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diff --git a/43070-0.txt b/43070-0.txt index 84b986e..2d7a9d1 100644 --- a/43070-0.txt +++ b/43070-0.txt @@ -1,37 +1,4 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of Archæology and the Bible, by George A. Barton - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org - - -Title: Archæology and the Bible - -Author: George A. 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You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org - - -Title: Archæology and the Bible - -Author: George A. Barton - -Release Date: July 1, 2013 [EBook #43070] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ARCHÆOLOGY AND THE BIBLE *** - - - - -Produced by The Online Distributed Proofreading Team at -http://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images -generously made available by The Internet Archive.) - - - - - - - - - -ARCHÆOLOGY AND THE BIBLE - - - - -[Illustration: A HILLSIDE STREET IN ROMAN JERUSALEM ALONG WHICH JESUS AND -THE DISCIPLES MAY WELL HAVE WALKED (_after Germer-Durand_). - ---_Frontispiece._] - - - - - Green Fund Book, No. 17 - - - ARCHÆOLOGY AND THE BIBLE - - - BY GEORGE A. BARTON, PH. D., LL. D. - PROFESSOR OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE AND SEMITIC LANGUAGES - IN BRYN MAWR COLLEGE; SOMETIME DIRECTOR OF THE - AMERICAN SCHOOL OF ORIENTAL RESEARCH IN JERUSALEM - - - PART I - - THE BIBLE LANDS, THEIR EXPLORATION, AND THE RESULTANT - LIGHT ON THE BIBLE AND HISTORY - - - PART II - - TRANSLATIONS OF ANCIENT DOCUMENTS WHICH CONFIRM OR - ILLUMINATE THE BIBLE - - - PHILADELPHIA - AMERICAN SUNDAY-SCHOOL UNION - 1816 Chestnut Street - - - - - Copyright, 1916, by - AMERICAN SUNDAY-SCHOOL UNION - - All rights vested in and reserved by - AMERICAN SUNDAY-SCHOOL UNION - - First Edition, May, 1916. - Second Edition, June, 1917. - - - - - To - CAROLINE B. D. BARTON - Faithful Comrade in - the Campaign of Life - - - - -PREFACE - - -For a hundred years or more the explorer and the excavator have been busy -in many parts of the world. They have brought to light monuments and texts -that have in many cases revolutionized our conceptions of history and have -in other cases thrown much new light on what was previously known. - -In no part of the world have these labors been more fruitful than in the -lands of the Bible. In Egypt and Babylonia vistas of history have been -opened to view that were undreamed of before exploration began. The same -is true for that part of the history of Palestine which antedates the -coming of Israel. Information has also been obtained which illumines later -portions of the history, and makes the Biblical narrative seem much more -vivid. It is now possible to make real to oneself the details of the life -of the Biblical heroes, and to understand the problems of their world as -formerly one could not do. Exploration has also brought to light many -inscriptions in the various countries that confirm or illuminate the -traditions, history, poetry, and prophecy of the Bible. The sands of Egypt -have even yielded us some reputed new sayings of our Lord. - -It is the purpose of this book to gather into one volume the most valuable -information of all sorts that the excavations in Bible lands have -afforded, and to put it in such form that it may be of service to the -pastor and Sunday-school teacher. An attempt has been made so to present -the material that one may not only have the wealth of illumination for -Biblical study that exploration has produced, but also that he may possess -an outline of the history of the exploration and of the countries -sufficient to enable him to place each item in its proper perspective. -Whether in handling so large a mass of data the writer has achieved his -aim, the reader must judge. The preparation of the volume was undertaken -at the request of the Board of Managers of the American Sunday-School -Union, for publication under the John C. Green Income Fund,--a fund -founded in 1877 "for the purpose of aiding ... in securing a -Sunday-school literature of the highest order of merit ... by procuring -works ... germane to the objects of the Society." The foundation requires -that the manuscripts procured by the fund shall become the exclusive -property of the American Sunday-School Union, and, that the selling price -may be reduced, the Society is prohibited from including the cost of the -manuscript in the price of the book. - -This work is confined to those phases of archæology upon which light has -been thrown by exploration. No attempt is made, for example, to treat the -constitution of the Hebrew family, or the dress worn in ancient Palestine, -for these are subjects to which exploration has contributed no new -knowledge. - -The texts published in Part II have, with few exceptions, been freshly -translated by the writer especially for this work. This is true of all -except the majority of the Egyptian texts and two Greek papyri which were -not accessible in the original. Translations of these were taken from the -works of well-known scholars, to each of whom credit is given in -connection with the passage quoted from his work. The quotations of -Palestinian place names from the inscriptions of the Egyptian kings, of -which the writer has made a special study, are based on his own -translations of the originals. - -An archæological fact, or a text brought to light by excavation, is often -of little significance apart from its interpretation, and the -interpretation of such data frequently varies according to the point of -view occupied by the interpreter. As stated in the foreword of Part II, it -has been the writer's aim throughout to maintain a neutral attitude on -controverted points. - -Not the least service that archæology has rendered has been the -presentation of a new background against which the inspiration of the -Biblical writers stands out in striking vividness. Often one finds -traditions in Babylonia identical with those embodied in the Old -Testament, but they are so narrated that no such conception of God shines -through them as shines through the Biblical narrative. Babylonians and -Egyptians pour out their hearts in psalms with something of the same -fervor and pathos as the Hebrews, but no such vital conception of God and -his oneness gives shape to their faith and brings the longed-for strength -to the spirit. Egyptian sages developed a social conscience comparable in -many respects with that of the Hebrew prophets, but they lacked the vital -touch of religious devotion which took the conceptions of the prophets -out of the realm of individual speculation and made them the working -ethics of a whole people. Archæology thus reinforces to the modern man -with unmistakable emphasis the ancient words, "Men spake from God, being -moved by the Holy Spirit" (2 Peter 1:21). - -The writer is under obligation to all his predecessors. Endeavor has been -made in the footnotes to acknowledge each individual obligation. Lest any -oversight may have occurred there, he would here express both his -indebtedness and his gratitude to all who by their various explorations -and studies have preceded him and been his teachers. - -Of these, Prof. R. A. Stewart Macalister should, perhaps, be singled out -for an especial word of gratitude, for in Chapters VI-XI of Part I his -work of excavation has been quoted more frequently than any other. This -apparent partiality is due to the fact that Gezer was excavated more -completely than any other Palestinian site; that, because of its early and -long-continued occupation in ancient times, it reveals a great variety of -civilizations; and that, in _The Excavation of Gezer_, Prof. Macalister -has presented the results of his work with a completeness and a degree of -intelligibility that no other excavator in Palestine has approached. He -has made his work a model of what such a publication should be, and has -thereby made us all his debtors. - -Especial thanks are due to Dr. George B. Gordon, Director of the -University Museum, Philadelphia, for his kindness in furnishing an advance -copy of the proof-sheets of Volume X of the _Publications of the -Babylonian Section_ of the museum, from which the material embodied in -Chapter VIII of Part II was translated, and to Prof. Morris Jastrow, Jr., -and Dr. Edward Chiera for the benefit of their fresh collation of the -text. This was of considerable importance, since Dr. Langdon's copy of -large portions of it had been made from photographs, rather than from the -original tablet. The writer is also indebted to Prof. W. R. Arnold, of -Andover Theological Seminary, for helpful suggestions concerning the -interpretation of a passage in the temple-papyrus from Elephantine which -has hitherto baffled translators. Thanks are also due to the following -authors and publishers for permission to reproduce illustrations contained -in books written or published by them: The Palestine Exploration Fund, for -permission relating to Warren's _Jerusalem_; Bliss and Macalister's -_Excavations in Palestine, 1898-1900_; Macalister's _Excavation of -Gezer_, and Peters and Thiersch's _Painted Tombs of Marissa_; Rev. Prof. -C. J. Ball, of Oxford, _Light from the East_; J. C. Hinrichs'sche -Buchhandlung, Koldewey's _Das Wieder Erstehende Babylon_; Dr. I. Benzinger -and Herr Paul Siebeck, _Hebräische Archäologie_; Monsieur J. Gabalda, -Vincent's _Jérusalem_; Prof. A. T. Clay, of Yale, _Light on the Old -Testament from Babel_; Prof. Paul Haupt, of Johns Hopkins, _The Psalms_ in -his _Sacred Books of the Old Testament_; Rev. J. P. Peters and G. P. -Putnam's Sons, Peters' _Nippur_; Prof. C. C. Torrey, of Yale, _Journal of -the American Oriental Society_; George H. Doran Co., Ramsay's _Letters to -the Seven Churches of Asia_; Dr. Mitchell Carroll, _American Journal of -Archæology_ and _Art and Archæology_; Rev. A. E. Breen, _Diary of My Life -in the Holy Land_; Thomas Nelson and Sons, _The Illustrated Teachers' -Bible_; and to Ferris and Leach, for permission to use again a number of -photographs published in the writer's _A Year's Wandering in Bible Lands_. -Dr. R. E. Brünnow not only granted permission to reproduce illustrations -from Brünnow and Domaszewski's _Provincia Arabia_, but generously loaned -the original photographs and drawings. Prof. Harold N. Fowler, Editor of -the _American Journal of Archæology_, also kindly loaned an original -photograph of the excavation at Sardis. The source of each illustration, -when not the writer's own, is indicated in the list of illustrations by -mentioning the name of the author of the book or article from which it is -taken. - -Grateful acknowledgment should also be made to Rev. Edwin Wilbur Rice, D. -D., Litt. D., Honorary Editor of the Publications of the American -Sunday-School Union, who carefully read the book in manuscript and made -many valuable criticisms and suggestions. - -The table of contents and the chapter-headings were prepared by James -McConaughy, Litt. D., Editor of the Publications of the American -Sunday-School Union; the indices, by A. J. R. Schumaker, M. A., Assistant -Editor. The writer is grateful to them, not only for this service, but for -many helpful criticisms and courtesies while the book has been passing -through the press. Valuable suggestions have also been made by Mrs. -Barton, who has carefully read the proofs. Miss Bertha V. Dreisbach has -given intelligent and painstaking service in preparing the manuscript for -the press, and in proof-reading; Mr. V. Winfield Challenger and Miss Laura -G. Leach have rendered a like valuable service in assembling and arranging -the illustrations. - -The quotations of Scripture passages throughout are from the American -Standard Revised Version. - -If this volume should bring to some remote worker or secluded young person -a tithe of the inspiration and joy that such a book would have brought the -writer in the rural home of his boyhood, he would ask no higher reward for -the labor it has cost. - -GEORGE A. BARTON. - - BRYN MAWR, PA. - MAY, 1916. - - - - -PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION - - -It is gratifying to know that this book has been found useful by so many -students of the Bible and that a second edition is necessary. Minor -errors, especially typographical, have been corrected throughout the -volume. The chief feature of this edition is the addition of an Appendix, -in which will be found some material that has come to light in the last -year, and one or two items that were overlooked when the first edition was -written. - -GEORGE A. BARTON. - - BRYN MAWR, PA. - JUNE, 1917. - - - - -CONTENTS - - - PART I - - CHAPTER PAGE - - LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 1 - - TABLE OF SIGNS 9 - - INTRODUCTION 11 - - I. EGYPT 17 - - The Land. The Preservation of Antiquities. Egyptian - Discoveries. Decipherment. Chronology. Outline of the - History. Egyptian Discoveries which bear on the Bible. - - II. BABYLONIA AND ASSYRIA 40 - - The Land. The Preservation of Antiquities. The Discovery of - Antiquities. The Decipherment of the Inscriptions. - Chronology. Outline of the History. Discoveries which - illumine the Bible. - - III. THE HITTITES 68 - - A Forgotten Empire. Hittite Monuments. Hittite Decipherment. - Hittite History. - - IV. PALESTINE AND ITS EXPLORATION 83 - - The Land. Early Exploration. Early American Explorations. - Palestine Exploration Fund. The German Palestine Society. - The American School at Jerusalem. Samaria. Parker's - Excavations at Jerusalem. Latest Excavations. - - V. OUTLINE OF PALESTINE'S ARCHÆOLOGICAL HISTORY 103 - - The Early Stone Age. The Late Stone Age. The Amorites. The - Canaanites. Egyptian Domination. The Philistines. The - Hebrews. Philistine Civilization. The Hebrew Kingdoms. The - Exile and After. The Coming of Rome. Later History. - - VI. THE CITIES OF PALESTINE 123 - - Their Sites. The Walls. The Stone Work. Houses. Palaces. - Foundation Sacrifices. City Gates. Water Supply. - - VII. ROADS AND AGRICULTURE 132 - - VIII. POTTERY 141 - - Importance of Pottery. Pre-Semitic Pottery. First Semitic - Pottery to 1800 B. C. Pottery of Second Semitic Period. - Third Semitic Period. Israelitish or Fourth Semitic Period. - Hellenistic Period. - - IX. UTENSILS AND PERSONAL ORNAMENTS 149 - - X. MEASURES, WEIGHTS, AND MONEY 158 - - Measures. Weights. Inscribed Weights. Money. - - XI. HIGH PLACES AND TEMPLES 167 - - A Sanctuary of the Pre-Semitic Cave-Dwellers. A Rock-Altar - at Megiddo. A Rock-Altar at Jerusalem. High Place at Tell - es-Safi. High Place at Gezer. At Taanach. High Places at - Petra. A Supposed Philistine Temple. At Megiddo. The Temple - to Augustus at Samaria. - - XII. THE TOMBS OF PALESTINE 179 - - Burning the Dead. Cave Burials. Cistern Burial. Burial under - Menhirs. Earth-Graves. Rock-Hewn Shaft Tombs. Doorway Tombs. - Tombs with a Rolling-Stone. - - XIII. JERUSALEM 185 - - Situation. Gihon. Cave-Dwellers. The El-Amarna Period. - Jebusite Jerusalem. The City of David. Solomon's Jerusalem. - From Solomon to Hezekiah. Hezekiah. From Hezekiah to the - Exile. The Destruction of 586 B. C. The Second Temple. - Nehemiah and the Walls. Late Persian and Early Greek - Periods. In the Time of the Maccabees. Asmonæan Jerusalem. - Herod the Great. The Pool of Bethesda. Gethsemane. Calvary. - Agrippa I and the Third Wall. - - XIV. THE DECAPOLIS 213 - - Origin. Damascus. Scythopolis. Cities East of the Sea of - Galilee. Gadara. Pella and Dion. Gerasa. Philadelphia. Jesus - in the Decapolis. - - XV. ATHENS, CORINTH, AND THE CHURCHES OF ASIA 219 - - - PART II - - I. AN EPIC OF THE CREATION WHICH CIRCULATED IN BABYLON AND - ASSYRIA IN THE SEVENTH CENTURY B. C. 235 - - Text of the Epic. Comparison of the Epic with the First - Chapter of Genesis. The Epic and Other Parts of the Bible. - - II. ANOTHER ACCOUNT OF THE CREATION FOUND AT BABYLON 255 - - Text of the Account. Comparison of it with Genesis 2. - - III. THE BABYLONIAN SABBATH 258 - - Feast of Marduk and Zarpanit. A Day called Shabatum. A Day - in Some Tablets at Yale. - - IV. THE LEGEND OF ADAPA AND THE FALL OF MAN 260 - - Comparison with Genesis 3. The Adapa Myth. - - V. THE PATRIARCHS BEFORE THE FLOOD 264 - - Babylonian Long-Lived Kings. Comparison with Genesis 5. - Comparison with Genesis 4. Comparison with the List of - Berossos. - - VI. A BABYLONIAN ACCOUNT OF THE FLOOD, FROM A TABLET WRITTEN - AT NINEVEH IN THE SEVENTH CENTURY B. C. 273 - - Translation of the Text. Comparison with Genesis 6-9. - Another Babylonian Version. - - VII. AN ACCOUNT OF THE CREATION AND FLOOD, FROM A TABLET - WRITTEN AT NIPPUR BEFORE 2000 B. C. 278 - - Translation. Comparison with the Other Version. - - VIII. AN ACCOUNT OF THE ORIGIN OF A CITY AND THE BEGINNING OF - AGRICULTURE, FROM A TABLET WRITTEN AT NIPPUR BEFORE 2000 B. C. 283 - - Translation. Comparison with Biblical Material. - - IX. ABRAHAM AND ARCHÆOLOGY 290 - - Abraham hired an Ox. Abraham leased a Farm. Abraham paid his - Rent. Who was this Abraham? Travel between Babylonia and - Palestine. Hammurapi, King of the Westland. Kadur-Mabug. - Kings supposed by some to be those of Genesis 14. - - X. JACOB AND JOSEPH 299 - - Appearances of these Names in Babylonian and Egyptian - Records. "The Tale of the Two Brothers"; its Bearing on the - Story of Joseph in Genesis. Letters to a Ruler like Joseph. - The Seven Years of Famine. Inscription showing Preparation - for Famine. - - XI. PALESTINE IN THE PATRIARCHAL AGE 307 - - The Tale of Sinuhe. Communication between Egypt and - Palestine. - - XII. MOSES AND THE EXODUS 310 - - The Legend of Sargon of Agade; its Resemblance to the Story - of Moses. The Pillar of Merneptah; the Only Appearance of - the Name "Israel" outside of the Bible. - - XIII. THE CODE OF HAMMURAPI AND THE PENTATEUCH 313 - - The Text of the Code; Resemblance to and Contrast with the - Mosaic Code. The Mosaic Code not borrowed from the - Babylonian; Different Underlying Conceptions. - - XIV. AN ALLEGED PARALLEL TO LEVITICUS--A CARTHAGINIAN LAW - CONCERNING SACRIFICES 342 - - The Text of the Carthaginian Law. Comparison with the - Levitical Law. - - XV. SOME LETTERS FROM PALESTINE 344 - - Letters of Rib-Adda of Gebal. Of Ebed-Hepa of Jerusalem. - Their Light on Conditions in the Period of the Egyptian - Domination of Palestine. - - XVI. DOCUMENTS FROM THE TIME OF ISRAEL'S JUDGES 352 - - Report of Wenamon. Its Illustration of Certain Points of - Biblical History about the Time of Deborah or Gideon. - Reference to the Philistines. - - XVII. ARCHÆOLOGICAL LIGHT ON THE BOOKS OF KINGS 358 - - Gudea and Cedar-Wood for his Palace. The Eponym Canon. The - Seal of Shema. Shishak's List of Conquered Asiatic Cities. - Ashurnasirpal's Description of his Expedition to - Mediterranean Lands. Shalmaneser III's Claims regarding - Tribute from the Kings of Israel. The Moabite Stone. - Adadnirari IV's Mention of the "Land of Omri." Inscription - describing Tiglathpileser IV's Campaign. Sargon's Conquests. - Sennacherib's Western Campaigns. The Siloam Inscription. - Esarhaddon's List of Conquered Kings. Ashurbanipal's - Assyrian Campaign. Necho of Egypt. Nebuchadrezzar II. - Evil-Merodach. Discoveries in Sheba. - - XVIII. THE END OF THE BABYLONIAN EXILE 382 - - Inscriptions of Nabuna'id; their Bearing on Biblical - Statements regarding Belshazzar. Account of the Capture of - Babylon bearing on the Book of Daniel. Inscription of Cyrus - bearing on the Capture of Babylon. Cyrus's Permission for - the Return to Jerusalem. - - XIX. A JEWISH COLONY IN EGYPT DURING THE TIME OF NEHEMIAH 387 - - Papyri Witness to the Existence of a Colony at Elephantine. - Translation of a Petition relating to their Temple. Reply of - Persian Governor. Historical Bearings of these Documents. A - Letter relating to the Passover. A Letter showing that the - Jews were Unpopular at Elephantine. - - XX. A BABYLONIAN JOB 392 - - Translation of a Poem relating to the Afflictions of a Good - Man. Comparison with the Book of Job. A Fragment of Another - Similar Poem. - - XXI. PSALMS FROM BABYLONIA AND EGYPT 398 - - Character of their Psalms. Babylonian Prayers to the Goddess - Ishtar. Comparison with the Psalter. A Babylonian Hymn to - the Moon-God. A Babylonian Hymn to Bel. An Egyptian Hymn to - the Sun-God. Is the Hymn Monotheistic? An Egyptian Hymn in - Praise of Aton. Comparison with the Psalter. - - XXII. PARALLELS TO PROVERBS AND ECCLESIASTES 407 - - The Nature of the Book of Proverbs and the Parallels. - Babylonian Proverbs from the Library of Ashurbanipal. - Precepts from the Library of Ashurbanipal. Comparison with - the Bible. Egyptian Precepts of Ptahhotep. Comparison with - the Bible. Parallel to Ecclesiastes from the Gilgamesh Epic. - - XXIII. EGYPTIAN PARALLELS TO THE SONG OF SONGS 413 - - Nature of the Song of Songs. Translation of Some Egyptian - Love-Poems. Comparison with Biblical Passages. - - XXIV. ILLUSTRATIONS OF PASSAGES IN THE PROPHETS 417 - - Uniqueness of the Prophetic Books. An Assyrian Prophetic - Vision. Comparison with the Bible. The Egyptian Social - Conscience. Tale of the Eloquent Peasant. Comparison with - the Bible. An Ideal King; Extract from the Admonitions of - Ipuwer. Comparison with Messianic Expectations. Sheol. - Ishtar's Descent to the Underworld. Comparison with - Prophetic Passages. A Lamentation for Tammuz. - - XXV. REPUTED SAYINGS OF JESUS FOUND IN EGYPT 428 - - Early Collections of the Words of Jesus. Translation of - Sayings found in 1897. Comments. Translation of a Leaf found - in 1904. Comments. Opinions as to these Sayings. - - XXVI. ARCHÆOLOGICAL LIGHT ON THE ENROLMENT OF QUIRINIUS 432 - - Translation of a Papyrus showing that in the Second Century - Enrolment was made Every Fourteen Years. Comments. - Translation referring to an Enrolment in the Reign of Nero. - Fragment from the Reign of Tiberius. Enrolments probably - inaugurated by Augustus. Document showing that People went - to their own towns for Enrolment. Inscription supposed to - refer to Quirinius. Inscription from Asia Minor referring to - Quirinius. Discussion. Conclusions. - - XXVII. ARCHÆOLOGICAL LIGHT ON THE ACTS AND EPISTLES 438 - - The Politarchs of Thessalonica. An Altar to Unknown Gods. An - Inscription from Delphi and the Date of Paul's Contact with - Gallio. Some Epistles from Egypt. Inscriptions mentioning - Aretas, King of Arabia. - - APPENDIX 445 - - Discoveries at Carchemish. Hrozny's Decipherment of Hittite. - Discoveries at Jerusalem and Balata. A New Babylonian - Account of the Creation of Man. Reports of Commanders of - Egyptian Frontier-Fortresses Relating to the Entrance of - Asiatics into Egypt in Time of Famine. Supposed Trace of the - Ten Lost Tribes in Mesopotamia. - - INDEX OF SCRIPTURE PASSAGES 453 - - INDEX 459 - - ILLUSTRATIONS: Plates 1-114. - - - - -LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS - - - A Hillside Street in Roman Jerusalem along which Jesus - and the Disciples may well have walked _Frontispiece._ - - FIGURE PLATE - - 1 Syrian Traders in Egypt, from a Tomb at Beni Hasan (_after - Ball_) 1 - - 2 Crown of Lower Egypt 1 - - 3 Crown of Upper Egypt 1 - - 4 Crown of United Egypt 1 - - 5 Sphinx and Pyramid of Khafre 1 - - 6 Pyramids of Khufu and Khafre 2 - - 7 Step Pyramid of Zoser 2 - - 8 Body from a Pre-dynastic Tomb 3 - - 9 Head of the Mummy of Ramses II 3 - - 10 A Store-Chamber at Pithom (_after Naville_) 4 - - 11 Ancient and Modern Brick-Making (_after Petrie_) 4 - - 12 Plan of City and Temple of Leontopolis (_after Petrie_) 5 - - 13 A Passover-Oven (_after Petrie_) 5 - - 14 The Rosetta Stone (_after Thomas Nelson and Sons_) 6 - - 15 The "Israel" Inscription of Merneptah 6 - - 16 Mounds of Nuffar (_after Clay_) 7 - - 17 Excavation at Nuffar (_after Clay_) 7 - - 18 Gate of Ishtar, Babylon (_after Koldewey_) 8 - - 19 Phalanx of Soldiers from Eannatum's "Stele of Vultures" 8 - - 20 Inscribed Column from Persepolis 9 - - 21 Silver Vase of Entemena 9 - - 22 Mound of Birs Nimrûd (_after Peters_) 9 - - 23 Hittite Gates at Boghaz Koi (_after Puchstein_) 10 - - 24 Hittite Types from Egyptian Monuments (_after Garstang_) 10 - - 25 A Hittite King (_after Puchstein_) 11 - - 26 The Boss of Tarkondemos 11 - - 27 The Seal of Shema, Servant of Jeroboam 11 - - 28 Tell el-Hesy after Excavation 12 - - 29 The Site of the Old Testament Jericho 12 - - 30 Excavation of Gezer 13 - - 31 Remains of a Colonnaded Street at Samaria 13 - - 32 Excavation at Tell Hum 14 - - 33 Egyptians Attacking a Palestinian City (_after Perrot and - Chipiez_) 14 - - 34 Israelitish Jericho (_after Sellin_) 15 - - 35 Israelitish Houses at Jericho (_after Sellin_) 15 - - 36 Philistines from the Palace of Ramses III 16 - - 37 Canaanitish Fortress at Jericho (_after Sellin_) 16 - - 38 Inscribed Disc from Phæstos (one-fourth actual size) 17 - - 39 Gebel Fureidis 17 - - 40 Bastion for the Protection of an Inserted Tower (_after - Macalister_) 18 - - 41 Remains of Walls of Megiddo (_after Schumacher_) 18 - - 42 Walls of Buildings at Samaria (_after Reisner_) 19 - - 43 Specimens of Stone-Work at Gezer (_after Macalister_) 19 - - 44 Building-Bricks from Gezer (_after Macalister_) 19 - - 45 Plan of Palace at Taanach (_after Sellin_) 20 - - 46 The Great City Wall at Gezer (_after Macalister_) 20 - - 47 Israelitish Houses at Gezer 21 - - 48 Specimens of Mosaic Floors (_after Macalister_) 21 - - 49 A Doorway at Gezer (_after Macalister_) 22 - - 50 Door-Sockets from Gezer (_after Macalister_) 22 - - 51 Supposed House of Hiel, Jericho (_after Sellin_) 23 - - 52 Foundation of the Palace of Omri, Samaria (_after Reisner_) 23 - - 53 Hebrew Palace at Megiddo (_after Schumacher_) 23 - - 54 Plan of the Maccabæan Castle at Gezer (_after Macalister_) 24 - - 55 Stone-Work of the Maccabæan Castle (_after Macalister_) 24 - - 56 A Foundation-Deposit, Gezer (_after Macalister_) 24 - - 57 A City Gate at Megiddo (_after Schumacher_) 25 - - 58 The South Gate at Gezer (_after Macalister_) 25 - - 59 The South Gate at Beth-shemesh (_after Mackenzie_) 25 - - 60 Entrance to the Underground Tunnel at Gezer (_after - Macalister_) 26 - - 61 The North Gate at Gezer (_after Macalister_) 26 - - 62 Plans of the Underground Tunnel at Gezer (_after Macalister_) 27 - - 63 Plan of Underground Tunnel at Gibeon (_after Abel_) 28 - - 64 One of Solomon's Pools 28 - - 65 Post of City Gate, Samaria (_after Reisner_) 29 - - 66 Part of City Wall and Gate, Samaria (_after Reisner_) 29 - - 67 Road South of Gerizim 30 - - 68 Lines of Roman Roads at Tell el-Ful 30 - - 69 Roman Road North of Amman 30 - - 70 A Granary at Gezer (_after Macalister_) 31 - - 71 Some Roman Mile-Stones 31 - - 72 Plan of a Granary at Gezer (_after Macalister_) 31 - - 73 A Hoe (_after Macalister_) 32 - - 74 An Egyptian Reaping (_after Wreszinski_) 32 - - 75 A Sickle (_after Wreszinski_) 32 - - 76 Plowshares from Megiddo (_after Schumacher_) 32 - - 77 Egyptian Plowing (_after Wilkinson_) 33 - - 78 A Modern Threshing-Floor 33 - - 79 Egyptians Threshing and Winnowing (_after Wilkinson_) 33 - - 80 Egyptian Threshing-Sledge (_after Wilkinson_) 33 - - 81 A Saddle-Quern from Megiddo (_after Schumacher_) 34 - - 82 A Rotary-Quern (_after Macalister_) 34 - - 83 A Mortar and Pestle (_after Macalister_) 34 - - 84 Two Women Grinding at a Mill (_after Schumacher_) 34 - - 85 An Ancient Olive-Press (_after Macalister_) 35 - - 86 A Modern Olive-Press (_after Macalister_) 35 - - 87 A Wine Vat (_after Macalister_) 36 - - 88 An Olive-Press at Work (_after Macalister_) 36 - - 89 Cows' Horns from Gezer (_after Macalister_) 37 - - 90 Animals' Heads from Gezer (_after Macalister_) 37 - - 91 A Horse's Bit from Gezer (_after Macalister_) 37 - - 92 Drawings of Horses from Gezer (_after Macalister_) 37 - - 93 A Clay Bird from Gezer (_after Macalister_) 38 - - 94 A Cock from Marissa (_after Peters and Thiersch_) 38 - - 95 A Bee-Hive from Gezer (_after Macalister_) 38 - - 96 Pre-Semitic Jars (_after Macalister_) 39 - - 97 Pre-Semitic Pottery (_after Macalister_) 39 - - 98 Four Pitchers from the First Semitic Stratum (_after - Macalister_) 39 - - 99 Three Pitchers from the First Semitic Stratum (_after - Macalister_) 39 - - 100 A Jar from the First Semitic Stratum (_after Macalister_) 39 - - 101 Jugs from the Second Semitic Stratum (_after Macalister_) 40 - - 102 A Jug from the Second Semitic Stratum (_after Macalister_) 40 - - 103 A Jar from the Second Semitic Stratum (_after Macalister_) 40 - - 104 Some Fine Pottery from the First Semitic Stratum (_after - Macalister_) 41 - - 105 "Ear" and "Button" Jar-Handles (_after Macalister_) 41 - - 106 A "Pillar" Handle (_after Macalister_) 41 - - 107 A Flat-bottomed Jug (_after Macalister_) 41 - - 108 A Painted Philistine Vase from Beth-shemesh (_after Mackenzie_) 42 - - 109 War-Scene on Potsherd from Megiddo (_after Schumacher_) 42 - - 110 Jars of Third Semitic Stratum from Beth-shemesh (_after - Mackenzie_) 42 - - 111 Hebrew Pottery from Megiddo (_after Schumacher_) 42 - - 112 Hebrew Jars and Pitchers from Jericho (_after Sellin_) 43 - - 113 Hebrew Pitchers and Bowls from Jericho (_after Sellin_) 43 - - 114 A Funnel from Gezer (_after Macalister_) 44 - - 115 A Potter's Seal from Gezer (_after Macalister_) 44 - - 116 An Inscribed Hebrew Jar-Stamp from the Shephelah (_after - Bliss and Macalister_) 44 - - 117 Hebrew Pottery from Gezer (_after Macalister_) 44 - - 118 A Scarab used as a Jar-Stamp (_after Macalister_) 45 - - 119 A Jar-Handle Stamped with a Scarab (_after Macalister_) 45 - - 120 A Jar with Tapering Base from Gezer (_after Macalister_) 45 - - 121 Hellenistic Filter from Gezer (_after Macalister_) 45 - - 122 Hellenistic Pottery from Gezer (_after Macalister_) 45 - - 123 Hellenistic Strainer from Gezer (_after Macalister_) 46 - - 124 Roman Pots from Gezer (_after Macalister_) 46 - - 125 Hellenistic Jar from Gezer (_after Macalister_) 46 - - 126 A Lamp of the First Semitic Period, Megiddo (_after - Schumacher_) 46 - - 127 Lamps from the Second Semitic Period, Gezer (_after - Macalister_) 47 - - 128 Lamps from the Israelitish Period, Gezer (_after Macalister_) 47 - - 129 A Byzantine Lamp from Jericho (_after Sellin_) 47 - - 130 A Lamp bearing a Christian Legend (_after Macalister_) 47 - - 131 Hellenistic Lamps from Gezer (_after Macalister_) 48 - - 132 Hebrew Lamps from Jericho (_after Sellin_) 48 - - 133 Ovens found at Gezer (_after Macalister_) 49 - - 134 A Baking-Tray from Gezer (_after Macalister_) 49 - - 135 Bronze Dishes from Gezer (_after Macalister_) 49 - - 136 Shell Spoons from Gezer (_after Macalister_) 49 - - 137 Silver Dishes from a Philistine Grave at Gezer (_after - Macalister_) 50 - - 138 Glass Ointment Vessels from Gezer (_after Macalister_) 50 - - 139 Feeding-Bottles (?), Gezer (_after Macalister_) 51 - - 140 Forks from Gezer (_after Macalister_) 51 - - 141 Philistine Silver Ladle, Gezer (_after Macalister_) 51 - - 142 Bronze Needles and Pins from Gezer (_after Macalister_) 51 - - 143 Bone Needles from Gezer (_after Macalister_) 52 - - 144 Modern Woman Spinning 52 - - 145 Spindle Whorls from Gezer (_after Macalister_) 52 - - 146 A Large Key from Gezer (_after Macalister_) 52 - - 147 A Smaller Key from Gezer (_after Macalister_) 52 - - 148 Lamp-Stands from Megiddo (_after Schumacher_) 53 - - 149 Flint Knives from Jericho (_after Sellin_) 53 - - 150 Iron Knives from Gezer (_after Macalister_) 54 - - 151 Bronze Knives from Gezer (_after Macalister_) 54 - - 152 A Chisel from Gezer (_after Macalister_) 55 - - 153 A File from Gezer (_after Macalister_) 55 - - 154 A Cone of Flint for making Knives, Gezer (_after Macalister_) 55 - - 155 A Bronze Hammer-Head, Gezer (_after Macalister_) 55 - - 156 A Fish-Hook, Gezer (_after Macalister_) 55 - - 157 A Bone Awl-Handle from Gezer (_after Macalister_) 55 - - 158 Whetstones from Jericho (_after Sellin_) 55 - - 159 Nails from Gezer (_after Macalister_) 55 - - 160 Axe-Heads from Gezer (_after Macalister_) 56 - - 161 Carpenters' Tools from Gezer (_after Macalister_) 56 - - 162 A Scimitar from Gezer (_after Macalister_) 57 - - 163 Impression of a Basket on Mud, Gezer (_after Macalister_) 57 - - 164 Flint Arrow-Heads from Gezer (_after Macalister_) 57 - - 165 Bronze Arrow-Heads from Gezer (_after Macalister_) 57 - - 166 Bronze Swords from Gezer (_after Macalister_) 58 - - 167 Bronze Spear-Heads, Gezer (_after Macalister_) 58 - - 168 A Pipe from Gezer (_after Macalister_) 59 - - 169 An Egyptian Harp (_after Haupt_) 59 - - 170 An Assyrian Upright Harp (_after Haupt_) 59 - - 171 An Assyrian Horizontal Harp (_after Haupt_) 59 - - 172 A Babylonian Harp (_after Haupt_) 59 - - 173 Jewish Harps on Coins of Bar Cocheba, 132-135 A. D. (_after - Madden_) 59 - - 174 Assyrian Dulcimer (_after Haupt_) 59 - - 175 Seals from Gezer (_after Macalister_) 60 - - 176 A Comb from Gezer (_after Macalister_) 60 - - 177 Toys from Gezer (_after Macalister_) 60 - - 178 Styli from Gezer (_after Macalister_) 60 - - 179 Children's Rattles from Gezer (_after Macalister_) 60 - - 180 A Perfume-Box, Gezer (_after Macalister_) 61 - - 181 A Necklace from Gezer (_after Macalister_) 61 - - 182 Bracelets from Gezer (_after Macalister_) 61 - - 183 Spatulæ from Gezer (_after Macalister_) 61 - - 184 Rings from Gezer (_after Macalister_) 61 - - 185 Supposed Hebrew Measures from Jerusalem (_after Germer-Durand_) 62 - - 186 A _Neseph_ Weight 63 - - 187 A _Payim_ Weight belonging to Haverford College 63 - - 188 A _Beqa_ Weight (_after Torrey_) 63 - - 189 A "Daric" of Darius (_after Benzinger_) 63 - - 190 A Tetradrachma of Alexander the Great (_after Benzinger_) 63 - - 191 A Coin of Ptolemy Lagi (_after Benzinger_) 63 - - 192 Half-Shekel of Simon the Maccabee (_after Benzinger_) 64 - - 193 A Coin of John Hyrcanus (_after Madden_) 64 - - 194 Tetradrachma of Lysimachus 64 - - 195 A Coin of Augustus 64 - - 196 A Denarius of Tiberius 64 - - 197 A Coin of Claudius 64 - - 198 A Coin of Herod the Great 64 - - 199 A Roman Quadrans (?) 64 - - 200 A Coin of Herod Agrippa I 64 - - 201 A Shekel of the Revolt of A. D. 70 64 - - 202 Cave-Dwellers' Place of Sacrifice, Gezer (_after Macalister_) 65 - - 203 Plan of Caves at Semitic High Place, Gezer (_after Macalister_) 65 - - 204 "Pillars" of the High Place at Gezer 65 - - 205 Rock-Altar at Megiddo (_after Schumacher_) 66 - - 206 The "Beth-el" of Gezer (_after Macalister_) 66 - - 207 The Supposed Serpent-Pen at Gezer (_after Macalister_) 66 - - 208 The Rock-Altar at Jerusalem (_after Dalman_) 67 - - 209 The Laver at Gezer (_after Macalister_) 67 - - 210 The Terra-cotta Altar from Taanach (_after Sellin_) 68 - - 211 Supposed High Place at Taanach (_after Sellin_) 68 - - 212 High Place at Tell es-Safi (_after Bliss and Macalister_) 69 - - 213 Libation Bowl from Taanach (_after Sellin_) 69 - - 214 An Astarte Plaque from Gezer (_after Macalister_) 69 - - 215 Plan of the High Place at Petra (_after Brünnow_) 70 - - 216 Plan of Herod's Temple at Samaria (_after Lyon_) 70 - - 217 The Altar at Petra (_after Brünnow_) 71 - - 218 The "Round Altar" at Petra (_after Brünnow_) 71 - - 219 Supposed "Pillars" at Petra (_after Brünnow_) 71 - - 219_a_ A Brazen Serpent from Gezer (_after Macalister_) 72 - - 220 Plan of Supposed Semitic Temple at Gezer (_after Macalister_) 72 - - 221 Walls of Herod's Temple, Samaria (_after Reisner_) 72 - - 222 "Pillars" of a Supposed Temple, Gezer (_after Macalister_) 73 - - 223 Chapel of the Palace at Megiddo (_after Schumacher_) 73 - - 224 Voluted Capital (probably Philistine) from Megiddo (_after - Schumacher_) 74 - - 225 Incense-Burner from Megiddo (_after Schumacher_) 74 - - 226 Philistine Graves, Gezer (_after Macalister_) 75 - - 227 A Rock-hewn Tomb at Siloam (_after Benzinger_) 75 - - 228 A Shaft-Tomb (_after Bliss and Macalister_) 75 - - 229 A Cistern-Burial at Gezer (_after Macalister_) 75 - - 230 A Columbarium at Petra (_after Dalman_) 76 - - 231 Entrance to the Tomb of the Judges 76 - - 232 A Sunken-Door Tomb (_after Mitt. u. Nach. d. Deutsch. - Palästina-Vereins_) 77 - - 233 _Kokim_ in the Tomb of the Judges 77 - - 234 Plan of a Hellenistic Tomb at Marissa (_after Peters and - Thiersch_) 78 - - 235 A Cross-Section of the Tomb of the Judges 78 - - 236 Architectural Decoration of a Hellenistic Tomb at Marissa - (_after Peters and Thiersch_) 79 - - 237 Plan of the Upper Floor of the Tomb of the Judges 79 - - 238 A Tomb with a Rolling-Stone at Beit Jibrin (_after Moulton_) 80 - - 239 Interior of a Hellenistic Tomb at Marissa (_after Peters and - Thiersch_) 80 - - 240 The Hills and Valleys of Jerusalem (_after Vincent_) 81 - - 241 Underground Jebusite Tunnel at Gihon, Jerusalem (_after - Vincent_) 82 - - 242 Maudsley's Scarp, Jerusalem 82 - - 243 Plan of Solomon's Buildings, Jerusalem (_after Stade_) 83 - - 244 Phoenician Quarry-Marks, Jerusalem (_after Warren_) 83 - - 245 Shaft at the Southeast Corner of the Temple Area (_after - Warren_) 84 - - 246 Examining Ancient Walls in an Underground Tunnel (_after - Warren_) 84 - - 247 Front Views of Solomon's Temple (_after Stade_) 85 - - 248 Side Views of Solomon's Temple (_after Stade_) 85 - - 249 Plan of Solomon's Temple (_after Stade_) 86 - - 250 The Seven-branched Lamp-Stand from the Arch of Titus 86 - - 251 The Brazen Laver of Solomon's Temple (_after Stade_) 87 - - 252 A Portable Laver of Solomon's Temple (_after Stade_) 87 - - 253 Stone-Work of a Wall of Jerusalem built in the Fifth Century - A. D. 88 - - 254 Stone-Work in Nehemiah's Wall, Jerusalem 88 - - 255 Restoration of the Asmonæan Bridge over the Tyropoeon Valley - (_after Hanauer_) 89 - - 256 Front of "David's Tower" (Herod's Palace) Today (_after Breen_) 89 - - 257 Reconstruction of Herod's Temple (_after Caldecott_) 90 - - 258 "Solomon's Stables" 90 - - 259 One of the Supposed Pools of Bethesda (_after Hanauer_) 91 - - 260 Front of the Church of the Holy Sepulcher 91 - - 261 "Gordon's Calvary," looking toward Jerusalem (_after Breen_) 92 - - 262 "Gordon's Calvary," from the City Wall (_after Breen_) 92 - - 263 Outside of "Gordon's Holy Sepulcher" (_after Breen_) 93 - - 264 Inside of "Gordon's Holy Sepulcher" (_after Breen_) 93 - - 265 The Barada (Abana), Damascus 94 - - 266 The Street Called Straight, Damascus 94 - - 267 Palace at Kanatha (_after Brünnow_) 95 - - 268 Circular Forum and Colonnaded Street, Gerasa 95 - - 269 Temple of the Sun, Gerasa 96 - - 270 Site of Rabbah Ammon 96 - - 271 Theater at Amman (Palestinian Philadelphia) 97 - - 272 Roman Forum at Athens 97 - - 273 Mars' Hill, Athens 98 - - 274 Fountain in the Agora, Corinth 98 - - 275 Lintel of Jewish Synagogue, Corinth (_after Richardson_) 99 - - 276 Lechæum Road, Corinth (_after Richardson_) 99 - - 277 Parthenon, Athens, from the East 100 - - 278 Main Street at Ephesus 100 - - 279 Site of the Temple of Diana, Ephesus, in 1902 101 - - 280 The Theater, Ephesus 101 - - 281 The Amphitheater, Ephesus 102 - - 282 The Stadium, Ephesus 102 - - 283 Pergamum (_after Ramsay_) 103 - - 284 The Acropolis and partly Excavated Temple, Sardis (_after - Butler_) 103 - - 285 Excavated Temple, Sardis, looking toward the Hermus Valley - (_after Butler_) 104 - - 286 A Christian Church at Sardis (_after Butler_) 105 - - 287 Smyrna (_after Ramsay_) 105 - - 288 A Ruin at Laodicea (_after Ramsay_) 106 - - 289 A Bridge over the Jordan on the Line of a Roman Road 106 - - 290 Fragment of a Creation-Tablet 107 - - 291 Assyrian Sacred Tree Conventionalized 107 - - 292 Hammurapi Receiving the Laws from the Sun-God 107 - - 293 The So-called Adam and Eve Seal 107 - - 294 A Tablet from Nippur, Relating the Beginnings of Irrigation - and Agriculture (_after Langdon_) 108 - - 295 Top of the Black Obelisk of Shalmaneser 108 - - 296 Jehu of Israel Doing Homage to Shalmaneser 108 - - 297 The Siloam Inscription 109 - - 298 Sennacherib Receiving Tribute at Lachish (_after Ball_) 109 - - 299 An Altar to Unknown Gods (_after Deissmann_) 110 - - 300 The Moabite Stone 110 - - 301 Papyrus Containing Sayings of Jesus (_after Grenfell and Hunt_) 111 - - - MAPS - - Map of Egypt to First Cataract _Facing page_ 18 - - Map of the Ancient World _Facing page_ 40 - - Map of Palestine _Facing page_ 104 - - PLATE - - Map of Jerusalem in the Time of the Jebusites and David 112 - - Map of Solomon's Jerusalem 112 - - Map of Jerusalem from Hezekiah to the Exile 113 - - Map of Nehemiah's Jerusalem 113 - - Map of Asmonæan Jerusalem 114 - - Map of Herodian Jerusalem 114 - - - - -EXPLANATION OF SIGNS - - - § = section. - - ibid. = the same. - - op. cit. = work cited. - - f. = and following page. - - ff. = and following pages. - - cf. = compare. - - v. = verse. - - col. = column. - - p. = page. - - [ ] in translations of tablets indicate words supplied where not - decipherable. - - ..... in translations of tablets indicate missing line or words which - cannot be supplied. - - - - -INTRODUCTION - - -One who would write on archæology and the Bible must at the outset define -the scope of his undertaking, for the word archæology conveys different -meanings to different people. Judgments also differ as to how things -ancient can best serve the interests of the Biblical student. To many the -word archæology calls up visions of ancient pottery, jewelry, swords, -utensils, etc., which are valued as objects of curiosity simply because -they are old. Others, when they think of archæology, call to mind -excavations, in which the walls of ancient temples and cities are laid -bare, so that we may see how men lived in other days. To such, archæology -is identical with antiquarianism. A book on archæology and the Bible -written from this point of view would confine itself to the way in which -texts of Scripture are illustrated or illumined by antiquarian objects. - -To still others the word archæology calls up ancient tablets or papyri, -inscribed with hieroglyphics or some other strange characters, from which -the initiated can decipher texts that prove the truth of one's views of -Scripture. According to this view, archæology is the science of ancient -documents, and a book dealing with archæology and the Bible should confine -itself to the discussion of documents which confirm or illustrate the -Biblical text. - -Those who hold either of these views of archæology will find in this book -much that will accord with their expectations, but much also that will -seem to them irrelevant. In Part I, Chapters IV, VI-XII deal with -antiquities, their discovery, and the light which these shed upon the -inspired page, for antiquarianism is a part of archæology. Portions of -Part I are devoted to the discovery of inscribed objects; in Part II the -reader will find a full presentation of the bearing of these upon the -different parts of the Sacred Volume. Those who hold the second of the -views mentioned above will not, therefore, be disappointed. - -Neither of the views mentioned corresponds, however, with the limits of -archæology. Archæology is "that branch of knowledge which takes cognizance -of past civilizations, and investigates their history in all fields, by -means of the remains of art, architecture, monuments, inscriptions, -literature, language, implements, customs, and all other examples which -have survived."[1] This definition is accepted by the writer of this work -and has guided him in the preparation of the following pages. It has, of -course, been impossible in one volume to deal adequately with the -antiquities and the ancient documents and to treat fully the history of -the civilizations of the Biblical countries, but an endeavor has been made -to place the reader in possession of an intelligent point of view with -reference to these things. As the physical structure of a country -determines to a large degree the nature of its buildings, the utensils -employed by its inhabitants, their writing materials, and their relations -with other peoples,--as well as the way the objects were preserved from -ancient to modern times,--brief descriptions of the physical features of -Egypt, Mesopotamia, and Palestine, the three most prominent of Biblical -countries, have been introduced. - -Our knowledge of the early history of Egypt and Babylonia has come almost -wholly from archæological exploration; it has seemed fitting, therefore, -to introduce in Part I, Chapter I, § 6, and Chapter II, § 6, brief -sketches of the history of these countries. This appeared all the more -necessary since the inhabitants of these two countries worked out, in -advance of any other peoples, the initial problems of civilization. -Palestine borrowed from them both, so that it is impossible to understand -the history and archæology of Palestine apart from Egyptian and Babylonian -antecedents. Whenever it is possible the reader should supplement these -sketches by reference to the larger works cited in the notes. - -Similarly in Part I, Chapter V, an outline of the history of Palestine -from the earliest times is presented. To some this may seem unnecessary, -since centuries of that history passed before the Hebrew people came to -the country, but it is hoped that every reader will be glad to know the -various vicissitudes through which passed the land that was chosen by God -as the home of the religious leaders of the human race. This history also -gives emphasis to the promise "to give thee great and goodly cities, which -thou buildedst not, and houses full of all good things, which thou -filledst not, and cisterns hewn out, which thou hewedst not, vineyards and -olive-trees, which thou plantedst not" (Deut. 6:10, 11). - -Some, too, may be surprised that the chronologies of Egypt and Babylonia -and Assyria should be treated as fully as they are in Part I, Chapter I, § -5, and Chapter II, § 5, but in the writer's view this treatment was -necessary and appropriate for several reasons: (1) The data on which these -chronologies are built up are for the most part the fruits of -archæological research. (2) They are our only means of measuring the -antiquity of civilization, since the Bible itself affords no continuous -system of chronology.[2] If the student of the Bible is to have any -intelligent idea of what "the fulness of time" (Gal. 4:4) means, he should -know what the sources of our chronology are and how they are rightly used. -(3) Such a presentation seemed all the more necessary because in many -books, especially those of some English Egyptologists, the materials are -employed uncritically, and civilization is made to appear much older than -it really is. - -To accomplish all these aims the writer has adopted the following plan: In -three chapters the archæology, history, and civilization of Egypt, -Babylonia and Assyria, and the Hittites are briefly treated, together with -the discoveries which especially interest the Biblical student. These are -the three great civilizations which preceded the Israelitish. A much more -detailed treatment is given to Palestine, to which Chapters IV-XIV of Part -I are devoted. In the last chapter of Part I an attempt has been made to -present the discoveries in Greece and Asia Minor which throw light on the -New Testament. In Part II the texts, Babylonian, Assyrian, Egyptian, -Hebrew, Moabitish, Phoenician, Aramaic, Greek, and Latin, which bear on -the Bible, are translated. They are arranged in the order of the Biblical -books which they illuminate. Each translation is accompanied by a brief -discussion in which its chief bearing on the Bible is pointed out. - -In conclusion it may not be out of place to offer a word of guidance to -two or three classes of readers. Those who are not interested in the -history of Babylonia and Egypt, but wish simply to know what has been -discovered in those countries which throws light on the Scriptures, should -turn at once to Part I, Chapter I, § 7, and Chapter II, § 7, and to the -translations of the various texts in Part II. A reader that is interested -especially in Palestine, rather than in the ancient civilizations to which -the Hebrews were indebted, should begin Part I at Chapter IV. Possibly -after he has read that which the Holy Land has contributed to the -understanding of the Bible, he may be ready to give a little attention to -such outlying peoples as the Egyptians, Babylonians, and Hittites. In that -case he will turn back and read Chapters I-III. - -Pastors or Sunday-school teachers who wish to employ the book as a tool by -means of which to study certain texts or lessons should follow a different -course. These will be able with the aid of the full index of Scripture -references to turn at once to all the material bearing on the passage in -question. If the use of this index does not afford all the information -desired, reference should then be made to the analytical table of contents -at the beginning, or to the index of subjects at the end, or to both. - -It is the writer's hope that, in addition to its use as a book of -reference for the elucidation or illustration of individual texts, there -may be some who will enjoy reading the whole work, and who will find, as -he himself has found, that every scrap of knowledge of ancient life in -Bible lands serves to make the Bible story and the lives of Biblical -characters so much more real, or puts them or their words in a perspective -so much more clear, that the eternal message comes with new power and can -be transmitted with greater efficiency. - - - - -PART I - -THE BIBLE LANDS, THEIR EXPLORATION, AND THE RESULTANT LIGHT ON THE BIBLE -AND HISTORY - - - - -ARCHÆOLOGY AND THE BIBLE - - - - -CHAPTER I - -EGYPT - - THE LAND. THE PRESERVATION OF ANTIQUITIES. EGYPTIAN DISCOVERIES. - DECIPHERMENT. CHRONOLOGY. OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY: The pre-dynastic - period. The archaic period. The old kingdom. The first period of - disintegration. The middle kingdom. Second period of disintegration. - The empire period. The period of foreign dynasties. The lower empire. - The Persian period. The Ptolemaic period. The Roman period. EGYPTIAN - DISCOVERIES WHICH BEAR ON THE BIBLE: Texts bearing on the story of - Joseph. The Invasion of Egypt by the Hyksos. The El-Amarna letters. - Period of the Oppression and the Exodus. Campaign of Sheshonk I. - Papyri discovered at Elephantine. The palace of Hophra. The castle at - Tahpanhes. The Jewish temple at Leontopolis. Papyri from Oxyrhynchus. - Discoveries in Nubia. - - -=1. The Land.=--Egypt is in many ways unique among the countries of the -world. One of these unique features is its form. If we omit the Delta, it -has but one dimension,--length. From Cairo to the First Cataract is a -distance of 583 miles, while the breadth of the valley, including the -barren lands on each side of it, varies from 12-1/2 to 31 miles. If we -include Nubia to the Fourth Cataract, which the Egyptians ultimately -conquered, the length is much greater, being about 1,100 miles. In Nubia -the banks are much more precipitous, the valley varying from 5 to 9-1/2 -miles. The verdant portion is, however, often not more than a mile in -width. - -This land is flanked on each side by extensive barren deserts on which -there is almost no rainfall. Egypt itself would be a part of this desert, -were it not for the overflow of the Nile. This overflow is caused by the -peculiar formation of this marvelous river. - -The upper part of the Nile consists of two main branches, called, -respectively, the White and the Blue Nile. The White Nile rises 3 degrees -south of the equator, some 4,000 miles south of the Mediterranean, to the -south of Lake Victoria Nyanza. This region is watered by tropical rains, -which fall almost daily. This steady water supply gives to the Nile its -constant volume. At Khartum, 1,350 miles from the Mediterranean in a -direct line, and 1,650 miles as the river winds, the White Nile is joined -by the Blue Nile. This branch of the river drains a large part of -Abyssinia, an upland and mountainous region which has a dry and a rainy -season. In the dry season this stream dwindles almost to nothing; in the -rainy season it is a turbid mountain torrent, which rushes impetuously -onward, laden with loose soil from all the land which it drains. For this -reason it is called the Blue, _i. e._, the Dark or Turbid, Nile. - -At a distance of 140 miles north of the union of the two Niles the river -receives its only other tributary, the Atbara, which also flows in from -the eastern side. The Atbara, like the Blue Nile, is an insignificant -stream except in the rainy season, when it is a torrent. - -It is the variation of the water supply from the Blue Nile and Atbara -which causes the overflow of the river in Egypt. At the beginning of June -the river begins slowly to swell; between the 15th and the 20th of July -the increase becomes very rapid; toward the end of September the water -ceases to rise and remains at the same height for twenty to thirty days. -In October it rises again, attaining its greatest height. It then -decreases, and in January, February, and March the fields gradually dry -off. This overflow prepares the soil of Egypt for cultivation, first by -softening it and then by fertilizing it. It was easy, under these -conditions, to develop agriculture there. - -Indeed, the width of productive Egypt is determined by the lateral extent -of this overflow. For the last 1,500 miles of its course the Nile receives -no tributary. It plows its way through regions of desert which, but for -the Nile itself, are unbroken. At six points, beginning at Khartum and -ending at Assuan, the river makes its way over granite ridges, through -which it has never succeeded in cutting a smooth channel. These are called -the Cataracts. As civilized man discovered these from the north, that at -Assuan is known as the First Cataract, and that at Khartum as the Sixth. -The calendar of ancient Egypt was shaped in part by the Nile. The year was -divided into three seasons of four months each. Beginning with the rise of -the water about July 19th, there was the season of the inundation, which -was followed by four months of winter and four months of summer. - -[Illustration: MAP OF EGYPT.] - -In late geologic time all Egypt north of Cairo was a bay of the -Mediterranean. In the course of the centuries the sea has been driven out -by deposits of detritus brought down by the Nile. As the mud was deposited -in this level region, the water continued to make its way through it here -and there. Several mouths were kept open, and thus the Delta was formed. -This Delta is called Lower Egypt. Upper Egypt extends from Cairo to the -First Cataract; Nubia, from the First Cataract to the Sixth. - -=2. The Preservation of Antiquities.=--Rain in Egypt is very, very rare. -One might almost say that it never rains. The country lies in a latitude -so far south that frost is rarely known. These two conditions have united -to preserve the ruins of many ancient buildings in both Egypt and Nubia in -a state of perfection which is rare in other countries. It was the custom -of the ancient Egyptians to bury their dead in the dry land beyond the -reach of the Nile's overflow. Like many other peoples, they placed in the -tombs of their dead many objects used by the departed in life. Further, -their peculiar beliefs concerning immortality led them to mummify the -bodies of the departed; _i. e._, they fortified them against decay. Thus -archæological objects have been preserved in Egypt in an abundance and a -perfection without parallel. So many of these are massive temples of -stone, which, through all the ages, have stood unconcealed as silent -witnesses of a past greatness, that from Cairo to the First Cataract Egypt -is one great archæological museum. - -=3. Egyptian Discoveries.=--Although many Egyptian antiquities have always -been visible, they attracted little attention until modern times. Egyptian -temple walls are covered with hieroglyphic writing, but the art of reading -it had long been lost. Coptic, a language descended from the ancient -Egyptian, was still preserved as the sacred language of the Egyptian -Church, as Latin is the ecclesiastical language of Roman Catholics, but no -one realized that Coptic was simply late Egyptian. - -In the seventeenth century European travelers began to bring home Egyptian -antiquities. In 1683 a specimen of Egyptian art was presented to the -Ashmolean Museum at Oxford. In the eighteenth century R. Pococke -(1704-1765) and F. L. Norden (1704-1742) described a number of Egyptian -ruins and identified a number of the sites mentioned by classical authors. -Pococke was an Englishman and Norden a Dane. Others, like the explorer -Bruce, who was seeking the sources of the Nile (1768-1773), participated -to some extent in the work. - -No systematic examination of the antiquities was made, however, until the -time of Napoleon I. When Napoleon invaded Egypt in 1798, he was -accompanied by an army of eminent scholars and artists, nearly a hundred -strong, and although in the settlement with England, which followed in -1802, the French were compelled to surrender their archæological treasures -to Great Britain, they were permitted to publish the results of their -observations and explorations. The publication of these advanced slowly, -but between 1809 and 1822 the great work, consisting of one volume of -introduction, three volumes of plates, and three volumes of texts, was -given to the world. In these volumes the antiquities from the First -Cataract to Alexandria were systematically described, and many of them -were reproduced in magnificent water-color illustrations. As the -nineteenth century progressed, additional discoveries were made, partly by -the labors of such scientists as Lepsius and Mariette, and partly through -the rifling of tombs by natives, who often sold their finds to Europeans. -Since Egypt passed under English control, exploration has been fostered by -the government, and English, French, German, Italian, and American -explorers have taken part in it. The tombs of many of the ancient -Pharaohs, the mummies of a considerable number of them, all sorts of -implements and household furniture, have been discovered, as well as a -great variety of historical, literary, religious, and business documents. - -Within the last twenty years a series of tombs of a previously unknown -type has been discovered. The bodies buried in these tombs did not lie on -the back as the ordinary Egyptian mummy does, but on the side, with the -knees drawn up to the chin. It was at first thought that these tombs were -the work of a new race of men who had invaded Egypt at some time in the -historical period, but further study indicates that they are the tombs of -the early Egyptians from whom the Egyptians known to history were -descended. - -=4. Decipherment.=--One of the objects found by the French at the time of -Napoleon's expedition was the "Rosetta Stone," so called because found at -Rosetta (_Ar-Rashid_), a town near the mouth of the westernmost of the -large branches of the Nile. This stone was set up about 200 B. C. by some -priests, who expressed, through the inscription which it bore, their -thanks to the young king, Ptolemy V, because certain taxes formerly -imposed on them had been remitted. The inscription was written in three -kinds of writing--hieroglyphic Egyptian (picture-writing), demotic -Egyptian (developed from picture-writing), and Greek; (see Fig. 14). It -was among the objects which the English took in 1802, and had been placed -in the British Museum. Although the Greek portion of the inscription could -be easily read, the attempts of various scholars, through a period of -twenty years, had succeeded in establishing the values of only a few -characters of the Egyptian. In 1818 Jean François Champollion, a French -scholar, who before this had busied himself with the study of Coptic and -Egyptian geography, began the study of the Rosetta Stone. He assumed that -the language of the upper registers must be an older form of the Coptic -tongue. By a most painstaking comparison of the characters in the upper -registers with the Coptic equivalents of the words in the lower or Greek -register, he succeeded in deciphering the long-forgotten writing of -ancient Egypt. He published his discovery in 1822. Thus the door to the -historical and literary treasures of ancient Egypt was unlocked, and from -that time to this the study of Egyptian inscriptions and documents has -gone steadily forward. Many universities now maintain chairs of -Egyptology. The ability to read Egyptian has opened up vistas of history -of which men had hitherto no conception. - -=5. Chronology.=--We are dependent for our main outline of Egyptian -chronology upon the work of Manetho, an Egyptian priest, who lived about -250 B. C., and wrote a chronicle of his native land in the Greek language. -He grouped the kings of Egypt from the time of Menes (or Mena) to the -conquest of Alexander the Great (332 B. C.) into thirty-one dynasties. -Manetho's dynasties enable scholars to determine the relative order of the -kings, and thus form the backbone of our chronology. Around his statements -the discoveries of the excavators and explorers are grouped. Manetho's -work has not, however, come down to us. We know it only through quotations -in the _Chronographiai_ of Julius Africanus (221 A. D.) and the -_Chronicon_ of Eusebius of Cesarea (265-340 A. D.). The number of years -assigned to each king, and consequently the length of time covered by the -dynasties, differ in these two copies, so that, while the work of Manetho -forms the backbone of our chronology, it gives us no absolutely reliable -chronology. It is for this reason that the chronological schemes of modern -scholars have differed so widely. - -Another source of chronological information is the so-called "Palermo -Stone," which is preserved in the Museum of Palermo, Sicily. This stone is -a hard diorite, and is but a fragment of the original. It was inscribed -about the middle of the fifth dynasty, and originally contained a list of -the kings of Egypt from a time long before Mena to the middle of the fifth -dynasty. Though now but a fragment, it is still of great value for the -period which it covers. In addition to this, we also have the King List of -Karnak, set up by Thothmes III, of the eighteenth dynasty, the King List -of Abydos, inscribed by Seti I and Ramses II, of the nineteenth dynasty, -and the King List of Sakkarah, inscribed by Ramses II. As these are all -simply selections from the list of the predecessors of their authors, they -are of secondary importance. The "Turin Papyrus" would be of value -chronologically, but for its unfortunate history. This papyrus originally -contained the most complete list of Egyptian kings that has come down to -us, with the exception of Manetho's chronology. It formed part of the -collection of M. Drovetti, the French Consul-General in Egypt. The -collection was offered to the French government in 1818, but was finally -purchased by the king of Sardinia. When the collection arrived in Turin, -it was found that this papyrus was broken into small fragments in the -bottom of the box in which it had been shipped. The fragments were -afterward (1824) examined by Champollion the younger, who discovered their -true character. In 1826 another Egyptologist went to Turin and joined the -fragments; but the science of Egyptology was then in its infancy, and he -in his ignorance joined pieces which did not naturally belong together. -For this reason it is only occasionally that the document yields us any -chronological data. - -The greatest aid in fixing Egyptian chronology is the "Sothic Cycle." At -an early date the Egyptians adopted a calendar which made up a year of 365 -days. Their year originally began when the rapid rising of the Nile -coincided with the rising of the star Sirius, called by them Sothis. These -events coincided on July 19th. As their calendar made no allowance for -leap year, in four years their new year began a day too soon, in eight -years two days too soon, and so on. In 1,460 years (_i. e._, 365 × 4) -their New Year's Day would make a complete circuit of the year. These -periods of 1,460 years are called Sothic Cycles. Censorinus, in Chapters -XVIII and XXI of his _De Die Natali_, written in 238 A. D., tells us that -a new Sothic cycle began at some time between 140 and 144 A. D. If a new -cycle began in 140 A. D., the previous one began in 1320 B. C.; the one -before that, in 2780 B. C.; and the one before that,--if they had their -calendar so early,--in 4240 B. C. Reisner holds that the Egyptians adopted -their calendar in 2780 B. C., but Meyer and Breasted hold that it is -unthinkable that they should have been without a calendar until that time, -as by that date the civilization of the pyramid builders was at its -height; they accordingly maintain that the Egyptian calendar was adopted -in 4240 B. C. - -An illustration will show how the Sothic cycle helps in determining dates. -A priest in the 120th year of the twelfth dynasty wrote a letter to his -subordinates, to inform them that the rising of Sothis would occur on the -fifteenth day of the eighth month. As there were thirty days in each -month, the year diverged at this time 225 days. This date, then, was just -900 years after the beginning of the cycle in 2780 B. C.; _i. e._, the -letter was written in the year 1880 B. C. It proves that the twelfth -dynasty began in 2000 B. C., and fixes for us all the dates of that -dynasty. The calendar in the so-called _Papyrus Ebers_ shows that in the -tenth year of Amenophis I, of the eighteenth dynasty, the divergence had -increased to 308 days. This must have been 1,232 years after the beginning -of the cycle, which was the year 1548 B. C. Data gained from these -sources are supplemented by what is called dead reckoning; _i. e._, by -adding together all the specific dates of the length of reigns which are -given in the inscriptions, and testing them by collateral references. -Meyer and Breasted have worked out the chronology from these data in this -way. Meyer places the accession of Mena at 3200 B. C., while Breasted -places it at 3400 B. C. This difference is slight when compared with the -differences in the chronologies of the older Egyptologists. - -=6. Outline of History.=[3]--The history of Egypt, as it concerns our -subject, extends over a period of five thousand years. It falls into -twelve periods: - -(1) _The Pre-Dynastic Period_, which we suppose extended from about 5000 -B. C., or earlier, until about 3400 B. C., is the period before that -covered by Manetho's dynasties. At the beginning of this period Egypt was -divided into 42 districts, which the Egyptians called _spt_ or _hsp_, and -which the Greeks afterwards called _nomes_. Each nome was occupied by a -different tribe, which at the first lived in isolation from the other -tribes. Each tribe had its god, to which an animal was sacred. This -condition prevailed for so many centuries that the customs of this time -became permanently fixed. The sacredness of these animals continued right -down to Roman times. During this period the dead were buried on their -sides with the knees drawn up to the chin; (see Fig. 8). The Egyptians of -this period lived partly by hunting, partly by fishing, and partly by -agriculture. From objects found in their tombs we infer that they used -stone implements, wore a great many beads, made implements and combs of -bone, made decorated pottery, constructed boats for use on the Nile and -fitted sails to them, and each tribe had its own standard or emblem. Of -course, during the centuries when Egypt was so politically divided there -were many wars between nome and nome. - -After some centuries, through the conquest of one nome by another, these -42 nomes were consolidated into two kingdoms. The 20 nomes of the Delta -formed the kingdom of Lower Egypt; the 22 nomes, which were ranged along -the Nile from Cairo to the First Cataract, formed the kingdom of Upper -Egypt. The symbol of Upper Egypt was a papyrus plant; that of Lower Egypt, -the bee. The crown of Upper Egypt was a kind of tall helmet; that of Lower -Egypt, a diadem of openwork; (see Figs. 2, 3, and 4). - -At what period this union of the nomes into two kingdoms occurred, we can -only conjecture. Probably it was as early as 4200 or 4300 B. C. At all -events, the two kingdoms existed separately for so long a time that their -memory was ever afterward preserved. To the end of Egyptian history the -kings bore the title, "king of Upper Egypt and Lower Egypt." Even in the -Hebrew of the Old Testament the name for Egypt is literally "The two -Egypts." In this long pre-dynastic period the people were gradually -emerging from savagery toward civilization. They were solving the initial -problems of civilized life. According to Meyer and Breasted the people of -Lower Egypt had progressed far enough before 4200 B. C. to invent a -calendar which approximately coincided with the solar year. - -(2) _The Archaic Period._--The history of united Egypt begins with the -reign of Menes or Mena, who in some way, whether by conquest or marriage -is uncertain, united the two crowns. He came from the nome of This, of -which the city of Abydos, sacred to the worship of Osiris, was the chief -town. He and his successors continued to administer the two parts of Egypt -as separate countries. Mena founded the first dynasty, and the second -dynasty seems to have been connected with his house; it was, at all -events, from the nome of This. These two dynasties ruled Egypt for 420 -years, from 3400 to 2980 B. C. This is known as the _archaic period_ of -Egyptian history. Men were, during this time, gradually developing the art -of expressing thought by means of picture-writing. At some time during the -first dynasty the Egyptians began to work the turquoise mines in the Wady -Maghara in the peninsula of Sinai. The tombs of this period were low, flat -houses of brick. The Arabs call them _mastabas_ or "benches." During the -second dynasty the Egyptians began to conceive of their gods in human -form. They preserved the continuity of the earlier animal and bird forms -by putting the old heads on human bodies. - -(3) _The Old Kingdom_ embraces dynasties three to six, and extended from -2980 to 2475 B. C., a period of more than 500 years. During the third and -fourth dynasties the power of the king was supreme and the first great -culmination of Egypt's civilization occurred. It was in this period that -the pyramids developed. Zoser, the first king of the third dynasty, built -as his tomb the so-called Step Pyramid; (see Fig. 7). It consists of five -stages which vary from 29-1/2 to 36 feet in height. It is not, therefore, -a true pyramid. At the base it is 352 × 396 feet. Seneferu, the last king -of the third dynasty, built a similar tomb, but, as he made the stages -lower and more numerous, it approached more nearly the pyramidal form. - -Khufu or Cheops, the founder of the fourth dynasty, improving upon the -work of his predecessors, constructed the first real pyramid and the -greatest of them all. The blocks with which he built were about three feet -high, and he made a step with each course of stones. A covering, which has -now been removed, was originally placed over the whole, thus securing a -perfect pyramidal form. This pyramid is now 750 (originally 768) feet on -each side, and 451 (originally 482) feet high. It contains some 2,300,000 -blocks of stone, each weighing on the average two and a half tons; (see -Fig. 6). The stone was quarried from the Mokattam hills on the other side -of the Nile, more than twelve miles away. - -Khafre, the next king but one after Khufu, built the second pyramid, which -is almost as high as that of Khufu, being 447-1/2 feet, but measures on -the sides but 690-1/2 feet. Within and under the pyramids are the tomb -chambers. Khafre also carved out of the native rock, not far from these -two pyramids, the great Sphinx, the head of which bore a portrait of -himself. From the top of the head to the pavement under the paws is 66 -feet; the breadth of the face is 13 feet 8 inches, and the other parts are -in proportion. Near the Sphinx stands a temple, built of polished granite, -which is connected by an underground passage with the pyramid of Khafre. -All these are silent but eloquent witnesses to the skill of the Egyptians -of this period in stone work, and to the absolute power of the Pharaoh; -(see Figs. 5 and 6). - -Menkaure, the next king, constructed a smaller pyramid, the side of its -base being 356-1/2 feet and its height 204 (originally 219) feet. Either -his power was less or the resources of the kingdom were becoming -exhausted. Though the pyramidal form of tombs continued for several -centuries, no others were ever built that approached these in size. - -The fifth dynasty was founded by a priest of On. During its rule the power -of the king was not so absolute, and a powerful nobility began to develop. -These nobles had themselves buried in tombs of the old mastaba type, and -adorned the walls with pictures of the industries which were carried on -upon their country estates. One of the most famous of these is the tomb of -a certain Ti, from the pictures in which much has been learned of the -various industries of ancient Egypt. - -By the time of the sixth dynasty a strong nobility had been developed in -the different nomes, so that the monarchy was thoroughly feudal. The -absolute power that the kings of the first four dynasties had exercised -had passed away. During the sixth dynasty the conquest of northern Nubia -was begun, an expedition was sent to the far-away land of Punt, a country -far to the south. It was probably the region on both sides of the straits -of Bab-el-Mandeb, comprising southwestern Arabia and Somaliland. An -expedition was also sent over sea to Palestine, to chastise the -inhabitants of the southern portion of that country for invading Egypt. -The capital of Egypt during the whole of the Old Kingdom was Memphis. The -city thus gained a prominence which made it ever afterward famous. In -early times it had been called the White Wall, but after the sixth dynasty -it was called _Men-nofer_, of which Memphis (Hosea 9:6) is a corruption. -It is in the Old Testament more often called Noph, a corruption of the -last part of the name. (See Isa. 19:13; Jer. 2:16; 44:1; 46:14, 19; Ezek. -30:13, 16.) - -(4) _The First Period of Disintegration_ covers dynasties seven to ten of -Manetho's list, a period lasting from 2475 to 2160 B. C. At the beginning -of this period the powerful nobles in the different nomes seem, many of -them, to have set up each a government of his own. Thus Egypt was once -more resolved into many contending kingdoms. Through a cycle of 2,500 -years a whole circle of political evolution had been completed. Starting -with 42 chiefs or kinglets, the country had first become two kingdoms, -then one kingdom. In this struggle the local nobility had been eliminated. -Through nine hundred years the central monarchy was supreme, then slowly a -new nobility developed, which finally overthrew the kingdom and once more -made Egypt a group of weak and contending states. - -During the last two hundred and fifty years of this period of darkness we -gain some glimpses of a feudal monarchy which had its residence at -Heracleopolis in central Egypt and controlled a good part of the land with -varying degrees of success. These kings were apparently the ninth and -tenth dynasties of Manetho. - -(5) _The Middle Kingdom._--About 2160 B. C. an eleventh dynasty arose and -began to struggle for the supremacy, finally achieving it. This family -belonged to the nome of Thebes, which had hitherto been of no particular -importance. It now became the seat of government, and remained for 1,500 -years one of the most important cities of Egypt. - -About the year 2000 this dynasty was followed by the twelfth, a powerful -line of kings which ruled from 2000 to 1788 B. C. This was the period of -the great Middle Kingdom. The nobles were still strong, and the monarchy -was thoroughly feudal in its organization. Three of these monarchs bore -the name Sesostris. They raised Egypt to a high degree of prosperity and -power. Trade with Punt was resumed, Nubia was conquered to the Second -Cataract, which was made the southern frontier of the realm, the mines of -Sinai were worked, and one of the kings, Amenemhet III, built a large -temple there, at a point now called Sarbut el-Khadem. This temple was -explored a few years ago by Petrie. - -Trade with Palestine and Syria flourished during this period. A noble of -middle Egypt pictured in his tomb some of those who came to trade with -him. When the pictures were first discovered, it was thought that they -were the sons of Jacob, come to buy corn in Egypt; (see Fig. 1). - -Sesostris III invaded Palestine before 1850 B. C. and captured a city -which was apparently Shechem, though the spelling of the name is peculiar. -The kings of this period were buried in tombs of pyramidal form, though -the pyramids were not large. One of them built a great administration -building at Hawara, which was known to the Greeks as the Labyrinth and was -regarded as one of the wonders of the world. - -During this and the preceding period a social conscience was developed in -Egypt which found expression in a remarkable literature. Extracts from two -examples of this, "The Eloquent Peasant" and "The Admonitions of Ipuwer," -are published in Part II, p. 418, ff., 421, ff. - -(6) _Second Period of Disintegration._--The thirteenth dynasty, which -began in 1788 B. C., had not been long upon the throne, when powerful -rebellions again broke up the kingdom. Petty kinglets ruled once more in -many parts of the land. These kings comprise Manetho's thirteenth and -fourteenth dynasties. The land, disunited, became an easy prey to an -invader. Such an invader came. For more than 3,000 years Egypt, protected -by her deserts, had lived her life unmolested. The uncivilized Nubians on -the south, the Lybians on the west of the Delta, and the uncivilized -tribes of Sinai had been easily held in check. But now a powerful invader -came from Asia with a well organized, though barbaric army. They conquered -Egypt and imposed upon her two dynasties of kings, who ruled for about a -hundred years, until they were driven out about 1580 B. C. These kings -were Manetho's fifteenth and sixteenth dynasties. He calls them Hyksos, -which has been held to mean "Shepherd Kings," but which probably meant -"Ruler of Countries." They have been generally believed to be Semitic, -though some scholars now think they may have been of Hittite origin. In -any event, large numbers of Semites came to Egypt with them, and left many -Semitic names in the Delta. Some of these will be discussed below. This -invasion broke up Egypt's splendid isolation and brought her into the -current of world events, from which she was never afterward to free -herself. - -(7) _The Empire Period._--At some time before 1600 B. C. a seventeenth -dynasty arose at Thebes and began the struggle to expel the foreign kings. -This was not accomplished until the founder of the eighteenth dynasty, -Amosis I (1580-1577), achieved it. In order to secure freedom from -invasion the kings of this dynasty were compelled to follow the invaders -into Asia, and in time Thothmes III (1501-1447) conquered Palestine, -Phoenicia, and Syria to the Euphrates, and organized it into a compact -empire, which held together until about 1360. The kings of this dynasty -also carried the conquest of Nubia to Napata, at the Fourth Cataract. They -worked the mines of Sinai, traded with Punt, and inaugurated the "empire -period," which lasted in reality till well into the twentieth dynasty, -about 1165, and which, for convenience, we count as extending to the fall -of the twenty-first dynasty in 945 B. C. - -The foreign conquests brought many immigrants to Egypt and also took many -Egyptians for longer or shorter periods to foreign lands. Egyptian customs -in dress as well as the Egyptian language changed rapidly during this -time. The Asiatic conquests of Thothmes III brought Egypt into relations -with Asiatic kings, and in time his successors, Amenophis III and -Amenophis IV, had an interesting exchange of letters with kings of -Babylon, Assyria, Mitanni, and Alashia (or Cyprus), as well as with -Egyptian viceroys in Syria and Palestine. Some of these letters are -translated in Part II, p. 344, ff. - -Amenophis IV made the first attempt known in history to establish a -monotheistic religion. Although it was unsuccessful, it produced a -beautiful hymn, which is translated in Part II, p. 403, ff. The kings of -this period were buried in tombs of a new type. These were excavated out -of the solid rock, cut deep into the mountain-side. They were all in the -famous Valley of the Tombs of the Kings back of Thebes. - -The nineteenth dynasty succeeded the eighteenth about 1350 B. C. During a -period of weakness between the two, the Asiatic dominions had been lost. -These were in large part reconquered by Seti I and Ramses II. The -last-mentioned king ruled 67 years, from 1292 to 1225 B. C. He did much -building in all parts of Egypt and Nubia. Among his enterprises were the -cities of Pithom and Raamses in the Delta. He has long been thought to -have been the Pharaoh who oppressed the Hebrews. Early in his reign he -fought with the Hittites, but afterward made a treaty of peace with their -king and married his daughter. The text of this treaty has been preserved. -It is the earliest extant international treaty, and it contained an -extradition clause, though this applied to political offenders only. (For -head of Ramses, see Fig. 9.) - -Merneptah, the son and successor of Ramses II, has been supposed to be the -Pharaoh of the Exodus. His hymn of victory over his enemies is translated -in Part II, p. 311. - -In the reign of Ramses III, of the twentieth dynasty (1198-1167 B. C.), -the Philistines and other tribes, coming from across the sea, from Crete -and Asia Minor, invaded Egypt. Repulsed by him, they invaded Palestine, -where they secured a foothold. Ramses IV, his successor, was the last -Pharaoh to work the mines in Sinai. By the reign of Ramses IX (1142-1123 -B. C.), Egypt's Asiatic empire was gone and her prosperity had so declined -that the natives of Thebes took to robbing the tombs of kings for a -living. The records of the trials of some of these have survived. In the -reign of Ramses XII (1118-1090 B. C.), Wenamon made his famous expedition -to Phoenicia, a part of which is narrated in Part II, p. 352, ff. - -The twenty-first dynasty (1090-945 B. C.) was a line of weak monarchs, who -simply held Egypt together. During their rule David built up Israel's -empire. One of them, either Siamon or Pesibkhenno II, was the Pharaoh -whose daughter Solomon married. (See 1 Kings 3:1, f.; 9:16.) - -(8) _The Period of Foreign Dynasties_ (945-663 B. C.).