -contend with. If possible make a special study of the damage said to be -done by crows. Give the results. - - - - -LEAFLET XLIII. - -THE RIPENED CORN.[57] - -BY ANNA BOTSFORD COMSTOCK. - - -[57] Home Nature-Study Course, Vol. V, No. 1, October, 1903. - -[Illustration] - -Every boy and girl living on a farm in New York State twenty-five years -or more ago, has in memory a picture like this: a stubbly hill-side -field beset with russet shocks of corn and constellations of orange -pumpkins, whence might be seen wide valleys filled with purple haze, and -far hills bedecked with autumn tapestries woven about emerald patches of -new wheat. - -To such a field, after the laggard sun had changed the hoar frost to -dew, would they hasten of an October morning, to begin the corn-husking. -The enthusiastic youngster, who had an eye to artistic unity in the -situation, invariably selected a pumpkin for his seat, scorning his more -sordid fellows who had brought milking-stools from the barn, when nature -had placed so many golden thrones at their disposal. Too soon a -discovery was made about this that applies as well to other thrones,--it -proved an uneasy seat, and was abandoned for a sofa constructed of -corn-stalks. Here, leaning back with a full sense of luxury, listening -to the rustle of the dry leaves and husks and the monotonous song of the -cricket, enlivened now and then by the lazy call of the crow from the -hemlocks on the hill, the sweet note of the belated meadow-lark from the -valley, or the excited bark of the dog as he chased a squirrel along the -fence, the busy husker passed the autumn day. On either side of him were -evidences of his labor. On the right stood great disheveled stooks of -corn stalks bereft of their pockets of gold; on the left lay in a heap -the shining yellow ears, ready to be measured in the waiting -bushel-basket; in front was always a little pile of noble ears with some -of the husks still attached,--the seed corn. Proud was the boy when he -had learned to select successfully "the ear of good length, cylindrical -rather than pointed, the cob firm and well filled from butt to tip with -grains uniformly large, of good color and in regular rows that showed no -space between." Now-a-days, we challenge this ideal of the "perfect -ear." - -[Illustration: _Fig. 278. The Harvest of the Corn._] - -As "chore time" approached, came the wagon afield to gather the harvest -of ears and take them to the cribs, where their gold gleaming between -the boards gave comfortable assurance of peace and plenty. But the seed -corn was stored in a way learned by our forefathers from the American -Indians; the ears were braided together by their husks, by the skilled -farmer, who could make a braid two or three feet long, strong enough to -hold the weight of the ears that hung a heavy fringe along each side; -this braid when completed was tied with a bit of soft, tow twine, long -saved for the purpose, and then was hung on hooks on the granary walls. -There, until spring, waited the elect of the cornfield, holding in -perfect kernels all the future corn wealth of that farm. - -From the first day's husking a bushel of ears was reserved from the crib -and was spread on a chamber floor to dry quickly; later this was taken -to the mill and ground into samp, one of the prized luxuries of the -autumn bill of fare. Other corn was ground into finer meal for the -delicious Johnny-cake and the Indian bread, the latter reaching fullest -perfection when baked in a brick oven. - -To the tenants of the farm barns the corn meant even more than to those -in the farm house. In August the cattle in dry pastures cast longing -eyes and expressive voices toward the pale, green leaves and waving -tassels of the sowed-corn, and great was their joy the first day they -tasted this delicacy; in November, they munched the dry leaves of the -planted crop, leaving in the barn-yard an angular patterned carpet of -bare, hard stalks. In winter the corn meal, in proper proportions, made -for them a food that kept them warm despite the cold winds that clutched -at them, through crevices, with fingers of drifted snow. And no less -dependent on this important crop were the denizens of the fold, of the -sty, and of the chicken-yard. - -The old-time harvesting and husking are passing from the New York farm -of to-day. The granary is no longer frescoed with braids of model ears, -for the seed corn is now bought by the bushel from the seedsmen. The -corn harvester has dissolved the partnership between corn and pumpkin -and fells the stalks by the acre, doing away with the old-time stooks or -shocks. Corn-stalks now become silage and are fed in a green condition -throughout the winter. How often do we lose something of picturesqueness -when we gain the advantages of modern improvements! Let us be thankful, -however, that the corn harvester and the silo make efficient use of the -great fields of corn. - -Although there is but one species of corn recognized (_Zea Mays_), there -have been an endless number of varieties developed from it. Seven -hundred and seventy of these were sufficiently distinct to be recognized -when the Department of Agriculture published its account of varieties. -The importance of the corn crop to this country and to others is almost -incalculable. In 1902, the United States produced more than two and a -half billion bushels and the export price was $.60 per bushel. When the -corn crop fails every man, rich or poor, in America, suffers from it, -and every business is affected by it. Though the man working in the -cornfield may think only of his own crop, yet he is the man that is -helping maintain the prosperity of our country. He is working for us -all. - - -QUESTIONS ON THE RIPENED CORN. - -1. Is the corn crop in your vicinity good this year? - -2. What affected it, beneficially or otherwise? - -3. How many ears of corn are there usually on a mature stalk? - -4. Are they on the same side of the stalk, or how are they disposed? - -5. How many kinds of corn do you know? - -6. Describe an average ear of each in the following particulars: shape -and color of kernel; number of rows of kernels on the cob; number of -kernels in a row; length of cob. Are the rows in distinct pairs? Do any -of the rows disappear near the tip; if so, how many? - -7. Study a cob with corn on it. Are the kernel-sockets of adjacent rows -opposite each other or alternate? - -8. Cut a kernel of pop-corn and a kernel of field corn across and -compare the texture of the two. What has this texture to do with causing -the kernel to "pop?" - -9. How many foods do you know made from the grain of the corn? - -10. How many products do you know made from stalks of the corn? - -11. Do you know of any part of the corn that is used in constructing -battleships? - -12. What is the corn crop of New York State worth in dollars a year? -(See U. S. Census Bulletin, No. 179.) - -13. How many bushels of shelled corn are usually produced on an acre of -well cultivated land? - -14. Could the corn plant itself without the agency of man? - -If you are able to draw, please make a sketch of a kernel of sweet corn -and a kernel of field corn. Break an ear of corn in two and sketch the -broken end, showing shape of the cob and its relation to the kernels. - - -NOTE ON THE NEW CORN BREEDING.[58] - -[58] Extracted from an article by L. H. Bailey in Country Life in -America, July, 1903. - -The particular materials that give the corn kernel most of its value are -the oil, the protein and the starch. For the production of corn oil--for -which the demand is large--a corn that has a high oil content is, of -course, particularly valuable; while for the production of starch or for -the feeding of bacon hogs, a relatively higher percentage of other -materials is desirable. It is apparent, therefore, that races of corn -should be bred for a particular content, depending on the disposition to -be made of the grain. Equal economic results cannot be attained, -however, in increasing the content of any of the three leading -ingredients, since a pound of gluten is worth one cent, a pound of -starch one and one-half cents, and a pound of oil five cents. The -amounts of these ingredients in the corn kernel are amenable to increase -or diminution by means of selection,--by choosing for seed the kernels -of ears that are rich or poor in one or the other of these materials. -Fortunately, the oil and starch and protein of the corn kernel occupy -rather distinct zones. Next the outside hull is a dark and horny layer -that is very rich in protein; in the center is the large germ, very rich -in oil; between the two is a white layer of starch. It is found that the -kernels on any ear are remarkably uniform in their content; the -dissection of a few kernels, therefore, enables the breeder to determine -the ears that are rich in any one of the substances. Experiment stations -in the corn-growing States are already making great headway in this new -breeding of corn, and one private concern in Illinois is taking it up as -a commercial enterprise. All this recalls the remarkable breeding -experiments of the Vilmorins in France, whereby the sugar-content of the -beet was raised several points. It is impossible to overestimate the -value of any concerted corn-breeding work of this general type. The -grain alone of the corn crop is worth about one billion dollars -annually. It is possible to increase this efficiency several -percentages; the coming generation will see it accomplished. - -An interesting cognate inquiry to this direct breeding work is the study -of the commercial grades of grains. It is a most singular fact that the -dealer's "grades" are of a very different kind from the farmer's -"varieties." In the great markets, for example, corn is sold as "No. 1 -yellow," "No. 2 yellow," "No. 3 yellow," and the like. Any yellow corn -may be thrown into these grades. What constitutes a grade is essentially -a judgment on the part of every dealer. The result is that the grain is -likely to be condemned or criticised when it reaches its destination. -Complaints having come to the government, the United States Department -of Agriculture has undertaken to determine how far the grades of grain -can be reduced to indisputable instrumental measurement. The result is -likely to be a closer defining of what a grade is; and, this point once -determined, the producer will make an effort to grow such grain as will -grade to No. 1, and thereby attain to the extra price. Eventually, the -efficiency points of the grower and the commercial grades of the dealer -ought nearly or quite to coincide. There should come a time when corn is -sold on its intrinsic merits, as, for example, on its starch content. -This corn would not then be graded 1, 2 and 3, on its starch content, -because that content would be assured in the entire product; but the -grade 1 would mean prime physical condition, and the lower grades -inferior physical condition. Eventually, something like varietal names -may be attached to those kinds of corn that, for example, grade fifteen -per cent protein. The name would be something like a guarantee of the -approximate content, as it now is in a commercial fertilizer. - -The first thing that strikes one in all this new work is its strong -contrast with the old ideals. The "points" of the plants are those of -"performance" and "efficiency." It brings into sharp relief the -accustomed ideals as to what are the "good points" in any plant, -illustrating the fact that these points are for the most part only -fanciful, are founded on a priori judgments, and are more often -correlated with mere "looks" than with efficiency. An excellent example -may be taken from corn. In "scaling" any variety of corn it is customary -to assume that the perfect ear is one nearly or quite uniformly -cylindrical throughout its length, and having the tip and butt well -covered with kernels. Now, this ideal is clearly one of perfectness and -completeness of mere form. We have no knowledge that such form has any -correlation with productiveness in ears, hardiness, drought-resisting -qualities, protein or starch content,--and yet these attributes are the -ones that make corn worth growing at all. We only know that such ears -may bear more kernels. An illustration also may be taken from string -beans. The ideal pod is considered to be one of which the tip-projection -is very short and only slightly curved. This, apparently, is a question -of comeliness, although a short tip may be associated in the popular -mind with the absence of "string" in the pod; but it is a question -whether this character has any direct relation to the efficiency of the -bean-pod. We are also undergoing much the same challenging of ideas -respecting the "points" of animals. Now, animals and plants are bred to -the ideals expressed in these arbitrary points by choosing for parents -the individuals that score the highest. When it becomes necessary to -recast our "scales of points," the whole course of evolution of domestic -plants and animals is likely to be changed. We are to breed not so much -for merely new and striking characters, that will enable us to name, -describe and sell a "novelty," as to improve the performance along -accustomed lines. It may be worth while to produce a "new variety" of -potato by raising new plants from the seed-bolls; but it is much more to -the point to augment the mealiness of some existing variety or to -intensify its blight-resisting qualities. We are not to start with a -variety, but with a plant. - - - - -LEAFLET XLIV. - -THE USES OF FOOD STORED IN SEEDS.[59] - -BY ANNA BOTSFORD COMSTOCK. - - -[59] Home Nature-Study Course, Vol. V, No. 4, January, 1904. - - "A mystery passing strange, - Is the seed in its wondrous change; - Forest and flower in its husk concealed, - And the golden wealth of the harvest field." - - --LUCY LARCOM. - -[Illustration] - -As is the case with our own babies, the first necessity of the infant -plant is food close at hand to sustain this tiny speck of life until it -shall be large and strong enough to provide for itself. If we study any -seed whatever we shall find some such motherly provision for the plant -baby or germ. Sometimes the germ is a mere speck with a large amount of -food packed around it, as is the case with the nutmeg; sometimes the -baby is larger and its food is packed in a part adjacent to it, as is -the case with the corn (Fig. 279); and sometimes the mother stuffs the -baby itself so that it has enough to last it until its own little roots -and leaves bring it mature food, as is the case with the squash seed. In -any case this "lunch put up by the mother," to use Uncle John's words, -is so close at hand that as soon as favorable conditions occur the -little plant may eat and grow, and establish itself in the soil. - -Nature is remarkable for her skill in doing up compact packages, and in -no other place is this skill better shown than in storing food in seeds -for the young plants. Not only is it concentrated, but it is protected -and of such chemical composition that it is able to remain fresh and -good for many years awaiting the favorable moment when it may nourish -the starting germ. People often wonder why, when a forest is cleared of -one species of trees, another species grows in its place. This often may -have resulted from the seeds lying many years dormant awaiting the -opportunity. This preservation of the food in the seed is largely due to -the protecting shell that keeps out the enemies of all sorts, especially -mould. And yet, however strong this box may be, as it is in the -hard-shelled hickory nut, it falls apart like magic when the germ within -begins to expand. - -Brain rather than brawn is the cause of man's supremacy in this world. -Of all the beings that inhabit the earth he knows best how to use for -his own advantage all things that exist. His progress from savagery to -civilization is marked by his growing power to domesticate animals and -plants. Very early in his history man learned the value to himself of -the seeds of the cereals. He discovered that they may be kept a long -time without injury; that they contain a great amount of nutrition for -their bulk; that they are easily prepared for food; that, when planted, -they give largest return. Thus, we see, the advantages the plant mother -had developed for her young, man has turned to his own use. That the -food put up for the young plant is so protected and constituted as to -endure unhurt for a long time gives the cereal grains their keeping -quality. That it is concentrated and well packed renders it convenient -for man to transport. That the "box" is easily separated from the -"lunch" makes the preparation of food by crushing and sifting an easy -matter for man. That every mother plant, to insure the continuation of -the species, develops many seeds, so that in the great struggle for -existence at least some shall survive, makes the cereals profitable for -man to plant, and harvest the increase. Think once, how few ears of corn -it requires to plant an acre. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 279. Section of kernel of corn, showing the embryo, -and the food supply at one side of it (at the right)._] - -Because of all these things there has grown up between domestic plants -and man a partnership. Man relieves the plant of the responsibility of -scattering its seeds, and in return takes for himself that proportion of -the seeds which would have died in the struggle for existence had the -plant remained uncultivated. This partnership is fair to both parties. - -Different plants store food materials in different proportions in their -seeds; the most important of these food substances are starch, oil, -protein, and mineral matter. All of these materials are necessary to man -as food. In the cereals the seeds contain a large proportion of starch, -but in the nuts, like the butternuts and walnuts, there is a -predominance of oil. Let us for a moment examine a kernel of corn and a -kernel of wheat and see how the food is arranged. Fig. 279 is a kernel -of corn cut in two lengthwise; at the lower left-hand corner are the -root parts and leaf parts of the young plant (the embryo); above the -embryo is the loose starch material. Now we have the baby corn plant -lying at one side, and its food packed about it. However, this food is -in the form of starch, and must be changed to sugar before the young -plant can partake of it and grow. There lies a connecting part between -the germ and its food, the scutellum. This is so constituted that when -soaked with water it ferments the starch and changes it to sugar for the -young plant's use. - -The germ itself is also a very nutritious food for man; hence the seed -is eaten, "baby and all." In the corn, those kernels with the largest -germs have the largest food value, and, therefore, to-day corn breeders -are developing kernels with very large embryos. - -If we examine the microscopic structure of the food part of a grain of -wheat (Fig. 280), we find that there are two outer layers, _a_ and _b_. -Next there is a row of cells _d_ that divides these outer layers from -the flour cells within. This is the aleurone layer. At _e_ are the flour -cells which constitute the central portion of the wheat kernel. They -contain starch, and also gluten, and some oil, and some mineral -substances. In grinding to make white flour, the miller tries to leave -the aleurone layer of cells _d_ with the outer layers _a_ and _b_, for -if it is mixed with the flour the latter spoils much sooner, and it is -also darker in color. In the seed is a ferment that helps digest the -food for the young plant. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 280. Section of grain of wheat._] - -In order to think more intelligently about our use of food, let us find -out, if we can, which parts of the food stored up by the plant for its -sustenance are used by us both for ourselves and our livestock. The -intelligent farmer gives his stock a carefully balanced ration, _i. e._, -food that is well proportioned for the growth and product of the animal. -If he wishes his cows to give more milk he may give them more proteids -in their food, and less starch and fat. If he wishes to fatten them he -may give them a greater amount of starch and fat and less of the -proteids. In order to know what these proteids and starch and fat mean, -both to us and to the plant, we have to know a little chemistry. The -following table may aid us in this: - - Nutritive substances which {Proteids (casein, gluten, legumen, - contain nitrogen. { etc., albuminoids, gelatine, - { white of egg, etc.). - - Nutritive substances which {The carbohydrates (sugar and - do not contain nitrogen. { starch). Fats (oils, butter). - - Mineral substances. {Lime, phosphorus, sulfur, etc. - -The substances mentioned in the above table are all needful to -sustain the life of man and beast. If we compare the body to a -steam engine, then we can see that its whole framework is built -out of the proteids, mineral matter and water. The starch and sugar -and fats constitute the fuel used to heat the boiler and make the -engine move. Strictly speaking the proteids are also used somewhat -as fuel, as well as for framework. It is easily seen from this -that in order to be healthy we should try to give ourselves food -containing a proper amount of building material to repair the -breakage and wear and tear in the engine, and also give ourselves -enough fuel to make the boiler do its greatest possible work. For -if we do not have sufficient building material we break down, and -if we do not have sufficient fuel we lack energy. Food thus properly -proportioned is called a "well balanced ration." - -A well balanced ration per day for the average human being is -as follows: - - Proteids, - - - - - - .40 lbs. - Starch, - - - - - - - 1.00 " - Fats, - - - - - - - - .40 " - Mineral matter, - - - .10 " - ----------- - 1.90 lbs. - -The above is the amount of nutriment necessary, and in addition to this -there should be sufficient bulk to keep the digestive organs healthy. We -are just now entering upon the era of intelligence in relation to our -food. It seems strange that this intelligence should first be applied to -our domestic animals rather than to man. As soon as the farmer -discovered that to make his animals pay better he must give them the -right proportions of building material and fuel for energy, he demanded -that the agricultural chemists give him directions for mixing and -preparing their food. But how few of the cooks in our land understand in -the slightest degree this necessity for the proper proportions to our -food! When they do we may look forward to entering upon an era of serene -good health, when we shall have strength to bear and ability to do. - -In answering the following list of questions you may be obliged to -consult with the miller, or feed-dealer, but it is to be hoped that you -will gain a clear conception of the parts of the seed used in making -foods from cereals. - -1. What is graham flour? How does it differ from white wheat flour? - -2. What is whole wheat flour? - -3. What is bran? - -4. What is cracked wheat? - -5. What are shorts, middlings, or canaille? - -6. Which of the above are considered the more nutritious and why? - -7. What part of the corn kernel is hominy? - -8. What is corn meal? - -9. Is corn bran considered good food? - -10. What is gluten meal? - -11. What is germ meal? - -12. Why is corn fattening to cattle? - -13. How much of the oat grain is contained in oat meal? - -14. What is a cotyledon? - -15. Show by sketch or describe the cotyledon in the chestnut, the walnut -or hickory nut, and the bean. - -16. Describe or show by sketch the position of the germinal portion in -each of these. - -If you cannot find the germ in these, soak them in water for several -days and then observe. - -The following publications may be had from the Department of -Agriculture, Washington, D. C., on application: - -Circular No. 46, Revised--The Functions and Uses of Food. By C. F. -Langworthy. - -Circular No. 43, Revised--Food-Nutrients-Food Economy. The Cost of Food -as Related to its Nutritive Value. By R. D. Milner. - - -A PROBLEM IN FEEDING. - -As our knowledge increases, we give greater attention to the economical -and efficient use of all feeds for live-stock. We cannot afford to feed -even the corn stalks carelessly, either for the immediate concern of the -pocket-book or for the good of the animal. The results of many -experiments in feeding lead to the conclusion that a suitable daily -ration for a cow giving milk and weighing 1,000 pounds should contain 24 -pounds of dry matter, of which 2.5 pounds is digestible protein; .4 -pounds digestible fat; and 12.5 pounds digestible carbohydrates. In such -a ration, the ratio of digestible protein to digestible carbohydrates in -the ration will be as 1 is to 5.4. In computing this ratio the amount of -fat, multiplied by 2.4, is added to the carbohydrates. The fiber and the -nitrogen-free extract constitute the carbohydrates. Individual animals -vary so much in digestive capacity and in other respects that the -foregoing standards may be frequently widely departed from to advantage. -Thus many animals will profitably use more than 24 pounds of dry matter -in a day and the ratio of protein to carbohydrates may vary from 1:5 to -1:6.5 without materially affecting the amount or character of the -product. Standards are useful as guides. The art of feeding and the -skill of the feeder consist in determining in how far the standard -should be conformed to or departed from in each individual case. - -Suppose a farmer has corn silage and timothy hay, and may purchase -cotton seed meal, wheat bran and buckwheat middlings, how may they be -combined so that the ration shall contain 24 pounds dry matter, and the -ratio of protein to the carbohydrates shall be approximately 1:5.4? The -following table gives the data: - - Water. Protein. Fiber. Nitrogen-free Fat. - extract. - - In 100 pounds of silage[60]. 79.1 1.2 4.3 7.4 .6 - Timothy hay 13.2 3.4 16.8 28.4 1.2 - Cotton seed meal 8.2 31.3 1.3 10.9 11.9 - Wheat bran 11.9 13.6 1.8 43.1 3.2 - Buckwheat middlings 13.2 22. [61] 33.4 5.4 - -[60] Silage is often put up when the corn is more mature, and then the -water content is less than here given. - -[61] Included with nitrogen-free extract. - - - - -LEAFLET XLV. - -THE LIFE HISTORY OF A BEET.[62] - -BY MARY ROGERS MILLER. - - -[62] Home Nature-Study Course, Vol. IV, No. 29, February, 1903. - -[Illustration] - -If you are fond of a dish of "greens" made of young beet leaves in early -summer, you must see to it that there are beets in the garden. What -shall be planted? Seeds. Certainly; but where do the seeds come from? -Most of us buy them from a seedsman, it is true; but somebody must grow -them. They are not manufactured articles. If the beet plant produces -seeds it must first have flowers. Have you ever seen the beet in -blossom? When do the flowers come and how do they look? - -Study the picture in Leaflet LII. Read the history beneath the picture. -Better still, get a plump red beet from the cellar, and plant it in a -can, a box, or a flower-pot. If no beets are to be had, a turnip, a -carrot, or a parsnip will do as well. It seems that "plants" come from -beet roots as well as from beet seed. The root you plant in the -flower-pot grew last summer from a seed. When may we expect the plant to -produce seeds of its own, thus multiplying according to its nature? If -you keep a beet plant long enough it will answer this question. - -Beet seeds are rather slow in germinating. For this reason it is common -to soak them in warm water several hours or a day before planting in the -garden. These facts are interesting in themselves; and instead of being -discouraged should we not try to find out some reason why the beet seed -should take more time than the corn or the bean? From a comparative -study of a beet seedling and of a plant which comes from a beet root -throughout a season, one may learn the whole life history of a beet. -This story is not written down in books. Every stage of growth noted in -the two plants should be regarded as typical of the life of an -individual, for each plant must pass through all these stages in its -development from seed to seed again. - -The seedling beet pushes out roots and begins early to take food from -the soil. One may even see the root-hairs through which the liquids -enter the plant. Inquire if the plant growing from a beet root has put -out new roots. Have not its old ones dried long ago in the cellar? It is -a good idea to have more than one plant, so that investigation of a -matter like this may go on without disturbing all. Where, if not from -the soil through roots, does the food come from which nourishes those -thick-ribbed leaves? From the stored-up material in the root, does it -not? Is this not the plant's way of providing for the second half of its -life, after a long resting period in the "beet" stage? When the "plant" -or top has grown quite large, how does the old beet look? - -We may read in the botany that certain plants are biennials, taking two -seasons to pass through all the phases from seed to seed; but we shall -not know the joy of gaining knowledge from original sources nor -experience the mental training that comes with this "finding out" -process until we have actually planted the beets or other things and -watched them grow. - -The following questions relate to the study of a beet plant. Any other -available plant may be reported on. The important thing is that a minute -study be made of some particular plant. - -What plant are you making this special study of this month? - -What care do you give it? - -What conditions of temperature and moisture do you find most beneficial -to its growth? - -What other plants are related to it? (Mention a wild and a cultivated -plant.) - -What leads you to think them related? (Make this clear and definite.) - -How do the plants which come from beet roots differ from those which -come from the seed? - -Of what utility to the plant is the fleshy root of beet, turnip, or -carrot? When is this root made use of by the plant? - -What becomes of the old beet as the plant grows larger and stronger? - -What is the natural length of life of an individual beet plant? - -Through how many changes of form does it pass? Which of these are -"resting" stages? - -Give the events in the life history of a beet in chronological order by -seasons, beginning with a seed in the spring of 1903, and ending with -the first crop of ripened seed. - - - - -LEAFLET XLVI. - -PRUNING.[63] - -BY MARY ROGERS MILLER. - - -[63] Home Nature-Study Course, Vol. IV, No. 20, February, 1902. - -[Illustration] - -You should know how the trees in your school yard have been pruned. Who -did the work, nature or a man with a saw? Some people hold to the idea -that pruning is unnatural, and therefore should not be practiced. Let us -see if this is true. Have you ever gone into the deep woods after a -storm? Who has been there, tearing and wrenching at the big limbs, -twisting the small branches until the ground is strewn with wreckage? -Nature has been pruning a few trees and she works with a fury which is -awe-inspiring. But the trees are much the worse for their encounter with -the forces they must obey without question. Their branches are broken; -mere stubs are left. With the melting snow and the April rains germs of -decay are likely to enter at every break in the bark. In a few years the -trunk may be weakened and the monarch of the woods lie prone upon the -forest floor. - -We may learn the lesson of how not to prune by looking at this great -pine tree torn by the storm (Fig. 281). - -"But why do we prune?" one asks. Let the horticulturist answer. In a -Farmers' Reading-Course lesson on The Care of Trees, Professor Craig -says: "Fruit trees must be pruned. If a tree in an open field is allowed -to go unpruned, the crown soon becomes a dense mass of twigs and -interlacing branches. Such a tree may produce as large a number of -apples as a well-pruned, open-headed tree, but will there be the same -percentage of merchantable fruit? The chief effort of every plant under -natural conditions is expended in ensuring its own reproduction. This is -chiefly effected by means of seeds. A small apple may contain as many -seeds as a large one and even more. The orchardist wants big fruits, and -if they are nearly seedless so much the better." - -[Illustration: _Fig. 281. A pine tree pruned by the storm._] - -In a tree top there is a sharp struggle for existence. But few of the -twigs which started from last year's buds will reach any considerable -size. One needs only to count the dead and the dormant buds on a branch, -and the weak, stubby, or decayed side shoots to appreciate this fact. If -part of the branches are cut out, this struggle is reduced and energy is -saved. By judicious pruning the tree may be shaped to suit the needs of -the owner. If a low tree is desired to make fruit-gathering easy pruning -keeps the head down. An open, spreading habit may be encouraged by -cutting out such branches as tend to grow close to the main trunk. A -careful orchardist has an ideal in his mind and knows how to prune to -bring the tree up to his standard. He knows the habits of trees of -different varieties. He will not prune all alike. He must prune some -every year, or the trees will not carry out his plans. - -The pruner should not only know why he prunes, but how the work should -be done. He should be able to tell why he removes one limb and leaves -another. When I look at the trees in parks and along the streets I -wonder at the careless pruning. Judging from the way they are treated -one would think that a tree could be produced in "a year or two or three -at most." - -Pruning should not be confined to fruit trees. It may be practiced with -profit on all kinds of plants from shade trees to house plants. Pinching -off the terminal bud of a young geranium makes the plant branch. Cutting -the lower limbs of a young elm makes the tree more stately. Nature may -do this, but broken branches leave wounds which the tree cannot heal. -Small branches may be cut close with a sharp knife or pruning shears. -The tree readily heals these places. It is little short of a crime to -break or tear limbs from trees. The injury done to the trees is bad -enough; but does not such heedless treatment of living things also have -a baneful influence on the mutilator? - -For larger branches, if these must come off, no tool is better than a -sharp saw. The cut should be smooth and clean. No ragged edges of bark -should be left. The branch should all be cut off, and care should be -taken not to tear the bark about the wound. If a stub six or eight -inches long, or even one inch, be left, the tree is likely to suffer. -The branch started years ago from a bud on the side of the main trunk, -then but a twig itself. The fibers of the branch are continuous with -those of the trunk. In the air are the germs of decay. These take hold -of the bare stub and soon make their way to the center of the tree -itself. Try as it may, the tree cannot quickly heal a wound so far from -the main paths traveled by the sap in the trunk. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 282. Close cutting results in prompt healing._] - -The two illustrations (Figs. 282, 283) show the right and the wrong way -to remove a limb. When the branch is cut close, new growth takes place -all around the cut surface and in a few years the wound is healed. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 283. The long stub does not heal._] - -Bad pruning is worse than no pruning. Do you not think that nature -students should use their influence to protect the trees in the school -grounds, in the door yards, and along the streets? Trees have insect and -fungous enemies enough without having to contend against carelessness -and neglect. - - -QUESTIONS ON PRUNING. - -1. Describe the results of some of the natural forces you have seen -pruning trees. Observe willows after a storm. - -2. Are all sorts of trees affected alike by wind, ice, and snow? - -3. From your observations which kinds suffer most? Give your opinion as -to why. - -4. Nature does not always prune in this boisterous fashion. Silent -forces are at work pruning out the weak buds and shoots, giving the -strong ones a better chance. Select a very young tree, or a shrub like -the lilac. Examine the tips of the branches. You will find healthy buds -on last season's growth. See if you can find any dormant buds. Are there -any weak-looking or dead twigs? - -5. Compare the number of strong healthy shoots with the number which the -plant started to make. How many of each? - -6. Mention several good effects which may result from pruning. - -7. What are some of the bad results of over-pruning? Of insufficient -pruning? - -8. Consult some orchard-owner concerning this subject. When does he -prune to increase the production of fruit? When to increase the growth -of the woody part of the tree? - -9. If the lower branches of a tree are not removed, what is the effect -on the shape of the tree? - -10. For what kinds of trees is this form desirable? - -11. What is your opinion as to the shearing of evergreens into fantastic -shapes? - -12. If a tree has a tendency to grow crooked, how should one prune to -correct the habit? - -13. Would you prune an elm tree just as you would an apple tree? Why? - -14. Why does pinching off the terminal bud of a geranium produce a more -bushy plant? - -15. Discuss in full the reasons for cutting a limb off smoothly and -close to the main trunk or larger branch. Look at every tree you pass to -see whether it has been pruned well. Has it been able to cover its -wounds by the healing process? - -16. Is it correct to suppose that "anybody" can prune a tree? - -17. The cut surfaces made by pruning large limbs from trees are often -covered with thick paint, tar, or Bordeaux mixture. What is the purpose -of this? - -18. Why is it better to prune a little every year than a great deal once -in five years? - -19. When is the best time to prune shade trees? Why? - -20. Does a tree carry the bases of its branches upward as it grows -higher, or does the base of every branch remain at the level from which -it started originally? Observe many trees in different situations before -making up your mind on this point. - - - - -LEAFLET XLVII. - -A STUDY OF A TREE.