--During the time of -the twenty-first dynasty the Lybians, who for centuries had made -unsuccessful attempts to invade Egypt, settled in large numbers in -different parts of the country, and adopted Egyptian customs, while some -of them became wealthy and powerful. In 945 B. C. one of these, named -Sheshonk, founded the twenty-second dynasty. This king is the Shishak of -the Bible. It was he who gave asylum to Jeroboam, when he fled from -Solomon (1 Kings 11:40), and who in the days of Rehoboam invaded -Palestine. (See 1 Kings 14:25-28.) The dynasty founded by Shishak lasted -for two hundred years. During the first century of this time it was very -flourishing. One of its kings, Osorkon II, was apparently an ally of -Ahab; at all events, a vase bearing Osorkon's name was found at Samaria in -Ahab's palace. This dynasty made its capital at Bubastis in the Egyptian -Delta, called Pi-beseth in Ezekiel 30:17. - -During the last century of this dynasty's rule Nubia, which had been for -many centuries under Egyptian sway, gained her independence under a -powerful dynasty which made Napata, at the Fourth Cataract, its capital. -In 745 B. C. the twenty-second dynasty was succeeded by the twenty-third, -which held a precarious existence until 718, when it was succeeded by the -one king of the twenty-fourth. Egypt was during this period in great -disorder, and in 712 the Nubian kings swept down from the south and -conquered the country, establishing the twenty-fifth dynasty. The control -thus passed from the Lybians to the Nubians. Tirhakah, the third king of -this dynasty, took part in the wars against Sennacherib in Palestine. (See -2 Kings 19:9; Isa. 37:9, and Part II, p. 375, ff.) In 670 Esarhaddon, King -of Assyria, invaded Egypt, defeated Tirhakah and made all the Delta as far -as Memphis an Assyrian province. Some years later, when Tanut-amon, the -successor of Tirhakah, endeavored to regain the Delta, Assurbanipal, of -Assyria, marched up the Nile, took Thebes, that for 1,500 years had been -mistress of Egypt, and during much of that time mistress of a large part -of the then known world, and barbarously sacked it. This was in 661 B. C. -This event made a great impression on surrounding nations. It is referred -to in Nahum 3:8, where Thebes is called No-amon, or the city of the god -Amon. - -(9) _The Lower Empire_ is the name given by scholars to the period of the -twenty-sixth dynasty, 663-525 B. C. This dynasty was founded by Psammetik -I, who became the viceroy of Egypt under Assurbanipal, of Assyria, in 663 -B. C. Psammetik was descended from a native Egyptian family of the city of -Sais in the western Delta, and a number of his ancestors had been -prominent in the history of Egypt during the preceding century. At first -he was a vassal of Assyria, but soon troubles in the eastern part of the -Assyrian dominions enabled him to make Egypt independent. The Egyptians, -finding themselves once more free under a native dynasty, experienced a -great revival of national feeling. Everything Egyptian interested them. -They looked with particular affection upon the age of the pyramid -builders, who lived more than two thousand years before them. They revived -old names and old titles, and emulated the art of the olden days. They -manifested such vigor and originality withal, that the art of the lower -empire rivals that of the best periods of Egyptian history. - -Necho, the son and successor of Psammetichus, endeavored, as Assyria was -declining to her fall, to regain an Asiatic empire. Josiah, of Judah, who -sought to thwart him, was defeated by Necho and killed at the battle of -Megiddo in 608 B. C. (2 Kings 23:29). Necho afterward deposed Jehoahaz and -took him captive to Egypt (2 Kings 23:34). Four years later, when Necho -made a second campaign into Asia, he was defeated by Nebuchadrezzar at -Charchemish on the Euphrates, and compelled to hastily retreat to Egypt, -hotly pursued by the Babylonians. Jeremiah, who perhaps caught sight of -the rapidly moving armies from the Judæan hills, has given a vivid account -of the flight in Jeremiah 46. Jeremiah considered this event so important -that he began then to commit his prophecies to writing. (See Jeremiah 36.) -After this Necho devoted himself to the internal government of Egypt, -though he became the patron of an enterprise for the circumnavigation of -Africa, which was carried out by some Phoenicians. (See Herodotus, IV, -42.) Hophra, a later king of this dynasty (588-569 B. C.), in order to -gain influence in Asia, tempted King Zedekiah to rebel against Babylon, -and thus lured the little state of Judah to its destruction. During the -reign of Hophra's successor, Amosis II, Cyrus the Great founded the -Persian empire, and in 525 B. C. Cambyses, the son of Cyrus, overthrew the -twenty-sixth dynasty, and made Egypt a Persian province. - -(10) _The Persian Period._--Cambyses, after conquering Egypt, attempted in -vain to conquer Nubia. The Nubian monarchs at this time moved their -capital from Napata, at the Fourth Cataract, to Meroe, at the Sixth -Cataract. Darius (521-485 B. C.) ruled Egypt with great wisdom and tact, -but under his successors there were frequent rebellions. Finally, in 406 -B. C., the Egyptians actually gained their independence, which they -maintained until 342 B. C. During this period three native dynasties, the -twenty-eighth, the twenty-ninth, and the thirtieth, successively occupied -the throne. Manetho counts the Persians as the twenty-seventh dynasty. In -342 B. C. the Persians reconquered the country and held it for ten years -until it was taken by Alexander the Great. This ten years of Persian rule -constitutes Manetho's thirty-first dynasty. - -(11) _The Ptolemaic Period_ (332-31 B. C.).--For eleven years Egypt -formed a part of Alexander's empire. Upon his death, in 323 B. C., it fell -to the control of his general, Ptolemy Lagi, who founded a line of -Ptolemies that ruled until overthrown by Augustus in 31 B. C. With the -accession of the Ptolemies many Greeks settled in Egypt; Greek became one -of the languages of commerce, and had a considerable influence in -transforming the Egyptian language into Coptic. Until the year 198 B. C. -the Ptolemies controlled Palestine. Philadelphus, the second of the line, -rebuilt in the Greek style the city of Rabbah Ammon east of the Jordan, -and named it Philadelphia. He, like his father, encouraged many Jews to -settle in Alexandria, and, according to tradition, became the patron of -the translation of the Old Testament Scriptures into Greek. At all events, -the Pentateuch was translated in his time, and the translation of the -other books followed. This translation is known as the "Septuagint" -because of the legend that Ptolemy Philadelphus set 72 men to translate -it. By the beginning of the Christian era there were so many Jews in -Alexandria that it had become a second Judah. - -(12) _The Roman Period._--The Romans, upon conquering Egypt, disturbed in -no way the internal affairs of the country. They gave it good government -and fostered its internal institutions. Many old Egyptian customs -persisted among the people; it is in regard to some of these that -discoveries of interest to Biblical scholars have been made. From tombs -and the places in the dry sands of the desert, where waste-baskets were -emptied, many records have been discovered, some of which are translated -in Part II, p. 432, ff., 440, ff. - -Meantime, a state had developed out of the old monarchy of Nubia, -described above, which was ruled by a woman, whose official title was -Candace. It was an officer of hers to whom Philip preached, as described -in Acts 8:27-39. Recent excavations in Nubia have recovered some of the -art of these people, who became Christian in the second or third century, -as well as some inscriptions of theirs in a script that is not yet -deciphered. - -=7. Egyptian Discoveries which Bear on the Bible.= - -(1) _Texts Bearing on the Story of Joseph._--A number of texts from the -Middle Kingdom and other periods present features similar to parts of the -story of Joseph and afford somewhat faint parallels to certain conceptions -of the Hebrew Prophets. These are translated in Part II, p. 300, ff., and -p. 418, ff. - -The name of Joseph's wife, Asenath (in Egyptian _As-Neit_, "favorite of -the goddess Neith"), occurs from the eighteenth dynasty onward. Such names -as Potiphar, the master of Joseph (Gen. 39:1), and Potiphera, Joseph's -father-in-law (Gen. 41:45), in Egyptian _Pedefre_, "he whom the god Re -gives," as well as the name given to Joseph, Zaphenath-paneah (Gen. -41:45), in Egyptian _De-pnute-ef-'onkh_, "the god speaks and he lives," -are common in Egypt from the beginning of the twenty-second dynasty, 945 -B. C. - -(2) _The Invasion of Egypt by the Hyksos._--This took many Semites to -Egypt. The very name Hyksos is held by Breasted to mean "ruler of -countries." It was probably a title by which these kings called -themselves, for they evidently ruled a considerable portion of western -Asia, as well as Egypt. "Ruler of countries" is just the -Semitic-Babylonian and Assyrian _shar-matâti_, a title which Mesopotamian -kings gave to themselves through much of their history. It had been -employed by the Sumerians before them, being the familiar Sumerian _lugal -kurkurra_, "king of countries." If the Hyksos were Amorites, kinsmen of -theirs had ruled in Babylonia long before their invasion of Egypt, and -that these may have been Amorites is indicated by the name Jacob-her, -which was borne by one of their kings. This is an Egyptian form of the -Babylonian _Yagub-ilu_, or _Jacob-el_, an Amorite name found on business -documents in Babylonia three or four hundred years earlier. In the time of -Thothmes III this name was, Thothmes tells us, borne by a Palestinian -city, to which it had apparently been given by some Amorite from -Babylonia. Whether the Hyksos were Amorites or not, a number of Semitic -names were given to places in Lower Egypt at the time of their occupation. -Such was the name Magdol, or Migdol. The Egyptian name of Tanis was Zar, -which Brugsch claims as Semitic. Thakut, an old name of Pithom, is the -same as the Semitic Succoth, "booths." - -In the winter of 1905-1906 Petrie, excavating at Tell el-Ye-hudiyeh,[4] -about 20 miles north of Cairo, discovered what he believes to have been -one of the original encampments of the Hyksos in Egypt. This encampment -consisted of a large space, averaging about 1,500 feet in each direction, -surrounded by a wall of sloping sand and mud. This wall, varying from 80 -to 140 feet wide at the top and from 130 to 200 feet wide at the bottom, -presented on the outer side a long slope, and is quite unlike any -structure of the native Egyptians. From the nature of the wall and the -small objects found near it, Petrie infers that it was the rampart of a -people who defended themselves with bows and arrows. A cemetery of the -same level yielded to the explorer a considerable amount of black pottery, -not at all like pottery of native Egyptian manufacture, and a number of -crude scarabs. These objects Petrie believes are products of the art of -the Hyksos before they had been in Egypt long enough to adopt Egyptian -civilization. In 1912 Petrie discovered a similar Hyksos camp at the site -of Heliopolis, the Biblical On. - -It has been held by many that Abraham, Joseph, and Jacob all went to Egypt -during the reign of the Hyksos dynasty. It would be natural for Semites to -enter such a country, if it were ruled by a dynasty of the same blood as -themselves. Egypt has, however, furnished no positive archæological -evidence of this view. The Semitic names just alluded to, which are -sometimes cited as evidence of it, in reality only prove that many Semites -came with the Hyksos. They make it probable, indeed, that some of the -Hyksos were Semites, but give us no positive evidence concerning the -patriarchs. On the other hand, nothing has been discovered in Egypt to -disprove this view. - -(3) _The El-Amarna Letters._--In the winter of 1887-1888 a native Egyptian -woman, according to one account, accidentally discovered some clay tablets -in the soil at Tell el-Amarna, about 200 miles south of Cairo on the east -bank of the Nile. She is said to have sold her rights in the discovery for -about 50 cents. It was thus that nearly four hundred clay tablets, -inscribed in the Babylonian language and characters, which opened an -entirely unknown vista in the history of Palestine and the surrounding -countries, were found. These were letters written to Kings Amenophis III -and Amenophis IV, of the eighteenth dynasty. (See § 6 (7).) Seven of them -were written by Ebed-hepa, King of Jerusalem, about 1360 B. C., and give -us a glimpse of that city more than 350 years before David conquered it -for Israel. Others of the letters came from other cities of Palestine and -Phoenicia, and reveal to us through contemporary documents the conditions -there in the patriarchal age. Some of these are translated in Part II, p. -344, ff. - -(4) _Period of the Oppression and the Exodus._--The statement in Exodus -1:11 that the Pharaoh who oppressed the Egyptians built the store-cities -of Pithom and Raamses, indicates that this Pharaoh was Ramses II, for -Naville, who excavated the site of Pithom (Egyptian _Pi-tum_, "House of -the god Tum") in 1883, found much work of Ramses II there, including -colossal statues of this king, and also found no evidence that there had -been any town of importance on the site before.[5] The name of the other -city, Raamses, also points to the same king, since Ramses I, the only -other king of the name Egypt had known, reigned less than two years--a -time insufficient for the building of a city. The Bible evidently refers, -then, to Ramses II. Concerning Ramses II and his reign much is now known, -as has been pointed out in § 6 (7); (see Fig. 10). - -All through the nineteenth dynasty peoples from Syria were employed by the -kings on public works. Among these was a people called _'prw_ = Aperu or -Apuri, which some have thought to be Hebrews. Whether the Hebrews are -really mentioned in this way is doubted by others, for references to the -_'prw_ do not cease at the time the Exodus of Israel must have occurred. -They were employed by Ramses IV, of the twentieth dynasty, as late as 1165 -B. C. - -Much has been learned from archæology about Egyptian brick-making, and it -corresponds to the description of it given in Exodus. We have pictures of -men at the work. No one thought of burning bricks in Egypt. The clay was -moulded and dried in the sun. Straw was mixed with the clay to increase -its adhesive quality. Naville says that some of the corners of some of the -buildings at Pithom were actually built of _bricks without straw_. (See -Exod. 5:7-18; and Fig. 11.) - -The name Pithom continued as one of the names of this store-city or -fortress until at least 250 B. C., for it is found on a pillar which -Ptolemy Philadelphus set up there, but side by side with this name the -place, all through its history, bore the name Thakut, which is -philologically the Egyptian equivalent of the Hebrew Succoth. As this was -the first station of the Hebrews when they left Egypt (Exod. 12:37; 13:20; -Num. 33:5, 6), Naville holds that the Hebrews, after leaving the land of -Goshen, must have passed out on the south side of the Isthmus of Suez. - -Petrie believes that in the winter of 1905-1906 he discovered the city of -Raamses[6] at Tell el-Retabeh, eight miles west of the site of Pithom, on -the Wady Tumilat. The objects found here show that the site was occupied -in the time of the Old Kingdom and onward, but as Ramses II and Ramses III -both set up here statues of themselves, and erected important buildings, -and as the location is the only one that fulfils the conditions of the -city Raamses, Petrie feels confident that this was the site. This view -receives some confirmation from the title of an officer who served here -under Ramses III, and who is called: "Chief archer, keeper of the -granaries, keeper of the palace; chief archer, keeper of the granaries of -Arabia (or Syria)." - -Merneptah, who is generally supposed to have been the Pharaoh under whom -the Exodus occurred, was not drowned in the Red Sea, as some have wrongly -inferred from Exod. 14:23-28, but was duly buried like his predecessors. -His mummy has been found and is now in the Gizeh Museum at Cairo. - -Merneptah in the fifth year of his reign set up a hymn of victory on a -pillar in a temple erected by his father, Ramses II. This hymn, discovered -by Petrie in 1896, is famous as the only writing outside the Bible that -mentions Israel by name. A part of it is translated in Part II, p. 311, -where its bearing on the Exodus is discussed; (see Fig. 15). - -(5) _Campaign of Sheshonk I._--The record on a wall of the temple of -Karnak in Egypt by Sheshonk I, the Shishak of 1 Kings 14:25, of his -campaign in Palestine, confirms the statement of Kings and puts the whole -campaign in a new perspective. It is treated in detail in Part II, p. 359, -f. - -(6) _Papyri Discovered at Elephantine._--In recent years papyri discovered -at Elephantine, an island in the First Cataract, reveal the existence of a -Jewish colony there, which had a Jewish temple on the island. This colony -was established there at some time during the twenty-sixth dynasty, and -was thus one of the earliest of those Jewish settlements in foreign -countries which formed the dispersion. A number of the records of these -papyri, which relate the fortunes of this temple, the relations of this -colony to their Egyptian neighbors and their knowledge of the law, are -translated in Part II, p. 387, ff. The origin of the colony is also -discussed there. - -(7) _The Palace of Hophra._--Hophra, of the twenty-sixth dynasty, was, as -noted in § 6 (9), the king who lured Judah to her ruin. Petrie in 1907 -discovered his palace at Memphis. The discovery makes Hophra seem a little -more real.[7] - -(8) _The Castle at Tahpanhes._--We learn from Jer. 43:7, 8 and 44:1 that, -after the destruction of Jerusalem, Jeremiah with many other Jews fled to -Tahpanhes in Egypt and established a Jewish colony there. Jeremiah, as a -symbolical act, was directed to hide some stones in the cement of the -tiled area of the court of Pharaoh's house there (Jer. 43:8). Tahpanhes -was the Daphne of the Greeks. It was on the site of the modern Tell -Defenneh. This was in ancient times the easternmost city of the northern -Delta. A hundred and fifty miles of desert stretched away to the east of -it, until one came to the gardens of Gaza in Palestine. Petrie excavated -Tell Defenneh in 1883-1884, and discovered the large castle there, which -is probably the building in which Jeremiah buried his stones. This was the -last act of Jeremiah's life of which we have any record. He was then an -old man and apparently died soon afterward, probably at Tahpanhes, -certainly in Egypt. - -(9) _The Jewish Temple at Leontopolis._--Josephus tells us twice, once in -his _Antiquities of the Jews_, Book XIII, Chapter III, and again in his -_Wars of the Jews_, Book VII, Chapter X, that, when Jonathan, the -Maccabee, was made high priest of the Jews, about 153 B. C., Onias, the -son of Onias III, the deposed high priest, went to Egypt and obtained a -grant of land and permission to build a Jewish temple. This land was in -the region of the city of Bubastis, the nome where the cat goddess was -sacred, and was accordingly called by the Greeks Leontopolis. There were -at this time about as many Jews in Egypt as in Palestine, and doubtless -Ptolemy VII thought to keep them more loyal by granting them a temple. He -gave to Onias the revenues of a considerable territory for the support of -the temple. Josephus tells us that Onias urged as a reason for the -construction of this temple that it would be in fulfilment of the prophecy -in Isa. 19:19-22. Josephus goes on to say that this temple was built as an -exact reproduction of the temple at Jerusalem and that it continued to -exist as a place of worship until after the destruction of Jerusalem by -Titus, when troubles caused by Jewish zealots led the Roman government to -close the temple at Leontopolis and discontinue its worship; (see Fig. -12). - -The site of this temple was at Tell el-Yehudiyeh, the "Tell of the -Jewess," about 20 miles north of Cairo. This tell was excavated by Petrie -in 1905-1906. He found there remains of the Jewish temple, which fully -confirm the statements of Josephus. Not only the temple, but the form of -the Jewish settlement, was made as far as possible a replica of the city -of Jerusalem. One of the most interesting discoveries was a series of -ovens for the roasting of Paschal lambs. Others of a similar character -were found higher up in the mound, but this first series was most -numerous. Petrie infers that the temple was dedicated by a great Passover -Feast, to which Jews came in large numbers from throughout Egypt;[8] (see -Fig. 13). - -(10) _Papyri from Oxyrhynchus._--About 123 miles south of Cairo and nine -miles to the west of the Nile lies the town of Behnesa, which the Greeks -called Oxyrhynchus, from a sharp-nosed fish which was sacred there. Since -1897 Grenfell and Hunt, two English explorers, have been season after -season exploring the rubbish heaps of the old town. The inhabitants -committed the contents of their waste-baskets to the sands, and on account -of the dry climate these have never decayed. Here were found the "Sayings -of Jesus," some of the documents concerning the Roman census, and some of -the letters translated in Part II, pp. 432, ff., 440, ff., as well as many -remains of the works of classical authors. Similar documents have been -found in other parts of Egypt, but no other site has yielded as many as -Oxyrhynchus. - -(11) _Discoveries in Nubia._--During the winter of 1908-1909 MacIver -explored at Karanog in Nubia for the University of Pennsylvania. He found -in a cemetery many remains of the civilization of the Christian Nubians. -They still called their queen Candace (see Acts 8:27), fed her on milk, -and regarded obesity as an attribute of royalty. More will be known of the -Nubians of this period when the inscriptions discovered at Karanog and at -Shablul, deciphered by Mr. Griffith, have been more completely studied. -The explorations of the English at Meroe have afforded a connected view of -the development of this Nubian civilization. They found there the remains -of an early period extending from about 650-400 B. C., which was followed -by about a century when the royal residence was elsewhere, a middle period -from 300 to 1 B. C., during the latter part of which Hellenic influences -were felt, and a late period, from 1 to 350 A. D., during which Roman -forms of art penetrated the country.[9] - - - - -CHAPTER II - -BABYLONIA AND ASSYRIA - - THE LAND. THE PRESERVATION OF ANTIQUITIES. THE DISCOVERY OF - ANTIQUITIES: By Benjamin of Tudela. By Rich. By Botta and Place. By - Layard. By Loftus and Rawlinson. By Oppert and Rassam. By George - Smith. By Sarzec. By Peters, Ward, and Haynes. By Koldeway. By Andrae. - By de Morgan. By Harper and Banks. By Genouillac. THE DECIPHERMENT OF - THE INSCRIPTIONS: By Niebuhr. By Grotefend, De Sacy, and Rawlinson. - Babylonian column. Babylonian-Semitic. CHRONOLOGY. OUTLINE OF THE - HISTORY: The prehistoric period. Sumerians. The Pre-Babylonian period. - "Stele of the Vultures." The early Babylonian period. Kassites. Pashe - dynasty. The early Assyrian period. The second Assyrian period. The - Neo-Babylonian period. The Persian period. The Greek and Parthian - periods. DISCOVERIES WHICH ILLUMINE THE BIBLE. - - -=1. The Land.=--The Mesopotamian Valley, as the great region watered by -the Tigris and the Euphrates Rivers is called, in many respects resembles -Egypt, although in other respects it differs strikingly from Egypt. The -country is like Egypt in that it is formed by rivers; it differs from -Egypt in that it has two rivers instead of one. In late geologic time the -Persian Gulf extended far up toward the Mediterranean. All of what was -Babylonia has been formed by detritus (silt) brought down by the Tigris -and the Euphrates. The process of forming land is still going on. At the -head of the Persian Gulf about seventy feet a year is still formed in this -way, or a mile in about seventy-five years. - -Both the Tigris and the Euphrates rise in the mountainous regions of -Armenia, on opposite sides of the same range of mountains. The melting of -the snows on these mountains gives both rivers, like the Nile, a period of -overflow. As the source of the Tigris is on the south side of the -mountains, it begins to rise first. Its rise begins about the first of -March, its overflow is at its height in May, and the water recedes in June -or July. The Euphrates begins to rise about the middle of March, continues -to rise until June, and does not recede to its ordinary level until -September. The soil thus formed is of rich materials, and the retreating -flood leaves it each year well watered and softened for agriculture. Here, -as in Egypt, one of the earliest civilizations of the world developed. -It was quite independent of that in Egypt, and consequently differed -from the Egyptian in many respects. Unlike Egypt, Babylonia had a rainy -season; nevertheless she was mainly dependent upon the overflow of the -rivers for her irrigation and her fertility. As she possessed two rivers, -her breadth was greater than that of Egypt, but she lacked the contiguity -of protecting deserts, such as Egypt possessed. All through her history -her fertile plains attracted the mountain dwellers of the East and the -peoples of the West. Subject to frequent invasion by these, Babylonia had -no long peaceful development such as Egypt enjoyed before the Hyksos -invasion. From before the beginning of written history race mingled with -race in this great valley, invasions were frequent, and the construction -of permanent empires difficult. - -[Illustration: MAP OF BIBLE LANDS] - -The breadth of the Mesopotamian Valley affected also the building -materials and the character of the art. Stone was much more difficult to -obtain than in Egypt. Clay only was abundant. All buildings were -consequently of brick. These structures were far less enduring than those -in Egypt; their upper parts have disintegrated and buried the lower -portions. Babylonian ruins are accordingly all under ground. The abundant -clay was also used by the Babylonians as writing material. When baked, it -proved far more enduring than the Egyptian papyrus. Thus, notwithstanding -the general similarities which the Mesopotamian Valley presents to Egypt, -its differences profoundly affected Babylonian history and Babylonian art. - -=2. The Preservation of Antiquities.=--Babylonian cities were usually -built on terraces of brick. The walls of the cities and their buildings -were constructed of the same material. Refuse from the houses in these -towns was always thrown out into the streets, so that, as the centuries -passed, the streets were gradually elevated. The walls of the brick houses -gradually became unstable in the lapse of time, and as the houses were -repaired they were brought up to the level of the street. Consequently -even in peaceful times the mounds on which the cities were built gradually -grew higher. Most of these cities were at various times destroyed in -warfare. Sometimes all the houses would be partially demolished and the -site would be for a time practically uninhabited. When at length the place -was repeopled, the top of the mound would be smoothed off and taken as the -base of a new city. In this way through the many centuries of Babylonian -history the sites of her cities have become great mounds. When these -cities finally fell into ruin, the clay of the upper part of the walls -gradually disintegrated in the weather and formed a coating of earth over -the whole, which preserved the foundations of the walls both of cities and -houses, as well as the inscribed clay, stone tablets, and the works of art -buried underneath. - -Connected with each Babylonian and Assyrian temple was a kind of staged -tower, shaped in a general way like the stepped pyramid of Zoser at -Sakkarah in Egypt. The Babylonians called these towers _Ziggurats_. As the -bricks of these towers decayed, they formed in connection with the city -mound a kind of hillock or peak, which varied in accordance with the -height of the tower. The ruin of the _Ziggurat_ at Birs Nimrûd, the -ancient Borsippa, is one of the most imposing to be seen in ancient -Babylonia; it was long thought to be the original of the Tower of Babel -(Gen. 11:9). It thus came about that no ancient temple of Babylonia, like -some of those in Egypt, has remained above ground. Explorers have had to -dig to discover antiquities; (see Fig. 22). - -=3. The Discovery of Antiquities:= _By Benjamin of Tudela_.--The first man -from western Europe who traveled through Babylonia and Assyria and noted -their ruins was a Jew, Benjamin of Tudela, in the kingdom of Navarre. -Leaving home about 1160 A. D., he traveled through Palestine, crossed the -desert by way of Tadmor, visited Mosul opposite ancient Nineveh, and went -southward to the site of Babylon. He also saw the ruin of Birs Nimrûd, and -believed it to be the Tower of Babel. Between the sixteenth and eighteenth -centuries many other travelers visited the Mesopotamian Valley and -described what they saw. Some of these, toward the close of the eighteenth -century, described curious inscriptions which they had seen there on -bricks. This information led the British East India Company in 1797 to -instruct its resident at Bussorah, in southern Babylonia, to try to secure -some of these inscriptions. This he did, and early in 1801 the first case -of inscribed bricks arrived at the East India House in London, where they -are still preserved. - -_By Rich._--Early in the nineteenth century Claude James Rich became -resident of the East India Company at Bagdad. In his travels through the -region he visited the mounds of Hillah (Babylon), Kouyunjik (Nineveh), and -others, where he made some slight excavations, and found many -inscriptions. The smaller ones he added to his collection, but many of -them were of too monumental a character to be removed. Through these -efforts a wide-spread interest was aroused. - -_By Botta and Place._--In 1842 the French government created a -vice-consulate at Mosul, opposite the site of ancient Nineveh, and -appointed to the position Paul Emil Botta, who had served as French consul -at Alexandria in Egypt. Botta's mission was made in part archæological. In -December, 1842, Botta began digging in the mound of Kouyunjik, the site of -ancient Nineveh. Here he worked for three months. As he found only a few -inscribed bricks and the fragments of some bas-reliefs, he became -discouraged, and changed the field of his operations to a mound called -Khorsabad, situated about fourteen miles to the northeast of Kouyunjik. -Here he discovered a palace filled with interesting inscribed bas-reliefs -made of alabaster, as well as a city about a mile in circumference. Under -the corners of the palace and under the city gates were many inscribed -cylinders of clay. This proved to be the palace and city built by Sargon, -King of Assyria (722-705 B. C.), as his new capital. He named it -Dur-Sharrukin, or Sargonsburgh. His name had so entirely disappeared from -ancient literature that only one reference to him has survived, that in -Isaiah 20:1, but here was his palace arising from the dust together with -abundant annals of his reign. (See Part II, p. 369, ff.) - -Botta and his successor, Victor Place, excavated intermittently at -Khorsabad for ten years, uncovering the palace and making a plan of it, -excavating the city walls and gates, studying the drainage of the ancient -town, and fully describing the whole. Although a part of the antiquities -found were lost in the Tigris by the wreck of a raft on which they were -being floated down the river, a large collection reached France, where -they are preserved in the Louvre. - -_By Layard._--The success of Botta fired the enthusiasm of Austen Henry -Layard, a young Englishman of Huguenot descent, who began to excavate in -1845 at Nimrûd, a mound further down the Tigris than Mosul, and the site -of the Biblical Calah (Gen. 10:11). His money was at first furnished by a -few friends, but as he soon discovered a royal palace there similar to the -one Botta had unearthed at Khorsabad, the trustees of the British Museum -commissioned him to excavate for them. He thus continued the work -intermittently until 1849. During this time he spent most of his energy -upon the mound of Kouyunjik, where he discovered another royal palace. -This palace proved to be the work of Sennacherib, the son of Sargon (named -in 2 Kings 18:13; Isa. 36), who built the one at Khorsabad, while the -palace at Calah was, in its final form, the work of Esarhaddon, the son of -Sennacherib. (See 2 Kings 19:37.) The palace at Nineveh had in turn been -repaired by Esarhaddon's son, Assurbanipal. - -_By Loftus and Rawlinson._--As these excavations progressed, others were -stimulated to make minor explorations. Thus in 1850 William Kennett Loftus -carried on small excavations at the mound of Warka, the site of the -Biblical Erech (Gen. 10:10), in southern Babylonia, from which he -recovered important antiquities. From 1851-1855 the oversight of English -excavations was entrusted to Sir Henry C. Rawlinson, the British -consul-general at Bagdad. Under his direction J. E. Taylor, British -vice-consul at Bassorah, made an excavation at the mound of Mugheir, the -site of Ur of the Chaldees, where he unearthed important inscriptions. At -the same time Loftus was traveling about Babylonia collecting antiquities. - -_By Oppert and Rassam._--In 1852 a French expedition under the direction -of Jules Oppert reached Babylonia. Oppert made important excavations at -Hillah, the site of the city of Babylon, and at Birs Nimrûd, the ancient -Borsippa. In 1852 Hormuzd Rassam, who had been one of Layard's helpers, -continued under Rawlinson's direction the excavation at Nineveh. This work -continued until 1854; Rassam had the good fortune to find, in a part of -the mound previously untouched, still another palace. This was the palace -of Assurbanipal, the last of Assyria's great kings, who ruled from 668 to -626 B. C., and who collected here a great library. This library Rassam -discovered, and as it contained every variety of Babylonian and Assyrian -literature, including dictionaries and grammatical exercises, it was one -of the most important archæological discoveries ever made. During the last -part of the time Rassam was succeeded by Loftus. Finally, in the autumn of -1854, Rawlinson himself undertook an excavation at Birs Nimrûd, and -unearthed some important inscriptions of Nebuchadrezzar II, King of -Babylon, 604-562 B. C. (See 2 Kings 24, 25.) - -After this the interest in excavation waned for a time, while scholars -were busy reading the tablets already found. - -_By George Smith._--In December, 1872, George Smith, an employee of the -British Museum, announced that among the tablets from Nineveh he had -found an account of the flood which closely resembled that in the Bible. -This aroused so much interest that the proprietors of the London _Daily -Telegraph_ contributed money to send George Smith to Assyria to explore -further the mounds there. George Smith thus led two expeditions of -exploration, one in 1873 and the other in 1874. He extended the trenches -of his predecessors at Nineveh and discovered many more important -inscriptions. In 1876 he was on his way to Mesopotamia for the third time, -when he died of fever at Aleppo. The British Museum immediately secured -the services of Rassam again, who during that year and 1877 extended the -work at Kouyunjik (Nineveh) and also found a palace of Shalmaneser III, -King of Assyria, 860-824 B. C., at a mound called Balawat, situated to the -east of Kouyunjik. - -_By Sarzec._--Meantime, the interest of France was again aroused, and in -1877 her consul at Bassorah, Ernest de Sarzec, began the excavation of -Telloh, a mound in southern Babylonia, which turned out to be the site of -Shirpurla or Lagash, one of the oldest and most important of the ancient -cities of Babylonia. Work was carried on at intervals here by Sarzec until -his death in 1901, and has since been continued by Gaston Cros. The -results have not received the popular acclaim accorded to the discoveries -of Botta and Layard, but scientifically they are far more important. Some -of the oldest examples of Babylonian art have been discovered, as well as -many thousands of tablets. One room alone contained an archive of business -documents estimated at thirty thousand. Much of our knowledge of the -history of early Babylonia is derived from material found at Telloh. - -_By Peters, Ward, and Haynes._--In 1884 America began to take an interest -in Babylonian exploration. This was due largely to the initiative of Dr. -John P. Peters, then Professor of Hebrew in the University of -Pennsylvania, now Rector of St. Michael's Church, New York. Through his -efforts Miss Catherine L. Wolfe, of New York, contributed the money to -defray the expenses of an expedition to Babylonia for a preliminary -survey. This expedition was led by Dr. William Hayes Ward, Editor of the -New York _Independent_. It spent the winter of 1884-1885 in Mesopotamia, -made many observations of the various mounds, and collected some -archæological material. Dr. Peters continued his efforts, and as a result -a fund was raised in Philadelphia to defray the expenses of an excavation -in the interest of the University of Pennsylvania. This expedition set out -in 1888 under the direction of Dr. Peters. The site chosen for the -exploration was Nuffar, about sixty miles to the southeast of Babylon. The -work was continued for two seasons under the direct control of Dr. Peters. -After an interruption of three years the work was resumed under the -general direction of Dr. Peters, with Dr. John H. Haynes as Field -Director. Dr. Haynes, in the most self-sacrificing and heroic manner, -continued the work both summer and winter until February, 1896, laying -bare many of the features of the ancient city of Nippur, which had -occupied the site, and discovering many inscribed tablets. While this work -was in progress Prof. Herman V. Hilprecht became nominal head of the -expedition on account of the removal of Dr. Peters to New York. A fourth -expedition under the guidance of Dr. Haynes began work at Nuffar (Nippur) -in February, 1899, and worked until March, 1900. During this work Dr. -Haynes discovered a large archive of tablets, the exact number of which is -variously estimated. The find was similar to that made by Sarzec at -Telloh; (see Figs. 16 and 17). - -Nuffar, the ancient Nippur, was one of the oldest centers of Babylonian -civilization, and the work of the Americans there is, for our knowledge of -the history of ancient Babylonia, next in importance to that done by the -French at Telloh. A large number of the tablets discovered at Nippur are -now in the University Museum in Philadelphia. Meantime, the Turkish -government had undertaken on its own account an excavation at Abu Haba, -the site of the ancient Sippar in northern Babylonia. The direction of the -work was committed to the oversight of the French Assyriologist Père -Scheil, and the work was carried on in the early part of the year 1894. -Much interesting material was brought to light. - -_By Koldewey._--Also during this decade a new Society, the -_Orient-Gesellschaft_, had been formed in Berlin for the purpose of -excavation. This Society began in 1899 the excavation of the great mound -which covered the ruins of the ancient city of Babylon. The work was -committed to the direction of Dr. Robert Koldewey, who has carried it -steadily forward until the present time. Koldewey has laid bare at Babylon -a number of the great works of King Nebuchadrezzar--the magnificent walls -with which he surrounded Babylon, and the palace and temples with which he -adorned it. As the work at Babylon has progressed, Koldewey has made a -number of minor excavations in smaller mounds of Babylonia. During the -season of 1912-1913 Dr. Julius Jordan undertook, under Dr. Koldewey's -general direction, an excavation at Warka, the Biblical Erech, where -Loftus had dug sixty years before. A part of the great temple of Ishtar -has been uncovered by Dr. Jordan, together with a portion of the city wall -and many houses. Many tablets have also been found, some of them having -been written as late as the Seleucid and Parthian periods, 312-50 B. C.; -(see Fig. 18). - -_By Andrae._--While the excavation at Babylon has been in progress, the -_Orient-Gesellschaft_ has also conducted another at Kalah-Sherghat, on the -Tigris, in ancient Assyria. This is the site of the city of Ashur, from -which the country of Assyria took its name. (Cf. Gen. 10:10, 11.) The work -has been under the direction of Dr. Andrae and has been in progress from -1902 to the present time. Temples and palaces have been uncovered, and -inscriptions from every period of Assyrian history have been found. The -latest reports of the work at Ashur tell of the discovery of objects which -connect the founding of the city with immigrants from Lagash in southern -Babylonia. - -_By de Morgan._--In 1900 a French expedition began the excavation of Susa, -in ancient Elam, the Shushan of the Bible. (See Neh. 1:1; Esther 1:2, -etc., and Dan. 8:2.) This work was under the direction of J. de Morgan. -While Susa is not in Babylonia, the excavations here added greatly to our -knowledge of Babylonian history and life, for during the first two seasons -of the excavation, two inscribed stone pillars were discovered, which the -ancient Elamites had at some time taken as trophies of war from the -Babylonians. One of these was an inscription of Manishtusu, King of Kish, -who ruled about 2700 B. C., and the other the pillar which contained the -laws of Hammurapi, the most important single document relating to -Babylonian life that is known to us. (See Part II, Chapter XIII.) - -_By Harper and Banks._--During the year 1903-1904 the University of -Chicago sent an expedition to Babylonia. The expenses were borne by a -contribution from John D. Rockefeller. The late Prof. Robert Harper was -Scientific Director of the expedition, and Dr. Edgar J. Banks, Field -Director. The work was conducted at the mound of Bismya, which proved to -be the site of the ancient city of Adab, one of the oldest Babylonian -cities, which seems not to have been occupied since about 2600 B. C. Many -interesting finds were made, including a statue of a king, Lugaldaudu, and -many tablets. Friction with the Turkish government brought the expedition -to an untimely close, and owing to the same cause the tablets discovered -are hoarded at Constantinople and have not been given to the world. - -_By Genouillac._--During the early part of the year 1914 a French -expedition, under the direction of H. de Genouillac, excavated at -Ukhaimir, the site of ancient Kish. They have discovered the great -_Ziggurat_ of the temple of Zamama, the god of Kish, and are said to have -made other important finds, but the details are not yet published. - -=4. The Decipherment of the Inscriptions.=--The task of learning to read -the inscriptions of Babylonia and Assyria was much more difficult than the -decipherment of the Egyptian hieroglyphs, for no such simple key as the -Rosetta Stone was at hand. The key that finally unlocked the mystery came -not from Babylonia, but from Persepolis in Persia. When Cyrus the Great -conquered Babylon in 538 B. C. the Persians had not developed a system of -writing. They accordingly adapted to their language the characters of the -Babylonian script. The Babylonian script had begun, like the Egyptian -hieroglyphs, as a system of picture-writing, in which each picture -represented an idea. These had gone through a long development, in which -the original picture-forms had been supplanted by conventional characters -derived therefrom. In making these characters on clay, one end of a line -was always wider than the other, hence the characters are called -"wedge-shaped" or "cuneiform." In the course of the ages the Babylonians -had come to use the characters to express both syllables and whole words, -and a scribe might mingle these uses of a sign at will in writing a -composition. Many of the signs might also express any one of several -syllables. In adapting this complicated system, the Persians had the -wisdom to simplify it. They selected or constructed a character for each -sound, making a real alphabet. Three of the Persian kings, Darius -(521-485), Xerxes (456-465), and Artaxerxes II (405-359), wrote their -inscriptions in three languages,--Babylonian, Elamite, and -Persian,--employing wedge-shaped scripts for all of them. - -_By Niebuhr._--In the ruins of the great palace of the Persian kings at -Persepolis many of these inscriptions in three languages were preserved. -These ruins attracted the notice of many travelers from the time that -Odoric, a monk, saw them in 1320 A. D., and a number of travelers had made -copies of some of them and brought them back to Europe. The inscriptions -were a great puzzle. After Alexander the Great (331-323 B. C.) Persia had -been subject to foreign powers until 220 A. D., when the Sassanian dynasty -(220-641 A. D.) made Persia again an independent kingdom. In the revival -of Persian letters that occurred in Sassanian times, a form of the -Phoenician alphabet was used, because the old characters of these -inscriptions had been forgotten. In 1765 Carsten Niebuhr, a Dane, visited -Persepolis and made accurate copies of a large number of these -inscriptions. The first correct reading of any of these inscriptions was -done from Niebuhr's copies; (see Fig. 20). - -_By Grotefend_, _de Sacy_, and _Rawlinson_.--A number of scholars had -studied Niebuhr's copies, but the first to read any of them correctly was -Georg Friedrich Grotefend, a German scholar. He began with the assumption -that the three groups of lines in the inscriptions contained respectively -three languages, and that the first of these was the Persian of Cyrus and -his successors. In the years 1787-1791 Sylvestre de Sacy, a French -Oriental scholar, had studied and in part expounded some Sassanian -alphabetic inscriptions from Persia, which had also long attracted the -notice of scholars. These Sassanian inscriptions were many of them cast in -the same mould. They ran thus: - - "X the great king, king of kings, the king of Iran and Aniran, son of - Y, the great king," etc. - -Grotefend had these inscriptions before him, and compared this formula -with the inscriptions from Persepolis. He noted that as often as the -formula contained the word "king" the inscriptions from Persepolis -contained the same group of signs, and that as often as it had "of kings," -they reproduced the group with a different ending. He therefore rightly -concluded that these signs were the old Persian spelling of the Persian -word for "king" with its genitive plural. Taking from the Sassanian -inscriptions the word for king, he proceeded to parcel out its sounds -among the characters with which the word was spelled in the Persepolis -inscriptions. He also found a king, who was the son of a man not a king. -This, he rightly held, could be none other than Darius, the son of -Hystaspes. Apportioning the proper groups of signs among the sounds of -these names, he obtained still further alphabetical values. Thus a -beginning was made. Grotefend was, however, unable to carry the work far, -and in the years that followed Eugène Burnouf, Christian Lassen, Isidore -Lowenstern, Henry C. Rawlinson, and Edward Hincks all made contributions -to the subject. The honor of having first correctly read and interpreted a -long inscription belongs to Rawlinson. Rawlinson was a young army officer, -who as a boy had been in India, where he learned Persian and several of -the dialects of India. In 1833 he was sent to Persia with other British -officers to assist in the reorganization of the Persian army. Here his -attention was attracted by the great Persian inscriptions in the mountains -near Hamadan, the ancient Ecbatana, and in the intervals of military -duties he copied and studied several of them. He was, in the early stages -of his work, quite unaware of the work done by Grotefend and others, but -hit independently upon the method followed by Grotefend. Owing to the fact -that the inscriptions on which Rawlinson worked were longer than those -accessible to Grotefend, and also contained more proper names, Rawlinson -attained greater success than any of his predecessors. He did not publish -his results, however, until he had become thoroughly familiar with all -that others had done. It was not until 1846 that he published a full -interpretation of the Persian column of the great Behistun[10] inscription -of Darius I. - -_Babylonian Column._--This successful achievement related, however, only -to the Persian column. The mysteries of the Babylonian column had not yet -been solved. This task, as will be evident from the complicated nature of -the writing mentioned above, was a much more difficult one. The -decipherment of the Persian had, however, taught the sound of many -cuneiform signs. These sounds were carried over to the Babylonian column -as a nucleus of information. Excavations were all the time also bringing -new material to light, and a comparison of inscriptions, in many of which -the same words were written in different ways, sometimes ideographically -and sometimes syllabically, helped on the general stock of knowledge. -Rawlinson, Hincks, Jules Oppert, and Fox Talbot were the men who at this -stage of the work were still wrestling with the problem. Again Rawlinson -was the man to achieve the first distinguished success. In 1851 he -published one hundred and twelve lines of the Babylonian portion of the -Behistun inscription with transliteration and translation, and accompanied -the whole with copious notes in which the principles of the grammar were -set forth. A list of the signs and their values was also added. From that -day to this the study has steadily gone forward. - -_Babylonian-Semitic._--The work of Rawlinson and his co-laborers proved -that the language of the ancient Babylonians was a Semitic language, -closely akin to Hebrew, Aramaic, Arabic, and Ethiopic. Within the next few -years after he had found the key to the cuneiform writing, Rawlinson -announced that the inscriptions from Babylonia contained material in -another and very different language. The researches of later years have -fully confirmed this, and scholars call this language Sumerian. The people -who spoke it were the inventors of many elements in the civilization of -early Babylonia, and for many centuries at the dawn of history divided the -country with the Semites. - -=5. Chronology.=--The materials for constructing the chronology of -Babylonian and Assyrian history are as follows: - -(1) Claudius Ptolemy, an Egyptian astronomer who flourished in the second -century A. D., made a list of the kings of Egypt, Persia, and Babylonia -back to the accession of the Babylonian king, Nabonassar, in 747 B. C. -This list was compiled as an astronomical aid, and is very accurate. - -(2) The Assyrian kings kept lists of years and of principal events, to -which scholars have given the name "Eponym Lists," because each year was -named after the king or some officer. Tablets containing these lists have -been recovered on which we can still read the chronology from 893 to 666 -B. C. This list accordingly overlaps the list or "canon" of Ptolemy. Some -of these Assyrian kings were also kings of Babylon, and where the lists -overlap they agree. One of these lists mentions an eclipse which occurred -at Nineveh in the month Sivan (May-June), 763 B. C. This eclipse has been -calculated and verified by modern astronomers, so that the chronology -covered by these lists rests upon a secure scientific basis. - -(3) For dates in Assyrian history anterior to 893 B. C. we have to depend -upon incidental notices in the inscriptions. Thus Sennacherib, whose date -is fixed by the Eponym Lists as 705-681 B. C., relates that during his -reign he recovered from Babylon the images of two gods that had been taken -as booty by Marduknadinakhi, King of Babylon, from Tiglath-pileser, King -of Assyria, 418 years before Sennacherib brought them back. It follows -from this that Tiglath-pileser I of Assyria and Marduknadinakhi of -Babylon were ruling from about 1120 to 1100 B. C. - -We also have a long inscription from the Tiglath-pileser mentioned here, -who relates that in his reign he restored a temple, which had been built -by Shamshi-Adad, ruler of Assyria, son of Ishmi-Dagan, ruler of Assyria, -641 years before the time of Ashur-dan, King of Assyria. Ashur-dan had, he -tells us, pulled the temple down and it had lain in ruins 60 years until -he (Tiglath-pileser) rebuilt it. By adding these numbers we reach 1819 or -1820 B. C. as the accession of Shamshi-Adad. - -Again Sennacherib found at Babylon a seal which bore the following -inscription: - - "Tukulti-Ninib, king of the world, son of Shalmaneser, King of - Assyria, conqueror of the land of Chaldæa. Whoever changes the writing - of my name, may Ashur and Adad destroy his name. This seal was - presented by the land of Assyria to the land of Akkad" (Babylonia). - -To this Sennacherib added the following inscription: - - "I, Sennacherib, after 600 years conquered Babylon, and from its - treasures brought it out and took it." - -We learn from this that Tukulti-Ninib was ruling in Assyria from about -1300 to 1290 B. C. - -Andrae has recently (1914) published an inscription of Tukulti-Ninib in -which he states that he repaired a temple which had been built by his -ancestor, Ilu-shumma, King of Assyria, 720 years before. Ilu-shumma was, -accordingly, ruling in Assyria about 2020 to 2010 B. C. - -(4) Among the tablets in the British Museum are two so-called "dynastic -tablets" which contain lists of the kings of Babylon from the time that -Babylon became the leading city of the country to its capture by the -Persians. The kings are divided into eight dynasties, the length of the -reign of each king was originally given, and at the end of each dynasty a -statement was given of the number of kings in that dynasty and the total -length of their reigns. These tablets are unfortunately much broken, so -that they afford us little help after the year 1000 B. C. We learn from -them, however, that Marduknadinakhi, the king mentioned by Sennacherib as -ruling about 1100 B. C., belonged to the fourth Babylonian dynasty, and, -if we add together the years given for the previous dynasties, we are -taken back nearly to the year 2400 B. C. for the accession of the first -dynasty of Babylon. Evidence has, however, come to light in recent years -which proves that the first and second of these dynasties overlapped, one -ruling in the north while the other ruled in the south. A reliable -chronology cannot, therefore, be obtained by adding these numbers -together. In order to correct them recourse must be had to other evidence. - -(5) Franz Xaver Kugler, who is both an astronomer and an Assyriologist, -has recently shown that an astronomical tablet which was published as long -ago as 1870, and which notes for a series of years when Venus was the -evening and when the morning star, contains a date formula which fixes its -compilation in the reign of Ammi-zadugga, the tenth of the eleven kings of -the first dynasty of Babylon. From mathematical calculations of the -position of the planet Venus, Kugler is accordingly able to fix the -accession year of Ammi-zadugga as either 2040, 1976, or 1857 B. C. As the -first of these dates is too early, and the third is, in the judgment of -most scholars, too late, it follows that his accession year was in 1976. -From the lengths of the reigns of the various kings of this dynasty as -given in the dynastic tablets, it follows that the first dynasty of -Babylon began its rule in 2206 B. C. - -(6) Under Adad-nirari III, King of Assyria (810-782 B. C.), a so-called -synchronistic history of Assyria and Babylonia was compiled. It covered -about 600 years, beginning with a treaty of peace between Karaindash, King -of Babylon, and Ashur-rim-nishishu, King of Assyria. It aids in filling -gaps left by breaks in other lists. - -(7) A chronological tablet in the Babylonian collection of Yale University -contains a list of the kings of Larsa. This city was conquered by -Hammurapi, of the first dynasty of Babylon, in the 31st year of his reign. -The tablet, therefore, counts Hammurapi one of the kings of Larsa, -ascribing to him twelve years of rule. The tablet was apparently compiled -in the twelfth year of Samsuiluna, Hammurapi's successor, to whom twelve -years are also ascribed. It gives the total length of the dynasty of Larsa -as 289 years. That dynasty, accordingly, began its rule in 2358 B. C. - -(8) In a chronological list of the kings of Ur and Nisin on a tablet in -the University Museum, Philadelphia,[11] it is stated that the kings of -Ur ruled 117 years and the kings of Nisin 225 years and 6 months. A tablet -has now been discovered which shows that the dynasty of Nisin was not -overthrown until 2117 or 2116 B. C. Its 225 years, therefore, were all -parallel to the time of the dynasty of Larsa. As the dynasty of Nisin rose -upon the ruins of the kingdom of Ur, the dates of the kingdom of Ur are, -therefore, fixed as 2458-2341 B. C. - -(9) A chronological tablet published by Scheil in the _Comptes rendus_ of -the French Academy for 1911 gives a list of five early dynasties of -Babylonia: a dynasty of Opis, one of Kish, one of Agade, and two of Erech. - -(10) A group of chronological tablets in the University Museum in -Philadelphia,[12] which assign several dynasties to each of several -well-known Babylonian cities, ascribe to their kings incredibly long -reigns. One of these is translated in Part II, Chapter IV. - -(11) Fragments of a work of Berossos, a Babylonian priest who lived after -the time of Alexander the Great, contain a list of Babylonian kings. He -based his work on such tablets as those in the University Museum. His -statements abound accordingly in incredible numbers. - -From these tablets it appears that the dynasty of Ur was preceded by the -dynasty of Gutium, which ruled for 159 years; the dynasty of Gutium was -preceded by a dynasty of Erech for 26 years; that, by a dynasty of Agade -for 197 years; that, by one king of Erech, Lugalzaggisi, who ruled 25 -years; he was apparently preceded by a dynasty of Kish for 106 years; -that, by a dynasty of Opis for 99 years. These figures take us back to -3070 B. C., though the arrangement for the time before Lugalzaggisi is in -part conjectural. Four dynasties of what are known to have been historical -kings existed before this time, so that we are led to place the beginning -of the historical period in Babylonia about 3200 B. C. or earlier. - -(12) Nabuna'id, King of Babylon, 555-538 B. C., states that he found, in -repairing the temple at Sippar (Agade), the temple-platform of Naram-Sin, -son of Sargon, which no one had seen for 3,200 years. As he made this -statement about 550 B. C., it was long supposed that this fixed the date -of Naram-Sin as 3750 B. C., and that of his father, Sargon, at about 3800 -B. C. These dates will be found in many of the older books, but they are -incredible. They would, if true, leave long gaps in the history that we -have no information to fill. Since it has been clearly proved that the -dynasties overlapped, it seems that Nabuna'id reached his date by adding -together the totals of dynasties, some of which were contemporary. It now -seems probable that he placed Naram-Sin about 1,100 years too early. - -The sources here enumerated afford us a tolerably accurate chronology back -to about 2450 B. C. All dates earlier than this have to be estimated by -combining statements of early dynastic tablets with archæological and -palæographic considerations. - -=6. Outline of the History.=--The history of Babylonia and Assyria falls -into eight different periods. Our information is not yet sufficiently -complete to enable us to write the history of any one of them, but we can -discern in outline a most fascinating course of events. - -(1) _The Prehistoric Period_, or the period before the rise of written -history, during which we can ascertain from various inferences the general -course of events. This period must have begun about 4500 or 5000 B. C. and -lasted down to about 3200 B. C. The Semites from Arabia[13] were the first -to pour into the fertile valley of Mesopotamia. They came up from the -south, establishing the city of Eridu on the shore of the Persian Gulf, -then the cities of Ur, Erech, Lagash, Nippur, etc. They carried with them -the culture of the palm-tree, and learned to raise grain in the alluvial -soil of the rivers, but they had no system of writing. The early cities of -Babylonia were the fortified residences of different tribes, which were -frequently at war with one another. One city would subjugate its neighbors -for a time and establish a small empire. As long as it continued to rule, -a certain degree of homage was paid to its god by all the cities over -which it ruled. In prehistoric times there were kingdoms of this sort -ruled at one time by Eridu, at another by Erech, and at another by Nippur, -for Ea, the god of Eridu, Anu, the god of Erech, and Enlil or Bel, god of -Nippur, were ever after worshiped as the supreme gods of Babylonia. - -_Sumerians._--At some time before the dawn of history a people whom we -call Sumerians moved into Babylonia from the East. These people spoke a -language which possesses some features in common with Finnish and Turkish. -They were neither Aryans nor Semites. The Semites wore thick hair and long -beards; the Sumerians shaved both their heads and faces. These Sumerians -overran southern Babylonia as far north as Nippur and in this region -became the ruling race. They grafted the worship of their own gods upon -the worship of the deities of the cities which they conquered, but the -Semitic elements of these local deities persisted even in Sumerian -thought. It thus came about that the bald and beardless Sumerians picture -their gods with hair and beards. After settling in Babylonia, the -Sumerians developed a system of writing. It was at first hieroglyphic, -like the Egyptian system. Afterward the Semites, who still retained the -supremacy in the cities of Kish and Agade in the north, and who had -probably been reinforced there by fresh migrations from Arabia, adapted -this system of writing to their own language. As clay was the usual -writing material and it was difficult to make good pictures on it, the -pictographic form of the writing was soon lost. The pictures degenerated -into those conventional symbols which are today known as the "cuneiform" -characters. - -(2) _The Pre-Babylonian Period_ of the history includes the period from -about 3200 B. C. down to the rise of the city of Babylon, about 2100 B. C. -This period, like the preceding, was a time of successive city kingdoms. -One city would establish an empire for a while, then another, having -become more powerful, would take the leadership. When first our written -records enable us to trace the course of events, Lagash in the south and -Kish in the north were the rival cities. Lagash was ruled by a king, -Enkhegal. A little later Meselim, King of Kish, conquered all of southern -Babylonia, including Lagash. After Meselim had passed away, Ur-Nina -founded a new dynasty at Lagash and gained his independence. Ur-Nina's -grandson, Eannatum, raised the power of Lagash to its greatest height, -conquering all the cities of Babylonia, even Kish. The Elamites were -always invading the fertile plains of Babylonia, so Eannatum ascended the -eastern mountains and subjugated Elam. - -"_Stele of the Vultures._"--He celebrated his victories by the erection of -one of the most remarkable monuments which the ancient world produced, the -so-called "stele of the vultures." From the pictures on the monument we -learn that the soldiers of Lagash, about 2950 B. C., waged their battles -in a solid phalanx protected by shields. The Greeks were formerly supposed -to have invented this form of attack, but were anticipated by 2,500 years; -(see Fig. 19). - -Although this dynasty furnished several other rulers, the leadership of -all Babylonia was lost after the death of Eannatum. It passed first to -Opis and then again to Kish. Lagash continued to flourish, however, during -200 years, while these cities were the overlords of its rulers. Its wars -had made it rich, and all the arts flourished there. Our best specimens of -terra-cotta and stone work come from this period of this city. Under -Entemena, the successor of Eannatum, a silver vase of exquisite -workmanship and ornamentation was made; (see Fig. 21). After a century or -more of wealth and luxury, during which priests and officials became -corrupt, a new king, Urkagina, seized the throne and endeavored to reform -the administration. Naturally, his reforms were unpopular with the -priesthood and the army, and, though popular with the people, he -unintentionally weakened the defensive power of his country. - -At this juncture a new ruler named Lugalzaggisi arose in the city of Umma, -who ultimately overthrew Lagash and became king of all Babylonia. He made -Erech his capital. This was about 2800 B. C. Lugalzaggisi claims to have -overrun the country from the Persian Gulf to the Mediterranean. If so, and -there is no good reason to doubt his claim, Babylonia and the Palestinian -coast-lands were under him brought together for the first time. - -After Lugalzaggisi the city of Agade came to the fore. Its great King -Sargon about 2775 B. C. founded a dynasty which ruled for nearly two -hundred years. The kings of this line were Semitic and resided sometimes -at Agade and sometimes at Kish. Sargon conquered Syria and a later -chronicle says that he crossed the western sea. As a seal of this dynasty -was found in Cyprus, it is possibly true. Naram-Sin, one of the most -famous kings of this line, conquered the country of Magan, which some -believe to be the peninsula of Sinai, but which others hold was situated -in eastern Arabia. - -About the time of this dynasty, or a little before, King Lugaldaudu -flourished at Adab, the modern Bismya, where Dr. Banks found his statue. -In this same general period a king named Anubanini ruled in a city to the -northward, called Lulubi. - -Perhaps it was under the later kings of this dynasty of Agade, or under a -dynasty of Erech which held sway for a brief period after them, that Gudea -flourished at Lagash. This ruler does not claim to be a king, but his city -enjoyed great prosperity under him, and he rebuilt it in fine style. He -seems to have been on peaceful terms with much of the world, and brought -for his structures stone from Magan, cedar wood from Amanus on the -Mediterranean coast, and copper from Lebanon. After this time the land was -overrun by hordes from Gutium, a region to the northeast beyond the -Tigris. They established a dynasty which lasted for 125 (or 159) years. - -In 2458 B. C. a dynasty arose in the city of Ur, situated far to the -south. These kings were Sumerians and under them a great Sumerian revival -occurred. By this time northern Babylonia was called Akkad, from the city -of Agade, and southern Babylonia was called Sumir, from a corruption of -the name of one of the quarters of Lagash. These kings combined with the -title "king of Ur" the title "king of Sumir and Akkad." Sumir is the -Biblical "Shinar" (Gen. 10:10; 11:2, etc.). - -Dungi, the second king of this dynasty of Ur, reigned 58 years and -established a wide empire, which included Elam and the city of Susa. He -established a system of government posts to aid the royal officers of army -and state in the performance of their duties. - -Upon the fall of the dynasty of Ur, the dominion of Babylonia was divided -between two cities, Nisin and Larsa, each of which furnished a dynasty -which flourished for more than two and a quarter centuries. Naturally, -these kings were continually struggling with each other for the supremacy, -and sometimes one city was the more powerful, sometimes the other. The -Elamites, who during the whole period had occasionally swooped down into -the Mesopotamian Valley, overran Larsa and furnished the last two kings of -its dynasty,--Arad-Sin and Rim-Sin. These kings have each been thought by -different scholars to be the Arioch of Gen. 14:1. (See Part II, Chapter -IX.) - -About 2210 B. C. a dynasty of rulers was founded in the city of Babylon -that was destined to bring a new era into the history of the country. -After a struggle of more than a century Hammurapi, the sixth king of this -line, broke the power of Larsa and made Babylon the leading city of the -country. Nisin had previously fallen. With the rise of Babylon another -period of the life of the country was ended. - -The above sketch calls attention to a few only of the more prominent -features and cities of Babylonia. There were many others which -participated in her life during the millennium of the pre-Babylonian -period. The recovery of more inscriptions will no doubt make this -statement more true even than we now dream. Each of these contributed its -mite to the progress of civilization in this melting-pot of races in this -far-off time. - -(3) _The Early Babylonian Period_ began with the reign of Hammurapi and -continued till about 1050 B. C. It includes the rule of the first four -dynasties of Babylon. The period began gloriously under Hammurapi, who -conquered all of Babylonia, and extended his sway also to the -Mediterranean. He was as great as an administrator as he was as a -conqueror; he codified the laws of Babylonia and inscribed them on a stone -pillar, which was set up in the temple of Marduk in Babylon. These laws -have been recovered, and are one of the most valuable archæological -discoveries of modern times. (See Part II, Chapter XIII.) - -Soon after the death of Hammurapi, a revolt occurred under one Ilumailu, -who established in the region near the Persian Gulf a dynasty known as the -"dynasty of the sea lands," which was afterward called the second dynasty -of Babylon. Down to 1924 B. C. the two dynasties divided the country -between them. In that year Babylonia was invaded by the Hittites, who came -from the northwest, and the first dynasty of Babylon was overthrown. The -Hittites appear to have ruled the country for a short time, when they were -driven out by the "dynasty of the sea lands," which, so far as we know, -controlled the country for the next hundred and fifty years. - -_Kassites._--About 1750 B. C., or shortly before, Babylonia was once more -invaded by a race of barbarians from the east of the Tigris, called -Kassites or Cossæans. They captured Babylon and founded the third dynasty -of Babylon, which ruled for 576 years. The kings of this dynasty gradually -absorbed Babylonian culture. Soon after 1700 B. C. they expelled the kings -of the sea lands from the south and ruled the whole country. - -Assyria, which under the first dynasty had been a Babylonian colony, -gained her independence before 1400 B. C., so that after that the -independent histories of the two lands run on parallel lines. During the -long period of Kassite rule, Babylon experienced many vicissitudes. -Assyria was at times friendly and at times hostile. In the reign of -Kurigalzu, Elam was successfully invaded and spoil formerly taken by the -kings of Elam was brought back to Babylonia. Kadashman-turgu and -Burnaburiash, kings of this dynasty, carried on friendly correspondence -with Amenophis III and Amenophis IV, kings of Egypt, 1400-1350 B. C. - -_Pashe Dynasty._--About 1175 B. C. the Kassite dynasty was superseded by -the Pashe dynasty, which ruled the country for more than a hundred and -thirty years. The greatest king of this time was Nebuchadrezzar I, who -reigned about 1150 B. C. He emulated with considerable success the career -of his great predecessor, Hammurapi. After the fall of the fourth dynasty, -the country was divided and fell a prey to the Elamites, who overran it -about 1050. For the following 450 years Babylonia, though often -independent, was of little political importance. - -(4) _The Early Assyrian Period._--Assyria's empire grew out of the -domination of the city of Ashur, as that of Rome grew out of the -domination of the city of Rome. Ashur and Nineveh had been founded by -colonists from Lagash about 3000 or 2800 B. C. This is shown by -archæological remains found at Ashur, and by the name of Nineveh. We can -first trace the names of Assyria's rulers shortly before the year 2000 B. -C. They do not call themselves kings, and were, perhaps, then subject to -Babylon. - -About 1430 B. C. we learn that Assyria had become an independent kingdom. -Her king at that time, Ashur-rim-nishishu, was a contemporary of -Karaindash, King of Babylon. Ashur-uballit about 1370-1343 was a -contemporary of Burnaburiash, King of Babylon, and shared in the -correspondence with Egyptian kings contained in the El-Amarna letters. -Shalmaneser I about 1300 B. C. conquered the region to the west of Assyria -extending across the Euphrates in the direction of the Mediterranean. -Ashur-nasirpal, a later king (884-860 B. C.), says that Shalmaneser "made" -the city of Calah[14] as a new capital for his country. His son, -Tukulti-Ninib I, turned his arms to the southward and conquered Babylon, -which he held for seven years. After him Assyria's power declined for a -time, but was revived by Tiglath-pileser I, who carried Assyria's -conquests again across the Euphrates to the Mediterranean Sea and -northward to the region of Lake Van. After the reign of Tiglath-pileser I, -Assyria's power rapidly declined again, and the first period of Assyria's -history was closed. Our sources almost fail us for a hundred years or -more. - -(5) _The Second Assyrian Period._--Assyria slowly emerged from the -obscurity into which she had fallen after the death of Tiglathpileser I. -The progress went forward through the reigns of eleven different kings. -Finally, in the reign of Ashur-nasirpal II, 884-860 B. C., a period of -foreign conquest was once more inaugurated. This monarch again carried the -conquests of his country northward and also to the Mediterranean. (See -Part II, p. 360.) Under him Assyria became the best fighting machine in -the ancient world--a machine that was run with ruthless cruelty over all -conquered peoples. This king set his successors the example of flaying and -impaling numbers of conquered peoples, and of boasting of such deeds in -his chronicles. Probably such deeds were not now committed for the first -time, but so far as we know they had not been so gloated over. - -Ashur-nasirpal's successor, Shalmaneser III, 868-824 B. C., made, besides -campaigns into Armenia and elsewhere, six campaigns against the lands of -Syria and Palestine. On his first campaign in 854 he was met at Qarqar by -a confederation of kings, among whom were Ahab of Israel and Ben-Hadad of -Damascus. (See Part II, p. 360, ff.) On his fourth campaign in 842 B. C. -Jehu, who had in that year usurped the throne of Israel, hastened to make -his peace with Shalmaneser by giving him a heavy tribute. Thus Assyria -gained a right to claim Israel as a vassal state. (See Part II, p. 362, -f.) - -The next two kings, Shamshi-Adad IV and Adad-nirari IV, controlled Assyria -until 783 B. C., and maintained her power. The last-mentioned king made -three expeditions into the West, and claims to have received tribute not -only from Israel but from Philistia and Edom, but no details of his -campaigns have survived. - -After 783 the power of Assyria declined again, and the decline lasted -until 745, when the reigning dynasty was overthrown, and an able general, -whose name was apparently Pul, gained the throne (cf. 2 Kings 15:19), and -took the great name of Tiglath-pileser. He reigned as the fourth king of -that name. Tiglath-pileser IV was great both as a warrior and as a -statesman. He broke for the time being the power of the kingdom of Urartu -in Armenia, conquered parts of Media on the east, and also annexed Babylon -to Assyria. Babylon during this later Assyrian period had usually been -permitted to retain a king of her own, though the kingdom was of little -political importance as compared with Assyria. Tiglath-pileser made his -power dominant in Babylonia at the beginning of his reign, and during the -last two years of his life actually reigned there as king. The Babylonian -scribes did not recognize his high-sounding name of Tiglath-pileser, but -still called him Pul. - -In the first year of his reign Tiglath-pileser IV inaugurated a new policy -with reference to conquered peoples. This was the policy of transporting -to a distant part of his empire the wealthy and influential members of a -conquered nation, and of putting similar exiles from other lands in their -place. Individuals so transported would be unable longer to foment -rebellion against him. It was a brutal policy, but it was a measure -designed to build up a permanent empire. - -Tiglath-pileser made four expeditions to the west, though the first two -touched northern Phoenicia only. In 739, when he made his appearance in -Palestine, Menahem, King of Israel, hastened to pay him tribute (2 Kings -15:19). Four years later, however, after Pekah had usurped the throne of -Israel, that king formed an alliance with Rezin of Damascus for the -purpose of throwing off the Assyrian yoke, and tried to force Ahaz of -Judah to join in the enterprise. (See Isa. 7:1, f.) This, Ahaz, supported -by the prophet Isaiah, refused to do. In 733-732 Tiglath-pileser came -again into the West, overran the territory of the kingdom of Israel, -deported the chief inhabitants of Galilee to distant parts of his -dominions (2 Kings 15:29, 30), and replaced Pekah, who had been killed, by -King Hoshea, who ruled over a greatly diminished territory and upon whom a -heavy Assyrian tribute was imposed. Tiglath-pileser then turned eastward -and conquered Damascus, which his predecessors since the days of -Shalmaneser III had been vainly trying to capture. While the Assyrian -monarch was at Damascus, King Ahaz of Judah went thither and became his -vassal. (See 2 Kings 16:10, f.) Thus Judah also passed under the Assyrian -yoke. (See Part II, p. 366.) - -Tiglath-pileser IV was succeeded by Shalmaneser V, 727-722 B. C., and soon -after the death of Tiglath-pileser, Hoshea of Israel was persuaded to join -several petty rulers of Philistia and Egypt in rebelling against Assyria. -In 725 an Assyrian army overran Hoshea's territory, and laid siege to -Samaria. The military position of Samaria and its strong walls made it -almost impregnable, and the siege dragged on for three years (2 Kings -17:5). Before the city fell, another king had ascended the throne of -Assyria. He was a usurper, a general, who took the great name of Sargon, -and who ruled from 722 to 705 B. C. Samaria succumbed in Sargon's first -year and 27,290 of its inhabitants were deported. The discontent of the -west was not at once quieted. Other states remained in rebellion and an -Assyrian army finally defeated them at Raphia, southwest of Gaza, in 719 -B. C. Sargon then turned his arms in other directions, fighting at various -times with the kingdom of Urartu in Armenia, overcoming Carchemish, a -Hittite kingdom on the Euphrates in 717 (see Isa. 10:9), and making an -expedition into Arabia in 715. In 711 Ashdod revolted and Sargon's Tartan -or chief officer came to put the rebellion down (Isa. 20:1). - -At the beginning of Sargon's reign his arms had been defeated in -Babylonia, and Merodachbaladan, a Chaldæan (see 2 Kings 20:12), seized the -throne of Babylon and held it from 721 to 709. Then he was defeated and -Sargon took over the control of Babylonia. Merodachbaladan, however, -escaped to the marsh lands at the head of the Persian Gulf, and survived -to make trouble later. In 705 Sargon died and was succeeded by his son, -Sennacherib, who ruled from 705 to 681 B. C. At the beginning of his reign -troubles broke out in Babylonia, which cannot here be followed in detail. -They lasted for years, and none of Sennacherib's measures gave the country -permanent peace. At last Sennacherib became so incensed that he destroyed -Babylon. Her buildings were burned and battered down, her walls -overthrown, and the Euphrates turned through canals into the land on which -she had stood, to make it a marsh. One incident in the series of events -which led up to this sad climax was the reappearance in 702 of -Merodachbaladan, who seized the throne of Babylon and tried to stir up a -rebellion against Assyria. He even sent letters to Hezekiah, King of -Judah. (See 2 Kings 20:12.) At the beginning of Sennacherib's reign a -number of the petty kings of Philistia had withheld their tribute. Into -this revolt Hezekiah, King of Judah, had been drawn. Busied with other -wars, Sennacherib was unable to quell this rebellion until the year 701. -In that year his army met the forces of the confederated kingdoms at -Elteke in the valley of Aijalon and overcame them. Sennacherib then -proceeded to Lachish, where he received the submission of the neighboring -kinglets. From Lachish he sent a messenger who summoned Hezekiah of Judah -to submit (cf. Isa. 36, 37). Hezekiah obeyed the summons and paid a heavy -tribute. Space does not permit us to speak of the wars of Sennacherib -against Elam and other countries. - -It would seem that after Tirhakah ascended the throne of Egypt in 688 B. -C., he persuaded the kingdoms of Palestine to rebel. The Assyrian came -west again and threatened to invade Egypt and to destroy Jerusalem. Isaiah -then predicted that Jerusalem would be delivered (Isa. 31:5), a prediction -which was fulfilled. Sennacherib's army was attacked by bubonic plague and -was compelled to retire.[15] - -Sennacherib was assassinated in 681 and was succeeded by his son, -Esarhaddon, who ruled till 668. Esarhaddon rebuilt Babylon, which his -father had destroyed, and two years before his death conquered all of -Lower Egypt and made it an Assyrian province. During his reign a great -horde of Scythians poured into Asia through the Caucasus region from -southern Russia. The Assyrian army prevented Assyria from being -overwhelmed by this horde. The stream of invaders was divided, one part -flowing east to Media, the other part westward to Asia Minor. - -Esarhaddon's son and successor, Ashurbanipal, ruled from 668 to 626. His -reign was the Augustan age of Assyria. At the beginning he was called upon -to put down a rebellion in Egypt, and as trouble there recurred several -times, trouble which was fomented by emissaries from Thebes and Nubia, he -finally in 661 pushed up the Nile and conquered Thebes and gave it over to -plunder. (See Nahum 3:8.) Space does not permit us to follow -Ashurbanipal's wars. About the middle of his reign his brother, -Shamash-shumukin, who was ruling Babylon, rebelled along with many other -vassals, and although the rebels were finally put down, the seeds of the -decay of Assyria's power were sown. Manasseh, King of Judah, as long as he -lived was a faithful vassal of Esarhaddon and Ashurbanipal. (Cf. 2 Kings -19:37; 2 Chron. 33.) - -The great work of Ashurbanipal was the collection of his library at -Nineveh. He sent to all the old temples of Babylonia and had copies made -of their incantations, hymns, and epics. These, together with chronicles, -medical tablets, dictionaries, etc., he collected in his palace, where -they were found by Layard and Rassam, and form the basis of our knowledge -of the Assyrian and Babylonian language, literature, and history. With the -death of Ashurbanipal, the last Assyrian period had really closed. Though -the kingdom continued for twenty years more, they were but the years of a -lingering death. - -(6) _The Neo-Babylonian Period._--In 625, the year after Ashurbanipal's -death, Nabopolassar, the viceroy of Babylon, who appears to have been a -Chaldæan,[16] gained his independence, and established the Neo-Babylonian, -or Chaldæan empire. Nabopolassar himself reigned till 604 B. C. During his -reign the power of the city of Babylon gradually extended over all -southern Babylonia, and up the Euphrates to Carchemish. During these years -Assyria was gradually diminishing in territory. As Assyria had declined, -Media, which had long been in greater or less degree subject to Assyria, -had become free, and Median kings had little by little gained control of -the country toward Assyria. Nabopolassar finally made an alliance with the -Median king, and together they overthrew Nineveh in 606 B. C. - -In 604 Necho of Egypt marched with an army to the Euphrates, and -Nabopolassar sent his son, Nebuchadrezzar II, to meet him. Nebuchadrezzar -defeated Necho at the battle of Carchemish, and hotly pursued him toward -Egypt. (See Jer. 46.) The pursuit was, however, interrupted by the death -of Nabopolassar, and the recall of Nebuchadrezzar to Babylon to be crowned -as king. The defeat of Necho had made Judah a Babylonian vassal-state. -Nebuchadrezzar ruled until 562 B. C., and raised Babylon to a height of -power which rivaled that attained under the great Hammurapi. He also -rebuilt the city in great magnificence. The palaces, temples, and walls of -this period, unearthed by Koldewey, were most magnificent structures. -Owing to rebellions, first of Jehoiakim and then of Zedekiah, kings of -Judah, Nebuchadrezzar twice besieged Jerusalem, once in 597, and again in -586 B. C., on both occasions capturing the city. In 586 he destroyed it. -(2 Kings 24, 25.) Following the Assyrian practice, which had prevailed -since Tiglath-pileser IV, he transported considerable numbers of the more -influential people of the city each time he took it. These were settled in -Babylonia. One colony of them was stationed near Nippur. Among those who -were transported in 597 was a young priest, who afterward became the -prophet Ezekiel. The colony with which he came was settled by the Khubur -canal near Nippur. (See Ezek. 1:1.) The young king, Jehoiachin, who was -also taken captive at that time, remained in confinement during the rest -of Nebuchadrezzar's reign. He was only released by Amil-Marduk, -Nebuchadrezzar's son, who succeeded his father and reigned two years. (See -2 Kings 25:27-30.) - -After Nebuchadrezzar the kingdom of Babylon rapidly declined through four -reigns. Meantime, Cyrus, who in 553 had overthrown the kingdom of Media -and erected the kingdom of Persia on its ruins, had been gradually -extending his realm to the Ægean Sea on the west, and to the borders of -India on the east. In 538 B. C. Cyrus captured Babylon and overthrew -Nabuna'id. - -(7) _The Persian Period_ lasted from 538 to 331 B. C. During this time -Babylonia was but a province of the Persian empire, though the Persian -kings made it one of their capitals. Cyrus reversed the policy of -transportation, which had been practised by the Assyrians and Babylonians -for two hundred years, and permitted subject peoples to return to their -lands and restore their institutions and worship. He sought to attach them -to his government by gratitude instead of fear. It was owing to this -policy that the Jewish state was once more established with Jerusalem as -its capital, though still a Persian colony. Cambyses extended Persian -power to Egypt in 525, and Darius I, 521-485 B. C., extended it to India -and into Europe. Under Darius the temple at Jerusalem was rebuilt and the -Jews there tried unsuccessfully to regain their independence. This they -attempted once more under Artaxerxes III about 350 B. C., but his general, -Bagoses, put down their rebellion with great severity. During the Persian -period life in Babylonia went on as before. The old gods were worshiped, -the old culture was continued, the same language was used, and many -business documents written in it have come down to us. The earlier Persian -kings employed it for their inscriptions, and in a short time the Persians -made from it an alphabet of their own. - -(8) _The Greek and Parthian Periods._--Alexander the Great overthrew -Darius III, the last of the Persian kings, in 331 B. C., when Assyria and -Babylonia passed under the sway of the Macedonian. When Alexander returned -from his conquest of hither India in 325 B. C., he planned to extend his -empire westward to the Atlantic Ocean, and to make Babylon its capital. -Plans for the enlargement and beautifying of the city, so as to make it a -worthy capital for such an empire, were under way when Alexander suddenly -died in June, 323 B. C. In the final division of the world among -Alexander's successors, Babylonia fell to Seleucus, together with all the -territory from the Mediterranean to the borders of India. As Seleucus -desired a capital on the Mediterranean, so as to watch more successfully -the movements of his rivals, he built Antioch on the Orontes and made it -his residence. Babylon was, however, made the capital of the eastern half -of the empire, and the king's son, as viceroy, made it his residence. - -Soon after 260 B. C. Bactria and Parthia, in the eastern part of the -empire of the Seleucidæ, gained their independence. In course of time -Parthia absorbed Bactria and became an empire, which lasted till 230 A. D. -About 150 B. C. the Parthians conquered Babylonia, which remained with -little interruption under their sway till the establishment of the -Sassanian kingdom of the Persians in 220 A. D. Babylonia was under the -control of this last dynasty until the coming of the Mohammedans in the -year 637 A. D. The old culture of the Babylonians, their religion, -language, and writing were maintained well down toward the Christian era. -Copies of old Sumerian hymns have been found in Babylonia which bear dates -as late as 81 B. C., and business documents in Semitic are numerous.[17] - -=7. Discoveries Which Illumine the Bible.=--Discoveries in Babylonia and -Assyria which illumine the Biblical narratives are numerous. The sites of -many cities, such as Ur of the Chaldees, Erech, Babylon, Ashur, Nineveh, -and Calah, have been excavated. The number of documents which have come to -light which in one way or another have a bearing on the Bible is too -numerous to mention here. An effort has been made in Part II to translate -examples of most of them. Indeed, the greater part of the material in Part -II was recovered by excavations in these countries. - -To Babylonia and to Egypt mankind owes the working out of the initial -problems of civilization, the processes of agriculture, the making of -bricks, the working of stone, the manufacture and use of the ordinary -implements of life, the development of elementary mathematics and -astronomy, etc. These problems were by slow processes independently worked -out in each country through long ages. The higher spiritual concepts which -have now become the heritage of man neither Babylonia nor Egypt was fitted -to contribute. These came through the agency of other peoples. - - - - -CHAPTER III - -THE HITTITES - - A FORGOTTEN EMPIRE. HITTITE MONUMENTS: Sendjirli. Boghaz Koi. Other - recent excavations. HITTITE DECIPHERMENT: Sayce's early work. Peiser. - Jensen. Conder. Sayce's later work. Thompson. Delitzsch. HITTITE - HISTORY: First appearance. Hyksos possibly Hittites. The Mitanni. - Kingdom of "Hittite City." Carchemish. Samal and Yadi. Hamath. - - -=1. A Forgotten Empire.=--Among the peoples who are said to have been in -Palestine in the Patriarchal age are the Hittites (Gen. 23:10; 26:34, -etc.). They are mentioned most often in the list of peoples whom the -Israelites drove out of the country when they conquered it: "the -Canaanite, the Hittite, the Amorite, the Hivite, and the Jebusite," and -the man is still living who first suspected that anything more than this -could be known of them. This man was Prof. Sayce, of Oxford. In the -inscriptions of the Egyptian kings of the eighteenth and nineteenth -dynasties there is frequent mention of a people called _Kheta_. In the -inscriptions of Assyrian kings there is also frequent mention of a people -called _Kha-at-tu_. Slowly, too, during the nineteenth century -rock-carvings, often accompanied by inscriptions in a peculiar hieroglyph, -were found scattered through northern Syria and Asia Minor. The figures of -gods and men on these carvings usually wore caps of a peculiarly pointed -type and shoes turned far up at the toe. In 1876 it dawned upon Prof. -Sayce that these were all references to the Biblical Hittites. He -proceeded to elaborate this view in two articles published in the -_Transactions of the Society of Biblical Archæology_, Vols. V and VII. - -About the same time the Rev. William Wright independently started the same -idea, and gave it expression in his book, _The Empire of the Hittites_, -1884, 2d ed., 1885. At this period it was impossible to discern more than -that there had been a widely scattered Hittite civilization, which might -have been an empire. - -=2. Hittite Monuments.=--This civilization, it was seen, had left its -monuments at Hamath in Syria, at Carchemish on the Euphrates, at various -points in ancient Cappadocia, Lycaonia, and Phrygia, as well as near -Smyrna in Asia Minor and on the Lydian mountains to the west of Sardis. In -1891 Prof. W. Max Müller, of Philadelphia, reached the conclusion from a -study of the Egyptian inscriptions that the Hittites had come into Syria -from the northwest, and that their main strength was in Asia Minor. Among -the letters found at El-Amarna in Egypt in 1887-1888 were some from -Dushratta, a king of Mitanni. A study of these made it clear that the -Mitanni inhabited the region on both sides of the Euphrates north of -Carchemish, and that they were of the same stock as the Hittites. Our -sources of information indicate that the territory of the Mitanni lay east -of the Euphrates, but scattered monuments of the Hittite type are found on -the west of that river. - -(1) _Sendjirli._--From 1888 to 1891 a German expedition excavated at -Sendjirli, near the head-waters of the Kara Su in northern Syria, and -brought to light most interesting remains of a civilization that was -fundamentally Hittite. Inscriptions found here dated in the reigns of -Tiglath-pileser IV and Esarhaddon were in Aramaic. By this time there had -been an influx of Aramæans, but the art shows that Hittites held the place -at an earlier time, and there is reason to believe that one of the kings -mentioned here had, about 850 B. C., joined in a Hittite federation. - -(2) _Boghaz Koi._--Among the monuments known to Prof. Sayce at the -beginning of his brilliant studies of the Hittites, were some from Boghaz -Koi, in Asia Minor. Different travelers had noted that here must have been -a somewhat extensive city, adorned with several large buildings, all of -which were ornamented with carvings of the peculiar Hittite type. In 1906 -the late Prof. Winckler, of Berlin, excavating here in connection with the -authorities of the Turkish Museum at Constantinople, discovered an archive -of clay tablets inscribed in Babylonian characters. A group of similar -tablets from Cappadocia had been previously purchased by the British -Museum. Winckler's discovery was important because he found some of the -tablets inscribed in Hittite written in cuneiform characters. Of those -written in the Babylonian language, one contained a copy of the great -treaty between Hattusil, a Hittite king, and Ramses II of Egypt. There -were also tablets containing Sumerian and Semitic equivalents of Hittite -words. Owing to the long illness of Winckler which followed these -discoveries, an illness that terminated in death, the results of this -discovery are only now being given to the world. - -In 1907 Winckler and Puchstein, in conjunction with Makridy Bey of the -Turkish Museum, made a thorough examination of the remains of walls and -buildings at Boghaz Koi. The results have since been published in a -handsome volume entitled _Boghaskoi, die Bauwerke_, Leipzig, 1912; (see -Figs. 23 and 25). - -(3) _Other Recent Excavations._--An American expedition consisting of Drs. -Olmstead, Charles, and Wrench, of Cornell University, explored in Asia -Minor in 1907-1908. The members of this expedition collated all the known -monuments of the Hittites, but so far only their collation of the -inscriptions has been published. - -The Institute of Archæology of the University of Liverpool has also sent -one or more expeditions to explore the Hittite country. In 1910 they -excavated to some extent at Sakje-Geuze, not far from Sendjirli, but their -results are not yet published. - -Since 1911 the trustees of the British Museum have had an excavation in -progress at the site of ancient Carchemish on the Euphrates. Here most -important Hittite remains have been discovered, though again the details -of the work have not been given to the public. The expedition has also -made some minor excavations at several points in the neighborhood, and -find that Hittite remains are numerous in that region. In addition to -these places, Hittite remains have been observed at Yaila, Marash, -Giaour-Kalesi, Karaburna, Kizil Dagh, Fraktin, Ivriz, Kara-Bel, Mount -Sypilus, Tashji, Asarjik, Bulghar-Maden, Gurun, and Kara Dagh. One who -will look up these places on a map of modern Turkey will see that Hittite -monuments are distributed from near the shores of the Ægean Sea to the -Euphrates at Carchemish and to Hamath in Syria. (_For addition to this -section, see Appendix._) - -=3. Hittite Decipherment.= - -(1) _Sayce's Early Work._--Prof. Sayce, whose insight first grasped the -significance of the Hittite monuments, was also the first to attempt the -solution of the riddle which the inscriptions present. In 1880 he thought -he had found a key to the writing, such as the Rosetta Stone had been to -Egyptian, in the so-called "Boss of Tarkondemos"; (see Fig. 26). This -"boss" consisted of a round silver plate, in form like half an orange, -which must have covered the knob of a staff or dagger. This had been -described by Dr. A. D. Mordtmann, in the Journal of the German Oriental -Society in 1872. The original was then in the possession of Alexander -Jovanoff, a numismatist of Constantinople, who had obtained it at Smyrna. -The "boss" bore in its center a figure of the peculiar Hittite form, -flanked on both sides by writing in the Hittite characters, while around -the whole was an inscription in the cuneiform writing of Assyria. From -this Sayce tentatively determined the values of a number of Hittite signs. -The results were, however, attended with considerable uncertainty, since -the Assyrian characters were capable of being read in more than one way. -Using the key thus obtained, Sayce enlarged his list of supposed -sign-values and in 1884 and 1885 published as known the values of -thirty-two Hittite signs. In the years that followed Ball and Menant took -up the discussion of the Hittite signs, but with no decisive result. - -In 1889 Winckler and Abel published in one of the volumes of the Royal -Museum at Berlin the first instalment of the text of the El-Amarna -letters, in which there were two from Dushratta, King of Mitanni, in the -native language of that country, though written in Babylonian characters. -In the following year, 1890, Profs. Jensen, Brünnow, and Sayce all -published in the _Zeitschrift für Assyriologie_ studies of this language, -Sayce even venturing a translation of a part of the text. Each of these -scholars had worked independently of the others, but none of them seems to -have suspected that the language had anything to do with Hittite. - -(2) _Peiser._--In 1892 Dr. Peiser, then of Breslau University, published -his book on the Hittite inscriptions, in which he essayed another method -of decipherment. Layard had found four Hittite seals in the palace of -Sennacherib at Nineveh. Peiser inferred that these must be seals of four -Hittite kings mentioned in the inscriptions of that time, and proceeded to -assign each seal to the name of a known Hittite king, and interpret the -signs on the seal by the name of that king as spelled out in the cuneiform -characters of the Assyrian inscriptions. Having obtained in this way -tentative values for several signs, he proceeded by inference to guess at -other signs, and so tentatively read some inscriptions. - -(3) _Jensen._--Prof. Jensen, of Marburg, wrote in that same year an -unfavorable review of Peiser's work. When reading the proofs of his review -he added a postscript to say that he believed he had himself discovered -the key to Hittite. Two years later, 1894, he published in the Journal of -the German Oriental Society his method of solving the problem. Jensen's -starting-point was gained from inscriptions from Jerabis, the site of -ancient Carchemish, Hamath, and other places. He inferred that a certain -sign was the determinative for city, and that the names preceding this -sign were names of places. Gaining in this way some values for signs, he -read the names of some kings. He found that these names had nominatives -ending in _s_ and accusative cases ending in _m_; he accordingly leaped to -the conclusion that the Hittite language was a member of the Indo-European -group of languages, as this is the only known group of tongues in which -this phenomenon occurs. This inference later research has in part -confirmed. Jensen, however, went further and endeavored to show that the -Hittites were the ancestors of the Armenians of later time. This theory -led to the publication in 1898 of his book, _Hittiter und Armenier_. Of -the correctness of this view he has not been able to convince other -scholars. By this time Jensen and others had begun to see that the -Mitannians and the Hittites were kindred peoples and worshiped the same -gods. It is now recognized that Jensen correctly ascertained the value of -some signs, though many of his guesses, like those of his predecessors, -have proved incorrect. - -(4) _Conder._--In 1898 Lieut.-Col. C. R. Conder published _The Hittites -and Their Language_, a work in which he presented still another -decipherment of the inscriptions. Conder's decipherment was based on a -comparison of the Hittite characters with the Sumerian pictographs on the -one hand and the syllabary which was used by Greeks in Cyprus, Caria, and -Lydia on the other. He assumed that if a picture had in Sumerian a certain -syllabic value, and if the Cypriotic syllabary presented a character -somewhat resembling it which had a similar value, the Hittite character -which most closely resembled these must have the same value, since the -Hittites lived between the two peoples who used the other syllabaries. -This system of decipherment has attracted no adherents because it is based -on a fallacious inference. It does not follow because a nation lives -between two other nations, that its institutions are kindred to those of -its neighbors. One could not explain writings of the Indian tribes of -Arizona, for example, by comparing them with books printed in English in -St. Louis and in Spanish in Los Angeles! In 1899 Messerschmidt, who was -collecting in one body all the known Hittite inscriptions for publication, -published a study of the language of Mitanni,[18] which advanced our -knowledge of the language of the letters of Dushratta. Messerschmidt's -later publication of the Hittite inscriptions[19] made it far easier for -scholars to study the subject. - -(5) _Sayce's Later Work._--Stimulated by Jensen's efforts, Prof. Sayce -returned to the study of Hittite in 1903, and published in the -_Proceedings of the Society of Biblical Archæology_ of that year (Vol. -XXV) a new decipherment. He followed Jensen's method, accepting a number -of Jensen's readings as proved, and with the originality and daring that -characterize so much of his work, launched many new readings. Some of -these have commended themselves to his successors. - -In 1909 Ferdinand Bork returned to the problem of the language of Mitanni, -and published a pretty complete decipherment of the Mitannian tablets in -the El-Amarna letters. In 1911 Dr. B. B. Charles, the philologist of the -Cornell expedition to Asia Minor, published as Part II of Volume I of -_Travels and Studies in the Nearer East_, which is to embody the results -of the Cornell expedition, his collation of the Hittite inscriptions. This -publication added some new texts to those previously known. In 1912 Prof. -Clay, of Yale, rendered the subject of Hittiteology a distinct service by -including in his volume of _Personal Names from Cuneiform Inscriptions of -the Cassite Period_ a list of Hittite and Mitannian proper names, and a -list of the nominal and verbal elements which enter into the composition -of such names. - -(6) _Thompson._--The latest attempt on a large scale to unravel the -mystery of the Hittite inscriptions is that of R. Campbell Thompson, "A -New Decipherment of the Hittite Hieroglyphs," published in _Archæologia_, -second series, Vol. XIV, Oxford, 1913. Mr. Thompson was a member of the -British expedition which excavated Carchemish, and gained the idea which -gave him the starting-point for his decipherment from an inscription -excavated by that expedition. This inscription contained many proper -names, and, after passing it and looking at it every day for a long time, -it occurred to Mr. Thompson that a certain elaborate sign which frequently -occurred in it might be a part of the name of the Hittite King Sangar, who -is frequently mentioned by Ashurnasirpal II and Shalmeneser III of -Assyria. In seeking proof for this Mr. Thompson was led into a study of -the texts which resulted in a new interpretation of the Hittite signs. His -work is logical at every point, he makes no inference without first -examining all the occurrences in the known texts of the group of signs in -question, and he tests his inferences wherever possible by the known -results of a study of Mitannian and cuneiform Hittite. It is too soon to -pronounce a final verdict, but it looks as though Thompson had materially -advanced the decipherment of Hittite. - -(7) _Delitzsch._--After the death of Prof. Winckler, the cuneiform tablets -which he had discovered at Boghaz Koi were turned over to Ernst Weidner -for publication. That publication is soon to appear, but Prof. Friedrich -Delitzsch, under whose general direction Weidner is working, published in -May, 1914, a study based on twenty-six fragments of lexicographical texts -which are to appear in Weidner's work. These texts defined Hittite words -in Sumerian and in Assyrian. Although the texts are very fragmentary, -Prof. Delitzsch has been able to gain in this way a vocabulary of about -165 Hittite words, the meanings of most of which are known, and to -ascertain some facts about the grammar of Hittite. - -We are, it would seem, just on the eve of a complete mastery of the -secrets of the Hittite inscriptions. The more our knowledge of the -Hittites grows, the less simple seems the problem of their racial -affinities. Some features of their speech clearly resemble features of the -Indo-European family of languages, but other features would seem to denote -Tartar affinities. In a number of instances the influence of the Assyrian -language can clearly be traced. The same confusion presents itself when we -study the pictures of Hittites as they appear in Egyptian reliefs. Two -distinct types of face are there portrayed. One type has high cheek bones, -oblique eyes, and wears a pigtail, like the peoples of Mongolia and China; -the other has a clean-cut head and face which resemble somewhat the early -Greeks. These may well have been Aryans. That there was a strain in the -Hittite composition that came from Turkestan or that came through that -country is also indicated by the fact that the Hittites were the first of -the peoples of western Asia to use the horse. Evidence of the use of the -horse as a domestic animal by the people of Turkestan at an early date was -brought to light by the excavations of Prof. Pumpelly[20] in that land, so -that the presence of horses among the Hittites naturally suggests some -connection with that region. Among the Hittite allies Semitic Amorites are -also pictured. These have receding foreheads and projecting beards. - -=4. Hittite History.= - -(1) _First Appearance._--The earliest reference to the Hittites which we -have in any written record occurs in a Babylonian chronicle, which states -that "against Shamsu-ditana the men of the country Khattu marched."[21] -Shamsu-ditana was the last king of the first dynasty of Babylon. His reign -terminated in 1924 B. C. Khattu land, as will appear further on, was the -name later given to the Hittite settlement in Cappadocia. One would -naturally suppose that the name would have the same significance here, but -of this we cannot be certain. The tablet on which this chronicle was -written was inscribed in the Persian or late Babylonian period, but there -is evidence that it was copied from an earlier original. If its statement -is true, the Hittites had made their appearance in history and were -prepared to mingle in that _mêlée_ of the races which occurred when the -first dynasty of Babylon was overthrown. Nothing is said in the chronicle -as to the location of the land of Khattu, but there can be no doubt that -the Hittites approached Babylonia from the northwest. Their seat must have -been in the region where we later find the Hittites, or Mitanni. At what -period the Hittites came into this region we can only conjecture. The -excavations at Sakje-Geuze reveal a civilization there extending back to -about 3000 B. C., which resembled that found at Susa in Elam belonging to -the same period. This civilization may not have been Hittite in its -beginnings. Mr. Woolley, a member of the British expedition which has -excavated at Carchemish, in a study of the objects found in tombs at -Carchemish and at other places near by, thinks it possible that the coming -of the Hittites is marked by a transition period in the art--a period the -termination of which he marks by the date of the fall of the first dynasty -of Babylon. It may well be that Indo-Europeans followed by Mongols came -about 2100 or 2000 into this region, or that the Mongols were there -earlier and that the Indo-Europeans then came. In the resultant -civilization it would seem, from the information that we have, that there -was a mingling of the two races; (see Fig. 24). - -(2) _Hyksos Possibly Hittites._--Since the Hittites were able to help -overthrow the first dynasty of Babylon, some scholars have recognized the -possibility that those invaders of Egypt who established the dynasties -called Hyksos may have been Hittites, or may have been led by Hittites. -There is much evidence that many Semites entered Egypt at that time, but -as Syria and Palestine were peopled with Semites earlier than this, such -an invasion would naturally have had many Semites among its camp -followers, if not in its armies, even if the leaders were Hittites. At -present, however, this is but a possibility. Some slight evidence in favor -of the possibility may be found in the name of the king of Jerusalem who -was a vassal of Amenophis IV, and who wrote the letters from Jerusalem -which are in the El-Amarna collection. (See Part II, p. 345, ff.) His name -was Abdi-Hepa, and Hepa was a Hittite and Mitannian deity. Abdi-Hepa had -grown up a trusted subject of the Egyptians. His ancestors must, -therefore, have been in Palestine for some time. A settlement of Hittites -there in the Hyksos days would account for this. The twenty-third chapter -of Genesis represents the city of Hebron as in the possession of the -Hittites when Abraham purchased the cave of Machpelah as a place of burial -for his dead, and, though many scholars regard Genesis 23, which gives -this account, as a late composition, its representation would receive some -confirmation from archæology, if the Hyksos were Hittites. - -There is a possibility that the Hittites were in southern Palestine -earlier than this. Brugsch[22] thought that he found in an inscription in -the Louvre, written by an officer of Amenemhet I, King of Egypt, 2000-1970 -B. C., a statement that this officer had destroyed the palaces of the -Hittites near the Egyptian frontier of Palestine. This reading is still -defended by Prof. Sayce,[23] though other Egyptologists, such as W. Max -Müller[24] and Breasted,[25] claim that the word that was thought to be -Hittites is not a proper name, but a common noun meaning nomads. The text -of the passage is uncertain, and no important inference can in any case be -made from it. - -During the period when we obtain glimpses of the history of the Hittites, -they were never united in one empire. Different kingdoms flourished here -and there, such as that of the Mitanni in Mesopotamia, the Hittites at -Boghaz Koi, the kingdoms of Carchemish, of Hamath, and Tyana. These -flourished at different times all the way from 1400 to 700 B. C., and -there were doubtless other kingdoms also, for the Hittite sculptures near -Smyrna and Manissia cannot have been made by any of these, unless -possibly the great Hittite kingdom at Boghaz Koi may once have extended -its power to the Ægean. - -(3) _The Mitanni._--The earliest of these kingdoms which we can trace is -that of the Mitanni. When Thothmes III of Egypt extended his conquests to -the Euphrates in 1468 B. C., he came into contact with the Mitanni. The -king of the country is not named, but it was claimed that her chiefs hid -themselves in caves.[26] There is some reason for believing that their -chief city was at Haran[27] in Mesopotamia, the city where Abraham -sojourned for a time (Gen. 11:31; 12:4). If this be true, it gives a new -meaning to Ezek. 16:3: "The Amorite was thy father and thy mother was a -Hittite." Thothmes evidently touched the kingdom of Mitanni on its western -border. He did not penetrate its heart or overcome its king. Although he -took tribute, he does not tell us the name of the king of the Mitanni -whose armies he fought. - -Half a century later the king of the Mitanni was Artatama I. He was a -contemporary of Thothmes IV of Egypt, who ruled 1420-1411 B. C. Perhaps it -was their mutual fear of the rising power of the Hittite kingdom at Boghaz -Koi that led Artatama and Thothmes IV to form an alliance. At all events, -such an alliance was made, and Thothmes married a daughter of Artatama, -though Artatama's grandson says that the Egyptian king sent his request -for her hand seven times before Artatama yielded to his solicitations. -Artatama I was succeeded by Shutarna I, whose reign overlapped a part of -that of Amenophis III of Egypt, 1411-1375 B. C. Among the queens of -Amenophis III was a daughter of Shutarna I. Before the reign of Amenophis -III had ended Shutarna I had been succeeded by Dushratta, who continued -the friendly relations with Egypt. Dushratta's reign also overlapped in -part that of Amenophis IV of Egypt, 1375-1357 B. C., and Dushratta wrote -several letters to both of these Egyptian kings. It is from these letters -that we gain most of our information about Mitanni. - -Meanwhile the great kingdom of the Hittites at Boghaz Koi had entered upon -its era of expansion under Subbiluliuma, who pushed his conquests first -eastward and then southward. Dushratta feared to meet the Hittite in -battle and retired to the eastward, allowing much of his country to be -overrun. This land Subbiluliuma gave to one of his allies, and Dushratta -was murdered soon afterward by his son, Sutatarra, who usurped the crown. -Soon after this the Assyrians invaded the lands of the Mitanni from the -east, and the land, already distracted by its internal divisions, was -thrown into a worse confusion. At this juncture Subbiluliuma crossed the -Euphrates again and entered Mitannian territory. He was accompanied by -settlers who brought cattle, sheep, and horses to remain in the country. -Advised by an oracle, he deposed Sutatarra and placed upon the throne -Mattiuaza, a son of Dushratta, who had been heir-apparent and who had fled -when his father was murdered. To Mattiuaza Subbiluliuma gave his daughter -in marriage, and Mitanni became a vassal state of the Hittite realm. After -this our sources tell us no more of its history. - -Near the Mitanni were the Harri, who were probably of the same race, for -in the time of Subbiluliuma they were ruled first by Artatama II, a -brother of Dushratta, and then by Sutarna II. This state also became a -part of Subbiluliuma's kingdom. - -(4) _Kingdom of "Hittite City."_--The wave of migration from the northeast -which brought the Mitanni into upper Mesopotamia had swept on westward -into Cappadocia, where the greatest Hittite state afterward developed. The -monuments erected by the Hittites were nearly all of a religious -character. In the earlier time they wrote few historical inscriptions. -Such inscriptions as we have in Hittite hieroglyphs seem to come from the -later periods and to record alliances. It is probable that in the -development of the Hittite state in Cappadocia first one city and then -another had the upper hand. The Hittite monuments at Eyuk are of a more -primitive character than those at Boghaz Koi, and it is natural to suppose -that a Hittite state flourished here before the rise of the one at Boghaz -Koi. Be that as it may, the most powerful Hittite monarchy of which we -know arose at Boghaz Koi, which they called "Hittite City." This monarchy -emerged about 1400 B. C. Its first king was Hattusil I, of whom we know no -more than that he was the founder of the great dynasty which ruled from -the "Hittite City" for two hundred years. - -The king who laid the foundations of the greatness of this dynasty was -Subbiluliuma, the next king, whose conquests over the Mitanni and Harri we -have already traced. He conquered also a number of neighboring states, and -compelled them to sign with him treaties of alliance which made them his -vassals. Chronicles of these events were discovered by Winckler among the -clay tablets found at Boghaz Koi. Subbiluliuma also turned his armies -southward and conquered Syria down to the confines of Palestine. These -conquests were in progress when some of the El-Amarna letters, written to -Amenophis IV of Egypt and translated in Part II, p. 344, ff., were -written. Here he pursued the same policy that he had pursued in -Mesopotamia, and compelled the conquered countries to enter into treaties -with him, which subjugated them to his will. Among the kings so treated -was the Amorite King Aziru, who at that time ruled Amorites living in the -southern part of the valley between the Lebanon mountain ranges and in the -region afterward occupied by the tribe of Asher. They also held some of -the southern Phoenician cities. This represents the most southerly -extension of Subbiluliuma's power. - -Whether Subbiluliuma also extended his conquests to the west of Asia -Minor, we have no means of knowing. Some scholars suppose that he had done -so before he began the conquest of Mitanni. Certain it is that Hittite -rock sculptures of gigantic size exist in the mountains near Smyrna and -Manissia, to the west of Sardis. These sculptures represent the great -Hittite goddess. Near Smyrna there are also the remains of great -buildings. We know of no Hittite monarch who would be so likely to have -carried Hittite power to these parts as Subbiluliuma. If he did so, -possibly in later time the Hittites here became independent. At all -events, some centuries later they were known to Ionian Greeks in this -region, for Homer's _Odyssey_, Book XI, line 521, records the tradition -that some Hittites were killed with Eurypylos. - -When Subbiluliuma died he was succeeded by his son, Arandas, whose -occupation of the throne was brief, and who seems to have been without -effective power. After a short time he was replaced by his brother, -Mursil, who appears to have enjoyed a long reign. Subbiluliuma, called by -the Egyptians Seplel, was reigning when Amenophis IV of Egypt came to the -throne in 1375 B. C., for he sent an embassy to congratulate him, and -Mursil appears to have reigned until after the year 1320 B. C. The two -reigns, therefore, covered more than half a century. The first years of -Mursil's reign were apparently passed in peace, but soon after 1320 -Shalmeneser I invaded the countries in the eastern part of the Hittite -confederacy, conquering all the territory east of the Euphrates, and a -considerable territory to the west of that river. Meantime, Mursil had -renewed the treaty with the Amorites of Syria, whose king at this time was -Abbi-Teshub, or Abi-Adda. Ere long, however, trouble arose for him on his -southern border. Seti I of Egypt came to the throne in 1313 B. C., and -began a series of vigorous campaigns for the conquest of Palestine. In -time he came face to face with the Hittite power in Syria. - -At this juncture Mursil died and was succeeded by his son, Mutallu, who -soon met Seti I in battle and convinced that monarch that it was unwise to -attempt to extend Egypt's empire in Asia to the Euphrates, as Thothmes III -had done. Owing to internal troubles in Assyria the eastern border of the -Hittite realm was left undisturbed for a considerable time, during which -Mutallu could devote himself to other matters. In 1292 B. C. Ramses II -succeeded Seti I as king of Egypt and soon began vigorously to push -Egyptian conquests into northern Syria. Mutallu recognized the importance -of the struggle and collected a large army from all his allies. These -forces were drawn from all parts of Asia Minor; even the countries of the -extreme west contributed their quota. Aleppo and states in that region -also contributed their share. A great battle was fought at Kadesh on the -Orontes in 1287 B. C., in which Mutallu, by surprising his foe, -disorganized a part of the Egyptian forces and endangered the life of -Ramses himself. By the opportune arrival of reinforcements the Egyptians -escaped entire defeat, so that the result was a drawn battle. - -The battle had, however, cost the Hittites much. The slaughter of their -forces had been enormous. Among the slain were many chieftains, including -the king of Aleppo. The Amorites at once threw off their allegiance to the -Hittites, and many of the other troops mutinied. Mutallu was assassinated. -He was succeeded by Hattusil II, the Khetasar of the Egyptian -inscriptions. - -Assyria had become weak, so that Hattusil was no longer pressed upon his -eastern border. After a little he reduced the Amorites once more to -submission, and compelled them to take back their king, Put-akhi, whom -they had driven out at the time of their rebellion against Mutallu. He -gave Put-akhi a Hittite princess for a wife. Later, about 1271 B. C., -Hattusil concluded an offensive and defensive alliance with Ramses II of -Egypt. The treaty which guaranteed this alliance has come down to us, and -is the first international treaty the details of which are known to us. -(See Chapter I, p. 30.) - -Hattusil II must have enjoyed a long reign, but we do not know the date of -his death. He had two successors, Dudkhalia and Arnuanta, whose reigns are -known to us, and who continued the sway of the dynasty down to about 1200 -B. C. They were respectively the son and grandson of Hattusil II. An edict -of Dudkhalia concerning the vassal states has survived, in which the name -of Eni-Teshub, King of Carchemish, appears. Carchemish would seem to have -been the chief of the allied states. Of Arnuanta we have no details, -though two fragments of royal edicts and a seal of his have come down to -us. He was called "the great king, the son of Dudkhalia." After him our -sources fail, and the story ends in darkness. We know, however, that the -days of the power of this dynasty were over. Egyptian sources tell us that -tribes from western Asia Minor and from beyond the sea swept over Cilicia -and northern Syria soon after the year 1200 B. C., and there was then no -Hittite power there to restrain them. - -(5) _Carchemish._--Of the other Hittite kingdoms far less is known. -Carchemish, which, as we have just seen, played an important part in the -federation of the great Hittite power, continued its existence for several -centuries. In the time of Ashurnasirpal II and Shalmeneser III the kingdom -of Carchemish entered into alliance with these kings and preserved its -existence by becoming their vassal. Judging from the meager reports -hitherto published of the British excavation at Carchemish, this was a -flourishing period in the history of the city. A hundred years later, in -the reign of Sargon, Pisiris, who was then king of Carchemish, defied the -Assyrian, who brought the kingdom to an end in 717 B. C. (Cf. Isa. 10:9.) - -(6) _Samal and Yadi._--When the Aramæans swept westward about 1300 B. C. -they apparently dislodged the Hittites from a number of their sites and -occupied their country. Among the places so occupied was the site of -Sendjirli mentioned above. All the carvings found among its architectural -remains reveal the influence of Hittite art, but the inscriptions found -there are in Aramaic. These inscriptions show that there were in that -region two petty kingdoms named, respectively, Samal and Yadi. The names -of several kings of these monarchies who ruled between 850 and 730 B. C. -have been recovered. They are all Aramæan. - -(7) _Hamath._--Farther to the south, at Hamath on the Orontes, a Hittite -kingdom existed in the time of David. Its king was then called Toi or Tou, -who made an alliance with David (2 Sam. 8:9, f; 1 Chron. 18:9, f.). This -kingdom was probably the outgrowth of the earlier occupation of the -Orontes valley, three hundred years before, by the Hittites of the great -empire. It continued until the time of Ahab. Its king was then Irhulina, -who along with Ahab, Ben-Hadad of Damascus, and several other kings made -an alliance to resist the encroachments of Shalmaneser III of Assyria in -854 B. C. (See Part II, p. 360, ff.) Irhulina caused several inscriptions -to be made on stone, which survived at Hamath until our time. According to -Mr. Thompson's interpretation of them they are all records of his various -alliances. By the next century, however, the Aramæans had captured Hamath, -for in the reigns of Tiglath-pileser IV (745-727) and of Sargon (722-705 -B. C.) the names of its kings were Semitic. These names were, -respectively, Enu-ilu and Yau-bidi, or Ilu-bidi. - -We gain glimpses also of a number of other Hittite states. There was, for -example, the state of Kummukh, which lay to the west of the Euphrates, and -another in western Cilicia, that had its center at Tyana, the modern Bor. -These states appear to have reached their zenith after the fall of the -great Hittite dynasty which had its capital at Boghaz Koi. Doubtless as -time goes on we shall learn of the existence of many other small Hittite -kingdoms which flourished at one time or another. At some time, either -when the Hyksos were making their way into Egypt or when Subbiluliuma was -pushing southward into Syria, the Hittites mentioned in the Old Testament -must have made some small settlements in Palestine. Here the Hebrews came -into contact with them. They were really an unimportant outlying fringe of -the great Hittite people, but they had the good fortune to have their -names preserved in the most immortal literature in the world, the Bible, -and so their memory was ever kept alive, while that of their more -illustrious kinsmen was utterly forgotten. It is only archæological -research that has restored something of the original perspective. - - - - -CHAPTER IV - -PALESTINE AND ITS EXPLORATION - - THE LAND: Rainfall. EARLY EXPLORATION: Place names. EARLY AMERICAN - EXPLORATIONS: Robinson and Smith. Lynch. American exploration - societies. PALESTINE EXPLORATION FUND: Warren's excavations at - Jerusalem. The survey of Palestine. Exploration of Lachish. Bliss's - excavation at Jerusalem. Excavation at Azekah. At Tell es-Safi - (Gath?). Tell el-Judeideh. At Marash (Moresheth-Gath). Gezer. - Beth-shemesh. Exploring the Wilderness of Zin. THE GERMAN PALESTINE - SOCIETY: Guthe's excavation at Jerusalem. Megiddo. Taanach. Capernaum. - Jericho. THE AMERICAN SCHOOL AT JERUSALEM. SAMARIA. PARKER'S - EXCAVATIONS AT JERUSALEM. LATEST EXCAVATIONS. - - -=1. The Land.=--Palestine is a very different land from either Egypt or -Mesopotamia. They are made by the irrigation of rivers. Palestine is -fertilized by rain from heaven. In them the scenery is monotonous; they -are river valleys each of which was once in part an arm of the sea, but -now filled up by the gradual deposit of mud. Palestine was formed in one -of the greatest geological upheavals the earth ever experienced. This was -nothing less than a great rift in the earth's crust extending from the -Lebanon mountains to the Indian Ocean. The strata on the west side of this -rift slipped downward past those on its east side for a mile or more. -Those on the west were bent at different points in this long course in -different ways, but the result of the rift itself was to form the Jordan -valley and the bed of the Dead Sea, the valley which runs from the Dead -Sea to the Gulf of Akaba, and that deep rift between Asia and Africa which -forms the Red Sea itself. - -In Palestine the strata on the west of this rift bent up into two parallel -ridges, to the west of which a narrow plain of varying width, ancient -Philistia, rises from the sea. To the east of this rift the land remained -at approximately its old level. The various ridges of the country are, on -account of the birth-pangs of their origin, intersected with valleys -innumerable, so that in no country of the world can such variety of -scenery and climate be found within such narrow limits. - -_Rainfall._--This land, with all its variety of form, is redeemed from the -desert by the moisture which the west winds drive in from the -Mediterranean Sea. These winds in the winter months bring clouds, which, -when they come into contact with the colder air over the elevated hills, -deposit their moisture in rain. The Jordan valley is so warm that little -rain falls upon it, but it drains the water from the rainfall on both -sides of it. Just so far back as the clouds reach before their moisture is -exhausted, just so far the fertile land extends; beyond that is the -Arabian Desert. When the rainfall during a winter is good, bountiful crops -are raised the following season; when it is scant, the harvest fails and -famine follows. In Egypt and Babylonia a man could water his garden by -kicking a hole in a dyke; they were lands which were watered "with thy -foot" (Deut. 11:10); Palestine was dependent on heaven for its life, and -we cannot doubt that this fact was one of the instruments for the training -of the Israelites for their great religious mission. In a land of such -variety--a land in which for nine months in the year snow-capped Hermon -may be seen from many an elevated point and from the whole stretch of the -tropical Jordan valley, where oleanders are blooming and mustard seeds are -growing into trees--it was possible to think of God in a way that was at -least more difficult in Egypt or in Mesopotamia. - -Here in this marvelous land, which formed a bridge between the two oldest -civilizations of the world, the men lived to whom God committed the task -of writing most of the Bible. This was the earthly home of the Son of God. - -Even before the Hebrews came into it, many had crossed this bridge and -some had paused long upon it. Living here they had left the remains of -their homes, their cities, and their civilizations. Archæology is now -recovering these. After the time of Christ various races and civilizations -continued to pass over the bridge. Their remains buried those left by -earlier men. The story of the recovery of these earlier remains is, -accordingly, not only of great interest, but often of great value to the -reader of the Bible. - -=2. Early Exploration.=--The misfortunes which overtook Judæa in the years -70 and 132-135 A. D., in consequence of the Jewish rebellions against -Rome, led to the paganizing of Jerusalem and the expulsion of the Jews -from Judæa. At this period Christianity was a struggling and a persecuted -religion, too busy working its way to take an active interest in the land -of its birth. When Constantine early in the fourth century made -Christianity the religion of the Roman Empire, all this was changed. Both -Constantine and his mother, Helena, took the deepest interest in -identifying the holy places in Jerusalem, and a stream of pilgrims began -at once to visit the land. The earliest of these to leave us an account of -his travels was a pilgrim from Bordeaux who visited Palestine in 333 A. D. -As he was anxious to see the principal places hallowed by the bodily -presence of Christ and the heroes of Scripture, he visited places in -different parts of the country. He was followed by many others. The stream -has been almost continuous down to the present time. As the aim of these -travelers was devotional and they possessed little scholarly training or -critical faculty, their works are of secondary value to the modern -student. They did, however, prevent that loss of knowledge of the country -to which Babylonia was subjected for so many centuries. - -_Place Names._--At the very beginning of this period Eusebius of Cæsarea, -a contemporary of Constantine, compiled a list of the place names of -Palestine which are mentioned in the Bible. The names were arranged in -alphabetical order, the events for which the places are celebrated were -given, in many instances identifications with places existing in the -fourth century were proposed, and the distances from other well-known -places mentioned. In the next century this work was translated into Latin -by Jerome, who lived many years at Bethlehem and traveled extensively in -Palestine, and who died in 420 A. D. It is called the _Onomasticon_. - -=3. Early American Explorations.=--As the reader approaches modern times -he finds the works of some of the pilgrims assuming a more scientific -character. To some extent, too, these works were supplemented by those of -travelers like Châteaubriand,[28] Burckhardt,[29] and Lamartine.[30] - -(1) _Robinson and Smith._--The scientific study of the localities and -antiquities of Palestine was, however, begun by an American, the late -Prof. Edward Robinson, of Union Seminary, New York. Robinson was fully -equipped with Biblical knowledge, and was thoroughly familiar with -Josephus and other works bearing on his subject. He possessed the critical -faculty in a high degree, and combined with it a keen constructive -faculty. In 1838 and again in 1852 he traveled through Palestine with Eli -Smith, a missionary. They were equipped with compass, telescope, -thermometer, and measuring tape. His knowledge of history enabled -Robinson to look beneath many traditions. With keen penetration he -discerned under the guise of many a modern Arabic name the form of a -Biblical original, and accomplished more for the scientific study of -Biblical Palestine than any of his predecessors. As he traveled he also -noted and briefly described such remains of antiquity as could be seen -above ground. The results of Robinson's first journey were embodied in his -_Biblical Researches_, New York, 1841. In the second edition, London, -1856, the results of the second journey were embodied, and the number of -volumes increased to three. The impetus given to the exploration of -Palestine by the labors of Robinson was continued by Tobler, Guérin, -Renan, and many others.[31] - -(2) _Lynch._--Meantime, another American, Lieut. W. F. Lynch, of the -United States Navy, rendered an important service by the exploration in -1848 of the Dead Sea. In April and May of that year about three weeks were -spent in exploring that body of water. Lieut. Lynch was accompanied by Dr. -Anderson, a geologist. The party traversed the sea back and forth in two -metal boats that had been launched on the Sea of Galilee and floated down -the Jordan. The fact that the Jordan valley is lower than the level of the -sea had never been recognized until 1837, and, until the visit of Lynch -and Anderson, the depth of the depression was only a matter of conjecture. -By this expedition it was scientifically determined that the surface of -the Dead Sea is 1,300 feet lower than that of the Mediterranean.[32] - -(3) _American Exploration Societies._--The work of American exploration -was later continued by the American Exploration Society, founded in 1870. -Under its auspices, Rev. John A. Paine, of Tarrytown, New York, visited -the Holy Land. One of the results of his visit was the identification of -Pisgah.[33] - -Later an American Palestine Exploration Society was organized. This -Society employed Mr. Rudolph Meyer, an engineer, to make a map of -Palestine, and from 1875 to 1877 also employed Rev. Selah Merrill, who -afterward was for many years the U. S. Consul at Jerusalem, as explorer. -Dr. Merrill gathered much archæological information, especially in the -country east of the Jordan.[34] - -=4. Palestine Exploration Fund.=--As a result of the interest engendered -by the work of Robinson, Lynch, and others, the Palestine Exploration Fund -was organized in London in 1865. By this act a permanent body was created -to foster continuously the exploration of the Holy Land, and to rescue the -work from the fitful activities of individual enterprise. Such enterprise -could supplement the work of the Fund, but could no longer hope to compete -with it. - -Within six months from the organization of the Palestine Exploration Fund -its first expedition was sent out. This was led by Capt., now Gen. Sir -Charles Warren, who had just completed a survey of Jerusalem as part of a -plan for bringing water into the city. The chief object of this -expedition, which was in the field from December, 1865, to May, 1866, was -to indicate spots for future excavation. It made a series of sketch maps -of the country on the scale of one inch to the mile, studied some -synagogues in Galilee noted by Robinson, but not fully described by him, -and laid bare on Mount Gerizim the remains of a church built on a rough -platform which may once have supported the Samaritan temple. - -(1) _Warren's Excavations at Jerusalem._--A second expedition under -Lieut.-Col., now Sir Charles Warren, made considerable excavations on the -temple-hill at Jerusalem. He sank a remarkable series of shafts to the -bottom of the walls enclosing the temple area, and proved that in places -these walls rest on foundations from 80 to 125 feet below the present -surface. He laid bare solid masonry, which bore what are apparently -Phoenician quarry-marks and which he believed to go back to the time of -Solomon. On the west side of the temple enclosure he found 80 feet below -the present surface the ruins of a bridge, which Robinson had conjectured -crossed the Tyropoeon Valley from the temple enclosure at this point from -an arch, the base of which is still visible outside of the temple -wall.[35] Among many other discoveries made by Warren were a part of the -ancient city wall south of the temple area and an underground passage -leading up from the ancient spring of Gihon, which was probably the -"gutter" (R. V., "watercourse") of 2 Sam. 5:8. - -(2) _The Survey of Palestine._--After this the Palestine Exploration Fund -undertook a survey of Palestine, the object of which was to make a -complete and authoritative map of the country on the scale of one inch to -a mile, and also a description of all archæological remains of antiquity -which were above ground. The work was undertaken in 1871 and the survey of -western Palestine was completed in 1878. Owing to an outbreak of cholera, -the work was interrupted from 1874 to 1877. Among those who took part in -it were Capt. C. R. Conder (now Lieut.-Col.), who was in charge of the -work from 1872 to 1874, and Capt. Kitchener (now Lord Kitchener). The -great map was published in 1880, and covers an area of 6,000 square miles, -from the Mediterranean to the Jordan and from the Egyptian desert to a -point near Tyre. The completion of this map was a monumental -accomplishment, and must form the basis for all similar work. The -archæological remains noted on the map are described in three volumes of -_Memoirs_, also published by the Exploration Fund. - -In 1881 Capt. Conder was sent out to make a similar survey of the country -east of the Jordan. He endeavored to work under the old permit from the -Turkish government, but to this the Turks objected. After working for ten -weeks, during which he surveyed about 500 square miles of territory, he -was compelled to desist. The results of his work, however, fill a stout -volume entitled _The Survey of Eastern Palestine_, London, 1889. The work -undertaken by Conder has since been carried on by other agencies. Dr. -Gottlieb Schumacher, an engineer residing at Haifa, who was employed in -surveying the railway to Mecca, has published authoritative volumes on the -region to the east of the Sea of Galilee.[36] On a larger scale is the -work of Brünnow and Domaszewsky on the Roman province of Arabia,[37] a -work which includes ancient Edom as far as Petra. The last-mentioned -remarkable city has been described also in two excellent volumes by Gustaf -H. Dalman, Director of the German Evangelical Institute in Jerusalem.[38] - -In 1873-1874 the Palestine Exploration Fund entrusted an archæological -mission of a general nature to the French scholar, Clermont-Ganneau, who -several years before had been French Consul at Jerusalem. Clermont-Ganneau -was embarrassed by the failure of the Turkish government to grant him a -firman, but made numerous archæological discoveries in the country between -Jaffa and Jerusalem. These were published by the Fund in two large -volumes,[39] although they did not appear until 1896 and 1899, -respectively. - -In the winter of 1883-1884, a complete geological survey was made of the -valley of the Dead Sea and the region to the south (Wady el-Arabah) by -Prof. Edward Hull, who afterward published a volume on the subject.[40] -Hull was accompanied by Major Kitchener, who made a complete triangulation -of the district lying between Mount Sinai and the Wady el-Arabah. - -(3) _Exploration of Lachish._--In 1890 the Exploration Fund entered upon a -new phase of work or, rather, resumed one that had been interrupted for -twenty years,--that of excavation. The services of Prof. Petrie, the -Egyptian explorer, were secured and the attempt to wrest from the soil of -Palestine some of the buried secrets of the past was renewed. The site -chosen was Tell el-Hesy, where stood in ancient times the city of Lachish -(Josh. 10:3; 2 Kings 14:19; 18:14, etc.). This mound rose about 120 feet -above the bed of an intermittent stream. About 60 feet of this height -consisted of accumulated débris of the ancient city. The water in the -course of centuries had so exposed some of the potsherds that Petrie was -confident before he began digging that rich discoveries awaited him. He -worked here only about six weeks, running trenches into different parts of -the mound, but he found and classified such a variety of pottery that he -felt confident that he had unearthed a city which had been occupied from a -time anterior to the Hebrew conquest of Canaan down to about 350 B. C.[41] - -In 1892 the work was continued under the direction of Dr. Frederick J. -Bliss, who cut away a considerable section from the northeast corner of -the mound, and found the stratified remains of eight different cities, one -above the other.[42] In the third of these cities from the bottom a -cuneiform tablet was found, which mentions one of the men who figure in -the letters found at Tell el-Amarna in Egypt. This tablet would indicate -that this third city was flourishing during the period 1400-1350 B. C. -The two cities below this must, accordingly, belong to an earlier period. -Bliss supposed that the first city was built about 1700 B. C. Above the -remains of the third city was a bed of ashes of some thickness, which -shows, in Petrie's opinion, that after the destruction of this city the -mound was used for a period of perhaps fifty years as a place for burning -alkali. Near the top of the débris of the fourth city a glazed seal was -found similar to those made in Egypt in the time of the twenty-second -dynasty (945-745 B. C.). This city, then, belonged to the early part of -the kingdom of Judah. In the seventh and eighth cities pottery of polished -red and black types was found. This class of pottery is of Greek origin, -dating from 550-350 B. C. These occupations of the mound must, then, be of -that period. The fifth and sixth cities would, accordingly, fall between -750 and 550 B. C. This excavation thus shows how the stratification of the -mounds of Palestine reveals the march of the peoples across the country; -(see Fig. 28). - -(4) _Bliss's Excavation at Jerusalem._--From 1894 to 1897 Dr. Bliss was -engaged in excavations at Jerusalem.[43] Here he devoted his attention to -an endeavor to recover the line of the ancient wall on the south side of -the city. This he did, following it from "Maudsley's Scarp"[44] at the -northwest corner of the westernmost of the two hills on which Jerusalem is -situated across the slope to the eastward and then across the Tyropoeon -Valley. This was the wall rebuilt by Nehemiah on lines then already old -(Neh. 3-6). It was destroyed by Titus in the year 70 A. D., and afterward -rebuilt by the Empress Eudoxia in the fifth century A. D. - -(5) _Excavation at Azekah._--From 1898 to 1900 Dr. Bliss excavated for the -Fund at several sites in the Biblical Shephelah,[45] the low hills which -formed the border-land between ancient Judæa and Philistia. The work began -at Tell Zakariya, the Biblical Azekah, situated above the lower part of -the Vale of Elah. Azekah was fortified by King Rehoboam (2 Chron. -11:5-10). Here an important citadel or fortress was uncovered. While the -masonry of the top part was similar to that of Herodian buildings at -Jerusalem, the pottery found about the foundations indicated that the -beginnings of the structure go back to early Israelitish times. It may -well be one of Jeroboam's fortresses. Underneath it were remains from -late pre-Israelitish times. It appears that the hill was occupied as the -site of a city only shortly before the Hebrew conquest. The fortress was -not, however, built at the time of this earliest occupation. - -(6) _At Tell es-Safi (Gath?)._--Next the excavation was transferred to -Tell es-Safi, which was situated on the south side of the ancient Vale of -Elah at the point where it sweeps into the Philistine plain, and which was -thought to be the site of the Biblical Gath (Josh. 11:22; 1 Sam. 5:8; -17:4; 2 Kings 12:17). Here in 1144 A. D. the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem -established by the Crusaders built a fortress, which they called -Blanche-Garde, as an outpost against Ashkelon. It was hoped that the -excavation of Dr. Bliss would determine whether or not this was really the -site of Gath, but owing to the occupation of the tell by a Mohammedan -cemetery and a wely, or sacred building, this was not possible. The -outline of the city walls was, however, traced, the foundations of -Blanche-Garde examined, and here and there trenches were sunk to the rock. -These trenches revealed in the various strata pottery and objects, first, -of the period of the Crusaders; secondly, of the Seleucid period (312-65 -B. C.); thirdly, of the Jewish period, 700-350 B. C., and two -pre-Israelite strata. The mound had, then, been occupied from about 1700 -B. C. to the Seleucid times, and again in the period of the Latin Kingdom -of Jerusalem. - -The most interesting discovery at Tell es-Safi was that of an old -pre-Israelitish high place, which contained three pillars such as are -denounced in Deuteronomy. (See Deut. 7:5; 12:3, etc.) At the time of this -discovery no similar discovery had been made. The foundations of this high -place were near the bottom of the last pre-Israelite stratum, so that it -was clearly constructed by the Amorites, or Canaanites, or whoever -occupied this city before the Hebrews arrived. - -(7) _Tell el-Judeideh._--The excavations next moved to Tell el-Judeideh, a -mound some distance to the south of Tell Zakariya. Here they traced the -outlines of the city wall, found the remains of a Roman villa, and sunk a -number of shafts to the rock. From the pottery found in these shafts they -inferred that the mound had been occupied in the earliest period, but -deserted for a considerable time before the Hebrew conquest. It was then -reoccupied in the latter part of the Judæan monarchy, and was finally -fortified in the Seleucid or Roman period. It seems to have been deserted -soon after the Roman period. It is not known what was the ancient name of -the city that stood there. - -(8) _At Marash (Moresheth-Gath)._--The last mound excavated in this region -was Tell Sandahanna, situated a mile to the south of Beit Jibrin. The -mound takes its name from a church of St. Anne, the ruins of which may -still be seen near by. It occupies the site of the city of Marissa of the -Seleucid period, and of the older Jewish Marash. It is probably the site -of Moresheth-Gath, the home of the prophet Micah. (See Micah 1:14.) Here -considerable portions of the Seleucid stratum of the mound were excavated, -and a smaller portion of the Jewish stratum. The Jewish stratum rested -directly on the rock; the site seems, therefore, not to have been -inhabited in pre-Israelite times. - -(9) _Gezer._--The next undertaking of the Palestine Exploration Fund was -the excavation of Gezer. This work was entrusted to the direction of R. A. -Stewart Macalister, who had been Dr. Bliss's assistant from 1898 to 1900 -and who is now Professor of Celtic in the University of Dublin. Work was -begun on Tell el-Jazar, about six miles southeast of the town of Ramleh, -which Clermont Ganneau[46] had, in June, 1902, identified as the site of -Gezer. (Josh. 10:33; Judges 1:27; 2 Sam. 5:25.) It continued, with such -interruptions as winter weather and an outbreak of cholera made necessary, -until August, 1905. It was renewed in the spring of 1907 and carried on -until early in 1909. During this time more than half of the mound was -excavated. No other mound in Palestine has been so fully explored. -Naturally, therefore, Gezer has furnished us with more archæological -information than any other excavation; (see Fig. 30). - -The results of this excavation convinced Mr. Macalister that the -classification of the strata adopted by the excavators of Lachish and the -mounds of the Shephelah was capable of improvement. He found that Gezer -had been occupied at first by a non-Semitic people, remains of whose bones -indicate that they were about 5 feet 6 inches high, who lived in caves, -and whose implements were wholly of stone. He estimated that these people -probably occupied the site from about 3000 to 2500 B. C. About 2500 B. C. -a Semitic race, probably Amorite, took possession of the city and occupied -it to the end of the Hebrew monarchy. - -Four periods could be traced in the Semitic occupation, each represented -by differences in walls, implements, and objects used. The first Semitic -period ended with the fall of the twelfth Egyptian dynasty, about 1800 B. -C. In this stratum scarabs of the period of the Egyptian "middle kingdom" -were found. The second Semitic stratum continued until about the end of -the eighteenth Egyptian dynasty, about 1350 B. C. The third Semitic -stratum lasted till the establishment of the Hebrew monarchy, about 1000 -B. C.; the fourth was contemporaneous with the Hebrew kingdoms, 1000-586 -B. C. The mound was again occupied in the Hellenistic or Maccabæan -period.[47] After the Maccabæan turmoils the inhabitants seem to have -deserted the tell. Under the modern village of Abu Shusheh, on the -southwest slope of the mound, a Roman mosaic has been found, but nothing -from Roman times was discovered on the mound itself. There were likewise -no remains from the period of the Crusaders. - -In the course of this excavation many important discoveries were made. -Many of these will be mentioned in subsequent chapters. We need only -mention here an old Semitic high place, which had its beginnings in the -first Semitic stratum before 1800 B. C., and was used down to the end of -the fourth Semitic or Hebrew stratum, about 600 B. C. It began with two -"pillars," but others were added as time passed until there were ten in -all.