[64] - -BY ANNA BOTSFORD COMSTOCK. - - -[64] Home Nature-Study Course, Vol. V, No. 2, November, 1903. - - THE SUGAR MAPLE. - - The maple puts her corals on in May, - While loitering frosts about the lowlands cling, - To be in tune with what the robins sing, - Plastering new log-huts 'mid her branches gray; - But when the autumn southward turns away, - Then in her veins burns most the blood of Spring, - And every leaf, intensely blossoming, - Makes the year's sunset pale the set of day. - - --LOWELL. - -[Illustration] - -Like a friend is a tree, in that it needs to be known season after -season and year after year in order to be truly appreciated. A person -who has not had an intimate, friendly acquaintance with some special -tree has missed something from life. Yet even those of us who love a -tree because we find its shade a comfort in summer and its bare branches -etched against the sky a delight in winter, may have very little -understanding of the wonderful life-processes which have made this tree -a thing of beauty. If we would become aware of the life of our tree we -must study it carefully. We should best begin by writing in a blank book -week after week what happens to our tree for a year. If we keep such a -diary, letting the tree dictate what we write, we shall then know more -of the life of our tree. - -In selecting a tree for this lesson I have chosen the sugar maple, for -several reasons. It is everywhere common; it is beautiful; it is most -useful; and it has been unanimously chosen as the representative tree -of the Empire State. Let each of us choose some maple tree in our -immediate vicinity that shall be the subject for our lesson now, and -again in the winter, and again in the spring. Our first thought in this -study is that a tree is a living being, in a measure like ourselves, and -that it has been confronted with many difficult problems which it must -have solved successfully, since it is alive. It has found breathing -space and food; it has won room for its roots in the earth and for its -branches in the light; and it has matured its seeds and planted them for -a new generation. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 284. Sugar maple._] - -[Illustration: _Fig. 285. A sugar maple grown in an open field._] - - -BRIEF PHYSIOLOGY OF THE TREE. - -The tree lives by breathing and by getting its daily food. It breathes -through the numerous pores in its leaves, and green bark, and roots. The -leaves are often called the lungs of the tree, but the young bark also -has many openings into which the air penetrates, and the roots get air -that is present in the soil. So the tree really breathes all over its -active surface, and by this process takes in oxygen from the air. It -gives off carbon dioxid as we do when we breathe. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 286. Silver maple._] - -While the leaves act as partial lungs they have two other most important -functions. First, they must manufacture the food for the entire tree. -"Starch factories" is the name that Uncle John gives to the leaves when -he talks to children, and it is a good name. The leaf is the factory; -the green pulp in the leaf cells is part of the machinery; the machinery -is set in motion by sun-shine power instead of steam or water power; the -raw materials are taken from the air and from the sap sent up from the -roots; the first product is usually starch. Thus, it is well when we -begin the study of our tree to notice that the leaves are so arranged as -to gain all sunlight possible, for without sunlight the starch factories -would be obliged to "shut down." It has been estimated that on a mature -maple of vigorous growth there is exposed to the sun nearly a half acre -of leaf surface. Our tree appears to us in an unfamiliar light when we -think of it as a starch factory covering half an acre. Plants are the -original starch factories. The manufactories that we build appropriate -the starch that plants make from the raw materials. - -Starch is plant-food in a convenient form for storage; but as it cannot -be assimilated by plants in this form it must be changed to sugar before -it can be transported and used in building up plant tissues. Hence the -leaves have to perform the office of a stomach in order to digest the -food they have made for the use of the tree; they change the starch to -sugar, and they take from the sap nitrogen, sulfur, phosphorus, and -other substances which the roots have appropriated from the soil, and to -these they add portions of the starch, and thus make the proteids which -form another part of the diet of the tree. It is interesting to know -that while these starch factories can operate only in the sunlight, the -leaves can digest the food, transport it, and build up tissues in the -dark. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 287. The bole of a sugar maple grown in a wood._] - -The autumn leaf, which is so beautiful, has completed its work. The -green material which colors the pulp in the leaf cells is withdrawn, -leaving there material which is useless, so far as the growing of the -tree is concerned, but which glows gold and red, thereby making glad the -eye that loves the varying tints in autumn foliage. It is a mistake to -believe that the frost makes these brilliant colors: they are caused by -the natural old age and death of the leaf, and where is there to be -found old age and death more beautiful? When the leaf turns yellow or -red it is making ready to depart from the tree; a thin corky layer is -being developed between its petiole and the twig, and when this is -finally accomplished the leaf drops from its own weight, from the touch -of the lightest breeze, or from a frost on a cold night. - - -OBSERVATIONS ON THE MAPLES. - -We want you to know the maples from actual observation. - -Discover the characteristic forms of the tree, the character of bark, -fruits, and leaves. Verify the pictures in this lesson. - -Though the fruit of the sugar maple matures in midsummer, yet you may -perhaps find beneath your tree some of the keys or seeds now partially -planted. If the tree stands alone you may perchance see how well she has -strewn its seeds, and how many of its progeny have been placed in -positions where they can grow successfully. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 288. Leaves and fruits of Norway maple._] - -We have in New York State seven species of maple common in our forests. -Two of these are dwarf species rarely attaining thirty-five feet in -height, more often found as mere bushes. These two are the mountain -maple and the striped maple or moosewood. This latter is sometimes -called goose-foot maple, because its leaf is shaped somewhat like the -foot of a goose. Of the maples that attain to the dignity of tall trees -we have four species: the sugar maple, the silver or white maple, the -red or swamp maple, and the box elder. The leaf of the box elder does -not look like the leaf of a maple at all; it has a compound leaf of -three or five leaflets, but the flowers and fruits are those of the -maples. There is also a variety of sugar maple that is called black -maple. We have planted in our parks the sycamore and Norway maples -introduced from Europe, and also ornamental species from Japan. Our -native species are easily distinguished from these and from each other; -just a little observation as to the shape of the leaves, the form of the -trees, and the character of the bark enables a person to tell all these -species at a glance. I hope that you will become familiar with the seven -native species. Such knowledge is not only of practical use, but gives -real zest and pleasure. When a person walks in the morning he should be -able to call his tree acquaintances as well as his human acquaintances -by name. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 289. Leaves and fruits of striped maple._] - - -QUESTIONS ON THE MAPLES. - -1. How many species of maple trees do you know and what are they? - -2. How do you distinguish the red maple and the silver maple from the -sugar maple? - -3. What is the shape of the one tree you have chosen to study? - -4. What is there in its shape to tell you of its history, _i.e._, did it -grow in the open or in the forest? Was it ever shaded on either side; -if so, what was the effect? How have the prevailing winds affected its -shape? - -5. How old do you think the tree is? - -6. Was the tree injured by storm or insects during the past season; if -so, how? - -7. Study the leaves on this tree and note any differences in shape and -color. - -8. What is the use of the skeleton of the leaf? - -[Illustration: _Fig. 290. Leaves of mountain maple, sugar maple, red -maple._] - -9. Is there always a bud in the axil where the leaf stalk joins the -twig? - -10. How are the leaves arranged on the twig? - -11. What is the color of the tree this autumn? - -12. When did the leaves begin to fall? Place in your note book the date -when the tree finally becomes bare. - -13. Have you found any seeds from your tree? If so, describe them. - -14. How are they dispersed and planted? - -15. Are both seeds of the pair filled out? - -16. How high is your tree? - -17. How large an area of shade does it produce? If it stands alone, -measure the ground covered by its shadow from morning until evening. - -18. How has its shadow affected the plants beneath it? Are the same -plants growing there that grow in the open field? - -19. Make a sketch of the tree you are studying, showing its outline. - -20. Make a sketch of the leaf of the sugar maple. - - - - -LEAFLET XLVIII. - -THE MAPLE IN FEBRUARY.[65] - -BY ANNA BOTSFORD COMSTOCK. - - -[65] Home Nature-Study Course, Vol. V, No. 5, February, 1904. - - SAP. - - Strong as the sea and silent as the grave, it ebbs and flows unseen: - Flooding the earth,--a fragrant tidal wave, with mists of deepening - green, - - --JOHN B. TABB. - -[Illustration] - -"Tapping the sugar bush" are magical words to the country boy and girl. -The winter which was at first so welcome with its miracle of snow, and -its attendant joys of sleighing and skating, begins to pall by the last -of February. Too many days the clouds hang low and the swirling flakes -make out-of-door pursuits difficult. Then there comes a day when the -south wind blows blandly and the snow settles into hard, marble-like -drifts, and here and there a knoll appears bare, and soggy, and brown. -It is then that there comes just a suggestion of spring in the air; and -the bare trees show a flush of living red through their grayness and -every spray grows heavy with swelling buds. Well do we older folk -remember that in our own childhood after a few such days the father -would say, "We will get the sap buckets down from the stable loft and -wash them, for we can tap the sugar bush soon if this weather holds." In -those days the buckets were made of staves, and were by no means so -easily washed as are the metal buckets of to-day. Still do we recall the -sickish smell of musty sap that greeted our nostrils when we poured the -boiling water in to cleanse those old, brown buckets. During the long -winter evenings we had all had something to do with the fashioning of -the sap spiles made from selected stems of sumac; after some older one -had removed half of the small branch lengthwise with a draw-shave we -younger ones had cleared out the pith, thinking thirstily meanwhile of -the sweet liquid which would sometime flow there. - -With buckets and spiles ready when the momentous day came, the large, -iron caldron kettle was loaded on a stoneboat together with the sap cask -and log chain, the axe and various other utensils, and as many children -as could find standing room; and then the oxen were hitched on and the -procession started across the rough pasture to the woods where it -eventually arrived after numerous stops for reloading almost everything -but the kettle. When we came to the boiling-place we lifted the kettle -into place and flanked it with two great logs, against which the fire -was to be kindled. Meanwhile the oxen and stoneboat had returned to the -house for a load of buckets; and the oxen blinking with bowed heads or -with noses lifted aloft to keep the underbrush from striking their faces -"geed and hawed" up hill and down dale through the woods, stopping here -and there while the man with the auger bored holes in certain trees near -other holes which had bled sweet juices in years gone by. When the auger -was withdrawn the sap followed it and enthusiastic young tongues met it -half way though they received more chips than sweetness therefrom. Then -the spiles were driven in tightly with a wooden mallet. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 291. Sugar making in New York._] - -The next day after "tapping," those of us large enough to wear the -neck-yoke donned this badge of servitude and with its help brought pails -of sap to the kettle, and the "boiling" began. As the evening shades -gathered, how delicious was the odor of the sap steam permeating the -woods farther than the shafts of fire-light pierced the gloom! How weird -and delightful was this night experience in the woods! and how -cheerfully we swallowed the smoke which the contrary wind seemed ever to -turn toward us! We poked the fire to send the sparks upward and now and -then we added more sap from the barrel and removed the scum from the -boiling liquid with a skimmer which was thrust into the cleft end of a -stick to provide it with a sufficiently long handle. As the evening wore -on we drew closer to each other as we told the stories of the Indians -and the bears and panthers that had roamed these woods when our father -was a little boy; and there came to each of us a disquieting suspicion -that perhaps they were not all gone yet, for everything seemed possible -in those night-shrouded woods; and our hearts suddenly jumped into our -throats when nearby there sounded the tremulous, blood-curdling cry of -the screech owl. - -It was the most fun to gather the sap in the warmer mornings, when on -the mounds the red squaw-berries were glistening through a frosty veil; -then we looked critically at the tracks in the snow to see what visitors -had come sniffing around our buckets. We felt nothing but scorn for him -who could not translate correctly those hieroglyphics on the film of -soft snow that made white again the soiled drifts. Rabbit, skunk, -squirrel, mouse, muskrat, fox: we knew them all by their tracks. - -After about three days of gathering and boiling the sap, came the -"syruping down." During all that afternoon we added no more sap, and we -watched carefully the tawny steaming mass in the kettle; and when it -threatened to boil over we threw in a thin slice of fat pork which -seemed to have some mysterious, calming influence. The odor grew more -and more delicious, and finally the syrup was pronounced sufficiently -thick. The kettle was swung off the logs and the syrup dripped through a -cloth strainer into the carrying pail. Oh! the blackness of the material -left on that strainer! but it was "clean woods-dirt" and never destroyed -our faith in the maple sugar any more than did the belief that our -friends were made of "dirt" destroy our friendship for them. - -Now the old stave bucket and the sumac spile are gone, and in their -place a patent galvanized spile not only conducts the sap but holds in -place a tin bucket carefully covered. The old caldron kettle is broken -or lies rusting in the shed. In its place are evaporating vats placed -over furnaces with chimneys, built in the new-fangled sugar houses. The -maple molasses of to-day seems to us a pale and anæmic liquid and lacks -just that delicious flavor of the rich, dark nectar which we, with the -help of cinders and smoke and various other things, brewed of yore in -the open woods. - -While sugar-making interests us chiefly as one of our own industries, -yet we must not forget that it is based upon the life processes of the -maple tree, and in studying about it we may be able to learn important -facts about the tree which we have chosen for our study. - - -QUESTIONS ON THE MAPLE TREE. - -1. How does the maple tree look in winter? Describe it or sketch it. - -2. Are the buds on the twigs opposite or alternate? - -3. Are the tips of the twigs the same color as the bark on the larger -limbs and trunk? - -4. If you can draw, make a pencil sketch, natural size, of three inches -square of bark of the maple tree trunk. - -5. How does the bark on the trunk differ from that on the branches? - -6. How does the bark on the trunk of a maple tree differ from that on -the trunk of a soft maple or an elm? - -7. What work for the tree do the trunk and branches perform? - -8. Is the tree tapped on all sides? If not, why? - -9. How deep must the spiles be driven successfully to draw off the sap? - -10. Would you tap a tree directly above or at the same spot tapped last -year; or would you place two spiles one above the other? Give reasons. - -11. Why does the sap flow more freely on warm days after cold nights? - -12. Is the sap of which we make sugar going up or down? - -13. How does the sugar come to be in the sap? - -14. Why is the sugar made during the "first run" better than that which -is made later? Why cannot you make sugar in the summer? - -15. Does it injure trees to tap them? - -16. Do the holes made in earlier years become farther apart as the tree -grows? - -17. What other trees besides the sugar maple give sweet sap? - -18. What animals, birds, and insects are to be seen in the woods during -sugar-making time? - -19. Have you ever seen the tracks of animals on the snow in the woods? -If so, make pictures of them and tell what animals made them. - - - - -LEAFLET XLIX. - -THE RED SQUIRREL OR CHICKAREE.[66] - -BY ANNA BOTSFORD COMSTOCK. - - -[66] Home Nature-Study Course, Vol. V, No. 2, November, 1903. - - "All day long the red squirrels came and went, and afforded - me much entertainment by their manoeuvres. One would approach - at first warily through the shrub-oaks, running over the snow - crust by fits and starts like a leaf blown by the wind, now a - few paces this way, with wonderful speed and waste of energy, - making inconceivable haste with his "trotters" as if it were for - a wager, and now as many paces that way, but never getting on - more than half a rod at a time; and then suddenly pausing with - a ludicrous expression and a gratuitous somerset, as if all the - eyes in the universe were fixed on him,--for all the motions of - a squirrel, even in the most solitary recesses of the forest, - imply spectators as much as those of a dancing girl,--wasting more - time in delay and circumspection than would have sufficed to walk - the whole distance,--I never saw one walk,--and then suddenly, - before you could say Jack Robinson, he would be in the top of a - young pitch-pine, winding up his clock and chiding all imaginary - spectators, soliloquizing and talking to all the universe at the - same time,--for no reason that I could ever detect, or he himself - was aware of, I suspect."--THOREAU. - -[Illustration] - -From contact with civilization some wild animals flourish while others -are soon exterminated by association with man. To this latter class -belongs the black squirrel. Within my own memory this beautiful creature -was almost as common in the rural districts of New York State as was the -red squirrel; but now it is seen no more except in most retired places; -while the red squirrel, pugnacious and companionable, defiant and shy, -climbs on our very roofs and sits there scolding us for daring to come -within his range of vision. One reason for the disappearance of the -black squirrel is, undoubtedly, the fact that its meat is a delicious -food. The red squirrel is also good food at certain times of the year, -but because of its lesser size, and its greater agility and cunning, it -has succeeded in living not merely despite of man, but because of man, -for now he rifles corn cribs and grain bins and waxes opulent by levying -tribute on man's own savings. - -Although the red squirrel is familiar to us all, yet, I think, there are -few who really know its habits, which are as interesting as are those of -bear or lion. Note, for example, the way he peeps at us from the far -side of the tree, and the way he uses his tail as a balance and a help -in steering as he leaps. This same tail he uses in the winter as a boa -by wrapping it around himself as he lies curled up in his snug house. -His vocal exercises are most entertaining also; he is the only singer I -know who can carry two parts at a time. Notice some time this autumn -when the hickory nuts are ripe that the happy red squirrel is singing -you a duet all by himself,--a high, shrill chatter, with a low chuckling -accompaniment. - -We usually regard nuts as the main food of squirrels, but this is not -necessarily so; for they are fond of the seeds of pines and hemlocks, -and also hang around our orchards for apple-seeds. In fact, their diet -is varied. The red squirrel is a great thief and keeps his keen eye on -chipmunks and mice, hoping to find where they store their food so that -he can steal it if he can do so without danger to his precious self. - - -QUESTIONS ON THE RED SQUIRREL. - -We want you to make some original observations on the red squirrel. - -1. In summer, what is the color of the red squirrel on the upper parts? -Beneath? - -2. What is the color along the side where the two colors join? - -3. Do these colors change in winter? - -4. Tell how and where the squirrel makes its nest. - -5. Does it carry nuts in its teeth or in its cheeks? - -6. Has it cheek pockets like the chipmunk? - -7. Does the red squirrel store food for winter use? If so, where? - -8. Does it spend its time sleeping in winter like the chipmunk, or does -it go out often to get food? - -9. Name all the kinds of food which you know it eats. - -10. Did you ever see a red squirrel disturb birds' nests? - -11. How does a squirrel get at the meat of a hard-shelled nut like a -black walnut, or a hickory nut? (Answer this by a sketch, if you can -draw.) - -12. Do the squirrels of your neighborhood have certain paths in -tree-tops which they follow? - -13. How many emotions does the squirrel express with his voice? - -14. What kind of tracks does the red squirrel make in the snow? (Show -this by a sketch if possible.) - - - - -LEAFLET L. - -THE IMPROVEMENT OF COUNTRY SCHOOL GROUNDS.[67] - -BY JOHN W. SPENCER. - - -[67] Supplement to Junior Naturalist Monthly, February, 1902. - -[Illustration] - -MY DEAR TEACHER: - -Despite all that is said and done the average school ground is far short -of its possibilities in an artistic way. Of this you are well aware, and -no doubt you have often wished that you might remedy this defect. Your -hours are full of arduous work. Perhaps, however, you can interest your -children to help you to clean and to improve the grounds, without much -extra care or work on your part. - -This illustration of a schoolhouse (Fig. 292) is taken from Bulletin -160, published by the College of Agriculture of Cornell University. The -title of the bulletin is "Hints on Rural School Grounds." I wish you -would send for the bulletin. It will be mailed you free if you request -it. - -The picture is not an imaginary sketch, but a faithful representation of -what stood in a prosperous rural community less than five years ago. To -one familiar with country school buildings it will not be considered as -a solitary "awful example," but rather as a type of many that are -scattered over the State. I hope it is not your misfortune to be -teaching in such a house, even though it is my desire to reach every -teacher who is that luckless. However, to make my talk more real let us -"make believe," as children say, that you are the priestess in a similar -temple of learning. Together we will plan how we can make the most of -very uncongenial surroundings. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 292. A country school property._] - -It would be safe to wager a red apple that the inside of the building is -every bit as dilapidated as the outside. A community that tolerates such -a building would not be likely to have anything but the rudest furniture -and most of that on crutches. It would be something out of the usual if -the box stove is not short a leg or two, with brick-bats being used as -substitutes. You will be fortunate if the stove door has two good hinges -and if the wood is not green. At the last school meeting, did the -patrons instruct the trustees not to pay more than six dollars per week -for your services? Was the proposition that the district raise five -dollars, to which the State would add five more for the purchase of -books for a library, unanimously voted down and the poor man who -introduced the resolution expected to apologize for his temerity? The -leading man in the district each Sunday during summer drives two miles -to salt his young stock, inspect fences, and see how the yearlings are -prospering; but he never thinks of visiting the school to see how his -children are progressing. Yet the people of this district are not bad. -They are counted good citizens by the bar and judge, when they are drawn -on juries. The public buildings at the county-seat are models of their -kind and these gentlemen do not remonstrate as to the expense. Perhaps -it has not occurred to them that school buildings and grounds should -have as high a standard as those of the county. A correct public ideal -is everything. It is not a hopeless undertaking to advance such an ideal -in the community of which we are speaking. - -I suggest to you as teacher in this school to undertake some -improvements in the grounds. I consider the above sketch to be a zero -case. If improvements can be developed here, it is reasonable to suppose -that the same can be repeated where conditions are primarily better. The -possibilities are sufficient to warrant the undertaking. The victory -will add to your strength. The lives of the children will be better -filled for the part they may do, and you will have started a public -improvement. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 293. "The girls organized themselves into a -tug-of-war team."_] - -I should not appeal to the parents for help. You have a fountain of -power in the children. It is necessary only to inspire and guide them. -This is no theory of mine. It is a result that has been worked out in -many instances. - -The beautiful city of Rochester is proud of its schools. The development -of the town made the construction of new school buildings necessary to -such an extent that little money remained for the improvement of the -grounds. Some of them were located in the breadwinners' districts. The -grounds were as the contractor left them; your imagination can picture -their condition. The interiors were well nigh perfect. The exterior was -sometimes a Sahara of mud and builders' rubbish. The principal of one of -the schools--a woman, by the way,--knowing the force in children, set -about to apply it to the improvement of the surroundings. Her method was -first to inspire, and then to direct. Her success was ample. Both boys -and girls participated. The girls organized themselves into a tug-of-war -team (Fig. 293). By fastening ropes to sticks and beams, these things -were hauled out of sight. The boys leveled the hummocks and brought -fertile soil from some distance. This principal confined her -improvements to small areas--so small that the children wanted to do -more when they were through. From the time school opened until the -rigors of winter stopped the juvenile improvements, only part of the -space from the front of the building to the street was graded. Some of -the boys brought chaff from a haymow, which was raked in as lawn grass -seed. The following spring quite as many weeds appeared as grass, but -the children gave the weeds the personification of robbers and made -their career short. The promoters had a just pride in what they had -accomplished; and that meagre bit of lawn meant vastly more to them than -had it been made by a high-salaried landscape gardener. - -I am acquainted with another instance, where the patrons are largely -Polish Jews. I am credibly informed that the average head of a family -does not have a gross annual income to exceed three hundred and fifty -dollars. This necessitates that the mother go out for work and that the -children leave school as soon as the law allows to take up work. Yet -with all these unfavorable circumstances the pupils have a pride in -their school grounds that is glorious to see. In the fall of 1901 prizes -were offered for the greatest improvement of school grounds made by -children. Nothing daunted, the principal entered his grounds in -competition with those in the more wealthy part of the city. The -committee of awards gave him the third prize. To judge from the mere -physical side, the decision was no doubt just; but when judged on the -score of getting the greatest results from the least material, the -principal and his school may have deserved the first prize, plus a -reward. - -The chances are that your fuel is wood, and perhaps not very -dry at that. It is in a pile in the open. Sometimes the sticks are -scattered over half the lot. This you can prevent by properly -appealing to the pride of your pupils. You will find that they -wish to be more tidy than is the school over in Whippoorwill Hollow -or in some other district that is considered to be a little more -in the back country than your own. - -About the time you hear the first spring notes of the bluebird and the -robin, prepare public opinion in your little school community for a -spring furnishing. You can devise many ways to inspire them. Tell them -about Col. George R. Waring and his white brigade and what they did to -make New York City cleaner than it had been for many decades before. -After the Spanish war, when Cuba became a responsibility upon the United -States, the question arose as to what could be done to make filthy -Havana cleaner and freer from yellow fever. No one was thought by the -Federal government so competent to solve the problem as Colonel Waring. -He went, spared not himself, and did his duty, did it so fearlessly that -he died the victim of the filth he had fought so valiantly. He had done -much during previous years to commend his memory to posterity; but -probably nothing will stand out so prominently as his great ability to -correct municipal untidiness. Ask your pupils to be Warings in their own -neighborhoods. - -By this time the ground will be bare of snow and it will be soft. Ask -some of the pupils to bring rakes, and have them gather up the rubbish. -You can all play gypsies when you gather about the bonfire. This will be -a favorable time to sow grass seed; for I have no doubt the school lot -will need it. A lawn mixture of seed would be ideal, but I hardly expect -you to pay for it. At this stage of your improvements, I scarcely expect -that any of the patrons of your school would do so either. Later some of -them may feel differently. Your pupils can at least follow the plan of -those spoken of in Rochester--get chaff from a haymow. It will -inevitably be a mixture of grass and weeds, but the latter can be pulled -out after germinating. It is barely possible that some farmer will give -you some clover and timothy, such as he uses in seeding his meadow; and -this will be far better. - -Next, I should put out a hitching-post. When your school commissioner -calls it will be appreciated. If that functionary does not publicly -compliment your school for even such small improvements, I wish you -would report such indifference to me, giving his full address, and I -will request him to explain this forgetfulness. - -Good results in landscape-gardening depend on observing certain -principles, the same as with our wardrobe. Many a clever girl will -accomplish more in dress with twenty-five dollars than others can do -with twice that amount. Among the first and most important efforts is to -make a frame or setting for the house by planting around the borders of -the place. Sometimes the location will make this inconvenient if not -impossible, when, for instance, the building is placed near the street -or crowded between other buildings. Even in such cases, however, it is -well to keep the idea clearly in mind and to approach it as nearly as -circumstances will permit. An illustration of a normal location to which -this principle can be applied is shown in Fig. 294. The trees and the -higher shrubs are planted first and on the extreme borders of the lot, -with shorter shrubs, roses, and the like in front of them. This frame -can be given a finish by planting flowers or very low things next the -grass. If the area be ample, let the edges be irregular (Fig. 294); but -if very limited, straight lines become necessary. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 294. Showing how the borders may be planted._] - -The open space within the boundaries should be a mat of green carpeting, -for nothing can be more beautiful than sward. Fight all influences to -bedeck it with beds of flowers in forms of stars and moons and other -celestial and terrestrial designs. The demands for such capers may be -great, but hold out against them boldly. Certain small shrubs, ferns, -and flowers may be planted along the walls of the building, particularly -in the angles; but I beg of you to leave the green plat unscalloped and -unspoiled, only as is necessary for drives and walks. When the buildings -are unsightly, cover with vines and plant bushes against them. Fig. 295 -illustrates how Fig. 292 may be improved with very little effort. - -Now I will speak of the actual planting. In the light of unnumbered -thousands of Arbor Day trees put out to struggle a few weeks for life -and then die, this may seem the most important feature of my article. To -the unsuccessful planter, let me suggest that he select shrubs and trees -which take care of themselves under adverse conditions. We have a -number of such. If they were imported from Japan and sold at fancy -prices, they would be greatly appreciated. The common sumac is one of -them. For a shrub I know of nothing of its class so sure to bear the -ordeal of transplanting or to make more vigorous growth under adverse -conditions. It can be pruned to suit, and nothing can rival its blaze of -color in late autumn; yet as a farmer, I know the experience of fighting -against its existence in fence corners, about stone piles, and on steep -hillsides. I do this even though I am fond of the shrub and admire it. -It encroaches on my vineyard and injures the crop. Grapes will help pay -taxes and sumac will not. In my cherry orchard it is a weed. In my back -yard and on the borders of my lawn it is an ornamental shrub. The same -can be observed of people. When in their proper sphere they are helpful -factors in a community; when out of it they are nuisances. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 295. How the grounds in Fig. 292 may be improved._] - -If you ask me to mention a tree most likely to live when planted by -unskilled hands, I should name the willow. I mean the most common kind -to be found in the northern States--the kind that stands beside the -roadside watering-trough. The impression is common that willows will -thrive only in wet places. It is true that a willow is very comfortable -in places where many other trees will suffer from wet feet; yet it will -give good results elsewhere. It is reasonable to suppose that poor soil -goes with a poor school building, and a refined tree would probably -find life hard in such a place. I should certainly plant a willow in -such cases. It will thrive where a goat can, and where a sheep cannot. -For city places, the Carolina poplar is to be recommended. If the soil -is good enough, plant maples, elms, or other trees. - -A judicious planting of Virginia creeper helps the appearance of -buildings both good and bad. I should surely plant it about the main -building and the outbuildings and fences, if the patrons of the school -did not object. The probabilities are that when the vines have begun to -cover some of the deformities of the place, some finicky resident of the -district will cut them out on the plea that they promote decay of the -weather-beaten clap-boards; but do not be discouraged by such a -possibility. Vines, too, usually interfere with the painting of a -building. Although they may be taken down and put back after the -painters are through, the first effect is not regained unless the -process of putting back has been done with unusual care. - -Do not make the mistake of planting too much. A small lawn can be -overdressed as is sometimes the case with women. Lilac, Japan quince, -syringa, hydrangea, and like common shrubs, could be planted if the -opportunities of space seem to warrant. - -I hope it will be your taste to allow the limbs of the trees to start -low and those of the shrubs to begin as near the ground as possible. I -am aware that among country people it is the practice to tolerate only -the higher limbs. I can give a reason for this only on the supposition -that they must do something in pruning, and the lower limbs are the most -convenient to reach. I know a man who came into possession of a place -having a fine lot of evergreens with the lower branches at the ground. -By way of proclaiming a change of ownership he cut away the lower -branches, leaving a bare trunk of about five feet. Before he touched -them they were beautiful green cones and when passing the place I always -turned my face in their direction to enjoy the beauty. When he was -through they were standing on one leg, and a wooden leg at that. I have -never felt kindly toward the man since. - -In the matter of planting I know of no better method than that of the -experienced orchardist. As a rule he buys his trees of a nurseryman. -They are often dug in the fall, and are planted the following spring. -During the interval they are stored in specially constructed cellars, -and at no time are the roots permitted to become dry. When packed for -shipment damp moss is placed about the roots. When the orchardist -removes them from the packing box he "heels" them in, which is a kind of -probationary planting in shallow furrows where they stand until ready to -be set out permanently. When that time comes the trees are taken from -the trench and the roots plunged in a tub of thin mud or doused with -water and covered with a blanket. An orchardist counts a tree lost if -the roots have been allowed to remain in the sun until the small -rootlets have so dried that they have a gray appearance. - -In taking the young tree from the nursery row only a fraction of the -original roots go with the tree, and these are badly bruised at the -point of cleavage. These ragged ends should be dressed smoothly by means -of a slanting cut with a knife. All mutilated roots should be removed. -You must bear in mind that the roots you find with the trees are capable -of performing but a small part of what was done by all the roots when -growing in their native place. - -The hole in which the tree is set should be large enough to accommodate -the roots without cramping them out of their natural positions. It is -important that the earth used for filling should be fertile, and it is -doubly important that it should be fine--even superfine. Clods, even -small clods like marbles, will not snuggle up to the bark of the root as -closely as is absolutely necessary. Set the tree about an inch deeper -than you think it originally stood, so that when planted and the earth -settles, it will really be about the same depth. All the earth should -not be dumped in at once and then the surface pressed firm with the -feet. A close examination will show that the soil has "bridged" in -places, leaving many roots in tiny caverns. It is important that fine -soil should be snuggled close to each little rootlet, not for warmth but -for moisture. Fill the hole by installments of one-third at each -filling. Sprinkle the fine earth about the roots. Then dash in a third -of a pail of water. This will give the roots much needed moisture and, -best of all, will wash the earth about each root fiber. I urge the -adoption of this careful method for all trees and shrubs, not excepting -the sumac and willow. Even wallows will show their gratitude for such -considerate treatment, even though they are able to survive rougher -usage. They will pay for it when the drought and neglect of summer come. - -The most common mistake made in the selection of trees is in taking -those that are too large. For the conditions that we have under -consideration, I suggest that a tree no larger than a broom-handle be -chosen. I know that the common feeling is, "we shall have to wait too -long for our shade." Unless the larger tree is in the hands of an -expert, the smaller will be the more desirable at the end of five years. -I much prefer, moreover, the selection of a tree or shrub growing in the -sunshine, rather than one from the shade. - -I have one final request to make, which to the novice will be the most -difficult of all and one which he is quite likely to fail in performing -because of lack of moral courage. I mean the cutting back of the top of -the tree or shrub after planting. Before the removal of the tree, the -roots probably found pasturage in a cart load of soil. After planting, -the root pasturage is not more than half a bushel of soil. What follows -when the forces of plant growth begin? A demand for soil products, with -a very much restricted means of supply. The top must be cut back to -match the shortened root system. Thousand of trees die every year -because this principle is not duly observed and the failure is often -attributed to the nurseryman. The amount necessary to cut back differs -with different trees and shrubs. No hard and fast rules can be given. -With willows and sumacs one-third to one-half of everything bearing leaf -buds can be cut away. With a maple having a diameter of one and a half -inches at the butt, I should suggest that about one-third of the branch -area be left to grow. - -In this article I have had in mind the improvement of school grounds -where all the conditions are at zero--where the building would be a -discredit to any owner, where the patrons are totally indifferent, and -where the only resource is to awaken a public spirit on the part of the -children. With better school buildings, more ample grounds, and a small -number of patrons favorable to improvement, the foregoing ideas need not -be followed closely. However, they do contain principles and some -details that deserve careful consideration, even in landscape planting -of the highest form. The first step should be the development of local -pride. Something may be accomplished among the parents; but it is a -problem as to what extent that may be done. To the true teacher the -pupils may be counted upon as the mainstay in such an undertaking. To -such a teacher I should say, Do not for a moment believe that the -improvements seen about the school grounds will be all the good that is -wrought. Fifty years from now there will be a few gray-haired -men and women who take more interest in the appearance of their -"front-door-yard," and give their children encouragement in having a -posy bed "all their own," and who extend sympathy and service to the -better appearance of the school grounds, because of your altruism when -you taught district school. - -We have some aids that may be helpful to you and to which you are -welcome. Bulletin 160, spoken of at the beginning, specifically treats -of this work, and Bulletin 121, on "Planting of Shrubbery," has been -very popular. We have published a number of articles on children's -gardening, all of which will be sent you free if you request it. If you -have specific problems we shall be glad to have you write and we will -help you all we can by correspondence. - -The most efficient help we can give you is through the organizing of -your pupils into Junior Naturalist clubs. We give these clubs especial -instruction in gardening and the improvement of home and school grounds. -Children receive great inspiration from large numbers doing the same -thing, while we can give instruction to ten thousand as easily as to one -child. Many hundreds of teachers and thousands of children find the -study of nature a beam of sunshine in the schoolroom and a great aid in -the English period without being a burden to the teacher. - - - - -PART II. - -CHILDREN'S LEAFLETS. - -DESIGNED TO OPEN THE EYES OF THE YOUNG. - - -Most of these leaflets were published as companions to the Teachers' -Leaflets and Lessons,--the teachers' lessons written in one vein and the -children's in another. Even though the subject-matter may be largely -duplicated in the two, it seems worth while to keep these separate as -showing a simple method of presentation and as suggesting a means of -procedure to those who would reach small children. - - - - -THE CHILD'S REALM. - -BY L. H. BAILEY. - - - A little child sat on the sloping strand - Gazing at the flow and the free, - Thrusting its feet in the golden sand, - Playing with the waves and the sea. - - I snatch'd a weed that toss'd on the flood - And parted its tangled skeins; - I trac'd the course of the fertile blood - That lay in its meshèd veins; - - I told how the stars are garner'd in space, - How the moon on its course is roll'd, - How the earth is hung in its ceaseless place - As it whirls in its orbit old:-- - - The little child paus'd with its busy hands - And gaz'd for a moment at me, - Then dropp'd again to its golden sands - And play'd with the waves and the sea. - - - - -LEAFLET LI. - -A SNOW STORM.[68] - -BY ALICE G. McCLOSKEY. - -(Compare Leaflet VII.) - - A chill no coat however stout, - Of homespun stuff could quite shut out, - * * * * * - The coming of the snow storm told. - - --WHITTIER. - - -[68] Junior Naturalist Monthly, December, 1903. - -[Illustration] - -"Surely, it is going to snow," says Grandfather, as he puts an armful of -wood into the old box beside the fire; and a happy feeling comes over -you, and you like Grandfather a little better because he has promised -you a snow storm. "What a wise old Grandfather he is!" you think. He -always seems to know what is going to happen out-of-doors and you wonder -how he learned it all. Perhaps I can tell you why Grandfather is so -wise. When he was a boy he lived on a farm and was in the outdoor world -summer and winter. There he learned to know Nature day by day. This is -why he can consult her now as to wind and weather, and why he nearly -always understands what she tells him. He is a good observer. - -If you hope ever to be as weather-wise as Grandfather, you must begin -right away to see and to think. The next time you hear him say, "It is -going to snow," put on your fur cap and mittens and go out-of-doors. Is -the air clear, crisp, and cold--the kind you like to be out in? Or is it -a keen cold that makes you long for the fire-place? Can you see the sun? -If so, how does it look? In what direction is the wind? How cold does -the thermometer tell you it is? - -All the time that you are learning these things the storm will be -coming nearer. Then on your dark coat sleeve something soft and white -and glistening falls--a snowflake. You touch the bright thing and it -disappears. Where did it come from and whither did it go? Others follow -faster and faster, jostling each other as they whirl through the air. -Look at them closely. Are the crystals large and flowery or small and -clear? Put your head back and let them come down on your face. Is their -touch soft or do they hurt as they fall? - -Perhaps by this time you are very cold and think that supper must be -nearly ready. You go into the house, and you find the gray kitten -snoozing comfortably on the hearthrug. You snuggle down beside her "to -warm your frozen bones a bit," and still the storm and outdoor world are -near; for is it not splendid music that the wind is making as it roars -down the old chimney or sways the tall pine trees? - - -SUGGESTIONS FOR STUDY. - -Answer as many of the following questions as you can from your own -observations: - -1. How did the sky look before it began to snow? During the storm? After -the storm? It is always a good thing to look up at the sky. - -2. In what direction did the old weather-cock tell you the wind was -blowing as the storm came on? Did the wind change during the storm? If -so, did the snow change in any way? - -3. Look at snow crystals through a tripod lens if you have one. How many -points do they have? - -4. After supper go to the window, raise the shade, and look out on the -stormy night. Tell Uncle John all that you see. - -5. On your way to school the next day after a snow storm, have the -following in mind to write to us about: - -(a) The tracks in the snow. How many do you find? Did Rover make them? -the gray kitten? a snow bird? an old crow? a rabbit? a squirrel? - -(b) The way the trees and small plants receive the snow. Some hold it, -others cast it off: why? - -(c) Notice the snow drifts. Where are they highest? Why does the snow -pile up in some places and not in others? Is the drift deepest close to -buildings or a little way from them? Are the drifts deepest close to the -trees, or is there a space between the tree and the drift? - - - - -LEAFLET LII. - -A PLANT AT SCHOOL.[69] - -BY L. H. BAILEY. - - -[69] Junior Naturalist Monthly, February, 1903. - -[Illustration] - -I dropped a seed into the earth. It grew, and the plant was mine. - -It was a wonderful thing, this plant of mine. I did not know its name, -and the plant did not bloom. All I know is that I planted something -apparently as lifeless as a grain of sand and that there came forth a -green and living thing unlike the seed, unlike the soil in which it -stood, unlike the air into which it grew. No one could tell me why it -grew, nor how. It had secrets all its own, secrets that baffle the -wisest men; yet this plant was my friend. It faded when I withheld the -light, it wilted when I neglected to give it water, it flourished when I -supplied its simple needs. One week I went away on a vacation, and when -I returned the plant was dead; and I missed it. - -Although my little plant had died so soon, it had taught me a lesson; -and the lesson was that it is worth while to have a plant. I wish that -every Junior Naturalist would have a plant. It matters little what the -plant is. Just drop the seed, keep the earth warm and moist, watch the -plant "come up," see it grow. Measure its height at a given time every -day. Keep a record of how many times you water it. Make a note of every -new leaf that appears. See whether it leans towards the light. If it -dies, tell why. Four weeks from the time when you plant the seed, send -Uncle John your notes. - -A sheet of foolscap paper contains about twenty-eight lines, one line -for the notes of each day, and space enough at the top to write your -name, date of sowing, kind of seed, and nature of the soil. Open the -sheet and on each line at the left side write all the dates for four -weeks ahead; then fill in these lines across the two pages day by day as -the plant grows. For the first few days there will not be much to write, -but you can say whether you watered the earth or not, and where you -kept the pot or box. It will be good practice to get into the habit of -taking notes. I suppose that the record of the first few days will run -something as follows: - - MYRON JOHNSON, name of school, age ----. ----, Teacher. - - _Feb. 2._ Monday. Planted six cabbage seeds in loose soil from the - chip yard. I put the earth in a small old tin cup, and pressed it - down firmly. I made it just nicely moist, not wet. I planted the - seeds about equal distances apart and about one-fourth inch deep, - and pressed the earth over them. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 297. An egg-shell farm. The plants, from left to -right, are: cabbage, field corn, pop-corn, wheat, buckwheat._] - -_Feb. 2._ Did not water to-day, for the soil seemed to be moist enough. - -_Feb. 3._ Watered at 10:30 A. M. Teacher told me to be careful not to -make the soil too wet. - -_Feb. 4._ Watered at noon. - -_Feb. 5._ Put the cup nearer the stove so that the seeds would come up -more quickly. - -_Feb. 6._ The earth is cracking in two or three places. Watered at noon. - -_Feb. 7._ Went to the schoolhouse and found some of the plants coming -up. - -_Feb. 9._ Four of the plants are up. (Here tell how they look, or make a -few marks to show.) - -When your month's record is all complete, send the sheet, or a copy of -it, to Uncle John, and this will be your club dues. See how many things -you can find out in these four weeks. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 298. A window plant that is easy to grow. It is a -common garden beet. The end of the beet was cut off so that it could be -got into the tin can. A very red beet will produce handsome red-ribbed -leaves. In all cases, be sure that the crown or top of the plant has not -been cut off too close, or the leaves may not start readily. The beet -starts into growth quickly and the growing plant will stand much abuse. -It makes a very comely plant for the school-room window. Try carrot, -turnip, and parsnip in the same way._] - -Before the four weeks are past write to Uncle John and he will tell you -what next to do. By that time your plants will need transplanting, and -he will tell you how to do it. Perhaps you can set some of the plants -outdoors later on and see them grow all summer; whether you can or not -will depend on the kinds of plants that you grow. If you want to grow -asters or cabbages next summer, you can start some of them in February -and March. - -Quick-germinating seeds, fit for starting in the schoolroom, are wheat, -oats, buckwheat, corn, bean, pumpkin and squash, radish, cabbage, -turnip. Perhaps some of these require a warmer place than others in -which to germinate. If you find out which they are, let Uncle John know. - -You can grow the plants in egg-shells, wooden boxes (as cigar boxes), -tin cans, flower pots. If you use tin cans it is well to punch two or -three holes in the bottom so that the extra water will drain out. Set -the can or box in a saucer, plate, or dripping-pan so that the water -will not soil the desk or table. It is best not to put it in a sunny -window until after the plants are up, for the soil is likely to "bake" -or to become hard on top; or if you do put it in such a place, throw a -newspaper over it to prevent the earth from drying out. - - -SUGGESTIONS FOR PLANT STUDY.[70] - -[70] Alice G. McCloskey, Junior Naturalist Monthly, January, 1904. - -Last year hundreds of children sent us records of their plants. This -kind of work is most satisfactory to Uncle John. Following is a record -which we received in March, from a girl in the fourth grade: - -Feb. 16--Monday. I planted seven cabbage seeds in an eggshell. I did not -water it. - -Feb. 17--Did not see anything. - -Feb. 18--Saw a little brown thing. - -Feb. 19--Saw a little seed lying on top. - -Feb. 20--Saw little sprout. - -Feb. 21--Holiday. - -Feb. 22--Holiday. - -Feb. 23--Holiday. - -Feb. 24--Saw two little sprouts. - -Feb. 25--The egg-shell was full of sprouts. - -Feb. 26--The plant was coming up and the earth was very wet, so I did -not water it. - -Feb. 27--Saw six sprouts. - -Feb. 28--Holiday. - -March 1--Holiday. - -March 2--Turned the plant around, so it would look toward the light. - -March 2--That afternoon I planted the cabbage in a tin can with tissue -paper around it, because the cabbage outgrew the eggshell some time ago. - -March 3--I put the plant out of the window. - -March 4--I did not look at it. - -March 5--One of the sprouts began to droop. - -March 6--I dug the dirt up around it. Then it was put in the air out of -the window. - -March 7--Holiday. - -March 8--Holiday. - -March 9--I put it out of the window. - -March 10--It was put out of the window. It was brought in at the close -of school. - -March 11--Dug the dirt out from the plant and patted it down. - -March 12--Watered. - -March 13--Put out of the window. - -March 14--Holiday. - -March 15--Holiday. - -March 16--Watered and put out of the window. HELEN. - -Was not this a good record for a little girl to make? I wish that she -had told something about the soil in which she planted the seeds. This -is always important. In winter you may have some difficulty in getting -soil, but in the village a florist will let you have some, and in the -country you may be able to get it in the cellar of a grocery store or -from your own cellar. Perhaps you can find some in the potato bin. When -there is a "thaw," get some soil, even if it is very wet; you can dry it -near the stove. Perhaps your schoolhouse will be too cold over Sunday in -mid-winter to allow you to grow plants. If so, plant the seeds at home. - -When you have planted your seeds, unless you take them up every day, you -cannot see how the little plants are behaving down under the soil. I -want to tell you how you can know some things that the plants are doing -without disturbing them. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 299. Radish seeds germinating between -blotting-paper and the side of a tumbler._] - -Choose an ordinary glass (Fig. 299), roll up a piece of blotting paper -so that it is a trifle smaller than the glass, and place it inside. -Between the blotting paper and the glass, put a few radish seeds or any -kind of seed such as you planted in the soil. Keep the blotting paper -moist and watch what happens. In four or five days the plants should be -"up." Here are some things to think about as you watch them: - -1. Note any change in the seeds when they have been moist for a few -hours. - -2. What happens to the outer coat of the seed? - -3. In what direction does the little root grow? The stem? - -4. Notice the woolly growth on the root? Does this growth extend to the -tip of the root? - -5. When the little plant has begun to grow, turn it around so that the -root is horizontal. Does it remain in that position? - -6. How soon do the leaves appear? - -It may interest some of the Junior Naturalists to see the effect of much -water on seeds. Suppose you experiment a little along this line. Choose -three glasses. In one put seeds into water, in another put them into -very wet or muddy soil, and in the third plant the seeds in moist soil, -such as seeds are ordinarily planted in. Tell us the results of the -three experiments. - - -A THIRD-GRADE RECORD. - -Following is a facsimile reproduction of a spontaneous and unpruned -record made by a child in the third grade. The child grew beans in a -tumbler against blotting paper, as shown in Fig. 299. I hope that this -will illustrate to both teacher and children the value of simple -note-taking. - -[Illustration] -[Illustration] -[Illustration] -[Illustration] -[Illustration] -[Illustration] -[Illustration] - -[Illustration: _Fig. 300. The bean plants that were grown by the -third-grade child._] - - - - -LEAFLET LIII. - -AN APPLE TWIG AND AN APPLE.[71] - -BY L. H. BAILEY. - -(Compare Leaflet XXXI.) - - -[71] Junior Naturalist Monthly, January, 1903. - -[Illustration] - -Yesterday I went over into the old apple orchard. It was a clear -November day. The trees were bare. The wind had carried the leaves into -heaps in the hollows and along the fences. Here and there a cold-blue -wild aster still bloomed. A chipmunk chittered into a stone pile. - -I noticed many frost-bitten apples still clinging to the limbs. There -were decayed ones on the ground. There were several small piles of fruit -that the owner had neglected, lying under the trees, and they were now -worthless. I thought that there had been much loss of fruit, and I -wondered why. If the fruit-grower had not made a profit from the trees, -perhaps the reason was partly his own fault. Not all the apples still -clinging to the tree were frost-bitten and decayed. I saw many very -small apples, no larger than the end of my finger, standing stiff on -their stems. Plainly these were apples that had died when they were -young. I wondered why. - -[Illustration: _Fig 301. This is the branch that tried and failed._] - -I took a branch home and photographed it. You have the engraving in Fig. -301. Note that there are three dead young apples at the tip of one -branch. Each apple came from a single flower. These flowers grew in a -cluster. There were three other flowers in this cluster, for I could see -the scars where they fell off. - -But why did these three fruits die? The whole branch on which they grew -looked to be only half alive. I believe that it did not have vigor -enough to cause the fruit to grow and ripen. If this were not the cause, -then some insect or disease killed the young apples, for apples, as well -as people, may have disease. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 302. These are the flowers that make the apples. -How many clusters are there?_] - -Beneath the three dead apples, is still another dead one. Notice how -shrivelled and dried it is, and how the snows and rains have beaten away -the little leaves from its tip. The three uppermost apples grew in 1902; -but this apple grew in some previous year. If I could show you the -branch itself, I could make you see in just what year this little apple -was borne, and just what this branch has tried to do every year since. -This branch has tried its best to bear apples, but the fruit-grower has -not given it food enough, or has not kept the enemies and diseases away. - -The lesson that I got from my walk was this: if the apples were not good -and abundant it was not the fault of the trees, for they had done their -part. - -In the cellar at home we have apples. I like to go into the cellar at -night with a lantern and pick apples from this box and that--plump and -big and round--and eat them where I stand. They are crisp and cool, and -the flesh snaps when I bite it and the juice is as fresh as the water -from a spring. There are many kinds of them, each kind known by its own -name, and some are red and some are green, some are round and some are -long, some are good and some are poor. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 303. The apples are usually borne one in a place, -although the flowers are in clusters. Why?_] - -Over and over, these apples in the cellar have been sorted, until only -the good ones are supposed to remain. Yet now and then I find a decayed -heart or a hollow place. The last one I picked up was fair and handsome -on the outside, but a black place and a little "sawdust" in the blossom -end made me suspicious of it. I cut it open. Here is what I found (Fig. -306). Someone else had found the apple before I had. Last summer a -little moth had laid an egg on the growing apple, a worm had come from -the egg and had eaten and eaten into the apple, burrowing through the -core, until at last it was full grown, as shown in the picture. Now it -is preparing to escape. It has eaten a hole through the side of the -apple, but has plugged up the hole until it is fully ready to leave. -When it leaves it will crawl into a crack or crevice somewhere, and next -spring change into a pupa and finally come forth a small, dun-gray moth. -This moth will lay the eggs and then die; and thus will be completed the -eventful life of the codlin-moth, from egg to worm and pupa and moth. -But in doing all this the insect has spoiled the apple. The insect acts -as if the apple belonged to him; but I think the apple belongs to me. I -wonder which is correct? - -[Illustration: _Fig. 304. The Baldwin apple. How many kinds of apples do -you know?_] - -[Illustration: _Fig. 305. The same Baldwin apple cut in two._] - -Some of these apples are sound and solid on the inside, but they have -hard blackish spots on the outside (Fig. 307). This is a disease--the -apple-scab. This scab is caused by minute plants and these plants also -claim the apple as their own. There are ways by means of which the -apple-grower is able to destroy the codlin-moth and the apple-scab; and -thereby he secures fair and sound apples. - -Insects and diseases and men are all fighting to own the apple. - - -TEN THINGS TO LEARN FROM AN APPLE. - -When you write your dues to Uncle John on the apple, answer as many of -the following questions as you can. You can get the answers from an -apple itself. He does not want you to ask anyone for the answers: - -1. How much of the apple is occupied by the core? - -2. How many parts or compartments are there in the core? - -3. How many seeds are there in each part? - -4. Which way do the seeds point? - -5. Are the seeds attached or joined to any part of the core? Explain. - -6. What do you see in the blossom end of the apple? - -7. What do you see in the opposite end? - -[Illustration: _Fig. 306. This is an apple in which a worm made its -home._] - -8. Is there any connection between the blossom end and the core? - -9. Find a wormy apple and see if you can make out where the worm left -the apple. Perhaps you can make a drawing. To do this, cut the apple in -two. Press the cut surface on a piece of paper. When the apple is -removed you can trace out the marks. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 307. These are the apples on which other plants are -living.--The apple-scab._] - -10. When you hold an apple in your hand, see which way it looks to be -bigger--lengthwise or crosswise. Then cut it in two lengthwise, measure -it each way, and see which diameter is the greater. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 308. Here is where city boys and girls buy their -apples._] - - - - -LEAFLET LIV. - -TWIGS IN LATE WINTER.[72] - -BY ALICE G. McCLOSKEY. - - -[72] Junior Naturalist Monthly, February, 1904. - -[Illustration] - -Along a country road, through a drifted field, over a rail fence, and -into the woods I went, gathering twigs here and there as I passed. A -February thaw had come and these first messengers of spring, reaching -out from shrub and tree, were beginning to show signs of life. Many -young people do not believe that spring is near until they hear a robin -or a bluebird. The bare little twigs tell us first. Look at them as you -go on your way to school. Are they the same color in February that they -were in the short December days? - -When I reached home with my bundle of twigs, it was "fun" to sit by the -window and study the strange little things. They were so different one -from another, and so interesting in every way, that I decided to ask our -boys and girls to gather some winter twigs and tell us about them. -Select your twigs from the butternut, willow, hickory, horsechestnut, -apple, plum, plane-tree, maple, or any other tree that you come across. -Here are some suggestions that will help you in your study: - -1. How many colors do you find in one twig? Count the tints and shades. -I found eight colors on a small maple branch (Fig. 309). - -[Illustration: _Fig. 309. Red or swamp maple._] - -2. Notice the differences in several twigs as they lie on the table. -What makes them look so different: size, shape, color, arrangement of -buds, the size or shape of the buds? - -3. On how many twigs are the buds opposite each other? Note the opposite -buds on the horsechestnut (Fig. 310). On how many are they alternate? -Are the buds opposite on the butternut (Fig. 311)? - -4. Which twigs bear the buds singly? - -5. When you find two or more buds growing together on a stem, is there -any difference in the size of the buds? - -6. On how many of the twigs can you see a scar left by the leaf when it -dropped off (Fig. 310 and Fig. 311 _a, a_)? Compare the leaf scars on -different twigs. Notice the strange scar on the butternut (Fig. 311). It -looks like the face of an old sheep. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 310. Horsechestnut._] - -[Illustration: _Fig. 311. Butternut._] - -7. Do you see any cocoons on your twig? - -8. You all know the rings on an apple twig that tell how much it grew -each year. Do you find rings on other twigs? Do you see them on any of -these pictures? - -9. What do you suppose makes these rings? Do you think there was once a -large terminal bud where these rings are? - - - - -LEAFLET LV. - -PRUNING.[73] - -BY ALICE G. McCLOSKEY. - -(Compare Leaflet XLVI.) - - -[73] Extended from Junior Naturalist Monthly, February, 1901. - -[Illustration] - -First snow, then sleet, and then a down-pour of rain--it stormed all -day. At night-fall it grew colder. The wind blew fiercely. The twigs and -branches fell on the white crust which covered the earth. Nature was -pruning the trees. - -Have you ever seen your father go into the orchard and prune his trees? -Why did he do it? Compare the work done by nature and that which your -father does. Which seems to be the more careful pruner? - -Let us experiment a little. It will please Uncle John. He always wants -his boys and girls to find out things for themselves. Select a branch of -lilac or some other shrub. Mark it so that you will always know it. -Count the buds on the branch. Watch them through the spring and the -summer. Note the number that become branches. You will then know that -nature prunes the trees. - -If you think a minute, you will see that pruning is necessary in the -plant world. Suppose a branch has thirty buds, and that every bud should -produce thirty branches, each of which in turn should produce thirty -more,--do you think there would be any room left in the world for boys -and girls? Would a tree be able to hold so many branches? - -You certainly have noticed decayed holes in trees. Did you ever wonder -why they were there? I suppose that most persons never wonder about it -at all; or if they do give it any passing thought, they say it is only -"natural" for trees to have rotten spots. But these rotten spots mean -that once the tree was injured. Perhaps the injury was the work of a -careless or thoughtless man who pruned the tree. Very few persons seem -really to know how to remove the limbs of a tree so that the wound will -heal readily. - -As you go and come, observe how the trees have been pruned. Do you see -long "stubs" left, where limbs have been cut? Yes; and that is the wrong -way to cut them. They should be cut close to the main branch or trunk, -for then the wounds will heal over better (Fig. 312). If we abused our -cows and horses, as we sometimes abuse our shade trees, what would -become of the animals? - -[Illustration: _Fig. 312. The wrong way and the right way to remove a -limb._] - -Did you ever see trees that were mutilated to allow of the stringing of -telephone and telegraph wires? - -Who owns the shade trees along a street or public highway? - - - - -LEAFLET LVI. - -THE HEPATICA.[74] - -BY ALICE G. McCLOSKEY. - -(Compare Leaflet XL.) - - -[74] Junior Naturalist Monthly, March, 1903. - -[Illustration] - -Something new and pleasant happened in my life this year. In February, -while the wood was snow-covered and the roadsides piled high with -drifts, I saw hepaticas in bloom. - -Oh, no! I did not find them out of doors. I had all the fun of watching -them from my warm chimney-corner. Then when winds blew fiercely I often -went to the window where they grew and buried my head in the sweet -blossoms. What do you suppose they told me? If some winter day you feel -their soft touch on your face, and smell their woodsy fragrance, you -will hear the message. - -Perhaps you want to know how the hepaticas found their way into my -window-box. Last fall as I walked through a leafy wood I gathered a few -plants, roots and all, that I had known and loved in spring and summer -days. Among them were hepaticas. These I laid away in the cellar until -the first of February. Then I planted them in a corner of the window-box -that I had left for them. - -Since the little woods plants have come to live with me I have learned -to know them well. Perhaps the most important lesson they have taught me -is this: The blossoms may be the least interesting part of a plant. Will -you find out what hepaticas have to tell as the seasons pass? - -Even before you hear the first robin, go into the woods, find one of the -hepaticas, and mark it for your own. You will know it by the old brown -leaves. Then watch it day by day. The following questions will help you -to learn its life story: - -1. Where do hepaticas grow, in sunny or shady places? During which -seasons do they get the most sunlight? - -2. Watch the first sign of life in the plant. Do the new leaves or the -flowers come first? - -3. Look at the hepatica blossom a long time. How many different parts -can you see in it? Whether you know the names of these parts now does -not matter. I want you to see them. - -4. Notice the three small, green, leaf-like parts that are around the -flower bud. As the flower opens see whether they are a part of it, or -whether they are a little way from it on the stem. - -5. Observe the stem closely. Is it short or long? Hairy or smooth? - -6. As the new leaves appear find out whether they are fuzzy on the -inside as well as on the outside. Notice how they are rolled up and -watch them unroll. - -7. In how many different colors do you find hepaticas? - -8. Do some smell sweeter than others? If so, does color seem to have -anything to do with it? - -9. Look at a hepatica plant at night or very late in the afternoon. Also -watch it early in the morning and in cloudy weather. Then look at it in -bright sunshine. Do you see any change in the flowers? I think you will -discover something of much interest. - -10. Seed-time among hepaticas is very interesting. Notice what becomes -of the three small, leaf-like parts that were underneath the flower. How -many seeds are there? - -11. How long do you think the leaves of hepatica remain on the plant? Do -you suppose they remain green all winter? - -12. What becomes of the hepatica plant after it blossoms? Did you ever -see one in summer? Describe. - - - - -LEAFLET LVII. - -JACK-IN-THE-PULPIT.