[48] In the third Semitic stratum (_i. e._, the one preceding the -Hebrew occupation) a building was found which Mr. Macalister thought might -have been a temple. In the middle of its largest hall were some stones -which looked as though they might have supported wooden pillars, which, in -turn, probably supported the roof. Mr. Macalister thought this was a -structure similar to that which Samson pulled down at Gaza[49] (Judges -16:23-30). - -One of the most important discoveries was a rock-cut tunnel leading down -through the heart of the rock to a spring in a cave 94 feet below the -surface of the rock and 120 feet below the level of the present surface of -the ground.[50] This was to enable the people of the city to obtain water -in time of siege. It was used for some 500 years and was apparently closed -up about 1300-1200 B. C. Its beginnings go back accordingly to the first -Semitic period. A palace of the Maccabæan time, apparently built by Simon -the Maccabee, 143-135 B. C., was also discovered.[51] (Cf. 1 Macc. 14:34.) - -Various walls were discovered, which at different times encircled the -city. The most massive of these was apparently constructed during the -eighteenth Egyptian dynasty, and continued to be the city wall down to the -Babylonian Exile. At some time after its construction towers had been -inserted in the wall. These towers were shown to be a later insertion by -the fact that their stones touched the stones of the wall on each side, -but were not interlocked with them. Mr. Macalister thinks that these -towers may have been inserted by Solomon when he fortified the city (1 -Kings 9:15-19). At some later time the weakness of such a tower had become -apparent, and a bastion had been built around it.[52] The excavation at -Gezer was fruitful in many directions. Other aspects of it will be taken -up in future chapters in connection with other topics. - -(10) _Beth-shemesh._--The next task undertaken by the Palestine -Exploration Fund was the exploration of Ain Shems, the Biblical -Beth-shemesh. (See Josh. 15:10; 2 Kings 14:8-14, etc.) Ain Shems, like -Gezer, is situated in what was in Biblical times the Shephelah. It is near -the station of Der Aban on the railway from Jaffa to Jerusalem. -Excavations were carried on at this point in 1911 and 1912 under the -direction of Dr. Duncan Mackenzie, who had had ten years' experience on -the staff of Sir Arthur Evans, the explorer of Crete. At the bottom of the -mound the remains of a very early settlement were discovered.[53] Above -this the ruins of a once prosperous city, which was for that time large, -were found. It was surrounded by strong walls and one of its rugged gates -was discovered on the south. In the upper strata of this city imitations -of Cretan pottery were found. As it is probable that the Philistines came -from Crete, or were intimately associated with people who were under -Cretan influence, this pottery is doubtless Philistine. The city which was -encircled by this wall had passed through two periods of history. The -original wall was built before the domination of Palestine by Egypt. As -this domination began about 1500 B. C., the earlier fortress of -Beth-shemesh belongs to that period. The second period belongs in its -earlier strata to the age of the El-Amarna letters, in which the city is -called Beth-Ninib. The upper period of it belongs, as has been noted, to -the Philistine period. - -This city was destroyed by a siege which resulted in the burning of the -city--a burning which left quite a bed of ashes. Dr. Mackenzie thought -that this was the siege by which the Israelites gained possession of -Beth-shemesh. The city was occupied by the Hebrews apparently until the -invasion of Palestine by Sennacherib, King of Assyria, in 701 B. C. At all -events, it was in the possession of Judah in the days of King Amaziah (2 -Kings 14:8-14). Corresponding to this, Israelitish pottery was found in -the stratum above the ashes. Dr. Mackenzie is of the opinion that during -this Hebrew period the city was without a wall. Apparently after the time -of Sennacherib the site was abandoned for several centuries, for next -above the Israelitish stratum the remains of a monastery of the Byzantine -period (325-636 A. D.) were found. This monastery apparently was not begun -until just at the close of the Byzantine period, for it appears that it -was not finished at the time of the Mohammedan conquest. - -(11) _Exploring the Wilderness of Zin._--The most recent service of the -Palestine Exploration Fund was the sending of two explorers, C. Leonard -Woolley and T. E. Lawrence, in the winter of 1913-14, to explore the -wilderness to the south of Palestine. The results of their work have been -published in the Fund's _Annual_, Vol. III, under the title _The -Wilderness of Zin_. The explorers identified a considerable part of the -"Darb es-Shur," or the "way of Shur" (Gen. 16:7, etc.). It was the caravan -road from Palestine to Egypt. They also adduce strong evidence against the -identification of Ain Kades with Kadesh-Barnea (Num. 32:8, etc.), and -think that Kossima, which lies nearer to the Egyptian road and is -surrounded by much more verdure, may have been Kadesh-Barnea. The -identification of Ain Kades with Kadesh-Barnea was made by the late Dr. -Henry Clay Trumbull, after a very brief visit to the spot, and it has been -accepted by many others. - -Between 325 and 636 A. D. extensive settlements and cities of considerable -size existed in this wilderness. This was one of the facts that led -Ellsworth Huntington to believe that the rainfall in Palestine was much -greater at that time. With this view Woolley and Lawrence take issue. They -say that where the old wells have been kept open, the water still rises as -high as ever it did. They hold that the cities mentioned were possible -because of the great energy and skill of the people of that time in -sinking wells. - -=5. The German Palestine Society.=--While the work of the Palestine -Exploration Fund, which has been outlined in detail, was going on, other -countries were aroused to similar activities. In 1877 a similar Society, -the Deutscher Palästina-Verein, was organized to foster the collection of -information about the land of the Bible. Accurate scientific research in -all branches of knowledge relating to Palestine was contemplated, and the -co-operation of travelers and of the German colonies in Palestine was -invited. In 1878 this Society began the publication of a journal[54] which -has become a repository of information about the Holy Land. - -(1) _Guthe's Excavation at Jerusalem._--In 1880 Prof. Guthe excavated at -various points on Ophel at Jerusalem, and followed the line of the ancient -wall along the east side of the city of David.[55] - -(2) _Megiddo._--In 1903 this German Society undertook the excavation of -Tell el-Mutesellim, the site of the Biblical Megiddo[56] (Josh. 12:21; 2 -Kings 23:29, etc.). This work was entrusted to the direction of Dr. -Gottlieb Schumacher, of Haifa. Work was begun on the 7th of February, -1903, and continued at intervals until the 30th of November, 1905. In the -lowest stratum of the mound Dr. Schumacher found traces of a settlement -the houses of which were constructed of mud-bricks. Over the ruins of -these a second series of houses had been built of stone. In the same -stratum some tombs were found containing skeletons, some pottery of early -forms, a bronze knife, and some scarabs set in gold. The walls of the city -were in part built of brick. The settlements represented by this stratum -antedated 2000 B. C. - -In the next stratum a large structure, probably a palace, was found, which -had been occupied through the periods represented by the stratum in which -its foundations were laid and the stratum next above it. The building was -of stone and was large. In one part of it was a "pillar" apparently used -for worship. Various types of pottery, knives of flint and bronze, many -stone household utensils, an Astarte figure, and some scarabs of the -period of the twelfth Egyptian dynasty were found. This stratum, then, -belonged to the period 2000-1800 B. C. - -Next above this stratum was one in which types of painted pottery similar -to that of the Philistines came to light. In the fifth stratum from the -bottom a palace of the Hebrew period was discovered. In this palace a seal -was found bearing a lion and the inscription "belonging to Shema, the -servant of Jeroboam." It is impossible to tell whether the Jeroboam who -was Shema's master was Jeroboam I or Jeroboam II. In this same stratum a -temple was found containing three "pillars"; (see Fig. 27). - -In another part of the mound in a sixth stratum, which seemed to be late -Hebrew, three "pillars" were found in an open space near the south gate, a -stone religious emblem, and a decorated incense-burner. Elsewhere this -sixth stratum yielded a blacksmith's shop. In a seventh stratum, just -under the soil, remains of the Greek period were found, among which was an -Athenian coin. This was the last occupation of the tell, and was -pre-Christian. At the beginning of the Roman period the town was moved -from the high land of the mound down nearer the water supply. On the slope -of the hill a native-rock altar was found which had been used in -prehistoric times. - -(3) _Taanach._--In 1899 Prof. Ernst Sellin, of Vienna, visited Palestine -and became so deeply interested in its exploration that he induced several -Austrian scientific bodies and individuals to contribute a fund for the -purpose. The result was an excavation of Tell Taanek, the Biblical Taanach -(Josh. 12:21; Judges 5:19), conducted by Sellin in 1902 and 1903. Sellin -did not excavate the mound in a systematic way and his results are not -very clearly presented in his book.[57] He traced in several places four -strata in the tell. An early stratum had its beginnings, he thought, as -early as 2500 B. C. This stratum represented probably an occupation of -more than a thousand years. In its later parts the remains of a large -palace were found, and in a cave underneath it four cuneiform tablets, -written in the script of the El-Amarna period. Originally there were more -tablets in the archive, but it had been rifled in ancient times. Above -this was a stratum in which pottery of the Cypriote and Philistine type -was found. Next above this was a Hebrew stratum, which seems to have -lasted, judging by objects found in it, down to the time of Psammetik I of -Egypt, 663-609 B. C. In this stratum the remains of a high place with its -"pillars" were found, as well as a terra-cotta incense-altar of wonderful -construction. Above this there were in places a few remains from the -Seleucid period, including some pottery, and at the top of the mound some -remains of an Arabic settlement. This last seems to have been established -here about the time of the Crusaders. Sellin thinks Taanach was destroyed -by the Scythian invasion, about 625 B. C., that in the Seleucid period the -main settlement here was not on the mound, and that it was then unoccupied -until the time of the Crusaders. - -(4) _Capernaum._--The Deutsche Orient-Gesellschaft, which was carrying on -excavations in Egypt, Babylonia, and Assyria, undertook the investigation -of the remains of ancient synagogues in Galilee and the Jaulan. Among -these they excavated the ruins of the synagogue at Tell Hum on the Sea of -Galilee,[58] the probable site of Capernaum. Here they found the remains -of a once beautiful synagogue which was probably built in the fourth -century A. D. Beneath it is the floor of a still older building. This last -is probably the synagogue in which so many of the incidents of the -ministry of Christ in Capernaum took place, the one built by a Roman -centurion. (See Luke 7:5 and Fig. 32.) - -(5) _Jericho._--This same Society undertook, in the years 1907-1909, the -excavation of Jericho; (see Fig. 29). The work was entrusted to the -direction of Prof. Sellin, of Vienna. The digging occupied about three -weeks in the spring of 1907, and about three months of the early part of -each of the years 1908 and 1909.[59] At the bottom of the mound traces of -a prehistoric occupation of the site were uncovered, but as these were -under the foundations of a Canaanitish fortress, which were not -demolished, nothing further was ascertained about them. Above this -prehistoric city were the remains of an Amorite or Canaanite city. A jar -handle found in the lower half of this Canaanite stratum was stamped with -a scarab of the time of the twelfth Egyptian dynasty, which indicates that -this occupation goes back to about 2000 B. C. The walls of this early city -were traced on all sides of the tell except the east. On this side, where -the Ain es-Sultan is (otherwise called Elisha's Fountain, from the -incident of 2 Kings 2:19-22), the wall had entirely disappeared. This -early city was small. The whole of it could have been put into the -Colosseum at Rome. All early Palestinian cities were, however, small. In -the city was a citadel with a double wall. Each wall represented a -different period of history. Both were built of brick, as were the houses -of the time. The outer wall was between four and five feet thick and -appeared to be the older; the inner one was about ten feet thick. They -were joined here and there by transverse walls; (see Fig. 37). The city -had been burned apparently about 1300-1200 B. C., perhaps at the time of -the Hebrew conquest. - -Above the ruins of this pre-Israelitish city were the remains of the -Hebrew town. The earliest of these remains seems to date from the ninth -century B. C.; (see 1 Kings 16:34), as it was rebuilt in the days of Ahab; -(see Fig. 34). The Israelites, in Sellin's judgment, made the city -considerably larger than it had been in the earlier time. A wall, which he -believed to be the wall of the Hebrew period, was found on all sides -except the east, considerably outside the older wall. Père Vincent, of the -French _École Biblique_ at Jerusalem, believes this wall to have been -built in the Canaanite period also, but his reasons do not seem -convincing. On the eastern edge of the Israelitish stratum the remains of -a large stone building were found. Sellin thinks this may be the palace -and fortress built by Hiel in the time of Ahab (1 Kings 16:34). This -Israelitish city seems to have flourished only about two hundred years. It -was probably destroyed in the time of Sennacherib, about 700 B. C. Sellin -thought he found traces of another rebuilding which must soon have -followed the destruction, but this Jericho was also destroyed by -Nebuchadrezzar in 586 B. C. At some time after the Babylonian Exile the -city was rebuilt and flourished until destroyed by Vespasian in 70 A. D. -It was rebuilt after 325 A. D. and continued until destroyed by the -invasion of the Persian King Chosroes II, in 614 A. D. Some slight -settlements have existed on the mound in Moslem times, but the Jericho of -today is more than a mile distant. - -=6. The American School at Jerusalem.=--In the year 1900 the American -School of Oriental Research in Palestine was opened at Jerusalem under the -ægis of the Archæological Institute of America. It is one of the purposes -of this school, when its funds will permit, to carry on excavations as -well as explorations. Hitherto it has not had money sufficient to enable -it to undertake extensive excavations. In addition to the investigation of -many matters not strictly archæological, the School has conducted a number -of minor explorations. When the present writer was Director, 1902-1903, he -cleared the so-called Tomb of the Judges and found the ruins of a -caravansary of the Crusading period near the Damascus Gate. Under L. B. -Paton, 1903-1904, an excavation was made on the supposed line of the -"Third Wall" of Jerusalem. Under Nathaniel Schmidt, 1904-1905, the Dead -Sea was explored and some discoveries made in the Valley of the Arnon and -the Wady Suweil.[60] Under D. G. Lyon, 1906-1907, some pre-Israelitish -pottery was recovered from tombs of Samieh east of Et-Taiyibeh.[61] Under -W. J. Moulton, 1912-1913, some painted tombs of the Seleucid time were -explored at Beit Jibrin. - -=7. Samaria.=--Although the American School at Jerusalem has not yet been -able to undertake extensive excavations, through the generosity of Mr. -Jacob Schiff, of New York, Harvard University was able to excavate at -Sebastiyeh, the site of ancient Samaria, during parts of three -seasons--1908, 1909, and 1910. During the first season the work was under -the direction of Prof. D. G. Lyon; during 1909 and 1910, under the -direction of Prof. G. A. Reisner, who has had large experience in such -work in Egypt, and who, in addition to many archæological triumphs there, -has solved the riddle of the Sphinx. At Samaria[62] a large palace was -found built upon the native rock. This is believed to be the remains of -the palace of Omri (1 Kings 16:24). Above this were the ruins of a larger -palace, the wall of which was faced with white marble. This is believed to -have been the palace of Ahab, who is said to have built an "ivory house" -(1 Kings 22:39). In a building on a level with this palace a considerable -number of inscribed potsherds were found. They were receipts for wine and -oil stored there. At the western edge of the hill the old city gate was -uncovered. It had been rebuilt at different times. The foundations were -clearly laid in the Israelitish period. On these now rests a -superstructure of Herodian workmanship. Above the ruins of the Hebrew city -were the remains of a city built by the Assyrians. (See 2 Kings 17:24-34.) -This was inferred by the character of the building materials employed, and -by the fragment of a clay tablet found there. Still above this were -remains of a city of the Seleucid time--the city destroyed by John -Hyrcanus[63] in 109 B. C. Still above this were remains of the temple -built by Herod the Great, when he rebuilt Samaria and named it Sebaste, -the Greek for Augusta, in honor of the Emperor Augustus. This temple had -been repaired in the third century A. D. - -=8. Parker's Excavations at Jerusalem.=--In the years 1909, 1910, and 1911 -an English expedition under Capt., the Hon. Montague Parker, a retired -officer of the British army, made extensive explorations upon Ophel, the -slope of the eastern hill south of the present city walls at Jerusalem. -Parker was not an archæologist and the motive for the exploration is not -yet disclosed. The party is said to have been abundantly supplied with -money, and to have come to Palestine in a private yacht, which was -anchored off Jaffa while they were at work. In 1911 the hostility of the -Moslems became so excited by the rumor that they had attempted to excavate -under the Mosque of Omar that the expedition came to an abrupt close, and -the explorers escaped on their yacht. Through the descriptions of two -residents of Jerusalem, Prof. Hughes Vincent[64] and Dr. E. W. G. -Masterman,[65] we have some knowledge of the value of Parker's work. He -cleared the silt out of the Siloam tunnel so as to reveal its real depth, -which seems to have been between five and six feet. It had been so silted -up that it appeared to be only about half that depth. He also explored -more fully the caves about Ain Sitti Miriam (the Biblical Gihon, 1 Kings -1:33), which had been partially explored by Sir Charles Warren, so that -the nature and probable use of these are now known much better. More will -be said of this in a future chapter. - -=9. Latest Excavations.=--Within the last few years the Assumptionist -Fathers have been excavating on a tract of land purchased by them on the -eastern slope of the western hill to the south of the present city wall. -They believe that they have discovered the house of Caiaphas, to which -Christ was led in the course of his trial (Matt. 26:57; John 18:24). -Possibly they have found the house which, after the time of Constantine, -was pointed out to Christian pilgrims as that of Caiaphas. However this -may be, they have unearthed several streets of Roman and Jewish Jerusalem, -and are keeping them uncovered. These streets, like the ruins of Pompeii, -disclose pavements and house-foundations that may go back to the time of -Christ. Here, possibly, one may look upon pavements which his feet -actually trod.[66] - -In 1914 some excavations were made on Ophel at Jerusalem under the -direction of Capt. Weil for a Jewish organization, and at the mound -Balata, near Nablous, the Biblical Shechem, by the Germans. The work at -Balata was under the direction of Prof. Sellin. Both are said to have made -discoveries. At Balata it is said that the city gate of ancient Shechem -was uncovered. Nothing has, however, been published concerning these, and -the great war of 1914 brought all such work to a stop. The preparation of -foundations of a new Jewish hospital near the Dung Gate has laid bare the -aqueducts which conveyed the water from "Solomon's Pools" into the -city.[67] - -In this account only the principal explorations have been mentioned. In -all parts of Palestine, and especially at Jerusalem, important -archæological discoveries are frequently made when people are digging to -lay the foundations of buildings, to construct a cistern, or for other -purposes. Other important discoveries, as, for instance, the rock-cut high -place at Petra,[68] and the painted tombs at Beit Jibrin,[69] have been -made by people traveling through the land. Many discoveries made in this -way are recorded in the Quarterly Statement of the Palestine Exploration -Fund, the _Zeitschrift des deutschen Palästina-Vereins_, and the _Revue -biblique_. Lack of space forbids the attempt to chronicle these.[70] - - - - -CHAPTER V - -OUTLINE OF PALESTINE'S ARCHÆOLOGICAL HISTORY - - THE EARLY STONE AGE. THE LATE STONE AGE. THE AMORITES. THE CANAANITES. - EGYPTIAN DOMINATION: Thothmes III. Palestine in the El-Amarna Letters. - Seti I. Ramses II. Merneptah. Ramses III. THE PHILISTINES. THE - HEBREWS. PHILISTINE CIVILIZATION. THE HEBREW KINGDOMS. THE EXILE AND - AFTER: The Samaritans. Alexander the Great and his successors. The - Maccabees. The Asmonæans. THE COMING OF ROME: The Herods. The - destruction of Jerusalem in 70 A. D. LATER HISTORY. - - -=1. The Early Stone Age.=--Palestine appears to have been inhabited at a -very remote period. Scholars divide the races of prehistoric men, who used -stone implements, into two classes--Palæolithic and Neolithic. Palæolithic -men did not shape their stone implements. If they chanced to find a stone -shaped like an axe, they used it as such; if they found a long, thin one -with a sharp edge, they used it for a knife. Neolithic man had learned to -shape his stone tools. He could make knives for himself out of flint and -form other tools from stone. The earliest inhabitants of Palestine -belonged to the palæolithic period. Unshaped stone implements have been -found in many parts of the country. They have been picked up in the -maritime plain, in still larger numbers on the elevated land south of -Jerusalem, and again to the south of Amman, the Biblical Rabbah Ammon, on -the east of the Jordan. The Assumptionist Fathers of Notre Dame de France -at Jerusalem have a fine collection of flint implements in their Museum. - -These palæolithic men lived in caves in which they left traces of their -occupation. Several of these caves in Phoenicia have been explored by Père -Zumoffen, of the Catholic University of St. Joseph, Beirut.[71] It has -been estimated that these cave-dwellers may have been in Palestine as -early as 10,000 B. C. - -=2. The Late Stone Age.=--Of neolithic men in Palestine much more is -known. This knowledge comes in part from the numerous cromlechs, menhirs, -dolmens, and "gilgals" which are scattered over eastern Palestine. A -cromlech is a heap of stones roughly resembling a pyramid;[72] a menhir is -a group of unhewn stones so set in the earth as to stand upright like -columns;[73] a dolmen consists of a large unhewn stone which rests on two -others which separate it from the earth;[74] and a "gilgal" is a group of -menhirs set in a circle.[73] These monuments are the remains of men of the -stone age who dwelt here before the dawn of history. They were probably -erected by some of those peoples whom the Hebrews called Rephaim[75] or -"shades"--people who, having lived long before, were dead at the time of -the Hebrew occupation. - -Similar monuments of the stone age have been found in Japan, India, -Persia, the Caucasus, the Crimea, Bulgaria; also in Tripoli,[76] Tunis, -Algeria, Morocco, Malta, southern Italy, Sardinia, Corsica, the Belearic -Isles, Spain, Portugal, France, the British Isles, Scandinavia, and the -German shores of the Baltic. Some scholars hold that all these monuments -were made by one race of men, who migrated from country to country. As the -monuments are not found at very great distances from the sea, the -migrations are supposed to have followed the sea coasts.[77] Others scout -the idea of a migration over such long distances at such an early epoch of -the world's history, and believe that the fashion of making such monuments -was adopted from people to people by imitation. Be this as it may, these -monuments seem to have been in Egypt and Palestine before the Semites and -Hamites developed into the Egyptians, Amorites, and Hebrews, for they were -adopted by them as the "pillars" which are so often denounced in the Old -Testament, and in Egypt were gradually shaped and prolonged into the -obelisks. - -[Illustration: MAP OF PALESTINE] - -Of the men of this stone age the excavations have furnished us with some -further information. At Gezer the native rock below all the cities was -found to contain caves,[78] some natural and some artificial, which had -formed the dwellings of men of the stone age. They, like men today, were -lazy. If one found a cave that would protect him from heat, cold, and -rain, he would occupy it and save himself the trouble of making one. -But there were not enough caves to go around, so some of the men of -ancient Gezer cut caves for themselves out of the soft limestone rock. It -must have been a difficult task with the stone implements at their -disposal, but they accomplished it, sometimes cutting stairs by which to -descend into them. One such cave seems to have been used by them as a -temple. In it were found a quantity of pig bones, which were apparently -the remains of their sacrifices. If they offered the pig in sacrifice, -they were certainly not Semitic, for Semites abhorred swine. These early -men sometimes adorned the sides of their dwellings by scratching pictures -on the walls. Several pictures of cattle were found. One cow seemed to -have knobs on her horns to keep her from goring! One drawing represented a -stag that was being killed with a bow and arrow.[79] These early men -burned their dead, and one of the caves in the eastern end of the hill was -used as their crematory. Steps in the rock led down to its entrance. The -cave itself was 31 feet long, 24 feet 6 inches wide, and the height varied -from 2 to 5 feet. Near one end a hole had been cut to the upper air to act -as a flue. Below this the fires that burned their dead had been kindled; -cinders and charred bones of these far-off men were found as grim tokens -of their funeral rites. Shortly after these bones were found the -anatomist, Prof. Alexander Macalister, of Cambridge University, father of -the excavator, visited the camp at Gezer and made a study of the bones. He -found that they represented a non-Semitic race. The peculiar modifications -of the bones caused by the squatting so universally practised by Semites -were absent. The men whose bones these were could not have been more than -5 feet 6 inches in height, and many of the women must have been as short -as 5 feet 3 inches. A pottery head found in one of the caves, which may be -a rude portrait of the type of face seen in Gezer in this period, has a -sloping forehead, which afforded little brain-space, and a prominent lower -jaw. These people used flint knives, crushed their grain in hollow stones -with rounded stones, employed a variety of stone implements, and made -pottery of a rude type, which will be described in a later chapter. - -The city of Gezer in this cave-dwelling period was surrounded by a unique -wall or rampart.[80] This consisted of a stone wall about 6 feet high and -2 feet thick, on the outer side of which was a rampart of packed earth -about 6 feet 6 inches at the base and sloping toward the top. This bank of -earth was protected by a covering of small stones about 8 inches in depth. -This rampart never could have been of much value in warfare, and was, -perhaps, meant as a protection against incursions of wild animals. - -In the hillsides around Gezer there are many caves which were probably -human habitations during this period, but as they have been open during -many centuries, traces of their early occupation have long since been -destroyed. At Beit Jibrin, six or eight hours to the south of Gezer, there -are also many caves in the rock, numbers of which are artificial. At -various periods these have been employed as residences. It is altogether -probable that the use of some of them goes back to the time of the -cave-dwellers of Gezer. - -Mr. Macalister has suggested a connection between these cave-dwellers of -Gezer and the Biblical Horites,[81] since Horite means "cave-dweller." In -the Bible the Horites are said to have dwelt to the east of the Jordan, -and more especially in Edom (Gen. 14:6; 36:20, 21, 29; Deut. 2:12, 22). It -seems probable that the reason why the Bible places them all beyond Jordan -is that the cave-dwellers had disappeared from western Palestine centuries -before the Hebrews came, while to the east of the Jordan they lingered on -until displaced by those who were more nearly contemporary with the -Hebrews. On the west of the Jordan megalithic monuments were probably once -numerous, since traces of them still survive in Galilee and Judæa,[82] but -later divergent civilizations have removed most of them. In the time of -Amos one of these "gilgals" was used by the Hebrews as a place of worship, -of which the prophet did not approve.[83] - -It seems probable that there was a settlement of these cave-dwellers at -Jerusalem. The excavations of Capt. Parker brought to light an extensive -system of caves around the Virgin's Fountain, Ain Sitti Miriam, as the -Arabs call it, which is the Biblical Gihon.[84] These caves are far below -the present surface of the ground. It was found, too, that there would be -no spring at this point at all, if some early men had not walled up the -natural channel in the rock down which the water originally ran. These -men, judging by the fragments of pottery and the depth of the débris, -belonged to about the same period as the cave-dwellers of Gezer. They -apparently settled at this point because of the water, and one of the -caves may have been a sanctuary to their god. A new vista is thus added to -the history of that city, which was later the scene of so much Biblical -life. - -From various archæological considerations Mr. Macalister estimated that -the diminutive cave-dwelling men lived at Gezer for about 500 years, from -3000 to 2500 B. C., when they were displaced by a Semitic people. - -=3. The Amorites.=--We are accustomed to call this Semitic people -Amorites, and it is probable that this is right. About 2800 B. C., under a -great king named Sargon,[85] a city of Babylonia called Uru, or -Amurru,[86] and Agade conquered all of Babylonia. The dynasty founded by -Sargon was Semitic and ruled Babylonia for 197 years.[87] Even before -Sargon conquered Babylonia, Lugalzaggisi, King of Erech, had penetrated to -the Mediterranean coast. Sargon and two of his successors, Naram-Sin and -Shargali-sharri, carried their conquests to the Mediterranean lands. A -seal of the last-mentioned king was found in Cyprus. It is probable that -the coming of the Amorites began in the north with the conquests of these -kings. To the east of the Lebanon the Princeton expedition found stone -structures similar to Babylonian _Ziggurats_, which they attribute to the -Amorites, and hold to indicate the prevalence of Babylonian influence in -this region. It is probable that the Amorites slowly worked southward, -occupying different cities as they went. Mr. Macalister's estimate that -they reached Gezer about 2500 B. C. is not, therefore, unreasonable, -though they may have arrived there a century earlier than that. This was -the beginning of that long intercourse with Babylonia which resulted in -the employment of the Babylonian language and script for the purpose of -expressing written thought in Palestine long after the Egyptians had -conquered the country. This intercourse was the more natural because the -Semites who came to Palestine were of the same race as those who were -dominant in Babylonia. - -Meantime, the Egyptians had begun to take notice of Palestine. Uni, an -officer of Pepi I of the sixth Egyptian dynasty, relates that he crossed -the sea in ships to the back of the height of the ridge north of the -"sand-dwellers" and punished the inhabitants.[88] This refers to the coast -of Palestine in the neighborhood of the Philistine cities or Gezer. The -time was between 2600 and 2570 B. C. Egypt was at this time only anxious -to make her own borders secure; she had no desire to occupy this Asiatic -land. - -Again, between 2300 and 2200 B. C., a fresh migration of Semites, -apparently also of the Amorite branch, invaded Babylonia and in time made -the city of Babylon the head of a great empire. This race furnished the -first dynasty of Babylon, which ruled from 2210 to 1924 B. C. Its greatest -king, Hammurapi,[89] who gave to Babylonia a code of laws in the -vernacular language,[90] conquered the "west land," which means the -Mediterranean coast. It was probably under his successor, Shamsu-iluna, -but certainly under one of the kings of this period, that a man in Sippar, -in leasing a wagon for a year, stipulated that it should not be driven to -the Mediterranean coast, because, apparently, travel between that coast -and northern Babylonia was so frequent.[91] In this same period there -lived in Babylonia an Abraham, the records of some of whose business -documents have come down to us.[92] We also find there men who bore the -names Yagubilu (Jacobel) and Yashubilu (Josephel), and one who was called -simply Yagub, or Jacob. Palestinian evidence from a later time leads us to -believe that men bearing all these names migrated during this period to -Palestine and gave their names to cities which they either built or -occupied.[93] - -Egyptians also came to Palestine during this period. The tale of -Sinuhe[94] relates the adventures of a man who fled to Palestine in the -year 1970 B. C., and who reached the land of Kedem, or the East, which -apparently lay to the east of the Jordan.[95] It is referred to several -times in the old Testament. (See Gen. 29:1; Judges 6:3, 33; 7:12; 8:10; -Job 1:3, etc.) Sinuhe there entered the service of an Amorite chieftain, -Ammienshi, married his eldest daughter, became ruler of a portion of his -land, and lived there for many years. He finally returned to Egypt and -wrote an account of his adventures. This region was also called by Sinuhe -and other Egyptians Upper Retenu, a name which they also applied to all -the higher parts of Syria and Palestine. Retenu is philologically -equivalent to Lotan (Gen. 36:20, 22, 29; 1 Chron. 1:38, 39) and Lot (Gen. -11:27; 12:4, etc.). When Sinuhe arrived in Kedem he found other Egyptians -already there. Ammienshi was well acquainted with Egyptians. There was -apparently considerable trade with Egypt at this time. Men from Palestine -often went there for this purpose. Such traders are pictured on an -Egyptian tomb of this period. Trade with Egypt is also shown to have -existed by the discovery of Egyptian scarabs of the time of the Middle -Kingdom in the excavation of Gezer, Jericho, Taanach, and Megiddo. As -Egypt was nearer and commerce with it easier, its art affected the art of -Palestine during this period more than did the art of Babylon, although -the people were akin to the Babylonians. In the reign of Sesostris III, -1887-1849 B. C., the Egyptian king sent an expedition into Palestine, and -captured a place, called in Egyptian Sekmem, which is thought by some to -be a misspelling of Shechem.[96] This expedition probably stimulated -Egyptian influence in the country, though the Egyptians established no -permanent control over the land at this time. - -When the Amorites occupied Palestinian cities they at once erected -fortifications. The inmost of the three walls of Gezer is their work. It -was a wall about 13 feet in thickness, in which were towers 41 feet long -and 24 feet thick and about 90 feet apart. It contained at least two -gates.[97] At Megiddo the city was surrounded by a wall, parts of which -were made of brick,[98] while at Jericho the older of the walls of the -central citadel dates from this time.[99] - -=4. The Canaanites.=--Between 1800 and 1750 B. C. a migration occurred -which greatly disturbed all western Asia. There moved into Babylonia from -the east a people called Kassites. They conquered Babylonia and -established a dynasty which reigned for 576 years.[100] Coincident with -this movement into Babylonia there was a migration across the whole of -Asia to the westward, which caused an invasion of Egypt and the -establishment of the Hyksos dynasties there.[101] As pointed out -previously,[102] it is possible that this movement, in so far as the -leadership of the invasion of Egypt was concerned, was Hittite. In any -event, however, many Semites were involved in it, as the Semitic names in -the Egyptian Delta at this time prove. It is customary to assume that it -was in connection with this migration that the Canaanites came into -Palestine. This cannot, in the present state of our knowledge, be clearly -proved, but such evidence as we have points in this direction. There began -at this time a new period of culture at Gezer, which is quite -distinguishable from that which had preceded. This indicates the coming of -new influences. Moreover, there was apparently an augmentation of the -population of Palestine at this time. New cities were founded at Tell -el-Hesy and Tell es-Safi,[103] and elsewhere. We thus feel sure that there -was an increase of population and, when next our written sources reveal to -us the location of the nations, the Canaanites were dwelling in Phoenicia. -The Egyptian scribes of a later time called the entire western part of -Syria and Palestine "The Canaan."[104] Probably, therefore, the Canaanites -settled along the sea coast. We, therefore, infer that they came into this -region at this time. With the coming of an increased population, the -Amorites appear to have been in part subjugated and absorbed, and in part -forced into narrower limits. A powerful group of them maintained their -integrity in the region afterward occupied by the tribe of Asher and in -the valley between the Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon mountains, where they -afterward formed a kingdom. Another group of them survived to the east of -the Jordan, where they maintained a kingdom until overthrown by the -Hebrews. (See Num. 21 and Deut. 1-3.) - -After the coming of the Canaanites our information concerning the history -of Palestine fails us for nearly three hundred years. All that we know of -the history of the country is what can be inferred from the accumulated -débris of the "second Semitic" strata of the different mounds that have -been excavated. During these centuries Egypt was invaded by the Hyksos, -whose course was run, and under the great eighteenth dynasty the Hyksos -were expelled, chased into Asia, and the conquest of Asia undertaken. - -=5. Egyptian Domination.=--Ahmose I, 1580-1557 B. C., besieged Sharuhen -(Josh. 19:6) in southern Palestine for six years and captured it, while -both Amenophis I and Thothmes I between 1557 and 1501 B. C. made raids -through Palestine and Syria to the Euphrates. Of their deeds in Palestine -no records have survived. - -(1) _Thothmes III._--It is not until the reign of Thothmes III that -detailed information begins. Between 1478 and 1447 B. C. this king made no -less than seventeen expeditions into Palestine, Phoenicia, and Syria. At -the beginning of his reign this country was dotted with petty kingdoms; -before its close he had so thoroughly amalgamated it with Egypt that it -remained an integral part of the Egyptian dominion for 100 years. Before -his death Thothmes inscribed on the walls of the temple of Amon at Thebes -a list of the places in Asia which he had conquered. Many of these were in -Palestine and in Syria, and we learn in this way what towns were already -places of importance a century or two before the Hebrew conquest. Among -places that are mentioned in the Old Testament he names[105] Kedesh (Josh. -19:37), Megiddo, Lebonah (Judges 21:19), Addar (Josh. 15:3), two different -cities named Abel; see Judges 7:22 (which mentions one situated in the -Jordan valley), and 2 Sam. 20:14 (which refers to one near Dan), Damascus, -Hammath[106] (Josh. 19:35), situated on the Sea of Galilee (where there -are still hot springs), Beeroth (Josh. 9:17), Sharon, Tob (Judges 11:3, -5), Kanah (Josh. 19:28), Ashtaroth (Deut. 1:4; Josh. 9:20), Makkedah -(Josh. 15:41), Laish (Judges 18:7, 18), Hazor (Josh. 11:1; Judges 4:2), -Chinneroth (Josh. 11:2), Shunem (Josh. 19:18; 1 Sam. 28:41; 2 Kings 4:8), -Achshaph (Josh. 11:1), Taanach, Ibleam (Josh. 17:11; Judges 1:27), Ijon (1 -Kings 15:20), Accho, Anaharath (Josh. 19:19), Ophra (Judges 6:11), Joppa, -Gath, Lod (Neh. 7:37) or Lydda (Acts 9:32), Ono (1 Chron. 8:12), Aphik (1 -Sam. 4:1), Migdol, Ephes-dammim (1 Sam. 17:1), Rakkath (Josh. 19:35), -Gerar (Gen. 20:1, etc.), Rabbith (Josh. 19:20), Namaah (Josh. 15:41), -Rehob (Josh. 19:28), Edrei (Deut. 1:4; Josh. 12:4), Daiban (Neh. 11:25), -Bethshean (Josh. 17:11), Beth-anoth (Josh. 15:59), Helkath (Josh. 19:25), -Geba (Josh. 18:24), Zererah (Judges 7:22), and Zephath (Judges 1:17). In -addition to these towns which are mentioned in the Bible, the list of -Thothmes III contains many other names which we cannot yet identify. Among -these are the names of two cities, Josephel and Jacobel, which are -discussed in Part II, p. 300. These names, as already noted, are the same -as the names of two Babylonian Amorites of the time of the first dynasty. -It seems probable that two important Amorites had migrated to Palestine -and had either founded new cities, or had been men of such consequence -that their names were attached to cities previously in existence. A -parallel to this is found in the name of Abu Gosh. He was a sheik of the -nineteenth century, but his name displaced the name of the village -previously called Karyet el-Ineb, between Jaffa and Jerusalem, and it is -now called Abu Gosh. Conjectures differ as to the part of Palestine in -which the cities Jacobel and Josephel were situated. We have in reality no -certain clue as to this. - -It is probable also that something similar had occurred in the case of -Abraham. It has been pointed out previously that Abraham is known to have -been a Babylonian name at the time of the first Babylonian dynasty. The -Biblical records tell of the coming of Abraham from Mesopotamia (Gen. -11:31-12:5), and the inscriptions of Sheshonk, the Biblical Shishak, tell -us some centuries later of the existence of a place, apparently in -southern Judah, called "The Field of Abram." See Part II, p. 360. - -(2) _Palestine in the El-Amarna Letters._--During the 100 years of -Egyptian supremacy in Palestine which Thothmes III inaugurated, the -fortifications of certain strategic cities were greatly strengthened. At -Gezer, for example, an entirely new wall was built. This was the "outer" -wall of Mr. Macalister's classification, a substantial structure fourteen -feet wide, which completely encircled the city. This massive wall remained -the city's defence down to the Babylonian Exile. - -From the El-Amarna letters we gain another glimpse of Palestine about a -hundred years after the death of Thothmes III. The Biblical cities which -are mentioned in these letters are Accho (Judges 1:31), Ashkelon, Arvad -(Ezek. 27:8), Aroer (Num. 32:34), Ashtaroth (Deut. 1:4, etc.), Gebal -(Ezek. 27:9), Gezer (Josh. 10:33, 1 Kings 9:15, etc.), Gath, Gaza, -Jerusalem, Joppa, Keilah (1 Sam. 23:1), Lachish (Josh. 10:3, etc.), -Megiddo, Sidon, Tyre, Shechem, Sharon, Taanach, and Zorah (Judges 13:2). -One city, called in these letters Beth-Ninib, is, in all probability, -Bethshemesh (Josh. 15:10, etc.). Many other towns are mentioned in the -letters, but as they are not mentioned in the Bible they are not -enumerated here. These letters were written just as the Egyptian dominion -in Asia was breaking up, owing to the fact that King Amenophis IV was much -more deeply interested in religious reform than in politics.[107] The -disintegration of the empire produced great disorder. The power which -Egypt had exerted in the past made the Asiatics still fear to come out -openly against her, but the correspondence shows that several petty states -were plotting against one another, frequently encroaching upon one -another, and yet all the time professing to be loyal to Egypt. The largest -number of these states were in the north in Phoenicia. The principal -states were the city kingdoms of Gebal, Beirut, Tyre, Jerusalem, and the -Amorites.[108] Jerusalem at this time ruled a considerable territory,[109] -but its history will be discussed connectedly in a future chapter.[110] -The kings of the Amorites during this period were Ebed-Ashera and Aziru. -While these small kingdoms of Palestine and Phoenicia were contending with -one another, and the king of Egypt was giving no attention to them, the -land was invaded from the north by the Hittites under the great King -Subbiluliuma,[111] who gradually conquered the Amorites and the Orontes -Valley. It was at the same time invaded from the east by the Habiri, who -were probably the Hebrews.[112] - -With this movement of peoples there came into the west a third wave of -Semitic migration, the Aramæan. We hear nothing of the Aramaic-speaking -peoples in earlier time, but about 1300 B. C. they are mentioned by both -Shalmaneser I, of Assyria, and Ramses II, of Egypt, as though they were in -Syria and Palestine. In later time they formed the basis of the population -from the east of the Euphrates to the Mediterranean coast and southward to -Damascus. In Deut. 26:5 Israelites are told to say "A wandering Aramæan -was my father" (R. V., margin). The reference seems to be to Jacob, though -possibly Abraham is intended. In either case, it shows that the Hebrews -recognized that there was an Aramæan strain in their ancestry. Perhaps the -Habiri were Aramæans, or were allied with Aramæans. - -At all events, in the struggles that ensued, little by little all -allegiance to Egypt was thrown off by the Palestinians. Letters to Egypt -ceased to be written, our sources fail us, and for more than forty years -we can only conjecture what was happening in Palestine. - -(3) _Seti I._--With the accession of Seti I of the nineteenth Egyptian -dynasty, who ruled from 1313 to 1292 B. C., some knowledge of events in -Palestine begins once more to come to us. Seti in his first year entered -Asia, captured an unnamed walled town on the border of the desert, pushed -northward and took the towns in the Plain of Jezreel, crossed the Jordan -and conquered cities in the Hauran, where he set up a pillar, discovered -there a few years since by Principal George Adam Smith; he then turned -west and conquered a city on the slopes of the Lebanon mountains.[113] -This campaign regained for Egypt all of Palestine and southern Phoenicia. -In his third year Seti was again in Asia. On this campaign he overthrew -the kingdom of the Amorites in northern Galilee. They occupied the city of -Kedesh in Naphtali (Josh. 19:37). This city Seti besieged and took. - -(4) _Ramses II._--Thus at the beginning of the reign of Ramses II, who -ruled from 1292-1225 B. C., all Palestine was subject to Egypt. The -practical defeat of Ramses by the Hittites at Kadesh on the Orontes in his -fifth year, however, caused all Palestine to revolt, and Ramses was -compelled to undertake the reconquest of the land. This he accomplished -between his fifth and eighth years, beginning with the Philistine cities -and overrunning the whole country to the Hauran, where he set up a pillar, -as his father had previously done.[114] So far as we know, Palestine -remained quietly under the rule of Ramses during the remainder of his long -reign. - -Ramses II, like Thothmes III, left on record a long list of cities -conquered by him in Asia. Of these the following are Palestinian towns -mentioned in the Bible:[115] Hammath (Josh. 19:35), Beth-shean (Josh. -17:11), Beth-anath (Josh. 19:38), and Hadasha (Josh. 15:37). Pella, a town -in the Jordan valley not mentioned in the Bible, also occurs in his list, -and there is also a possible mention of Jacobel in a corrupted form. - -(5) _Merneptah._--After the accession of Merneptah, the successor of -Ramses II, a rebellion broke out. This was about 1223 B. C. Merneptah put -down the rebellion, but in the struggle caused by it, he was compelled to -reduce Gezer by siege. It was on this campaign that he came into contact -with Israel and defeated her.[116] Some think the Israelites whom he -mentioned were those who more than a century and a quarter before had been -battling against Jerusalem; others, that they were those who had just -escaped from Egypt. - -The reign of Merneptah was followed by some years of unstable government -in Egypt, but this does not appear to have been a sufficiently long period -for great changes to occur in Palestine. Order was restored in Egypt by -Setnakht about 1200 B. C., and his son and successor, Ramses III, -1198-1167 B. C., reasserted his sovereignty over Palestine and Phoenicia. - -(6) _Ramses III._--Ramses III found himself confronted with a peculiar -situation. The Egyptian Delta and the coasts of Palestine were invaded by -hordes of people from over the sea. As early as the reign of Ramses II the -Egyptians had employed men from the island of Sardinia as mercenaries; -there must then have been intercourse with distant islands across the sea. - -=6. The Philistines.=--Now, however, hordes of Sicilians, Danaoi, Peleset -(Philistines), Thekel, and many other tribes came from over the sea. These -tribes came in part from islands, such as Sicily and Crete, and in part -from the coasts of Asia Minor. Ramses III was compelled to fight with -them, both in the Delta and in Phoenicia. On the walls of his temple at -Medinet Habu he has left us pictures of the Philistines. A remarkable -inscribed disc was found a few years since at Phæstos in Crete. It is -printed with a sort of movable type, and each character is a pictograph or -hieroglyph. Prof. Macalister has shown that it is, in all probability, a -contract tablet.[117] When the tablet was first published Eduard Meyer -pointed out[118] that a frequently recurring sign, which is apparently the -determinative for "man" or "person," has the same sort of upstanding hair -as the Philistines pictured by Ramses III on the walls of Medinet Habu. -This tablet, accordingly, was written by Philistines or their near -kindred. In this view there is general agreement among scholars. Amos -declared that the Lord brought the Philistines from Caphtor (Amos 9:7). -If this disc was written in Crete, it would follow that Caphtor was Crete. -It is thought possible by some that the disc was written in Asia Minor, -whence it was carried to Crete; in that case Caphtor would be a name for -Asia Minor.[119] At all events, this inscription makes it clear that the -Philistines came from over the sea, and that their point of departure was -either Crete or Asia Minor. Ramses III reveals to us through his -inscriptions the Philistines in the act of migrating into Palestine. With -them were the Thekel, who afterward were absorbed by the Philistines; (see -Figs. 36 and 38). - -In his struggle with these tribes Ramses III was compelled to carry the -war into Asia, where he overcame and defeated them. In commemoration of -this event he has left a list of places which he conquered in Asia. Most -of them, so far as they can be identified, were further north than -Palestine, but the following are names of places mentioned in the -Bible:[120] Seir (Gen. 14:6, etc.), Caineh (Amos 6:2), or Calno (Isa. -10:9), Tyre, Carchemish, Beth-Dagon (Josh. 15:41), Kir-Bezek, probably the -same as Bezek (Judges 1:5), Hadashah (Josh. 15:37), Ardon (1 Chron. 2:18), -Beer (cf. Num. 21:16), Senir (Deut. 3:9), Zobebah (1 Chron. 4:8), Gether -(Gen. 10:23), and Ar (Num. 21:15; Isa. 15:1, etc.). - -After Ramses III the Egyptian empire became too weak to interfere in -Palestinian affairs. In the chronology followed by many scholars today it -was about this time that the Hebrews completed their conquest of the -country and the age of the Judges began. - -=7. The Hebrews.=--On their way into Palestine the Hebrews, as already -noted, invaded and conquered a kingdom of the Amorites which lay to the -east of the Jordan and had its capital at Heshbon. (See Num. 21:21 and -Deut. 1:4, etc.). This kingdom was a survival of the ancient Amorite -occupation of the land. The Amorites composing it had not been absorbed or -displaced by more recent pre-Hebrew invaders. - -It is stated in Judges 1:27-36 that there were a number of cities from -which the Israelites did not, at the time of their conquest, drive out the -inhabitants. The principal excavations in Palestine have had to do with -cities which were not conquered by Hebrews at this time--Taanach, Megiddo, -and Gezer. We are told in Josh. 10:33 that when Horam, King of Gezer, -came to the aid of the king of Lachish, Joshua "smote him and his people -till he left none remaining." As nothing is said of the capture of Gezer, -this must refer only to the force which went to the aid of Lachish. This -view is confirmed by the fact that in the time of David, Gezer was in the -hands of the Philistines. (See 1 Chron. 20:4.) Gezer did not come into the -hands of the Hebrews until the time of Solomon, when Solomon's Egyptian -father-in-law conquered it and gave it to him. Mr. Macalister found -evidence that at about this time there was a considerable increase of the -population of Gezer, which seems to confirm the statement of Judges 1:29 -that Canaanites and Israelites dwelt together there. This evidence -consisted in the crowding together of houses, so that, as many new ones -were built, they became smaller. New houses also encroached upon the land -of the "high place."[121] There was evidently an increase of the -population such as an influx of Hebrews would account for. Evidence of -Hebrew conquest seems also to have come to light in the capture and -burning of Jericho[122] and Bethshemesh,[123] which the excavations have -revealed. - -=8. Philistine Civilization.=--The next source of information which -archæology furnishes us concerning Palestine is the report of Wenamon, -translated in Part II, p. 352, ff. Wenamon visited Dor and Gebal about -1100 B. C. He found a king of the Thekel established in Dor, so that the -Philistines were probably by this time established in the whole maritime -plain. - -With the coming of the Philistines into Palestine, new influences were -introduced into the country. These are most apparent in the pottery that -has come down to us. (See Chapter VIII.) The Philistines, whether they -came from Crete or from the coasts of the Ægean Sea, had been influenced -by those higher forms of art which were in later times developed into the -superb Greek forms. Just at the time when history tells us the Philistines -came into Palestine, we begin to find in its mounds the remains of a more -ornate pottery. - -=9. The Hebrew Kingdoms.=--As the Philistines filled the maritime plain, -and began to push into the hill country, the Israelites formed a kingdom -by which to oppose them. The kingdom of Saul accomplished little, but that -of David, which began about 1000 B. C., overcame the Philistines and all -other peoples adjacent to the Hebrews and established an Israelitish -empire.[124] This was possible because just at that time both Egypt and -Assyria were weak. Before the end of the reign of Solomon this empire -began to disintegrate (1 Kings 11:14-25), and at his death, about 937 B. -C., it faded entirely away and the kingdom was divided into the kingdoms -of Israel and Judah. The history of these kingdoms is given in outline in -the Bible and is probably familiar to every reader of this book. - -These kingdoms, frequently at war with each other, were first invaded by -Sheshonk (Shishak) of Egypt (1 Kings 14:25), who made them his vassals -(see Part II, p. 359, f.), and in later centuries were made subject to -Assyria. Israel suffered this fate first in 842 B. C., and Judah in 732. -On account of her rebellions, the kingdom of Israel was overthrown by -Assyria in the year 722 B. C. After Assyria became weak, Judah was made -subject to Egypt in 608 B. C., but passed under the sway of Babylon in the -year 604. Because she repeatedly rebelled against Babylon, the prominent -Judæans were carried captive partly in 597 B. C. and partly in 586, and in -the year last mentioned Jerusalem was overthrown and its temple destroyed. - -Excavations have brought to light much evidence as to the houses, high -places, and the mode of life of this time,[125] as well as evidence of how -Shishak fought against Rehoboam, Shalmaneser III against Ahab and Jehu, -Tiglath-pileser IV against Menahem and Pekah, Shalmaneser V and Sargon -against Hoshea, and Sennacherib against Judah. It has also told us much -about Nebuchadrezzar.[126] - -=10. The Exile and After.=--The Babylonian Exile was brought by Cyrus to a -possible end in 538 B. C. This is also illuminated by that which -exploration has brought to light.[127] The temple was rebuilt through the -efforts of Haggai and Zechariah during the years 520-517 B. C. In 444 B. -C. Nehemiah rebuilt the walls of Jerusalem, as related in Neh. 1-7. Thus -under the Persian empire Judah was re-established. It consisted of a -little country around Jerusalem; it was poor and weak, but was aided by -money sent from Babylonia by Jews who were still resident there. - -(1) _The Samaritans._--In the neighborhood of Samaria was a people who -were descended in part from Hebrews whom Sargon did not carry away and in -part from the Gentiles whom he brought in. These people worshiped Jehovah. -(See 2 Kings 17:24-34.) When the little Jewish state had been -re-established at Jerusalem, they wished to participate in Jewish worship -and to be recognized as good Jews. Since they were not of pure Hebrew -descent, the Jews would not permit this, so they at last desisted, built a -temple to Jehovah on Mount Gerizim (see John 4:20), and became a large and -flourishing sect.[128] They based their worship on the Pentateuch, and -were so much like the Jews that there was constant friction between them. -This friction is reflected in Luke 9:51-54, John 4:9, and in many passages -of the Talmud. It was this sect that occupied Samaria in the time of -Christ and made it in his day a distinct division of the country. - -(2) _Alexander the Great and His Successors._--In 332 B. C. Palestine -passed from Persian rule to that of Alexander the Great. After his death -in 323 it came under the rule of his general, Ptolemy Lagi, who ultimately -became king of Egypt. Later, 220-198 B. C., there was a struggle for the -possession of Palestine between the descendants of Ptolemy and the house -of Seleucus, another general of Alexander, who had established a kingdom -with its capital at Antioch. During these wars the Jews suffered greatly. -Finally the Seleucid king won, and Palestine passed definitely under the -control of Syria. With the coming of Alexander new cultural influences had -entered Palestine from the Hellenic world, and down to 168 B. C. such -influences were eagerly welcomed by a portion of the Jews. - -(3) _The Maccabees._--In that year, however, Antiochus IV undertook to -forcibly Hellenize the Jews and to blot out their religion. This the more -faithful Jews resented, and a great revolt ensued. This revolt had as its -first successful general Judas, son of Mattathias, who, because of his -victories, was surnamed _makkab_, or the Hammer; it is, therefore, known -as the Maccabæan revolt. With varying fortunes the struggle dragged on for -25 years.[129] It finally succeeded because of civil wars in Syria. On -account of these each faction favored the Jews, and Syria became -continually weaker. In 143 B. C. the Jews once more achieved their -independence under Simon, brother of Judas, whom they ordained should be -Prince and High Priest forever.[130] - -(4) _The Asmonæans._--The attaining of independence was accompanied by a -great wave of racial and religious enthusiasm. Not since the days of Ahaz, -in 733 B. C., had Judah been free of foreign domination. At the beginning -of the reign of Simon, it was still but a small territory around -Jerusalem. Hebron and all to the south of it was in the hands of the -Edomites, who three centuries before had been driven out of Edom by the -Nabathæans Simon began to enlarge their territory. He won Gezer and Joppa. -John Hyrcanus, his son and successor, 135-105 B. C., conquered the -Edomites, and compelled them to become Jews; he also conquered and -destroyed Samaria in 109 B. C. He began the conquest of Galilee. His son, -Aristobulus I 105-104 B. C., assumed the title of king. A regal dynasty -was thus founded, which is known as the Asmonæan or Hasmonæan dynasty, _i. -e._, the "Simonites" or descendants of Simon. - -Alexander Jannæus, 104-79 B. C., completed the conquest of Galilee and the -region to the east of the Jordan, and extended the bounds of the kingdom -of the Asmonæans to practically the same limits as those of the kingdom of -David. The Galileans were also Judaized, as the Edomites had been. This -period of Jewish prosperity continued to 69 B. C. Through it all, in spite -of the religious zeal of the Jews, Hellenic influences made themselves -felt in many aspects of the country's life. - -=11. The Coming of Rome.=--On the death of Queen Alexandra in 69 B. C., -her sons, John Hyrcanus II and Aristobulus II, both aspired to the supreme -power, and till 63 B. C. civil war ensued. In 65 B. C. the Romans had -terminated the independence of Syria and made it a Roman province. In 63 -B. C. both the Jewish brothers appealed to Pompey, who had come to -Damascus. Aristobulus, however, acted treacherously, and Pompey marched -upon Jerusalem and took it by siege. Jewish independence was thus forever -lost, and Palestine passed under the yoke of Rome. Down to 37 B. C. the -country experienced many vicissitudes, as the struggles of the Roman -triumvirs were reflected in it. These vicissitudes culminated in the year -40 B. C., when Orodes I, King of Parthia, captured Jerusalem and placed -Antigonus, a son of Aristobulus II, on the throne. Antigonus was king and -a vassal of Parthia for three years. - -(1) _The Herods._--In 37 B. C. Herod the Great, whose father had served -under the Romans, by the aid of a Roman army furnished him by Mark -Antony, drove Antigonous out and began his notable reign. Herod was a man -of great energy, an Edomite by descent, whose ancestors had become Jews by -compulsion. While professedly a Jew, he was deeply enamored of the -Græco-Roman culture. He wrung taxes from the people in order to beautify -Palestine with cities and temples built on Hellenic models. He rebuilt, -among other undertakings, the Jewish temple at Jerusalem and the city of -Samaria. This last he named Sebaste, the Greek for Augusta, naming it in -honor of the Emperor Augustus. He built a heathen temple there, surrounded -the city with a colonnaded street, many of the columns of which are still -standing, and otherwise adorned it. He built for himself a palace at -Jericho, and another on the top of a hill to the southeast of Bethlehem, -today called Gebel Fureidis; (see Figs. 31 and 39). - -Upon his death, in 4 B. C., his kingdom was divided, Archelaus receiving -Judah and Samaria; Antipas, Galilee and Peræa, and Philip, Iturea and -Trachonitis. None of his sons was permitted by the Romans to be called -king, but all bore the title of "tetrarch." The rule of Archelaus proved -so unbearable that in 6 A. D. Augustus banished him to Gaul and placed -Judæa and Samaria under Procurators, who were responsible to the -Proconsuls of the province of Syria. Pontius Pilate was the fifth of these -Procurators. After the death of Herod Antipas in 39 A. D., the Emperor -Caligula made Herod Agrippa I, a grandson of Herod the Great, king of the -dominions over which that monarch had ruled. Agrippa assumed control in 41 -and ruled till his death in 44 A. D. His death is described in Acts 12:23. -After his death the whole country was governed by Procurators. - -(2) _The Destruction of Jerusalem in 70 A. D._--Roman rule was always -distasteful to the Jews, and as the years passed they became more and more -restive. These smouldering fires broke into the flame of open rebellion in -the year 66 A. D., and after four years of terrible warfare Jerusalem was -captured and destroyed in 70 A. D. The temple, also razed to the ground, -has never been rebuilt. The country about Jerusalem was peopled by some of -the poorer of the peasantry, and the tenth Roman legion remained in the -city for a long time to keep order in that region. - -=12. Later History.=--In 132 A. D., in the reign of Hadrian, a man called -Bar Chocaba, or the "Son of the Star," came forward, claiming to be the -Messiah, and headed a Jewish revolt. So fiercely did the Jews fight that -the insurrection was not quelled by Rome until 135 A. D. When it was -finally put down, Hadrian determined to blot the name of Jerusalem from -the map. He rebuilt Jerusalem, making it a Roman colony, named it Ælia -Capitolina, and built a temple to Jupiter on the spot where the temple of -Jehovah had formerly stood. No Jew was permitted to come near the city. -Jerusalem as built by Hadrian continued until the time of Constantine, and -the form thus imposed upon it lasted much longer. - -When Constantine made Christianity the religion of the empire, both he and -his mother began to take an interest in the Holy City and the Holy Land. -Other Christians followed them. The Church of the Holy Sepulcher was -built, and the temple of Jupiter built by Hadrian was turned into a -Christian church. Pilgrimages to the Holy Land began, and monasteries, -churches, and bishoprics in time sprang up over all the country. Thus for -three hundred years the influences which were felt in Palestine emanated -from Byzantium or Constantinople. In 615 A. D. the land was overrun by -Chosroes II of Persia, who captured Jerusalem and destroyed many of its -churches. The Persians held it until 628, when the Byzantine kings -regained it. The control of Jerusalem by the Christians was, however, of -short duration, for in 636 Palestine was captured by the Mohammedans, and -with the exception of 89 years has ever since been under Mohammedan -control.[131] During these long centuries the country was ruled by the -Caliphs of Medina, Damascus, and Bagdad; by the Buvide Sultans, the -Fatimite Caliphs of Egypt, and the Seljuk Turks. The cruelties inflicted -by these last rulers upon Christians led to the Crusades, the first of -which established the Latin kingdom of Jerusalem,[132] which continued -from 1099 to 1188 A. D. This kingdom, organized on the feudal basis then -existing in western Europe, extended over all of Palestine and Syria, -including Antioch, and for nearly half the time, Edessa beyond the -Euphrates. Its existence marks an epoch in the archæology of the country. - -Since the fall of this Latin kingdom, Palestine has remained under Moslem -control. First the Eyyubide Sultans of Egypt, then the Mamelukes of that -same land held sway. In 1517 the Ottoman Turks captured it, and have since -inflicted their misrule upon it. What fortunes the great war now raging -may bring to this land of sacred associations, we await with intense -interest. - - - - -CHAPTER VI - -THE CITIES OF PALESTINE - - THEIR SITES. THE WALLS. THE STONE WORK. HOUSES. PALACES: At Taanach. - At Samaria. At Jericho. At Megiddo. FOUNDATION SACRIFICES. CITY GATES. - WATER SUPPLY: Springs. Underground tunnels. Reservoirs. - - -=1. Their Sites.=--The cities of Palestine were usually built on hills. -These elevations, surmounted as they were by walls, created a natural -means of defence from attack; (see Fig. 33). Even more important than an -elevated situation was a water supply, hence all Palestinian cities of -importance are near springs. The necessity of being near a spring led, in -some cases, to the erection of a city on a level plain. This was the case -with Jericho; the only mound at its site is that created by the city -itself. - -The hills on which the cities were erected varied in height. That at -Megiddo rose to a height of but 45 to 90 feet above the surrounding land, -but even this elevation was a great protection from the simple methods of -attack known to ancient warfare. The hill Ophel, the site of Jebusite -Jerusalem, rises today from 60 to 150 feet above the valley of the Kidron, -and in ancient times that valley was from 20 to 50 feet deeper than it is -now. The same hill was separated from the land on the west by a valley the -bed of which in ancient times was from 50 to 100 feet below the top of the -hill. The hill on which Samaria was situated rose some 300 feet above the -surrounding valley on all sides except the east, and when fortified -presented such an impregnable front that it took even an Assyrian army -three years to capture it. (2 Kings 17:5.) In the Seleucid and Roman -periods, when some cities expanded in size, the hilltops were sometimes -abandoned and they spread out over the plain. This was the case with -Gerasa and Philadelphia (Rabbah Ammon).[133] But "a city set on a hill" -(Matt. 5:14) was a common feature of the Palestinian landscape. - -=2. The Walls.=--The walls by which the cities were surrounded varied -according to the advancement of the different periods, and according to -the importance of the place. As has already been pointed out in Chapter V, -the first wall at Gezer was but 6 feet high and 2 feet thick, and had a -sloping bank of earth packed against it on the outside. This bank was 6 -feet 6 inches thick at the base and was covered with a facing of stone. In -the Amorite period a wall 13 feet thick was erected at Gezer, in which -towers were constructed about every 90 feet. These towers were 24 × 41 -feet. Their height is, of course, unknown. This wall was probably built -about 2500 B. C. and formed the defense of the city for a thousand years. -By that time the tops of the houses probably protruded above the wall, and -the population had increased so that more space was needed. This wall was, -accordingly, replaced by another built outside of it. Much of the material -of which the old wall was constructed went into the new wall, which was -approximately 14 feet thick and contained occasional towers. At some time -a part of this wall had been destroyed, and then rebuilt. Probably at the -time of this rebuilding, additional towers had been inserted at different -points. The stones of these towers touched those of the wall without being -articulated with them. It has been conjectured[134] that these towers were -a part of the repairs made by King Solomon after the town had been -captured by his Egyptian father-in-law and presented to Solomon. (See 1 -Kings 9:16, 17.) Still later an attempt was made to strengthen the -weakness caused by the unclosed seam between the towers and the wall by -constructing around the towers rude bastions. (See Figs. 40, 46.) Mr. -Macalister conjectures that this was done by the Syrian General Bacchides -when he hastily fortified Gezer and occupied it in 160 B. C.[135] (1 Macc. -9:52.) - -At Lachish, Petrie found massive city walls, though he did not describe -them in detail.[136] At Taanach, Sellin found a strong city wall, but did -not attempt to trace it about the tell.[137] Schumacher devoted -considerable attention to the city walls of Megiddo, a part of which were -built of bricks.[138] At Tell es-Safi (Gath?) the outlines of the city -walls were traced, as they were at Tell el-Judeideh.[139] At Samaria a -part of the Roman wall of the time of Herod was found; lower down in the -mound remains of a Babylonian wall (see 2 Kings 17:24), beneath which the -excavators recognized the Hebrew wall.[140] City walls were found, too, at -Bethshemesh,[141] but of especial interest to the student of the Bible are -the walls of Jericho. Here, as at Megiddo, the walls were constructed in -part of brick. They had an average thickness of 13 feet. The Canaanitish -wall was traced around three sides of the mound. It was strengthened by -occasional towers.[142] On the east, next to the spring, they had entirely -disappeared. This must not be pressed into a confirmation of Josh. 6:20, -that the walls fell down flat, for the later Israelitish wall has -disappeared on that side of the mound also. Later, when in the days of -Ahab the Israelites rebuilt the city (1 Kings 16:34), they did not place -the wall on the old line, but enclosed a considerably larger space. This -wall was constructed partly of bricks, but mostly of stone.[143] The walls -of Jerusalem will be treated in Chapter XIII. At the northwest corner of -the Canaanitish wall was a tower enclosed by two brick walls; the outer -wall was a little more than 4 feet thick; the inner, about 10 feet. - -=3. The Stone Work.=--The kind of stones used in city walls varied with -the circumstances and the degree of civilization. The walls of the stone -age were naturally made of small undressed stones. The Amorites began the -use of cut stone. Their blocks are often fairly smooth and regular. The -Amorite wall of Gezer was made of more regular stones than the wall of the -Egyptian period.[144] In the Israelitish and Jewish periods a stone with -an embossed edge was often used. It is found in the wall of Nehemiah, -excavated by Bliss,--a wall made of stones that some pre-exilic king had -used before,--and appears also in the structures of Herod the Great. In -the structures of Constantine and later Byzantine builders, this type of -stone is replaced by a stone with a perfectly smooth surface--much more -smooth than anything found in the early walls. This type of stone work -continued through the crusading period; (see Figs. 253, 254.) While these -types can be traced, their use was not altogether regular.[145] - -The areas of Palestinian cities in the early time were very small. All of -Canaanite Jericho could be put in the Colosseum at Rome! Megiddo, one of -the largest of these early cities, was built on a mound that contained -only about eleven acres, and Jebusite Jerusalem was built on a ridge that -in ancient times contained not less than nine or more than thirteen acres. - -=4. Houses.=--Within these small areas the houses were crowded together, -as in the modern native villages of Palestine, separated only by narrow, -crooked lanes. One may see in Hebron or in some parts of Jerusalem similar -conditions to this day. There was no drainage; refuse was thrown into the -streets. The cities were ill-smelling places. The wonder is that the -mortality was not greater. The houses in the central, elevated portion of -Palestine were usually of stone, though at Gezer, Jericho, and places in -the lower-lying portions of the country they were sometimes of brick. The -walls of the stone houses were constructed of rough stones of a great -variety of sizes, from small pebbles to large boulders. Mortar and cement -were never used. The stones were set in mud. They were not dressed except -with a hammer in the roughest way. The joints between them were wide and -irregular. Into the crevices serpents and scorpions might crawl. It was of -such a house that Amos says, "a man ... leaned his hand on the wall and a -serpent bit him"; (5:19). The bricks were rarely burned; they were simply -sun-dried, and had no more cohesion than the earth in which they were -embedded. The houses generally had no floor except the earth, which was -smoothed off and packed hard. Sometimes this was varied by mixing lime -with the mud and letting it harden, and sometimes floors of cobblestones -or stone chippings mixed with lime were found. In the Roman period mosaic -floors, made by embedding small smoothly cut squares of stone in the -earth, were introduced. By employing stones of different colors the -mosaics were often worked into beautiful patterns; (see Figs. 35, 42, 43, -44, 47, and 48). Sometimes pictures of birds and animals were formed in -the floors. - -The doorways were usually simply an opening made by the vertical sides -left in the masonry. In the later time they were sometimes lined with -standing stones. The doors themselves have long since disappeared, but -there is evidence that, like many houses still to be seen in Palestine, -they were made fast to a post, the lower end of which was set in a hollow -or perforated stone. When the door swung the whole post turned in this -stone. Some of these stones were found. In a few houses at Gezer -enclosures of stones on end were sometimes found in the middle or the -corners of dwelling houses. Perhaps these were hearths.[146] Some houses -built after the time of Alexander the Great had a kind of piazza running -along the side. The remains of the pillars which supported the roofs of -these were discovered. Beginning with the Hellenistic period, some of the -better houses had baths. (On doors, see Figs. 49, 50.) - -=5. Palaces.=--In the excavation of different sites the outlines of -several larger buildings or palaces were uncovered. A few of these are of -interest to the student of the Bible. - -(1) _At Taanach._--In the northeast of the mound at Taanach[147] the -remains of a building about 75 × 77 feet were found. It was in existence -in the fourteenth century before Christ. This building contained several -rooms, as the plan will make clear; (see Fig. 45). The remains of the wall -still showed one layer of hewn stones, some of which were very large. In a -vault underneath the building four cuneiform tablets were found. They had -been placed there for safety in time of siege, and these four tablets had -been overlooked when the rest of the archive was rifled. These tablets -proved to be letters written at the same time as those found at -El-Amarna.[148] The building was the palace of a Canaanite king. - -(2) _At Samaria._--Of especial interest to the student of the Bible are -the palaces of the Hebrew period. At Samaria Reisner discovered massive -walls, which were probably the remains of the palaces of Omri and Ahab. -That of Omri was built of large stones and rested on the native rock. As -Omri was the founder of the city (1 Kings 16:24), there can be little -doubt that this was his palace. An enlargement of this consisted of walls -the construction of which was finer. They were faced with white marble. In -this palace an alabaster vase was found, inscribed with the name of -Osorkon II, King of Egypt, who was a contemporary of King Ahab. This is, -therefore, believed to be the palace of Ahab--perhaps the "house of ivory" -which Ahab built (1 Kings 22:39). As the volume on the excavation at -Samaria is not yet published, it is impossible to give detailed plans of -these buildings. The accompanying picture (Fig. 52) shows some of their -walls. - -(3) _At Jericho._--Another building of this period, which the excavators -believed might have been built by Hiel, the rebuilder of Jericho, in the -days of Ahab (1 Kings 16:34), was uncovered by Sellin. It is the most -pretentious building of the Hebrew time at Jericho and may well have been -the residence of the governor of the place. It consisted of a number of -large rooms, and was throughout constructed of fairly large but irregular -stones; (see Fig. 51). - -(4) _At Megiddo._--Another residence of an Israelitish governor was found -at Megiddo. This was a large, irregular building, constructed around a -courtyard. Some of the work was of dressed stones of considerable size, in -every way superior to the stone-work of the earlier buildings of that -city. In this palace a seal of a man named Shema was found, which bore the -inscription, "Belonging to Shema, the servant of Jeroboam." We do not know -whether this man served under Jeroboam I or Jeroboam II. The fine -character of the stone-work leads one to think the reign of Jeroboam II -the more probable date; (see Figs. 53 and 27). - -One more palace should be noticed, that of Simon the Maccabee (143-135 B. -C.), at Gezer. This palace is clearly of the Hellenistic type, and was -identified as the dwelling-place that Simon built for himself (1 Macc. -13:48), by the discovery of an ancient curse against Simon's palace -scrawled in Greek on a block of stone. This building was constructed of -rather finely cut stone, was of irregular shape (see Figs. 54, 55), had an -imposing gate which admitted into a courtyard, and was supplied with a -good system of drainage. - -=6. Foundation Sacrifices.=--When a house was built it was customary to -consecrate it by a sacrifice. In early times in Palestine this was often a -human sacrifice. In Gezer the skeleton of a woman was found built into the -walls of a house. Numerous skeletons of children were also found under the -corners of houses. Such sacrificial offerings were more often made under -the corners of buildings, since the corners were considered sacred. In -Babylonia and Egypt the sacrifice was accompanied with the burial under -the corner-stone of inscriptions and other deposits, though in Egypt, as -in Palestine, the deposit was not always under the corners.[149] Similar -sacrifices were found at Taanach[150] and Megiddo.[151] These sacrifices -illustrate, some think, 1 Kings 16:34, where Hiel laid the foundation of -Jericho with the loss of his first-born, and set up its gates with the -loss of his youngest son; (see Fig. 56). - -=7. City Gates.=--The city gate was in Palestine an important part of the -town. Gateways were constructed in different ways at different times. At -Gezer the northern gate consisted of a protruding tower, into which one -entered at the side, then turned a right angle to gain entrance to the -city; (see Fig. 58). Gates of this type are still common in the East. The -passageway in this gate at Gezer was 40 feet wide.[152] The southern gate -of Gezer consisted simply of a straight passageway, 42 feet long and 9 -feet wide, between two brick towers; (see Fig. 61). Often, as in the case -of the gate found at Bethshemesh (Fig. 59), there were rooms on each side -of the passageway through the tower. One with still more space within its -tower was uncovered at Megiddo; (Fig. 57). - -The city gates usually remained at the same points in the wall through the -successive reconstructions of the city. Thus at Samaria the remains of -round Herodian towers which flanked the gateway were found resting on -larger square bases of the Seleucid period, beneath which the outline of -the earlier Israelitish towers was still visible; (see Figs. 65, 66). - -The form of these gates illuminates many Biblical passages. Lot sat in the -gate of Sodom (Gen. 19:1). Joab took Abner aside in the gate to speak to -him (2 Sam. 3:27). The gate was the place of conference for the elders of -a city (Gen. 34:20). To be praised in the "gates," where the city's -affairs were settled (Prov. 31:31), was to have desired fame. - -=8. Water Supply.= - -(1) _Springs._--The water supply of Palestinian cities came in part from -the never-failing springs near which they were built. This supply was, -however, seldom sufficient, so that from the early days cisterns were -built to catch the water of the rainy season and conserve it for use -during the summer months. These cisterns were often excavated in the solid -rock, but sometimes were simple pits in the earth, over the bottom of -which a coating of lime or cement had been spread. - -(2) _Underground Tunnels._--In time of war, when a city might be shut up -for years, cities were often compelled to yield for want of water. This -was especially the case if the spring lay outside the city walls. In -several Palestinian cities means were taken to secure access to a spring -without exposing oneself to the enemy outside the wall. One of the -greatest of these undertakings was discovered at Gezer. This was a tunnel -cut in the solid rock, which was entered by a long flight of rock-cut -steps. At the entrance the rock formed an imposing archway 23 feet high -and 13 feet 10 inches broad. These dimensions were maintained throughout -about two-thirds of the length of the tunnel. The whole passage was about -130 feet long. The last third of it had to be cut through a much harder -rock, where the work was much more difficult, and its workmanship was here -not so good as above. The tunnel also became appreciably smaller. The -passage terminated in a large cave, in the bottom of which was a spring, -and was evidently constructed to enable the inhabitants to reach a water -supply in time of siege. The floor of the cave is 94 feet 6 inches below -the level of the rock surface under the ancient city. The whole tunnel is -a remarkable piece of engineering for an early people; (see Figs. 60 and -62). - -The earth with which the mouth of the tunnel was closed contained objects -which belonged to the time 1450-1250 B. C. The steps in the passageway had -been before this deeply worn by many feet--so deeply worn that Mr. -Macalister estimated that they must have been in use for 500 years. For -these reasons he supposes that this water-passage was excavated about 2000 -B. C. or soon after that date. It had ceased to be used before the -Israelites conquered the place. - -A similar underground tunnel leading to a spring has been found at El-Gib, -Gibeon, (Fig. 63), and one made in Jebusite times also existed at -Jerusalem. It is mentioned in 2 Sam. 5:8, and will be described in -connection with Jerusalem (p. 188). At Rabbah Ammon an underground passage -connected the old city situated on the hill with a large cistern which was -roofed over so as to be concealed. To this cistern in time of siege the -inhabitants could go through the passage and obtain water. It was this -cistern[153] which Joab had captured (2 Sam. 12:27) when he sent to David -to come and take the city. Antiochus III of Syria in the same way -compelled the city to surrender in the year 218 B. C.,[154] and Herod the -Great did the same thing before 30 B. C.[155] - -(3) _Reservoirs._--Among the sources of water supply for the cities of -Palestine the so-called Pools of Solomon to the south of Bethlehem are -unique. They consist of three reservoirs, partly rock-cut and in part -constructed of walls of masonry, in the Wady Artas, about a mile and a -half to the southwest of Bethlehem. The highest of these pools is 127 -yards long and 76 yards wide, and 25 feet deep at its lower end. The -central pool is 141 yards long, from 53 to 83 yards wide, and 38 feet -deep. The lowest and finest of the three is 194 yards long, 49 to 69 yards -wide, and 48 feet at its deepest part. In these reservoirs water from -neighboring springs was collected and stored. Two aqueducts at different -times conveyed it to Jerusalem as it was needed. These aqueducts are now -known respectively as the Low Level Aqueduct and the High Level Aqueduct. -The High Level Aqueduct appears to be the older. In recent years the Low -Level Aqueduct has been repaired, so that these "pools" still contribute -to the water supply of Jerusalem. - -There is no evidence that Solomon built these. His name has been attached -to them solely on account of Eccl. 2:6: "I made me pools of water." The -whole structure of these and their aqueducts seems rather to be Greek or -Roman work; (see Fig. 64). - -Evidence for the dates is not conclusive,[156] but there is some -probability that the pools were constructed by John Hyrcanus I, 135-105 B. -C., who made the High Level Aqueduct, and that the Low Level Aqueduct was -constructed by Herod the Great. This is much longer than the High Level -Aqueduct, as it makes a detour toward Gebel Fureidis, where Herod -constructed a palace, to which he conveyed water. This Low Level Aqueduct -is probably the one afterward repaired by Pontius Pilate.[157] - - - - -CHAPTER VII - -ROADS AND AGRICULTURE - - ROADS: Early paths. Roman roads. AGRICULTURE: Granaries. Hoes and - plows. Sickles. Threshing. Winnowing. Grinding. Mortars. Fruits. - Vineyards and wine-vats. Olive-presses. The agricultural calendar. - Domestic animals. Bees. Birds. Hens. - - -=1. Roads.=--From the time cities were established in Palestine there was -more or less communication between them. Probably in a small way commerce -was carried on among some of them, but no effort was made to construct -roads, in the modern sense of the term, until the Roman period. - -(1) _Early Paths._--Before that time all traveling was done on foot or on -the backs of donkeys and camels, and for such travel a simple foot-path, -made by continuous use, was all that was considered necessary. The roads -constructed by the Romans have long since fallen into a state of utter -disrepair, so that, with the exception of two or three roads that have -been built in recent years, the simple, rough foot-paths that have existed -from time immemorial still suffice for Palestinian travel. These paths are -often exceedingly rough. They were never surveyed and never repaired. They -were simply devoted to public use by immemorial custom. If a landowner -wished to raise grain in a field through which one of these paths ran, he -plowed up to the very edge of the narrow path and put in his seed. There -were neither fences nor ditches to separate the road from the field. -Fields traversed by such roads are still very common in Palestine. It was -along such a road that Jesus and the disciples were traveling when they -plucked the ears of wheat on the Sabbath (Matt. 12:1; Mark 2:23; Luke -6:1). It was such a road to which Jesus alluded in the Parable of the -Sower: "Some seed fell by the wayside" (Matt. 13:4; Mark 4:4; Luke 8:5). A -rough path is shown in Fig. 67. - -(2) _Roman Roads._--After Palestine passed under the sway of Rome in 63 B. -C. a system of roads was built to connect the most important places. We -have no definite information about these from a source earlier than the -_Onomasticon_ of Eusebius,[158] which was compiled before 340 A. D., but -in all probability those on the west of the Jordan were constructed before -the time of Christ. There were three main roads in this part of -Palestine.[159] One ran down the sea-coast. Starting at Sidon, it passed -southward through Tyre, Sarepta (Zarephath, 1 Kings 17:10; Luke 4:26), -Ptolemais (Accho), Dor, Cæsarea, Joppa, Lydda, Azotus (Ashdod), and -Askelon to Gaza. A branch road ran eastward from Tyre over the hills of -Galilee through Kedesh in Naphtali (Josh. 12:22; 20:7; Judges 4:6), to -Cæsarea Philippi (Matt. 16:13; Mark 8:27), which was near the ancient Dan -(Judges 18:29). - -From Cæsarea, on the sea-coast south of Dor, another branch road ran -southeastward through the valley of Aijalon up to the site of Gibeah of -Saul (1 Sam. 10:26; 11:4, etc.), where it joined the road along the -central ridge of the country; (see Fig. 68). - -Starting from Damascus another road ran southward to Hyppos, one of the -cities of the Decapolis, which lay southeast of the Sea of Galilee,[160] -crossed the Jordan on a bridge below the Sea of Galilee (shown in Fig. -289), passed through Scythopolis, the Beth-shean of the Old Testament -(Josh. 17:11; 1 Sam. 31:10), through Sychar (John 4:5), then southward -along the central ridge of the country, through Bethel and Ramah to -Jerusalem. South of Jerusalem it was continued to Bethlehem and Hebron. -Four miles north of Jerusalem it was joined by the road from Cæsarea, so -that travelers from the coast and from the north entered Jerusalem over -the same road. One can in many places still trace the lines of Roman -paving-stones which mark their courses. Thus the juncture of the two roads -just mentioned is still visible, and one may stand on the hillside and -feel sure that he is looking at the very way over which Paul was taken to -Cæsarea by the Roman soldiers the night after his arrest in Jerusalem -(Acts 23:23, 24). - -From Scythopolis (Beth-shean) another road ran southward through the -Jordan valley to Jericho. This was probably continued to Jerusalem. From -Sebaste (Samaria) another road ran northwestward through Dothan (Gen. -37:17; 2 Kings 6:13), to Taanach, Megiddo, and the coast. - -After Trajan overthrew the kingdom of the Nabathæans, in 106 A. D., he -built a road on the east of the Jordan, southward from Damascus to the Red -Sea. The Roman government kept these roads in good order. They marked the -distances by milestones, some of which have survived to modern times; -(Figs. 69, 71). - -=2. Agriculture= was the chief occupation of the inhabitants of Palestine. -The cities were throughout its history simply the walled residences of -farmers. Such trade as developed at different periods was always -subordinate to agricultural pursuits. We cannot expect exploration to -furnish us with a complete view of ancient Palestinian agriculture, but -such glimpses as it does afford us are most illuminating. - -(1) _Granaries._--In the excavation of Gezer[161] it was found that -granaries formed an important class of buildings. Some of these were -connected with private houses and evidently belonged to individuals, but -some of them were so large and so much grain was found in them that it was -rightly held that they must have been public granaries. Some of these -buildings had been destroyed by fire, and the charred grain, retaining its -original shape, was easily recognized. Most of the granaries were circular -structures, such as are seen today dotting the fields of the maritime -plain of Palestine. They varied greatly in size. One was but 2 feet 8 -inches in diameter; another was 4 feet 9 inches across and 6 feet 9 inches -deep. One granary from the second Semitic stratum (1700-1350 B. C.) was -connected with a house, and contained several kinds of grain, each stored -in a separate chamber; (Figs. 70, 72). - -From such receptacles wheat, barley, oats, and beans were recovered, as -well as three varieties of vetch, one of which was probably the "lentils" -of Gen. 25:34; 2 Sam. 17:28; 23:11; and Ezek. 4:9. Barley is often -mentioned in the Bible; the wheat is usually there called "corn." Piles of -straw and chaff, such as the modern Palestinians call _tibn_, were also -found. - -(2). _Hoes and Plows._--Naturally, the implements with which the grain was -cultivated have nearly all perished. In the first place the ground had to -be broken and prepared to receive the seed. Remains of two different kinds -of hoes were found at Gezer, though the preparation of a sufficiently -large area of ground to bear grain to support cities cannot have been made -with such instruments; (see Fig. 73). From an early time the plow, which -is frequently mentioned in the Bible (see, for example, 1 Kings 19:19), -was in use in Palestine. A number of plowshares were found at Megiddo in -the ruins of a blacksmith's shop, and a diamond-shaped iron ring, from -Gezer, may have been used to attach oxen to a plow, and the points of -several ox-goads were found. The ox-goad consisted, as it does today, of a -long stick into the end of which a sharp iron point was fixed. It is -alluded to in Acts 26:14. As this goad was used in driving the oxen in -plowing, it indicates that plows were used. These plows were probably -similar to those used at the time in Egypt; (see Figs. 76, 77). - -(3) _Sickles._--When the grain was ripe it was reaped with a sickle (Deut. -16:9; Jer. 50:16; Joel 3:13). In the earlier periods these were of flint; -later they were made of bronze, and iron. Sickles of metal are, however, -rarely found. They were expensive, while flint was abundant and cheap. -Flint sickle-teeth were numerous, therefore, in all periods. The earliest -sickles were flints set in an animal's jaw-bone, or in a curved piece of -wood similar to the Egyptian sickle shown in Figs. 74, 75. - -(4) _Threshing._--After the grain was cut it was taken to the -threshing-floor to be threshed. These floors were often a comparatively -level portion of rock which formed a part of a high place or sanctuary. -Such was the threshing-floor of Araunah, the Jebusite, in 2 Sam. 24:18. It -took several days to complete a threshing, and as no one would think of -stealing from a sacred place, the whole community was protected by doing -the threshing in its precincts. Sometimes the cattle were driven about -over the grain, as in ancient Egypt (see Fig. 79), and as is done in -modern Palestine still; (see Fig. 78). This is the kind of threshing -contemplated in Deut. 25:4. At other times a kind of sledge drawn by -cattle was driven about over the grain. Ornan (Araunah) was threshing with -such an instrument (1 Chron. 21:23; 2 Sam. 24:22), and allusion is made to -one in Isa. 41:15; (see Fig. 80). - -(5) _Winnowing._--The grain was winnowed or cleansed of chaff by being -thrown up, as in Fig. 79. As it fell the wind blew the chaff away. It is -this process that John the Baptist used as an illustration of the purging -work of Christ (Matt. 3:12; Luke 3:17). - -(6) _Grinding._--When the grain was cut, threshed, and winnowed, there -were no mills to which it could be taken for grinding. This process had to -be done in each home, and the labor of doing it fell to the women of the -household. (See Exod. 11:5; Matt. 24:41.) Grain was reduced to flour -either by rubbing or by pounding. The process of rubbing or grinding was -accomplished either by a flat saddle-shaped stone over which another was -rubbed (see Figs. 81, 84), or by crushing between two stones, the top one -of which was revolved somewhat as a modern millstone (Fig. 82). It -required two women, as Jesus said, to grind at such a mill--one to feed -it, while the other manipulated the rubbing stone. Such stones were made -of hard igneous rock procured from the region east of the Sea of Galilee, -and are called "querns." In the different periods of the history of -Palestine they varied in size and shape, becoming round in the Seleucid -period (323-63 B. C.). The upper stone was apparently rotated by twisting -the wrist. It could be thus turned half-way round and then back again. No -round millstones, with the topmost of the pair perforated, as in the -modern millstone, were found before the Arabic period, 637 A. D. Pictures -of modern Syrian women turning this perforated type of millstone do not, -therefore, really illustrate, as is often assumed, the women of the Bible -as they ground at the mill. - -Probably the millstone which crushed the head of Abimelech at Thebez -(Judges 9:53) was the upper stone of a "saddle quern." The importance of -these millstones is recognized in Deut. 24:6, which prohibits the taking -of a mill or the upper millstone of a poor man as security, on the ground -that that was the same as taking a man's life as security. The lower -millstone was always made of the harder stone. Because of this and of the -grinding and pounding to which it was subjected it became a symbol of -firmness (Job 41:24). - -(7) _Mortars._--Apparently the grain was also frequently crushed by -pounding it with a pestle in a mortar. So many of these made of stone were -found at Gezer that it is thought that these may have been used more often -than the millstones; (see Fig. 83). - -(8) _Fruits._--In the course of the excavation of Gezer dried figs, -grapes, pomegranates, and olives were found. All of these are mentioned in -the Bible, as, for example, in Cant. 2:13; Rev. 6:13; Gen. 40:11; Num. -13:23; Micah 6:15. In one trench what appeared to be a pile of charred -pistachio nuts was found. Acorns, terebinth, and apricot seeds were also -discovered.[162] Of these fruits, those which left the most archæological -evidence of their existence are just those that are most frequently -mentioned in the Bible,--the grape and the olive. - -(9) _Vineyards and Wine-vats._--The grape is often alluded to in the -Bible, and directions are given as to how one may conduct himself in a -vineyard (Deut. 23:24) and as to how thoroughly one might glean his vines -(Lev. 25:5). The most complete description of a vineyard is in Isa. 5:1-8. -The one feature of that description that would survive for an archæologist -to discover is the wine-vat. These vats were often cut in the solid rock, -and many of them have been found, both in excavating and in traveling over -the country. The vats for pressing grapes and other fruits may be -distinguished from olive-presses because they lack all arrangements for -mechanical pressing. The grapes were trodden with the feet, and as the -juice was pressed out it ran down into a deeper portion of the vat. Some -of these vats are surrounded by "cup-marks" or hollow places cut in the -stone in order to hold pointed-bottomed jars upright. Sometimes the -cup-marks are connected with the main vat by tiny channels, through which -any of the grape-juice that might drain from the outside of the jar, after -the jar had been dipped in the vat, might run back; (see Fig. 87). - -(10) _Olive-presses._--Similarly, olive-presses are very numerous in -Palestine. Presses were found in the stratum of the cave-dwellers of -Gezer. The olive industry is, accordingly, very old. Olive-presses -comprised, in addition to the vat, an upright stone with a large hole in -it. In this hole a beam was inserted. This beam rested on the olives which -were to be pressed, extending far beyond the receptacle containing the -olives, and weights were hung on the end farthest from the stone; (see -Fig. 88). Palestine in ancient times, as now, was covered with olive -orchards, many of which had oil-presses. Such an orchard was called a -"garden." The Garden of Gethsemane, the scene of one of the most sacred -incidents of the life of Christ (Matt. 26:36; Mark 14:32), was an olive -orchard and took its name from the oil-press. Gethsemane means -"oil-press." Wine-vats and oil-presses were of various types, but into -their forms there is not space to enter here[163]; (see Figs. 85, 86). - -The prominent place held by wine and oil among the agricultural products -of the country is indicated by the receipts for the storage of various -quantities of these articles which were found at Samaria. - -(11) _The Agricultural Calendar._--In the books of the old Testament the -names applied to the months are, for the most part, names derived from -Babylonia, but it appears that at Gezer they had a series of names for the -months based on their agricultural year. In the stratum which contained -remains from the time of the Hebrew monarchy, 1000-550 B. C., an -inscription was found which, though the end was broken away, contained the -following names for the months: - - 1. Month of ingathering. (See Exod. 23:16; 34:22.) - - 2. Month of sowing. - - 3. Month of the late [sowing?]. - - 4. Month of the flax-harvest. - - 5. Month of the barley-harvest. (See Ruth 2:23; 2 Sam. 21:9.) - - 6. Month of the harvest of all [other grains?]. - - 7. Month of pruning [vines]. - - 8. Month of summer-fruit [figs]. - -This calendar, beginning in October, still conforms to the agricultural -pursuits of the year. It also gives us archæological evidence of the -culture of flax by the ancient Israelites. (See Josh. 2:6; Prov. 31:13; -Hosea 2:5, 9.) - -(12) _Domestic Animals._--The domestic animals of ancient Palestine may be -traced in part by their bones found in various excavations, and in part by -the pictures of them drawn in caves and tombs. The domestic animals most -often mentioned in the Bible are asses, cattle, sheep, goats, and camels. -Bones, pictures, or models of these were found in all the strata of -Gezer.[164] There seem to have been a variety of cows; the breeds varied -in the different periods. No horse bones were found until the third -Semitic period (1350-1000 B. C.). It was, perhaps, during that period that -the horse was introduced by the Hittites, who appear to have brought it -from Turkestan, where its bones have been found in much earlier -strata.[165] The ass was, however, the common beast of burden in -Palestine, and bones of horses are rare until the Greek period. A number -of figures of horses' heads with their bridles were found, as well as a -horse's bit, and the picture of a horse and his rider. The pig was a -domesticated animal of the primitive cave-dwellers of Gezer, who appear to -have offered swine in sacrifice, but pig-bones are rarely found in the -Semitic strata. As swine were unclean to all Semites, this is not strange. -The dog appears to have been half-domesticated, as the Bible implies, as -his bones were employed for making prickers and similar tools, but no -pictures or models of dogs are known to the writer. Probably they were of -the half-wild pariah type. Certainly they were not held in high esteem. -(See 1 Sam. 17:43; 2 Sam. 16:9.) For illustrations, see Figs. 89-92. - -(13) _Bees._--A number of inverted jars, each pierced with a number of -circular holes, were found. It seems probable that these were rude -beehives. Before the Israelites settled in Palestine they knew it as "a -land flowing with milk and honey" (Exod. 3:8, 17; Num. 14:8; 16:13, 14; -Deut. 6:3), and their view was, we are told, shared by others (2 Kings -18:32). It is not surprising, therefore, to find evidences of bee culture; -(see Fig. 95). - -(14) _Birds._--As to birds, it is doubtful whether they had any -domesticated ones before the Babylonian Exile. A rude picture of an -ostrich painted on a potsherd was found at Gezer, as well as some painted -fragments of ostrich-egg shell. The ostrich is mentioned in the Old -Testament (Job 39:13; Lam. 4:3), but as a wild bird. The Palestinians knew -it as a bird that might be hunted. They sometimes gathered the eggs of -wild birds to eat (Deut. 22:6; Isa. 10:14). These were, perhaps, sometimes -ostrich-eggs. The modern Arabs make a kind of omelette of ostrich-eggs. -The ostrich was certainly not a domestic bird. - -At Gezer, too, a clay bird was found, or, rather, a small jar made in the -form of a bird. The object was so realistic that holes were left in the -clay wings for the insertion of feathers; (Fig. 93). The bird bears some -resemblance to a duck, figures of which were found at Megiddo,[166] but -the duck may have been wild. One clay head of a goose or swan was also -found, but had the bird been domesticated there would probably have been -more traces of it. - -(15) _Hens._--The one domestic bird that can be traced in Palestine is the -hen, and hens were not introduced until after the Exile. Hens seem to have -been first domesticated in India. They are not mentioned in the Rig Veda, -but the Aryans seem to have come into contact with them when they settled -in the valley of the Ganges about 1000 B. C. The Yajur and Atharva Vedas -mention the cock. The hen is a domesticated Bankiva fowl, which also -exists in a wild state in India. From India the hen was domesticated -eastward to China, and westward to Persia. There is a possible picture of -a cock on a sculpture of Sennacherib, which would indicate that the bird -was known in Assyria at the beginning of the seventh century before -Christ. Another is pictured on some Babylonian gems from the time of -Nabuna'id, about 550 B. C. Pictures of cocks, three of them somewhat -doubtful, are found on Babylonian seals of the Persian period.[167] The -domesticated hen, traveling by way of the Black Sea, reached Asia Minor as -early as the eighth century B. C.[168] - -There is, however, no evidence of the presence of the hen in Palestine -before the Greek period. Neither hen nor cock is mentioned in the Old -Testament. In a tomb discovered by Peters and Thiersch in 1902, near Tell -Sandahanna, the Marissa of the Seleucid period and the Moresheth-gath of -Micah 1:14, a number of cocks are pictured; (Fig. 94). The tomb, -constructed about 200 B. C., contains a number of Greek inscriptions.[169] -In agreement with this evidence is also the fact that at Taanach there was -found in a late pre-Arabic stratum the skeleton of a hen with an egg.[170] -Before New Testament times, then, the hen had become a domestic fowl in -Palestine. Every one would accordingly understand the lament of Christ, -"How often would I have gathered thy children together, even as a hen -gathereth her chickens under her wings, and ye would not!" (Matt. 23:37). -The cock was so universally kept at this time that one of the divisions of -the night was called the "cock-crowing" (Mark 13:35). It was the mark of -the progress of the night afforded by the habits of the cock that was used -by Jesus in predicting Peter's denial (Matt. 26:34; Mark 14:30; Luke -22:34; John 13:38), and it was the recalling of this prediction by the -crowing of the cock that brought Peter to repentant tears (Matt. 26:74; -Mark 14:68, 72; Luke 22:60; John 18:27). - - - - -CHAPTER VIII - -POTTERY - - IMPORTANCE OF POTTERY. PRE-SEMITIC POTTERY. FIRST SEMITIC POTTERY TO - 1800 B. C. POTTERY OF SECOND SEMITIC PERIOD. THIRD SEMITIC PERIOD. - ISRAELITISH OR FOURTH SEMITIC PERIOD. HELLENISTIC PERIOD. - - -=1. Importance of Pottery.=--In all parts of the world the making of clay -jars and receptacles is one of the earliest arts to be discovered, and -Palestine was no exception to the rule. In Palestine such jars were -particularly useful, as the water for each family had to be carried from -the nearest spring to the house. It was natural that, in a country which -had so long a history as Palestine, and over which the influences of so -many diverse civilizations swept, there should be a considerable variety -in the types of pottery in different periods. Indeed, it is now recognized -that the differences in these types are so marked that in the absence of -other criteria it is possible approximately to date a stratum of the -remains of any ancient city by the type of pottery found in it. Since this -is so, a brief outline of the different types is not out of place here, -although these differences have little or no bearing upon the -interpretation of the Bible. Only a brief statement is here attempted. -Those who wish to study the subject more fully are referred to more -extended works.[171] The classifications of pottery made by the leading -experts differ, as they have been written at different times and as the -excavations have continually enlarged the material. The classification -presented in the following pages is mainly that of Macalister, based on -the work at Gezer and on previous excavations. - -=2. Pre-Semitic Pottery.=--There is first, then, the pottery of the -pre-Semitic cave-dwellers. This pottery is made out of clay that was in no -way cleansed or refined. It was made by hand, the larger jars having been -built up little by little. The vessel, after receiving such ornament as -the potter desired, was usually fired, though sometimes simply sun-dried. -In firing the heat was often distributed very irregularly, so that the -surface was not all of the same color. The jars were of moderate size, -flat on the bottom, globular, conical, or cylindrical in shape. They had -concave necks and handles. The handles were of two kinds--"ledge" handles -and "loop" handles. A "ledge" handle consists of a piece of clay pinched -into a flat projecting ledge and then baked hard. A "loop" handle is one -fastened to the jar at both ends, similar to the handle of a pitcher. -Bowls or saucers were also sometimes made with "ledge" handles; (see Fig. -97). - -The most common ornamentation of the pottery of this period was made by -combing the clay with wooden combs notched with teeth of greater or less -fineness. Sometimes the marks left by the comb were perpendicular, -sometimes horizontal, and sometimes diagonal. One other type of ornament -was exhibited in the pottery of the cave-dwellers. That was either an -incised representation of a rope or cord, or a moulded imitation of one of -these. This ornamentation was probably suggested by the ropes or cords -which were bound about the vessel before it was fired, to prevent its -falling apart. At first the only coloring was a line of brick-red around -the rims of jugs and saucers. The most advanced stage is reached in Fig. -96, where a network of red lines cross each other diagonally. The tint of -the red varies a good deal, but this may be due to the unequal firing -already mentioned. - -A few specimens of burnished pottery were found in the caves. This -burnishing consisted in rubbing the surface of the vessel with strokes of -a smooth bone or stone. In some cases the vessel was dipped in a whitish -wash after it was fired. This adhered to it everywhere except on the -bottom. - -=3. First Semitic Pottery to 1800 B. C.=--The pottery of the first Semitic -period, which terminated about 1800 B. C., is of a finer type. The larger -pieces were made on a wheel, as were many of the smaller ones. The wheel -was rotated with the left hand, while the potter moulded the vessel with -the right. The result was a much more shapely type of work than in the -previous period. In the pre-Semitic period limestone clays were employed; -in this period, sandstone clays. Many of the objects, like those of the -preceding period, were of a drab color, though the tints of some of them -ranged from a rich brownish red to orange. The patches of color in these -vessels were probably due to unequal heat in firing. - -In size and shape the vessels presented a great variety. There were large -jars with flat bottoms, inverted conical bodies, and more or less abruptly -rounded shoulders; (see Fig. 100). The mouth was wide and circular and -surrounded by a flat, widely expanding rim. These jars averaged about two -feet in height. There were many pitchers made in this period. They were -large and small and of a great variety of shapes. Such pitchers present -similar characteristics, whether found at Gezer or Megiddo; (see Figs. 98, -99). Ledge and loop handles were common on the pitchers of this period, -but "pillar" and "button"[172] handles were also sometimes found; (see -Figs. 105, 106). The ornamentation of pottery showed some advance over the -preceding period. In addition to the rope motifs, decoration formed by -combinations of lines was also found. One particularly fine type of -pottery belonging to this period was found at Gezer. It was never found in -the caves or in the higher strata. Vessels of this ware were usually found -in groups, indicating that they were the possessions of the rich. The clay -was well cleaned, the shapes distinctive (see Fig. 104), and the ware was -always covered with a cream-like coating. Saucers and bowls were common in -this period. The comb was still used in ornamenting pottery, though -sometimes it produced only a series of dots. All surfaces were usually -burnished, though naturally this was much more thoroughly done in the -expensive than in the cheaper wares. - -=4. Pottery of Second Semitic Period.=--During the second Semitic period, -1800-1400 B. C., trade was carried on with countries beyond the sea, -especially with Cyprus. There was probably also some trade with Egypt and -Crete, but the influence of Cyprus was most potent in the pottery. In this -period, probably owing to foreign influence, the potters' wheel worked by -foot was introduced. This left both hands of the workman free and resulted -in a great improvement of the ware. There was in this period a great -variety in the material used. The cheaper vessels were made of a rough -clay, full of grits of black colored sand or flints, which burned black in -the middle of the clay and a reddish or yellowish drab on the surface. At -least seven other finer types of ware were found at Gezer.[173] One of -these was a ware made of a brilliant saffron-yellow clay, which was -enriched with painted decoration in bold black lines. This was probably of -foreign origin. In this period the jar with pointed bottom, long conical -body, well rounded shoulders, short concave neck, continuous circular -mouth, with an expanded rim, though much narrower than in the preceding -period, is the most common type. Jugs with pointed bottoms also became -common, though there was a great variety in the shapes of jugs. Ledge -handles had almost entirely disappeared in this period. Jars generally had -two loop handles, and sometimes four, though occasionally they had none at -all. "Button" handles are comparatively uncommon; the loop handle is the -style most generally used. "Ear" handles, both vertical and transverse, -are also common; (see Figs. 101-103, and 105). - -The most striking feature of the pottery of this period is the increase in -the variety of ornamentation and the introduction of the pictures of -animals and birds as ornamental motifs. This was due, no doubt, to foreign -influence. The best specimens of this type of ornamentation so far -published are from Gezer, though it is found elsewhere. - -All kinds of vessels were made of clay during this period: jars, jugs, -pitchers, bowls, saucers, drinking-cups, etc., etc. Many of the potters -signed their work with a peculiar mark. This mark was sometimes an -impression of the potter's finger, sometimes linear devices of various -kinds scratched on the handle, and sometimes the impression of an -inscribed Egyptian scarab, usually of the period of the Middle Kingdom or -the Hyksos time. Jar handles marked with scarabs were also found at -Jericho; (Figs. 118, 119). - -=5. Third Semitic Period.=--The third Semitic period, 1400 to 1000 B. C., -while its wares sometimes differed in form from those of the preceding -period, is mainly marked off from the second period by a general -degeneration in style. No great differences are noticeable in the kinds of -clay employed. The jars have, as a rule, a less pointed bottom than in the -preceding period; (Fig. 110). The combed decoration is rare, and the -burnishing of the jars is both less frequent and less skilful than in the -preceding period. There is an increase in the tendency to use painted -ornamentation, which frequently consists of zigzag lines. Rough, -conventionalized representations of palm trees are also common. In the -last part of the period Cretan influences are traceable. This was probably -due to the coming of the Philistines.[174] Potters' marks continue, but -scarabs are less often used in making them than in the preceding period. -The various kinds of vessels made seem to have been as great as in the -preceding period. A clay funnel or bottle-filler was also found in this -period; (see Fig. 114). - -=6. Israelitish or Fourth Semitic Period.=--In the fourth Semitic, or the -Israelitish period, 1000-600 B. C., the method of manufacture remained the -same as before, and but little difference can be discerned in the clays -employed. There seems, however, to have been a steady decline in -excellence. The large jar with pointed bottom is still found, but there is -a tendency to broaden the bottom, while retaining the convex form. Thus -toward the close of the period a type of jar, conical in form, but with -the apex of the cone at the top instead of at the bottom, is found. The -types of pottery of this time may be seen by examining the forms found in -the Hebrew stratum at Jericho (Figs. 107, 112, 113), and from a temple at -Megiddo of the same period. (Fig. 111.) The forms and kinds of vessels -found in this period are numerous. Painted ornamentation consists, as a -rule, merely of rings around the vessel, though sometimes zigzags made -very carelessly are also found. Bird ornamentation, so frequent in the -third period, entirely disappears in this. The potters still employed -marks. These are of the same general character as in the earlier period, -though the scarab stamp entirely disappeared from Gezer and the use of -other seals became common. These were most often a simple device of stars, -or names written in the old Hebrew script. At Jericho the scarab stamp was -still employed; (see Figs. 115, 117). - -Some jar handles inscribed with Hebrew letters were found at Gezer in a -stratum that was pre-exilic. A series of them was also found at the tells -excavated by Bliss and Macalister in the Shephelah in the years -1898-1900--Es-Safi, Judeideh, and Zakariyeh. These handles, in addition to -the impression of a seal, contained the words, "to the king," in Hebrew -letters, and the names of the cities, Hebron, Socho, Ziph, and Mamsheth. -The first three of these are well-known Judæan towns; the last is -unidentified. Sir Charles Warren found some similar stamps near the temple -area at Jerusalem. There has been much discussion as to the date of the -handles bearing these stamps. Since nothing of the kind was found at -Megiddo and Taanach, it has been inferred that this kind of jar handle -came into existence after the overthrow of the kingdom of Israel in the -year 722 B. C. It may be that the "king" referred to is the king of Judah, -and that these stamps come from the last days of the kingdom of Judah. -Scholarly opinion is, however, divided, some authorities contending that -they come from the time after the Exile. The date is not entirely certain; -(see Fig. 116).[175] - -=7. Hellenistic Period.=--In the time after the Exile there is not much -change in the character of the pottery until after the conquest of -Alexander the Great. The influx of influences from the Græco-Macedonian -world affected the whole life of the land, and was reflected also in its -pottery. As in the second and third Semitic periods, there were -importations of pottery from abroad, though at this time the importations -were from regions affected by Greek art. The Palestinian potters of this -period had, therefore, the best models. The use of the potters' wheel was -all but universal, and the wares were burned hard. A pile of these -potsherds, when struck with a stick, emits a distinct musical "clink," -which is not the case with potsherds from the earlier periods. The clay -employed was the finest and most homogeneous of any used in Palestinian -pottery, and there is a general tendency, especially in the cities near -the coast, to follow classical models; (see Figs. 122, 125). - -Jars have rounded or bluntly pointed bases, vertical sides, flattened or -oblique shoulders, and round mouths. There are two loop handles just under -the shoulders. Another form, probably suggested by Rhodian amphoræ, has a -long, tapering base; (see Fig. 120). - -It is impossible in the space that can be devoted to this topic to -enumerate all the kinds of vessels that were made in this period or the -variety of their forms. Only a few characteristic features can be noted. -The cooking pots of this time have a very distinctive form. They have a -globular base, globular body, short, wide neck, and a rounded continuous -mouth; (see Fig. 122{5a}). The body of the vessel is often ribbed with -horizontal flutings. Small jugs and vases were very common; some of them -had very characteristic forms. Jugs of this period found at Jericho had a -funnel at the side through which liquid could be poured into them. - -As in the preceding period, jar handles were frequently stamped with the -mark of the potter. These were now often Greek letters, though those so -stamped were apparently imported from foreign countries. At Jericho ten -jar handles were found stamped with the name "Jah" and three stamped with -the name "Jahu."[176] Both Jah (see Psa. 68:4) and Jahu are abbreviations -of the name Jehovah, and probably are so to be understood here. They often -formed part of a personal name--thus Elijah, "My God is Jah." - -From the second Semitic period onward, filters were made by piercing the -bottom of a jug with holes. These became more common in the third Semitic -period, but this sort of device reached its full development in the -Hellenistic period, which we are now considering. Various forms of -strainers were found, as shown in Fig. 123, and one very elaborate filter; -(see Fig. 121). - -With the coming of the Romans in 63 B. C., new influences were introduced -into the civilization of Palestine. In time these influences modified the -pottery, but it is doubtful whether they had an appreciable effect until -after the New Testament times. Pots from the Roman period found at Gezer -(see Fig. 124) differ from those of the Hellenistic period chiefly in -having bottoms that are more nearly flat. By the time of the Emperor -Constantine a change can be noted, so that pottery of the Byzantine period -(325-637 A. D.) has characteristics of its own. That period, however, lies -beyond the range of Biblical history. - -In the study of pottery one of the most interesting topics is the -evolution of the lamp. The earliest lamps were simply wicks stuck into a -saucer of oil and ignited. Of course, the wick would easily fall down into -the oil and the light would be extinguished. The earliest device to -prevent this was to make the saucer of irregular shape, with a slight -notch in one side in which the wick could lie. (See the right-hand lamp in -Fig. 127.) As time went on this resting-place for the wick developed more -and more into a spout. (See Fig. 126 and the left-hand lamp in Fig. 127.) - -This form of lamp was known as early as the first Semitic period, and -persisted with slight development down through the Israelitish time; (see -Fig. 128). Its development was not, however, uniform in all parts of the -country. Israelitish lamps found at Jericho appear to be simply saucers -with two or more indentations in the rim; (see Fig. 132). Perhaps in these -more than one wick was used. In the Hellenistic period two improvements in -the making of lamps occurred. The first consisted in a still further -development of the spout until its sides almost met and formed nearly a -closed vessel. The second improvement was, perhaps, due to outside -influences. It consisted in making the saucer small and covered. In the -middle of the cover was a small round hole into which the oil was poured; -at one side a spout protruded and the wick came out through this; (see -Fig. 131). The top of such lamps was ornamented with various designs. - -In the Byzantine and Arabic periods the same general style of lamp was -used, but the shape and ornamentation of each period were different, so -that they can easily be distinguished; (see Fig. 129). After the country -became Christian the ornamentation on the lamps was often made with Greek -letters. These were made in ornamental forms and usually expressed some -Christian sentiment. One of the most popular legends for these Christian -lamps was: "The light of Christ shines for all"; (see Fig. 130). - -It was lamps such as these, probably of the Hellenistic type, to which -Christ alluded in the parable of the wise and foolish virgins (Matt. -25:1-12). Such a lamp would not contain oil enough to burn all night, so -that to carry it to a prolonged wedding-feast without a supply of oil was -a powerful example of improvidence. - - - - -CHAPTER IX - -UTENSILS AND PERSONAL ORNAMENTS - - UTENSILS: Ovens. Baking-trays. Bowls, etc. Feeding-bottles. Glassware. - Spoons. Forks or Flesh-hooks. Needles. Spinning "Whorls." Lamp-stands. - Keys. Knives. Saws. Chisels. Awls. Axes. Adzes. Whetstones. Files. - Hammers. Nails. Baskets. Arrows. Spears. Swords. Fish-hooks. Styli. - Seals. The "Pipe." Harps. The Dulcimer. Lyres. Children's toys. - PERSONAL ORNAMENTS: Combs. Perfume-boxes. Spatulæ for eye-paint, etc. - Fibulæ. Beads. Necklaces. Bracelets. Anklets. Rings. - - -=1. Utensils.=--The term "utensil" is of wide application. The utensils of -agriculture and the hand-mills for grinding grain have been described in -Chapter VII. Among the devices used in connection with Palestinian houses -one of the most important was the oven. - -(1) _Ovens._--The ovens of ancient Palestine were of the same kind as -those used by the peasantry of that country today. Each consists of a -cylinder of baked earth about 2 feet in diameter and 1-1/2 inches thick. -It is closed by a cover of the same material, in which a stone or lump of -clay has been embedded as a handle. There is rarely any bottom except the -bare earth. The loaves, which were flat discs, were usually placed inside, -either on the ground covered with clean pebbles or on a baking-tray. -Sometimes the loaves were plastered over the outside of the oven. In this -case the fire was built inside and might consist of grass (Matt. 6:30; -Luke 12:28). The fire was usually heaped about the outside of the oven, -and often consisted of dried manure. It is this use of manure as fuel that -is alluded to in Ezek. 4:12-15--a passage that has sometimes been greatly -misunderstood. Such ovens were frequently found in all the strata. In Fig. -133 two varieties of ovens are shown. The one at the left hand is made of -plain tile; the other is covered over with potsherds, to make it retain -the heat longer. Sometimes in large houses groups of several ovens were -found together. - -Ovens are frequently referred to in the Bible, sometimes as symbols of -things that are hot. (See Lev. 11:35; 26:26; Psa. 21:9; Hosea 7:4, 6, 7.) -Once a much-used oven is a symbol of blackness (Lam. 5:10). - -(2) _Baking-trays_, consisting of discs of baked clay about 10 inches in -diameter, were also found. These were usually turned up at the edges, and -frequently perforated in order better to admit the heat to the under side -of the loaf. One specimen was found burnt through with constant use. These -trays were most numerous at Gezer in the second and third Semitic periods. -They were found at Jericho in the Jewish stratum; (see Fig. 134). - -(3) _Bowls, etc._--In Chapter VIII, under the head of Pottery, the jars, -pitchers, clay bowls, saucers, and cups which were used about Palestinian -homes have already been described. Bowls and saucers of stone were also -employed from the earliest times. They were far less fragile, though more -expensive. Probably the dishes used by the common people were in all -periods made of clay. After the introduction of metal, however, the -wealthy often had dishes of bronze (see Fig. 135), and sometimes of -silver. A Philistine grave at Gezer yielded some silver dishes of -beautiful workmanship; (see Figs. 137, 141). - -(4) _Feeding-bottles._--A number of curiously shaped jars with spouts were -found at Gezer; (see Fig. 139). Mr. Macalister was at a loss to explain -their use unless they were feeding-bottles. The only other suggestion that -he makes is that they were lamps, but they are so different from the lamps -of the time, that that possibility seems to be excluded. Sellin thought -similar objects found by him were vessels for pouring oil. This may have -been their purpose. - -(5) _Glassware._--Vessels of glass are very rare in Palestine until Roman -times. In the remains of the third Semitic period at Gezer fragments of -ornamented glass vessels, which had been imported from Egypt, were found. -The ornamentation consisted of zigzag lines. Clear glass first appears in -the Israelitish period, but it was rare and inartistic. After the coming -of the Romans it became more common. For examples of its use, see the -ointment vessels in Fig. 138. - -(6) _Spoons._--The spoons of the poor were in all periods apparently -adapted from shells, as shown in Fig. 136, but the more wealthy, -especially when under the influence of more artistic foreigners, had -ladles of metal that seem very modern; (see Fig. 141). These objects are -from a Philistine tomb. - -(7) _Forks or Flesh-hooks._--Forks were in existence, as shown in Fig. -140, but were used not to eat with, but to handle meat when it was -cooking. The one with three prongs in Fig. 143 reminds one of the -"flesh-hook of three teeth" that the servant of Hophni and Phinehas, sons -of Eli, thrust into the caldron of seething sacrificial flesh, in order to -obtain the priest's portion (1 Sam. 2:13, 14). - -(8) _Needles_, both of bone and bronze, were found. They were employed -from the earliest times in such sewing as was necessary. The way the eyes -were made may be seen in Fig. 142. These give vivid reality to the saying -of Christ "It is easier for a camel to go through a needle's eye than for -a rich man to enter into the kingdom of God" (Matt. 19:24; Mark 10:25; -Luke 18:25). - -(9) _Spinning "Whorls."_--Spinning in ancient Palestine, as now, was done -in the simplest possible manner. A tapering spindle was made of wood. To -this was attached a "whorl"--either a stone or a lump of baked clay--in -order to give the spindle momentum when whirled. The wool was held in the -hand, a bit of it twisted into a thread with the fingers and attached to -the spindle. Then more of the wool was pulled out and held in the hand -while the spindle and whorl were given a twist with the other hand and -allowed to twist the wool into thread. The process was repeated again and -again. The writer has seen women in the East spinning while on a journey. -Many of the spindle whorls, made both of stone and of clay, have been -found by excavators; (see Figs. 144, 145). - -(10) _Lamp-stands._--In one of the palaces at Megiddo a number of bronze -tripods of various sorts were found; (see Fig. 148). The tallest of these -were 13-1/4 and 14 inches in height. They were intended to support either -bowls or lamps. They are the kind of "stand" mentioned in Matt. 5:15 (R. -V.--the King James Version called it a "candlestick"), on which men, when -they lighted a lamp, placed it so that it might "give light to all that -are in the house." Probably the poor had some less expensive form of -lamp-stand. - -(11) _Keys_ in Palestine were often large, clumsy affairs. They were -probably most often made of wood, and were much better fitted to be -carried on the shoulder, as a wood-chopper often carries his axe, than to -be carried in a pocket. This is why Isaiah (22:22) speaks of laying the -key of the house of David on the shoulder of Eliakim. Of course, all -wooden keys of the Biblical time have decayed. Iron keys from the -Hellenistic time were found at Gezer, two of which are shown in Figs. 146, -147. - -(12) _Knives._--One of the first implements made by man as he emerges from -savagery is the knife. The earliest knives of Palestine were of flint, -which is in that country very abundant. Flint knives are made by taking a -cone of flint that will easily flake, and skilfully striking the top of it -such a blow that a ribbon having a sharp edge is split off. At Gezer one -of these cones, left by an ancient flint knife-maker, was found; (see Fig. -154). After the introduction of bronze in the first Semitic period, -2500-1800 B. C., knives were often made of that; (see Fig. 151). When, -about 1000 B. C., iron came in, it, too, was employed for knife-making; -(see Fig. 150). Flint knives were always cheaper than those of metal and -were probably always employed by the common people. Knives are referred to -in the Bible as the implements for slaying sacrifices (Gen. 22:6, 10), and -in various other connections. (See, for example, Ezek. 5:1, 2.) Flint -knives were preferred for the rite of circumcision (Exod. 4:25 and Josh. -5:2, 3); (see Fig. 149). - -(13) _Saws._--Ribbon-flint knives easily pass into saws when the edge is -irregular. A number of these came to light in the course of the excavation -of Gezer. Saws are referred to in 2 Sam. 12:31 and in 1 Kings 7:9. Saws -made of thin, flexible strips of metal existed. These were set in wooden -frames. Very meager fragments of these have been found. - -(14) _Chisels_ were fairly common at Gezer in all strata after the -introduction of bronze. They were made usually of bronze, even after the -introduction of iron, although iron chisels were found. As the chisel is -one of the most necessary tools of a carpenter, our Lord must often have -used one in the days before his ministry; (see Fig. 152). - -(15) _Awls._--The awl is also a very useful tool. In ancient Gezer they -were often set in bone handles. Modern Palestinian carpenters employ a -heated awl to make a hole in timber without splitting it. As ancient -carpenters probably had the same custom, the awl was also one of the -implements often used by Christ; (Fig. 157). - -(16) _Axes_ were found from the second Semitic stratum onward. Those from -the earlier time were made, of course, of bronze; the later ones of iron. -In a few the butt of the axe-head was perforated to receive a thong to -lash it to the helve. How necessary this was is shown by such passages as -Deut. 19:5 and 2 Kings 6:5. A bronze double-edged axe was also found in -the second Semitic stratum; (see Fig. 160). - -(17) _Adzes._--A few specimens of the adze were also found; (see Fig. -161). One of these was of bone. - -(18) _Whetstones._--Tools, of course, needed sharpening, and various -specimens of whetstones were found; (see Fig. 158). It is difficult to -distinguish these from "rubbing-stones," which were used when bathing to -rub hardened skin from the body. The same stone may at times have served -both purposes. - -(19) _Files._--A bronze file was made by perforating a tube of bronze with -holes and leaving the rough edges made in the perforation protruding; (see -Fig. 153). These were probably used, however, for crumbing bread, and not -for sharpening tools. - -(20) _Hammers._--Many stone hammers from every period of Palestinian -history have been found. The stone hammer seems to have persisted even -after the introduction of metal. Bronze hammers are rare. Probably the -hammer with which Jael killed Sisera (Judges 4:21; 5:26) was of stone; -also the one referred to in Jer. 23:29; (see Fig. 155). - -(21) _Nails_ have been found in profusion, made both of bronze and of -iron; (see Fig. 159). As soon as iron was introduced into the country it -was generally employed in making nails. Christ, as a carpenter, must have -employed a hammer, and often have driven nails. - -(22) _Baskets_ are used in Palestine, as in other countries, for all sorts -of purposes. They are frequently referred to in the Bible. (See Deut. -26:2, 4; 28:5, 17; Judges 6:19; Amos 8:1, 2.) The basket of the modern -Palestinian peasant is usually made by sewing together a coil of rope made -of straw or reeds. After the mat thus formed has become large enough for -the bottom of the basket, it is given an upward turn to form the sides. In -excavating the water-passage at Gezer interesting evidence came to light -of the existence of such baskets in ancient times. One of them had been -left on some soft earth in the tunnel, and, although the basket itself had -long ago decayed, the form of it was still visible on the hardened clod on -which it had rested; (see Fig. 163). - -(23) _Arrows._--Of implements of warfare some portions have survived. One -of these was the arrow, which is mentioned more than fifty times in the -Bible, and is employed in many metaphors. Arrows were made of a light -perishable shaft to which an arrowhead of flint or bronze was attached. -This head terminated in a point, which inflicted the wound. Arrow-heads -were found in the Palestinian strata later than the cave-dwellers; (Figs. -164, 165, 166). - -(24) _Spears._--The spear consisted of a long shaft with a metal head, -that could be thrown at an enemy. It is often called a javelin. Such -weapons are alluded to in the Bible almost as often as arrows. The -excavations have yielded a good variety of bronze spear-heads; (see Fig. -167). - -(25) _Swords._--The swords of ancient Palestine were used for thrusting -rather than for cutting. (See 1 Sam. 31:5; 2 Sam. 2:16.) The blades are, -therefore, short and pointed; (see Fig. 166). Sometimes the edges are -actually thickened. A fine scimitar, found in a tomb in which other -objects revealed Mycenean influence, is a great exception to the ordinary -form of sword found in Palestine; (see Fig. 162). - -(26) _Fish-hooks._--Spears and arrows could, of course, be used in hunting -as well as in war, but a fish-hook found at Gezer (see Fig. 156) is of -especial interest to the student of the Bible, since some of the most -prominent apostles, Peter, Andrew, James, and John, were fishermen. The -fishing on the Sea of Galilee seems to have been done usually with nets. -Nevertheless, perhaps even there a hook was sometimes employed. - -(27) _Styli._--The implements of the scribe which have survived are all -specimens of a stylus for writing on clay or wax; (see Fig. 178). The -usual length of these styli was 3-1/2 to 4-1/2 inches. In the Hellenistic -stratum at Gezer, however, one was found as short as 2-1/2 inches; also -one as long as 12 inches. It was a stylus of the average kind found at -Gezer that Isaiah was directed to use as recorded in Isa. 8:1. - -(28) _Seals._--Closely connected with the work of the scribe are the seals -which are found wherever a mound is thoroughly excavated. These were -sometimes Egyptian scarabs, but more often, especially in the later -periods, various figures and devices carved on a stone; (see Fig. 175). -They might or might not contain the name of the owner. The famous seal of -Shema, mentioned on p. 97, contained his name, but often they appear -simply to have been a kind of mark of their owners. They might be -impressed on clay or wax, and, as we have seen (p. 144), potters used them -to identify their work. If the writing was on a clay tablet the seals were -rolled over its edge (see Job 38:14), or over any unwritten portion of -its surface. This took the place of the signature of the writer. On the -use of seals in Bible times, see 1 Kings 21:8. - -(29) _The "Pipe."_--The people of Palestine have always been fond of -music, though in modern times their music is of a rude and primitive sort. -Probably in ancient times it did not rise to anything like modern -standards. At least one musical instrument has been brought to light by -the excavations. It is a part of a stone whistle or "pipe" found in the -third Semitic stratum--the period just before the coming of Israel. It is -conical in shape, and about 4 inches long, 1-1/8 inches wide at one end, -and about 1/2 inch wide at the mouthpiece. It was perforated at the side -by two holes; (see Fig. 168). Probably a mouthpiece of reed was fitted -into it. It was possible to make several notes on it. This is probably a -rude example of the "pipe," said to have been invented by Jubal (Gen. -4:21), and often mentioned in the Bible. (See 1 Sam. 10:5; 1 Kings 1:40; -Isa. 5:12; 1 Cor. 14:7.) The Hebrew word for pipe means "a pierced" or -"perforated thing," and this stone whistle answers the description well. - -(30) _Harps._--Other musical instruments were not made of material that -could survive; nevertheless from the Babylonian, Assyrian, and Egyptian -sculptures we have some idea of their form. Of these, the harp is -mentioned more than forty times in the Bible. For the forms of ancient -harps, see Figs. 169-172. - -(31) _The Dulcimer._--This musical instrument is mentioned in Dan. 3:5, -15. An Assyrian dulcimer is shown in Fig. 174. - -(32) _Lyres._--A kind of lyre is pictured on certain Jewish coins; (see -Fig. 173). - -(33) _Children's Toys._--A touch of nature that links the ancient world -with ours is found in the toys of children. Both from Babylonia and -Palestine clay rattles have been recovered. A series found at Gezer is -shown in Fig. 179. In addition to these rattles many grotesque animal -figures came to light through the various excavations; these figures were -probably made for children to play with. One or two had a hole drilled -through a leg, apparently for the insertion of a string by which a child -could drag it. The workmen who removed the earth sometimes begged for -permission to take them home for their own children to play with[177]; -(see Fig. 177). - -=2. Personal Ornaments.= - -(1) _Combs._--Of toilet articles the most universal is the comb. These -were made of bone or ivory. They were both straight and curved, ornamented -and unornamented. A fragment of one from Gezer is shown in Fig. 176. - -(2) _Perfume-boxes._--The ancients were fond of perfume. "Perfumed with -myrrh and frankincense, with all powders of the merchant" is a Hebrew -poet's description of an elegantly dressed man. (See Cant. 3:6.) -Perfume-boxes, in which the various kinds of perfume were kept, frequently -are found in excavating; (see, for example, Fig. 180). Women's -perfume-boxes are denounced in Isa. 3:20. - -(3) _Spatulæ for Eye-paint, etc._--Little spatulæ, or tools for lifting -small quantities of cosmetics, were also found; (see Fig. 183). These were -probably most often used to apply _kohl_ to the eyelids--a practice that -was thought to enhance the beauty of women (see Ezek. 23:40) and which is -still followed in the East. - -(4) _Fibulæ._--Another article of the toilet which is found in abundance -in all ancient excavations was the fibula--a rude kind of safety-pin. The -garments were held together by these. They consisted of a kind of -perforated bow through which a pin could be thrust. In the earlier periods -the bow and the pin were not fastened together. - -The dress of the ancient Palestinians was much like that of the modern -peasants of the country. It was not, however, made of materials that would -last when buried in a mound. All that has survived of it are some articles -of personal adornment. - -(5) _Beads_ were highly valued from the earliest times and are found in -all strata. In the earlier periods they were made of various colored -stones; it is only in the later strata that some glass beads are found. - -(6) _Necklaces._--Beads, cylinders, and irregularly shaped pendants were -strung so as to form necklaces. One found at Jericho is shown in Fig. 181. -They are called "chains" in Isa. 3:19; Prov. 1:9, and "strings of jewels" -in Cant. 1:10. - -(7) _Bracelets_ and armlets have been found in abundance from nearly all -periods. They were made of bronze, iron, ivory, glass, silver, and gold. -For some of their forms, see Fig. 182. They are frequently mentioned in -the Bible. (See, for example, Gen. 24:30; Exod. 35:22; 2 Sam. 1:10; Ezek. -16:11.) - -(8) _Anklets_ of bronze and silver have also been found in various places. -They are like bracelets, only larger. In a country where the ankles were -usually left bare, it was as natural to wear ornaments on them as on the -arms. These, too, are denounced along with the other ornaments of women in -Isa. 3:18. - -(9) _Rings_, too, of various kinds have been found in profusion. Most of -the finger rings were simple circles of metal; usually they were of -bronze; sometimes of iron. Silver and gold rings were comparatively few in -number and of small size. Several signet rings were found at Gezer. Finger -rings are not often mentioned in the Bible. (See, however, Num. 31:50.) -They evidently were highly regarded by well-to-do people, for in the -Parable of the Prodigal Son Jesus tells us that the father "put a ring on -his hand" (Luke 15:22). Signet rings were the possessions of the great and -of kings. (See Gen. 41:42 and Esther 3:10, 12, and Fig. 184.) - - - - -CHAPTER X - -MEASURES, WEIGHTS, AND MONEY - - MEASURES. WEIGHTS. INSCRIBED WEIGHTS. MONEY: Who invented coinage? - Darics. Maccabæan coins. Asmonæan coins. Herodian coins. Roman coins. - The Widow's Mite. The Piece of Silver. Coinage of the Revolt of 66-70 - A. D. - - -=1. Measures.=--The Hebrew units of dry measure were: 1. The Homer (or -Cor), which contained 10 Ephahs (Ezek. 45:11, 14). 2. The Ephah, which -contained 3 Seahs (Isa. 40:12) or 10 Omers (Exod. 16:36) or 18 Cabs (2 -Kings 6:25, and Josephus, _Antiquities_, IX, iv, 4). - -Corresponding to these were the units of liquid measure: 1. The Homer (or -Cor), which contained 10 Baths (Ezek. 45:11, 14). 2. The Bath, which, -according to Josephus and Jerome, contained 6 Hins (see Exod. 29:40). 3. -The Hin, which contained 3 Cabs, or, according to the Talmud, 12 Logs. - -These two systems have the Homer as their major unit. The Homer had the -same capacity in each system. The Ephah of dry measure equalled the Bath -of liquid measure, and the Cab was the same in each. If, then, the -capacity of one unit in either measure could be determined, we should know -the capacity of all the others. - -It has been the custom of archæologists to strike a kind of average of the -confused statements of Josephus and Epiphanius[178] and correct these by -estimates based on Babylonian measures. - -Calculations based on this method will be found in recent works on Hebrew -archæology and dictionaries of the Bible. It has been impossible, however, -to reach certainty. Three systems will be found in the books referred to: -one based on the supposition that the Log = 9/10 of a pint; one based on -the supposition that the Log = 91/100 of a pint; the third on the -supposition that the Log = 1 pint. The estimates of the Homer vary -accordingly from 80 gallons to 81.25 gallons, and 89.28 gallons.[179] - -Under these circumstances some discoveries of the Augustinians of the -Assumption, in the grounds of their monastery in Jerusalem, appear to be -of importance.[180] They found at various times in excavating for building -purposes four vessels, which seem to have been a series of measures. -Taking the larger one as the unit, the capacity of the one next smaller is -three-quarters of the capacity of the first; the third was just half the -first; the fourth, a quarter of it. These vessels all appear to have been -in a building which had a Hebrew inscription over its door. Although the -inscription was broken, the word "Corban"[181] was still legible. Père -Germer-Durand assumes, accordingly, that the building was used as a place -where temple tithes were paid, and that this series of vessels were -standard measures employed in collecting tithes. The quantities of -material contained by these vessels are as follows: - - Largest, 21.25 litres or 19.6 quarts. - Second, 15.937 litres or 14.7 quarts. - Third, 10.625 litres or 9.8 quarts. - Fourth, 5.312 litres or 4.9 quarts. - -Père Germer-Durand thinks from a study of Josephus and Epiphanius that the -largest of his vessels represents the Ephah of dry measure or the Bath of -liquid measure. If this assumption is right, it gives a series of measures -which are each about 7/12 smaller than the smallest of the series referred -to above. - -On this basis Hebrew dry measures become: - - Homer or Cor = 196 quarts or 6 bushels and 1/2 peck. - Ephah = 19.6 quarts or 2 pecks, 3.6 quarts. - Seah = 6.533+ quarts. - Omer = 1.96 quarts. - Cab = 1.888+ quarts. - -Liquid measure becomes: - - Homer or Cor = 196 quarts or 49 gallons. - Bath = 19.6 quarts or 4.9 gallons. - Seah = 6.533+ quarts. - Hin = 3.266+ quarts. - Cab = 1.888+ quarts. - Log = .272 quarts or approximately 1/2 pint. - -It is not certain that the vessels found by the Augustinians represent the -measures that Germer-Durand supposes, but it is as likely that they do as -that the confused statements of Josephus and Epiphanius afford an accurate -basis for calculations. - -It is probable that in actual business there was in ancient times a great -deal of variation allowed from the ordinary standard of measures. We know -of no rigid regulation of the matter by a central authority. - -=2. Weights.=--The two weights most often mentioned in the Bible are the -talent and the shekel. The Bible nowhere tells us of how many shekels a -talent was composed. In Babylonia the talent consisted of 60 manas,[182] -and each mana of 60 shekels, so that the talent consisted of 3600 shekels. -The Phoenicians divided the mana into 50 shekels, and it is thought by -scholars that the Hebrews did the same, though we have no positive -evidence on the point. Manas are not mentioned in the Bible, unless in -Dan. 5:25.[183] - -In the course of the excavations by Bliss in the Shephelah a number of -weights were found, some of which were inscribed. Macalister also found a -large number of weights at Gezer, a few of which bore inscriptions. Some -others have been found by natives and purchased by travelers. The writer -had the pleasure of discovering two weights in this way. - -=3. Inscribed Weights.=--These inscribed weights are of the greatest -interest to the students of the Bible. Five weights are known that are -inscribed in old Hebrew characters with the word _neseph_, "half"; see -Fig. 186. These are undoubtedly half-shekels. Two of the three are broken, -and one is perforated. The other two weigh, respectively, 157.56 grains -and 153.6 grains. The average of these is 155.5 grains, which would make -the shekel 311 grains. - -Another weight, said to have come from Samaria, was described some years -ago by Dr. Chaplin. It bears the inscription _roba neseph_, "the quarter -of a half," and weighs 39.2 grains. Another weight from Samaria is in the -possession of Mr. Herbert Clark, of Jerusalem. It is made in the form of a -turtle and bears the inscription _homesh_, "a fifth," and weighs 38.58 -grains. Probably it was intended as the fifth part of a shekel. - -Another series of inscribed weights, of which three examples are known, -bears the inscription _beqa_. The word comes from a root that means -"cleave" or "split." This word occurs twice in the Old Testament, in Gen. -24:22 and Exod. 38:26. In the passage last mentioned it is defined as half -a shekel; (see Fig. 188). - -A third variety of weight bears the inscription _payim_. The first of -these to be discovered was found by the writer in the hands of a dealer in -Jerusalem. On one side it bore the word _payim_ and on the other -_lezekaryahu yaer_, "belonging to Zechariah son of Jaer." This weight is -cubic in form (see Fig. 187) and weighs 117.431 grains.[184] Macalister -found another of similar shape, which bore only the inscription _payim_. -It weighed 114.81 grains. The word _payim_ is very puzzling. It has been -interpreted by Clermont-Ganneau as meaning "two-thirds," and as -designating two-thirds of a shekel. Possibly this is right. This weight is -mentioned in 1 Sam. 13:20, 21, and its discovery has explained a Hebrew -phrase which has puzzled all translators. We now know that these verses -should be rendered: "But all the Israelites went down to the Philistines, -to sharpen every man his plowshare, and his axe, and his adze, and his -hoe, and the price was a _pim_ (or _payim_) for the plowshares, and for -the axes, and for the three-tined forks, and for the adzes, and for the -setting of the goads." The name of the weight here expresses the price, -just as shekel, the name of another weight, does elsewhere.[185] One -bronze weight found at Gezer bore words meaning "belonging to the king," -but it is not clear to what king it referred. - -A glance at the weights here described makes it evident that the standards -of the ancient Hebrews were not exact. If these are representative -weights, the shekel must have varied from 200 to more than 300 grains -Troy. This is what one acquainted with the Palestine of today would -expect. The peasants still use field-stone as weights, selecting one that -is approximately of the weight they desire. Even among the merchants of -modern Jerusalem, where one would expect more exact standards than among -the peasantry, odd scraps of old iron are used for weights.[186] - -A large number of uninscribed weights of the same general size and shape -of those described[187] were found at Gezer. Whether larger weights or -multiples of a shekel were discovered is uncertain. A number of stones -might have been used for weights, but they were not inscribed and may have -been used for other purposes. A large bronze weight found at Tell -Sandahanna is just sixty times the weight of a 311-grain shekel, and may -be a mana.[188] - -Where weights and measures differed so, the words of Amos (8:5), "making -the ephah small and the shekel great," gain an added significance, and we -understand why the wise man denounced "false balances" (Prov. 11:1; -20:23). Indeed, of the weights found at Gezer so many were under the -average standard, and so many above it, that the inference lay close at -hand that many men had one set of weights by which to purchase and another -set by which to sell.[189] - -=4. Money.=--Down to the seventh century before Christ money was not -coined. Whenever it was employed as a medium of exchange, it was weighed. -In western Asia and Egypt our sources show that in the period from 1500 to -1300 B. C. gold and silver were prepared for commercial use by being -formed into rings.[190] These rings were of no standard weight; they were -weighed in the mass by scales. Probably the rings were small, so that the -weight could, at the will of the merchant, be increased by very slight -amounts. The ring-form was probably selected because this shape would -present no corners that would rapidly wear away. This type of commercial -ring can be traced in the inscriptions of Ashurnasirpal II of -Assyria,[191] 884-860 B. C. It was used, then, in Egypt, Syria, Phoenicia, -by the Hittites, the Aramæans, and the Assyrians. - -(1) _Who Invented Coinage?