[75] - -BY ALICE G. McCLOSKEY. - -(Compare Leaflet XLI.) - - -[75] Junior Naturalist Monthly, April, 1903. - -[Illustration] - - They call him Jack-in-the-Pulpit, he stands up so stiff and so queer - On the edge of the swamp, and waits for the flower-folk to come and - hear - The text and the sermon, and all the grave things that he has to say; - But the blossoms they laugh and they dance, they are wilder than ever - to-day; - And as nobody stops to listen, so never a word has he said; - But there in his pulpit he stands, and holds his umbrella over his - head, - And we have not a doubt in our minds, Jack, you are wisely listening, - To the organ-chant of the winds, Jack, and the tunes that the sweet - birds sing! - - LUCY LARCOM. - -"It is Indian turnip," said I. - -"No," said Grandmother, "it's memory root. If you taste it once you will -never forget it." And what Grandmother said to me so long ago, I say to -every boy and girl, "If you taste it once you will never forget it." - -But of all the names for this strange little wood plant, I like -Jack-in-the-pulpit best. Though never a word has it said in our lifelong -acquaintance, it has been a helpful little "country preacher" to me. As -we go into the woods this year, let us make up our minds that we will -know more than we ever have known before of its interesting life. - -Where do you find the Jack-in-the-pulpit? In what kind of soil does it -grow? How does it first come up? - -What is the shape of the root? One is enough for the whole class to -study and it should be planted again. We do not want the -Jack-in-the-pulpit to disappear from our woods. - -Does the little hood fold over at first? - -The hood or "umbrella" is not the flower. You will find the flowers on -the little central stalk that you call "Jack." See whether the blossoms -are alike. Look at the blossoms on several plants. Place a stick by the -side of one of these plants so that you will know it later in the year -when the Jack-in-the-pulpit has disappeared. - -Notice whether there are insects in the lower part of the flower stalk. -If so, can they get out? - -When the blossom has gone, look for the seeds. What color are they in -June? In August? - -Have you any house plant that you think is related to -Jack-in-the-pulpit? - -[Illustration: _Fig. 313. Tubers of Jack-in-the-pulpit, or Indian -turnip._] - - - - -LEAFLET LVIII. - -THE DANDELION.[76] - -BY ALICE G. McCLOSKEY and L. H. BAILEY. - - -[76] Supplement to Junior Naturalist Monthly, May, 1904. - -[Illustration] - -The first warmth of spring brought the dandelions out of the banks and -knolls. They were the first proofs that winter was really going, and we -began to listen for the blackbirds and swallows. We loved the bright -flowers, for they were so many reflections of the warming sun. They soon -became more familiar, and invaded the yards. Then they overran the -lawns, and we began to despise them. We hated them because we had made -up our minds not to have them, not because they were unlovable. In spite -of every effort, we could not get rid of them. Then if we must have -them, we decided to love them. Where once were weeds are now golden -coins scattered in the sun, and bees revelling in color; and we are -happy! L. H. BAILEY. - - -SUGGESTIONS FOR STUDY. - -I. Ask your teacher to let you go out of doors for ten minutes to look -at dandelions. In your note books write answers to the following -questions: - - 1. At what time of day are you looking for the dandelions? Is the - sun shining, or is the sky overcast? Make up your mind to notice - whether dandelions behave the same at all hours of the day and in - all kinds of weather. - - 2. How many dandelions can you count as you stand on the - school-ground? The little yellow heads can be seen a long distance. - - 3. Where do they prefer to grow,--on the hillsides, along the - roadsides, in the marshes, or in your garden? - -II. Gather a basket full of blossoming dandelions, roots and all, take -them to school, and ask the teacher to let you have a dandelion lesson. -Here are some suggestions that will help you: - - 1. Each pupil should have a plant, root and all. Describe the - plant. Is it tall or short? How many leaves are there? How many - blossoms? - - 2. Hold the plant up so that you can see it well. How many - distinct colors do you find? How many tints and shades of these - colors? - - 3. Look carefully at the blossom. How many parts has it? How much - can you find out about the way in which the yellow head is made up? - -III. Mark a dandelion plant in your garden. Watch it every day. Keep a -record of all that happens in its life. Later in the year send Uncle -John a little history or account of the plant you have watched. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 314. Blow the dandelion balloon!_] - - DANDELION. - - Dear common flower, that grow'st beside the way, - Fringing the dusty road with harmless gold, - First pledge of blithesome May, - Which children pluck, and, full of pride uphold, - High-hearted buccaneers, o'erjoyed that they - An Eldorado in the grass have found, - Which not the earth's ample round - May match in wealth, thou art more dear to me - Than all the prouder summer-blooms may be. - - --LOWELL. - - - - -LEAFLET LIX. - -MAPLE TREES IN AUTUMN.[77] - -BY ALICE G. McCLOSKEY. - -(Compare Leaflets XLVII and XLVIII.) - - The hills are bright with maples yet, - But down the level land - The beech leaves rustle in the wind, - As dry and brown as sand. - The clouds in bars of rusty red - Along the hill-tops glow, - And in the still sharp air the frost - Is like a dream of snow.--ALICE CARY. - - -[77] Junior Naturalist Monthly, November, 1903. - -[Illustration] - -The hills are bright with maples about the time Jack Frost appears, and -many people say that he makes the leaves turn red and yellow. Wise folk -tell us, however, that Jack Frost is not the artist; that leaves change -to autumn tints when their work is completed. - -Boys and girls may not know that leaves "work;" yet all through the long -summer days when you have been playing in the shade of some old maple, -the leaves over your head have been very busy. Uncle John says that each -leaf is a "starch factory," and this is true. Starch is necessary for -plant food and it is manufactured in the leaves. The green leaves and -stems are the machinery, which is run by sunlight. Look at a large -branch of maple and see how the leaves are arranged to catch every -sunbeam. The more light the green parts of the tree get, the more plant -food can be made and the sturdier and handsomer the tree. - -But the story of the way in which the plant food is made is a long one -and not easy for young people to understand. This can come later when -you have become familiar with the many interesting things that you learn -by watching the tree and by studying with the microscope. - -If I should to go into your school-room and should ask how many boys and -girls know a sugar maple, I suppose every hand would be raised. But if I -should ask: "When does the sugar maple blossom?" "What do the blossoms -look like?" "When do the winged seeds fall?" I wonder how many could -give me satisfactory answers to my questions! - -Choose some fine old maple for study. The one that stands near the door -will be best, since you can see it every day. Write in a note book all -that you can find out about it as the weeks go by. - - -SUGGESTIONS FOR FALL STUDY. - -1. Notice how the leaves turn to the sunlight. - -2. Try to find two leaves exactly alike in color, form, size, length of -stem, etc. If you succeed send them to Uncle John. - -3. How many different tints can you find in a single leaf? - -4. As you look at two sugar maple trees, do they seem to be colored -alike? - -5. Are all sugar maples that you know the same shape? - -6. How are the leaves arranged on the branch? - -7. Can you find any winged seeds near the tree? If so, plant one in a -box of earth and see whether it will grow. - -8. If you find any plants growing beneath the maple tree, describe them -or tell what they are. - -9. Do you know any other kinds of maples? How do you distinguish them? - -[Illustration: _Child's drawing of a maple leaf. Fifth grade. -(Reduced.)_] - - - - -LEAFLET LX. - -A CORN STALK.[78] - -BY ALICE G. McCLOSKEY. - -(Compare Leaflets XLII and XLIII.) - - -[78] Junior Naturalist Monthly, May, 1903. - -[Illustration] - -"Tom," said I to a young friend who stood by the window tossing a -ten-cent piece into the air, "what plant is used for part of the design -on that coin?" - -The boy did not answer right away. I do not believe he had ever looked -at it closely; yet this is one of the prettiest of our silver pieces. -After a few minutes he said, "It is corn, isn't it?" - -Hearing a note of surprise in his voice, I told him something about -corn-raising in this country. We then decided that it is a good thing to -represent corn on one of the United States coins, since it is a source -of much of our wealth. - -But aside from its value, Indian corn should interest us because it is a -wonderful plant. Boys and girls do not know much more about it than does -any old black crow. You have watched the farmer plant corn and you like -to eat it. Jim Crow has watched the farmer plant corn and he likes to -eat it, too. The time has come, however, when you can get ahead of him -if you care to; and to get ahead of crows on the corn question is worth -the while. Let me tell you how to do it. - -1. Secure a kernel of corn, cut it in halves, and note the food inside -it. This food was stored in the seed by the parent plant. Uncle John -would say that it is the "lunch" that the mother puts up for her -children. What must happen before the food can be used by the little -plant? - -2. Place some moist soil in a tumbler, and put a kernel of corn in it -near the side so that you can watch it grow. How soon does the root -appear? The leaves? How many leaves come up at one time? - -3. Ask your father to give you a small piece of ground in the garden. -Plant a few kernels of corn so that you will have some plants of your -own to study this summer. Other people's plants are never so interesting -as our own. - -4. As your corn plants push their way up into the light and air, watch -them every day. Notice how the new leaves are protected by the next -older ones. - -5. Is the stem hollow or solid? In which way would it be stronger? - -6. Notice the joints. Are they the same distance apart throughout the -length of the stem? Does the distance between the joints always remain -the same? Measure them some day; then in a week measure them again. - -7. Where does the stalk break most easily? - -8. Where does the leaf clasp the stalk? - -9. Notice how strong the leaf is. In what direction do the ribs extend? -If these long narrow leaves were not strong what would happen to them as -they wave back and forth in the wind? - -10. Have you ever noticed the ruffled edges of the leaves? As you bend -them you will see that the edges do not tear. - -11. There are two kinds of blossoms on a corn plant. The ear bears one -kind, the tassel the other. If you were to cut all the tassels from the -plants in your garden, the kernels would not grow on the ears. Later on -you will learn why. - -12. Watch the ear closely as it grows. - -13. Follow a thread of silk to the place where it is attached. Notice -whether there is one silk for each kernel. - -14. When the corn is in the milk stage it is preparing to store up food -for the young plants. How does it taste at this time? - -15. Look closely at the base of the corn stalk and you will see roots -extending obliquely into the soil. These are the brace roots. Of what -use do you think they are to the corn stalk? - - - - -LEAFLET LXI. - -IN THE CORN FIELDS.[79] - -BY ALICE G. McCLOSKEY. - -(Compare Leaflets XLII and XLIII.) - - -[79] Junior Naturalist Monthly, October, 1903. - -[Illustration] - -"Caw caw!" said Jim Crow as he flew over our heads. "Was he jeering at -us?" we wondered, the children and I. Perhaps he was inquisitive to know -what business we had in the open country and in the fields of corn. -Perhaps he was not concerned with us at all. Very likely crows are less -concerned with us than we think they are. - -Jim Crow flew on out of sight, but we stayed among the ripening corn. -The ears were filling out. The ends of the silk were turning brown. We -saw many things that we had planned to look for in vacation: the tall -stem, the brace roots, the long strong leaves and the way the ribs -extend in them, the ruffled edges of the leaves, the two kinds of -blossoms, and where each silken thread is attached. The whole story was -before us. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 315. Over the fields in corn-harvest time._] - -But this is the harvest time and we are ready to learn a new lesson from -the corn fields. As we watch them now let us answer the following -questions: - -1. How is the corn cut? - -2. How many ears do you find on a stalk? - -3. Are the ears on the same side of the stalk or on opposite sides? - -4. Take into the school room as many kinds of corn as you can find and -describe each as follows: - - a--The shape and color of the kernel. - b--Number of rows of kernels. - c--The number of kernels in each row. - -5. Perhaps the girls will pop some corn and bring it to the -Junior Naturalist Club meeting. Let them try to pop field corn. -Cut kernels in two of field corn and pop-corn, and report whether -they differ. Why does pop-corn pop? - -6. Make a list of the foods for which corn is used. - -7. Why are pumpkins planted among corn? - -8. Why not make for your school room some decorations from -ears of corn? - -[Illustration] - - - - -LEAFLET LXII. - -THE ALFALFA PLANT.[80] - -BY L. H. BAILEY and JOHN W. SPENCER. - -(Compare Leaflet XXXIV.) - - -[80] Junior Naturalist Monthly, October, 1904. - -[Illustration] - -All the things that the farmer sells are produced by plants and animals. -The animals live on the plants. It is important that we know what some -of these plants are. - -Some plants are grown for human food. Such are potato, wheat, apple, -lettuce. Some are grown only to feed to animals. Such are grasses and -clover,--plants that are made into hay. - -Hay is the most important crop in New York State. In fact, New York -leads all the States in the value of the hay and forage. This value is -more than 66 millions of dollars. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 316. Sprig of the alfalfa plant._] - -Hay is important in New York also because there are so many dairy cattle -in the State. There are more than one and one-half millions of dairy -cattle in New York. In the value of the milk and butter and cheese, New -York also leads all other States. There are also great numbers of beef -cattle, horses, mules, and sheep. All these millions of animals must be -supplied with hay in our long cold winters. - -Hay is made in New York State from grasses and clover. Suppose we could -find some plant that would yield twice as much hay as clover yields, and -yet be as nutritious,--you can readily see how valuable such a plant -would be to the State. It would be better than a gift of millions of -dollars. Such a plant is alfalfa. - -Now that you know something about alfalfa in a general way, I want you -to know how the plant looks and how it grows. It is not yet very well -known even among farmers, but its cultivation is increasing every year. -You will probably know where there are fields of it. Sometimes it grows -along roadsides as a weed. Last spring Uncle John offered to send a -small packet of alfalfa seeds to any Junior Naturalist who wrote for it. -He sent about 5,000 packets. But if you do not know the plant or cannot -find it, _write at once to Uncle John and he will send you some by mail -from the University farm_. - -Let us see how many school children in New York State will know what -alfalfa is between now and Thanksgiving time. When writing to Uncle John -about alfalfa, try to answer as many of the following questions as -possible from your own observation: - -1. Does the plant remind you of any other plant that you ever saw? Of -what? - -2. How does it grow,--straight up or spreading out on the ground? - -3. How many stalks come from one root? - -4. What are the leaves like? Mark out the shape with a pencil. - -5. What are the flowers like? Do you know any other flowers of similar -shape? What is the color? - -6. If possible, dig around a plant and describe how the root looks. Does -it branch into many fibres, as grass roots or corn roots do? - - -UNCLE JOHN'S LETTER ABOUT THE ALFALFA GARDENS. - -_My Dear Boys and Girls:_ - -Do you know much about the alfalfa plant? Do you remember that last -spring we promised to send a packet of seed to each of you who asked for -it? Did you send your name asking that you be served? We received the -names of several thousand children asking for seed and I am wondering -whether you are one of them. If so, did you sow the seed? Will you write -me a letter telling me what became of it? - -[Illustration: _Fig. 317. What leaf is this? Is it enlarged?_] - -[Illustration: _Fig. 318. Leaf of alfalfa. What significance have the -spots?_] - -[Illustration: _Fig. 319. Flowers of the alfalfa. Are they natural -size?_] - -[Illustration: _Fig. 320. Alfalfa pods. How much enlarged?_] - - -I am very fond of children's letters. Each year I receive more than -thirty thousand of them. I sometimes wonder whether there is another man -who is honored by so many letters from young people, for I count it an -honor to be so remembered. - -As large as that number is, I cannot spare one letter. I always want a -few more. All your letters are read and I take great pains to answer all -questions. If, by any oversight, you have been missed I am sorry. I know -what it costs a boy or girl to write a letter. I never open one without -feeling that the writer is a friend of mine, otherwise he would not have -expended so much hard work to write it. - -School has now begun and of course you are very busy, and so is your -teacher. One of the best opportunities to write letters is in school. -Please ask your teacher whether you may not write me during your -language period. You may say that she may make authors of all of you if -she can, but I will do all I can to help you become good letter writers. -Ask her whether a letter to me may not be a substitute for a -composition. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 321. Crown of the alfalfa plant, showing how root -and top start off._] - -In your letter you may tell me your experience with alfalfa. Tell me -your failures as well as your successes. Even though you received your -seeds and did not sow them, tell me that. I shall never find fault with -you for telling me the truth. If you sowed the seed and the plants did -not do well, tell me that also. The plants may look very small and -uninteresting to you this year, but next year they may surprise you. - -In some parts of the United States the alfalfa crop is of great value -and the loss of it would bring distress to many farmers. I am wondering -whether the crop, as raised in all parts of our country, is not worth -more money than all the gold found in the Klondike, taking the two year -by year. I do not know how that may be. I am wondering. Men by the -thousand have gone to the gold mines and endured many hardships and -later returned with less money than those who had remained at home and -took care of their alfalfa. - -It may be that a mine of wealth lies very near you, and to get it you -may have to ask alfalfa to find it and bring it to you. Gold cannot be -found in all places in a gold country and alfalfa may not feel -comfortable and grow in all parts of a good farming country. What we -asked of you last spring was that you become alfalfa prospectors and -later tell us what you found. - -JOHN W. SPENCER. - - - - -LEAFLET LXIII. - -THE RED SQUIRREL.[81] - -BY ALICE G. McCLOSKEY. - -(Compare Leaflet XLIX.) - -_The squirrel came running down a slanting bough, and as he stopped -twirling a nut, called out rather impudently, "Look here! just get a -snug-fitting fur coat and a pair of fur gloves like mine and you may -laugh at a northeast storm."_--THOREAU. - - -[81] Junior Naturalist Monthly, November, 1903. - -[Illustration] - -For a cheery companion give me the red squirrel! I enter the woods and -there the little fellow is, ready to welcome me. "What a fine day it is -for gathering nuts!" he seems to say, and straightway, as I listen to -his merry chatter, I think it is a fine day for any sport that includes -him and the brown November woods. - -Young naturalists may think it is a difficult thing to become acquainted -with red squirrels, but you will often find them willing to be sociable -if you show them a little kindness. I have many times watched two or -three squirrels playing about a friend as she sat in her garden. They -seemed to find her nearly as interesting as the old pine tree near by. -They are inquisitive animals. - -"How did you tame them?" I asked. - -"I fed them occasionally," she replied. "At first I put some nuts on the -grass several feet away from me. Then I gradually placed a tempting meal -nearer and nearer until the little fellows seemed to lose all fear of -me." - -If we care to, you and I, we can learn a great deal about red squirrels -before another year has passed. If you live on a farm you should know -the habits of all the wild creatures about you. You can then be just to -them, and decide whether or not you can afford to let them continue to -be tenants on your farm. You will find that all of them have interesting -lives. - - THE RED SQUIRREL. - - A. B. C. - - Just a tawny glimmer, - A dash of red and gray,-- - Is it a flitting shadow, - Or a sunbeam gone astray? - -[Illustration: _Fig. 322. In the haunts of the red squirrel._] - - It glances up a tree trunk, - And from some branch, I know - A little spy in ambush - Is measuring his foe. - - I hear his mocking chuckle; - In wrath he waxes bold, - And stays his pressing business - To scold and scold and scold. - -QUESTIONS ABOUT THE RED SQUIRREL. - -1. What is the color of the red squirrel? Is he really red? Is his -entire coat of one color? Does he wear different colors in winter and -summer? - -2. Did you ever see a red squirrel's nest? If so, describe it. - -3. Does the red squirrel hibernate; that is, does he sleep all winter as -the chipmunk does? - -4. What does a red squirrel eat? Did you ever see him getting the winged -seeds out of a pitch pine cone? - -5. Do you believe a squirrel ever planted an oak? Give a reason. - -6. If you live in the country, you have seen red squirrels running on -the rail fences. Why do they like rail fences? Do you see them so often -on other kinds of fences? - -7. Notice the tracks made in the snow in winter woods. Try to find -whether the red squirrel's is among them. - -8. If you know any other kinds of squirrels, tell how they differ from -the red squirrel. - - - - -LEAFLET LXIV. - -ROBIN.[82] - -BY L. H. BAILEY. - - -[82] Introduction printed in Junior Naturalist Monthly, March, 1901. - -[Illustration] - -The drifts along the fences are settling. The brooks are brimming full. -The open fields are bare. A warm knoll here and there is tinged with -green. A smell of earth is in the air. A shadow darts through the apple -tree: it is the robin! - -Robin! You and I were lovers when yet my years were few. We roamed the -fields and hills together. We explored the brook that ran up into the -great dark woods and away over the edge of the world. We knew the old -squirrel who lived in the maple tree. We heard the first frog peep. We -knew the minnows that lay under the mossy log. We knew how the cowslips -bloomed in the lushy swale. We heard the first soft roll of thunder in -the liquid April sky. - -Robin! The fields are yonder! You are my better self. I care not for the -birds of paradise; for whether here or there, I shall listen for your -carol in the apple tree. - - * * * * * - -Our lesson on robin shall be a lesson out of doors. We shall leave the -books behind. We shall see the bird. We shall watch him and make up our -minds what he is doing and why. We shall know robin better; and robin -lives in the fields. - -Perhaps you think you know robin. Suppose that one of your friends never -saw a robin; do you think you could close your eyes and describe him so -that your friend would know how the bird looks? - -Then tell me where robin builds its nest, and of what materials; and how -many eggs are laid and their color; and how long the mother bird sits; -and how long the fledglings remain in the nest. You can readily find a -family of robins in some near-by tree, or perhaps even on the porch; and -you can learn all these things without ever disturbing the birds. - -I want you to watch a bird build its nest. You may think that you know -how robin builds, but can you really tell me just how the bird carries -the mud, and where it finds the other materials, and how long the -building operation continues? Do both birds take part in the building? - -Then I want to know whether you can tell the difference between father -robin and mother robin. Did you ever notice whether robins that come -first in the spring have brighter breasts than those that come later? -And can you explain? - -Tell me, too, what robin does with his year. You know when he comes in -spring and when he builds and when the speckled young ones fly. But -where is he in summer and fall and winter? And what is he about all this -time? Does he build another nest and rear another family, or does he go -vacationing? And does he gather the same kind of food in spring and -summer? Does he gather cherries for his family or for himself? Did you -ever see robin in winter in New York? - -What can you tell me about the song of robin? Does he sing all the year? -Or does he have a different note for summer? Not one of you can tell how -many different notes and calls robin has. I sometimes think that robin -knows several languages. - -I have seen many more springs than you have seen: and yet I always wait -for robin on the lawn. I often wonder whether the same robins come back -to my lawn. They seem to go to business at once. They hop with the most -confident air, and day after day pull strings out of the ground. You -know what these strings are: but do you know how robin finds them? Is it -by smell, or sight, or feeling, or hearing? Do you suppose he is -listening when he cocks his head to one side and then to the other? Or -is he merely making motions? And I wonder whether birds and animals -usually make motions just for the sake of making them? - -I have asked you many questions, and not one of you can answer. Perhaps -I cannot answer. You ask, "What's the use?" If you can see robin, and -learn why, you can also learn other things. But I like robin just -because he is robin. - -There is one thing more. You will read about robin redbreast. Who is he? -Find out for me whether robin redbreast of Europe and of English poetry -is the same as our American bird. - - - - -LEAFLET LXV. - -CROWS.[83] - -BY ALICE G. McCLOSKEY. - -(Compare Leaflet XXIV.) - - -[83] Junior Naturalist Monthly, February, 1904. - -[Illustration] - -At a wigwam in the Adirondack Mountains a tame crow lives with a family -of Indians. These Indians make baskets of birch bark and other things -that they find out of doors, and sell them to visitors who spend their -summer in the mountains. The little crow helps in the business. He makes -himself so interesting to the passers-by that they stop to watch him. -The Indians then have an opportunity to show their baskets, and very -often sell them. - -But we need not go to the Adirondacks to find a crow that earns his -living. Mr. F. E. L. Beal, who has studied crows a long time, speaks of -them as valuable farm hands; and Neltje Blanchan says that they are as -much entitled to a share of the corn as the horse that plows it. This -may surprise boys and girls who have heard crows spoken of as thieves -and rascals. Let us look into their story so that we can find out for -ourselves whether to the farmer the crow is a friend or an enemy. - -_How Jim Crow does harm:_-- - -1. By killing toads, frogs, small snakes, and salamanders ("lizards"). -Why are these little creatures first rate farm hands? - -2. By pulling up sprouting corn. Some farmers prevent this by tarring -the corn. - -3. By stealing eggs, small chickens, and tiny birds. It is said that the -crow is rarely guilty of these wrongs. What do you know about it? - -_How Jim Crow does good:_-- - -4. By eating large numbers of insects: grasshoppers, caterpillars -(including army worms and cut worms), June bugs, and other insects. So -many insects does he devour that he earns more than he destroys. A half -bushel of corn scattered on a field is said to be sufficient in many -cases to prevent Jim Crow from pulling the growing corn. - -_To study crows:_-- - -Watch the crows to find out just what they do. Do you ever see them -flying in large numbers? If so, at what time of day do they fly? Where -are they going? Notice how they use their wings. - -Do they come from the same direction each morning? Would it not be a -great experience to make up a party and visit the place from which they -come? What do you think you would find there? - -[Illustration: _Fig. 323. Who's afraid!_] - -When you see crows feeding in a field try to learn what they are eating. - -You can often find crows' tracks in the snow. There the prints of their -feet and wings may be seen. What do you think interested the crows in -the snow-covered field? - -Determine whether the caw is always the same. Is it sometimes short, -sometimes long? Can you associate these differences with the actions of -the birds? - -I wish you would read John Hay's poem, "The Crows at Washington." - - - - -LEAFLET LXVI. - -A FRIENDLY LITTLE CHICKADEE.[84] - -BY ALICE G. MCCLOSKEY. - -(Compare Leaflet XXIV.) - - This scrap of valor just for play - Fronts the north wind in waistcoat gray. - - --EMERSON. - - -[84] Junior Naturalist Monthly, December, 1903. - -[Illustration] - -One cold December day a chickadee found himself alone in a wood. He -looked very much like other chickadees, a small, gray bird, wearing, as -someone has said, "a black hood with white side pieces and a black -vest." He was like others of his kin, too, in that he was a skillful -acrobat. He could stand right side up on a twig or cling to it upside -down--one position seemed as easy as the other. - -But I am not sure that this little chickadee was like his fellows in one -respect. I have wondered whether they are all as friendly as he. I shall -tell of something that he did, and leave it to young naturalists to find -out whether other chickadees will show as friendly a spirit. - -It happened on the cold December day when the chickadee was alone in the -"snow-choked wood" that a Senior Naturalist wandered along that way. -Whether or no the little bird knew that the tall man was there I cannot -say. At any rate, he called out "phoe-be," the plaintive little pipe of -two notes, clearer and sweeter than the real phoebe bird can make. The -tall man answered the call, whistling two notes as plaintive and sweet -as the chickadee's own. Again and again the whistle was repeated and -every time it was answered. Nearer and nearer came the fluffy midget, -until finally he alighted on a tree directly over the tall man's head. - -And then a remarkable thing happened! You will scarcely believe it, yet -it is true. Knowing how near the chickadee was, the tall man whistled -"phoe-be" very softly, and the little bird flew down and rested on his -arm. How pleased the Senior Naturalist must have felt when he had gained -the confidence of this wild bird! I wish that our boys and girls would -try to do the same thing and tell Uncle John whether the experiment is -successful. - - -STUDY OF A CHICKADEE IN WINTER. - -1. Keep a sharp lookout for chickadees. Can you tell one when you see -it? They are often with nuthatches and downy woodpeckers. If you tie a -piece of suet in a tree near your house these winter birds may visit -you. - -2. Listen to the notes of all the winter birds. Some day you will hear -one say "Chick-a-dee-dee-dee-dee." Then he may sing "phoe-be," and you -will try to imitate the notes. He may answer you. Tell us how near you -can get to one of these friendly little birds. - -3. Watch a chickadee searching for his breakfast on a twig. What kind of -a bill has he? What do you think he is finding to eat? - -4. If I lived on a farm I should have suet hung in my orchard to -encourage the chickadees to stay there. Can you tell why? - -5. Do you see chickadees in summer? Where are they then? - -6. If I were to ask you to find a deserted chickadee's nest, where would -you look? - - - - -LEAFLET LXVII. - -THE FAMILY OF WOODPECKERS.[85] - -BY ALICE G. MCCLOSKEY. - -(Compare Leaflet XXIV.) - - -[85] Junior Naturalist Monthly, January, March, April, and May, 1903. - -I. THE RED-HEADED WOODPECKER. - -[Illustration] - -The story goes that, once upon a time, a naturalist found a great many -grasshoppers wedged into an old fencepost. They were alive but could not -get away. Bye and bye their jailor appeared. He was neither somber nor -ugly, as you might suppose, but a merry red-headed woodpecker. With -never a thought of cruelty in his little red head, he had used the -fencepost as a cold-storage place, and had filled it with a good supply -of food. - -Now I am sure our boys and girls will ask, "Is this story true?" I -cannot say. The best way to decide whether it may be true is to study -the habits of a red-headed woodpecker. Do you think that we shall find -him capable of so clever a trick? - -The red-head is not uncommon. Keep on the lookout for him. His head, -neck, throat, and upper breast are red; the rest of his body is -blue-black and white. He is a handsome fellow, a bright bit of color in -wood, garden, orchard, or field. Let us see what we can learn about him. - - -SUGGESTIONS. - -1. Try to get a nearer view of any bird that you see sitting on a -telegraph pole or fencepost. It may be a red-headed woodpecker. - -2. Is this little fellow as good a drummer as his relatives? - -3. His mate likes his music. If she comes near, the better to hear him -drum, notice whether she has a red head. - -4. Do you find beech-nuts or other food stored in decayed trees? Under a -bit of raised bark? In cracks in bark? In gate posts? If so, a red-head -may be about. - -5. These woodpeckers eat more grasshoppers than any of the others. Find -out whether they eat them on the ground. - -6. Have you ever seen one fly into the air after a passing insect? - -[Illustration: _Fig. 324. The red-headed woodpecker._] - -7. Do red-headed woodpeckers ever visit your chicken yard? Watch them -closely and find out why they are there. - -8. Do you see them later in the year eating fruit on your farm? - -9. It has been found that they eat ants, wasps, beetles, bugs, -grasshoppers, crickets, moths, spiders, and caterpillars. If you find -them doing harm on your farm will you not compare it with the good they -do? - -10. What plants do they visit? - -11. Where is red-head's nest? - - -II. DOWNY WOODPECKER.--A LITTLE ORCHARD INSPECTOR.[86] - -[86] Junior Naturalist Monthly, January, 1903. - -Rap! rap! rap! the little inspector has come to look at our apple trees. -"You are welcome, downy woodpecker," say we every one. "Stay as long as -you like. We want to look at you closely so that we shall know you every -time we see you." - -A bird about three inches shorter than a robin, black above, white -below, white along the middle of the back, and the male red on the nape -of the neck: this is the way downy looks. A hardworking, useful, -sociable tenant of the farm: this is what downy is. - -Let us see how this little woodpecker is useful. If you live on a farm, -you have probably heard of borers--grubs that get into trees and injure -them. Your father does not like these grubs, but downy does. He seems to -like any kind of grub. Watch him on a tree sometimes when he is looking -for one. He knows where to find it, although neither you nor I might -suspect that an insect is living beneath the smooth bark. Then he bores -into the tree, and spears the grub with his long tongue. His tongue is a -remarkable weapon. He can stretch it two inches beyond the tip of his -bill, and it is barbed on both sides. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 325. Cocoons of the codlin-moth as they were found -attached to a piece of loose bark, natural size._] - -Downy does not stop work, you must remember, when borers are not plenty. -Beetles nibble no more plants after his eyes light on them. They are -trespassers, and as judge, jury, and executioner, he proves his right -to be considered a most useful farm hand. Ants, too, provide him with a -good meal occasionally. - -Among the helpful deeds of the downy woodpecker, we must not forget to -mention that he destroys great numbers of the larvæ or worms of the -codlin-moth in winter, when these worms have tucked themselves away in -the crevices of the bark, all wrapped in their cocoons. (Figs 325, 326.) -Perhaps your father has shown you these little cocoons along the body -and in the crotches of the apple tree. If not, you can find them -yourself. Open some of them and see whether the worm is still there. If -he is not, downy has probably taken him. I suppose you know that the -larvæ of the codlin-moth are the worms you find in apples. See Leaflet -LIII. - -You must not confound the downy woodpecker with that other woodpecker, -the sap-sucker, that often drills rings of holes in the trunks of apple -trees. The sapsucker has yellow on his under parts. I shall tell you -about him some other time. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 326. Pupæ of the codlin-moth in cocoons, -enlarged._] - -You have learned that insects and apple-scab and yourselves all try to -see who shall own the apple fruit. Now you know that birds, and insects -that feed on leaves and in the wood, are also concerned in this quarrel -about the apple. - - -A FEW THINGS TO OBSERVE. - -1. Does the downy woodpecker travel down a tree head first or does he -hop backward? - -2. Try some day to see his feet. You will find that two of his toes are -turned forward and two backward. Are there other birds that have this -arrangement of toes? - -[Illustration: _Fig. 327. The downy woodpecker._] - -3. Notice that he braces himself with his tail as he works. - -4. Do you ever see the downy woodpecker eat seeds of plants that the -farmers do not like to have on their land? - -5. Hang a bone or piece of unsalted suet out of doors for the -woodpeckers. They will enjoy an unexpected feast. - -6. Where does downy make his nest? - - -III. THE SAPSUCKER.[87] - -[87] Junior Naturalist Monthly, March, 1903. - -If you are walking through an orchard or wood and see a jolly little -woodpecker with red on its head, do not say at once that it is a -downy woodpecker. Look again. Has it yellow on the underparts, black on -the breast, a red throat, and red on the crown instead of on the nape? -Then it is a sapsucker, a new arrival. (Fig. 328.) It is larger than the -downy. The female has no red on the throat. - -And to think that such a merry little fellow has such a bad reputation -among farmer-folk! You will be surprised to find how unkindly -woodpeckers are treated throughout the country, because of the misdeeds -of the sapsucker. Even the downy has suffered much abuse. This is -unfortunate, for I am sure downy woodpeckers have done much more good -than sapsuckers have done harm. - -I wish that all Junior Naturalists would try to find out whether even -the sapsucker deserves all that has been said against him. He does harm -by boring holes in trees, but how much? Let us learn. As woodpeckers are -not shy, it is not difficult to get near them. I have stood within a few -feet of a sapsucker, and he did not mind a bit. He kept on boring holes -in a tree without a thought that any one might object. - -1. How many trees can you find that have holes bored by the sapsucker? - -2. How are the holes arranged; here and there on the trunk, or in rings -around it? Have you ever found a complete ring of holes? - -3. Keep a record of the months in which you find the sapsucker. - -4. Notice how the sap runs down into the holes that have been newly made -by a sapsucker. - -5. It is said that this woodpecker eats the inner bark of the tree as -well as the sap. What can you find out about this? - -[Illustration: _Fig. 328. The sapsucker. Compare this picture with that -of the downy woodpecker in Fig. 327._] - -6. Do you ever find insects near the holes made by the sapsucker? Do you -think he eats them? - -7. Find out where the sapsucker has his nest. - - -IV. THE FLICKER.[88] - -[88] Junior Naturalist Monthly, May, 1903. - -Three woodpeckers have been introduced to you in these leaflets: the -red-head, the hard working downy (Fig. 327), the sapsucker (Fig. 328). -There is one more that we ought to add to the list for summer study, -since he is very likely to cross our path,--the flicker (Fig. 329). - -[Illustration: _Fig. 329. The flicker._] - -This woodpecker has a great many names, probably because he lives -in a great many States. The most common are: flicker, highhole, -yellow-hammer, and golden-winged woodpecker. I like the name flicker -best of all. - -He is a good-sized bird, about two inches longer than a robin. His -colors are: brownish with black spots above, whitish spotted with black -underneath, a black crescent on the breast, and a scarlet crescent on -the back of the neck. When he flies you will notice two things: the rich -golden color of the inside of his wings, and the white patch on the back -just above the tail. - -Now, since he is a woodpecker, you will probably expect to find the -flicker in trees; but you are quite as likely to find him on the ground. -About half of his food consists of ants, and these he finds afield. He -also eats other insects, as well as a good deal of plant food. - -I hope that you will see a flicker this year and hear him call out, -"a-wick-a-wick-a-wick-a-wick-a-wick-a." Possibly some of you may find a -nest that these birds have dug out in an old apple tree. They do not -always make new nests, however, but live in the deserted homes of other -woodpeckers. - - -QUESTIONS. - -1. Has the flicker a straight bill like the downy woodpecker? - -2. Have you seen the flicker's mate? If so, in what way does she differ -from him in color or marking? - -3. Where does the flicker build its nest? What color are the eggs? - -4. Try to watch a flicker feeding its young. Describe. - -5. Do you know the call of the flicker? Can you imitate it, or write it -so that Uncle John can recognize it? - -6. Do flickers remain all winter? If not, when do they come? When do -they leave? - - - - -LEAFLET LXVIII. - -DESERTED BIRDS'-NESTS.[89] - -BY ALICE G. MCCLOSKEY. - - -[89] Junior Naturalist Monthly, February, 1901. - -[Illustration] - -There is a wagon trail which I like to follow; it is always a pleasant -walk. There is no foot path; so I do not think many people pass that -way. Perhaps this is why many little wild creatures of the field and -wood like to live there. I do not know any other place where the birds -sing so sweetly, where the wild flowers grow so thick, and where the -insects are so numerous. - -By the side of this road I found the little vireo's nest which you see -in the picture. It was about five feet from the ground, and hung near -the end of a long branch. It was interesting to find out what it was -made of,--grasses, strips of bark, hair, pine needles, plant fibres, and -bits of paper. On the outside were lichens and spiders' webs. The pieces -of paper were dropped along the way, I think, by the leader in a -cross-country run. Even the little vireos have an interest in the -outdoor sports of the college men. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 330. The vireo's nest._] - -One of the most interesting bird homes is the oriole's nest. Uncle John -will like to know whether you find one. The young orioles must have -happy times in their cradle, which hangs between the earth and the sky. - -Winter is the best time of year to hunt for birds' nests. It is hard to -find them in the spring and the summer. The parent birds intend it shall -be. If you succeed in getting a nest, take it into the school room so -that the other members of your club can study it with you. - - -SUGGESTIONS. - -Where did you find the nest? What is its size and shape? Name it, if you -can. - -Was it built on the horizontal crotch of the branch, or on an upright -crotch? - -How was it fastened to the branch? - -Notice the materials of which it is made. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 331. The hanging nest of the oriole. A cord is -woven into the nest._] - -In the oriole's nest you will see that there is a difference in the way -in which the upper and lower parts are made. What is it? - -How deep is the oriole's nest which you find? Compare the material on -the outside with that on the inside. - -How is the nest fastened to the twigs? - -Where does a catbird build its nest? Robin? Bluebird? Swallow? Hen? -Turkey? - -[Illustration: _What?_] - - - - -LEAFLET LXIX. - -THE POULTRY YARD: SOME THANKSGIVING LESSONS.[90] - -BY ALICE G. MCCLOSKEY and JAMES E. RICE. - - -[90] Extended from Junior Naturalist Monthly, November, 1902. - -[Illustration] - -A rosy-cheeked girl, a freckled-faced boy and a little bald-headed baby -were the only young persons at the Thanksgiving dinner. The baby was not -old enough to be invited, but we were so thankful to have her with us -that we could not resist drawing her chair up to the table. - -The turkey was a big one and "done to a turn." We old folks thought so, -the freckled-faced boy thought so, and the rosy-cheeked girl thought so. -The baby, so far as I could judge, thought not at all. She chewed -energetically on a spoon and left the discussion of the turkey to her -elders. - -Having known for a long time that children like to chatter, I decided -that I would give the little lad and lassie opposite me an opportunity -to talk about turkeys, ducks, chickens, and the like. "These," thought -I, "are good Thanksgiving topics, and a boy and girl who have lived on a -farm all their lives can tell me some interesting things about them." - -But this world is full of many strange surprises! It was not long before -I learned that those little folk could not answer some very simple -questions about poultry. They did not even know why a chicken does not -fall off the roost when it sleeps. To be sure, they could tell the exact -moment when, in the process of carving, the wish-bone would appear: but -you will admit that this is very little. I certainly was disappointed. -The bald-headed baby cheered things up a bit, however, by crowing -lustily. I rejoiced in the fact that apparently she had heard sounds -from the barn-yard. - -Now there are many reasons why children, Junior Naturalists especially, -should know something about poultry. It may be that you live on a farm -and will want to raise chickens, ducks, and turkeys some day; and the -farmer who knows his poultry best will be most successful in raising it. -But whether you live in country or city you will like to study these -interesting birds. Let us see what we can find out about them in the -next three or four weeks. November, the month of Thanksgiving, is a good -time to begin. - - -TURKEYS. - -Let us first pay our respects to the king of the poultry yard. We may -never know His Royal Highness, the old gobbler, very well, because it is -said he will not often permit folks to meet him on his own ground. I am -told that a visitor is more sure of a welcome within his domain if he -wear sombre garb. Although gaily dressed himself the old fellow objects -to bright colors on others. - -There is one thing that we can do if the gobbler does not let us near -him,--we can peek at him through the fence. Then, too, at Thanksgiving -time many a slain monarch will hang in a nearby market. Following are a -few suggestions that will help us to learn something about turkeys. I -hope that you know all these things now, and, therefore, will not need -to be asked. If you do, please write Uncle John. How many letters do you -think he will get from such persons? - -In the study of any bird, learn to describe it fully: the size, the -shape, the bill, the length of legs, the feet, and the color. Is there -more than one color of turkey? - -Observe the head, face and wattles of the turkey gobbler. - -Notice the strong, curved beak; the bright, clear, hazel eyes. - -How many colors does he wear? - -When the turkey is being prepared for the Thanksgiving dinner, ask -mother for the foot. Are there any feathers on it? Has it the same -number of toes that you find on a rooster's foot? Is the arrangement of -the toes the same? - -Perhaps you find scales on the legs of the turkey. Do you find them also -on hens' legs? On which side of the leg,--front or back--are the scales -the larger? - -When I was a little girl I liked to pull a tendon that I found in the -turkey's foot after it had been cut off. It was amusing to see the toes -curl up. I did not know then that when birds roost at night this tendon -is stretched as they bend their legs. Then the toes grasp the perch and -hold the bird on. When it stretches its leg to leave the roost the toes -spread out, but not until then Because of this birds can go to sleep -without the least fear of falling. What kind of perch do they choose, a -wide one or a narrow one? Why? - -Can you tell which is the hen turkey and which the gobbler? Explain. On -which one do you find a hairy tuft on the breast? - -Did you ever hear of the caruncle on the head of the turkey? Compare -this with the comb in domestic fowls. Does it differ in shape? Do ducks -and geese have combs? - -[Illustration: _Fig. 332. A turkey likes to roam through the fields._] - -What is the color of the turkey's face? Does it change color? Do you -notice any difference in color when the turkey is angry? What are the -turkey's wattles? - -Notice the fourth toe. Why is it placed in opposite direction to the -others? I wonder whether it enables the fowl to grip the perch; and -whether it gives the turkey a wide span for support in running over -loose brush. - -Turkeys and chickens and other animals have habits, as boys and girls -do, only that they are not bad habits. Did you ever watch turkeys -hunting grasshoppers? And did they go in flocks or alone? How do -chickens hunt,--in flocks or alone? Which roams farther from home, -turkeys or chickens? Do turkeys lay their eggs in the barn or poultry -house, as chickens do? Did you ever see a turkey's nest, and where was -it? - -We have Junior Naturalists in many parts of the world: England, -Scotland, Australia, Egypt. Will they have an opportunity to study -turkeys? See what you can find out in answer to this question. - - -A TIME-HONORED RACE--GEESE. - -Geese, as you know, come of a very distinguished race. This is no -advantage to them in a social way in the poultry yard, however. There is -not a duck nor a turkey nor even a wise rooster, that knows or cares -whether in times gone by geese saved a Roman city, or whether they were -recognized in ancient Egypt. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 333. Geese; "a very distinguished race."_] - -The story of the old gray goose was the one I liked best long ago,--the -goose that died before Aunt Nabby had enough feathers to make a bed. How -often you and I have listened to mother sing about her! And what an -inconsiderate old gray goose we thought she was, to die before the -feather bed was finished. - -Some things for Junior Naturalists to think about come into my mind in -connection with Aunt Nabby's goose and others of its kind: - -Why do goose feathers make the best beds? - -Do you think an old grandmother goose would give enough feathers in her -lifetime to make a good bed? I have heard of one that lived sixty years. - -Are feathers ever taken from live geese for beds? - -Compare the feathers of land-fowls and water-fowls. - -Probably one or more of our Junior Naturalists will have a goose for his -Thanksgiving dinner. If so, I wish that the wing feathers might be -brought to school. See whether you can find out why the wing feathers of -a goose were preferred for making quill pens. Make a pen if you can and -write a letter to Uncle John with it. The five outer wing feathers are -most useful for writing, and of these the second and third are best. -Why? Do you think that the Declaration of Independence was signed with a -quill pen? Do goose quills make good holders for artists' brushes? - -[Illustration: _Fig. 334. A happy family._] - -What kind of food do geese like best? - -Is the tongue of a goose similar to that of a turkey or chicken? - -Is the old gander as cross as the turkey gobbler? - -Have you ever seen a flock of wild geese flying northward or southward? -Which way are they going in the fall? Observe that nearly always they -keep their V-shaped ranks unbroken. There is, of course, a leader whose -call the flock follows. Whether the leader is some chosen member of the -number or whether he takes his position by chance I do not know. What -time of day do the wild geese fly? Do you like to hear them honking as -they go on their way? I wish you would find out whether our farmyard -geese are only these common wild geese tamed. - - -CHICKENS AND DUCKS; AND THE STORY OF TWO MOTHER HENS. - -One mother hen had her own brood of fluffy little chicks (Fig. 334). -When they were old enough they scratched for worms and ate gravel as -obediently as any one could desire. How happy they were underneath the -hemlocks in the long afternoons! - -[Illustration: _Fig. 335. Mother hen and baby ducks._] - -The other mother hen had to take care of ducks (Fig. 335). Pretty as any -chicks they were, but troublesome as only little ducks can be with a -nervous old hen for their adopted mother. The family in the picture -looks very contented. Do you suppose that the photographer told them to -look pleasant? When we come to know ducks and chickens better, we shall -learn why the little ducks are often such a trial to the hen mother. - -It may be that when we ask boys and girls to study chickens and ducks -they will say that there is nothing new to learn about them. I am not so -sure. The freckled-faced boy thought he knew all about them, too. Let us -see whether we can suggest some new things to think about, as you look -over the fence into the poultry yard, or watch the cook preparing a hen -or duck for the Thanksgiving dinner. - -As I looked at the chickens in a barn-yard the other day, I was -interested in the different kinds that I saw: some brown, some white, -some black, some speckled; some had feathers on their feet, others had -not; some had combs with many points, in others the comb was close to -the head; some had long tails, some short tails, some no tails at all to -speak of. If I were to name the differences that I noticed you would not -get through reading them in time to write your November dues. How many -unlike marks or characters can you find in chickens or ducks? - -Have you ever seen two chickens or two ducks exactly alike? - -Compare the feet of a hen and a duck. Their bills. Do you think that a -duck can scratch for worms? - -What do ducks eat? What kind of food do hens like best? - -How do a hen's feathers differ from a duck's? - -Note the scales on a hen's foot. Snakes have scales on their bodies, -too. Some day you may learn a wonderful story that these similar -features of hen and snake suggest. - -Touch a hen's eye lightly with a pencil. Does she cover it with a thin -eyelid? A turtle does this. Has a turtle scales also? If so, may be it -will come into the wonderful story connected with hens and snakes. - -Look closely at a hen's ear. - -Watch chickens as they make their toilet. A farmer told me that among -the tail feathers of barn-fowls there is an oil sac that they find -useful in cleaning their clothes. I wonder whether this is true? - -While I was watching some chickens the other day, I saw one jump up into -the air several times. She was a skillful little acrobat. What do you -think she was trying to catch? - -Watch the cook as she prepares a chicken or turkey for dinner. Find the -crop into which the food passes after it has been swallowed. From the -crop it passes on to the gizzard. Look closely at the gizzard. See what -strong muscles it has. It needs them to grind the grain and gravel -stones together. It is a very good mill, you see. - -Try to find out whether a duck has a crop and a gizzard. Do not ask any -one. Wait until there is to be a duck for dinner some day. Would you -suppose from the kind of food ducks eat that they need a crop and a -gizzard? - -Do little chickens have feathers when they are hatched? What is the -cover of their bodies called? Are they always of the same color when -they are hatched that they are when they are grown up? What kinds of -poultry change their color when their feathers grow? Notice the chickens -of Black Minorcas (if you know any one who has that kind), then write -Uncle John about their color. Did you ever see fowls without feathers? -When you go to the fair be sure to look for some "Silkies." Did you ever -see fowls whose feathers were all crinkled up toward their head? Look -for "Frizzles" when you go to the fair. - - -A LESSON ON EGGS. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 336. A coop of chickens._] - -What is the color of the turkey's egg? Do the first-laid turkey's eggs -differ in color from those that are laid later? How do these eggs differ -in color from the eggs of ducks, geese, and hens? Do eggs from different -breeds of hens differ in color? Do eggs from different kinds of poultry -differ in shape? Can you not make some drawings of eggs showing how they -differ, and send to Uncle John? Not one of you can tell how much a -turkey's egg weighs, nor a hen's egg. Do you think that eggs from all -kinds of hens weigh the same? And if they do not, do you think that they -are worth the same price the dozen? - -Did you ever look through an egg at a strong light? What did you see? -Was there an air space? Was it on the big end or the little end? Leave -the eggs in a dry room for a few days. Does the air space increase in -size? Boil an egg. Remove the shell carefully over the air space. Do you -notice a membrane? Are there two membranes? Boil an egg until it is very -hard; does the white of the egg separate in layers? Break the yoke -carefully; do you notice layers of light and dark color? Is there a -little soft light colored spot in the centre? Write to Uncle John and -ask him what this is. - - -SOME QUESTIONS IN GENERAL. - -How many varieties of fowls can you name? How do they differ in size and -color? - -[Illustration: _Fig. 337. What kind of hens are these?_] - -Have you ever seen ducks, geese, hens, and turkeys standing on the snow -or ice? If so, how did they behave? Which seemed to enjoy it? Why should -a duck or goose be able to swim in ice water without apparently -suffering from cold? When mother dresses a duck or goose for dinner, ask -her to let you see the layers of fat under the skin and inside the body. -Write to Uncle John and tell him what the fat in the body is for. Ask -him how this fat came in the body; also whether there is such a thing as -fat in the food which the ducks eat. - -Did you ever see hens and ducks out in the rain? Did they all enjoy it? -Did you ever see anything wetter than a wet hen? Why do they look so -disconsolate? - -Examine the feathers of different kinds of poultry. How do the feathers -of ducks, geese, turkeys and fowls differ? Try wetting the various -feathers, then let them dry out. Make drawings of these feathers, -showing, if you can, the different colors and shapes. - -Do turkeys think? Did you ever watch a turkey steal her nest? Where did -she go? How long did you watch her before you found the nest? Did she -cover up her eggs? With what? Why do they cover the eggs when they leave -the nest? Do ducks, geese, turkeys, and hens all cover their eggs? Why -do hens differ in this respect from the turkeys? Do all kinds of ducks -cover their eggs? - -Did you ever watch ducklings and little chickens eat? Did you notice any -difference in their appetites? Which grow faster, little chickens or -little ducks? - -Do you know that some hens do not pay their board? Sometimes hens eat -more than they are worth. It may be the fault of the hen or it may be -that she is not provided with the proper kind of food or given the -proper care. A hen cannot make eggs unless she has the proper kind of -food. Some persons so feed and handle their hens that they are able to -produce eggs for six cents the dozen; other persons expend more than a -dollar to get the dozen. - -How does the farmer make his money from fowls (that is, what kind of -products does he sell)? - -You should learn to classify chickens according to the uses for which -they are grown. (1) Some kinds of hens excel in egg-laying. These kinds -are known as the "egg breeds." One of the leading egg breeds is the -Leghorn. (2) Others produce much meat, and are known as the "meat -breeds," as the Brahma. (3) Others are fairly good fowls for both eggs -and meat, and are called "general-purpose breeds," of which Plymouth -Rock and Wyandotte are good examples. (4) Then there are "fancy breeds," -grown as pets or curiosities or as game birds. Now, try to find out -whether there are any general differences in form and looks to -distinguish one class of breeds from another. And find out whether -turkeys, geese, and ducks may be similarly classified. - - -HOW FRANK AND HENRY RAISED CHICKENS. - -Frank and Henry wanted to keep chickens all by themselves. They thought -they might sell the eggs and the fowls and get spending money. They knew -little about chickens, but then, it did not matter, for chickens will -take care of themselves. All there is to do is to give them corn and -water every day,--at least, so the boys thought. - -Both boys had a hard time the first year, but they kept at it. Frank -finally made a success. Henry lost money; his hens died or did not lay, -and he had to give up. One boy turned out to be a good farmer and the -other a poor farmer. You have seen such farmers living side by side. - -I will tell you why Frank succeeded. 1. He provided warm and pleasant -quarters for the chickens, so that the fowls were comfortable and -contented. 2. He learned to like the chickens, so that he spent many of -his extra hours watching them and caring for them. 3. He learned that -something more is required in feeding a hen than merely to satisfy her -appetite. Some kinds of food may be best for growing chicks and others -for laying hens. 4. He soon found that some hens lay more and larger -eggs than others, and he saved eggs from these hens for hatching. Henry -said that "eggs are eggs" and that there was "no sense in being so -fussy." 5. He learned that eggs and poultry sell best when they really -are best and when they are carefully cleaned and neatly packed. Frank -had learned the first lessons in good farming. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 338. At the drinking fountain._] - - - - -LEAFLET LXX. - -LITTLE HERMIT BROTHER.[91] - -BY ANNA BOTSFORD COMSTOCK. - - -[91] Nature-Study Quarterly, June, 1899. - -[Illustration] - -In far Thibet exists a class of Buddhist monks who are hermits and who -dwell in caves. I was told about these strange people by a Senior -Naturalist, who has spent his life going around the world and finding -the countries upon it as easily as you Junior Naturalists find the same -countries on the globe in the schoolroom. A real naturalist is never -contented with maps of places and pictures of things, but always desires -to see the places and things themselves. - -The Senior Naturalist told me that he found Thibet a dreary land -inhabited by queer people; and the hermit monks were the queerest of -all. Each one dwelt in his solitary cave, ate very little, and worked -not at all, but spent his time in thought. Could we read his thoughts we -should be none the wiser, since they are only mysterious thoughts about -mysterious things. - -Now it is a surprising fact that we have hermits of similar habits here -in America; only our hermits are little people who dress in a white garb -and live in cells underground; they also eat little and work not at all, -and probably meditate upon mysteries. However, they are equipped with -six legs while the monks of Thibet have only two, a difference of little -importance since neither hermit travels far from his cave. - - * * * * * - -There are in eight or nine counties in New York State places that may -surely expect visitors on certain years. The connection between these -guests and the hermits of Thibet may not seem very close at first sight; -but wait and see. - -The reason why these New York counties expect company is that they -entertained a large number of similar guests in 1882, 1865, 1848, 1831, -1814, in 1797, and probably at intervals of seventeen years long before -that; in 1797, however, was the first record made of the appearance of -these visitors. Every time they came they probably outstayed their -welcome; yet they had the good quality of allowing their hosts sixteen -years of rest between visits. - -In order that the Junior Naturalist may recognize these visitors I will -describe their methods of arrival. Sometime in the latter part of May or -in early June you may hear a great buzzing in some trees, as if there -were a thousand lilliputian buzz saws going at once. If you examine the -trees you will find on them many queer-looking insects, with black -bodies about an inch long, covered with transparent wings folded like a -roof. Naturally you will wonder how such great numbers of large insects -could appear one day when they were nowhere to be seen the day before. -But if you look at the ground beneath the trees you will find in it many -small holes. You will also find clinging to the trees many whitish -objects, which at first sight seem like pale, wingless insects, but -which on closer examination prove to be merely the cast skins of insects -(Fig. 339). These are the cowls and robes which our little American -hermits cast off after they come out of their underground cells, and -which they must shed before they can free their wings. Our little -American hermits we call the seventeen-year locusts. However, this name -is a most confusing one, since we also call our grasshoppers locusts, -and to them the name truly belongs. These seventeen-year locusts are -really cicadas, and they belong to a different order from the locusts. -The real locusts have mouth-parts formed for biting, while the cicadas -have mouth-parts grown together in the form of a tube, through which -they suck juices of plants. So we hope the Junior Naturalists will call -our little hermits by their right name, cicadas; and will not permit -them to be spoken of as locusts. - -In order that you may know the mysterious lives of these wonderful -insects, I will tell you the story of one of them. - - -THE STORY OF LITTLE HERMIT BROTHER, CICADA SEPTENDECIM. - -Once a cicada mother made with her ovipositor a little slit or cavity in -an oak twig, and in this slit placed in very neat order two rows of -eggs. Six weeks later there hatched from one of these eggs a pale, -lively little creature, that to the naked eye looked like a tiny white -ant. If, however, we could have examined him through a lens we should -have found him very different from an ant; for his two front legs were -shaped somewhat like lobsters' big claws, and instead of jaws like an -ant, he had simply a long beak that was hollow like a tube. After he -came out of his egg he ran about the tree and seemed interested for a -time in everything he saw. Then, suddenly, he went to the side of a limb -and deliberately fell off. To his little eyes the ground below was -invisible; so our small cicada showed great faith when he practically -jumped off the edge of his world into space. He was such a speck of a -creature that the breeze took him and lifted him gently down, as if he -were the petal of a flower; and he alighted on the earth unhurt and -probably much delighted with his sail through the air. At once he -commenced hunting for some little crevice in the earth; and when he -found it he went to the bottom of it and with his shovel-like fore-feet -began digging downward. I wonder if he stopped to give a last look at -sky, sunshine, and the beautiful green world before he bade them -good-bye for seventeen long years! If so, he did it hurriedly, for he -was intent upon reaching something to eat. This he finally found a short -distance below the surface of the ground, in the shape of a juicy -rootlet of the great tree above. Into this he inserted his beak and -began to take the sap as we take lemonade through a straw. He made a -little cell around himself and then he found existence quite blissful. -He ate very little and grew very slowly, and there was no perceptible -change in him for about a year; then he shed his skin for the first -time, and thus, insect-wise, grew larger. After a time he dug another -cell near another rootlet deeper in the ground; but he never exerted -himself more than was necessary to obtain the little food that he -needed. This idle life he found entirely satisfactory, and the days grew -into months and the months into years. Only six times in the seventeen -years did our hermit change his clothes, and this was each time a -necessity, since they had become too small. Judging from what the Senior -Naturalist told me, I think this is six times more than a Thibetan -hermit changes his clothes in the same length of time. - -What may be the meditations of a little hermit cicada during all these -years we cannot even imagine. If any of the Junior Naturalists ever find -out the secret they will be very popular indeed with the scientific men -called psychologists. However, if we may judge by actions, the sixteenth -summer after our hermit buried himself he began to feel stirring in his -bosom aspirations toward a higher life. He surely had no memory of the -beautiful world he had abandoned in his babyhood; but he became suddenly -possessed with a desire to climb upward, and began digging his way -toward the light. It might be a long journey through the hard earth; for -during the many years he may have reached the depth of nearly two feet. -He is now as industrious as he was shiftless before; and it takes him -only a few weeks to climb out of the depths into which he had fallen -through nearly seventeen years of inertia. If it should chance that he -reaches the surface of the ground before he is ready to enjoy life, he -hits upon a device for continuing his way upward without danger to -himself. Sometimes his fellows have been known to crawl out of their -burrows and seek safety under logs and sticks until the time came to -gain their wings. But this is a very dangerous proceeding, since in -forests there are many watchful eyes which belong to creatures who are -very fond of bits of soft, white meat. So our cicada, still a hermit, -may build him a tall cell out of mud above ground. How he builds this -"hut," "cone," or "turret" as it is variously called, we do not know; -but it is often two inches in height, and he keeps himself in the top of -it. Under ordinary circumstances our cicada would not build a hut, but -remain in his burrow. - -Finally there comes a fateful evening when, as soon as the sun has set, -he claws his way through the top of his mud turret or out of his burrow -and looks about him for further means of gratifying his ambitions to -climb. A bush, a tree, the highest thing within his range of vision, -attracts his attention and he hurries toward it. It may be he finds -himself in company with many of his kind hurrying toward the same goal, -but they are of no interest to him as yet. Like the youth in the famous -poem, "Excelsior" is his motto and he heeds no invitation to tarry. When -he reaches the highest place within his ken he places himself, probably -back downward, on some branch or twig, takes a firm hold with all his -six pairs of claws, and keeps very still for a time. Then his skeleton -nymph-skin breaks open at the back and there pushes out of it a strange -creature long and white, except for two black spots upon its back; on he -comes until only the tip of his body remains in the old nymph-skin; then -he reaches forward and grasps the twig with his soft new legs and pulls -himself entirely clear from the old hermit garb. At once his wings begin -to grow; at first they are mere pads on his back, but they soon expand -until they cover his body and are flat like those of a miller. The many -veins in the wings are white and he keeps the wings fluttering in order -that they may harden soon. If, in the moonlight of some June evening, a -Junior Naturalist should see a tree covered with cicadas at this stage -he would think it had suddenly blossomed into beautiful, white, -fluttering flowers. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 339. The cicada is full grown at last, and his -empty nymph skin is hanging to a branch._] - -[Illustration: _Fig. 340. The cicada's drum._] - -As the night wears on, the color of our hero changes and his wings -harden; until when the sun rises we behold him in the glory of a black -uniform with facings of orange and with beautiful glassy wings folded -roof-like above his body. (Fig. 339.) Great is the change wrought in his -appearance during this one marvelous night, and greater still the change -wrought in his habits! He is now no longer a hermit; there are thousands -of his kind about him, a fact which he realizes with great joy. So happy -is he that he feels as if he must burst if he does not find some -adequate means for expressing his happiness in this beautiful world of -sunshine. Then suddenly he finds in himself the means of expression and -bursts into song. Yet, it is not a song exactly, for he is a drummer -rather than a singer. On his body just behind each of his hind wings is -a kettle drum. The head to this drum is of parchment thrown into folds -and may be seen with a lens if you lift his wings and look closely. -(Fig. 340.) Instead of drum sticks he uses a pair of strong muscles to -throw the membranes into vibration and there is a complex arrangement of -cavities and sounding boards around these drum heads so that the noise -he gives off is a great one indeed for a fellow of his size. So fond is -he of making music that he has no time to eat or to do aught else but to -sound fanfares all the sunshiny day. He is not the only musician on the -tree; there are many others and they all join in a swelling chorus that -has been described as a roar like that made by the "rushing of a strong -wind through the trees." - -If our cicada could talk to one of you Junior Naturalists he would tell -you that there was a good reason for all this music. He would explain -that only the men of the cicada world possess drums and that the object -and reason of all their music is the entertainment of the lady cicadas, -who are not only very fond of this drumming, but are good critics of -cicada music as well. He would perhaps tell you also that he had his eye -on a certain graceful maiden perched on the leaf between him and the -sun; but she, on the other hand, seemed to give about equal attention to -him and three other drummers situated near by. Excited by the -competition and by her indifference, he rattled his drum faster and -faster until he rose to the heights of cicada melody and harmony that -left his rivals far behind. Then the lady of his choice listened -spellbound and pronounced him the greatest of all musicians, and thus he -won his bride. However, we may safely predict that their wedded life -will be too full of happiness to last. After a few weeks the sunshine, -the music, the happiness of wooing and winning will prove too much for -our hero and one day he will beat his drum in a last mad ecstacy and -fall to earth and die from happy exhaustion. His little wife may survive -him only long enough to cut slits in some of the twigs of the home tree -and place in them rows of eggs from which shall develop a family of -hermits which shall come forth and fill the world with their music -seventeen years hence. - - * * * * * - -There are many broods of cicadas in the United States, so that they -appear in different localities in different years. New York State has -five well-marked broods. - -There are several other species of cicada peculiar to America. One is -called _Cicada tredecim_, since it appears every thirteen years. -However, this species is limited to the South. - -The dog-day harvest fly, or lyreman, is the cicada that is best known to -us through the northern and middle States. This appears in small numbers -every year and is a distinct addition to the summer chorus of insect -singers. He is larger and much more dignified in appearance than is his -cousin _septendecim_. He wears a black suit embroidered with scrolls of -dark olive green and the whole lower surface of his body is covered with -white powder. His drums are situated above plates which may be seen on -the lower side of the body, one behind each hind leg. He hides in trees -and his shrill music is so associated with the heat of summer noons that -the sound itself makes one drowsy. The hermit life of the lyreman in -underground cells is supposed to last only two years. - -While the cicadas of which we have spoken are the children of an ancient -race which inhabits America, Europe also has her ancient races of -cicadas, although they are not the kind which live hermit lives for -seventeen years. We have evidence that their music was held in high -esteem by the ancient races of men--especially the Greeks. When Homer -complimented his orators he compared them with cicadas. Thus it may lend -a special interest to the study of the cicada by our Junior Naturalists -when they know that his kettle drums have been celebrated instruments of -music by poets who wrote three thousand years before America was -discovered by Columbus. - - -QUERIES FOR SHARP EYES. - -1. When did you first see one of the cicadas? - -2. What was it doing when you found it? - -3. Did it do anything to attract your notice to it, or did you find it -by accident? - -4. Where did you find it? - -5. See whether you can determine which are the father and which the -mother cicadas. - -6. Try to find where a mother cicada has laid eggs. - -7. If you find where the cicada emerged from the ground, or from a hut, -give a brief description of the location, as to kind of soil, etc. - -8. Where did you find the most of the cast-off nymph skins? - -9. Did you discover animals or birds feeding upon the cicada? - - - - -LEAFLET LXXI. - -A HOME FOR FRIENDLY LITTLE NEIGHBORS.[92] - -BY ALICE G. MCCLOSKEY. - -(Compare Leaflet XVII.) - - -[92] Junior Naturalist Monthly, October, 1902. - -[Illustration] - -Last year when vacation days were over our young people found it hard to -leave the acquaintances that they had made during the summer,--the -garden-folk, the road-side-folk, and the wood-folk. Let us take them -indoors with us this year. It will not be difficult to provide a home -for some of the more friendly ones and they will help to make the -schoolroom a cheerful place. How pleasant it will be in the long -afternoons to hear the cricket's merry tune or see the flutter of a -butterfly's wings! The quiet woods and the green fields will then seem -nearer and we shall feel a little touch of their mystery and beauty. - -It is not necessary to have a fine home for the outdoor-folk. They will -not object if it is not an up-to-date dwelling. Fig. 341 illustrates a -very convenient terrarium, as the home is called. The sides and top are -covered with fine wire screening and the front is glass. By raising the -cover, which is fastened to one side by means of hinges, new visitors -can be admitted easily. - -Another terrarium is shown in Fig. 126, page 208. This is made from an -old berry crate. It does not look quite so well as the other, but, as I -said before, the inmates will not mind a bit. The toads will give their -high jump as gracefully and the crickets fiddle as merrily as in the -finer one. - -When the terrarium is ready to furnish, you can have some nature-study -trips in search of materials for it. Cover the floor with stones and -place about three inches of good soil over them. Then you will be ready -to select the carpet. Let this be of soft green moss, the prettiest bits -that you can find on the forest floor. Leave one corner free for sods -on which tall grasses grow, so that there will be a cozy nook for the -orchestra (crickets, grasshoppers, katydids, and the like). What a fine -concert there will be! Will the most conceited toad in the terrarium -ever dare to raise his voice in song again after hearing it? Perhaps -next spring we shall know. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 341. A shower for the little neighbors._] - -Even before the home is completed, you can gather your small guests -about you. Temporary lodgings can be provided without much trouble. Fig. -342 illustrates a good insect cage, and a box containing damp moss and -covered with mosquito netting will make fairly comfortable quarters for -salamanders ("lizards") and toads. - -The first visitor that you welcome will probably be a little -woolly-bear, a brown and black caterpillar that you see so often in your -autumn walks (Fig. 343). He is one of my favorite insect friends, and I -really like to have him snuggle up in a furry ball in my hand. You will -find woolly-bear a very restless little creature. You never know what he -is going to do next. He may spin a cocoon this fall or "he may curl up -like a woodchuck," as Uncle John says, and sleep until spring. Then, if -all goes well, he will spin his cocoon and come out an Isabella -tiger-moth (Fig. 344). No matter how fast woolly-bear may be hurrying -along the highway when you meet him, put him into the terrarium, for you -will find that he is a most entertaining little fellow. - -If you have an insect net, sweep it among shrubs and weeds. I am hoping -that when you look into it you will find "golden-eyes" or the -lace-winged-fly. When you see the pretty little green creature you will -wonder that her children can be called aphis-lions, for they are not at -all like their mother (Fig. 345); but when you have watched them among -the aphids or plant-lice, you will understand how they have earned their -name. They have very long jaws and very large appetites. - -No one knows better than golden-eyes what her children are capable of -doing when on a foraging tour. For this reason she places her eggs high -on silken stalks (Fig. 345). If she laid them on the leaf close -together, the first aphis-lion hatched would not give the other members -of his family a chance to open their eyes, nor to know how pleasant it -is to live on a green leaf. As it is he walks down the silken stalk and -finds himself among the aphids. Then, when he has proved himself the -gardener's friend by devouring a great many of the small green insects, -he spins a pearly white cocoon and out of this comes a lace-winged-fly -with glistening golden eyes. If one of these dainty creatures comes to -live in your terrarium, you may notice some day that it has a -disagreeable odor. This is a characteristic that many insects possess, -and owing to it the birds do not like to eat them. - -There is another insect out in the garden that ought to be an inmate of -every terrarium this fall, the green cabbage-worm. Some Junior gardeners -will object to calling this a friendly little neighbor, but you will -find that he will teach you many new things, in this way proving himself -friendly to you as a naturalist. You must remember that these green -caterpillars did not know that you had planted the garden in which they -worked destruction. They did not know that you wanted to send the very -best cabbage to the State fair. They knew only that when they opened -their eyes they were on a green leaf and it was good to eat. - -Probably you will find the eggs of the cabbage butterfly on the under -side of the leaves. Then you can feed the young caterpillars when they -hatch. They will, of course, prefer cabbage leaves. If you miss them -some day, search in the terrarium for the chrysalids into which they -have changed. These chrysalids sometimes imitate the color of the -support from which they hang, and you may have difficulty in finding -them. For this reason it may be well to keep one of the caterpillars -under a lamp chimney, the top of which has been covered with mosquito -netting (Fig. 342), so that you may know how the chrysalids look. - -The cabbage butterflies are familiar to most boys and girls; yet as they -come out of the chrysalid state in your terrarium, you will be able to -observe them more closely. Notice that the wings are dull white on the -upper sides, while on the under side the apex of the fore wings and the -entire surface of the hind wings are pale lemon yellow. In the female -you will find that there are two black spots besides the tip on each of -the fore wings, and in the male there is but one. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 342. An insect cage._] - -Now that I have put you in the way to find a few members of the insect -world for your terrarium, I am going to ask you to think about some -other outdoor-folk that naturalists learn to like. - -Have you ever turned over stones or broken off pieces of an old stump in -the woods or along the bank of a stream? If so, you may have seen -salamanders ("lizards") making their escape as quickly as possible. If -you can get a few for your terrarium you will learn to like them, for -they are harmless and have very interesting ways. Do not catch them by -their tails as they try to get away, or you may find that you have -captured the tails but lost the salamanders. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 343. Woolly-bear, natural size._] - -Let the excursion in search of these little fellows be one of the -jolliest of the year. You will find them in moist places and should -therefore, carry a box containing damp moss to put them in. I would -suggest that you take two boxes along, one for the smaller salamanders, -the other for their larger brothers. Why? I will tell you. - -It happened this summer that a party of little folks went out with me on -a salamander hunt. We found three kinds: the _Spotted Salamander_, which -is black with yellow spots on each side of the back; the _Red-back -Salamander_, which usually has a reddish brown band along the back; and -a black one covered with whitish spots. This black one with whitish -spots was named "Freckles" by one of our number, a much more attractive -name than his own, which is _Pleth'-o-don glu-ti-no'-sus_. - -We placed the three in a box, and as I closed it the large spotted -salamander seemed very well satisfied (no wonder!), while the other two -raised their heads in a most appealing way. I was firm, however, and -made them prisoners, feeling sure that they would be comfortable in the -nice large terrarium. - -When morning came we opened the box, for we were ready to put our little -neighbors into their new home. What was our surprise to find the spotted -salamander alone! As to countenance he was well content; as to sides he -was much bulged out. Poor little "Freckles" and poor little Red Back! I -wish I had listened to your appeal! - -[Illustration: _Fig. 344. Isabella tiger moths, male and female. The red -and black woolly-bear is the larva or caterpillar of this moth. The -smaller moth is the male._] - - -SUGGESTIONS FOR STUDY. - -1. A terrarium is "an inclosed bit of earth on which things may live and -grow." Do not think that it is necessary to have one as well made at -first as that in the illustration. (Fig. 341.) Uncle John will be well -pleased to know that you have made some arrangement for having -outdoor-folk live in the schoolroom. Any such home will be a terrarium. - -2. Every one can have grasshoppers for study. How many different kinds -can you find? Do all have the feelers or antennæ the same length? -Observe the growth of the wings in the nymph, as the young grasshopper -is called. In the grown-up ones notice that the narrow wing is on the -outside and the pretty ones underneath. - -3. Every one can also find crickets, and no terrarium will be complete -without them. In the warm schoolroom or home they will make music until -late in the year. Watch the black cricket make music with his wings. - -Notice a tiny light speck near the elbow of the cricket's front leg. -This is the ear; so you see the little fellows "listen with their -elbows." - -The mother cricket has a spear at the end of her body. With this she -makes a hole in the ground in which to place her eggs. She cannot chirp, -but the father makes enough music for the family. You will see that the -mother seems to enjoy it. - -Plant fresh grass seed and grain occasionally in the cricket corner of -your terrarium. - -4. If you do not own an insect net, try to find a lace-winged fly -without one. It will not be difficult for young naturalists to see the -flies resting on the bushes along the roadside. These insects are -valuable to farmers because their children, the aphis-lions, eat so many -plant-lice and other insects. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 345. Golden-eyes or lace-winged fly; eggs, larva or -aphis-lion, cocoon, adult._] - -Look on the under side of the leaves for the cocoon illustrated in Fig. -345. It has the appearance of a small pearl. The first time I found one -I did not know what it was. I left it on my desk hoping that something -interesting would come out of it. The next morning there was a pretty -green insect trying to get out of the window and I wondered how it had -come there. While thinking about it my eye fell on the cocoon lying on -my desk. I noticed that a lid had been raised on it and suspected at -once how golden-eyes had found her way into my room. Who will succeed -in getting the eggs, an aphis-lion, a cocoon, or a lace-winged fly? Let -us know. - -5. The larger the number of butterflies you can bring into the -schoolroom, the gayer will be the terrarium world. Gather fresh thistles -or other flowers from which they can suck the nectar or give them -sweetened water in a dish. Notice their long mouth-parts as they eat. - -One of the most common of all butterflies is the large brown and black -one. This is called the monarch butterfly. Notice that many of these fly -together on autumn days. They are going south with the birds. - -6. Be sure to keep the moss damp for the salamanders and add -occasionally fresh pieces in which they will get food. Perhaps you can -teach them to eat raw meat after they have been with you awhile. - -7. The terrarium will not be complete without a toad or two. You can -feed them flies, other insects, and earthworms, and they may then leave -the salamanders alone. You need not be afraid to handle the toads for -_they cannot give you warts_. When they have been in the terrarium -awhile they will show you how they like to spend the winter. - -[Illustration: _A terrarium in School No. 23, Buffalo._] - - - - -LEAFLET LXXII. - -MOTHS AND BUTTERFLIES.[93] - -BY ALICE G. MCCLOSKEY. - - -[93] Junior Naturalist Monthly, March, 1902. - -[Illustration] - -Of all the insects that interest boys and girls, moths and butterflies -seem to hold the first place. I find, however, that young people are not -always able to distinguish these insects one from another, and do not -know very much of the strange lives they lead. Perhaps you may have -found out a few facts about them in books, but this is not _knowing_. To -know, one must see some of the wonderful things that they do. When you -have watched the whole life-story of a moth or butterfly, you will have -a far greater interest in these animals than their handsome wings and -graceful flight have ever given you. - -The most important thing to remember in the study of moths and -butterflies is that they appear in four different forms during their -lives. These forms are: - - _The egg._ _The larva._ _The pupa._ _The adult._ - - -THE EGGS. - -The eggs are laid singly or in clusters. They are usually found on the -plant which is the favorite food of the young. Look for the shining -masses of the eggs of the tent-caterpillar on apple and wild cherry -trees; also for the yellow eggs of potato beetles on potato leaves. - - -THE LARVA. - -The larva or "worm" hatches from the egg. During this period in its -history the insect _eats_ and _grows_. If you doubt that they have good -appetites, undertake to feed a few healthy caterpillars this spring. If -you doubt that they are particular as to the kind of food they have, -find out for yourselves whether the apple tree "worm" will eat -milk-weed leaves or whether the milk-weed caterpillar will eat leaves -taken from an apple tree. - -One of the most interesting things to notice in the study of larvæ or -caterpillars is that they occasionally appear in bright new coats, and -we find the old ones have been cast aside. It is necessity, not pride, -that leads them to do this. You see, an insect's skeleton is on the -outside of its body; and if it could not be shed once in a while how -would there be room for the little creature to grow? - -[Illustration: _Fig. 346. Chrys'-a-lids of the mourning-cloak -butterfly._] - - -THE PUPA. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 347. Cocoon of the cecropia moth. It is often -attached to the twig of a fruit tree._] - -Of all the forms in which moths and butterflies appear, the pupa is the -strangest. Although we speak of this period in the life of the insect as -one of rest or sleep, it is the time when the most wonderful changes -take place in its body. - -The queer little objects that you see illustrated in Fig. 346 are the -pupæ of the mourning-cloak butterfly. When the caterpillars were about -to shed their coats for the last time, they hung themselves head -downward from a twig by means of a silk button which they had spun. Then -they cast off their skins, leaving the chrysalids or naked pupæ hanging; -protected from birds by their spiny form and protected from many -enemies, even from young naturalists, by their wood-brown color which so -closely resembles the support from which they are suspended. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 348. The cecropia pupa inside the cocoon. Nearly -natural size._] - -Let us next look at the pupa of a moth. This is often inside a covering -which is called a cocoon. If you look on the fruit trees or shade trees -about your home you may find a cocoon of the ce-cró-pi-a moth. You will -see that it is made of silk. This covering was spun by the giant -silkworm as a protection against the storms of winter. How snug the pupa -is inside, and how firmly the cocoon is fastened to the twig on which -you found it! Figs. 347, 348, 349 show this interesting insect. - -When you are studying pupæ remember that butterflies do not come out of -cocoons. Their chrysalis or pupa is always uncovered. In the case of -moths, however, the pupa is either inside a cocoon or protected by being -underground or in some well sheltered place. These facts suggest a -question. Is there any reason why the one should be better fitted to -endure cold and storms than the other? - - -THE ADULT. - -We now come to the fourth period in the lives of moths and butterflies, -a period which has ever had and ever will have an interest for young and -old. Since there are many persons, little and big, who cannot -distinguish the two groups, butterflies and moths, let us learn the -marks by which they may be known. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 349. Cecropia moth just emerged from the cocoon, on -which it hangs. The moth comes from the pupa._] - -Butterflies have uncovered pupæ. They fly by day. The wings are folded -over the back when at rest. The antennæ or feelers have _knobs_ on the -ends. (Fig. 350 B.) The body is slender. - -Moths have pupae either inside cocoons or protected by being underground -or in some sheltered place. Many moths fly at night. The antennæ are -never knobbed. (Fig. 350 M M.) leave the wings spread when they are at -rest. The body is stout. - -Occasionally you may come across insects that very closely resemble -butterflies, yet have some characters that are similar to those of -moths. They are the skippers, so named because of their strong and rapid -flight. The antennæ have knobs, but these knobs are drawn out and turned -back in the form of a hook. (Fig. 350 S.) The body is rather stout. The -pupa is covered by a thin cocoon. In some species the wings are held -vertically, in others horizontally. - - -SUGGESTIONS FOR STUDY. - -Cocoons and butterfly chrysalids are very hard to find because they so -closely resemble the withered leaves that cling to shrubs and trees. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 350. Antennæ or feelers._] - -You will probably find cocoons of the ce-cro-pi-a and pro-mé-the-a -moths. The former, illustrated by Figs. 347 to 349, is commonly found on -fruit trees; the latter swings loosely from a branch of ash, wild -cherry, or lilac. The promethea cocoon is enfolded in a leaf which the -caterpillar fastened to a twig by means of silk before it spun the -cocoon. If you are rewarded for your search by finding some of these -winter homes, leave a few of them in a cool place and occasionally dip -them in water that they may not become too dry. Look at them carefully -from time to time and note any changes that take place. Following are a -few suggestions that will help you in the study of cocoons: - -1. Observe the covering of the pupa closely. Is it made of other -material beside silk? When the woolly-bear, that many of you have cared -for all winter, spins his cocoon, he will use some of his own hair as -well as silk. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 351. Luna moth and swallow-tail butterfly._] - -2. Open the cocoon. Is the pupa free from it? Are the threads of silk -woven in the same direction in all parts of the covering? - -3. Out of which end do you think the moth will come? - -4. Describe the inside of the cocoon. Do you find anything in it beside -the pupa? - -5. The cocoons of the Chinese silkworm are soaked in hot water or -softened by steam before the thread can be unwound. Put one of the -cocoons that you find in hot water and see whether you can unwind the -silk. I wish you could secure some cocoons of the real silkworm. - -Boys and girls often ask us what they shall feed moths and butterflies. -Many of the adult insects do not eat at all. Some, however, sip the -nectar of flowers or sap of trees. Oftentimes they will drink sweetened -water or the juice of fruit. If you have an opportunity, watch one while -it eats. Notice the long "tongue" through which it takes its food. This -is made of two pieces grooved on the inner side, and when held together -they form a tube. When the insect is not eating these mouth-parts are -coiled. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 352. The life-story of an insect, the forest tent -caterpillar. m, male moth; f, female; p, pupa; e, egg-ring recently -laid; g, hatched egg-ring; c, caterpillar. Moths and caterpillars are -natural size, and eggs and pupa are slightly enlarged._] - - - - -LEAFLET LXXIII. - -THE PAPER-MAKERS.[94] - -BY ALICE G. McCLOSKEY. - - -[94] Junior Naturalist Monthly, February and March, 1901. - -A CASTLE MADE OF PAPER. - -[Illustration] - -Many school rooms in the State have a hornet's nest which some boy or -girl has brought to show the teacher. It is usually hung on the wall or -used as an ornament on top of the bookcase. Let us take it down some day -this month and learn something about it. - -Do you think the nest can be called a castle? Why not? Look inside. Is -it not several stories high? Are there not spacious galleries in it? Is -it not as well guarded when the wasps are at home as if an army of -soldiers stood outside? - -[Illustration: _Fig. 353. The paper castle._] - -Let us see how this castle is built. You have heard that wasps were the -first paper makers. In the early summer you will see them around wood -that has been worn by the weather. They take off loose fibres and by -means of their mouth-parts work them into pulp. Can the rain get through -this paper? Find out whether it is waterproof. - -Some of the nests made by vespa (Fig. 353), as the hornets or -yellow-jackets are called, are very large. Do you think a wasp could -make one alone? No, these are social wasps; that is, a great many live -together. There are males, females, and workers. Some day we shall tell -you how the wasps form their colony, but for this lesson we want you to -study the nest. - -Notice the envelope which covers the cells. How many layers of paper are -there in it? We might call each layer a clapboard. - -Can you see any difference in the direction of the outside layers on top -of the nest and those which are below? - -[Illustration: _Fig. 354. Interior arrangement of white-faced hornet's -nest._] - -How many stories high is the nest? - -Note the difference in the size of the stories. Where do you find the -smallest? - -Count the rooms or cells in each. - -You know, of course, that an egg is placed in each cell. When the larvæ, -as the young of the wasps are called, are hatched, they still live in -the cells. - -How do they manage to keep in their cells? You see the nest is really -turned upside down. Their little heads must hang where the worker wasps -can feed them easily. I wonder whether you can tell me why the young -wasps do not fall out? - -The workers chew all the food which they give the little ones. When in -summer you see hornets about your flower beds or feeding on other -insects, it may be that they are preparing breakfast for the young. -Notice the flowers which they visit. - - -POLISTES, THE PAPER-MAKER. - -In the previous lesson I spoke of vespa wasps that make homes of paper. -You learned that they bite off pieces of weather-worn wood with their -jaws and chew it until it is made into pulp. Were you interested in -these social wasps? If so, you may like to hear about another member of -the same family. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 355. Home of polistes, the paper-maker._] - -Hiding in some crevice about your house or the school building there is -probably a wasp which naturalists call po-lis´-tes. She has been there -ever since the cold weather came. In the spring you may see her tearing -off pieces of wood from some unpainted building or weather-worn fence. -Let us see what she is going to do. - -This wasp is the founder of a colony. The first thing she does is to -select a place for her home. Then she makes a few cells--only a few, for -she has no help. When you find a nest like the one in the picture (Fig. -355), you will see how the comb is fastened to the roof or to a tree or -to the under side of a stone. - -As soon as the cells are completed, the mother lays an egg in each. From -these eggs little grubs or larvæ are hatched. They are fed by the mother -until they become pupæ. The cells are sealed over while the wasps are in -the pupa state. They have to break open the seals before they can come -out. - -All members of the first brood are workers. As soon as they are hatched -the mother has nothing to do but to provide eggs. They clean out the -cells in which they passed their early days; they make additions to the -nests; they take care of the young. Do you remember how the vespa -workers prepared food for the larvæ in their colony and what they fed -them? The young polistes are cared for in the same way. - -You may see the workers flying about in your garden this summer, getting -the sweets from the various flowers that you have planted. You will know -why they are so busy through the long sunny days. You will think of the -hungry little wasps waiting for their dinner. You will wonder whether -they put their heads out of the cells when the workers feed them. - - -NEST OF POLISTES. - -1. Compare the nest of polistes with that of vespa. - -2. In what ways do they differ? - -3. Where did you find the nest? - -4. How was it held in place? - -5. How many cells are there in it? - -6. Notice the pieces of the seals which still remain on the nest. Tell -us whether they are made of the same material as the cells. Of what -utility are the seals? - - - - -LEAFLET LXXIV. - -SOME CARPENTER ANTS AND THEIR KIN.[95] - -BY ALICE G. McCLOSKEY. - -(Compare Leaflet XXI.) - - -[95] Junior Naturalist Monthly, October, 1903. - -[Illustration] - -One bright August morning, as we were walking along the edge of a wood, -we found an old tree trunk lying on the ground. I am sure it had been -there a long time. Large pieces of bark were loose enough to be lifted -up; being naturalists, we took advantage of this fact to see whether -anything was living underneath. - -What queer little outdoor folk we found: "thousand-legged worms," -sow-bugs, a black beetle that looked as if its back were made of -patent-leather, and best of all a colony of ants! These ants were large -black ones known as carpenter ants. They had made very comfortable -quarters in this old log. How alarmed they were when we so rudely -exposed them to the light! - -One brave ant impressed me more than any other member of the colony. I -wish that all of our girls and boys might have seen it. With my knife I -commenced to cut down the wall of one of the rooms to see what was -inside. The soldier-like ant stood near and, instead of running away, it -attacked the large steel blade with its jaws. Was not that a brave thing -to do? Are you surprised that I closed the knife and put it into my -pocket? - -During all this time there was great commotion in the colony. The worker -ants were scurrying off with the younger members of the family, trying -to find a safe place for them. Some of these little brothers and sisters -were tiny white legless creatures; some were covered up in what looked -like little bags; others were ghost-like things, very white and -apparently lifeless. - -Now before you can understand what is going on in an ant's nest, you -must know four things: - -1. The white oblong eggs are very small. You will not see them readily. - -2. The little legless creatures, or larvæ, hatch from the eggs and are -fed by the workers. Mrs. Comstock says that an ant larva looks like a -crook-neck squash. - -3. The larvæ either spin cocoons or rest awhile without any covering -before they become fully grown ants. In their resting form they are -called pupæ. Children usually think the little sack-like pupæ are the -eggs. - -4. The fully grown ants come from the pupæ. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 356. Making a home for ants._] - -We want every Junior Naturalist Club to have an ant's nest in the school -room and to observe the following: - -In time of danger do the ants look to their own safety first? - -Watch the workers feed and clean the young. - -Try to see an ant help a younger relative out of the pupa skin. - -Notice how many uses the ants seem to have for their antennæ or feelers. - -Has it ever seemed to you that ants carry on a conversation when they -meet? - -See how many different kinds of ants you can find out-of-doors, Tell us -about their homes. - - -HOW TO MAKE AN ANT'S NEST. - -In the illustration (Fig. 356) you will see an ant's nest. For this kind -of nest you will need a plank, near the outside edge of which is a deep -groove. The plank should be painted; can you tell why? In the center use -two pieces of glass laid flat and separated by narrow sticks along each -side, so that they are about one-eighth of an inch apart. The sticks -should not come close together at one corner. This leaves a little -doorway for the ants. Cover the top glass with black paper or cloth so -that the space between the two pieces of glass may seem a nice, dark, -safe room in which ants may live. It will be a good thing to keep a -small piece of damp blotting paper in one corner of this room in case -the workers want a moist place for the young ones. Fill the groove in -the plank with water and the nest is ready. - -The best ant colony to take indoors is the one that you find under -stones in a pasture. With a trowel lift up the ants, pupæ, larvæ, and -sand and put the contents carefully into a pint can. When you reach the -schoolroom put the contents of the can on the plank and watch what -happens. If the ants do not find the room you have made for them, place -a few larvae and pupæ within it. They will probably find them. - -Do not neglect to provide food for the colony. Ants like to eat cracker -soaked in sweetened water, bread, cake, berry jams, sugar, bits of raw -meat, yolk of hard-boiled egg, and custard. - -[Illustration: _Junior naturalist museum in the school. District No. 2, -Sheridan, N. Y._] - - - - -LEAFLET LXXV. - -A GARDEN ALL YOUR OWN.[96] - -BY JOHN W. SPENCER. - - -[96] Junior Naturalist Monthly, May, 1904. - -MY DEAR NEPHEWS AND NIECES: - -[Illustration] - -Would you like to have a garden this summer--a garden all your very own? -If so, you can surely have one. A man up in a balloon could have one if -he were to try; a man living down in a coal mine could not, because -there would be no sunlight. Plants must have light from the sun, which -is the vital source of all light. I consider that anyone who cares for a -plant, growing either in a window box or in a tomato can, has a garden. -Yes; a plant growing in an eggshell constitutes a garden. - - -A LITTLE GIRL'S GARDEN. - -Near my desk is a picture of a little girl, holding in her arms a big -pumpkin that she raised in a garden all her own. I do not know how many -pies could have been made from that pumpkin, but, at any rate, it was a -big pumpkin. The seed from which the vine started was planted in an -egg-shell in the school-room. When the bright May days came the -egg-shell had become too small for the plant or the plant had become too -large for the egg-shell, so the little girl planted it in the open -ground at her home. She must have been a tiny girl or the soil in her -garden must have been very hard, for without help she was unable to -spade it and make it fine. She hired her father to do it for her and -paid him by carrying his dinner every day for a week to the shop where -he worked. When lunch time came, papa and she had a little picnic all by -themselves. There is no prettier picture than is made by such strong -comradeship between a little girl and her father. - - -MAKE A BARGAIN WITH YOUR TEACHER. - -I hope your teacher will permit you to have some boxes of earth (I mean -_soil_) in the windows of your school-room, in which you may plant -flower or vegetable seeds. In early June, just before the close of -school, you can divide the plants among yourselves and set them out in -the open ground or in window boxes at your home. Ask your teacher -whether you may have such a privilege. Promise that if she will grant -this favor you will be just as good as the "little girl who had a little -curl that hung in the middle of her fore-head," and if at any time you -become "horrid" the teacher may give your share of the plants to some -one better behaved than yourself. If she is a wise teacher she will -consent, but not until she has made a bargain with you that you are to -do all the work and to ask nothing from her but advice when you need it. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 357. Sweet peas._] - - -A PLANT NURSERY. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 358. A nest of window pots._] - -Your first garden should be in a shallow box, called a "flat," which you -may consider a kind of nursery for the plants. Let this nursery, or -cradle, be as long and as wide as a soap box, and not more than three or -four inches deep. You can make a "flat," as gardeners do, by sawing a -soap box in two. In the bottom of the box make some small auger holes -for drainage. Some of you may be so fortunate as to be able to gather -from the woods and fields the material for fitting up the flat. Some -moss,--say about an inch of it,--should first be laid in the bottom. -When moss cannot be found, use stones or pieces of broken pottery to -cover the drainage holes. This is to prevent the soil from washing -through. The remainder of the flat should be filled with good woods -earth. Pack the soil firmly. Fill the flat not even full, but to within -half an inch of the top. Those who cannot go to the fields must get the -best garden soil to be found. A few children may be unable to get even -garden soil. They will be obliged to go to the florist's for soil, as -they must do when they fill their window boxes. Because of the frequent -waterings required by all plants growing in boxes, it is important to -get soil that is not sticky and that will not pack hard. - - -SOWING THE SEED. - -When the time comes for the sowing of seeds, you had better ask your -teacher to look over your shoulder to see that you do it correctly. In -sowing, put the seeds in straight rows. These rows may be made by -denting the soil with the sharp edge of a stick or ruler. Let the rows -extend the entire width of the flat. Into the dent, drop the seeds at -regular intervals. If any seeds drop outside of the dent, gently push -them into place with a toothpick. Half a dozen rows of one variety of -flowers or vegetables having small seeds will give a large number of -plants. One flat may accommodate a number of varieties. - -At the point where one variety stops and another begins, a neat label of -wood should be stuck. This affords a good chance for a boy to bring his -new jack-knife into use. On the label should be written the name of each -variety. This will give an excellent opportunity for one who writes a -good vertical hand to make himself useful. Begin at the very top of the -label and write towards the lower end; then if the lower part of the -label rots off or becomes discolored, you will still have the first and -most important part of the name left. The label should never be -disturbed, for a careless boy or girl might not put it back into the -exact place where it was found, which would be indeed unfortunate. The -Smiths and Joneses of that plant community would become so mixed that -the Joneses would be called Smiths and the Smiths would be known as -Joneses. It would be as bad as changing door-plates. - -When the seeds have been evenly distributed in rows like houses along a -street there comes another very important step,--the covering of the -seeds. If seeds are covered too deep they will rot because of too much -moisture; if the covering is too thin, the soil will dry so rapidly that -the seeds will fail because of insufficient moisture. The size of the -seed usually determines the amount of covering necessary. As a broad -general rule, the soil covering should be about four times the thickness -of the seed. - -Having been covered, the earth must be thoroughly watered. This must be -done gently and carefully. If done with a rush, the water will wash the -covering away and many of the seeds will be left bare. Whenever such an -accident occurs, the seed may be pushed into the soil with a toothpick. -At most times when watering, continue to apply the water until it just -begins to drain through the bottom of the flat. This should be -practiced even after the seeds have germinated and become growing -plants. Keep the flats shaded until the plants begin to push their heads -through the soil. After this time strong light should gradually be given -them that the plants may not become tall and spindling, or "leggy," as -gardeners say. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 359. Transplanted into a pot._] - -If the seed boxes are in a sunny or windy place, the soil may dry out -too rapidly. This can be prevented by laying a newspaper over the flat -when the sun strikes it. As the plantlets grow, care must be taken not -to shade them too much. - - -A PLANT KINDERGARTEN. - -In some plants the first leaves are called the "seed-leaves," and, like -children's milk teeth, soon disappear. The next set are the true leaves. -After the true leaves appear, if the plants seem crowded and -uncomfortable, like three boys trying to sleep in a narrow bed, -transplant them into other flats prepared similarly to the one into -which the seeds were sown. You may think of this as the promotion of the -young plants from the cradle to the kindergarten. Here the plants should -be placed about an inch from each other, in squares. Wet the plants -thoroughly before taking them up and also the soil into which they are -to make their second home. After this is done, the soil should be -pressed firmly about the roots, as you snuggle the bedclothes about your -neck on a cold winter's night. It is entertaining practice to transplant -the plants into pots, if you happen to have any florist's pots of small -size. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 360. A soap box put to use._] - -This transplanting of plants in the school-room gives a quiet occupation -to boys and girls who for a time may not be engaged in study. The -disobedient child or the would-be "smart" one might better be denied -the privilege. I say "privilege," because the wise teacher will make -window gardening a privilege and not required work. After the -transplanting has been completed and the plants thoroughly soaked with -water, they must be shaded for about twenty-four hours, after which they -had better receive the strong light once more, when they will resume -their growth. - - -PLANTS NEED WATER. - -If plants could feel and talk, they would tell of periods when they had -endured great suffering because of thirst: suffering as great as that -sometimes experienced by travelers in crossing a desert. Often it has -been so great as almost to ruin a plant's constitution. I am often -asked, "How frequently shall I water plants?" It is as difficult to give -a fixed rule for watering as to determine how often a boy should be -allowed a drink. During cool cloudy weather, plants do not require as -much water as when the sun shines bright and hot on them. I can give no -better general direction than this:--water plants when the surface of -the soil seems dry and powder-like, when a pinch of it rolled between -the thumb and finger does not form a little ball. Under conditions in -which the drainage is good, plants should receive water until the -surplus begins to trickle out of the holes at the bottom. If you follow -these directions carefully, your schoolroom garden should afford a good -lot of plants for cultivation at home in the open ground or in boxes. - - -WHAT YOU MAY PLANT. - -As to the kind of seeds to sow, you must be governed by what you most -desire to have in your home garden for summer cultivation. If you are -able to have a garden in the open ground, I would have you make a -selection of both flowers and vegetables. Do not choose a large variety -of either, for children are but little men and women and must shape -their tasks to fit their shoulders. It would be better to have a garden -the size of a horse blanket and have it in good condition all summer -than to have a larger one and allow it to become a wilderness of weeds. - -In the vegetable line, you can have radishes and lettuce that may be -harvested by the Fourth of July. After the first crop has been removed -the ground should be spaded and wax beans planted in rows about eighteen -inches apart and the beans six inches apart in the rows. These give the -juiciest of pods, excellent for pickling. Kings and princes could have -none better. This plan gives you two crops from the same ground in one -summer. Plant radishes in rows twelve inches apart and about two inches -apart in the row. Pull them for the table when the roots are -three-quarters of an inch or a little more in diameter. Set lettuce -about three inches apart in the row, which is twice or more as thick as -the plants should be when full grown. When half grown or more every -other plant may be pulled out for table use and the remaining ones will -soon fill the vacancies. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 361. A window-garden of one's own._] - -In suggesting your selection of flowers, I shall mention but a few. I -have chosen the following kinds because they are not too particular or -exacting as to care, while some are equally well adapted for cultivation -either in the open ground or in window boxes. I hope you will include -sweet peas, dahlias, and gladioli in your selection. I have not named -them in this list because they are not suitable for planting in flats, -but are planted directly in the open ground where they are to spend -their lives. Gladioli and most dahlias you will not raise from seeds. - -The following is a list from which you may make a selection for planting -in your school-room, to divide later with your mates for home -planting:-- - - Petunia } - Nasturtium } Suitable for planting either in - Sweet Alyssum } window boxes or in the open ground. - Mignonette } - - Bachelor's Button } - Salvia (Flowering Sage) } - Phlox } To be planted in - Aster } the open ground. - Marigold } - Candytuft } - -[Illustration: _Fig. 362. Plan of the improvement of the school ground, -shown in Fig. 365._] - - -MAKE A GARDEN IN A BOX. - -There is no reason why you cannot have a window-box as attractive as the -one shown in Fig. 361. Plants will grow as well for you as for the -richest or the greatest man of whom you ever heard. All they require is -to be made comfortable. The two things most necessary for their comfort -are water as often as they need it, and fertile soil that will not -become hard from frequent watering. Plants in boxes need water much -oftener than those in the open ground. I once knew of a window-box on a -tin roof on the south side of the house that was watered morning, noon, -and night. Those plants must have been comfortable, for they made -thrifty growth. - -When you have learned how to make plants comfortable in a flat, you will -know what is necessary for their comfort in a window-box. They should -have the same kind of earth, but more of it. The box should never be -less than eight inches wide and eight inches deep and as long as you can -afford to fill with earth and plants. There must be holes in the bottom -for drainage, and moss or small stones placed over the holes to prevent -the soil from washing away. - -The plants should be set four to six inches apart in the box. At first, -this will seem too great a distance, but after a few weeks of growth, -the plants will cover all bare spots. When transplanting either to -window-boxes or to the open ground, do it the same way as when changing -plants from the cradle flat to the kindergarten flat. - -I know of a brother and a sister who found enough soil to fill some -egg-shells. The shells had small drainage holes in the bottom. In time -the plants grew and became too large for the egg-shells. Then the -children went in search of more soil. They found enough to fill a few -tomato cans. These cans also had drainage holes in the bottom. In each -can they set a plant. They then put the cans into a soap box. Then they -packed excelsior into all the vacant places in the soapbox. The -excelsior helped to hold the moisture. The box stood on a back veranda -where the plants had plenty of sunshine. So long as they were -comfortable they did their best, which is as much as they could have -done if they had been in expensive vases in the grounds of the White -House at Washington. - - -CONSIDER YOUR SCHOOL GROUNDS. - -On the last page of this leaflet are two pictures of a school-house. The -first shows how it looked when it had not a friend. The second shows -what the friendship of the teacher and the children could do for it. In -both cases the building remains the same. Look at one picture and then -at the other. See, if you can, what one thing has been done to make the -difference--a difference as great as that between a tramp and a -gentleman. A few shrubs have been planted by the friends, but the -greatest thing they did was to clean up. They took away everything that -looked untidy and shabby. - -At this time of the year you see many beautiful crocuses, tulips, -daffodils, and hyacinths. Nothing children can plant will give so much -for the labor as these bulbs. Why not have some on the school grounds? -When school begins next September, write me for directions how to grow -them. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 363. Product of a child's garden._] - -[Illustration: _Fig. 364. School premises before improving._] - -[Illustration: _Fig. 365. School premises after improving._ - -_Could you not do as much for your school grounds?_] - - - - -LEAFLET LXXVI. - -THE GARDENS AND THE SCHOOL GROUNDS.[97] - -BY JOHN W. SPENCER. - - -[97] Junior Naturalist Monthly, June, 1903. - -MY DEAR BOYS AND GIRLS: - -[Illustration] - -Of course you believe that Columbus discovered America, even though you -were not with him. If you had been on the deck of his ship when San -Salvador raised its head on the rim of the sea, you would be talking -about it every day of your life. As it is, your knowledge comes to you -through books, and you think you are fortunate if you are able to answer -questions correctly on examination. This leads me to remark that there -is much more interest in things that we have helped to "make happen" -than in things that we read about and that were "made to happen" by some -one else. - -There is a chance for each of you boys and girls, in a way, to become a -Columbus. It is true that, not counting the north and south poles, all -the continents are discovered, but there is much pleasure and "fun" in -discovering facts. I am now speaking from experience. I think that James -Buchanan was President when I learned, in such a way that I could -explain to others, the principles of a suction-pump. Some of the -suggestions led me to make a squirt gun from a bit of elder stalk. -Sometimes when I made a demonstration the water would fly in the faces -of my audience. I started a squirt gun factory, but the teacher stopped -the enterprise because it made too much litter in the school-room. - -I have a suggestion that will start you on a voyage of discovery. When -you have gone as far as you can I wish you would write me, telling what -you have learned. Writers of agricultural books sometimes use the -expression, "There is fertility in tillage." Is that true? - -By fertility is meant the power of the soil to furnish plant-food. -Fertile soil is "rich" soil. By tillage is meant frequent stirring of -the soil. For example, Billy Boy and his chum each have a flower garden -side by side of equal size. Each boy sows seeds from the same bag. The -same sunshine and the same rains give vigor to each flower-bed alike. -Billy Boy spades the soil deep and makes it fine. His chum stirs the top -and leaves clods on the surface. With the end of a sharp stick Billy -makes a straight drill for the seed. On the bottom of the drill the soil -is fine like meal, and the seed is sown with great care and is covered -with the finest soil. If the seed is small he makes the soil covering -very thin. The last thing he does is to firm the soil by patting it with -either his hand or the flat part of a hoe, and he does it in an -affectionate way as if he were patting a dog. His chum makes the drill -for the seed in a hasty way, leaving in the bottom little clods of earth -as large as hickory nuts. He sows the seed as if he were glad to get rid -of it, and he covers it as if he wanted it out of sight as soon as -possible. - -Which of the two boys gave the better tillage to the soil? During the -summer you will see how others care for their plants and you will see -instances of good tillage and poor tillage. You must observe and write -me which of the two had the better success in having the seed come up. -The difference between the two ways does not end in sowing and -germination of seed, but continues all summer until the end of the -season. Billy Boy will care for the soil by combing it with a rake -several times a week, with the same care and affection with which the -lover of a horse will groom the animal each morning. The chum will think -the plants are all like goats, and ought to live with almost any chance. -Billy Boy will have no weeds among his plants and his chum will have -them in great numbers. The chum may say that weeds shade the plants and -thereby protect them from drought. I have known grown-up farmers to say -that. Is it true? Go on a voyage of discovery and find out. - -I hope your garden may be of the Billy Boy kind, receiving plenty of -tillage. You will have no trouble to find any number of the other kind -of gardens growing to weeds and receiving no tillage. It will please me -very much if you will write me, giving as many reasons as you can why -tillage makes the soil more fertile (or "rich") and able to produce -better plants and flowers. Each letter will be carefully read. - - -AN EXPERIMENT. - -Perhaps you can answer the questions by watching your garden or some -one's else garden; but you can answer them better if you will grow a few -"hills" of corn. In the fall I shall have many questions to ask you -about corn, and I want you to be able to answer by telling me what you -have seen with your own eyes. Those of you who are Junior Naturalists -have done well with your dues this year, but we must always do better -next year than we did last; so I want you to know many things about -Indian corn when you come back to school in the fall. Your teacher has -also been asked to study corn, and I am going to study it myself. I am a -farmer and I have grown corn all my life. Once I thought that I knew all -about it; but frequently some one asks me a question about it that I -cannot answer. - -Now, I hope that you can plant at least ten "hills" of corn, or, if you -do not plant it in "hills," you may make two rows, each of them five or -ten feet long. I want you to plant part of these hills (or one of the -rows) in good rich soil. Perhaps your father will let you plant them in -the best part of the garden along with the cabbages or other crops; or, -perhaps, your mother will let you plant them at the back part of the -flower garden. Then I want you to keep down the weeds and break or -cultivate the ground often with a hoe or rake so that the soil is always -loose. Then I want you to plant the other part of the corn in a poor or -dry piece of ground, where the weeds grow. This part you need not -cultivate. I think that before the summer is half over you will learn a -very great lesson by looking at these two pieces of corn. Some of you -will say that you know beforehand what will happen; but I want you to -grow the corn nevertheless. - -By fall I hope you will be able to write me whether you can tell a rich -soil when you see it, and also why you think it is rich. I want everyone -of the Junior Gardeners to tell me that much when school opens. - - * * * * * - -_To the Teacher:_ - -We must depend upon your courtesy to help in reporting what has been -done by you and your pupils in improvement of school grounds. In -addition to this we hope it may be your pleasure to ask all the children -who are able to write to tell us in detail, at some language period, -what they have done. We are never able to get reports of all this good -work. Many teachers feel that nothing but heroic deeds in the planting -of school grounds are worthy of mention. This is a mistake. Some grounds -may be more improved by attention to simple tidiness than by expensive -planting, and they are equally worthy of mention. - -The attendance at some schools is small and the pupils are young. Small -efforts from them are relatively great when compared with what is done -by schools with ample facilities. We know a teacher who began her first -teaching in the fall of 1902. The pupils were eight in number and most -of them were small. The school was in the country. The interior of the -building was shabby. The teacher was courageous and resolute. With her -small handful of not over-competent pupils, she had school "exercises" -and the children sold tickets. By this means enough paper was bought to -cover the walls, and the teacher and the children put the paper on. Then -they made other sales, for which they received as commission three -pictures creditably framed. They were hung on the walls of the -school-house. By this time, the tide of civic improvement in that -community began to turn towards the improving of the school building and -grounds. We are eagerly awaiting reports to know what was done on Arbor -Day. Under such conditions, it was no small thing that the teacher and -children accomplished. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 366. Making a school-garden in Massachusetts._] - - - - -LEAFLET LXXVII. - -SOMETHING FOR YOUNG FARMERS.[98] - -BY JOHN W. SPENCER. - - -[98] Supplement to Junior Naturalist Monthly, April, 1902. - -MY DEAR NEPHEWS AND NIECES: - -[Illustration] - -I wish to make farmers of you all. I will try to tell you how to have -farms all your own--farms on which you can plant seeds and see the -plants grow. Once a little girl in Buffalo, who is one of my Junior -Naturalists, asked me whether I would call at her home and see the -harvest from seeds she planted on one of her farms the spring before. -The principal of the school went with me, for he knew all about the -little girl's success, and seemed proud of what she had accomplished. -What do you think it was she had raised? It was something that filled -her lap and was good to eat. It was a fine pumpkin. It weighed -twenty-two pounds. I wish I could have a photograph of her holding the -pumpkin, her face glowing with pride and satisfaction. - -You are surely able to do as much as this little girl did. Perhaps you -would prefer some other crop to pumpkins, in which case you have many -kinds of seeds from which to choose. - -Last spring, in school, this little girl with other boys and girls began -planting and caring for egg-shell farms. It costs no money and but -little trouble to own several such farms. The greatest pleasure and -profit is to be found in having them in school, for then you have the -opportunity of seeing how others manage their farms, and there is a spur -in doing what others are doing. When you have read all about my plan I -wish you would ask your teacher whether you cannot have some egg-shell -farms in your grade. When your plants are large enough to put -permanently in the open ground, you can plant them in a garden or -window-box at your home. If it is not convenient to have egg-shell -farms at school, ask your parents if you cannot have some at home. - -Please give me your ears and your attention while I tell you how to get -your farms. - -In April you have eggs at some one of the three meals of the day, and -the empty shells can be easily obtained. The end of the shell to be -broken is the sharp or "peaked" end. Break away about a quarter or a -third of it and pour out the white and the yolk that is inside. This -empty shell is to hold the soil of your farm, and you can have as many -farms as may be convenient to care for. On each egg-shell you may write -your name, for the same reason that people have door plates on the doors -of their houses or signs on their places of business. Some very -methodical boys and girls write also the names of the kind of seeds -sown, and the dates of planting and sprouting. Do not forget to put a -hole through the bottom of each one of your farms for drainage. I wish I -could be with you when you get your soil; we would go out to the -pastures and the woods for a supply. I should be able to tell you much -about different soils, and how they have been made. It is an interesting -story that I must tell you when we are past the hurry of spring's work. -If we could go afield we should find the best soil for your egg-shell -farms about the roots of rotted stumps or in rotted leaves. It is -necessary that the soil shall not bake hard because of frequent -waterings, shall not dry out quickly, and shall have plenty of -plant-food. I fancy the most convenient plan will be for all of you who -wish soil to form a syndicate by contributing a cent each and go to a -florist and buy your soil. Tell the florist you wish it for your use and -the probabilities are that he will be so much interested in your plants -that you will get more for the same amount of money than I could if I -were to go for you. - -The next difficulty will be to keep your farms right side up. That is -easily accomplished by putting some sand or sawdust in a shallow box and -making a dent where you wish each farm to stand. If you have your farms -in the school-room, Tom, Dick, and Harry can have all their farms in the -same box. There will be no trouble in separating them if the owner's -name is written on each one. - -Next comes the planting of seeds and the problem of the amount of earth -to put over them. Big seeds require more covering than little seeds. -Seeds like peas, beans, and corn may be thrust into the middle of your -farm. Small seeds, like those of the petunia, which are almost like -dust, require only the gentlest sprinkling of soil. Seeds as large as -those of the aster and the balsam should be covered with a layer of -earth as thick as a lead pencil. I advise you to plant twice as many -seeds as you wish to have grow. Many accidents may happen and if all -grow, the surplus plants can be replanted later or thrown away. The -earth covering should be sprinkled or sifted over the seeds, and then it -must be patted or pressed down firmly. By this means the particles of -soil are snuggled close together, and the seed and the soil hold -moisture much better than when the particles lie loose and far apart. - -The next thing to do after planting is to sprinkle water over your -farms. Do this as gently as possible, for with all your care some seeds -may be uncovered. Look over the ground carefully, and those you find -exposed poke into the earth with the point of a pencil or a stick. - -The soil of your farms must be kept moist at all times. This is a point -that will require your continued attention. When your Uncle John -attended school, many years ago, there was a passage in his reader that -taught him that "Eternal vigilance is the price of liberty." The -attention required to keep plants suitably watered does not fall much -short of eternal vigilance. This need not scare you. If you care for -your farms you will find it a pleasure to wait on your plants. - -If you have your egg-shell farms in the school-room, there will be no -opportunity to water your plants Saturday or Sunday, when school is not -in session. I think if you make your farms soaking wet Friday at the -close of school, and then set them back from the window out of the -direct rays of the sun, no harm will come from dryness before Monday -morning. - -You must watch to see whether all members of the same family do the same -thing precisely alike. After sowing your seeds and watering your farms -you will go to them many times to see whether anything has happened. You -will not be able to see anything or hear anything, and you will conclude -that nothing is going on in the soil. - -In this you will be mistaken, for some active changes are taking place. -They are of a kind that you can neither see nor hear. In days to come, -when you are men and women, you will be able to appreciate the fact that -some of the most important events come about silently and some of the -least important come with a racket. - -The first leaves that appear on most plants are called the seed-leaves. -If your plants are comfortable, but a few days will pass before true -leaves develop. You will find the latter very different from the -seed-leaves. Before the first or seed-leaves appear it is not important -that your farms have the strong sunlight. In fact I always put my -egg-shell farms in the shade while the seeds are germinating, but at the -first peep of a leaf or stem I put them in the full sunshine. - -Most of you will no doubt have your farms on the window ledge. Among the -first things you will observe is a way all the leaves have of looking -out of doors. If you turn your farms around so the leaves are looking in -the room, the time will not be long before all of them will be faced out -of doors again. Once on a time one of my Junior Naturalists told me that -plants take to sunshine as a duck does to water. A duck is never so -comfortable as when in water; and I am certain that sunshine is -important to the comfort of most plants. Some of my nephews and nieces -will understand why light is so necessary to plants, for I have spoken -of this before. - -I hope you will this moment decide to have some egg-shell farms, and sow -some seed immediately after getting your soil. Later, when the plants -are large enough to plant in the open ground, we will talk of what is -best to do with them. In Leaflet LII you will find a picture of an -egg-shell farm. - - - - -LEAFLET LXXVIII. - -BULBS.[99] - -BY JOHN W. SPENCER. - - -[99] Nature-Study Quarterly, October, 1899. - -A BULB GARDEN. - -[Illustration] - - "It's rather dark in the earth to-day," - Said one little bulb to his brother; - "But I thought that I felt a sunbeam ray-- - We must strive and grow till we find the way?" - And they nestled close to each other. - Then they struggled and toiled by day and by night - Till two little snowdrops in green and white, - Rose out of the darkness and into the light, - And softly kissed one another.--_Boston Journal._ - -To succeed with the cultivation of flowers, the first thing to have in -mind is to make the plant comfortable. This condition should be not only -the first thought, but also the last thought. If you can do this -successfully, the plant will do the rest of the work and your results -will be abundant. - -What plant comfort is, is a question more easily suggested than -answered, for it is a very large subject--about as large as the surface -of the earth. As a venture we will say that there are as many different -kinds of plants as there are people. It is at least safe to say that -plants have as many different notions as to their conditions of life as -have the people of the different nations and tribes of the world. - -If you were to have a birthday party and should invite as your guests -the children from the four corners of the earth, and by magic could -bring them to you in a jiffy, the boys and girls from Greenland would -come enfolded in seal-skin, and those from Hawaii would bring only their -bathing suits. You would have a busy time keeping them comfortable, for -when you opened the door to cool off the little Greenlanders, the little -Kanakas would complain of too much draft; and at the table the former -would ask if you happened to have some tallow candles for dessert, and -the latter would ask for bread-fruit and bananas. - -Many of our flowering plants have been brought together from such remote -quarters as that. We have bulbs from Holland, and pansies from England, -and phlox from the dry atmosphere of Texas. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 367. The Snow-drop._] - -There is as much difference in the conditions necessary for comfort in -these different plants as there is in the requirements of the little -Eskimos and little Polynesians. To some extent, plants can change their -manner of living, but in the main they are happiest when they can have -their own way, just as you and I are. - -We cannot bring about the foggy, damp weather of Holland and England -when we want it; neither can we bring the dry atmosphere of Texas--air -so dry that meat will cure hard in the hottest weather without tainting. -It so happens, however, that from one Fourth of July to the next we have -many kinds of weather, and if one could not find conditions suited to -almost any kind of plant it would be strange. If we cannot make the -weather accommodate itself to the best comfort of the plant, we must set -the plant so as to accommodate itself to the weather. - -Pansies from foggy England and bulbs from the lowlands of Holland should -be planted to bloom in the cool days of spring, and the phlox from Texas -will prosper in the heat and drought of July and August. - -With this idea well fixed in your mind, you will easily see that when -you know the country from which a plant has come, a knowledge of the -physical geography of that country will be helpful in knowing how to -make the plant happy and prosperous. - -We must also make the plant comfortable in the soil. There is great -difference in what plants require to make them comfortable. Some, like -thistles or mullein or ragweed, will thrive on almost any soil and are -no more exacting as to food than a goat or a mule; but other plants are -as notional as children reared in the lap of luxury. As a rule, -flowering plants belong to the "lap-of-luxury" class. - -Soil covers the land as thin skin covers an apple or as a thin coat of -butter covers bread, and it holds more or less plant-food. When men -erect school buildings and afterwards grade the ground they usually turn -a part of the soil upside down. There is also considerable rubbish of -the builders left scattered about, such as brick-bats, chips of stone, -and the like, that go to make the place an uncomfortable one for -notional plants. For this reason I wish particularly to call your -attention to the manner in which you should prepare the ground on which -you intend to plant. The first thing to do is to spade the ground -thoroughly to the depth of at least ten inches. All stones as large as a -big boy's fist should be thrown out, and all lumps given a bat with the -back of the spade to break them into fine particles. This is to be a -flower-bed and should be soft like your own bed. It would be better to -make it up more than once. After the first spading it would be well to -cover the bed with a coat of stable fertilizer to a depth of six to -eight inches, which will give additional plant-food; and in spading the -second time, this fertilizer will become thoroughly mixed with the soil. -The surface should next be raked smooth, and your flower-bed will then -be ready for planting. - -We all admire the bright bulb flowers that are among the first to -blossom in the spring. These mostly come from Holland, or at least -attain their perfection there. We have just spoken of the importance of -planting flowers at such a time that they may live their career when our -climate is most like that from which they come. In the case of bulbs, -spring and early summer is the most favorable time for them in this -country, and fall is the proper time for planting. - -The exact time in the fall to plant, how to plant, what bulbs to plant, -when to put a winter overcoat on the bed, and other details, I will -leave for Mr. Hunn to tell in the following Leaflet. He has had many -years' experience in the management of flowers, and I advise you to read -carefully what he says. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 368. A bulb bed at the school house._] - - - - -LEAFLET LXXIX. - -A TALK ABOUT BULBS BY THE GARDENER.[100] - -BY C. E. HUNN. - - -[100] Nature-Study Quarterly, October, 1899. - -[Illustration] - -Perhaps you would like to hear from the gardener. Your Uncle John has -told you something about preparing a bed for your plants. His advice is -very good; but the bulbs we are to talk about are like those notional -children whom he mentions and they do not want tallow candles for any -part of their meal. - -You should know that bulbs do not want to come into direct contact with -the stable fertilizer. They want the fertilizer below them where the -feeding roots may nibble at it when the bulb is hard at work developing -the leaves and flower. You know that all the leaves and the flowers were -made the year before, and the bulb simply holds them until the new roots -have formed. No kind of treatment will make a bulb produce more flowers -than were formed in the year it grew (last year); but the better the -treatment the larger and finer the flowers will be. - -If I wanted to make a bulb bed, I should choose, if possible, a sandy -soil and throw out the top soil to the depth of six inches. Then I -should put into the bottom of the bed about two inches of well rotted -manure and spade it into the soil. Then I should throw back half of the -top soil, level it off nicely, set the bulbs firmly on this bed, and -then cover them with the remainder of the soil; in this way you will -have the bulbs from three to four inches below the surface. It is dark -down there and in the fall months the top of the ground is cooler than -at the depth of five or six inches and the top of the bulb will not want -to grow, while the bottom, which is always in a hurry, will send out -roots, to push out the leaves and flowers the next spring. - -When the weather is cold enough to freeze a hard crust on the soil, the -bed should have its winter overcoat. This may be straw, hay, cornstalks, -or leaves spread over the bed to the depth of six inches if the material -is coarse; but if you use leaves, three inches will be enough, because -the leaves lie close together and may smother out the frost that is in -the ground and let the bulbs start. What we want is to keep them asleep -until spring, because if they start too early the hard freezes of March -and early April will spoil their beauty if the leaves or flowers are -near or above the surface. Early in April the covering may be removed -gradually and should all be off the beds before the leaves show above -the ground. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 369. Simple designs for bulb beds._] - -Perhaps many of you cannot find a sandy place for your beds; if not, -make your beds as has been told you, leaving the stones in the bottom of -the bed for drainage. Then, when you are ready to set the bulb, place a -large handful of sand where your bulb is to go and set your bulb on it; -this will keep the water from standing around the bulb. Very good -results may be obtained on heavy soil by this method. - -What kind of bulbs shall we put into these beds? Choose hyacinths, -tulips, narcissus, or daffodils, with snowdrops or crocuses of various -colors around the edge. - -If you use hyacinths you can have the national colors, red, white, and -blue, or many shades of either color, as shown in the diagrams (Fig. -369). Of tulips you can have stars or ribbons of yellow, white, or -crimson, or in fact almost any color except true blue. In narcissus, -yellow, sulfur, and white are the colors. The little crocuses come in -yellow, blue, white, and striped colors, and are in bloom and gone -before the large flowers take your attention. Many other bulbs are fine -for spring flowering; but as most of them are more difficult to grow -and many of them rather expensive, I do not think we will discuss them -now. - -Suppose we want a bed of red, white, and blue hyacinths (Fig. 369), and -make it six feet in diameter: how many bulbs would you want? Now, -hyacinths should be planted six inches apart each way, and the outside -row should be at least three inches from the edge of the bed. You see -you will want a little over one hundred bulbs, which, if one person had -to buy them, would cost him a considerable sum; but if fifty or more -boys and girls would club together it would be easy for everyone. - -If you want a bed of tulips, they should be planted four or five inches -apart instead of six inches. So you will need more bulbs; but they are -cheaper than hyacinths. The narcissus bulbs, being still smaller than -tulips, may be planted three inches apart; and the little crocuses, the -first flowers of spring, should touch one another, as should also the -snowdrops. - -Perhaps many of you do not wish to wait until spring for your bulbs to -flower, in which case we must try to persuade them to bloom through the -winter, say at Christmas. Nearly all bulbs are good-natured, and may be -coaxed to do things that nature never asks them to do; so if we go at it -right we shall find it very easy to make them think their time to bloom -has come, even if the ground is covered with snow and the ice is thick -on the ponds. Hyacinths, narcissus, and crocus can all be made to flower -in the winter by starting this way. Get the bulbs so as to be able to -pot them by the middle or last of October, or if earlier all the better. -The soil should be rich, sandy loam if possible; if not, the best you -can get, to which add about one-fourth the bulk of sand and mix -thoroughly. If ordinary flower pots are to be used, put in the bottom a -few pieces of broken pots, charcoal, or small stones for drainage; then -fill the pot with dirt so that when the bulbs are set on the dirt the -top of the bulb is even with the rim of the pot. Fill around it with -soil, leaving just the tip of the bulb showing above the dirt. If the -soil is heavy, a good plan is to sprinkle a small handful of sand under -the bulb to carry off the water, the same as is done in the beds -outdoors. If you do not have pots you may use boxes. Starch boxes are a -good size to use as they are not heavy to handle; and I have seen -excellent flowers on bulbs planted in old tomato cans. If boxes or cans -are used, care must be taken to have holes in the bottoms to let the -water run out. A large-size hyacinth bulb will do well in a five-inch -pot. The same size pot will do for three or four narcissuses or eight to -twelve crocuses. - -After the bulbs are planted in the pots or other receptacles, they -should be placed in a cool place, either in a cold pit or cellar or on -the shady side of a building, or, better yet, plunged or buried up to -the rim of the pot in a shady border. This is done to force the roots to -grow while the top stands still; as only the bulbs with good roots will -give good flowers. When the weather gets cold enough so that a crust is -frozen on the soil, the pots should be covered with a little straw, and -as the weather gets colder more straw must be used. From six to eight -weeks after planting, the bulbs should have made roots enough to grow -the plant, and the pots may be taken up and placed in a cool room for a -week or so; after which, if the plants have started into growth, they -may be taken into a warmer room where they can have plenty of light. -They will grow very rapidly now and will want lots of water; after the -flowers begin to show, the pots may stand in a saucer of water all the -time. When just coming into bloom the plants may have full sunlight part -of the time to help bring out the color of the flowers. Fig. 370 shows a -pot of tulips. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 370. Pot of tulips._] - -I want to tell you of two bulbs that do not need so much fussing with to -get them to bloom for Christmas. One of them is called freesia (Fig. -371) and if I could have but one kind of bulb to flower in the winter, I -should choose this. The little bulbs are not half as large as crocus -bulbs and you will be astonished at the large leaves and flowers such a -bulb can produce. The bulbs are about the cheapest of all winter bulbs -and they grow without putting them away to make roots, as the tops do -not seem as impatient to start as those of most other bulbs, but wait -until there are roots to help them along. The flowers are borne on a -slender stem and look very graceful, either on the plant or in bouquets. -They are also very fragrant, and a pot with five or six bulbs will -perfume a large room. All they need is good light soil, sunlight, water, -and warmth to make glad the heart of anyone who plants them. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 371. Pot of the freesia._] - -The other bulb I should select is the oriental narcissus or Chinese -sacred lily. This grows in water without any soil whatever. Just take a -bowl or glass dish about three times the size of the bulb; put some -pretty stones in the bottom; set in the bulb and build up around it with -stones so as to hold it stiff when the leaves have grown; tuck two or -three small pieces of charcoal among the stones to keep the water sweet; -then fill up the dish with water and add a little every few days, as it -evaporates. Set the dish in a warm, light place. In about six weeks the -fragrant, fine white flowers will fill the room with perfume and you -will have the pleasure of watching the roots start and grow, the top -throw up long green leaves, and the flower clusters develop and open -their flowers. Hyacinths may also be grown in water, but not as easily -as this narcissus, or in such inexpensive dishes. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 372. Winter box of bulbs._] - -The picture (Fig. 372) of a bulb box was taken last winter from a box of -mixed bulbs grown at Cornell. The calla in the center and the Kenilworth -ivy trailing over the front were planted in the box in September, and -pots of geraniums and other plants set on the dirt to fill the space. -When the bulbs that were in pots were ready to be started they were -taken out of the pots and set in the dirt in the box, where they grew -and flowered; the tall stems are paper white narcissus, the best variety -for winter. On each side there is a hyacinth just starting and in front -a little freesia in bloom. When these bulbs were done flowering, small -pots of blooming plants were set on the box and a charming window box -was obtained with many different things in it through the winter. - - -WHERE TO PLANT BULBS; AND OTHER ADVICE FOR THE OUTDOOR GARDEN. - -A large part of the beauty of the flower-bed lies in its position. A -flower-bed in the middle of the lawn is usually out of place. It has no -"setting," as the artists say. It lacks background. It is merely an -incidental thing dropped into the sward. It is out of place. A -flower-bed should belong to some part of the general planting of the -grounds, or it should be a part of the border or boundary surrounding -the place. The center of any grounds should be left open, or free from -heavy planting. A few trees may be planted in the center, if one desires -shade; but all the masses of foliage and flowers should be somewhere -near the sides or else near the foundations of the house or near other -definite boundary lines. In such places the flower-bed is supported by -other herbage. It has relation to something else. It forms a part of a -general picture; and every good yard should be a picture. - -Along the borders the beds are usually more easily cared for than they -are in the center of the lawn. In the latter place they are in danger of -being trampled over, and the roots of the grass run underneath the bed -and absorb the food and moisture which the flowers need. The beauty of a -formal bed in the center of the lawn is destroyed if some of the plants -are injured or do not develop. Symmetry is part of its merit. If, -however, the bed is along the border, a few vacant places in the bed do -not attract great attention. In school grounds it is well to have the -beds somewhat near together or continuous, in order that the labor of -taking care of them may be less. - -It is always well to plant profusely. Much of the beauty of a flower-bed -lies in an abundance of color. One must consider, also, that some of the -roots, seeds, or bulbs may fail. Some of them may not grow in the first -place, and others may be injured by weather or by accidents. It is well -to provide for all these contingencies. - -One of the best plants to use for the school bulb garden is the crocus, -because the bulbs are cheap and very hardy. The mixed bulbs, comprising -all the common colors, can be had for forty or fifty cents per hundred -at retail, and if one should buy them in considerable quantities, they -could be had for less than this. A thousand bulbs of mixed crocuses -should be got for three dollars or a little more, and these would make a -great display along the fence or walks of any school garden. One of the -ways to grow crocuses is to plant the bulbs in the grass, not cutting -out the grass where they are planted. That is, they grow right in the -sod. By the time the lawn needs to be mown in the spring, the flowers -are gone and the crocuses can be cut with the grass. The crocuses will -not last so long in a mown sod as they will in beds which are especially -prepared for them, but they will ordinarily give good results for two or -three years if the land is good; and they are so cheap that they can be -renewed from time to time. - -Other good, hardy bulbs for fall planting out-of-doors, aside from -lilies, are hyacinth, snowdrop, snowflake, tulip, narcissus of various -kinds (including daffodils and jonquils), grape hyacinth, squill. All -these are early spring bloomers and will delight the children's eyes. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 373. A good arrangement of shrubbery and -flower-beds._] - - - - -LEAFLET LXXX. - -HORSES.[101] - -BY ALICE G. McCLOSKEY and I. P. ROBERTS. - - -[101] Junior Naturalist Monthly, December, 1904. - -[Illustration] - -A few minutes ago I went into the stable to see Peg and Nan, the two bay -horses. On the outside of each stall I found a door-plate, with _Nan_ -written in large, black letters on one, _Peg_ on the other. I visited -each old friend in turn. - -They are quite different in disposition, these two horses. Nan is -gentle, affectionate, patient; Peg is spirited, unfriendly, restless. I -am very fond of them both and as yet have not been able to decide which -I enjoy the more, quiet Nan or spirited Peg. - -All horses are interesting to me. As I take my daily walk, I like to -look at the different ones I meet along the way. There is the baker's -horse and the butcher's; the doctor's horse, sleek and active; the heavy -gray horses that haul loads of coal up the hill all through the winter -weather; "Old Speckle," the postman's horse; and the friendly bay I so -often see feeding in the meadow. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 374. Nan._] - -Of all these wayside acquaintances, I like best the one I meet in the -meadow. Perhaps I associate him with the meadow-lark's song, the fresh, -green grass, and the gay little dandelions that were about when I first -crossed his path; or, perhaps our friendship progressed more rapidly -than city streets ever will permit. He seems to know when I am -approaching and raises his head in welcome. I always pet him and talk to -him a bit, and we both know that two friends have met. - -There are many things about horses that everyone ought to know. If we -were to ask Junior Naturalists how coach horses differ from roadsters -and how roadsters differ from draft horses, how many would be able to -tell us? - -Perhaps you will ask, "What is a draft horse?" The draft horse has short -legs, a heavy body, a short, thick neck, broad deep chest and shoulders, -strong hocks and moderately large feet. It may be that your father owns -a draft horse. Ask him whether it is a Percheron, a Clydesdale, or an -English Shire. These are the most familiar breeds of draft horses. The -Percherons came from France and at first they were gray. Now they are -often black or dark brown. The Shires, commonly bay, brown or sorrel, -came from England; and the Clydesdales, similar in appearance to the -Shires but smaller and more active, came from Scotland. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 375. A typical draft horse._] - -All boys and girls know coach horses. As you stand by the school-room -window, you may see one pass. They have long arched necks and fine -heads. Their bodies are rounded and well proportioned. - -Roadsters, trotters, and saddle horses are usually not so large as -coachers. Their necks are inclined to be longer and their chests -narrower than in the coach horse; however, their muscles and tendons are -strong. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 376. Welsh pony and its mother._] - -Now you must not think that just because a horse is drawing a load he is -a draft horse; nor because a horse is hitched to a coach he is a coach -horse; nor because he is driven on the road he is a roadster. These -three names,--draft horses, coach horses, roadsters,--represent types or -classes. They mean kinds of horses that are supposed to be best adapted -for drawing, or for coaches and carriages, or for fast driving, -providing the horse has no other work to do. But the horses that you -usually see are just mere common horses of no particular type, and are -used for a great variety of purposes. They are "nondescripts," which -means "undescribed" or "unclassified." You would not think of putting a -true draft horse, like the animal in Fig. 375, on a light carriage; nor -of hitching a coacher like that in Fig. 377 to a coal wagon. Do you -think there is any real roadster, or coach horse, or draft horse in your -neighborhood? If not, perhaps you can tell, as the horses pass you, -whether they are nearest like one type or another. Try it. - -If you will observe horses closely you will find that some are large, -heavy, and strong, and that they are seldom made to move rapidly, while -others may be nearly as tall but they are slim, and carry their heads -high and their necks arched. You should also notice that the heavy draft -horse does not lift his feet high nor walk with a proud and lofty tread, -while the coach horse lifts his feet high, carries his head high, and -moves very proudly. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 377. A good coacher._] - -There are several breeds of draft or heavy horses. Fig. 375 shows a fine -Clydesdale horse imported from Scotland. Notice how nicely he is marked. -The horseman would say that he has four "white stockings" and plenty of -"feather" on his fetlock; strange, is it not, that this long hair should -be called feather? - -If you should see a large, smooth gray horse similar to the Clyde, -without the "white stockings" or the "feather," you may conclude that he -is a Percheron horse. As we have said before, the Percheron breed of -horses came from France. It is not always gray in color. It is slightly -smaller than the Clydesdale. - -After you have learned that a draft horse should be large and strong, -study the picture of the coach horse (Fig. 377). Compare him with the -draft horse. The coach horse is not a fast trotter nor even a fast -roadster, but he is usually very beautiful, strong, and stylish. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 378. Arabian horse._] - -Now I shall ask you to compare the neck shown in Fig. 380 with that -shown in Fig. 381. Which do you think is the more beautiful? The horse -with the long, slim neck is a noted trotter. If the neck and head were -large, would it help or hinder the trotter? Compare the neck of the -trotter with that of the draft horse and see whether you can explain why -one is heavy and the other light. Can you explain to your parents why -the draft horse should weigh more than the coach horse? - -Do you admire the head and neck shown in Fig. 380? Wherein does it -differ from the others? This type is called "ewe-neck." Can you tell -why? Tell me whether you think this horse would be a safe driver. - -What do you think of the head and neck of the Arabian horse (Fig-378)? -You like it, do you? Why? Can you imagine what kind of horse belongs to -that head and neck? Describe it. - -Probably the Arabian horse would be too spirited for you so I shall show -you a Shetland pony. (Fig. 379.) Where is Shetland? Why are horses so -small in the country where this little fellow came from? How does he -differ from the other horses shown in the Leaflet? Note _all_ of the -differences. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 379. Shetland pony._] - -In Fig. 376 you will see the picture of a Welsh pony, and she has a -ponyette, a baby only a few days old. Which is the larger, the Shetland -pony or the Welsh pony? Which one would you prefer if the baby were left -out? Could you raise a calf until it became a grown cow and then trade -it for a pony? Just a plain little pony can be bought for the price of -a good cow. It is part of a good education to know how to raise and -handle cows and horses. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 380. Ewe-neck, a poor horse._] - -With this Leaflet in your hand, you should go to the stable, or, better -still, out on the street, and see whether you can find as good horses -and ponies as the pictures represent. As you study horses try to answer -the following questions: - -1. Where is the horse's knee joint? Which way does the knee bend? - -2. Where is the hock joint? Which way does it bend? - -3. Can a horse sleep when standing? - -4. How are the legs placed when a horse lies down? - -5. How does a horse get up,--front legs first or hind legs first? How -does a cow get up? - -6. When a horse starts, after standing, what foot does he put forward -first,--the left or the right? Fore or back? What foot moves next? - -7. When a horse trots, do the two feet on one side move together? Or do -lefts and rights move together? - -8. What does a driver mean when he says that a horse "forges" or -"over-reaches?" - -9. Name the things that a horse commonly eats. What is a good feed for a -day,--how much of each thing, and when given? - -[Illustration: _Fig. 381. Neck of a trotter._] - -[Illustration: _Fig. 382. At pasture._] - - - - -INDEX. - - - ["Fig." means that the page referred to contains the figure only, - no text reference.] - - PAGE. - - Agassiz, glacial hypothesis 105 - making of surveys and maps 202, 203 - - Agriculture, its place in schools 45-47 - - Agricultural education, what it is 45-53 - - Air 87, 123, 124 - - Alfalfa 40, 354, 355, 357-360, 489-493 - - Alluvial fans 132 - - Annual rings 321, 327, 328, 329, 330, 335, 474 - - Ants 62, 64, (Fig.) 224, 243-251, 274, 508, 513 - - Ant-lions 250 - - Aphids 62, 68, 248-251, 539 - - Aphis-lion 249, 539, 540, 543 - - Apple, buds 328, 329 - fruit 467-472 - grafting of 374, 375 - shape of tree 304 - twigs 317-325 - - Apple-scab 470, (Fig.) 471 - - Apricot 328, 375, 377 - - Aquaria 59, 60, 141-156, 165, 166 - - Arborvitae 345, 346, 347 - - Asters 379-383 - - Azalea 331 - - - Back-swimmers, see "Bugs." - - Bagworms 61 - - Balsams 383 - - Barngrass 362 - - Bass, black 162 - - Basswood leaf-roller, see "Moths." - - Beans 291, 460-466, 563, 564 - - Begonias 372, 373 - - Bees, wings of (Fig.) 224 - bumble 65, 68, 351, 352 - carpenter 61 - honey 62, 64, 65, 353 - - Beet 257, 415, 416 - sugar 405 - - Beetles 210, 223, 224, 507 - engraver 61 - plum curculio 68 - - Beetles, potato 62, 63, 68 - predaceous diving 151 - snapping (Fig.) 223 - tiger 61 - water scavenger 152 - whirligig 135 - wood-boring (Fig.) 223 - - Bibliography of nature-study 76-79 - - Biennial 416 - - Birds, leaflets on 253-290, 503, 504, 515, 516 - suggestions for study 70, 71 - See special birds. - - Black bass, see "Bass." - - Blackberry 305, 370, 375 - - Blackbird, redwing 263 - - Black-fly, see "Flies." - - Bluebells 362 - - Bluebird 238, 261 - - Black-nosed dace, see "Dace." - - Bordeaux mixture 381, 382, 389 - - Breeding cage 228 - - Brook, The, insects of 135-140 - suggestions for study 125 - work of 126-134 - - Brownie-bugs, see "Bugs." - - Budding 376, 377 - - Buds - apple 317-325 - apricot 328 - azalea 331 - butternut 474 - dormant 318, 314-320, 329 - elm 330 - flower 319, 328, 330 - hepatica 392 - hickory 329, (Fig.) 330 - horse-chestnut (Fig.) 474 - leaf 319, 328, 330 - maple 329, 473 - peach 328 - pear 328 - pussy-willow 330 - terminal 318, 474 - winter 72, 331, 332, 327-336, 473, 474 - - Bugs, 223 - brownie (Fig.) 223 - back-swimmers 136, 152, 153 - giant water 137, 153 - June 288 - - Bugs, lady 210, 250 - stink 223 - water boatmen 136, 152 - water scorpions 152, 153 - water-striders 137 - - Bulbs 567, 577-580, 581-583 - see special bulbs. - - Burdock 362 - - Butterflies 58, 59, 61, 62, 224, 238, 544 - cabbage 208, 209, 210, (Fig.) 224, 540 - common blue 248 - milkweed 208, 209 - monarch 63, 544 - viceroy 63 - - Butternut (Fig.) 474 - - - Cabbage butterfly, see "Butterflies." - - Caddice-worm 61, 136, 155 - - Cambium 375 - - Cankerworms 68 - - Carnations (Fig.) 370, 372 - - Carrot 257 - - Caterpillars 58, 62, 501 - apple-tree tent 59, 69, 227-235 - of cecropia moth 167, 168 - cabbage 63, 68, 208, 209, 210 - of codlin-moth 470 - of common blue butterfly 248 - of fall web-worm 61 - of promethea moth 168, 169 - "woolly-bear" 210, 238, 539, (Fig.) 541 - - Catfish 150, 161 - - Cat-tails 364 - - Cecropia moth, see "Moths." - - Cereals, food value of 409-414 - - Chara (Fig.) 148, 149 - - Charcoal 144 - - Cherry, grafting of 377 - - Chestnut, grafting of 374 - - Chickadee 279-281, 285, 503, 504 - - Chickens 70, 522-524, 525, 526, 527 - - Child's Realm, The (poem) 451 - - Chinese lily, see "Narcissus." - - Chipmunk 69 - - Choke-cherries 362 - - Chrysalids 58, 59 - of apple-tree tent caterpillar 233 - cabbage butterfly 209, 540 - - Chrysalids, codlin-moth 470 - milkweed butterfly 208 - - Cicada 66, 210, (Fig.) 223, 529-535 - dog-day harvest fly 534, 535 - seventeen-year locust 529-535 - - Cion 374 - - Clam 150 - - Clarkias 383 - - Clay 117, 118 - - Clothes moth, see "Moths." - - Clouds 84, 85, 88, 90 - - Codlin-moth, see "Moths." - - Clover 124, 349-360 - alsike 353 - buffalo 352, 353 - crimson 352 - hop, see yellow. - hop trefoil, see low hop. - least hop 354 - low hop 354 - rabbit foot (Fig.) 353, 354 - red 351, 352 - scarlet, see crimson. - stone, see rabbit-foot. - zig-zag 352 - See, also, "Alfalfa," "Medics," "Melilots." - - Cocoons 58, 59, 167-169 - of cecropia moth 167, 168 - codlin-moth 508 - lace-winged fly 539, 540, 543 - promethea moth 168, 169 - tent caterpillar (Fig.) 233, 235 - "woolly-bear" 211, 539 - - Cockle 363 - - Cold-blooded animals 199 - - Coleus 370, 372 - - Common blue butterfly, see "Butterflies." - - Cones, of arborvitae 345, 347 - hemlock 344, 347 - balsam fir 343, 347 - Austrian pine 338, 339, (Fig.) 340, 346 - pitch pine 337, 338, 346 - Scotch pine 338, 339, 346 - white pine (Fig.) 335, 336, 346 - black spruce 341, 342, 346 - Norway spruce 341, (Fig.) 342, 346 - red spruce 342, 347 - white spruce 342, 346 - - Corn, Indian 397-407, 409-414, 485-488, 571 - - Coreopsis 383 - - Corydalis, 138 - - Cowbird 261, 262 - - Crane-fly, see "Flies." - - Crayfish 150 - - Creek chub 165 - - Crickets 59, 66, 543 - - Crocus 582, 583, 588 - - Crow 197, 284, 287-290, 501, 502 - - Cross-fertilization, see "Pollination." - - Currants 305, 370, 373, (Fig.) 374, 375 - - Currant-worms 68 - - Cuttings 369-378 - - Cutworms 288, 400, 501 - - Cyanide bottle 216, 217 - - - Dace, black-nosed 159 - - Daffodils 582-588 - - Dahlia 564 - - Dairy products, value in N. Y. State, 489 - - Damping-off 370, 371 - - Damsel-flies 136, 154 - - Dandelion 362, 363, 481, 482 - - Darter, Johnny 163 - - Delta 103, 131, 132, 133 - - Dew 83 - - Dobson 137, 138 - - Dock 362, 380 - - Dodder 360 - - Dog-day harvest fly, see "Cicada." - - Domestic animals 70, 414 - See, also, "Horses," "Poultry." - - Doves 254, 261, 264 - - Dragon-flies 136, 154, 155, 222 - - Ducks 522-524, 525, 526 - - Duck-weed 148 - - - Eel-grass 147, 148 - - Eggs, of ants 246 - caterpillars 210, 229, 230, (Fig.) 235 - cicada 530, 534 - frogs 188 - grasshoppers 210 - lace-winged fly 539, 543 - mosquito 238, 239 - domestic fowls 524, 525 - salamanders 188 - spiders 181-183, 211, 288 - toads 186-189, 200 - - Egg-shell farms 456, 566, 573-576 - - Electric-light bug, see "giant water bug" under "Bugs." - - Elm, American 300, 303, (Fig.) 308, 309, 310-316, 330 - slippery (Fig.) 299, 300, 301, 303 - struggle for existence 361 - - Entomological supplies, dealers in 226 - - Evaporation 82 - - Evergreens 333-347 - See special kinds. - - - Fall web-worm, see "Caterpillars." - - Ferns 76, 362 - - Finch, grass, see "vesper sparrow" under "Sparrows." - purple 261, 265, 266 - - Fir, balsam 343, 347 - - Fireweed 364 - - Fish 69, 149, 150, 157-166 - See special fish. - - Flicker, see "Woodpeckers." - - Flies 62, 224 - black 139 - crane (Fig.) 223 - hellgrammite 138 - horse 210 - house 63 - pomace (Fig.) 222 - - Flood-plain 104, 130 - - Flowers, pistillate 400 - staminate 400 - study of 71, 72 - - Fog 83, 86, 88, 89 - - Foods, value of various kinds 411, 412 - bulletins on 413 - - Forestry 75 - - Fossils 107 - - Frog 150, 151, 188, 189, 501 - - Frost 426, 427 - - Fruits 71, 72 - - - Galls 61 - pine-cone willow 135, 136 - - Gardens, children's 36, 37, 40, 379-383, 559-566, 569-571, 573-576 - - Geese 520-522, 525, 526 - - Geraniums 370, 372, 419 - - Giant water-bug, see "Bugs." - - Germination 560-562, 566, 573-576 - of bean 291, 460-466 - squash 291-295 - - Glacial scratches (Fig.) 104, 105, 108, 109, 110 - - Glacier (Fig.) 100, 104-113 - - Gladiolus 564 - - Gold-fish 150 - - Gooseberries 305, 373, 375 - - Grackle, bronzed 261, 262, 263 - - Grafting 374-378 - - Grape (Fig.) 363, 364, 370, 373, 375 - - Grape hyacinth 588 - - Grass 362, 363, 364, 380 - - Grasshoppers 56, 59, 62, 63, 66, 210, 288, 524 - - Guinea-pigs 70 - - - Hail 88, 89 - - Hawthorn 374 - - Hay, value as crop in N. Y. State 489 - - Hellgrammite fly, see "Flies." - - Hemlock 343-345, 347 - - Hepatica 391-393, 477, 478 - - Hibernation, of butterflies 61, 238 - mosquitoes 238 - toad 199, 200 - "woolly-bear" 539 - - Hickory, buds 329, (Fig.) 330 - small-fruited shagbark (Fig.) 298, 300 - pignut (Fig.) 298, 300 - - High-hole, see "flicker" under "Woodpeckers." - - Horse-chestnut (Fig.) 474 - - Horse-fly, see "Flies." - - Horses 589-594 - See, also, "Domestic Animals." - - Horticulture 75 - - House-fly, see "Flies." - - Hyacinth 582, 583, 586, 588 - - - Ichneumon flies 210 - - Imperial moth, see "Moths." - - Indian turnip, see "Jack-in-the-Pulpit." - - Insects, cage for 539, (Fig.) 540 - how to collect and preserve 213-226 - of a brook 135-140 - suggestions for study 58-69 - - Isabella moth, see "Moths." - - - Jack-in-the-Pulpit 395, 396, 479, 480 - - Johnny Darters, see "Darter." - - June bug, see "Bugs." - - - Katydid 66 - - Kingfisher 261, 266 - - Knotweed 262 - - - Lace-winged fly 539, 540, 543, 544 - - Lady-bugs, see "Bugs." - - Leaf-miners 60 - - Leaf-rollers 60 - basswood (Fig.) 224 - - Leaf-scars 474 - of evergreens 334 - - Leaves, autumn colors 71, 426, 427, 483 - fall of 427 - functions of 424, 425, 426, 483 - - Lenses 228 - - Lettuce 563, 564 - - Lightning 89, 91 - - Lilac 305 - - Lime 118 - - Lobster 50 - - Locusts, mouth parts 530 - seventeen-year, see "Cicada." - - Lucerne, see "Alfalfa." - - Luna moths, see "Moths." - - - Maple, black 428 - box elder 428 - goose-foot, see striped. - mountain 427, (Fig.) 429 - Norway 329, 428 - planting of 446 - red 428, (Fig.) 429, (Fig.) 473 - silver 428 - striped 427, (Fig.) 428 - sugar 73, 74, 329, 423-430 - swamp, see red. - - Maple sugar 431-434 - - Maps, construction of 202-205 - - Martins 254 - - May-flies 138, 139 - - Meadow-lark 261, 263, 264, 274 - - Medics 350, 351 - black 355 - hop, see black - toothed 355 - spotted 355 - See, also, "Alfalfa." - - Melilots 350, 351 - white sweet clover 356 - yellow sweet clover 356 - Bokhara clover 356 - - Mice 69 - - Milkweed butterfly, see "Butterflies." - - Mineral matter, in seeds 410, 411 - in soils 100 - - Minnows 149, 165 - - Monarch butterfly, see "Butterflies." - - Moraine 110 - - Mosquitoes 58, 59, 62, 153, 154, 237-241, 272 - - Moths, how to collect 222 - how to distinguish from butterflies 224 - life cycle 169 - basswood leaf-roller (Fig.) 224 - cecropia 167, 168 - clothes 68 - codlin 68, 468-471, 508 - imperial (Fig.) 225 - Isabella tiger 539, (Fig.) 542 - luna (Fig.) 226 - promethea 167, 168, 169 - scallop-shell 61 - tussock 68 - underwing (Fig.) 225 - - Moulting, of caterpillars 232 - cicada 531 - snake 198 - toad 198, 199 - - Mudwasps, see "Wasps." - - Mulching, of soil 120, 121, 122, 380, 381 - - Mullein 362, 579 - - Museum pests 219, 220 - - Mushrooms 74 - - - Narcissus 582, 583, 588 - oriental 585, 586 - - Nature-study, outline of movement 21-29 - suggestions for (graded course and bibliography) 55-79 - what it is 11-20 - - Nettles 364 - - N. Y. Teachers, An appeal to 31-43 - - N. Y. State Teachers' Library 148 - - Nitella (Fig.) 148, 149 - - Nitrogen 350, 360 - - Note-taking 455-457, 458, 459, 460-466 - - Nuthatch, white-breasted 283-286 - red-breasted 285 - - Nutmeg 409 - - - Oaks, grafting of 374 - scarlet 300 - swamp white 300 - - Oil, in seeds 398, 405, 410 - - Oriole 515, 516 - - - Parsley 363 - - Parsnips 257 - - Parrot's feather (Fig.) 148, 149 - - Peaches 328, 375, 377 - - Pear 374, 375 - - Pepperidge 300, 301, 304, 309 - - Petunias 383 - - Phlox 383 - - Phoebe 280, 361, 363 - - Pigeons 254 - - Pigweeds 362, 367 - - Pines, Austrian 338, 339, (Fig.) 340, 346 - pitch 336-338, 346 - Scotch 338, 339, 346 - - Pitchforks 362 - - Plantain 362 - - Plants, breeding of 389, 390, 405-407, 411 - planting of 367, 368 - physiology of 72, 73, 74, 142, 424-427 - societies of 361-365 - - Plums 375, 377 - - Plum curculio, see "Beetles." - - Pokeweed 364 - - Pollination 351, 352, 400 - - Polliwogs, see "Tadpoles." - - Pomace flies, see "Flies." - - Ponies 593, 594 - - Pop-corn 488 - - Poplar, Carolina 444 - cutting of 373 - Lombardy 301, (Fig.) 303, 304 - - Poppies 383 - - Potatoes 370, 374, 385-390, 407 - - Pot-holes 133 - - Poultry 517-527 - See, also, "Domestic Animals." - - Predaceous diving beetles, see "Beetles." - - Promethea moth, see "Moths." - - Protective coloration 62, 63 - - Protein 398, 405 - - Pruning 417-421, 444, 475, 476 - - Pumpkin 401 - - Pupa, of ants 244, 245, 246 - butterflies, see "Chrysalids." - mosquitoes 239, 240 - moths, see "Chrysalids." - - - Quince 374 - - - Rabbit 56, 70 - - Radish 563, 564 - - Ragweed 362, 579 - - Raindrops 86, 88, 89, 90 - - Rainfall 119, 123 - - Raspberry 305, 375 - - Robin 238, 261, 499, 500 - - Rock flour 110 - - Roots, growing point of 293, 294 - - Rose (Fig.) 371 - - Rust, on asters 381, 382 - - - Salamanders 188, 197, 501, 539-544 - - Sand 117, 120 - - Sapsucker, see "Woodpeckers." - - Sassafras 301, (Fig.) 302, 309 - - Scale insects 68 - - Scallop-shell moth, see "Moths." - - School grounds, improvement of 35, 38-41, 437-447, 566-568, 571, 572 - - Schoolroom, The 9 - - Scion, see "Cion." - - Seed, dispersal of 72 - dormant 409, 410 - uses of stored food 409-414 - See, also, "Germination." - - Shiner 162, 165 - - Shower, A Summer 81-91 - - Silage 403 - - Siphon 144 - - Skipper, silver spotted 61 - - Sleep, of flowers 72 - - Slug 149 - - Smartweed 362, 380 - - Snakes 197, 198, 501 - - Snails 143, 148, 149 - - Snow 84, 85, 93-97, 453, 454 - - Snowball bush 305 - - Snowdrops 582, 583, 588 - - Snowflakes 588 - - Soil 99-114 - value of various kinds 115-124 - in school gardens 560, 570, 571, 574, 579, 581 - - Sparrows, fox 264, 265 - song 261, 265 - tree 265 - white-crowned 265 - white-throated 261, 265 - vesper 265 - - Spiders 65, 66, 68, 69, 171-183, 211, 249, 288 - - Spraying 68, 69 - - Springs 126 - - Spruce, black 341-343, 346 - Norway 339-341, (Fig.) 342, 346 - red 342, 343, 347 - - Squash 291-295, 407 - - Squill 588 - - Squirrel, red 435, 436 - black 435 - how to study 69 - - Starch 331, 386, 387, 398, 405, 410, 483 - - Stems, growing point of 295 - - Stickleback 163 - - Stink-bugs, see "Bugs." - - Stock, for grafting 374 - - Stone-flies 138, 140 - - Storms, snow 93-97, 453, 454 - thunder 86, 87, 90 - - Stratification 133 - - Stream-cutting 127-129, 133 - - Stream deposition 104, 130, 133 - - Struggle for existence 74, 75, 361, 410, 418 - - Sumac 431, 433, 466 - - Sunfish 161 - - Sweet clover, see "Melilots." - - Sweet-peas 379-383, 564 - - Swallow, tree 254 - - - Tadpoles 135, 189-193 - - Tape-grass 147, 148 - - Terrarium 207-212, 537-544 - - Thistle 364, 579 - - Thunder 89 - - Thorn-apple 301, (Fig.) 303, 309 - - Tillage 570, 571 - - Tomato 374 - - Trees, winter aspect of 297-305 - how to draw 307-316 - how to plant 444-446 - see special kinds. - - Tree-toads 188, 189, 210 - - Tussock moth, see "Moths." - - - Underwing moth, see "Moths." - - - Virginia creeper 444 - - Vireo 515 - - Verbena 372 - - Vegetables 71 - - Viceroy butterfly, see "Butterflies." - - - Walking-sticks 63 - - Warm-blooded 199 - - Wasps 62, 63, (Fig.) 224 - mud 136 - - Water 120, 126 - - Water boatmen, see "Bugs." - - Watercress 148 - - Waterfalls 129, 133 - - Water-milfoil (Fig.) 148, 149 - - Water-purslane (Fig.) 148, 149 - - Water-scavenger beetle, see "Beetle." - - Water-scorpion, see "Bugs." - - Water-strider, see "Bugs." - - Water-tiger 152 - - Weeds 74 - - Wheat 411 - - Whirligig beetle, see "Beetles." - - Willows 305, 373, 443, 446 - pussy 330 - - Wire-grass 362 - - Wire-worms 400 - - Woodpeckers 269-277, 505-513 - downy 269, 270, 271, 284, 507-510 - flicker 274-277, 512, 513 - golden-winged, see flicker. - hairy 269, 270, 271, 284 - red-head 272, 505-507 - sapsucker 270, 271, 272, 510-512 - - Wrens 254 - - - Yarup, see "flicker" under "Woodpeckers." - - Yellow-hammer, see "flicker" under "Woodpeckers." - - - Zinnias 383 - - - - -[Transcriber's Note: - -Alternative spelling retained. - -Punctuation normalized without comment. - -Spelling change - -Page 108, "moivng" was changed to read "moving" - -Page 155, "caddice-warm" was changed to read "caddice-worm." - -Page 178, "entangeled" was changed to read "entangled." - -Page 190, "grow a a great" was changed to read "grow a great." - -Page 223, "Snappping beetle" was changed to read "Snapping beetle." - -Page 274, "Ornothology" was changed to read "Ornithology." - -Page 284, "I pounded on the widow" was changed to read "I pounded on the -window." - -Page 285, "Audobon" was changed to read "Audubon." - -Page 288, "omniverous" was changed to read "omnivorous." - -Page 321, "histery" was changed to read "history." - -Page 363, "open ones eyes" was changed to read "open one's eyes." - -Page 383, "motherworth and Virginia creeper" was changed to read -"motherwort and Virginia creeper." - -Page 396, "Is is pleasant" was changed to read "Is it pleasant." - -Page 530, "thousand liliputian" was changed to read "thousand -lilliputian." - -Page 510, "once that it it is" was changed to read "once that it is." - -Page 592, "Is you should" was changed to read "If you should."] - - - - - -End of Project Gutenberg's Cornell Nature-Study Leaflets, by Various - 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