_--The oldest coins yet found were made by the -Lydians, and on this account it is usually said that the Lydians were the -first to coin money. The date of these coins is uncertain. They bear the -name of no king, but are usually assigned to the seventh century B. C. Mr. -Head, of the British Museum, dated them tentatively at 700 B. C. They -probably were made under the Lydian dynasty founded by Gyges in 697 B. C., -the last king of which, the famous Croesus, was overthrown by Cyrus the -Great, in 546 B. C. It is improbable that these coins were invented -earlier than the reign of Gyges, and they may not have been put into -circulation until he had been some years on the throne. It is recognized -that the weight of these coins conforms to a Babylonian standard. - -There seems to be evidence that coined money was employed by the Assyrians -in the reign of Esarhaddon. None of the coins have been found, but a -series of loans and payments, dated in the years 676-671 B. C., designate -the amounts of money in "shekels of silver-heads of Ishtar."[192] As has -been noted by Menant and Johns, this can hardly mean anything else than -silver made into coins of the value of a shekel and stamped with the head -of Ishtar. As Gyges was a contemporary of Esarhaddon, it seems probable -that Lydia borrowed the idea of coinage from the Mesopotamian Valley. - -Be this as it may, the coinage of money was a great step forward. To have -the value of a piece of metal determined beforehand and guaranteed by an -official stamp greatly facilitated the transaction of business. It -eliminated the delays incident to weighing the metal, and the disputes -that were sure to ensue as to the correctness of the weights which were -put into the balances. - -(2) _Darics._--The invention of coined money first affected Palestine -during the Persian period. Darius I of Persia, 521-486 B. C., organized -the coinage of that realm. The gold coins issued by him were of the weight -of a Babylonian shekel. They weighed from 125 to 130 grains Troy. One in -the British Museum weighs 129 grains. They bore on the face a picture of -Darius with a bow to the left; (see Fig. 189). Because of this picture -they were called "darics," just as the French 20-franc piece is called a -"napoleon." The daric is mentioned in several Biblical books that were -written after the beginning of the Persian period. (See 1 Chron. 29:7; -Ezra 2:69; 8:27; Neh. 7:70-72.) It is wrongly translated "dram" in the -Authorized Version. - -After the Persian period the coinage of all the nations to whom the Jews -became subject circulated in turn in Palestine. Foreign coins also found -their way into the country. Many of these ultimately were lost and buried -in the soil, so that many, many coins have been brought to light by -archæological research. We have space here to mention only those that are -of the greatest interest to students of the Bible. - -Palestine passed under the sway of Alexander the Great in 332 B. C., and -after his death in 323 it was attached to the territory of Ptolemy Lagi of -Egypt and his successors. In 199 B. C. Antiochus III wrested it from the -Ptolemies and the Jews passed under the sway of the Syrians. During this -time the coins of these rulers circulated in the country and are still -frequently dug up there, although they are not mentioned in the Bible. -Samples of these coins are shown in Figs. 190, 195. Not until the Jews had -gained their independence under Simon the Maccabee, in the year 143 B. C., -did they issue any coinage of their own. Indeed, it now seems clear that -no coins were issued by Simon until after the year 139-138 B. C., when the -Syrian king by an especial grant accorded him that liberty. The coins then -issued appear to have been made of bronze only.[193] A silver coinage -formerly attributed to Simon the Maccabee is now regarded as belonging to -the time of the Jewish revolt of 66-70 A. D. - -(3) _Maccabæan Coins._--The coins of Simon consist of bronze half-shekels -and quarter-shekels all dated in the year four. Antiochus VII of Syria -apparently prevented the issue of others during the reign of Simon. His -coins bear on their face the picture of a citron between two bundles of -twigs. Around the border runs the inscription in old Hebrew characters, -"year four; one-half." On the other side is a palm-tree with two bunches -of fruit between two baskets filled with fruits, and around the border -runs the inscription, "belonging to the redemption of Zion;" (see Fig. -192). The weights of these coins vary from 232.6 to 237 grains. The -lighter ones are considerably worn. - -The quarter-shekels have on one side two bundles of twigs, around which -run the words, "year four; one-fourth." On the other side is pictured a -citron with the stalk upward, around which runs the inscription, -"belonging to the redemption of Zion." The weights of the known coins of -this denomination vary from 113.7 to 192.3 grains. The form of the letters -on these coins shows that they are older than other Jewish coins. - -(4) _Asmonæan Coins._--There are many coins from the reign of John -Hyrcanus, the son and successor of Simon, but they are all of copper; (see -Fig. 193). They bear on their face the inscription: "Johanan, the high -priest and the congregation of the Jews"; on the reverse is a poppy head -between two cornucopias. Similar coins were issued by the other Asmonæan -princes. - -(5) _Herodian Coins._--As Herod the Great was a vassal of Rome, he was -permitted to issue copper coins only. These exist in considerable variety. -Figure 198 shows one, the face of which is stamped with the image of a -vessel with a bell-shaped cover, above which are two palm-branches; on the -reverse the words meaning "of King Herod" run around the edge, while a -tripod occupies the center. At the left of the tripod is an abbreviation -for "year 3"; at the right is a monogram. Several other patterns are -known. - -Coins of Archælaus, Antipas, Herod Philip (Matt. 14:3; Mark 6:17; Luke -3:19), and of Herod Agrippa I are known. One is shown in Fig. 200. - -(6) _Roman Coins._--The most common silver Roman coin was the denarius, -rendered in the Authorized Version "penny" and in the Revised Version -"shilling." Its weight varied at different times. In the time of Christ it -weighed about 61.3 grains Troy, and was worth 16-2/3 cents of American -money. As the ministry of Christ occurred in the reign of Tiberius, the -tribute money shown to Christ (Matt. 22:19; Mark 12:15-17) was probably a -denarius of Tiberius, such as is shown in Fig. 196. The denarius was so -named because it originally was equivalent to ten _asses_ or small copper -coins, but the _as_ was afterward reduced to 1/16 of the denarius. The -_as_ is mentioned in Matt. 10:29; Luke 12:6, where A. V. renders it -"farthing" and R. V. "penny." It was worth about a cent. The Roman coin -_quadrans_, or the fourth part of an _as_, worth about 1/4 of a cent, is -mentioned in Matt. 5:26; Mark 12:42. It is translated "farthing"; (see -Fig. 199). - -(7) _The Widow's Mite._--Another coin, translated "mite," is in Greek -_lepton_, "the small one" or the "bit." It was two of these that the widow -cast into the treasury, Mark 12:42,[194] where it is said that two of them -equaled a _quadrans_. The "mite" was, then, of the value of 1/8 of a cent. -It was doubtless the smallest coin in circulation, but it has not yet been -identified with certainty with any coin that archæology has discovered. - -(8) _The Piece of Silver._--In Luke 15:8 the Greek _drachma_ is -mentioned. It is translated "piece of silver." The _drachma_ corresponded -roughly in value to the denarius. Drachmas had been issued by many -different cities and many different kings, and were still in circulation -in Palestine in the time of Christ. One still sees in that country today -coins of the first Napoleon, and of many other sovereigns who have been -long dead, passing from hand to hand as media of value; (see Fig. 194). - -(9) _Coinage of the Revolt of 66-70 A. D._--Two silver coins, a shekel and -a half-shekel (see Fig. 201), were formerly attributed to Simon the -Maccabee. The shekels weigh 212.3 to 217.9 grains and bear on their face -above a cup or chalice the legend "shekel of Israel" and a numeral. The -numeral stands for the first year. Examples are known which carry the -enumeration up to the year "five." On the reverse a triple lily is -pictured, and in similar Hebrew characters the words "Jerusalem, the holy" -are inscribed. The half-shekel is smaller and has the same markings except -that the legend on its face is simply "half-shekel." On the coins issued -after the first year a Hebrew _sh_ precedes the number of the year. The -_sh_ is an abbreviation of the Hebrew word _shana_, year. For various -reasons the consensus of expert opinion now is that these coins were -issued during the Jewish war of 66-70 A. D., which, according to Jewish -reckoning, extended into the fifth year. - -Coins of the Roman Emperors, Augustus and Claudius, are shown in Figs. -195, 197. - - - - -CHAPTER XI - -HIGH PLACES AND TEMPLES[195] - - A SANCTUARY OF THE PRE-SEMITIC CAVE-DWELLERS. A ROCK-ALTAR AT MEGIDDO. - A ROCK-ALTAR AT JERUSALEM. HIGH PLACE AT TELL ES-SAFI. HIGH PLACE AT - GEZER: Choice of site. Child-sacrifice. Corrupt worship. AT TAANACH: - Pillars. An altar of incense. HIGH PLACES AT PETRA. A SUPPOSED - PHILISTINE TEMPLE. AT MEGIDDO: A Hebrew temple. A palace chapel. - Another chapel. THE TEMPLE TO AUGUSTUS AT SAMARIA. - - -=1. A Sanctuary of the Pre-Semitic Cave-dwellers.=--The oldest sanctuary -which we can trace in Palestine appears to have been one of the caves at -Gezer. This cave was 32 feet long, 20 feet broad, and 7 feet 11 inches at -its maximum height. There were two entrances: one on the east, a tall, -narrow doorway, was approached by a passage sloping downward; the other, -on the west, was a low, narrow passage, just wide enough to admit a -person. At the northern end there was a projection in the form of an apse, -the floor of which was about 2 feet higher than that of the rest of the -cave. In the roof of this apse there was an opening, about 1 foot wide at -the bottom, leading to the upper air. The rock of the roof here was 3 feet -5-1/2 inches thick. This opening was 2 feet 8 inches in diameter at the -top, and a channel 4 feet 6 inches long cut in the surface of the rock was -connected with it. On the surface of the rock above the cave and about -this channel there were a number of "cup-marks" similar to those found -near ancient sacred places. Some of these were, perhaps, intended for -places to set jars, but some of them were connected with the channel which -emptied into the opening in the roof of the cave[196]; (see Fig. 202). - -The suggestion which the excavator, Prof. Macalister, makes is that this -was a sanctuary of the cave-dwellers, that they killed their victims on -the surface of the rock above, and let the blood run through the channel -and the opening into the cave underneath, where their deity was supposed -to dwell. They lived in caves themselves, and it was natural for them to -think their deity did the same. This suggestion received some -confirmation from the fact that on the floor of the apse under this -opening there were found, upon removing a layer of earth, a number of pig -bones. The presence of these might be accounted for on the supposition -that they were offered in sacrifice by the cave-dwellers to their deity. -Swine were unclean to all Semites, and, no doubt, the later Semitic -inhabitants would have thrown the bones away, if they had ever cleaned out -the cave sufficiently to discover them. - -=2. A Rock-altar at Megiddo.=--Another rock-altar of high antiquity was -discovered on the slope of the mound of Tell el-Mutesellim, the ancient -Megiddo.[197] It was situated on the slope of the tell, about half-way -down. Its surface was covered with "cup-marks," like those on the altar at -Gezer, and an opening about 2-1/2 feet wide at the top and 1-1/2 feet wide -at the bottom made it possible for blood to trickle down through 3 feet of -rock into a cave below. This cave contained several rooms, the largest of -which was about 18 feet 6 inches long, 7 feet 8 inches wide, and 8 feet 6 -inches high. In the most northerly of the rooms were found various -implements of black flint, potsherds, coals of a wood-fire, the bones of -sheep and goats, olive-stones, and ashes. In the midst of the central room -there lay a heap of human bones, the skulls of which were badly destroyed. -These human bones show that after the cave had been used as a sanctuary it -was employed as a sepulcher. The same thing happened at Gezer and -elsewhere; (see Fig. 205). - -=3. A Rock-altar at Jerusalem.=--We are told in Gen. 22:2 that Abraham -went to the land of Moriah to offer up Isaac, and in 2 Chron. 3:1, ff. -that Solomon built the temple on Mount Moriah on the threshing floor which -David acquired from Ornan (Araunah) the Jebusite. Just to the east of the -site of Solomon's temple in the open court where the altar of -burnt-offering stood, there was a rock surface similar to the two -rock-altars described above. It is still visible in Jerusalem and is now -enclosed in the Mosque of Omar. The Mohammedans regard it as a sacred -rock. One can still trace on it the channels which conducted the blood to -an opening which in turn conducted it to a cave underneath. This cave is -still regarded by the Mohammedans as sacred. There is little doubt that -the sacrificial victims offered in the temples of Solomon and Herod were -slain on this stone, and that that part of the blood not used in -sprinkling drained into the cave underneath. This rock-altar is on the -hill to which we are told Abraham came for the sacrifice of Isaac[198]; -(see Fig. 208). - -=4. High Place of Tell es-Safi.=--In the Old Testament the "high place" is -frequently mentioned as a place of worship. (See 1 Sam. 9:12, f.; 1 Kings -3:2; 2 Kings 23:5, 8, etc.) It follows from 2 Kings 23:14 that these high -places contained "pillars" and "asherim." The pillars were made of stone, -and the asherim of wood. - -Recent exploration has brought to light a number of these high places, and -the revelations made by these discoveries greatly illuminate the Old -Testament narrative. The first of these was discovered by Bliss and -Macalister at Tell es-Safi.[199] The high place was enclosed by walls, -but, as the upper courses of these had been destroyed, the original height -of the walls could not be determined. Within the largest enclosure stood -three monoliths or "pillars." These rested on bases of stone. The pillars -themselves were, respectively, 5 feet 10 inches, 6 feet 5 inches, and 7 -feet 1 inch high. One of them was pointed, and one of them almost flat on -the top. No tool-mark was discernible on any of them. All showed signs of -having been rubbed. The fat and the blood of sacrifices were smeared over -such stones, and the rubbing was probably produced by this. The walls -enclosing these pillars formed an approximate square 30 feet from east to -west and 32 feet from north to south. On the north a fairly large room was -walled in, as shown in Fig. 212, and on the south three smaller rooms. In -the wall to the north of the three pillars was a semicircular apse. Facing -this apse was a low semicircle of stones 3 feet 7 inches in diameter, -which is situated much nearer the "pillars." The purpose of this -semicircle is unknown. In the east wall of the court of the high place -there was a "skewed" opening, or an opening which ran diagonally through -the wall. The purpose of this is obscure. It has been suggested by Prof. -Macalister that it was made to permit the rising sun to shine on a certain -spot of the interior on a certain day of the year, but of this there is no -proof. - -=5. High Place of Gezer.=--The foundations of this high place were in the -second stratum below that which contained Israelitish pottery. It was one -of the high places of the Canaanites, therefore, or of one of the tribes -that were in Palestine before the coming of Israel. This is the most -interesting of the high places which have been discovered in -Palestine.[200] It contained ten monoliths or upright "pillars," the -tallest of which was 10 feet 9 inches in height, and the shortest 5 feet 5 -inches. These pillars ran in a curved line the general direction of which -was from north to south. This was in striking contrast to the high place -of Tell es-Safi, where the line of pillars ran from east to west. The -center of the curved line of the pillars of Gezer was toward the east. All -of these pillars except one were of the kind of stone abundant about -Gezer. They had been found near by. None of them bore the mark of a tool. -They had not been shaped by working. One of them (the one that was _the_ -sacred stone, as the smooth spots on it showed) was a different kind of -stone--the kind found at Jerusalem and elsewhere, but not near Gezer. -There were on it traces of an indentation, as though a rope for dragging -it might have been fitted around it; (Fig. 206). As Mesha, King of Moab, -tells us twice in his inscription that he dragged altar-hearths of other -deities away from their original locations into the presence of his god -Chemosh,[201] it seems likely that this stone was dragged to Gezer from -some other sanctuary--possibly from Jerusalem. Perhaps it was its capture -that first suggested to the inhabitants of Gezer the establishment of this -high place. The other stones of the series were erected to keep this one -company and to do it honor. These were probably not all set up at once. -They were added from time to time by different rulers of Gezer, and we -have no means of knowing when the latest of the pillars was erected; (see -Fig. 204). - -(1) _Choice of Site._--Judging from the scarabs found about the -foundations of the high place, its beginnings date from 2000 B. C. or -earlier, and it continued in use down to the Babylonian Exile. Curiously -enough, this high place is not situated on the highest part of the hill. -The land is higher both to the east and to the west of it. It is situated -in a sort of saddle to the east of the middle of the mound. Why was this -spot chosen for it? Two considerations, perhaps, led to the choice of the -site. A great ramifying cave on a higher part of the hill had already been -appropriated by Semites as a sepulcher, and was, therefore, unclean. The -cave which the earlier inhabitants had used as a crematorium was for the -same reason unacceptable. Why the high place was not built near the cave -that the cave-dwellers had used as a temple, we cannot now conjecture. -Perhaps in some way the memory that that had been a sacred spot had faded -from men's minds. Macalister thinks that the choice of the site was -determined by the presence at this point of the two caves shown in Fig. -203. These caves had been dwellings of cave-men in the pre-Semitic time. -They were now connected by a narrow, crooked passage, so that they could -be utilized for the giving of oracles. Macalister conjectures that a -priest or priestess would go into one, while the devotee who wished to -inquire of the god was sent into the other, and that the inquirer would -hear his oracle through this passage. This theory is plausible, though -incapable of full proof. - -Just back of one of the pillars a square stone was found with a deep hole -cut in its upper side; (see Fig. 209). Several theories as to the use of -this have been put forward; the most probable one is that it was a laver. - -The area of the high place seems to have been approximately 150 feet from -north to south and 120 feet from east to west. Some few walls were found -of the same date as the high place, but it was impossible to tell their -purpose. There seem to have been no buildings that could be regarded as a -part of the sanctuary. It seems to have been entirely open to the air. Two -circular structures, one at the north and the other to the south of the -sacred stones, were found. The one at the south was badly ruined; that to -the north was in a good state of preservation. This structure had a -pavement of stones on a level with the bottom of the sacred pillars. It -was entirely surrounded by a wall 2 feet thick at the bottom and 1 foot 6 -inches thick at the top and 6 feet high. There was no doorway. The wall -leaned outward. The diameter of the structure was 13 feet 8 inches at the -bottom and 16 feet 6 inches at the top; (see Fig. 207). On the pavement in -this enclosure were the fragments of many clay bowls, of a type found in -Cyprus, but common at Gezer from 1400-800 B. C., and among these fragments -a brazen serpent, evidently the model of a cobra. This discovery suggests -the possibility that the structure may have been a pen in which sacred -serpents were kept. The practice of venerating serpents as sacred is found -in many parts of the world.[202] This brazen serpent reminds one of -Nehushtan, the brazen serpent worshiped by the Judæans until it was -destroyed by King Hezekiah. (See 2 Kings 18:4, and Fig. 219_a_.) - -(2) _Child-sacrifice._--The whole area of the high place was found to be a -cemetery of new-born infants. These were in all probability first-born -children who had been sacrificed to the deity of the high place. Two of -them displayed marks of fire, but most of them had been simply enclosed in -large jars. The body was usually put in head first. Two or three smaller -vessels were put in with them. These generally included a bowl and a jug. -They were usually inside the jar between the body and the jar's mouth; -sometimes they were outside near the mouth of the jar. That these were -sacrifices is shown by the fact that they were children. It was not, -therefore, a general place of burial. Indeed, had these children not been -sacrificial, they could not have been buried in the sanctuary, as dead -bodies were unclean. - -The Semites generally believed that the first-born were sacred to deity -and must be sacrificed to it. This sort of human sacrifice persisted for a -long time among the Phoenicians. It was said that God called Abraham to -sacrifice Isaac, and that he then permitted him to offer a ram instead -(Gen. 22). The law provided for the redemption of Hebrew first-born by the -sacrifice of a lamb (Exod. 34:20), but in the time of King Manasseh the -old custom was revived and men "made their children pass through the -fire." (See 2 Kings 21:6; 23:10; Jer. 7:31; 32:35.) The gruesome -discoveries of this high place have made very real these horrible -practices and the inhuman fate from which Isaac and other Hebrew children -were delivered. - -With the exception of a little unhewn stone about 18 inches square, found -in one of the caves connected with the high place, and which might -possibly have served as an altar, no altar was found. Possibly none was -needed in the rites practised there, but it is more likely that the altar -was simply a mound of earth such as is prescribed in Exod. 20:24--a mound -which could not be distinguished, in excavating, from the common earth. - -(3) _Corrupt Worship._--Of the nature of some of the services that went on -in this high place in the name of Ashtoreth eloquent testimony was borne -by unnumbered Ashtoreth-plaques that had been presented as votive -offerings by the worshipers. These varied in form and in artistic merit, -but were all designed to foster in the worshiper that type of debasing -service described in Isa. 57:3, ff., as Fig. 214 shows. Symbols of this -nature were abundant during all the period while the high place was in -use. No one who was not, like the writer, at Gezer during the excavation, -can realize how demoralizing the whole atmosphere of such worship must -have been. Archæology has here revealed to us in a most vivid way the -tremendous power of those corrupting religious influences which the Hebrew -prophets so vigorously denounced. These practices were deeply rooted in -the customs of the Canaanites; they were sanctified by a supposed divine -sanction of immemorial antiquity, and they made an all-powerful appeal to -the animal instincts in human nature. We can realize now as never before -the social and religious task which confronted the prophets. That Israel -was by prophetic teaching purged of this cult is due to the power of God! - -=6. At Taanach.= - -(1) _Pillars._--Sellin[203] discovered two monoliths which he believed to -be the pillars of a high place. These stones had, however, been hewn, -which does not accord with the general Semitic requirement that no tool -should be lifted up upon such stones; (see Fig. 211). However, the -indentation in one of the sacred stones of Gezer, apparently made to keep -a rope from slipping, shows that exceptions to the rule against cutting a -sacred stone were allowed. The two pillars at Taanach were situated over a -cave and figures of Ashtoreth were found in connection with them, so that -they probably constituted another high place. The stratum in which this -was found proves that it belongs to the same period as the high place at -Gezer. In connection with this high place an interesting libation bowl was -found which is shown in Fig. 213. - -(2) _An Altar of Incense._--In another part of the mound at Taanach Sellin -discovered a remarkable incense altar of terra-cotta, 3 feet in height, -and 18 inches in diameter at the base, adorned with protruding animal -heads, which remind one of shortened gargoyles. On one side of it was the -figure of a palm-tree, with two ibexes descending a mountain. Part of an -Ashtoreth figure and fragments of another altar were found near. Sellin -thought that the building that contained these was a private house, and, -if so, we have in these objects some of the implements of private worship -employed by Israelites; (see Fig. 210). - -=7. High Places at Petra.=--One of the most interesting high places is cut -out of the solid rock at Petra. Petra may possibly be the Sela of 2 Kings -14:7, since Sela means "crag" or "rock" in Hebrew, and Petra has the same -meaning in Greek. The identity of Petra with Sela is not, however, -certain. Petra lies in the southeastern part of ancient Edom, and was, -before the end of the fourth century B. C., occupied by the Nabathæans, a -Semitic tribe. These Nabathæans established a kingdom which continued -until 106 A. D. One of its kings, Haretat IV, is called Aretas in 2 Cor. -11:32.[204] When the Roman Emperor Trajan overthrew this kingdom he -organized its territory into the Province of Arabia, and the beautiful -buildings, the remains of which make Petra such an interesting ruin today, -date mostly from the Roman period of its history. During the Nabathæan -period of Petra they constructed three high places, which are high places -indeed, since they are perched on ledges of rock above the ancient town. -The largest of these high places is still in an excellent state of -preservation. It is a little to the north of the citadel on a ledge which -rises about 700 feet above the town. The ledge is 520 feet long by 90 feet -wide; it runs nearly north and south with a slight inclination to the -east.[205] The principal features of this ancient place of worship are an -altar on the west side of the ledge, a platform immediately south of this, -a large sunken area directly in front of the altar, and a little to the -south of this area a vat or laver. - -This high place is approached by a flight of steps cut in the solid rock; -(see Fig. 215). The main area, which corresponds to the enclosure of the -high place at Tell es-Safi, is 47 feet 4 inches long, 24 feet 4 inches -wide, and 15 to 18 inches deep, though this depth is not uniform. In some -parts it falls to 10 inches. About midway of the length of this area and 5 -feet from its west side, there is a rock platform 5 feet in length, 2 feet -7-1/2 inches wide, and 4 inches high. It has been suggested that this -platform was intended for the offerer of a victim to stand upon, in order -that he might be distinguished from other worshipers who were crowding the -area. Another possible view is that the sacred "pillars" stood upon this -platform. No pillars were found in connection with it. Probably such -pillars were not cut out of the solid rock, but were, like the sacred -stone of Gezer, brought from elsewhere. The arrangement of other high -places would indicate that they stood on or near this platform. As this -high place was not buried, but exposed on the mountain top, such pillars -have in the course of the ages disappeared. The altar is separated from -the adjoining rock by a passageway which was cut on its north, south, and -west sides. It is of the same height as the adjoining rock. On the east -the ledge has been cut down to the level of the foot of the altar. The -altar is 9 feet 1 inch in length from north to south and 6 feet 2 inches -wide. It is 3 feet high at its highest point. On the top of the altar is a -hollow pan, perhaps to receive the fire. This is 3 feet 8 inches long, 1 -foot 2 inches wide, and 3-1/2 inches deep. Ascent to the altar was made by -a flight of steps leading up to its top on the east side. The top step is -wider than the others and forms a platform on which the officiating priest -might stand; (see Fig. 217). - -Just south of the altar and separated from it by the passageway was the -place where the victims were slain. This has been called the round altar; -(see Fig. 218). This consists of a platform 16 feet 6 inches long from -east to west, 11 feet 9 inches wide. It is approached by a flight of -steps. Near its center are two circular and concentric pans, the larger 3 -feet 8 inches in diameter with a depth of 3 inches, the smaller 1 foot 5 -inches in diameter with a depth of 2 inches. From this inner basin a -conduit 3 feet 2 inches long, 2 inches wide, and 3 inches deep conducted -the blood to the edge of the platform. This platform was undoubtedly -intended for the place of slaughter. The Samaritans, when they assemble on -Mount Gerizim for the celebration of the Passover, still dig a round hole -in the turf, over which to slay the victim. This hole is about 18 inches -in diameter and 10 inches deep. From it a conduit is dug, through which -the blood flows off to be absorbed by the earth.[206] - -The supposed laver at Petra is to the south of the area of the high place. -It is 9 feet 9 inches in length and 8 feet 6 inches in width. It is now -partially filled with earth, and has above the earth an average depth of 3 -feet. - -The remains of three other supposed high places have been found at Petra, -but lack of space forbids their description here.[207] The pillars -supposed to have been connected with one of them are shown in Fig. 219. - -=8. A Supposed Philistine Temple.=--Turning now to Palestinian temples: -Macalister discovered the remains of a building at Gezer which he thinks -may have been a temple.[208] This building belonged to the third Semitic -stratum; in other words, to the period just before the coming of the -Israelites. A general plan of its walls is shown in Fig. 220. In a court -in one part of the structure were five pillars which may have had the same -religious significance as the pillars of the high place. The two circular -structures _f f_ remind one of the circular structures of the high place -of Gezer. These were filled with the fragments of the bones of sheep and -goats. As these bore no marks of cooking, they could not have been mere -domestic ash-pits, and it is plausible to think of them as receptacles for -the bodies of slaughtered victims. In a forecourt of the structure a line -of bases, apparently intended for the support of columns, was found. -Macalister conjectured that these supported a roof over a part of the -portico, and it reminded him of the story of Samson in the temple of -Dagon. (See Judges 16:23-30.) It is quite possible that the feast of Dagon -described in Judges 16 may have been held in a structure similar to this, -that the lords of the Philistines may have been gathered in such a porch, -and that Samson may have pulled such pillars as rested upon these bases -from under the roof that sheltered them, and caused their destruction and -his own death. It is all possible, but conjectural. - -=9. At Megiddo.= - -(1) _A Hebrew Temple._--In the course of the excavation at Megiddo a -temple was found concerning the sacred nature of which there can be no -such doubts as in the case of the building just mentioned[209]; (Fig. -222). This temple was in the Israelitish stratum, and so is of especial -interest to the students of the Bible. It was situated in the highest part -of the city. The whole space was not excavated, but the portion uncovered -was 131 feet long and 115 wide. It was of the same period as the palace in -which the seal of Shema the servant of Jeroboam was found, and contained -more drafted stones than the walls of that palace. In one of the rooms of -the temple stood two stones that were certainly "pillars" such as are -denounced in Deuteronomy. One of these was 7 feet 8 inches high; the -other, 7 feet high. The room in which these pillars stood was 30 feet long -and 10 feet 7 inches wide. In building the wall of this temple a stone was -used that had once formed the voluted capital of a column; (Fig. 224). -Probably this stone was taken from an earlier Philistine building. - -In the grounds of the temple, which were once regarded as holy, several -jars containing the skeletons of children were unearthed. These had -apparently been offered in sacrifice and buried like those found in the -high place of Gezer. - -While the walls of this temple were built of larger and more carefully cut -stones than most of the other walls in the city, no effort seems to have -been made to give the temple a definite architectural plan. Large towers -were found near it, but, as the temple was at the east end of the city, -these formed part of fortifications. The fortifications and other -buildings crowded upon the temple, so that, had an effort been made to -make it architecturally imposing, the effect would have been lost. - -(2) _A Palace Chapel._--The people of Megiddo seem to have been -particularly fond of the type of worship represented by this temple, for -in a room to the east of the palace of the Hebrew governor was a room -containing three "pillars," in which the remains of a number of -terra-cotta goddesses were found.[210] This was apparently the private -chapel of the palace. This room was almost 40 feet long and 32 feet 10 -inches wide; (Fig. 223). Its beginnings antedate the Israelitish period, -since they come from the stratum before the conquest. - -(3) _Another Chapel._--What seems to have been still another place of -worship equipped with the necessary "pillars" was found in the Hebrew -stratum between the governor's palace and the southern gate of the -city.[211] It would appear from the connecting walls that this sacred -place may also have been intended for the special use of the occupants of -the palace. This room was not quite 30 feet long and a little less than 20 -feet wide. It contained six stones which Dr. Schumacher took to be -"pillars." Like those at Petra and Taanach, they had evidently been shaped -with tools. They did not stand in a row or in any regular relation to one -another. This might throw some doubt upon the religious significance of -the stones. Could they not have been columns used in supporting the roof -of the building? Since a small stone object that had religious -significance in the high places was found in this room, together with a -most remarkable incense burner, it is probable that these were religious -"pillars" and that the room was a little chapel. The object was of -limestone and about 7 inches long. It was lying at the foot of one of the -"pillars." The incense burner was made of a greyish soft limestone. It was -a little over 9 inches in height. The diameter of the bowl was 6-3/8 -inches. The stone was cut so that the bowl rested on a pedestal, which was -divided by rings into two portions, each of which was cut so as to -represent a circle of overhanging leaves; (see Fig. 225). The whole was -decorated with reddish-brown and cobalt-blue paints. The decoration of the -rim of the bowl is a geometrical design, that on the bowl itself -represents a sort of conventionalized lily blossom, while the leaves -suggest those of the palm. - -These discoveries make it plain that the Canaanite temples of Palestine, -which the Hebrews took over, were simply high places in miniature, -enclosed in walls and probably roofed over, though the roofs have -disappeared. The feeling that led to the change from the open air high -place was the same as that underlying the saying of David: "I dwell in a -house of cedar, but the ark of God dwelleth within curtains" (2 Sam. 7:2). - -=10. The Temple to Augustus at Samaria.=--The excavations at Samaria[212] -have brought to light the foundation of the temple erected by Herod the -Great in honor of Augustus.[213] This was a temple of a very different -type. It was patterned on Græco-Roman models and everything was done to -make it architecturally impressive. Unfortunately, the results of the -Harvard expedition have not yet been given to the public in detail, but -from the imposing stairway, discovered during the first season of the -excavation, together with the partial plan of the building as then -uncovered, and the outlines of its walls as a later season's work -disclosed them, one can form some idea of the imposing appearance of this -structure. A massive stairway led up to a large platform surrounded by -large pillars. This formed the portico. Back of this stretched the walls -of the temple. The general form of the building seems to have been similar -to that of the large temple at Jerash, which will be described in Chapter -XIV.[214] At the foot of the stairway leading up to the temple was found a -large altar, and near this a fallen statue of Augustus. For outlines of -the temple, see Figs. 216 and 221. - -These ancient places of worship which archæology has brought to light are -eloquent witnesses of the pathetic way the men of Palestine "felt after -God, if haply they might find him" (Acts 17:27), and the pathos is not -lessened by the fact that they thus continued to grope, even after the -clearer light was shining about them. - - - - -CHAPTER XII - -THE TOMBS OF PALESTINE - - BURNING THE DEAD. CAVE BURIALS. CISTERN BURIAL. BURIAL UNDER MENHIRS. - EARTH-GRAVES. ROCK-HEWN SHAFT TOMBS. DOORWAY TOMBS. TOMBS WITH A - ROLLING-STONE. - - -=1. Burning the Dead.=--As noted in a previous chapter,[215] the -cave-dwellers of Gezer burned their dead. The Semitic inhabitants of -Palestine did not follow this custom, but buried theirs. At Gezer the -caves that had formed the dwellings of the first inhabitants were put by -the Semites to various uses. Sometimes they, too, lived in them; sometimes -they made cisterns of them; and sometimes they utilized them as places of -burial for their dead. - -=2. Cave Burials.=--A cave that became a tomb after the Semitic occupation -was the one that had been the crematorium of the pre-Semitic -inhabitants.[216] All over the floor of the cave above the burned bones -was another stratum of bones that had never been burned. These were -scattered over the floor of the cave, and, although they had been much -disturbed by rats, it appeared that they belonged to that early type of -burial in which the body is placed on its side with the knees drawn up -toward the chin. These bodies had apparently been deposited in all parts -of the cave. Ranged around the sides of the cave was a series of -enclosures marked off from the floor by lines of stones. In these, -portions of various skeletons were found. These enclosures seem to have -been reservations made for persons of distinction. For a time, therefore, -the cave seems to have been used as a general place of burial. In some of -the other caves of Gezer evidence was found that they had been used as -tombs.[217] Beautiful pottery and alabaster vessels were found with the -bones. Wine and possibly food for the dead had been placed in these. -Underneath the pottery in one cave a considerable number of scarabs were -found, some of them mounted in gold. This must have been, accordingly, -the burial place of persons of comparative wealth. Similar cave burials -were found by Mackenzie at Beth-shemesh.[218] - -Such cave burials as these at once recall Abraham's purchase of the cave -of Machpelah as recorded in Gen. 23. The kind of burial presupposed in -that chapter is just that found at Gezer. The mouth of the cave could be -closed up and opened at will for later burials. (See Gen. 50:13.) - -The custom of placing food or drink or both in the sepulcher was all but -universal in Palestine. It is silent testimony to a faith in a kind of -after-life. That that life as they conceived it was of a shadowy and an -unsatisfactory nature is shown by the references to it in Isa. 14:9-11 and -Ezek. 32:22-32.[219] Nevertheless, these evidences that the mourners who -stood by every ancient tomb provided food for their loved ones to eat in -the after-life is eloquent testimony to the fact that even in that age the -loving heart found it impossible to believe that the life of its dear ones -had been altogether terminated. - -=3. Cistern Burial.=--Another burial at Gezer that must have been -connected with some unusual circumstance led to the deposit of fifteen -bodies in a cistern,[220] and a number of spear heads were found with -them. The skeletons were all males except one, which was that of a girl -about sixteen years old, whose spine had been severed and only the upper -part of the skeleton deposited in the cistern; (see Fig. 229). The cistern -is too deep to favor the supposition that the bodies had been deposited at -successive times. Macalister hazards the conjecture that the men died of -plague and that the girl was offered as a sacrifice to propitiate the -deity. A plague, however, would have attacked women as well as men. -Perhaps the men were slain in defending Gezer from the attack of an enemy -that had succeeded in severing the body of the girl. The real cause of the -tragedy is, however, unknown to us. - -=4. Burial under Menhirs.=--A very old form of burial, still practised by -the half-nomadic tribes east of the Jordan, is to place the dead in the -earth within one of the prehistoric _gilgals_ or menhirs. How old this -form of burial is, it is impossible to tell. It is assumed by some -writers that it was practised by the neolithic people who erected these -monuments, and who are believed by such writers to have been ancestor -worshipers. If, however, these neolithic men were akin to the neolithic -cave-dwellers of Gezer, they burned their dead. Another explanation is, -accordingly, more probable. All through the history of Palestine the -sanctity of certain spots has persisted. A place once considered as holy, -if not so regarded by the next wave of conquerors, nevertheless often has -enough sanctity clinging to it to make it taboo. No thief will disturb -objects left within its precincts, lest the spirit of the place bring -disaster upon him. It seems probable that the wandering tribes on the -border of the Arabian Desert have utilized the sacred places of these -prehistoric men for the burial of their dead, in order that the fear of -violating the taboo pertaining to these places may secure the bodies from -disturbance. Whatever the reason may be, they still bury their dead in -such precincts and place their tribal _wasms_ or marks on such -stones.[221] - -=5. Earth-graves.=--The simplest form of burial was to place the body in -the ground without accessory of any kind. In the course of the excavation -of Gezer a few burials of this sort came to light.[222] The skeleton was -in these cases stretched out; sometimes it was lying on its back; -sometimes on its side. As these bodies were buried without accessories, so -contrary to the custom of the Palestinians who placed food or drink by the -dead, the excavator thought that they were probably the graves of murdered -persons, who had been hastily concealed in the earth. - -Another form of burial, when the interment occurred within a city, is -illustrated by the five "Philistine" graves found at Gezer.[223] These -graves were excavations in the earth, lined with cement, and, after the -interment, covered with four or five massive stones and earth; (Fig. 226). -In these graves the usual deposits of food and drink had been made in -beautiful bronze and silver vessels, which show kinship to the art of -Cyprus; (see Fig. 137). They are probably, therefore, Philistine. - -=6. Rock-hewn Shaft Tombs.=--A form of tomb of which many examples are to -be found in all parts of Palestine is the rock-hewn tomb. The limestone of -the country is easily cut, and lends itself readily to the construction -of this kind of burial-place. Such tombs are of two kinds--"shaft" tombs -and "doorway" tombs. - -The structure of a shaft tomb is as follows:[224] The tomb chamber or -chambers are cut in the rock and are approached by a perpendicular -rock-hewn shaft, which is usually rectangular. This shaft is closed at the -bottom with slabs and then the shaft is filled with earth. Such tombs are -usually constructed in ledges covered over with soil, so that, when the -hole leading to the rock-cut shaft is filled, the tomb is effectually -concealed. Such tombs are very numerous all the way from pre-Israelitish -times to the Greek period. For a plan of one, see Fig. 228. - -=7. Doorway Tombs.=--The "doorway" tombs are sometimes cut in a ledge that -is altogether under ground. In that case a flight of steps is excavated -leading down to the door; (Fig. 232). Often the tomb is cut in a ledge on -the slope of a hill, so that the doorway is approached from the level of -the ground; (see Fig. 227). Doors were, no doubt, fitted into the -doorways. The places cut in the rock for the latches or bars of such doors -are sometimes still visible. These tombs consisted sometimes of one room, -sometimes of several. Sometimes the bodies were laid on the floor of the -tomb; sometimes elevated benches or shelves were cut in the rock on which -bodies might be placed. Quite as often shafts or niches were cut into the -rock, into which a body or a sarcophagus could be shoved endwise. Such a -shaft is called technically a _kôk_, in the plural, _kôkim_. For examples -of them, see Figs. 233, 237. The date at which this kind of tomb was -introduced has not been satisfactorily determined. - -Sometimes numerous small tombs, each one resembling somewhat a _kôk_, were -cut in a hillside. Archæologists call such a group of tombs a -"columbarium"; (see Fig. 230). - -In the Hellenistic and Roman periods efforts were made to give adornment -to such tombs. The so-called "Tombs of the Judges"[225] near Jerusalem, of -which the writer was the first to make a scientific examination, is a good -example of this kind of tomb[226]; (see Fig. 231). This tomb consisted of -three rooms in its upper level and three in its lower level; (see Fig. -235). The ledges and _kôkim_ in it made provision for seventy bodies, and -a rough chamber opening out of room D was evidently used for the deposit -of the bones of those who had been long dead, when a niche or _kôk_ was -needed for the reception of another body. Sometimes the pillars of a porch -were carved out of the solid rock. A number of such tombs are to be found -near Jerusalem. There is one in the Kidron Valley near Gethsemane, cut -wholly out of the rock and finished to a spire at the top. This is the -so-called "Absalom's pillar." - -In the time of Christ the tombs of Israel's heroes were adorned and -venerated. Jesus alludes to this in Luke 11:47, 48. Elisha must have been -buried in a doorway tomb, into which by opening the door the body of a man -could be easily thrown. (See 2 Kings 13:20, 21.) It was, no doubt, the -memory of such narratives as this that led to the reverence paid to the -tombs of the prophets in the time of Christ. - -Another tomb at Jerusalem, called the "Tombs of the Kings," has a large -open court cut down into the rock, from the different sides of which -entrances lead to the other tomb chambers. This tomb was built for Queen -Helena of Adiabene, the ancient Assyria, who, in the days of Herod the -Great, was converted to Judaism and removed to Jerusalem. She died and was -buried there.[227] - -Sometimes in the Seleucid period the interior of the tombs was also made -very ornate. Such were the tombs, discovered in 1902,[228] of some wealthy -Greek-speaking citizens of Marissa. A plan of one of them is shown in Fig. -234, and examples of its inner ornamentation in Fig. 236. These tombs were -also adorned with pictures of vases, trees, animals, etc.; (see Fig. 239). -The figures, as well as the interior generally, were decorated with red, -yellow, and brown paints. One of them was that of Apollophanes, chief of -the Sidonians at Marissa. Over the different niches in the tombs the names -of the persons buried were inscribed in Greek letters. - -Rock-cut tombs, whether large or small, were regarded as important -possessions, and the people who might be buried in them were frequently -carefully specified by their builders. An example of this may be found in -Part II of the present work, p. 442. - -=8. Tombs with a Rolling-stone.=--One other type of tomb must be noticed -even in this hasty sketch. To close a "doorway" tomb securely must always -have been a matter of difficulty in Palestine. It was not easy with the -kind of locks they had to keep intruders out of tombs. This led to the -cutting of a large groove by the side of the doorway into which a -rolling-stone was fitted. When it was desired to open the tomb, the stone -could be rolled back. The stones were too heavy to be easily disturbed. It -was in a new tomb of this type that the body of Jesus was laid, and it was -such a stone that the women found rolled away on the resurrection morning. -(See Matt. 28:2; Mark 16:3, 4; Luke 24:2; John 20:1, and Fig. 238.) - - - - -CHAPTER XIII - -JERUSALEM[229] - - SITUATION. GIHON. CAVE-DWELLERS. THE EL-AMARNA PERIOD. JEBUSITE - JERUSALEM. THE CITY OF DAVID: Millo. David's reign. SOLOMON'S - JERUSALEM: Site of Solomon's buildings. Solomon's temple. Solomon's - palace. FROM SOLOMON TO HEZEKIAH. HEZEKIAH. FROM HEZEKIAH TO THE - EXILE. THE DESTRUCTION OF 586 B. C. THE SECOND TEMPLE. NEHEMIAH AND - THE WALLS. LATE PERSIAN AND EARLY GREEK PERIODS. IN THE TIME OF THE - MACCABEES. ASMONÆAN JERUSALEM. HEROD THE GREAT: Herod's palace. - Herod's theater. Herod's temple. THE POOL OF BETHESDA. GETHSEMANE. - CALVARY. AGRIPPA I AND THE THIRD WALL. - - -=1. Situation.=--Since 1867 excavations have been made at Jerusalem from -time to time. The most important of these were mentioned in Chapter IV. An -attempt will be made here to set before the reader the growth and -development of Jerusalem from period to period, as that growth is now -understood by foremost scholars. Our knowledge of the situation and form -of the city in the different periods is based partly on formal -excavations, partly on remains that have been accidentally found, and -partly on a study of the references to Jerusalem in the Bible and other -ancient writings. These references are interpreted in the light of the -topography and of the archæological remains. - -Jerusalem is situated on the central ridge of Palestine, where the ridge -broadens out to a small plateau. The plateau at this point is -approximately 2,500 feet above the level of the Mediterranean Sea. In a -narrower sense the site of the city is two rocky promontories which run -south from the plateau with the valley El-Wad (in Roman times the -Tyropoeon) between them. On the north these promontories merge into the -plateau, but on the east, south, and west the valleys of Hinnom and the -Kidron sharply separate them from the surrounding land. The steep sides of -these valleys made fortification easy in ancient times. The highest point -of the western hill is about 400 feet higher than the bottom of the Kidron -valley, which in ancient times was 20 to 40 feet deeper than now; (see -Fig. 240). Indeed, the position was almost impregnable. Only on the north -was the city vulnerable. - -West of the city hills gently rise to a slight elevation and shut out the -view. The easternmost of the two promontories is lower than the western, -which in its turn slopes to the east. Just south of the Mount of Olives, -to the east of Jerusalem, there is a rift in the hills through which the -distant mountains of Moab can be seen. From elevated buildings in the city -the Dead Sea is also visible. The slope of the hills of Jerusalem and her -broader outlook to the eastward are significant of the influences that -moulded her earlier history. During the centuries that Israel was an -independent nation the Philistine plain was nearly always in the hands of -a hostile people. Jerusalem was thus cut off from influences that might -otherwise have reached her from across the Mediterranean, and was shut up -to influences that reached her through kindred tribes and nations to the -east. Thus in intellectual kinship, as well as in physical outlook, the -gaze of Jerusalem was directed toward the Orient. - -All Palestinian cities of importance were situated near perpetual springs. -There are at Jerusalem but two unfailing sources of water--the Ain Sitti -Miriam (the ancient Gihon) and the Bir Eyyub (Biblical En-rogel). These -are both in the Kidron valley, the former just under the brow of the -eastern hill some 400 yards from the southern point of the hill, the -latter at the point where the valley of Hinnom and the Kidron unite. Of -these two sources of supply, the Gihon is pre-eminently fitted to attract -an early settlement. It is almost under the hill, whereas the other is out -in the midst of the open valley. Gihon, too, is at the base of a hill that -can be defended easily on three sides, whereas a town built on a hillside -above En-rogel, as the modern Silwan is, could be easily attacked from -above. These conditions determined the situation of the earliest -settlement, which was near Gihon. - -=2. Gihon.=--The Parker expedition of 1909-1911 revealed by its -excavations the fact that the source of the spring of Gihon is a great -crack in the rock in the bottom of the valley far below the present -apparent source.[230] This crack is about 16 feet long, is of great depth, -and runs east and west. The western end of it just enters the mouth of the -cave where the apparent source is today, but the eastern end passes out -into the bed of the valley. All the water would discharge into the valley -but for a wall at the eastern end of the rift, built in very ancient -times, which confines the water and compels it to flow into the cave. This -wall was constructed by some of the earliest inhabitants of the place. The -spring thus produced is intermittent. Its flow is not ceaseless. The water -breaks from the hole in the rainy season, three to five times a day; in -the summer but twice a day; and after the failure of the spring rains, -less than once a day. This fact indicates that the waters collect in some -underground cavern from which they are drained by a siphon-like tunnel. -The "troubling" of the Pool of Bethesda (John 5:4) is thought by some -scholars to have been due to the action of such a siphon-like spring. - -=3. Cave-dwellers.=--About this spring the Parker expedition found large -caves and rooms excavated in the rock, and indications that these had once -been inhabited. A great deal of pre-Israelite pottery was also found -around the spring. These indications seem to show that the site was -inhabited for at least a thousand years before David, and perhaps for two -thousand, and that its first inhabitants were cave-dwellers. One naturally -thinks in this connection of the cave-dwellers of Gezer. It is possible -that the first Jerusalemites belonged to the same period and were of the -same race. One thinks, too, of the sacred cave and the stone altar on the -next peak of the eastern ridge to the north, where the temple afterward -stood, and wonders whether it may not have been the sanctuary of this -early cave-dwelling race. A definite answer cannot be given to this -question. One can only recognize that it may possibly be true. - -=4. The El-Amarna Period.=--The next knowledge we have of Jerusalem comes -from the letters of Ebed-Hepa, which were written to Amenophis IV of Egypt -between 1375 and 1357 B. C. At that time it was already a walled city, for -Ebed-Hepa speaks of "throwing it open."[231] - -The fortified city of Ebed-Hepa was, no doubt, identical with the later -Jebusite city. It was situated on the eastern hill just above the spring -of Gihon. Probably in the period just before this time it had, like Gezer, -been surrounded by a massive wall. In connection with this fortification -the rock near Gihon had been scarped (cut to a perpendicular surface) in -order to increase the difficulty of scaling the wall.[232] As the wall of -Gezer lasted for a thousand years, so this Egyptian wall continued to the -reign of David. - -It is privately reported that Weil in his excavation in 1913-14 found on -the eastern hill remains of a wall with a sloping glacis similar to that -belonging to the earliest period of Megiddo. This would not only confirm -our inference that Jerusalem was a walled city in the time of Ebed-Hepa, -but indicate that its wall had been built at a much earlier time. It was -also in the fourteenth century B. C. the capital of a considerable kingdom -which Ebed-Hepa ruled as a vassal of the king of Egypt. This kingdom -extended as far west as Beth-shemesh and Keilah (1 Sam. 23:1), including, -perhaps, Gezer. Aijalon seems to have been included in it on the north, -and Carmel in Judah (1 Sam. 25:2) on the south. - -When the letters of Ebed-Hepa were written, his kingdom was being attacked -and apparently overcome by the Habiri, a people who may have been the -first wave of the Hebrew conquest.[233] The letters of Ebed-Hepa cease -without telling us whether or not the Habiri captured his city. If they -did and they were really Hebrews, they did not hold it long, for, when the -Biblical records lift the veil that hides so much of the past, Jerusalem -was in the hands of the Jebusites. (See Josh. 15:63; Judges 1:21.) - -=5. Jebusite Jerusalem.=--The Jebusites held it all through the period of -the Judges (Judges 19:10, 11). Israel did not capture it until the reign -of David. (See 2 Sam. 5:6-8.) At some earlier period of the history of -Jerusalem an underground rock-cut passage similar to the one at Gezer[234] -had been made, so as to permit the inhabitants in case of siege to descend -to the spring for water without going outside the walls; (see Fig. 241). -The natural slope of the hill had been reinforced at this point by the -escarpment of the rock, and the Jebusites felt so secure that they taunted -the Hebrews from the top of the walls. Joab, however, discovered the way -to this underground passage through the cave back of the spring, Gihon, -and, leading a band of men up through it, appeared suddenly within the -city, taking the Jebusites by surprise, and captured it. - -=6. The City of David.=--David then took up his residence at Jerusalem, -thus making it the capital of the kingdom of Israel. Thus the city of the -Jebusites, situated on the eastern hill, which was called Zion, became the -"city of David." - -A few modern writers still insist that the "city of David" was on the -western hill, which since 333 A. D. has been called Zion. This, as most -scholars have seen, is an impossible view. Solomon built a palace for -Pharaoh's daughter near his own on the temple hill, and, when she moved -into it, she went _up_ out of the city of David (1 Kings 9:24). As the -western hill is higher than the eastern, she must have gone from a point -on the eastern hill lower than the temple. When the temple was completed, -Solomon brought the ark _up_ from the city of David to the holy of holies -in the new temple (2 Chron. 5:2). Scripture thus confirms the inferences -from the pottery and the water supply, that the "city of David" was on the -eastern hill, and that that hill was Zion. It was a small town, since the -space it could occupy was not more than thirteen acres, and may have been -less. - -(1) _Millo._--After occupying his new capital David "built round about -from Millo and inward" (2 Sam. 5:9). What was Millo? This is a great -puzzle, and there are many varying opinions about it. The word literally -means a "filling," and is employed in Assyrian for the building up of a -terrace on which a building may be erected. It may have been a "filling" -on the line of the valley that separated the hill of the citadel of David -from Moriah or the temple hill. It would seem to have been on the edge of -the city, since David built from there "inward." Some have supposed it to -be a fortress, and the Septuagint translated it by "akra," which means -"citadel." Some have thought of it as a fort, others as a solid tower. If -on the line of the valley mentioned, it may have been at the northeast -corner, or at the northwest corner of the town. Some have supposed that it -was at the southern end of the eastern hill in order to protect a pool -there. Just below the southern end of the eastern hill in the valley of -the Kidron lay the "King's Gardens," and just across the valley, the -village of Siloah. In 2 Kings 12:20 it is said that Joash was killed in -Millo, leading down to Silla. We know of no Silla. Is it a corruption of -the Hebrew word for "shade" or is it a corruption of Siloah? In the former -case the reference might be to the King's Gardens, in the latter to the -village of Siloah. Either of these suppositions would favor a site for -Millo at the south end of the hill, but the words "leading down to Silla" -may have had quite a different origin and meaning.[235] We must, -therefore, confess that the location of Millo cannot at present be -determined. - -(2) _David's Reign._--As David's reign advanced and his success in war -compelled neighboring nations to pay tribute, probably the population of -Jerusalem increased. Such an increase would naturally lead to the erection -of houses outside the walls, as it has in recent times. It is altogether -probable that a settlement on the western hill was thus begun in the reign -of David. There is no hint, however, that he took any steps to enclose -such a settlement within a wall. The phrase "the way of the gate" in 2 -Sam. 15:2 implies that there was still but one gate in the walls. This is -in striking contrast to the number of gates in later times. The only -record that we have of further action on David's part that affected the -future growth of Jerusalem refers to the way in which he took over the -rock on Mount Moriah and the sacred cave under it and made a sanctuary to -Jehovah. (See 2 Sam. 24.) This action, at a later time, determined the -site of the temple. - -=7. Solomon's Jerusalem.=--David left Jerusalem a military fortress; -Solomon transformed it into a city with imposing buildings. This creation -of a more imposing city was in accord with the general character of -Solomon's reign. He established a large harem, made marriage alliances -with many neighboring kings, maintained such an establishment that it was -necessary to make a regular levy on a different portion of the country -each month for supplies, and endeavored to make his capital as splendid as -the capital of a rich commercial Phoenician monarch. Such a policy -necessitated, probably, the enlargement of Jerusalem. David, who began -life as a shepherd-boy, was content to live the simple life to the end; -Solomon, born to the purple, desired to surround himself with a pomp -befitting his rank. The Biblical writers were more interested in the -construction of the temple and of Solomon's palace than in any other phase -of his work, but they have left us some hints of his activities in other -directions. - -They tell us that he "built Millo and the wall of Jerusalem" (1 Kings -9:15), that he "built the wall of Jerusalem round about" (1 Kings 3:1), -and that he "built Millo and repaired the breach in the city of David, his -father" (1 Kings 11:27). Evidently Millo had fallen into disrepair since -David rebuilt it, and the walls of the city of David on the eastern hill -were also in need of repairs. These repairs he made, but did he go -further? It is intrinsically probable that he did. The king who fortified -Hazor in Naphtali, Megiddo, Gezer, Beth-horon, Baalath, and Tamar would -hardly leave a large suburb of his capital on the western hill -unfortified. The statement that he "built the wall of Jerusalem round -about," while it does not clearly state that he did more than fortify the -"city of David" on Zion, seems to imply that he did. This view is -strengthened by Bliss's discovery on the western hill of some walls that -connected once with a great fortress at the southwest corner of the -western hill, which he believed to be the work of Solomon. - -The site of this fortress is now occupied by "Bishop Gobat's School," an -English foundation for the education of native boys. When the school was -rebuilt in 1874 Mr. Henry Maudsley examined the surface of the rock, which -is escarped, or cut perpendicularly, for about 100 feet to the southeast -of the school and 43 feet north of it. The scarp is about 40 feet high at -the highest point; (Fig. 242). The school is built on a large projection -of the scarp 45 feet square and 20 feet high. The surface of the rock -under the school bears unmistakable signs that there was once an ancient -tower there. To the eastward of this Bliss discovered the foundations of -an ancient tower. Beyond this to the east there was a deep rock-cut ditch. -The tower on its northeast corner fitted into another rock-scarp which ran -northward into land on which they could not excavate.[236] The deep -rock-cut ditch or moat at the east of the scarp suggests that at the -period of the Latin kingdom of Jerusalem, 1099-1188 A. D., this fortress -formed the fortification of the southwest corner of the city, from which -the wall ran off sharply in a direction a little east of north. This view -is confirmed by the discovery which Bliss made of a wall, apparently built -by the Crusaders, that ran in a north-easterly direction by an irregular -course along the high part of the western hill toward the temple area. As -this wall rested on remains of the Roman time it cannot well have belonged -to a time earlier than the crusading period. May not, then, Maudsley's -scarp itself have been cut by the Crusaders who were most energetic and -masterly builders? This seems hardly probable, for Josephus, in describing -the course of the wall on the west side of the western hill, says that -beginning at Herod's palace (the modern Turkish fortress) the wall ran -southward through a place called "Bethso."[237] Bethso is a corruption of -Beth-zur, which means rock-fortress--an apt description of the tower on -Maudsley's scarp. As Josephus makes no mention of the construction of a -fortress at this point by Herod, it was probably built at an earlier -period. The writer holds with Bliss that it is probable that the original -fortress on the site of Bishop Gobat's School was constructed by Solomon -and that he enclosed the top of the western hill with a wall. Whether that -wall simply enclosed the top of the hill and followed something of the -same course as the wall of the Crusaders mentioned above (so Bliss -thinks), or whether it ran down the eastern slope of the western hill to -the southern point of the "City of David," it is impossible now to -determine. - -The view that Solomon extended the city to the western hill cannot be -proved, since there is no definite reference in the Bible to the western -hill in the time of Solomon, and there is no inscription on the masonry -found definitely to connect it with him. In consideration of all the -conditions it seems probable that Solomon enclosed a part of the western -hill. If so, the wall built by Solomon on the north side of the western -hill was probably on the line of what Josephus called the "first wall." -This wall, was rebuilt from time to time. The débris of a part of it seems -still to be in place at the east end of "David Street" in modern -Jerusalem. A short street, high above the surrounding levels, now runs on -the top of this débris.[238] - -(1) _Site of Solomon's Buildings._--Concerning the building of Solomon's -palace and the temple there can be no doubt, for the Bible contains -accounts of the construction of these. Their general location is also well -known. They were across the little valley which separated the part of Zion -called Ophel (where the city of David was situated) from the part -sometimes called Moriah.[239] This hill-top included the threshing-floor -of Araunah, the Jebusite (2 Sam. 24), and Solomon now enclosed this with a -wall. Sir Charles Warren believed that he found portions of this wall at -the southeast angle of the ancient temple area, 80 feet below the present -surface of the ground. During his excavations in the years 1867-1870 he -sunk at this point a shaft to the native rock, from the bottom of which a -tunnel was carried inward to the base of the wall. He found twenty-one -courses of drafted stones below the surface at this point, and the stones -in the lower courses bore quarry marks which resemble old Hebrew or -Phoenician characters.[240] The lower courses of stones were from 3 feet 6 -inches to 4 feet 3-1/2 inches in height. Some of the characters were cut -in the stones; some painted on them. It is most probable that these were -remains of the work of Solomon; (see Figs. 244, 245, and 246). - -The enclosure of this hill-top with a wall set it apart from the rest of -Jerusalem. It was a kind of separate fortress. At the time it emphasized -the majesty of Solomon--his apartness from his people. This separate -enclosure of the temple hill was perpetuated through the whole history of -Jerusalem and is maintained today. In all periods the temple hill has been -a fortress that could be defended apart from the city. - -(2) _Solomon's Temple._--Of the form and situation of the buildings of -Solomon on the hill that was enclosed by this new wall, there is a wide -diversity of opinion. This diversity arises in part from the fact that -some scholars take at their face value statements of Josephus, the Talmud, -and other late sources concerning Solomon's temple, while others attribute -less weight to the statements of those sources which were written long -after this temple was destroyed, and base their views rather on the -earlier documents. The last is the only sound method of study, and is the -course followed here. We shall take as evidence of the plan and situation -of the buildings the Biblical writers who had seen them. - -We are at the start confronted, however, with a difficulty, since no -Biblical writer has given us an exact statement as to what part of the -hill Solomon's temple occupied. Most modern scholars hold, nevertheless, -that it was built at the highest point of the hill just west of the sacred -cave, which has already been mentioned,[241] and the old rock-altar above -it. This view is confirmed by Josephus[242] and is undoubtedly correct, -although three or four modern scholars have doubted it. The temple would -naturally be built near the spot where the angel is said to have appeared -to David (2 Sam. 24:16), and as angels are frequently represented in the -Old Testament as appearing upon rocks (see Judges 6:11, f.; 13:19)[243] it -is altogether probable that the appearance to David was on the rock-altar -at the top of the hill. On this rock the animals for sacrifice were slain, -as the conduits for blood still visible on its top indicate. Near it, -then, or on it the altar of burnt-offerings stood. We learn from Ezekiel, -who had served as a priest in the temple of Solomon, that the temple faced -the east, that it stood to the west of the altar, and that there was room -between the temple and the altar for twenty-five men. (See Ezek. 8:16.) -The temple was a rectangular building with its greatest length running -east and west. Its measurements were 124 feet for the length, 50 for the -breadth, and 55 for the height. It was constructed of stones and cedar -beams. The outer temple, afterward called the holy place, was 70 feet -long, 34-1/2 feet wide, and 52 feet high. Back of it was the holy of -holies, where the ark was placed. It was a cube 34-1/2 feet each way. -Apparently there was a chamber above it.[244] This room was adorned with -carvings of cherubim, palms, and open flowers (1 Kings 6:29, 32, 35). It -had no window. According to 2 Chron. 3:14, it was separated from the holy -place by a veil. The holy place contained the table of show-bread and ten -golden lamp-stands (1 Kings 7:49).[245] The lattice work high up in the -walls of this room (1 Kings 6:4) can have admitted only an uncertain -light. The building was richly adorned with cedar and gold. It consisted -of three stories, and the walls were of varying thickness, since ledges -were built in them to receive the beams of the different stories. Each -story contained a series of chambers for storage or the use of the -priests. Those of the first story were five cubits wide, those of the -second six, and those of the third seven; (see Figs. 247-249). - -In front of the temple was a porch of unknown height, and before this were -two bronze pillars with ornamented tops, named Jachin and Boaz. A little -to the southeast of the temple in the open air was a brazen laver -supported by twelve brazen oxen (1 Kings 7:23-26, 39). Before the temple -Solomon also placed a brazen altar (2 Chron. 1:5, 6; 2 Kings 16:14). -Another article of temple furniture is described as a "base." It was -apparently a portable holder for a laver. It was made of bronze, provided -with wheels, and ornamented with figures of lions, cherubim, and -palm-trees (1 Kings 7:27-37); (see Figs. 251, 252). - -It is clear that the temple was not, like a modern church, intended for -the accommodation of the people. It was simply Jehovah's dwelling. Hither -the priests might come to bring the offerings of the people, and to -propitiate him. Solomon surrounded the temple with a court enclosed by a -wall of three courses of hewn stones and cedar beams (1 Kings 6:36). This -court became in later time the auditorium of the nation. Outside of this -was a larger court with walls of similar construction (1 Kings 7:12); (see -Fig. 243). - -(3) _Solomon's Palace._--Just to the south of the temple court, separated -from it only by a wall, was a middle court in which was Solomon's own -palace and the palace of Pharaoh's daughter (1 Kings 7:8). These palaces -were a little lower down the hill than the temple, and Solomon had a -private "ascent" by which he could go up into the temple (1 Kings 10:5). -The royal palaces were so near that a shout in the court around the altar -could be heard in the palace (2 Kings 11:12, 13). These palaces were built -of hewn stone and cedar. South of this court was still another, separated -from it by a wall. In this most southerly and lowest of the courts stood -the hall of state, in which was the throne room, where Solomon sat in -judgment. This hall was paneled with cedar from floor to roof. The throne -was of ivory, was approached by six steps, and flanked on each side by -lions (1 Kings 10:18-20). South of this and probably intended as its -vestibule was the "porch of pillars," 86 by 52 feet (1 Kings 7:6). Still -south of this stood the "house of the forest of Lebanon" (1 Kings 7:2), so -called because its four rows of cedar pillars were poetically suggestive -of a Lebanon forest. This was the largest of all the buildings, being 172 -feet long, 86 feet wide, and 52 feet high. There seem to have been two -stories, the uppermost of which was supported by 45 pillars in three rows. -Josephus says that the upper room of this hall was designed to "contain a -great body of men, who would come together to have their causes -determined."[246] He may have been influenced, however, in making the -statement by the customs of his own time. - -As one went northward, then, up the hill from the "city of David," he -passed through a gateway into the large court. In this court he came first -to the "house of the forest of Lebanon." Beyond this he would enter -through the "porch of pillars" into the splendid hall of judgment with its -imposing throne. If he were a favored servant or an honored guest of the -king, he might be admitted to the inner court, in which case he would -behold the imposing palaces of Solomon and his principal queen. A -passageway to the eastward of this more private court led the person not -so favored to the sacred court about the temple. - -In the construction of these buildings Solomon employed Phoenician -architects and workmen. His buildings were, therefore, more imposing than -those ordinarily erected in Palestine. The Phoenicians were the -intermediaries of the ancient world, and were the recipients of influences -from Babylonia, Egypt, the Hittites, Cyprus, and the Mycenean world. -Through them something of the world's architectural culture touched the -buildings of Solomon. - -=8. From Solomon to Hezekiah.=--Between the time of Solomon and Hezekiah, -the Bible furnishes us with but little information about Jerusalem. One -topographical fact is given us in the narrative of the war between Amaziah -of Judah and Jehoash of Israel, before 782 B. C. After Jehoash had been -victorious in the battle at Beth-shemesh, he came up to Jerusalem and -"brake down the wall of Jerusalem from the gate of Ephraim unto the corner -gate, four hundred cubits" (2 Kings 14:13); (see Fig. 304). This wall was -afterward repaired by Uzziah, who strengthened it with towers. - -Indeed, it seems probable that Uzziah's work was more extensive and that, -in order to render the city more impregnable, he added a second wall on -the north. Certainly a wall existed here before the Exile, for when -Nehemiah rebuilt the walls, this wall joined the temple area at its -northwest corner, and we know of no king after Uzziah who would be likely -to construct such a defence unless it was Hezekiah. As the city easily -withstood the attack of Pekah and Rezin in 735 (Isa. 7:1, ff.), it seems -probable that Uzziah was the builder. - -This wall by whomsoever it was built was in all probability on the line of -the so-called "second wall" of Josephus. As to just what its course was we -cannot now tell, further than that it started from near the Corner Gate, -near where the modern Turkish fortress now stands, and terminated at the -temple area. Some have supposed that after leaving the Corner Gate it ran -as far northward as the line on which the northern wall of the modern city -runs, then eastward from there to a point near the present Damascus Gate, -and then turned southward to the temple area. This seems improbable, -however, since in the time of Zechariah the tower of Hananel, which stood -near the northwest corner of the present area of the Mosque of Omar, was -the most northerly point of the city. It is thus possible that this second -wall may have run south of the site of the Church of the Holy Sepulcher. -Its whole course accordingly lies underneath the present city. None of -this has been excavated except a short part of the course near the ancient -Corner Gate. In 1885, when digging was in progress for the foundations of -the Grand New Hotel, just inside the Jaffa Gate and north of the Turkish -fortress, a course of large Jewish stones was laid bare which the late Dr. -Merrill and others believed to be a part of this second wall. The nature -of the digging did not, however, disclose its course for any great -distance; the part revealed ran nearly north and south. - -Unless Solomon built the wall which ran from Maudsley's scarp at the -northwest corner of the western hill eastward down the slope of that hill -to the southern point of the eastern hill, it must have been built by some -king of this period. No hint is given us as to who built this wall. It may -have been done in the reign of Jehoshaphat, which was a period of -prosperity and expansion (2 Kings 3:4-12), or in the reign of Uzziah, -which was also a very prosperous time. The need of stronger defenses -created by the advance of the Assyrians into western Asia in the ninth -and eighth centuries B. C. makes it probable that Uzziah was the builder. -At all events it was accomplished by the time of Hezekiah. - -In the reign of Ahaz there was a conduit (Isa. 7:3) leading from the -"upper pool," or Gihon, to a lower pool, which probably lay somewhere near -the mouth of the Tyropoeon valley. This conduit has been discovered. It -was designed partly to conduct water from Gihon out into the valley of the -Kidron for the irrigation of the king's gardens, and partly to fill the -lower pool so that cattle could come and drink. Isaiah refers to the -waters of this conduit as "the waters of Shiloah that go softly" (Isa. -8:6). Of course, this conduit was in Isaiah's time an old one. It is -impossible to tell when it was first constructed. It may have been made as -early as the time of Solomon or David, or even in Jebusite times. - -In the reign of Ahaz a change was made in the nature of the altar of -burnt-offerings in the temple. When Ahaz went to Damascus to do homage to -Tiglath-pileser IV of Assyria, he saw an altar that pleased him, and sent -a pattern of it home to the high priest, Urijah, with directions to have -one made like it for the temple. This Urijah did. This altar was -apparently constructed of stone. It displaced the brazen altar of Solomon, -which was henceforth kept for the king's private use (2 Kings 16:10-16). -It is thought by some that the measurements of this stone altar are -reproduced in Ezekiel 43:13-17. The brazen altar had always been out of -accord with the Hebrew law. (See Exod. 20:24-26.) - -=9. Hezekiah.=--Apart from his reform (2 Kings 18:1-6) and the invasions -of Sennacherib (2 Kings 18:9, ff.), the event of especial interest -mentioned in connection with Hezekiah is that "he made the pool and the -conduit and brought the water into the city" (2 Kings 20:20). Scholars are -agreed that this refers to the rock-cut aqueduct in which the Siloam -inscription was found.[247] This was for the time of its construction a -notable engineering achievement, though recent exploration of the tunnel -shows that the workers frequently went astray and cut in directions that -they did not intend. Indeed, it is probable that the great bends in the -tunnel were made on account of such mistakes and not as Clermont-Ganneau -formerly thought in order to avoid the tombs of the kings. Up to the -present, search for these tombs has been vain. They must have been -somewhere on the eastern hill, but there is no reason to believe that they -were at the great depth at which this tunnel was cut through the rock. - -If the supposition made above as to the walls of Uzziah is correct, it was -Hezekiah who built the first wall across the mouth of the Tyropoeon valley -so as to enclose within the city his new pool. This wall was found by -Bliss. It formed the dam of the pool. It was strongly buttressed and had -been rebuilt from time to time. Bliss detected five periods in its -history.[248] - -=10. From Hezekiah to the Exile.=--After Hezekiah, the general features of -Jerusalem remained the same down to the time of the Babylonian Exile in -586 B. C. We hear of a Fish Gate, probably where it was at a later time, -at the north of the city in the wall built by Uzziah. Zephaniah mentions -in connection with it "the second quarter" of the city (Zeph. 1:10), which -was probably the part of the town between the north wall of Uzziah and the -older north wall of Solomon on the western hill. The prophetess Huldah -lived there in the time of Josiah (2 Kings 22:14). Zephaniah also mentions -a part of the city called _Maktesh_ or the Mortar (Zeph. 1:11). This was a -part of Jerusalem occupied by Phoenician traders and craftsmen. It was -probably in the hollow between the two hills, _i. e._, in the Tyropoeon -valley. - -In the reign of Manasseh we hear of the sacrifice of children. For this -purpose a pit was excavated on the floor of the valley of Hinnom, to the -south of the city, and arrangements were made to burn the victims. This -was called Topheth (Jer. 7:31). Later it was defiled (2 Kings 23:10), and -to perpetuate the defilement refuse from the city seems to have been -burned there. The valley of Hinnom is in Hebrew _gai hinnom_. Later -generations conceived that the heavenly Jerusalem had also its valley of -Hinnom for the consumption of its refuse, hence _gai hinnom_ is used in -the New Testament in the form Gehenna as a name of hell. (See Matt. 5:29; -10:28.) - -=11. The Destruction of 586 B. C.=--Toward the end of the siege of -Jerusalem by Nebuchadrezzar in the year 586 it is said that the men of war -fled by the way of the gate between the two walls which was by the king's -garden (2 Kings 25:4). This was evidently a gate by the Pool of Siloam, -where the two walls of the eastern hill and the wall which came down the -western hill and crossed the mouth of the Tyropoeon valley all came -together.[249] - -In August of the year 586 B. C. Jerusalem was destroyed by Nebuchadrezzar. -The temple, the royal palace, and the residences of the principal men were -burned and the walls of the city were broken down (2 Kings 25:9, 10). All -that was combustible was burned, including the city gates (Neh. 1:3). All -portable things of value were carried away. Jerusalem now entered on a -period of desolation. The city was probably not entirely deserted. Some of -the poor who still managed to extract a subsistence from the desolate -hills still found shelter in her ruins. All the well-to-do inhabitants -were transported to Babylonia. - -It is often assumed that the site of the temple was unused during the -Exile and that no offerings were made there, but Jer. 41:4, 5 shows that -this was not the case. Probably an altar was repaired very soon, and the -poor people still went through their most indispensable religious -ceremonies amid the desolation, for men came from Samaria two months after -the destruction of the city to celebrate there the Feast of Tabernacles. - -This destruction of the city and the deportation of its population made a -very deep impression on the Jews. How their affections clung to the -desolate and defaced city is touchingly depicted in the book of -Lamentations and in the 137th Psalm. Indeed, the destruction of the real -Jerusalem was the beginning of that ideal Jerusalem which has been so -influential in the religious history of the world.[250] - -=12. The Second Temple.=--Beyond the erection of an altar, already -mentioned, the first steps toward the rebuilding of the temple were taken, -so many scholars think, in the second year of King Darius of Persia, _i. -e._, in 520 B. C. Eighteen years earlier Cyrus had made it possible for -this to be done,[251] but for various reasons it had not been -undertaken.[252] The man whose preaching moved the people to begin the -rebuilding was Haggai, and the circumstances under which he did it are -recounted in his book. Haggai's persuasion was later seconded by the -efforts of Zechariah. Through four years the house slowly rose, and was -finally completed in March of the sixth year of Darius (516 B. C.), five -months less than 70 years after it was destroyed. - -There is no doubt that the second temple was built on the lines of the -first, which were probably still traceable in the débris. It was also -constructed of stone which still lay about the top of the hill--stone that -had been used in the work of Solomon. It was not because it was smaller -than the first temple that old men who had seen that wept as they looked -on the new one (Ezra 3:12), but because it was less ornate. It was -probably without ornament. Josephus (_Contra Apion_, i, 22) says that the -temple court was enclosed by a wall a plethra in length and 100 Greek -cubits in breadth, _i. e._, 485-1/2 by 145-1/2 feet. It was not, then, -very large. It is uncertain whether there was at this time more than one -court; 1 Macc. 4:48 speaks of "courts," but Josephus tells[253] how the -people pelted Alexander Jannæus with citrons while he was officiating at -the altar during the Feast of Tabernacles, so that it is probable that the -courts were not separated by a wall, but by a difference of elevation. The -inner court was probably higher than the other, as it is around the Mosque -of Omar today. - -Within this court was an altar of unhewn stones. The temple itself -consisted as before of the holy place and the holy of holies. Before the -holy place was a porch, and around the building there were many small -chambers as formerly. The holy of holies was separated from the holy place -by a veil (1 Macc. 1:22), but now it contained no ark of the covenant, as -that had been lost in 586 B. C. The holy of holies in the second temple -was empty except for the "stone of foundation" on which the high priest -placed his censer on the day of atonement.[254] In the holy place the -table of show-bread stood in front of the veil. Instead of the ten golden -lamp-stands of Solomon's temple there now stood there the lamp with seven -branches (see Zech. 4). A golden altar of incense replaced it (1 Macc. -1:21) in the time of the Maccabees, though it may not have been placed -there before the time of Ezra. - -Such was the temple as reconstructed after the Exile. In one important -respect its perspective was changed. The royal palace and the -administrative buildings, which before the Exile had shared the crest of -the northern spur of Zion with the temple, were not rebuilt. The temple -stood there alone. Little by little the part of the hill to the south of -the temple was cleared of the débris and the ground became a temple court. -This was significant of the religious condition of the post-exilic time. -Kings had vanished; the worship of Jehovah held the supreme place in the -thought of the people. - -=13. Nehemiah and the Walls.=--For seventy-two years after the temple was -rebuilt, the walls of the city still lay in ruins. That they were at last -restored was due to the patriotism and energy of a noble young Jew, -Nehemiah, who had been a cup-bearer to Artaxerxes I of Persia. The story -of how he obtained the royal permission to return to Jerusalem as -governor, with authority to rebuild the walls, how upon his arrival he -traced by their ruins the lines of the old walls, with what energy and -amid what difficulties he pushed their rebuilding to completion in the -course of three months in the year 444 B. C., is told in detail in -Nehemiah 1-7 and need not be repeated here. - -At the northwest corner of the western hill there was placed in the wall -at this time a gate called the Valley Gate (Neh. 3:13). This was the gate -discovered by Bliss[255] a little to the east of the old fortress on -Maudsley's scarp. When the wall was completed, a ceremony of dedication -was held. At this festival two processions started from this Valley Gate; -one of these went around the south side of the city, the other around the -north side (Neh. 12:31-40). They met at the temple. The procession that -went around the south side of the city passed by the Dung Gate, which was -situated in the southern wall well down the hill, then by the Fountain -Gate, near the Pool of Siloam, then up the "ascent of the wall" by the -stairs of the "City of David," and passed the Water Gate somewhere above -the spring of Gihon. Still above this, probably just to the east of the -temple area, was the Horse Gate (Neh. 3:28). The other company, starting -from the Valley Gate at the southwest corner of the city, passed northward -by the "Tower of the Furnaces" unto the broad wall, above the Gate of -Ephraim, by the Old Gate, and by the Fish Gate, past the Tower of Hananel -and the Tower of Hammeah, unto the Sheep Gate. This description, together -with the line of the previous wall, enables us approximately to determine -the outline of post-exilic Jerusalem; (see Fig. 305). The one point of -doubt has to do with the line of the second wall on the north of the city, -laid out probably by Uzziah. As that line is directly under the present -city it has never been possible to follow it by excavations. We can only -conjecture what its course may have been. The towers of Hananel and -Hammeah were clearly north of the temple area. They probably fortified the -wall along the edge of a shallow valley which separated Moriah from the -hill north of it. This hill was later called Bezetha. - -=14. Late Persian and Early Greek Periods.=--After the time of Ezra and -Nehemiah, we have no clear topographical references to Jerusalem until the -second century B. C. It seems probable that Jerusalem and Judah rebelled -against one of the later Persian kings and that the city suffered.[256] We -hear that Ptolemy I of Egypt also captured Jerusalem,[257] but whether -these experiences led to any modification in the form of the city, we do -not know. The _Wisdom of Jesus, the Son of Sirach_, often called -_Ecclesiasticus_, which was written about 180 B. C., indicates that -Jerusalem was a carefully organized city. Many professions and much -commerce were represented in it, as well as many human sins and -foibles.[258] The author declares[259] that a high priest, Simon, the son -of Onias (probably Simon II, 218-198 B. C.), repaired the temple and -fortified the city. What the nature of either work was, we do not know. So -far as can be ascertained, he confined himself to the strengthening of old -defenses, and did not change the topography. - -In the early part of the reign of Antiochus IV, while many Jews were -kindly inclined to Greek culture and to Greek ways, an outdoor gymnasium -was established in Jerusalem.[260] This was in a hollow just above the -Tyropoeon valley to the west of the south end of the temple -enclosure.[261] Josephus calls it the Xystus, a Greek name that reveals -its character. Some reminder that it was once a gymnasium perhaps lingers -in _Maidan_, the modern Arabic name for the locality, which means -hippodrome, or place of combat. - -=15. In the Time of the Maccabees.=--In the Maccabæan period the city was -divided into three parts--the city proper, the temple, and the Akra or -citadel. As to the situation of the Akra, there is a wide difference of -opinion. Into the different theories it is impossible to go.[262] The -writer agrees with George Adam Smith, that in all probability the Akra -was the "City of David" of the earlier time, as 1 Maccabees states (1:33; -7:32, 33; 14:36). We first hear of this Akra in 198 B. C., when an -Egyptian garrison held out in it against Antiochus III.[263] It was so -shut off from the rest of Jerusalem that, though, after the onslaught of -Antiochus IV on the Jews in 168 B. C., Judas Maccabæus recovered the city -and temple as early as 165 B. C., the Syrians kept possession of the Akra -for twenty-three years more, until they were finally dislodged by Simon -the Maccabee in 142 B. C.[264] - -=16. Asmonæan Jerusalem.=--During the Asmonæan dynasty which grew out of -the Maccabæan struggle,[265] three new features were added to Jerusalem. -One was a castle, to the northward of the temple area built by John -Hyrcanus I, 135-105 B. C.[266] This was known to Greek-speaking Jews as -Baris, which is a corruption of the Hebrew _Birah_, a fortress. Its walls -are massive and high. It commanded the approach to the temple area from -the north, and greatly strengthened the effectiveness of the temple -fortification. - -One of the Asmonæans, probably John Hyrcanus I, built a palace in -Jerusalem.[267] This palace apparently stood on the site now occupied by -the Synagogue of the German Jews in Jerusalem.[268] It was connected with -the temple area by a bridge,[269] of which a remnant of the easternmost -span, now called "Robinson's Arch,"[270] is still visible on the western -wall of the temple enclosure. This bridge was destroyed by Pompey when he -captured Jerusalem in 63 B. C.,[271] and its remains were found by Warren -in the bottom of the Tyropoeon valley, 80 feet below the present surface -of the ground.[272] As the Asmonæans were high priests as well as kings, -this bridge gave them easy access to the temple from their palace. The -palace itself, situated on a part of the western hill that overtopped the -temple hill, was so placed that the royal priest could sit in his palace -and watch what was transpiring in the temple courts and in the valley -below. - -The third accomplishment of the Asmonæans was probably the construction of -Solomon's Pools and the High Level Aqueduct by which the water was brought -into Jerusalem.[273] This work appears also to have been accomplished by -John Hyrcanus I, for Timarchus, the biographer of Antiochus VII, who was a -contemporary of Hyrcanus I, says of Jerusalem that "the whole city runs -down with waters, so that even the gardens are irrigated by the water -which flows off from it."[274] Such a description would be quite -unfitting, if all the water had been supplied by Gihon, En-rogel, and the -cisterns about Jerusalem. It implies that a perpetual stream of water, -such as came through one of the aqueducts, flowed into the city. - -One other structure is attributed to an Asmonæan. Alexander Jannæus was -very unpopular with the Pharisees, and once, as already noted, he was -pelted by the people with citrons. He thereupon erected a wooden barrier -around the temple and the altar, thus excluding the laity from a close -approach to the temple,[275] and creating a court for the priests alone. - -Jerusalem suffered from four sieges in the troublous days when the -Asmonæan power was waning and that of Rome was being established. The -first was by Haretat, King of the Nabathæans, in 65 B. C., but was lifted -without result.[276] The second was that of Pompey in 63 B. C. It resulted -in the capture of the city and in considerable damage. The bridge across -the Tyropoeon to the royal palace was broken down.[277] The third was that -of the Partisans in 40 B. C., when they captured the city and placed -Antigonus, son of Aristobulus II, on the throne.[278] The fourth was that -by which Herod the Great became master of Jerusalem in 37 B. C. At this -time a part of the two northern walls were broken down.[279] The -topography of the city was in no way changed until after the conquest by -Herod, who changed the face of Jerusalem in many ways. - -=17. Herod the Great.=--The first work of Herod was to rebuild and -strengthen the fortress to the north of the temple. This he did at the -beginning of his reign while Mark Antony was still in power in the East. -He accordingly renamed the castle Antonia.[280] Herod also rebuilt and -strengthened the walls which he had battered down in taking Jerusalem, -adding towers to make them more impregnable. At the southwest corner of -the city he erected three new towers,--Hippacus, Phasael, and -Mariamne.[281] These all probably stood in or near the space now covered -by the Turkish fortress at the Jaffa Gate. Hippacus was apparently the -northwest tower of the present citadel, Phasael the easternmost of the -towers in the same structure, which still bears the name "Tower of David"; -Mariamne lay to the east of these. Hippacus was 80 cubits high, Phasael -90, and Mariamne 50. On the north of these, perhaps near the point where -the northwest corner of the present city wall is, stood Psephinus, an -octagonal tower 70 cubits high. - -(1) _Herod's Palace._--In connection with the towers Hippacus and Phasael -and on the site of the present Turkish citadel, Herod built a new and -splendid royal palace.[282] Its walls on the west and north were the same -as the old city walls; on the east and south, walls of the same -massiveness were erected. It contained two halls, each the size of the -sanctuary, with couches within for a hundred guests. There were many other -richly furnished chambers. The towers and the palace were faced with -marble. Stretching to the southward, of the palace were colonnades which -bordered on open courts, in which shrubberies, fountains, and long walks -abounded. These fountains were fed by the High Level Aqueduct. - -This palace commanded the highest point of the southwestern hill. Its -construction finally transferred the controlling power to the western -hill, or as Josephus calls it, the "Upper City." Ever after this the -western hill was the seat of political power. When Procurators ruled Judæa -this palace became the prætorium.[283] It was to this castle that our -Saviour was brought to be tried by Pontius Pilate. It was to its entrance, -probably on the east, that Pilate brought Jesus and offered to release -him, when the people cried: "Away with this man ... crucify him" (Luke 23: -18, 21). This palace, built by one of the ablest and most unscrupulous of -men, is thus associated with one of the most sacred and tragic moments of -history. From that day to this it has remained the seat of political -authority in Jerusalem. Its presence on the western hill has gradually -drawn the name Zion from the original city of David to the western hill, -and so distorted the Old Testament traditions that even several modern -scholars[284] still refuse to give credence to the clear voice of the Old -Testament as to the site of the original Zion. The palace, battered down -and rebuilt again and again, still retains in its walls many of the -massive stones of Herod. This palace was completed about 23 B. C. - -(2) _Herod's Theater._--About 25 B. C. Herod founded an athletic gathering -to be celebrated every five years in honor of Augustus.[285] Josephus, in -speaking of this fact, says that Herod built a theater in Jerusalem, and -also a very great amphitheater in the plain. If he actually built a -theater in the city, all traces of it have disappeared. To the south of -the city on a hill considerably beyond the Valley of Hinnom, the remains -of a great theater were discovered some years ago by the late Dr. -Schick.[286] This theater faced the north, its diameter was more than 130 -feet, and spectators seated in it could see Jerusalem in the distance. It -is thought by some scholars that this is the theater to which Josephus -alludes, as Herod would hardly have ventured to outrage Jewish feeling by -placing such a structure in the sacred city. If the discovery of Dr. -Schick represents Herod's theater, it is quite unknown where the -"amphitheater in the plain," to which Josephus makes reference, was -situated. - -(3) _Herod's Temple._--When the palace of Herod was completed, the -splendid structures of Antonia and the palace quite overshadowed the old -dingy temple. The temple had frequently been repaired by the high priests, -and perhaps during the Maccabæan time had been somewhat embellished, but -it nevertheless remained essentially as it had been rebuilt after the -Exile. Herod had built Sebaste on the site of ancient Samaria in 27 B. C., -and began about 22 B. C. to build Cæsarea. In these and other cities he -had erected splendid temples to heathen deities; naturally he desired to -make the temple of his capital city worthy to stand beside them. He had -difficulty in persuading the Jews to let him touch the sacred house, but -yielding in many things to their scruples, work was finally begun in the -year 20-19 B. C. Some of the priests became carpenters and stone-cutters, -so that no profane hands need touch the sacred shrine.[287] The old temple -was taken down and the new one erected in the space of eighteen months. -But much remained to be done and the work dragged along until after -Herod's death. In the time of Christ "forty and six years was this temple -in building" (John 2:20), and it was not then completed. It was finished -only in 64 A. D., six years before it was finally destroyed.[288] The -temple itself occupied the site of its predecessor, and was of the same -plan and dimensions. These Herod did not dare to change. They were -consecrated by nearly a thousand years of sacred associations. If he could -not enlarge it, however, he could make it higher, and he made its -elevation a hundred cubits or 172 feet. He also enlarged the porch, making -it 120 feet broad. The whole was built of huge blocks of white stone, with -plates of gold upon the front.[289] The holy of holies consisted, as -before, of a dark, empty room, 35 feet in each dimension. It was separated -from the holy place by curtains, an outer and an inner, which were a foot -apart. The holy place was still 40 by 20 cubits, but was now made 40 -instead of 30 cubits high.[290] Its furniture was the same as in the -second temple: the table of show-bread, the altar of incense, and the lamp -with seven branches; (Fig. 250). The entrance to the holy place, 15 cubits -wide and 70 cubits high, was not closed by doors. Josephus declares that -it was left open to set forth the "unobstructed openness of heaven."[291] - -On the top of the temple, spikes with sharp points were arranged to -prevent birds from lighting upon it and defiling it. Twelve broad steps -led down from the temple to the court of the priests.[292] These steps -occupied nearly all the 22 cubits of space between the porch and the -altar. Not far from the steps at the south stood the great laver, which -had replaced the brazen sea of Solomon's temple. The altar of unhewn -stones rose upon the sacred rock--sacred since the days of the Jebusites -(and possibly since the stone age), to which it was fitted by masonry. The -base of the altar was 32 cubits square and 1 high. On this rose a -structure 30 cubits square and 5 cubits high. On this was a ledge 1 cubit -broad, to which the horns of the altar were attached. Not far above was -another ledge, also a cubit broad, on which the officiating priests might -stand. Above this was the altar hearth itself, which was 24 cubits square. -South of the altar was a structure of masonry on which priests could -stand; north of it, the place for the slaughter of the victims. Here the -victims to be slain were tied to rings in the pavement. There were tables -of marble on which they could be washed and flayed. Beams supported by -pillars also contained hooks on which they could be hung for quartering. -Herod, as noted above,[293] probably constructed the Low Level Aqueduct. -By means of this he brought a larger supply of water into the temple area, -so that there was an abundance of water with which to flush the holy -place, and wash away the blood and refuse with which the place must often -have reeked, especially on festal days. - -A low wall a cubit in height marked off the court of the priests from the -court of Israel. Accounts differ as to whether this wall was on the east -only or whether it ran around the whole temple. The court of Israel lay to -the east of the court of the priests. Again our sources of information -differ as to its exact size. Here the "congregation of Israel" could -assemble to witness the sacred sacrifices. To the east of the court of -Israel lay the court of the women. These were separated by a wall, but, -owing to the downward slope of the hill, the court of the women was -fifteen steps lower than that of Israel. Indeed, the level of the court of -Israel was only maintained by a series of arches which supported a -pavement. Perhaps the idea of a court for the women had been a gradual -development of the post-exilic time, in which they had been permitted to -watch the sacrifices from a definitely defined position in the rear of the -men. At all events, this court became a prominent feature in the temple of -Herod, and from elevated seats on its eastern side women could still watch -the sacred ceremonies of the temple. With the exception of this gallery, -the court of the women was open to men. It was 135 cubits square and so -was relatively large. Apparently the temple treasury was situated in this -court, together with the money boxes, for women had access to these. Here -probably Christ was sitting when he saw the poor widow cast into the -treasury her two mites (Mark 12:41, f.; Luke 21:1, f). Around these courts -ran a wall 43 feet high. This wall was pierced by nine gates, four on the -north, four on the south, and one on the east. A gate also separated the -court of the women from the court of Israel. Either the gate that opened -out of the court of the women to the eastward, or the one between the -court of the women and the court of Israel (it is uncertain which one) -had been given by one Nicanor and was of fine Corinthian bronze. It was -sometimes called "the gate beautiful" and sometimes "Nicanor's gate." It -was by this gate, and so near the treasury where people were devoting -their money to religion, that Peter and John found the lame man begging -(Acts 3:2, f.). - -Outside all these courts lay the court of the Gentiles. This was separated -from the courts described above by a _Soreg_ or ritual wall, which no -Gentile might pass. Herod placed inscriptions in Greek at the various -gates in this ritual wall, which warned Gentiles on pain of death not to -enter. The court of the Gentiles surrounded the other courts on the north, -east, and south; it was, however, most extensive on the east and south; -(Fig. 257). To obtain a greater area for this court on the south, Herod -extended the level of the hill by erecting great arches which supported a -pavement. This structure still remains; it is now called "Solomon's -stables"; (Fig. 258). In the Crusading period horses were stabled there. -Around the court thus enlarged ran a beautiful colonnade. The pillars for -this and for Herod's palace were quarried from the rock around Jerusalem. -One pillar which had a defect and was accordingly never moved from the -quarry was found a few years since in front of the Russian cathedral north -of the city. - -Although the temple has passed away and other sacred buildings have since -the second century been erected in succession near its site, the expanse -of the court of the Gentiles remains, and as the devout Christian visits -it he seems almost to hear the footfalls of Christ and of Paul! - -=18. The Pool of Bethesda.=--Another spot connected with the life of -Christ lay not far from the temple on the north; it was the Pool of -Bethesda. It was situated near the Sheep Gate, which was just northeast of -the temple. Since the thirteenth century the _Birket Israin_[294] which -lies between the temple area and the modern St. Stephen's Gate has been -identified by some with Bethesda. Since 1889 it has been thought by many -that two pools discovered in that year, now far under ground, in the land -of the Church of St. Anne, just north of St. Stephen's Gate, constituted -the Pool of Bethesda; (see Fig. 259). It is really impossible to decide -between the two possibilities on the evidence we have. Both are in the -region where we should look for the Pool of Bethesda. - -=19. Gethsemane.=--Two other spots near Jerusalem are of the deepest -interest to the Christian student--the Garden of Gethsemane and Golgotha. -The fact is certain that the Garden of Gethsemane lay on the western slope -of the Mount of Olives. (See Luke 22:39; John 18:1; Mark 14:26, 32.) Since -the sixteenth century the Roman Catholics have shown a little garden, -which lies just above the Kidron, as the Garden of Gethsemane. More -recently the Russian Church has walled in the space next above it as the -real garden. There is no certainty that the garden was on either site. To -the Jews of the first century a garden was not a place for flower-beds, -but an olive orchard, and such an orchard may have extended widely over -the hillside. We cannot now identify the spot made sacred by the Master's -agony, but we know as we look at this hillside that it was somewhere on -it. - -=20. Calvary.=--The site of Calvary or Golgotha is not so easily -discerned. Since the year 326 A. D., when Helena, the mother of the -Emperor Constantine, visited Jerusalem, there has been a continuous -tradition in favor of the site on which the Church of the Holy Sepulcher -stands. We know from Hebrews 13:12 that the crucifixion took place outside -the city walls. Unfortunately, we cannot tell whether the second wall of -this period ran north or south of the spot on which the Church of the Holy -Sepulcher stands, for the whole region lies under the modern city, where -excavation has been impossible. If the second wall turned eastward before -it had gone as far north as this spot, it may well be that the crucifixion -occurred where the church now stands. Pilate condemned Jesus at the palace -of Herod near the gate Gennath at the northwest corner of the city of that -day. Doubtless the mob swept along with Jesus through the gate Gennath to -the spot called Golgotha. If the Church of the Holy Sepulcher was on that -spot, the walk was not a long one; (see Fig. 260). - -In 1849 Otto Thenius suggested that the hill north of the modern Damascus -Gate above "Jeremiah's Grotto" was the real Golgotha; (Figs. 261, 262). -This was also suggested by Fisher Howe in 1871, and advocated by Gen. C. -E. Gordon in 1881. Near it is a garden in which is a rock-hewn tomb; -(Figs. 263, 264). Since the days of Gordon a kind of Protestant tradition -and cult has grown up about this spot that in certain quarters evokes some -of the devotion called forth among Catholics and Oriental Christians by -the Church of the Holy Sepulcher. It must be said that the tomb in the -garden is, like many similar tombs in the neighborhood, probably not -earlier than the third or fourth century A. D., and there is really no -more reason for regarding this spot as Golgotha than any other hill-top -near the city. The exact spot where our Lord suffered is not certainly -known. - -Ecclesiastical tradition has fixed upon many other spots in Jerusalem as -the places where certain events in the life of Christ occurred, but none -of these has a sufficient degree of probability in its favor to merit a -mention in an archæological work. - -=21. Agrippa I and the Third Wall.=--In the reign of Herod Agrippa I -(41-44 A. D.), Jerusalem was again enlarged. Agrippa built a third wall on -the north. Its course is described by Josephus,[295] but as most of the -landmarks mentioned by him are unknown, opinions differ as to its course. -It is certain that it started at the tower Hippacus and went northward to -the tower Psephinus, that it enclosed the hill Bezetha, and that it ran -along the edge of the Kidron valley to join the old wall. Some scholars -suppose that it ran about on the line of the present northern Turkish wall -of the city; others, as Robinson and Merrill, thought it ran much further -north so that its northeastern corner was near the "Tombs of the Kings." -While there is not decisive evidence in the matter, the first view, that -the third wall ran near the line of the modern wall, seems the more -probable. This wall was begun by Agrippa, who did not dare to finish it -lest Claudius should suspect him of an intention to rebel. It was, -however, completed by the Jews before the last tragic struggle of the -years 66-70, and formed one of the features of Jerusalem when Paul made -his later visits to the city. - -We have not space to follow the fortunes of Jerusalem further. The history -of the "Virgin Daughter of Zion" since 70 A. D., when the walls were -broken down and the temple destroyed never to be rebuilt, has been no less -checkered and tragic than in the centuries that preceded,[296] but the -hearts of all Christians as well as of Jews and Mohammedans turn to her -with sympathy and affection, because of their debt to the holy men who at -various times, from David to Paul, lived in her and walked her streets, -and because of her tragic associations with the life and death of One who -was more than man. - - - - -CHAPTER XIV - -THE DECAPOLIS - - ORIGIN. DAMASCUS. SCYTHOPOLIS. CITIES EAST OF THE SEA OF GALILEE. - GADARA. PELLA AND DION. GERASA. PHILADELPHIA. JESUS IN THE DECAPOLIS. - - -=1. Origin.=--Three times in the Gospels the Decapolis is mentioned: Matt. -4:25; Mark 5:20 and 7:31. Decapolis is a Greek name and means "the ten -city" (region). The ancient writers who mention it agree that it -originally consisted of ten cities in which Greek population was dominant -and which were federated together. Pliny[297] gives the ten cities as -Damascus, Philadelphia, Raphana, Scythopolis, Gadara, Hippos, Dion, Pella, -Gerasa, and Kanatha. Ptolemy, the astronomer and geographer, in the second -century A. D. enumerated eighteen cities as belonging to it. In the time -of Christ it probably consisted of but ten. The Decapolis apparently was -created by the Roman General Pompey, when he conquered this region for -Rome in 65-63 B. C. These cities with Greek populations appear to have -appealed to him and he granted them certain privileges, including a degree -of autonomy. They were, however, subject to the Legate of Syria. Hippos, -Scythopolis, and Pella were released by him at this time from the Jewish -yoke.[298] Josephus, at the end of the first century A. D., does not -reckon Damascus in the Decapolis, but before the time of Paul, Damascus -had been captured by the Nabathæans or Arabians, and may not, when retaken -by Rome, have been again accorded the privileges of the cities of the -Decapolis. - -=2. Damascus=, which is mentioned in the annals of Thothmes III before -1447 B. C., and in the accounts of Abraham (Gen. 14:15; 15:2), has been -continuously in existence as a city ever since, and is one of the most -flourishing cities of Syria at the present time. It was occupied in the -thirteenth or fourteenth century B. C. by Aramæans who held it all through -the Old Testament period. Kings of Damascus frequently fought with Israel. -From the time of Alexander the Great it came under Hellenic influences. -After his death it was first possessed by the Ptolemies of Egypt, but was -taken by the Seleucid kings of Antioch before 261 B. C. It is situated in -one of the most fertile oases of the world--an oasis that Arabian poets -delighted to compare to Paradise. Probably Alexander's successors, who, as -we shall see, built many Hellenic cities, beautified this oasis with one -of them, but as the site has been occupied continuously, no buildings from -this time remain. One feature at Damascus that still recalls Biblical -times is the street called Straight, which runs westward from the eastern -gate into the heart of the city. It was in a house on the ancient -forerunner of this street that Paul first lodged at the time of his -conversion (Acts 9:11); (see Fig. 265). - -One other part of Damascus recalls a Biblical narrative. This is the river -Barada which still runs through the heart of the city. It is the river -called Abana in 2 Kings 5:12, and was said by Naaman to be "better than -all the waters of Israel"; (see Fig. 266). - -=3. Scythopolis= was the only one of the cities of the Decapolis west of -the Jordan. It was on the site of the Beth-shean of the Old Testament -(Josh. 17:11; 1 Sam. 31:10, 12; 2 Sam. 21:12; 1 Kings 4:12). Beth-shean -was already a city at the time Palestine was conquered by Thothmes -III[299] and there has apparently been a town near this spot ever since. -It seems to have been called Scythopolis by the successors of Alexander -the Great, probably because a group of Scythians had taken the city and -settled there. When it came into the possession of Scythians we can only -conjecture, but it was probably at the time of the great Scythian invasion -of Palestine, about 625-615 B. C. This invasion called forth the dark -prophecies of the book of Zephaniah. Scythopolis appears from certain -coins[300] to have become a Hellenic city in the time of Alexander the -Great. In the time of Ptolemy Euergetes I, 247-222 B. C., it was subject -to Egypt,[301] but it passed to the dominions of the Seleucidæ of Antioch -in 198 B. C. Upon the break-up of the Syrian empire in 65-63 B. C., Pompey -made it one of the cities of the Decapolis. - -The remains of the Hellenic city have now entirely disappeared with the -exception of the great stone amphitheater. This may still be seen[302] in -the valley on the south side of the mound which covers the ruins of the -ancient Beth-shean, where it is overgrown with briers. The name -Scythopolis has long since disappeared, and the old Hebrew name for the -place still survives in the name of the modern town Beisan. This modern -town is situated on the south side of the valley mentioned above, a little -distance from the mound which covers the ancient city. Scythopolis was -situated at the point where the plain of Jezreel or Esdraelon joins the -Jordan valley. In the time of Christ the Jews from Nazareth and its -vicinity, when going to the three annual festivals at Jerusalem, came down -the plain and then followed the Jordan valley down to Jericho (see Luke -19:1), in order to avoid going through Samaria. From the time that Jesus -was twelve years old he must, therefore, have often passed by Scythopolis -on his way to Jerusalem. As it was a Gentile town, however, neither he nor -his companions would enter it on such occasions, as they would thereby be -rendered unclean. - -=4. Cities East of the Sea of Galilee.=--To the east of the Sea of Galilee -lay three of the cities of the Decapolis. Hippos was comparatively near -the sea, where Susiye now lies. The Jews of the Talmudic period called the -place Susitha.[303] Hippos is the Greek for horse. Susitha is a Hebrew -translation of this and Susiye is an Arabic corruption of the Hebrew. All -traces of the ancient Hippos except the name have disappeared. - -Where Raphana was situated has not yet been definitely determined. It is -probably the same as Raphon mentioned in 1 Macc. 5:37, which was near to -Ashteroth-karnaim[304] (Gen. 14:5). Ashteroth-karnaim was situated either -at Tell Ashtara or at Tell Ashary, both of which are between twenty and -twenty-five miles east of the Sea of Galilee. Raphana, then, probably lay -about twenty miles due east from Hippos. - -Still eastward of this lay the city of Kanatha, though scholars are -divided in opinion as to whether its site is to be identified with -El-Kerak or with Kanawat. If its site was at El-Kerak it was about forty -miles east of the Sea of Galilee; if at Kanawat it was about fifty-five -miles distant from the sea. As there are at Kanawat abundant ruins of a -beautiful Hellenic city,[305] Kanatha was probably situated here rather -than at El-Kerak. This was the Kenath of Num. 32:42. - -=5. Gadara.=--A little to the south of the southern end of the Sea of -Galilee on the east of the Jordan and south of the Yarmuk lay the city of -Gadara, another member of the Decapolis. Its site is now marked by the -ruins of Umm Keis or Mukês. Here ruins of the Hellenic city are still to -be seen, including a great theater cut out of the black basaltic rock. -Gadara was a strong fortress as early as the time of Antiochus the Great -in 218 B. C.,[306] and was afterward besieged by Alexander Jannæus,[307] -104-79 B. C. - -=6. Pella and Dion.=--On the east of the Jordan, a little further south -than Scythopolis or Beth-shean, but in the deep depression of the river -valley, Pella, another city of the Decapolis, was situated. The site now -bears the name Fahl. The city is mentioned in the list of Thothmes III, -1503-1447 B. C., as Pahul. Pella is a Greek form of this name. The Greek -city of Pella is said by Stephen of Byzantium[308] to have been founded by -Alexander the Great. In the Talmud it is called Pahal,[309] and the modern -name Fahl is an Arabian form of this. Extensive ruins of the Hellenic city -are still visible at Fahl.[310] - -Dion is also said to have been founded by Alexander the Great and was -apparently not far from Pella. It is thought by Merrill[311] and G. A. -Smith to have been situated on the site of the modern Eidun, about twenty -miles east of Pella, though this is doubted by others.[312] If Dion was at -this point few, if any, antiquities remain to bear witness to the fact. - -=7. Gerasa=, the modern Jerash, lay on one of the tributaries of the -Jabbok about fifty miles southeast of Pella. We do not know what the name -of the place was in Old Testament times. It is first mentioned in the time -of Alexander Jannæus (104-79 B. C.).[313] It was then called Gerasa and -was probably already at that time a Hellenic city. By whom it was built, -we do not know, but it was probably one of the early Ptolemies of Egypt. -From 100 B. C. till the Mohammedan conquest in 637 A. D., it flourished as -a beautiful city, and later it was a city of some importance. It probably -was overtaken by some calamity and the site of the Hellenic city -abandoned soon after the year 637, as there are no Arabic remains above -the Græco-Roman material. In the year 1121 Baldwin II, of the Latin -kingdom of Jerusalem, made a campaign against Gerasa, where the ruler of -Damascus had caused a castle to be built. In the next century the Arabian -geographer, Yakut, describes it as deserted. It appears to have been -ruined by an earthquake. - -Apparently the Hellenic city at Gerasa lasted longer than any of the other -cities of the Decapolis unless it be Kanatha. One can, accordingly, gain -from the ruins of Gerasa an excellent idea of the general appearance of -one of these cities.[314] The writer has never seen more beautiful ruins -than those at Jerash except the ruins at Athens. As one approached the -site from the south he faced a beautiful arched gateway. After passing -this gateway one looked northward down a long colonnaded street, which at -a little distance from the gate broadened out into a circular forum. At -distances approximately equal from one another this main street was -crossed by other colonnaded streets. A number of these columns are -standing in different parts of the town. The remains of two imposing -temples, of two theaters, of a large Christian basilica, and of various -other buildings, impress one with the former glory of the city. A number -of the buildings at Gerasa were built in the second century A. D. in the -reign of the Antonines; (see Figs. 268, 269). - -=8. Philadelphia=, the most southerly of the cities of the Decapolis, was -on the site of Rabbah Ammon (Deut. 3:11; Josh. 13:25; 2 Sam. 11:1, etc.). -This was situated on the upper Jabbok about twenty miles east of the -Jordan valley, where Amman now lies. The Hellenic city here was built by -Ptolemy Philadelphus of Egypt, who reigned from 283-247 B. C. It was named -Philadelphia from him. In 218 B. C. the city was taken by Antiochus III, -who captured the cistern to which in time of siege the Philadelphians went -for water by an underground passage,[315] after which thirst compelled -them to surrender. Joab centuries before had captured the city for David -by the same method,[316] and in 30 B. C. Herod the Great again took it in -the same way.[317] The remains of the Hellenic temple, of the theater, -and of other buildings, including a Christian basilica, are still to be -seen at Amman.[318] In the fourth century A. D. Philadelphia was one of -the prominent cities of the Roman province of Arabia; (see Figs. 270, -271). - -These cities of the Decapolis appear to have been built on a similar plan. -Each had a colonnaded street through the center of the town, each had at -least one temple and one theater, and some of them more. All were -architecturally beautiful. They all possessed a similar government also, -and each appears to have controlled the villages in its district. - -=9. Jesus in the Decapolis.=--The prevailing influences in the Decapolis -were pagan, and yet there were Jews living in it, for multitudes of them -from the Decapolis followed Jesus (Matt. 4:25). On at least two occasions -our Lord himself went into the territory of the Decapolis. We read in Mark -5:1 that Jesus and his disciples "came to the other side of the sea to the -country of the Gerasenes." The Authorized Version reads "to the country of -the Gadarenes." The country to which Jesus came at this time cannot have -been that of the Decapolitan city Gerasa, for, as we have seen, that lay -far to the south. It was in a direct line nearly fifty miles from the Sea -of Galilee. Neither can it have been to the region of Gadara that he came, -for Gadara lay at least five miles to the south across the deep valley of -the Yarmuk. There was, however, on the east shore of the Sea of Galilee a -town called Gergesa, the modern Kursi. This place was near the city of -Hippos, and possibly one of the towns subordinate to Hippos. As Jesus and -the disciples walked back from the sea they met the demoniac, whom Jesus -healed. It was in connection with this healing that the herd of swine was -destroyed--an incident that could happen in no part of Palestine except -Decapolis or Philistia, for swine were unclean to Jews and they never kept -them. The demoniac, when cured, went and preached Jesus in the Decapolis -(Mark 5:20). - -Again, toward the end of the ministry of Jesus, after he had withdrawn for -a time to Phoenicia, he returned by crossing the high lands of northern -Galilee and coming down east of the Jordan "through the midst of the -borders of Decapolis" (Mark 7:31). - - - - -CHAPTER XV - -ATHENS, CORINTH, AND THE CHURCHES OF ASIA - - ATHENS. CORINTH. THE CHURCHES OF ASIA: Ephesus. Pergamum. Thyatira. - Sardis. Philadelphia. Smyrna. Laodicea. - - -The greater part of Biblical history was enacted in Palestine and the -great valleys of Mesopotamia and the Nile. The Apostle Paul, however, -broke the Jewish bonds of primitive Christianity and carried the Gospel to -the coasts of the Ægean Sea. In cities of this region he spent years of -his active missionary life; to churches of this region most of his -epistles were sent, and to churches of this part of the world the seven -messages to the churches were addressed. We cannot, therefore, conclude -this sketch of what archæology has done to throw light upon the Bible -without saying a few words concerning exploration and excavations in -certain parts of Greece and Asia Minor. It will be impossible for lack of -space to go thoroughly into the history of this region, but as these lands -were not, like Egypt, Babylonia, Assyria, and Palestine, closely connected -with Biblical history for a long period, detailed history of them before -the Apostolic age will not be missed by the student of the Bible. - -The results of scattered discoveries at Thessalonica and elsewhere will be -presented in Part II, Chapter XXVII. At this point attention will be -directed to a few important cities. - -=1. Athens=, the chief city of Attica, one of the least productive parts -of Greece, is the far-famed mistress of the world's culture and art. -Emerging from obscurity in the seventh century before Christ, gaining a -position of leadership in the Persian wars after 500 B. C., Athens -established a considerable empire. In this period fell the age of -Pericles, 460-429 B. C., when the artistic and literary genius of Athens -reached a height never equaled in human history. Socrates was born here in -469 and lived till 399 B. C. Here Plato, who was born about 428, became a -pupil of Socrates and afterward taught. Hither came Aristotle, after the -year 367, to sit at Plato's feet. Here from the age of Pericles the -acropolis was crowned with those architectural creations that are at once -the admiration and the despair of the world; (see Fig. 277). It stirs the -imagination to think of Paul in such a city. - -In the time of Paul, Athens was a Roman city, though still one of the -great artistic and philosophical centers of the world. At a little -distance from the acropolis on its northern side, a forum of the Roman -period was laid bare in 1891; (see Fig. 272). Possibly this is the -market-place in which Paul, during his stay there, reasoned every day with -them that met him (Acts 17:17), though of this we cannot be certain, for, -while this was a market-place in the Roman period, the older market of the -Athenian people lay to the westward of it. - -To the west of the acropolis lies the old Areopagus, or Mars' Hill (Fig. -273), from which it was long supposed that Paul made the address recorded -in Acts 17:22-31. Ramsay,[319] following Curtius, has made it probable -that the address was delivered to the city-fathers of Athens, not because -they were putting Paul to a judicial trial, but because they wished to see -whether he was to be allowed to teach Christianity, which they took for a -new philosophy, in the university of Athens--for Athens itself was a kind -of university. It seems probable that the meetings of the city-fathers, -who were collectively called the Areopagus (Acts 17:22), were held not on -the top of the rock, but in the market-place. The Athenian altar "to an -unknown god" is treated in Part II, Chapter XXVII, § 2. - -=2. Corinth.=--From Athens, Paul went to Corinth, where he spent a year -and a half (Acts 18:1, 11). Corinth was one of the old cities of Greece. -In Homeric and earlier times it appears to have been subject to Argos. -Situated on the isthmus between northern Greece and the Peloponnesus, the -sea-trade of Corinth made it an important city. It rose to prominence in -the seventh century before Christ. At some early time foreigners from the -east, probably Phoenicians, had settled in Corinth and established the -worship of the Semitic goddess Astarte on Acro-Corinthus, a hill that -rises some five hundred feet above the city. The goddess was here known as -Aphrodite,[320] and the debasing character of her worship tended to foster -that lack of sensitiveness in matters of social morality with which Paul -deals in his First Epistle to the Corinthians. The trade of Corinth made -it rich and its riches excited the enmity of Rome. It was accordingly -destroyed by the Romans in 146 B. C., but a century later was rebuilt by -Julius Cæsar. Ancient Corinth has now entirely vanished. - -Excavations were begun at Corinth by the American School of Classical -Studies at Athens in 1896 under the direction of the late Prof. Rufus B. -Richardson. The work has been carried forward season by season ever -since.[321] Although there were no topographical indications to help the -excavators at the start, the theater, the Agora or market-place, a Roman -street, the road to Lechæum, and the temple of Apollo have been -discovered; (Figs. 274, 276). - -Of greatest interest to the student of the Bible is a stone discovered in -1898 on the Lechæum road near the propylæa, or gateway leading to the -market-place. This stone once formed the lintel of a door and bore an -inscription in Greek letters. Although the beginning and the end of the -two words written on it are broken away, it is clear that the inscription -was "Synagogue of the Hebrews."[322] The cutting of the letters was poorly -done, and the block was a second-hand one, adapted from some other use. It -seems probable, therefore, that the Jewish community at Corinth was not -wealthy. The block was of considerable size and so was probably found not -far from where the synagogue stood. If so, this synagogue, which is -probably identical with the one in which Paul preached (Acts 18:4), stood -on the Lechæum road not far from the market-place. Other discoveries in -the neighborhood indicate that this was a residence quarter of the city, -and we learn from Acts 18:7 that the house of Titus Justus, where -apparently Paul organized the first church in Corinth, "joined hard to the -synagogue." The house of Justus must, then, have been here, and the -Lechæum road often echoed to the footsteps of Paul. Probably the -judgment-seat to which the Jews dragged Paul for the hearing before Gallio -(Acts 18:12) was in the market-place, so that the excavations have -revealed to us the parts of Corinth of special interest to a reader of the -Bible. - -=3. The Churches of Asia.= - -(1) _Ephesus_ was situated on the Cayster river in western Asia Minor, -about three miles from the sea, but in ancient times the sea was navigable -up as far as the city. Cities which form the point of contact between -land and sea traffic become in most countries populous and wealthy. In -western Asia Minor four cities, situated at the mouths of the four river -valleys through which caravans could proceed into the interior, became -populous and important. These were Miletus (see Acts 20:15, 17, f.) at the -mouth of the Mæander, Ephesus at the mouth of the Cayster, Smyrna at the -mouth of the Hermus, and Pergamum on the Caicus. In the earliest times -known to us Ephesus was eclipsed in importance by Miletus, but before the -beginning of the Christian era Ephesus had outstripped her rival. This was -due to several causes, one of which was the partial silting up of the -harbor of Miletus. In Roman times Ephesus lay on the great line of -communication between Rome and the East in general.[323] In later -centuries the harbor of Ephesus was in its turn silted up, and the site is -now deserted except for a neighboring wretched Turkish village. - -In Homer's _Iliad_[324] the Carians are called the "barbarous-speaking -Carians." This would indicate that they were not Greek, and it is thought -by some that they may at this time have been of Hittite stock. Miletus was -in Caria, and at that time Ephesus also. It is certain that the earliest -inhabitants of Ephesus were not Greek, but of Asiatic origin. They -established here, either on a mountain top about five miles from the sea, -just above the modern railway station of Ayassuluk, or on a mountain a -little to the south, the worship of an Asiatic goddess, probably Hittite. -Later, in the seventh century before Christ, the Ionian Greeks came and -settled among the Asiatics. They identified the goddess with their own -Artemis (Authorized Version, Diana), and moved her temple down into the -plain,[325] where it continued to stand far into Christian times. In the -sixth century B. C. Ephesus was conquered by the Lydians, and then by the -Persians. In later centuries it passed under the control of Alexander the -Great, of the Seleucidæ of Syria, and of the kings of Pergamum. In 133 B. -C. it passed with the rest of the kingdom of Pergamum into the hands of -Rome and became a part of the Roman Province of Asia. Because of its -situation it quickly became the most important city of the province. It -was noted for its wealth and its commerce. Rome became the patron of -Hellenic culture in the East, so Ephesus was, of course, made an -architecturally beautiful city. - -At first Pergamum was the capital of the Province of Asia. In the second -and third centuries of the Christian era Ephesus had become the capital. -Buchner[326] thinks that this transfer was made in the reign of Claudius, -41-54 A. D. If this were true, Ephesus was the capital of the province at -the time of Paul's residence there, but there is considerable doubt about -the facts, and in the beginning of the second century A. D. Pergamum still -ranked as the official capital.[327] - -The temple of Artemis lay about two miles to the northeast of the ancient -city. Its site was determined in 1869 by the English explorer, J. T. Wood, -who partially excavated it (1869-1874).[328] Wood brought to light various -marble fragments which are preserved in the British Museum, but he was -more interested in making conjectural restorations of the temple than in -telling what he found. As he was not an expert in ancient architecture his -work is, accordingly, unsatisfactory. In 1904-1905, the British Museum -employed Mr. Hogarth to complete the excavation of the site. Hogarth -carried the excavation down to the virgin soil, and, being a skilled -archæologist, he was able to reconstruct the history of the building.[329] - -There seems to have been a small tree shrine on the site of the temple -before the Ionians came. Between the seventh century and the fifth, three -different structures were erected on the spot. The last of these was -called the temple of Croesus, because this king of Lydia presented some -beautiful columns to it, though the structure was not completed till a -century after his time, or 430 B. C. This structure was burned in 356 B. -C. on the night that Alexander the Great was born. Later a larger temple, -425 by 220 feet, was built on the site, with the help of contributions -from the whole of Asia. This was standing until long after Paul's time. It -was very beautiful. Some of the porphyry columns now in Santa Sophia at -Constantinople are said to have been taken from it. It has been thought by -some that this beautiful temple suggested to Paul his figure in 1 Cor. -3:10-17, since the words were written from Ephesus. - -This temple was venerated over all of western Asia Minor. To it came many -pilgrims every year, to whom Ephesian silversmiths sold little replicas of -the temple. It was because Christianity became so popular through the -preaching of Paul that the profitable sale of these shrines was -interfered with, that the riot in Ephesus occurred as described in Acts -19:23-41. - -Before Mr. Wood had discovered the site of the temple he had discovered -the theater within the limits of the ancient city. This has been examined -more thoroughly by the Austrian, Dr. Wiberg, who, beginning in 1894, -conducted excavations at Ephesus for many years. All the lower parts of -this theater still remain (see Figs. 280, 281) and bring vividly to the -imagination the assembly held in it on the occasion of the riot just -referred to. (See Acts 19:29-41.) The Austrians have also laid bare a -considerable part of the central street of the Ephesus of Roman times; -(see Fig. 278). - -A little to the north of the theater is the ancient stadium. Some scholars -think that when Paul says in 1 Cor. 15:32, "If after the manner of men I -fought with beasts at Ephesus," he is speaking of an incident that -literally occurred, and suppose that he was actually condemned to be -thrown to the beasts in the stadium, to make a spectacle for the Ephesian -populace, and that in some way he escaped alive. It is possible that this -may be true. If so, this stadium (see Fig. 282) presents to the eye a spot -which is of great interest to every Christian. - -Ephesus, as the mother-church of the churches of Asia, is the first one to -which in the book of Revelation a letter is addressed. By the time -Revelation was written the first glow of Christian enthusiasm had worn -off, gnostic heresy had found a place in the Church, and its "first love" -was gone. - -(2) _Pergamum_, the modern Bergama, lay in the valley of the Caicus in -Mysia, about fifteen miles from the sea. The city was built on a hill -about three miles north of the river. It was apparently a place of some -importance at a comparatively early date, but its chief importance began -with the reign of Philetærus, who made it an independent kingdom and ruled -it from 284-263 B. C. Philetærus had been a trusted servant of Lysimachus, -King of Thrace, one of the trusted generals of Alexander the Great. Under -the dynasty founded by Philetærus, Pergamum became one of the chief seats -of Hellenic culture. Eumenes I (263-241 B. C.) endeavored to make Pergamum -a rival of Alexandria as a literary center, and when the king of Egypt -forbade the exportation of papyrus in order to check the literary -aspirations of Pergamum, the servants of Eumenes invented a prepared kind -of skin on which to write. It was called _pergamena_, but time has -corrupted it to "parchment." - -In the course of the second century before Christ the kingdom of Pergamum -included all of western Asia Minor north of the Taurus. When in 133 B. C. -Attalus III, the last of the kings of Pergamum, died, he left his kingdom -by will to the Roman republic, with which Pergamum had long been in -alliance. Rome thus came into possession of her Province of Asia, the -first of her Oriental provinces. Pergamum was its capital, certainly until -the reign of Claudius, and probably until the second century A. D. The -Romans regarded themselves as the patrons of Hellenic culture in the East -and for centuries kept Pergamum the beautiful city which the Pergamene -kings had made it. Bergama, the squalid modern Turkish city, lies apart -from the splendid ruins of the ancient town; (see Fig. 283). - -More than thirty years ago the Germans began to explore and to excavate at -Pergamum,[330] and the Museum at Berlin is enriched with many beautiful -objects found there. The visitor to Pergamum may still see, however, the -great gymnasium with many graceful columns still standing. Above it, on a -higher slope, are the sites of theaters and temples, and the great altar -of Zeus. Farther up the hill stood the temple of Athenæ Polias, which was -also a library, and above this the temple of Rome and of Augustus. - -In Rev. 2:13 the church at Pergamum is said to dwell where "Satan's throne -is." Interpreters have been divided in opinion as to whether this is a -reference to the worship of Æsculapius, or to the presence of the great -throne-like altar of Zeus, or to the fact that Pergamum was the seat of -the worship of the Roman emperor.[331] On the whole, it seems probable -that "Satan's throne" is a reference to the fact that Pergamum was the -seat of the government and of the worship of the emperor of Rome. When -Augustus inaugurated emperor-worship in order to give the empire a bond of -common sentiment, the first temple of the cult was erected at Pergamum. -This was in 29 B. C. Under Vespasian and his successors it became a test -of one's Christianity whether he would or would not[332] offer incense to -the statue of the emperor, and Christians were often persecuted because -they would not. It is probable that in the remains of the temple to the -emperor archæologists have brought to light Satan's throne. If, however, -that throne were the altar of Zeus, it has nevertheless been brought to -light. - -(3) _Thyatira_, the modern Ak-Hissar, lay in a valley which joined the -valley of the Hermus to the valley of the Caicus. The general direction of -this valley was north and south. It was made an important city by Seleucus -I of Syria (312-282 B. C.) in the latter part of his reign. Before this it -had been an obscure village. Josephus declares[333] that Seleucus made -Jews citizens of the cities which he founded in Asia, and apparently -Thyatira was one of these, for there appears to have been a flourishing -Jewish colony there. A little later than Seleucus, Thyatira became a city -of Pergamum, and passed in 133 B. C. with the territories of that realm -under the dominion of Rome. Thyatira was noted for its dyeing. Madder -root, with which they dyed a Turkey-red, grows abundantly in the -neighborhood.[334] As the ancients employed the names of colors with great -laxity, this was often termed purple. Lydia, an enterprising seller of -this purple, a Jewess from Thyatira, was present at Philippi when Paul and -Silas preached there (Acts 16:14). Lydia was converted, and perhaps it was -she who carried the Gospel back to Thyatira. Nothing has been discovered -at Thyatira that throws light on the message to its church in Rev. -2:18-29. - -(4) _Sardis_ was one of the oldest cities of western Asia. It is situated -on the south side of the great valley of the Hermus, just at the point -where the river Pactolus issues from the Tmolus mountains. Pottery found -in the course of excavations there carries its history back to -sub-Mycenæan, if not to Mycenæan, times.[335] It was the seat of the -worship of Atys or Cybele, a goddess that seems to have been kindred to -the mother-goddess of the Hittites. It is probable that, could we -penetrate back far enough, we should find that the place was once occupied -by Hittites. Herodotus traces the descent of the first dynasty that ruled -over the country to the goddess just mentioned.[336] Following this -dynasty was, he says, another of twenty-one kings who ruled before the -dynasty founded by Gyges. The Lydian kingdom of which we know began with -Gyges in 697 B. C. and ended with Croesus in 546 B. C. Lydian inscriptions -found at Sardis are written in the same alphabet as Etruscan inscriptions -found in Italy. This indicates that the Lydians and Etruscans were closely -akin, but, as the inscriptions have not yet been deciphered, they do not -throw much light on either people.[337] It is possible that both peoples -were related to the Hittites, but that is at present only a hypothesis. - -The mountains to the south of Sardis are composed largely of gravel -deposits left there by the melting of the glaciers at the end of the last -glacial period. From these gravels the Pactolus brought down gold in -ancient times. This was one of the sources of the wealth of the Lydian -kings, and contributed to those riches which are still celebrated in the -saying: "As rich as Croesus." - -The Lydian kingdom fell when Cyrus captured Sardis in 546 B. C. With the -fall of the Persian empire the city passed into the hands of Alexander the -Great, and subsequently into the hands of his general, Antigonous, then to -the Seleucidæ of Syria, then to the kings of Pergamum, and so to the -dominion of Rome. - -In 17 A. D. Sardis was shaken by a great earthquake which nearly destroyed -the city. A mass of gravel and conglomerate rock was then hurled from the -hill of the Acropolis of Sardis down into the city toward the temple, -where the work of the excavator shows that it still lies.[338] A part of -the city must have been buried under it. The city recovered from this -disaster and by the end of the first century a Christian church existed -there (Rev. 3:1-6). Sardis continued to be a city of importance until -1400-1403 A. D., when the Tartar conqueror, Timur or Tamerlane, swept over -the country destroying everything before him. From this destruction Sardis -never recovered. Two or three tiny wretched Turkish villages are now all -that occupy the spot.[339] - -The Acropolis of Sardis was composed of gravel and a comparatively soft -conglomerate rock. It looks imposing and in ancient times looked far more -imposing than now. It has been gradually crumbling away through the -centuries. Ramsay thinks that this instability on the part of the city -itself is alluded to in the words, "thou hast a name that thou livest, and -thou art dead" and in the exhortation to be watchful and to strengthen the -things that remain, which follows it (Rev. 3:1, 2); (see Fig. 284). - -Excavations were begun at Sardis by Princeton University under the -direction of Prof. Howard Crosby Butler in 1909, and the digging continued -for five seasons until interrupted by the great war.[340] The work began -at the point where two columns of the ancient temple of Cybele were still -protruding from the soil. The temple has been cleared and a considerable -area around it has been examined. It appears that the temple was built in -the fourth century B. C., that it suffered greatly in the earthquake of 17 -A. D., and never was as splendid afterwards, though it was still in use in -the second century A. D.[341] Many objects have been discovered which -throw light upon the history and art of Lydia, and two bi-lingual -inscriptions, one Lydian and Aramaic, the other Lydian and Greek, were -found. These may afford the key to the decipherment of both Lydian and -Etruscan. Jewelry resembling Etruscan jewelry found in Italy was also -discovered.[342] - -To the student of the Bible the most interesting discovery at Sardis was a -little Christian church built at the southeast corner of the temple.[343] -The entrance to this church was from the temple platform itself. The -structure was entirely of brick and was in a remarkably good state of -preservation. The building had apparently lost only its wooden roof. The -apse of the church was toward the east, and still contained its primitive -altar. It is uncertain at what date altars became a part of Christian -worship. Origen in the third century A. D. admits the charge of Celsus -that the Christians had no visible altar,[344] but Eusebius[345] in the -next century speaks as though altars existed throughout the Christian -world. This church at Sardis was built after the temple of Cybele had -fallen into disuse, and even if not earlier than the fourth century of our -era, this little structure is evidence that the name of the church had not -been blotted out of the book of life (Rev. 3:5), but that it had rather -appropriated to itself the once splendid precincts of the ancient heathen -goddess. - -(5) _Philadelphia_ was situated twenty-eight miles east of Sardis, and lay -in the valley of the Cogamis, a tributary of the Hermus. It is still a -flourishing city of about 15,000 inhabitants. It is now called -Ala-Sheher.[346] It is not to be confounded with the Philadelphia of the -Decapolis in Palestine.[347] - -Philadelphia was founded by Attalus II, King of Pergamum, 159-138 B. C., -who was called Philadelphus because of his devotion to his predecessor and -brother, Eumenes II. Hence the city was named Philadelphia. It was founded -for the purpose of spreading Hellenism in the eastern part of Lydia, and -so was a missionary city from the first. With the other Pergamene -territories it became a dependency of Rome in 133 B. C. In 17 A. D. it -suffered severely from the same earthquake that destroyed Sardis. Indeed, -at Philadelphia the quakings were even more severe. The trembling of the -earth lasted for a long time. When Strabo wrote in 20 A. D. earthquake -shocks at Philadelphia were an every-day occurrence. Few people lived in -the city; most of the inhabitants spent their time outside.[348] Allusion -to this is, perhaps, made in Rev. 3:12: "he shall go out thence no more." - -After the earthquake the city appealed to Rome for help. Tiberius granted -it and also permitted the city to change its name to Neocæsarea, or the -city of the young Cæsar.[349] This, too, seems to be alluded to in Rev. -3:12, where another new name is to be conferred. - -At Ala-Sheher a part of the city wall of Philadelphia may still be traced, -and the sites of the acropolis, the theater, and the stadium may also be -seen, as well as the ruins of an old Christian church.[350] - -(6) _Smyrna_, at the mouth of the Hermus, is one of the very old cities of -Asia Minor. A colony of Æolian Greeks founded a city here more than a -thousand years before Christ. A little later the place was captured by -Ionian Greeks, who held it till about 600 B. C., when it was conquered by -the kings of Lydia and destroyed.[351] For three hundred years the name -designated a district rather than a city. Lysimachus, the general of -Alexander the Great who became king of Thrace (301-282 B. C.), refounded -Smyrna as a Greek city about three miles southwest of the old site, and it -has continued ever since to be an important seaport of Asia Minor. It -passed with the other cities of the region successively under the sway of -the kings of Syria, the kings of Pergamum, and of Rome. Smyrna is today -one of the largest cities of the East with a population of between two and -three hundred thousand. - -Smyrna claimed to be the birthplace of Homer. Ælius Aristides (born 117 A. -D.), who lived at Smyrna, several times likens the city to a crown, and -apparently the crown was in some way associated with Smyrna; (see Fig. -287). The goddess of the place, who was a kind of Cybele, is pictured as -wearing a crown.[352] This is, no doubt, the reason why in Rev. 2:10 a -crown of life is promised to the church of Smyrna if she is faithful. No -excavations have been made at Smyrna, but above the city the tomb of -Polycarp,[353] said in tradition to have been a disciple of the Apostle -John, is shown. Polycarp was martyred in 155 A. D. in one of those times -of tribulation predicted in Rev. 2:10. - -(7) _Laodicea_ is situated a hundred miles east of Ephesus, in the valley -of the Lycus, where the Lycus empties into the Mæander. It was founded by -Antiochus II of Syria, 261-246 B. C.,[354] and named for his wife. Like -Philadelphia, it was designed to be a missionary of Hellenism to the -country of the region. Like the other Hellenic cities it was beautified -with temples, theaters, and colonnaded streets. Later Laodicea passed -under the control of Pergamum, and with that kingdom fell to Rome in 133 -B. C. An influential element in its population was Jewish, and before -Paul's imprisonment in Rome a Christian church had been founded there -(Col. 4:13). The city of Laodicea appears to have been devoted to commerce -and to material things. In Rev. 3:15 its church is said to have been -lukewarm. Except that its lukewarmness may have come from its commercial -spirit, there is nothing in the history or archæology of the city that -illustrates the letter[355] to it in Rev. 3:14-22. - -The site of Laodicea is now almost deserted. Only the wretched Turkish -village of Eski Hissar represents habitation, but hundreds of acres are -covered with the ruins of the once splendid city. For hundreds of years -the villagers of neighboring hamlets have used the place as a quarry, but -nevertheless its ruins are impressive. Two theaters are in a fairly good -state of preservation; the seats are still in place.[356] The stadium is -in a similar condition of preservation. Its aqueduct and its gates are -still imposing in their dilapidation, but the desolation of Laodicea -recalls the words: "I will spew thee out of my mouth" (Rev. 3:16); (see -Fig. 288). - - - - -PART II - -TRANSLATIONS OF ANCIENT DOCUMENTS WHICH CONFIRM OR ILLUMINATE THE BIBLE - - - - -FOREWORD - - -As noted in the Preface, the inferences drawn by different scholars, when -they compare the Bible with the records brought to light by exploration, -diverge according as their critical and theological views differ. In the -comments made throughout Part II, as in Part I, the writer has endeavored -to maintain a neutral attitude and impartially to report in each case the -principal inferences drawn by the most important groups of scholars, that -the reader may know something of the latitude of opinion that prevails. To -have recorded every opinion would have expanded the work far beyond the -limits prescribed, and would have burdened the reader with many views that -are mere vagaries. The temptation is always strong to declare that the -interpretation of an ancient record which accords with one's own views -must be right, but unfortunately problems in ancient history that are thus -dogmatically settled do not remain settled. A deeper faith, confident in -the ultimate triumph of truth, patiently awaits further light. - - - - -CHAPTER I - -AN EPIC OF THE CREATION WHICH CIRCULATED IN BABYLON AND ASSYRIA IN THE -SEVENTH CENTURY BEFORE CHRIST[357] - - TEXT OF THE EPIC. COMPARISON OF THE EPIC WITH THE FIRST CHAPTER OF - GENESIS. THE EPIC AND OTHER PARTS OF THE BIBLE. - - -=I. Text of the Epic.= - -Tablet I - - 1. Time was when above heaven was not named - - 2. Below to the earth no name was given. - - 3. Then the primeval Abyss their begetter, - - 4. The roaring Sea who bore them,-- - - 5. Their waters together were mingled; - - 6. No field had been formed, no marshland seen. - - 7. Time was when gods had not been made, - - 8. No name was named, no destiny [determined]; - - 9. Then were created the gods in the midst [of heaven]. - - 10. Lakhmu and Lakhamu were formed [together]. - - 11. Ages multiplied, ....................... - - 12. Anshar and Kishar were created, and over them ...... - - 13. Days were prolonged, there came forth ...... - - 14. Anu, their son ................................... - - 15. Anshar and Anu ................................... - - 16. And the god Anu .................................. - - 17. Nudimmud whose fathers, his begetters .................... - - 18. Abounding in wisdom, understanding ............... - - 19. He was strong exceedingly ................................ - - 20. And he had no rival ...................................... - - 21. They were established and ................................ - - 22. In confusion were T[iâmat and Apsu][358] ................... - - 23. They were troubled ................................. - - 24. In sin (?) ......................................... - - 25. Apsu was not diminished ............................ - - 26. Tiâmat roared ...................................... - - 27. She smote and their deeds .......................... - - 28. Their way was not good; they themselves prospered. - - 29. Then Apsu, the begetter of the great gods, - - 30. Cried to Mummu, his minister, and said, - - 31. O Mummu, my minister, who delightest my heart, - - 32. Come, unto Tiâmat [let us go]. - - 33. They went, before Tiâmat they lay down, - - 34. A plan they formed against the gods [their offspring]. - - 35. [Apsu] opened his mouth, [he said to her], - - 36. Unto Tiâmat, the brilliant, a word he spoke: - - 37. "[Intolerable to me] is their advancement, - - 38. By day I have no rest, at night, no peace. - - 39. But I will destroy their way, an end will I make. - - 40. Let there be a cry, then we may be at peace!" - - 41. When Tiâmat heard these words, - - 42. She was angry and spoke against them [a curse]; - - 43. [She was] grievously [pained] she raged .................... - - 44. A curse she let fall, unto [Apsu she spoke]: - - 45. "What are we that we [should perish]! - - 46. Let their way become difficult." ........................... - - 47. Mummu answered, Apsu [he counseled] - - 48. .... not favorable was the counsel of the Roarer: - - 49. "Their way is strong, but do thou confound [it], - - 50. By day thou shalt be calm, by night thou shalt lie down." - - 51. Apsu heard and his face brightened, - - 52. [Since] he planned evil against the gods, his sons, - - 53. ............... [clasped his neck], - - 54. [He took him on] his knees and kissed him. - - 55. [They undertook the evil which] together they had planned. - - 56. .................................. they .................... - - 57. ............................................................ - - 58. A cry; a cry ........ in stillness they sat - - 59. ............................................................ - - 60. Ea the wise went up, he saw their horrors (?), - - (More than thirty lines here are too broken for connected - translation.) - - 93. ....................... thy ......... they subjugated, - - 94. ....................... weeps (?) and sits wailing. - - 95. .................................. of fear, - - 96. ..................... not shall we ourselves rest. - - 97. ......................... Apsu laid waste, - - 98. He and Mummu who were bound in ............ - - 99. .................. quickly thou shalt go - - 100. ....................... we ourselves may rest. - - 101. .......................................................... - - 102. ..................... we ourselves may rest. - - 103. ..................... their mercy avenge! - - 104. ................................ to the storm ............. - - 105. ..................... the word of the bright god, - - 106. .................. what thou givest, we will indeed do! - - 107. ..................... the gods in ......................... - - 108. ............................... the gods [she] created. - - 109. They separated themselves, to the side of Tiâmat they came; - - 110. They raged, they planned, they rested not night or day. - - 111. They prepared for battle, fuming, raging; - - 112. Their assemblage was formed and they began war. - - 113. Mother Khubur, who formed all things, - - 114. Made unrivaled weapons, spawned great serpents, - - 115. Sharp of tooth, unsparing of fang; - - 116. With poison instead of blood their bodies she filled. - - 117. Fierce dragons with terror she clothed, - - 118. Luster she made abundant, to loftiness made them equal. - - 119. Whoever beheld them, terror (?) overcame him; - - 120. Their bodies they reared up without turning their breast. - - 121. She established vipers, serpents, and Lakhami,[359] - - 122. Hurricanes, raging hounds, scorpion-men, - - 123. Mighty storms, fish-men, and rams (?); - - 124. They bore merciless weapons, fearless of battle. - - 125. Her behests were mighty; without rival were they. - - 126. Moreover eleven such as these she created. - - 127. Among the gods, her firstborn, who at her side gathered, - - 128. She exalted Kingu, made him great in their midst, - - 129. To march before the forces, to lead the host, - - 130. To raise the conquering weapon, to lead the attack, - - 131. To direct the battle, as commander-in-chief; - - 132. To him she entrusted it, made him sit in purple (?): - - 133. "Thy spell I have uttered; in the assembly of gods I have made - thee great. - - 134. The sovereignty of all the gods, I have placed in thy hand - - 135. Surely thou art exalted, my only spouse! - - 136. May they magnify thy name over all the Anunnaki." - - 137. She gave him the tablets of destiny, on his breast she laid them: - - 138. "Thy command shall be unalterable, established, thy word." - - 139. Now Kingu was exalted, he received the highest rank, - - 140. Among the gods, his sons, he fixed fate: - - 141. "The opening of your mouth shall quench the fire-god; - - 142. Who so is exalted in excellence, let him increase in might." - -Tablet II - - 1. Tiâmat made mighty her work - - 2. [Evil] she cherished against the gods, her offspring. - - 3. [To avenge] Apsu, Tiâmat planned evil. - - 4. Her [forces] how she joined, to Ea was divulged. - - 5. Ea [hearkened] to this thing, - - 6. He was thrown into [great] straits, he sat in silence. - - 7. [The days] went by; his anger was appeased, - - 8. [To the place] of Anshar, his father, he proceeded. - - 9. [He went] before the father who begat him, Anshar, - - 10. [All that] Tiâmat had planned he repeated unto him. - - 11. "Tiâmat, our mother, has come to hate us; - - 12. Her assembly is set; with rage she is hot; - - 13. Turned unto her are the gods, all of them, - - 14. With those ye created, they walk at her side. - - 15. They have separated themselves; at the side of Tiâmat they go; - - 16. They rage, they plan; they rest not day or night." - -(Lines 17-48 continue the literal repetition of lines 109-142 of the first -tablet which was begun in lines 15, 16. After this the narrative -continues:) - - 49. [When Anshar heard how Tiâmat] was greatly in disorder, - - 50. [He smote his breast], he bit his lip, - - 51. [His mind was disturbed], his heart was not at rest, - - 52. ................................ his cry was wrung from him. - - 53. [Away Ea, my son, go forth to] battle! - - 54. ............................ my work (?) thou shalt establish! - - 55. [Mummu and] Apsu thou hast already struck down. - - 56. [Kill also Kin]gu who comes up before her - - 57. ................................ deliberation. - - 58. ............................ gods Nudimmud. - -(A break of ten or twelve lines occurs at this point in the tablet.) - - 72. [Anshar] spoke to his son [a word]: - - 73. "Thou, this [son of mine], my warrior, - - 74. [Whose strength is mighty], whose attack irresistible, - - 75. [Go], stand before Tiâmat, - - 76. [That] her wrath [may be appeased], her heart softened, - - 77. [But if] she will not hearken to thy word, - - 78. Our [word] shalt thou speak to her, that she may be appeased." - - 79. [He heard] the utterance of his father Anshar, - - 80. He took the straight path to her, he entered the way. - - 81. Anu [drew near], he beheld the terror (?) of Tiâmat, - - 82. [He did not ascend to her presence], but turned back, - - 83. [Then turned he to Ea and called] him, he, Anshar, - - 84. [Opened his mouth] and spoke to him, - - 85. ["Hateful are the ways of Tiâmat] to me." - -(Some twenty lines here are too fragmentary for translation.) - - 108. [Ea opened his mouth (?)] and spoke to him: - - 109. ["Marduk, my son, hear the word of] thy father. - - 110. Thou art he, my son, who canst enlarge his heart. - - 111. ................................ to the battle draw nigh, - - 112. ............................ [to] Emarukka[360] give peace." - - 113. Then the lord rejoiced at the words of his father; - - 114. He drew near and stood before Anshar. - - 115. Anshar beheld him and his heart was filled with joy, - - 116. He kissed his lips and his fear departed from him. - - 117. ............ is not hidden; open thy lips. - - 118. Verily I will go, I will attain the wish of thy heart. - - 119. .......... is not concealed; open thy lips. - - 120. Verily I will go, I will attain the wish of thy heart. - - 121. Who is the man, who would bring thee out to his battle? - - 122. [And now] shall Tiâmat, a woman, come against thee with weapons? - - 123. ................................ rejoice and exult; - - 124. On the neck of Tiâmat thou shalt shortly tread. - - 125. ................................ rejoice and exult; - - 126. On the neck of Tiâmat thou shalt shortly tread." - - 127. "My son, who knows all wisdom, - - 128. Tiâmat pacify with thy pure incantation. - - 129. Thy way speedily take; - - 130. .......... thou shalt not fear, thou shalt use a spell - afterward." - - 131. Then the lord rejoiced at the word of his father, - - 132. His heart exulted and to his father he spoke: - - 133. "O Lord of the gods, fate of the great gods, - - 134. If I accomplish your preservation, - - 135. Take Tiâmat captive and save your lives, - - 136. Appoint an assembly, make my fate strong, let it come in. - - 137. In Upshukkunnaku seat yourselves joyfully together, - - 138. The word of my mouth shall determine fate instead of you. - - 139. Let there not be changed whatever I create, - - 140. May the command of my lips not be altered or opposed." - -Tablet III - - 1. Anshar opened his mouth and said, - - 2. [To Gaga] his [messenger] a word he spoke: - - 3. "[O Gaga, thou messen]ger, thou rejoicest my heart. - - 4. [To Lakhmu and Lakh]amu will I send thee; - - 5. [The desire of my heart] mayest thou attain. - - 6. ................................ bring (?) before me. - - 7. [May there come] the gods, all of them, - - 8. [Let them prepare for converse], at banquets let them sit, - - 9. [Bread may they eat], wine may they prepare, - - 10. [For Marduk], their [avenger], let them decree the fate. - - 11. [Go, Ga]ga, before them stand, - - 12. [And all that] I tell thee repeat unto them - - 13. [Anshar], your son, hath sent me, - - 14. [The purpose of his heart he] hath disclosed to me, - - 15. [Saying]: Tiâmat, who bore us, hates us, - - 16. An assemblage is appointed, angrily she rages, - - 17. Turned to her are the gods, all of them, - - 18. With those whom ye created, they march at her side, - - 19. They are rebellious, at Tiâmat's side they come, - - 20. They rage, they plot, they rest not day nor night, - - 21. They prepare for battle, fuming and raging, - - 22. An assembly is made, they start a revolt. - - 23. Mother Khubur, who formed all things, - - 24. Has made weapons without rival, has spawned monster-serpents, - - 25. Sharp of tooth, unsparing of fang, - - 26. With poison like blood their bodies she has filled; - - 27. Fierce dragons with terror she has clothed, - - 28. Luster has made abundant, to loftiness made equal. - - 29. Whoever beholds them, terror (?) overcomes him. - - 30. Their bodies they raise up without turning their breasts. - - 31. She has established vipers, serpents, Lakhami, - - 32. Hurricanes, raging hounds, scorpion-men, - - 33. Mighty storms, fish-men, and rams; - - 34. They bear merciless weapons, fearless of battle. - - 35. Her behests are mighty, without rival are they. - - 36. Moreover eleven such as these she has created. - - 37. Among the gods, her firstborn, who are gathered at her side, - - 38. She has exalted Kingu, made him great in their midst, - - 39. To march before the forces, to lead the host, - - 40. To raise the conquering weapon, to lead the attack, - - 41. To direct the battle as commander-in-chief; - - 42. To him she has entrusted it, made him sit in purple, [saying,] - - 43. 'Thy spell I have uttered, in the assembly of gods I have made - thee great, - - 44. The sovereignty of all the gods I have placed in thy hand, - - 45. Surely thou art exalted, O my spouse! - - 46. May they magnify thy name over all the Anunnaki.' - - 47. She has given him the tablets of destiny, on his breast has laid - them, [saying,] - - 48. 'Thy command shall be unalterable, established be thy word.' - - 49. Now Kingu has been exalted, has received highest rank, - - 50. Among the gods, her sons, he fixes fate, [saying]: - - 51. 'The opening of your mouth shall quench the fire-god, - - 52. Whoso is exalted in excellence, let him increase in might.' - - 53. I sent Anu; he had no power before her, - - 54. Nudimmud feared and turned back, - - 55. Marduk has set forth, the leader of the gods, your son, - - 56. As a foe of Tiâmat his heart prompts him to go. - - 57. He opened his mouth and spake to me, [saying]: - - 58. 'If I accomplish your preservation, - - 59. Take Tiâmat captive, and save your lives, - - 60. Appoint an assembly, make my fate strong, let it come in. - - 61. In Upshukkunaku seat yourselves joyfully together, - - 62. The word of my mouth shall determine fate instead of you. - - 63. Let there not be changed whatever I create, - - 64. May there not be altered or opposed the command of my lips.' - - 65. Hasten, therefore, and quickly decree your fate, - - 66. That he may go and fight your strong enemy." - - 67. Then Gaga went, his way he pursued, - - 68. To the place of Lakhmu and Lakhamu, the gods, his fathers; - - 69. He kissed the ground at their feet, - - 70. He bowed himself; he stood up, he addressed them, [saying]: - - 71. "Anshar, your son, hath sent me, - - 72. The purpose of his heart he has disclosed to me - - 73. Saying: Tiâmat, who bore us, hates us; - - 74. An assemblage is appointed, angrily she rages, - - 75. Turned to her are the gods, all of them, - - 76. With those whom you created, they march at her side, - - 77. They are rebellious, at Tiâmat's side they come. - - 78. They rage, they plot, they rest not day nor night, - - 79. They prepare for battle, fuming and raging, - - 80. An assembly is made, they start a revolt. - - 81. Mother Khubur, who formed all things, - - 82. Has made weapons without rival, has spawned monster-serpents, - - 83. Sharp of tooth, unsparing of fang, - - 84. With poison like blood their bodies she has filled; - - 85. Fierce dragons with terror she has clothed; - - 86. Luster has been made abundant, to loftiness made equal. - - 87. Whoever beholds them, terror (?) overcomes him. - - 88. Their bodies they raise up without turning their breasts. - - 89. She has established vipers, serpents, Lakhami, - - 90. Hurricanes, raging hounds, scorpion-men, - - 91. Mighty storms, fish-men, rams; - - 92. They bear merciless weapons, fearless of battle. - - 93. Her behests are mighty, without rival are they. - - 94. Moreover eleven such as these she has created. - - 95. Among the gods, her firstborn, who are gathered at her side, - - 96. She has exalted Kingu, made him great in their midst, - - 97. To march before the forces, to lead the host, - - 98. To raise the conquering weapon, to lead the attack, - - 99. To direct the battle as commander-in-chief; - - 100. To him she has entrusted it, made him sit in purple, [saying]: - - 101. 'Thy spell I have uttered, in the assembly of the gods I have - made thee great; - - 102. The sovereignty of all the gods I have placed in thy hand - - 103. Surely thou art exalted, O my spouse! - - 104. May they magnify thy name over all the Anunnaki.' - - 105. She has given him the tablets of destiny, on his breast has laid - them, [saying]: - - 106. 'Thy command shall be unalterable, established be thy word.' - - 107. Now Kingu has been exalted, has received highest rank, - - 108. Among the gods, her sons, he fixes fate, [saying:] - - 109. 'The opening of your mouth shall quench the fire-god, - - 110. Whoso is exalted in excellence, let him increase in might.' - - 111. I sent Anu, he had no power before her, - - 112. Nudimmud feared and turned back, - - 113. Marduk has set forth, the leader of the gods, your son, - - 114. As a foe of Tiâmat his heart prompts him to go. - - 115. He opened his mouth and spake to me, [saying:] - - 116. 'If I accomplish your preservation, - - 117. Take Tiâmat captive and save your lives, - - 118. Appoint an assembly, make my fate strong, let it come in. - - 119. In Upshukkunaku seat yourselves joyfully together, - - 120. The word of my mouth shall determine fate instead of you, - - 121. Let there not be changed whatever I create, - - 122. May there not be altered or opposed the command of my lips.' - - 123. Hasten, therefore, and quickly decree your fate, - - 124. That he may go and fight your strong enemy." - - 125. Lakhmu and Lakhamu heard, they cried aloud; - - 126. The Igigi, all of them, wailed bitterly, [saying:] - - 127. "What has changed that they should desire to take us (?) - - 128. We do not understand what Tiâmat has done." - - 129. Then they massed themselves together, they went, - - 130. The great gods, all of them, who decree fate. - - 131. They entered in before Anshar, they filled, [Upshukkunaku]. - - 132. Brother kissed brother in the assembly ................. - - 133. They prepared for converse, sat down to the banquet, - - 134. Bread they ate; wine they prepared. - - 135. The sweet drink confused their minds (?), - - 136. Drunk were they with drink, their bodies were filled (?), - - 137. They became very unsteady, their hearts were exalted, - - 138. For Marduk, their deliverer, they decreed the fate. - -Tablet IV - - 1. They prepared for him a princely chamber: - - 2. In the presence of his fathers for sovereignty he became mighty. - [They said:] - - 3. "Thou art most honored among the great gods, - - 4. Thy destiny is without rival, thy command is Anu's! - - 5. O Marduk, thou art most honored among the great gods, - - 6. Thy destiny is without rival, thy command is Anu's! - - 7. From today without opposition shall be thy command; - - 8. To exalt and to abase is verily in thy power; - - 9. Established is thy utterance, irresistible thy command. - - 10. None among the gods shall invade thy province. - - 11. Sustenance, the desire of shrines of the gods, - - 12. While they are in need, shall be certain in thy sanctuary! - - 13. O Marduk, thou art the preserver of our lives! - - 14. We give thee sovereignty over the totality of all the world. - - 15. Sit thou in the assembly, thy word shall be exalted! - - 16. Thy weapon shall never be o'ercome, may it destroy (?) thy foe! - - 17. O lord, he who trusts thee--his life save! - - 18. But the god that is wed to evil, its life pour out!" - - 19. Then they placed in the midst a garment, - - 20. And unto Marduk, their firstborn, they spoke, - - 21. "Thy fate, O Lord, let it be first among the gods! - - 22. To destroy and to create--speak, let it be established! - - 23. At thy command let a garment perish! - - 24. Again at thy command let the garment re-appear!" - - 25. Then he spake with his mouth, the garment perished; - - 26. Again he commanded and the garment was recreated. - - 27. As the utterance of his mouth the gods, his fathers, saw, - - 28. They rejoiced, they uttered blessing: "Marduk is king!" - - 29. They bestowed upon him the scepter, the throne, and the - battle-axe; - - 30. They gave him an unrivaled weapon, which turns back (?) the foe. - - 31. "Go, Tiâmat's life cut off; - - 32. May the winds bear her blood to secret places!" - - 33. When the gods, his fathers had fixed Bel's fate, - - 34. The way of prosperity and success they caused him to take. - - 35. His bow he prepared, his weapon he chose, - - 36. A spear he bound on him at his waist, - - 37. He raised the heavenly weapon, with his right hand grasped it, - - 38. His bow and quiver at his side he hung, - - 39. He placed the lightning before his face, - - 40. With quivering flame his body he filled. - - 41. He made a net to enclose Tiâmat's body, - - 42. He caused the four winds to seize so that nothing of her could - escape; - - 43. The south wind, the north wind, the east wind, the west wind, - - 44. He brought to the side of the net, the gift of his father Anu, - - 45. He made the evil wind, the bad wind, the tempest and the - hurricane, - - 46. The four winds, the seven winds, the whirlwind (?), the unhealthy - wind; - - 47. He brought forth the winds which he had made, the seven of them, - - 48. To trouble the inward parts of Tiâmat, they came after him. - - 49. The lord raised up the tornado, his mighty weapon, - - 50. As a chariot, a storm unrivaled for terror he mounted, - - 51. He harnessed for himself and attached to it four steeds, - - 52. "Destroyer," "Unmerciful," "Overwhelmer," "Fleet-footed." - - 53. [Foam-covered (?)] were their teeth, filled with poison, - - 54. Skilled were they [to run down], taught to destroy. - - 55. ................................... mighty in battle, - - 56. Left and right they opened (?) ............... - - 57. His garment was [rage], with terror was he clad, - - 58. With his overpowering brightness his head was crowned. - - 59. He made straight the way, he took his path, - - 60. To the place of Tiâmat, the raging (?), his face he set. - - 61. With his lip .............................. he cursed (?), - - 62. A plant of magical power (?)--he seized with his hand. - - 63. On that day they exalted (?) him, the gods exalted (?) him; - - 64. The gods, his fathers, exalted (?) him, the gods exalted (?) him. - - 65. The lord approached, the waist of Tiâmat he scanned, - - 66. Of Kingu, her spouse--he beheld his terrifying-glance (?). - - 67. As Marduk gazed, Kingu's progress was impeded, - - 68. Destroyed was his purpose, frustrated his deed, - - 69. And the gods his helpers, who marched at his side, - - 70. Saw the warrior and leader; their look (?) was troubled. - - 71. Tiâmat perceived it (?); she did not turn her neck. - - 72. With proud (?) lips she uttered words of defiance: - - 73. "Who decreed (?) that thou shouldst come as lord of the gods? - - 74. Have they assembled from their places, are they to serve thee?" - - 75. The lord raised the tornado, his mighty weapon, - - 76. [Against] Tiâmat who was raging, thus he spoke: - - 77. "[Why hast thou] made thyself great? Exalted thyself on high? - - 78. [Why does thy heart] prompt thee to battle (?) - - 79. [How can thy helpers] defy (?) the gods, their fathers? - - 80. [Why] dost thou hate their [command], their ru[le despise]? - - 81. [Why hast thou exalted Kingu] to be thy spouse? - - 82. [Hast given] him the functions of deity? - - 83. [How] canst thou seek after evil? - - 84. [And against] the gods, my fathers, thy evil plan devise? - - 85. [Let] thy forces be joined, girded on thy weapons! - - 86. Stand! I and thou--come let us fight!" - - 87. Tiâmat, when she heard this, - - 88. Was like one possessed; she lost her reason. - - 89. Tiâmat cried out vehemently with high voice, - - 90. Like roots divided in twain her legs trembled. - - 91. She uttered an incantation, she cast a charm, - - 92. And the gods of battle demanded their weapons. - - 93. Then took their stand Tiâmat and the leader of the gods, Marduk; - - 94. For the fight they approached, for the battle they drew near. - - 95. The lord spread out his net and enclosed her, - - 96. The evil wind from behind he thrust into her face. - - 97. As Tiâmat opened her mouth to its full extent, - - 98. The evil wind he drove in, so that her lips could not close. - - 99. With the mighty winds he filled her belly; - - 100. Her courage was taken away, and she opened her mouth. - - 101. He let fall the spear, he burst open her belly, - - 102. He cut through her inward parts, he pierced her heart, - - 103. He bound her and her life destroyed; - - 104. Her body he cast down, upon it he stood. - - 105. After Tiâmat, the leader, he had slain, - - 106. Her army he broke, her host was scattered, - - 107. And the gods, her helpers, who marched by her side, - - 108. Trembled, feared, they turned their backs; - - 109. They sought an exit, to save their lives; - - 110. With a cordon they were encompassed; escape was not possible. - - 111. He caught them, their weapons he broke, - - 112. Into the net they fell, in the snare they remained. - - 113. All quarters of the world they filled with lamentation. - - 114. His wrath they endured; they were held in bondage. - - 115. And the eleven creatures, whom she had filled with terribleness, - - 116. The troop of demons who marched as her helpers (?), - - 117. He threw into fetters, their power he [broke]; - - 118. Along with their opposition he trampled them under his feet. - - 119. And Kingu who had been exalted over them, - - 120. He took captive, as the god Dugga he counted him. - - 121. He took from him the tablets of destiny, not rightly his, - - 122. He sealed them with a seal, in his own breast he laid them. - - 123. After his enemies he had seized and destroyed, - - 124. His arrogant foe had completely humiliated (?), - - 125. The triumph of Anshar over the foe had fully established, - - 126. The wish of Nudimmud had accomplished, Marduk, the warrior - - 127. Over the bound gods strengthened his hold, - - 128. Unto Tiâmat, whom he had bound, he turned back. - - 129. The lord trod upon Tiâmat's feet - - 130. And with his unsparing weapon crushed her head. - - 131. He cut through the veins of her blood, - - 132. He caused the north wind to bear it to secret places. - - 133. His fathers saw it; they rejoiced, they exulted, - - 134. Gifts and presents they brought unto him. - - 135. Then the lord rested; he gazed upon her body, - - 136. The flesh of the monster he divided; he formed a cunning plan. - - 137. He split her open like a flat fish into two halves, - - 138. One half of her he established and made a covering of the - heavens, - - 139. He drew a bolt, he established a guard, - - 140. And not to let her waters come out, he commanded. - - 141. He passed through the heavens, he surveyed the regions, - - 142. Over against the deep he set the dwelling of Nudimmud. - - 143. The structures of the deep the lord measured, - - 144. As a palace like unto it he founded Esharra. - - 145. In the palace Esharra which he built in the heavens, - - 146. He caused Anu, Ellil, and Ea at their stations to dwell. - -Tablet V - - 1. He [Marduk] ordained the stations of the great gods; - - 2. As stars their likenesses as constellations of the zodiac he - placed. - - 3. He ordained the year, into parts he divided it, - - 4. For the twelve months he established three stars. - - 5. After the days of the year he had fashioned as images, - - 6. He founded the station of Jupiter, to determine their bounds; - - 7. That none might go wrong or err, - - 8. The station of Bel he established, and Ea by his side. - - 9. He opened gates on both sides. - - 10. A lock he made strong on the left and the right, - - 11. In the midst thereof he placed the zenith; - - 12. The moon-god he caused to shine; the night he entrusted to him. - - 13. He appointed him a being of the night, to determine the days; - - 14. Monthly, without ceasing, into a crown he made him, [saying:] - - 15. "At the beginning of the month shine upon the lands, - - 16. Horns exhibit, to determine six days; - - 17. On the seventh day let the tiara disappear; - - 18. On the fourteenth day thou shalt stand over against the [two] - halves. - - 19. When the sun-god on the horizon ........... thee, - - 20. Thou ......... to be resplendent, and thou shalt turn (?) backward - (?) - - 21. [Fourteen days] unto the path of the sun-god thou shalt approach, - - 22. [On the 28th day] thou shalt approach the sun-god ........... - - 23. .............................. signs (?), seek (?) her way! - - 24. ................ approach ye and judge justice! - - 25. .................................... to destroy, - - 26. ........................................................ me." - -(Some lines are lost at this point. It is estimated that forty of them are -lacking.) - - 67. After ................................. - - 68. In Esagila[361] ................................. - - 69. To establish ................................ - - 70. The station of ............................. - - 71. The great gods ................................ - - 72. The gods ........................... - - 73. He received ......................... - - 74. The net which he had made the [great] gods saw, - - 75. Saw the bow, how skillful [its workmanship]; - - 76. The work which he had done, they [loudly] praised. - - 77. Then arose Anu in the assembly of the [great] gods, - - 78. The bow he kissed it ............................. - - 79. "Long-wood shall be one name, and a second ................. - - 80. Its third name shall be Bow-star in the heavens." - - 81. He fixed its position [unto distant days]. - - 82. After the destiny of .............................. - - 83. [He set] a throne ...................................... - - 84. ......................... in the heavens ................... - -(Practically all the remainder of Tablet V is as yet undiscovered. From a -very broken fragment, preserved in the British Museum, it appears that -when the gods saw the work of Marduk in adorning the heavens with -constellations, they broke into rapturous praise of him. It is these words -to which reference is made at the beginning of Tablet VI.) - -Tablet VI - - 1. Marduk, the word of the gods, when he heard it, - - 2. His heart was stirred, he formed a brilliant plan. - - 3. He opened his mouth, to Ea he spoke, - - 4. What in his heart he had conceived he made known to him: - - 5. "My blood will I divide, bone will I [fashion], - - 6. I will make man, yes, man ................... - - 7. I will create man who shall dwell on the [earth]; - - 8. Truly shall the service of the gods be established--of them and - their shrines. - - 9. I will alter the ways of the gods, and will change [their paths], - - 10. Together shall they be honored, and unto evil shall [they]" ...... - - 11. Then Ea answered him and said: - - 12. ........ the ......... of the gods have I changed, - - 13. ................... one ..................... - - 14. ........ shall be destroyed, and people will I ............. - - 15. ............. and the gods ................ - - 16. ........... give and they .............. - - 17. ......... shall assemble (?) and the gods ............. - - 18. ............................................................ - - 19. .............. the gods ................................ - - 20. .................. the Anunnaki .................. - -(The rest of Tablet VI is still unrecovered, except a few lines at the -end.) - - 140. When ...................................... - - 141. They rejoiced .................................... - - 142. In Upshukkunnaku they set [their assembly]. - - 143. Of their heroic son, their savior they [cried]: - - 144. "We whom he succored." .................. - - 145. They seated themselves, in the assembly they named him ........ - - 146. They all cried aloud (?), they exalted him .......... - -Tablet VII - - 1. "O Asharu, bestower of harvests, founder of agriculture, - - 2. Creator of grain and plants, who made green herbs to grow, - - 3. O honored Asharu, revered in the house of counsel, rich in counsel, - - 4. Whom the gods honor, fearing [laid hold upon them] - - 5. O honored Asharu, powerful prince, the light [of the fathers who - begat him], - - 6. Who directs the decrees of Anu, Bel, [and Ea]. - - 7. He was their preserver, who ordained .......... - - 8. He whose provision is abundance, he goeth forth .......... - - 9. Tutu, the creator of their renewal is he. - - 10. If their want be pure, then are [they satisfied]; - - 11. If he make an incantation, then are the gods [appeased]; - - 12. Should they attack him in anger, he will repulse their array; - - 13. Let him therefore be exalted in the assembly of the gods. - - 14. None among the gods is like unto him! - - 15. Tutu-Ziukinna is the life of the host of the gods. - - 16. Who established for the gods the bright heavens. - - 17. Their way he received, [their path] ordained. - - 18. Never forgotten among men shall be his [mighty] deeds. - - 19. Tutu as Zi-azag thirdly they named, bringer of purification, - - 20. God of the favoring breeze, the lord who hears and is merciful, - - 21. Who creates fulness and plenty, who establishes abundance, - - 22. Who turns whatever is small into something great. - - 23. "In sore distress we caught his favoring breeze," - - 24. Let them honor him, praise him, bow humbly before him. - - 25. Tutu as Aga-azag may the mighty ones praise, - - 26. The lord of the pure incantation, who makes the dead to live, - - 27. Who to the captive gods showed abundant compassion, - - 28. The oppressive yoke he laid upon the gods, his enemies, - - 29. For their[362] release he created mankind, - - 30. The merciful one, with whom is life! - - 31. Established and never forgotten be his word - - 32. In the mouth of the black-headed race,[363] whom his hand created. - - 33. Tutu as Mu-azag, fifthly, his pure incantation may their mouth - proclaim, - - 34. Who through his pure incantation destroys all evil ones, - - 35. Shagzu, who knows the hearts of the gods, who sees through the - innermost parts. - - 36. The evil doer he permits not to go out with him (?). - - 37. Founder of the assembly of the gods [who gladdens] their heart. - - 38. Who subdues the disobedient .......... - - 39. Director of righteousness ...... - -(The tablet is too broken for connected translation, until nearly the end, -where it continues:) - - 107. Truly he holds their beginning and ending .......... - - 108. Saying, "He who passed through the midst of Tiâmat [without - resting], - - 109. Let his name be Neberu, who seizes the midst, - - 110. Who the stars of heaven--their ways he upholds; - - 111. As a flock verily the gods pasture, all of them." - - 112. He bound Tiâmat, her life he apportioned, he ended. - - 113. In the future, people, old in years, - - 114. Shall renew unceasingly, "let him be lord forever!" - - 115. Because he created the places and fashioned the fastnesses - - 116. "Lord of countries" Bel, his father, named him. - - 117. The names the Igigi named, all of them, - - 118. Ea heard, and his heart rejoiced: - - 119. "He whose name his fathers have magnified - - 120. He, even like me, shall be named Ea. - - 121. The binding of all my commands shall he control, - - 122. All my decrees shall he proclaim!" - - 123. By the name "Fifty" did the great gods - - 124. His fifty names make known, they made his path pre-eminent. - - 125. May they be held fast and the first men reveal them, - - 126. The wise, the understanding shall consider them together; - - 127. May the father repeat them and the son lay hold upon them, - - 128. So that shepherd and herdsman may open their ears, - - 129. And may rejoice in Marduk, the lord of the gods, - - 130. That his land may be fertile, that he may have prosperity. - - 131. His word is established, his command unfailing, - - 132. The word of his mouth, no god hath annulled. - - 133. He casts his glance without turning his neck, - - 134. When he roars, no god can face his anger. - - 135. Wide is his heart, great his goodness; - - 136. The sinner and transgressor in his presence .......... - - 137. They received instruction, they spake before him. - -(The concluding lines are too broken for connected translation.) - -=2. The First Chapter of Genesis and the Foregoing Creation Epic.= - -The Babylonian Creation Epic, in the form in which we know it, took shape -in the city of Babylon. Naturally, therefore, the god Marduk is made the -central figure. It is he only who was sufficiently powerful to overcome -the primeval dragon, it was he who created the heavens and the earth, it -was he whom at the end gods and men adored. - -A Babylonian priest, Berossos, in a work composed after the time of -Alexander the Great, gives an account of Babylonian ideas of the creation -of the world, which is but the tradition of the epic in a slightly -different form. A neoplatonic philosopher, Damascius, who lived about 560 -A. D., has also preserved a part of the tradition in a form almost -identical with that of the epic. - -Scholars of all shades of opinion agree that there is some connection -between this Babylonian tradition and the first chapter of Genesis, though -they differ as to whether the Biblical writer was acquainted with the -Babylonian tradition as we have it in the epic, or whether he knew an -earlier form of the story. - -The points of similarity which have been urged between Genesis and the -Babylonian epic are the following: 1. They begin somewhat similarly, -Genesis with the words "In the beginning," the epic with the words: - - "Time was when above heaven was not named; - Below to the earth no name was given." - -2. Both accounts assume that primeval chaos consisted of a mass of waters, -and to this mass of waters they give the same name. The Hebrews called it -_t{e}hom_, "deep"; the Babylonians, _Tiâmat_. These are really the same -word in the two closely related languages, just as _day_ and _Tag_ are the -same word in an English and a German form. In Genesis we are told that -"The Spirit of God moved (R. V. margin, was brooding) upon the face of the -waters"; in the Babylonian epic, the waters, which were thought to be of -two genders, were embosomed. In both the result is the beginning of the -creative process. - -The two accounts agree that the heavens and the earth were created by the -division of the primeval ocean by a firmament (the Babylonian calls it a -covering), which held up a part of the waters, so that the earth could be -formed beneath. They accordingly agree in the conception that there is a -super-celestial ocean, _i. e._, "the waters which are above the firmament" -(Gen. 1:7). - -Another striking similarity is found in the arrangement by sevens: the -Babylonian epic is arranged in seven tablets, or cantos, the Hebrew -account, in seven days. The Babylonian series culminates in the praise of -Marduk by all the gods; the Hebrew, in the institution of the sabbath. The -two series agree in connecting the heavens with the fourth epoch of -creation, and the creation of man with the sixth. - -In other respects the order differs. In the Babylonian account the moon -and stars are created on the fifth day, instead of on the fourth. As -Marduk is identified with the sun, that orb is assumed; its creation is -not described. The creation of animals is not described in any text which -we can attach to a definite tablet of the Babylonian series. It is, -however, given in a fragment which reads as follows: - - 1. When the gods in their assembly had made [the heavens], - - 2. The firmament had established and bound [fast], - - 3. Living things of all kinds had created, - - 4. Cattle of the field, beasts of the field, and moving things of the - city. - - 5. After .......... unto all kinds of living things .......... - - 6. [Between beasts] of the field and moving things of the city had - divided... - - 7. .......... all creatures, the whole creation .......... - - 8. ............ that which in the whole of my family .......... - - 9. [Then arose] Nin-igi-azag, two small creatures [he created], - - 10. In the assembly of the beasts he made [their form] brilliant, - - 11. .......... the goddess Gula .......... - - 12. ................ one white and one black .......... - - 13. ............ one white and one black .......... - -The Babylonian account, then, contained somewhere the story of the -creation of the animals, though, like the other parts of the Babylonian -account, its order and atmosphere differ widely from the Biblical -narrative. - -Some of these resemblances are of no great significance. The fact that the -two accounts are arranged by sevens may be due simply to the fact that -that number was sacred among both peoples. It is thought by some scholars -that its use in Genesis was consciously adopted in order to lead up to the -sabbath and glorify it. This might be true, even if the writer of the -chapter knew of the Babylonian arrangement by sevens. - -The features of the two narratives, which have convinced some scholars of -all shades of opinion that there is a real kinship between the two -accounts, are their agreement as to the nature of primeval chaos, and the -division of the primeval ocean by a firmament for the creation of the -heavens and the earth. Both writers had, so to speak, the same raw -material of objective conceptions. - -The differences between the accounts are, however, most marked. To speak -first of that which is least important, the Hebrew order is in many -respects different from the Babylonian. In the Babylonian the gods are -generated in the first tablet, the world is not created till the fourth, -and the creation of all other things is told in tablets four, five, and -six. In other words, creation is divided into two parts, each of which is -told in three tablets. The first three tablets deal with gods, the second -three with the world and living things. - -This twofold division is found in the first chapter of Genesis. Here the -creative process is divided into two stages, each embracing four works, -and occupying three days. The distribution of these works is strikingly -different from the Babylonian. On the first day, light and darkness were -created; on the second, the firmament; on the third, the earth and -vegetation; on the fourth, the heavenly bodies; on the fifth, fishes and -birds; on the sixth, animals and men. The first series of three days -prepared the heavens and the earth; the second series studded the sky with -orbs and the earth with living beings. There is a striking parallelism -between the two series. The first begins with the creation of light; the -second, with light-giving bodies. To the third and sixth days two creative -acts each are assigned. On the second day the seas are isolated; on the -fifth they are stocked with fishes. On the third day dry land emerges, on -the sixth terrestrial animals are made. On the third also herbs began to -grow; on the sixth they are assigned to animals and men for food. The -classification of the acts of creation in Genesis is clear and consistent, -and thoroughly independent of that in the Babylonian account. - -A more important difference lies in the religious conceptions of the two. -The Babylonian poem is mythological and polytheistic. Its conception of -deity is by no means exalted. Its gods love and hate, they scheme and -plot, fight and destroy. Marduk, the champion, conquers only after a -fierce struggle, which taxes his powers to the utmost. Genesis, on the -other hand, reflects the most exalted monotheism. God is so thoroughly the -master of all the elements of the universe, that they obey his slightest -word. He controls all without effort. He speaks and it is done. Granting, -as most scholars do, that there is a connection between the two -narratives, there is no better measure of the inspiration of the Biblical -account than to put it side by side with the Babylonian. As we read the -chapter in Genesis today, it still reveals to us the majesty and power of -the one God, and creates in the modern man, as it did in the ancient -Hebrew, a worshipful attitude toward the Creator. - -=3. The Babylonian Creation Epic and Other Parts of the Bible.= - -The Babylonian poem, crude though it seems to us, had a powerful -fascination for the imagination. With more or less distinctness parts of -it seem to have been known to various Hebrew writers, who, attributing to -their own God, Jehovah, the rôle ascribed in the epic to Marduk, used -these stories as poetic illustrations. At least this is the view of a -considerable group of scholars. Some object that, if this were true, it -would degrade Jehovah to the level of Marduk, but the objection does not -seem well founded. The Hebrews might well have been such ardent -monotheists as to believe that each and every mighty manifestation of -power had been the work of Jehovah, without in any way lowering Jehovah to -the level of a heathen god. The most important parallels which have been -cited are here given, so that the reader may judge for himself as to which -view is the more probable. - -In Job 9:13, 14 we read: - - God will not withdraw his anger; - The helpers of Rahab do stoop under him. - How much less shall I answer him, - And choose out my words to reason with him? - -Rahab is believed by many to be here an epithet of Tiâmat. It means "the -one who acts boisterously" or "proudly." Those who thus think believe the -lines in Job to refer to the overcoming of Tiâmat's helpers in Tablet IV, -lines 105-118, of the Babylonian creation epic, which read as follows: - - After Tiâmat the leader he had slain, - Her army he broke, her host was scattered, - And the gods, her helpers, who marched at her side, - Trembled, feared, they turned their backs; - They sought an exit, to save their lives; - With a cordon they were encompassed, escape was not possible. - He caught them, their weapons he broke, - Into the net they fell, in the snare they remained. - All the quarters of the world they filled with their lamentation. - His wrath they endured, they were held in bondage. - And the eleven creatures, whom she had filled with terribleness, - The troop of demons who marched as her helpers, - He threw into fetters, their power he broke; - Along with their opposition he trampled them under his feet. - -This would seem to suit the reference in Job, and to give point to Job's -words. As our Saviour used stories in his parables, so this poet may have -used this well-known story to illustrate his point. - -Again Job 26:12, 13 reads: - - He stirreth up the sea with his power, - And by his understanding he smiteth through Rahab. - By his Spirit the heavens are garnished; - His hand hath pierced the swift serpent. - -Four of the ancient versions of the Old Testament, with a very slight -change in the Hebrew letters, read Job 26:13: - - The bars of heaven fear him; - His hand hath pierced the swift serpent. - -Into comparison with v. 12 and the last line of 13, scholars have brought -Tablet IV, line 93, ff., which runs: - - Then took their stand, Tiâmat and the leader of the gods, Marduk; - For the fight they approached, for the battle drew near. - The lord spread out his net and enclosed her, - The evil wind from behind he thrust into her face. - As Tiâmat opened her mouth to its full extent, - The evil wind he drove in, so that her lips could not close. - With the mighty winds he filled her belly. - Her courage was taken away, and she opened her mouth. - He let fall the spear, he burst open her belly, - He cut through her inward parts, he pierced her heart, - He bound her and her life destroyed; - Her body he cast down and stood upon it. - -Into comparison with the first line of v. 13, as the versions give it, -scholars have brought line 135, and ff., of the same tablet: - - Then the lord rested, he gazed upon her body, - The flesh of the monster he divided; he formed a cunning plan. - He split her open like a flat fish into two halves; - One half of her he established and made a covering of the heavens. - He drew a bolt, he established a guard, - And not to let her waters come out, he commanded. - -With the passages quoted above Psa. 74:13, 14 has also been compared: - - Thou didst divide the sea by thy strength: - Thou brakest the heads of the sea-monsters in the waters. - Thou brakest the heads of leviathan in pieces; - Thou gavest him to be food to the people inhabiting the wilderness. - -Verses 16, 17 of the same Psalm continue the theme with the words: - - The day is thine, the night also is thine: - Thou hast prepared the light and the sun. - Thou hast set all the borders of the earth: - Thou hast made summer and winter. - -The theme is the same as that of the epic, viz.: the creation of the -world. It would appear from v. 14 that as the Hebrews called Tiâmat -Rahab, so they called Kingu leviathan. Those who so think find another -reference to the Babylonian creation epic in Job 3:8: - - Let them curse it that curse the day, - Who are ready to rouse up leviathan. - -Apparently there were magicians who professed to be able to arouse such a -monster. - -Other references to leviathan are thought to employ the same illustrative -material. Thus in Isa. 27:1 we read: - - In that day Jehovah with his hard and great and strong sword will - punish leviathan the swift serpent, and leviathan the crooked serpent; - and he will slay the monster that is in the sea. - -In Job 41 there is a long description of the crocodile under the name -leviathan. In verses 19-21 some things are said of him that do not suit a -real crocodile, and some scholars have thought that the language was -influenced by the Babylonian material. These verses are: - - Out of his mouth go burning torches, - And sparks of fire leap forth. - Out of his nostrils a smoke goeth, - As of a boiling pot and burning rushes. - His breath kindleth coals, - And a flame goeth forth from his mouth. - -Other references to Rahab, which have been thought to use the same -illustration, are Psalm 89:10: - - Thou hast broken Rahab in pieces as one that is slain; - Thou hast scattered thine enemies with the arm of thy strength. - -Also, Isaiah 51:9: - - Is it not thou that didst cut Rahab in pieces, - That didst pierce the monster? - -As to whether these sacred writers really employed the material of the -Babylonian epic to give force to their illustrations, the judgments of men -will differ in accordance with their views of what is possible for an -inspired writer. - -In the following passages Rahab is used to denote Egypt as a proud and -imperious country. These uses are clearly figurative and metaphorical. - -Isa. 30:7: - - For Egypt helpeth in vain and to no purpose: - Therefore have I called her Rahab that sitteth still. - -Psa. 87:4: - - Rahab and Babylon I proclaim my votaries. - -A fragmentary account of an Assyrian version of the creation epic has been -found. It agrees with the Babylonian account in beginning with Tiâmat, -though the course of creation appears to have been different. The tablets -known to us present it, however, in a form too fragmentary for us to -follow the course of the narrative. - - - - -CHAPTER II - -ANOTHER ACCOUNT OF THE CREATION FOUND AT BABYLON.[364] - - TEXT OF THE ACCOUNT. COMPARISON OF IT WITH GENESIS 2. - - -=1. Text of the Account.= - - 1. A holy house, a house of the gods, in a holy place had not been - made; - - 2. No reed had sprung up, no tree had been created. - - 3. No brick had been made, no foundation had been built, - - 4. No house had been constructed, no city had been built; - - 5. No city had been built, thrones had not been established; - - 6. Nippur had not been constructed, Ekur had not been built; - - 7. Erech had not been constructed, Eanna had not been built; - - 8. The deep had not been formed, Eridu had not been built; - - 9. The holy house, the house of the gods, the dwelling had not been - made,-- - - 10. All lands were sea,-- - - 11. Then in the midst of the sea was a water-course; - - 12. In those days Eridu was constructed, Esagila was built, - - 13. Esagila where, in the midst of the deep, the god Lugal-dul-azaga - abode, - - 14. (Babylon was made, Esagila was completed). - - 15. The gods and the Anunaki he made at one time. - - 16. (The holy city, the dwelling of their hearts' desire, they named - as first), - - 17. Marduk bound a structure of reeds upon the face of the waters, - - 18. He formed dust, he poured it out beside the reed-structure. - - 19. To cause the gods to dwell in the habitation of their hearts' - desire, - - 20. He formed mankind. - - 21. The goddess Aruru with him created mankind, - - 22. Cattle of the field, in whom is breath of life, he created. - - 23. He formed the Tigris and Euphrates and set them in their places, - - 24. Their names he did well declare. - - 25. The grass, marsh-grass, the reed and brushwood (?) he created, - - 26. The green grass of the field he created, - - 27. The land, the marshes, and the swamps; - - 28. The wild cow and her young, the wild calf; the ewe and her young, - the lamb of the fold; - - 29. Gardens and forests; - - 30. The wild goat, the mountain goat, (who) cares for himself (?). - - 31. The lord Marduk filled a terrace by the seaside, - - 32. ............ a marsh, reeds he set, - - 33. .................. he caused to exist. - - 34. [Reeds he creat]ed; trees he created; - - 35. In their ........... in their place he made; - - 36. [Bricks he laid, a founda]tion he constructed; - - 37. [Houses he made], a city he built; - - 38. [A city he built, a throne] he established; - - 39. [Nuppur he constructed], Ekur he built; - - 40. [Erech he constructed], Eanna he built. - -(At this point the tablet is broken. When it again becomes legible, it is -in the midst of an incantation.) - -=2. Comparison with Genesis 2.= - -This account of the creation has sometimes been compared with Genesis 2:4, -ff., which describes a time when there was no grass or vegetation on the -earth, and then goes on to describe the creation of man and animals, -speaking of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. - -In this account of the creation it is stated (line 21) that the goddess -Aruru with Marduk created mankind. - -In another Babylonian poem, the Gilgamesh epic, which contains the -Babylonian story of the flood, there is an account of the creation of man -which accords much more closely with Gen. 2:7 than that which we are -considering. It runs: - - The goddess Aruru, when she heard this, - A man like Anu she formed in her heart. - Aruru washed her hands; - Clay she pinched off and spat upon it; - Eabani, a hero she created, - An exalted offspring, with the might of Ninib. - -Here is clearly a tradition, similar to Genesis, that God formed man from -the dust of the ground. The allusion to Aruru indicates that this formed a -part of the early Babylonian tradition. There is considerable evidence -that in an earlier form of the Babylonian account Marduk had no place. He -was introduced into it later by the priests of Babylon. Aruru was in that -earlier form the creator of man, and probably was said to have formed him -from clay, as in the Gilgamesh epic. - -While these points of likeness are evident, there are great differences -between the two narratives. The Babylonian account speaks not only of -grass and reeds as non-existent, but of cities and temples also, which, it -tells us, were created later. It has no picture of Eden; its thought -centers in well-known Babylonian cities. While Marduk appears as supreme -in the Babylonian poem, the gods and Anunaki, or spirits of earth, are -recognized, so that the polytheistic view is not entirely absent. In the -Biblical picture, on the other hand, Jehovah is supreme. Opinions of -scholars differ as to whether there was any real connection between the -two narratives. Whatever opinion one may hold on this point, there can be -no question but that the second chapter of Genesis is dominated by those -religious conceptions which were so uniquely manifested in Israel, while -they are absent from the Babylonian narrative. - -(_For a new Babylonian account of the creation of man, see Appendix._) - - - - -CHAPTER III - -THE BABYLONIAN SABBATH - - FEAST OF MARDUK AND ZARPANIT. A DAY CALLED SHABATUM. A DAY IN SOME - TABLETS AT YALE. - - -=1. Feast of Marduk and Zarpanit.= - - The seventh day is the feast of Marduk and Zarpanit. It is an evil - day. The shepherd of the great people shall not eat flesh cooked on - the coals which is smoked. The garment of his body he shall not - change; a clean one he shall not put on. A sacrifice he shall not - offer. The king in a chariot shall not ride. In triumph he shall not - speak. In the secret place a seer shall not give an oracle. The - physician shall not lay his hand on the sick. It is not fitting to - utter a malediction. At night before Marduk and Ishtar the king shall - bring his offering; a libation he shall pour out. The lifting up of - his hands shall then be pleasing to the gods.[365] - -This passage occurs in a tablet which describes the nature of all the days -of a month. The same prohibitions are recorded for the fourteenth, -nineteenth, twenty-first, and twenty-eighth days. The tablet has often -been brought into comparison with the Hebrew sabbath, partly because the -seventh, fourteenth, twenty-first, and twenty-eighth days are involved, -partly because the prohibitions remind the reader of Exodus 20:8-11 and -Deut. 5:12-15. - - Exod. 20:8-11. Remember the sabbath day, to keep it holy. Six days - shalt thou labor, and do all thy work: but the seventh day is a - sabbath unto the Lord thy God: _in it_ thou shalt not do any work, - thou, nor thy son, nor thy daughter, thy manservant, nor thy - maidservant, nor thy cattle, nor thy stranger that is within thy - gates: for in six days the Lord made heaven and earth, the sea, and - all that in them is, and rested the seventh day: wherefore the Lord - blessed the sabbath day, and hallowed it. - - Deut. 5:12-15. Observe the sabbath day, to keep it holy, as the Lord - thy God commanded thee. Six days shalt thou labor, and do all thy - work: but the seventh day is a sabbath unto the Lord thy God: _in it_ - thou shalt not do any work, thou, nor thy son, nor thy daughter, nor - thy manservant, nor thy maidservant, nor thine ox, nor thine ass, nor - any of thy cattle, nor thy stranger that is within thy gates; that thy - manservant and thy maidservant may rest as well as thou. And thou - shalt remember that thou wast a servant in the land of Egypt, and the - Lord thy God brought thee out thence by a mighty hand and by a - stretched out arm: therefore the Lord thy God commanded thee to keep - the sabbath day. - -In reality the Babylonian prohibitions apply to certain classes of people -only, and not to the whole population. A study of the contract literature -shows that there was no cessation of business upon these days of the -month, so that resemblance to the Hebrew sabbath is really quite slight. - -=2. A Day Called Shabatum.= - -These days were not, so far as we know, called _shabatum_, but another -tablet[366] tells us that the fifteenth day of each month was so called. -_Shabatum_ is etymologically the same as the Hebrew sabbath. As the -Babylonian months were lunar, the fifteenth was the time of the full moon, -so that in Babylonian the day denoted the completion of the moon's growth. -In the Old Testament "sabbath" is sometimes coupled with "new moon," as -though it may also have designated a similar day. (See 2 Kings 4:23; Amos -8:5; Hosea 2:11; Isa. 1:13; 66:23, and Ezek. 46:3.) This Babylonian -_shabatum_ can, in any event, have no direct relationship to the Hebrew -sabbath as a day of rest once a week. - -=3. A Day in Some Tablets at Yale.= - -A series of tablets in the Yale Babylonian Collection, a portion of which -has been published by Prof. Clay,[367] shows that special sacrifices were -offered on the seventh, fourteenth, twenty-first, and twenty-eighth of -each month. These sacrifices show that these days were thought to have -some peculiar significance, but, whatever that significance may have been, -the evidence cited shows that it was not the same as that of the Hebrew -sabbath. - - - - -CHAPTER IV - -THE LEGEND OF ADAPA AND THE FALL OF MAN - - COMPARISON WITH GENESIS 3. THE ADAPA MYTH. - - -Four fragments of the Adapa myth have been found. They really present but -three parts of the story, as two of them cover the same ground. These -three parts of the story are translated in this chapter. It will be noted -that the fragments do not present the entire story. Between fragments I -and II, as well as between fragments II and III, some lines have fallen -out, and the last fragment is broken away before the end of the account is -reached. Nevertheless, from the parts which we have it is clear that the -Babylonians shared with the Hebrews some of the traditions recorded in the -third chapter of Genesis. - -=1. Comparison with Genesis 3.= - -In the first place, Adapa, like Adam, had gained knowledge. This knowledge -carried with it a power hitherto regarded as an attribute of divinity. It -enabled Adapa to break the wing of the south wind; it tempted Adam and Eve -"to become like God, knowing good and evil" (Gen. 3:5). As in Genesis, -knowledge did not carry with it immortality. Ea, the god who had permitted -Adapa to become wise, feared that he might gain immortality, as Jehovah -thought that Adam might "put forth his hand and take of the tree of life -and eat and live forever" (Gen. 3:22). (For Babylonian and Assyrian -conceptions of the tree of life, see Figs. 291, 293.) - -Ea accordingly told Adapa a falsehood when he was about to go into the -presence of the supreme god, Anu, in order to prevent him from eating the -food that would make him immortal; Jehovah drove man from the garden where -the tree of life grew. The two accounts agree in the thought that -immortality could be obtained by eating a certain kind of food. The lines -at the end of the Adapa story are much broken, but they make it clear that -as a punishment for what he had done, Adapa was subjected to sickness, -disease, and restlessness. This corresponds to the toil inflicted upon man -(Gen. 3:17-19), and the pangs of childbirth imposed upon woman (Gen. -3:16). It appears also that as Adam and Eve were clothed with skins in -consequence of their deed (Gen. 3:21), so Adapa was clothed by Anu in a -special clothing. - -These similarities indicate that the Babylonians possessed the same -general ideas of the connection of increasing knowledge, with the -attributes of divinity on the one hand, and with suffering and clothing on -the other, which are presented in Genesis. An increasing number of modern -scholars regard the Babylonian story as an earlier form of a narrative -which the Hebrew writer took and purified. Others hold that it is a -somewhat degenerate form of the Biblical narrative. In any event, the -Babylonian story proves the Biblical conceptions to be very ancient, and, -by its contrasts to that of Genesis, it exhibits the dignity and religious -value of the Biblical narrative. In the Babylonian myth, the gods, Ea and -Anu, are divided and work at cross purposes; Ea tells a falsehood to -accomplish his end. Genesis, while it represents Jehovah as feeling and -acting in a much more human way than some parts of the Bible do, still -portrays him as a consistently righteous, omnipotent God, who demands -obedience, and whose punishments are the reasonable recompense for -transgressions. The superiority of the Old Testament stands out in -striking contrast. - -=2. The Adapa Myth.=[368] - -I - - 1. He possessed intelligence .......... - - 2. His command like the command of Anu .......... - - 3. Wide intelligence he (Ea) made perfect for him, the destiny of the - country to reveal. - - 4. Unto him wisdom he gave; eternal life he did not grant him. - - 5. In those days, in those years the wise man of Eridu,-- - - 6. Ea as a chief (?) among men had created him,-- - - 7. A wise man whose command no one could restrain, - - 8. The prudent, the most wise among the Anunnaki was he, - - 9. Blameless, clean of hands, anointed, the observer of divine - commands, - - 10. With the bakers he made bread, - - 11. With the bakers of Eridu he made bread, - - 12. The food and water of Eridu he prepared daily, - - 13. With his clean hands he prepared the table, - - 14. And without him the table was not cleared. - - 15. The ship he steered; fishing and hunting for Eridu he did. - - 16. Then Adapa of Eridu, - - 17. While Ea lay upon a bed in a chamber (?), - - 18. Daily the closing of Eridu he made right. - - 19. At the pure quay, the quay of the new-moon, he embarked upon the - ship, - - 20. The wind blew, his ship sailed, - - 21. With the rudder he steered the ship - - 22. Upon the broad sea. - - ........................................................ - -II - - 1. .................................... - - 2. The south wind [blew and capsized him], - - 3. To the house [of the fishes] it made him sink, - - 4. "O south wind [increase] thy rage as much as [thou art able], - - 5. Thy wing I will break." As he spoke with his mouth, - - 6. The wing of the south wind was broken, seven days - - 7. The south wind blew not on the land. Anu - - 8. To his messenger, Ilabrat, said: - - 9. "Why has the south wind not blown upon the land for seven days?" - - 10. His messenger Ilabrat answered him, "My lord - - 11. Adapa, the son of Ea, the wing of the south wind - - 12. Has broken." Anu, when he heard this, - - 13. Cried "Help!" He ascended his throne: "Let some one bring him to - me. - - 14. Likewise Ea, who knows the heavens, summon him, - - 14a. To King Ea to come."[369] - - 14b. To him he caused word to be borne, - - 14c. .......... To him, to King Ea, - - 14d. He sent a messenger. - - 14e. He is of great understanding, he knows the hearts of the great - gods, - - 14f. .......... of the heavens, he establishes it. - - 15. [A soiled garment he made] him wear; with a mourning garment clad - him, - - 16. He clothed him and gave him counsel, - - 17. Saying: "Adapa, into the presence of Anu, the king, thou art - going, - - 18. Fail not the order, my word keep, - - 19. When thou goest up to heaven and approachest the gate of Anu, - - 20. At the gate of Anu, Tammuz and Gishzida - - 21. Stand, they will see thee, they will ask: 'Lord, - - 22. For whose sake art thou thus, Adapa? For whom - - 23. Art thou clad in a mourning garment?' 'In our country two gods - have vanished, therefore - - 24. Am I thus.' 'Who are the two gods who in the land - - 25. Have vanished?' 'Tammuz and Gishzida.' They will look at one - another and - - 26. Be astonished. Favorable words - - 27. To Anu they will speak. A joyful countenance of Anu - - 28. They will reveal to thee. When thou standest in the presence of - Anu, - - 29. Food of death they will offer thee to eat; - - 30. Thou shalt not eat. Water of death they will offer thee to drink; - - 31. Thou shalt not drink. A garment will they show thee; - - 32. Put it on. Oil they will set before thee; anoint thyself. - - 33. The command which I give thee, forget not. The word - - 34. Which I have spoken hold fast." The messenger - - 35. Of Anu came: "Adapa of the south wind - - 36. The wing has broken. Into my presence bring him." - - 37. The road to heaven he made him take and to heaven he ascended. - - 38. When to heaven he ascended, when he approached the gate of Anu, - - 39. At the gate of Anu, Tammuz and Gishzida were standing. - - 40. When they saw him they cried: "Adapa, help! - - 41. Lord, for whose sake art thou thus? - - 42. For whom art thou clad in a mourning garment? - - 43. In the country two gods have vanished; therefore in a mourning - garment - - 44. Am I clad. Who are the two gods who from the land have vanished?" - - 45. "Tammuz and Gishzida." They looked at one another and - - 46. Were astonished. When Adapa before Anu the king, - - 47. Approached, Anu saw him and cried: - - 48. "Come, Adapa, why of the south wind the wing - - 49. Hast thou broken?" Adapa answered: "Anu, my lord, - - 50. For the house of my lord in the midst of the sea - - 51. I was catching fish. As I was midway of the voyage - - 52. The south wind blew and capsized me; - - 53. To the house of the fishes it made me sink. In the anger of my - heart - - 54. [The south wind] I cursed. At my side answered Tammuz - - 55. And Gishzida: 'The heart should be toward Anu.' - - 56. They spoke, he was appeased, his heart was won (?). - - 57. "Why has Ea, to impure man, of the heavens - - 58. And the earth revealed the heart? - - 59. Strong (?) has he made him (Adapa); a name he has given him. - - 60. We--what can we do to him? Food of life - - 61. Bring him, that he may eat." Food of life - - 62. They brought him; he ate it not. Water of life - - 63. They brought him; he drank it not. A garment - - 64. They brought him; he clothed himself. Oil - - 65. They brought him; he anointed himself. - - 66. Anu looked at him; he wondered (?) at him. - - 67. "Come, Adapa, why dost thou not eat nor drink? - - 68. Now thou shalt not live; men are mortal (?)." "Ea my lord - - 69. Said: Thou shalt not eat, thou shalt not drink." - - 70. Take him and bring him back to earth. - - 71. ............ looked upon him. - -III - - 1. ........................ - - 2. He commanded him and he ........... - - 3. The garment, he commanded him and he clothed himself. - - 4. ...... Anu wondered greatly at the deed of Ea. - - 5. The gods of heaven and earth, as many as there are: "Who is thus - mighty (?)? - - 6. His command is the command of Anu. Who can surpass [him]?" - - 7. As now Adapa from the horizon to the zenith of the heavens - - 8. ...... looked, he saw his terror ...... (_i. e._, the terror he - inspired) - - 9. [Which] Anu concerning Adapa upon him ...... had placed. - - 10. [The service (?)] of Ea he made his satisfaction. - - 11. Anu fixed as his lot his lordship in brilliance to the distant - future. - - 12. .......... Adapa, the seed of mankind, - - 13. [Who] victoriously broke the wing of the south wind, - - 14. And to heaven he ascended. "Thus let it be!" - - 15. ...... that which he in evil ways imposed on the people, - - 16. .......... sickness which he placed in the bodies of people. - - 17. ........ Ninkarrak appeased. - - 18. Sickness [shall co]me, his disease be violent, - - 19. .......... destruction shall fall upon him, - - 20. [In] good sleep he shall not rest, - - 21. .... shall overturn (?) the joy of people's hearts. - -(The remainder is broken away.) - - - - -CHAPTER V - -THE PATRIARCHS BEFORE THE FLOOD - - BABYLONIAN LONG-LIVED KINGS. COMPARISON WITH GENESIS 5. COMPARISON - WITH GENESIS 4. COMPARISON WITH THE LIST OF BEROSSOS. - - -A Biblical narrative that challenges attention is that in Genesis 5, which -contains the list of long-lived patriarchs who flourished before the -flood. This narrative finds a striking parallel in the following tablet -which tells of long-lived kings who are said to have ruled in ancient -Babylonia. The beginnings of all the columns of the tablet are broken -away.[370] - - -=1. Babylonian Long-lived Kings= - -_Column I_ - - 2. ...... ruled 900 (?) years; - - ...................... - - 7. Galumum - - 8. ruled 900 (?) years; - - 9. Zugagib - - 10. ruled 840 (?) years; - - 11. A-ri-pi, son of Mashgag, - - 12. ruled 720 years; - - 13. Etana, the shepherd, - - 14. who ascended to heaven, - - 15. who subdued all lands, - - 16. ruled 635 years; - - 17. Pilikam, - - 18. son of Etana, - - 19. ruled 350 years; - - 20. Enmenunna - - 21. reigned 611 years; - - 22. Melam-Kish, - - 23. son of Enmenunna, - - 24. ruled 900 years; - - 25. Barsalnunna, - - 26. son of Enmenunna, - - 27. ruled 1200 years; - - 28. Mes (?) zamu, son of Barsalnunna, - - 29. ruled ...... years; - - 30. ...... son of Barsalnunna; - -_Column II_ - - ......................... - - 1. from Kish - - 2. the kingdom - - 3. passed to Eanna. - - 4. In Eanna - - 5. Meskingashir, - - 6. son of Shamash,[371] - - 7. as lord, - - 8. as king, - - 9. ruled 325 years. - - 10. Meskingashir - - 11. entered into - - 12. and went out from ...... - - 13. Enmeirgan, - - 14, 15. son of Meskingashir, - - 16. king of Erech, - - 17. the people of Erech - - 18. strengthened, - - 19. as king - - 20. ruled 420 years. - - 21. Lugalbanda, the shepherd, - - 22. ruled 1200 years. - - 23. Dumuzi, the hunter[372] (?), - - 24. Whose city is among fishes, - - 25. ruled 100 years. - - 26. Gilgamesh, - - 27. whose father - - 28. was lord of Kullab, - - 29. ruled 126 years. - -_Column III_ - - (The kingdom) - - 1. of Erech - - 2. passed to Ur. - - 3. In Ur - - 4. Mesannipada - - 5. was king; - - 6. he ruled 80 years. - - 7. Meskiagnunna, - - 8. son of Mesannipada, - - 9. ruled 30 years. - - 10. Elu ........ - - 11. ruled 25 years. - - 12. Balu ....... - - 13. 36 years. - - 14. 4 kings - - 15. ruled 171 years. - - 16. As to Ur - - 17. the kingdom - - 18. passed to Awan.[373] - -_Column IV_[374] - - 1. ruled 21 years. - - 2. Ishme-Dagan, - - 3. son of Idin-Dagan, - - 4. ruled 21 years. - - 5. Libit-Ishtar, - - 6. son of Idin-Dagan, - - 7. ruled 11 years. - - 8. Ur-Ninib, - - 9. son of Im ......., - - .................... - -_Column V_ - - 1. Total 51 kings-- - - 2. their years were 18000 ...+ - - 3. 9 years ....... months ....... - - 4. Four times - - 5. in Kish: - - 6. total 22 kings-- - - 7. their years were 2610+ - - 8. 6 months, 15 days. - - 9. Five times - - 10. in Erech: - - 11. total 13 kings-- - - 12. their years were 396-- - - 13. ruled. - - 14. Three times - - 15. in Ur: - - 16. total 3 kings-- - - 17. their years were 356-- - - 18. ruled. - - 19. Once - - 20. in Awan: - - 21. total 1 king-- - - 22. his rule was 7 years. - - 23. Once - - 24. in[375] ....... - -_Column VI_ - - 1. (total .......) kings-- - - 2. (their years) were 196-- - - 3. ruled. - - 4. Twice in Agade: - - 5. total 21 kings-- - - 6. their years were 125 years - - 7. 40 days--ruled. - - 8. Once - - 9. in the people - - 10. of Gutium: - - 11. total 11 kings-- - - 12. their years were 159 years-- - - 13. ruled - - 14. in Isin (?). - - 15. Eleven - - 16. royal cities - - 17. ruled. - - 18. Total 134 kings. - - 19. Grand total 28876+ - - 20. years, - - 21. ...... months.[375] - -This interesting document does not stand alone. Three other tablets -published in the same volume[376] contain similar material, though all -that would have a bearing on our present topic is too broken for -connected translation. It is clear from the translation here given that -the Babylonians ascribed to some early kings reigns as long, and even -longer in some cases, than those ascribed to the antediluvian patriarchs -in Genesis 5. - -The peculiar spelling of Galumum and Zugagib in the Babylonian characters, -together with the meaning of the words, shows that they are animal names. -Zugagib means "scorpion" and Galumum, "lamb." In the lines which preceded, -probably similar animal names were recorded. Perhaps this expresses the -idea that animals were made before men, as is stated in Gen. 1:24-26. - -=2. Comparison with Genesis 5.=--The next name, Aripi,[377] may also have -been read Adimê, and perhaps was so read by the Sumerians themselves. If -it came to the Hebrews in this form they would naturally equate it with -the Hebrew Adam, which means "man." - -Etana, the shepherd, is said in this list to have gone to heaven. This at -once suggests the fate of Enoch, who "was not; for God took him" (Gen. -5:24). In the Sumerian the words "to heaven" are AN-SU, which may also be -read AN-KU. If these words were not fully understood by the Hebrews, to -whom Sumerian was not only a foreign language but a dead language, they -might easily be mistaken for a proper name, and would in Hebrew give us -Enoch.[378] Another suggestion as to the method of borrowing is also -possible. Later traditions cherished the name of a king, Enmeduranki, whom -they called a king of Sippar or Agade.[379] Enmeduranki means "the hero -who binds together heaven and earth." Etana is in our list of kings called -a king of Kish, but in later times kings of Kish were also called kings of -Agade. It is altogether probable, therefore, that the "hero who binds -together heaven and earth" is simply another designation of Etana who went -to heaven. The last two syllables of Enmeduranki, _i. e._, AN-KI, "heaven -and earth," would, if taken over into Hebrew, also give Enoch. If we -assume that Etana and Enoch are the same, we may at a later point be able -to determine by which of these processes the name is most likely to have -come into Hebrew. In an old poem, fragments of which have been found on -some broken tablets from Nineveh, the fortunes of Etana were given in -detail. He is said to have been carried to heaven on the back of an eagle. -If he be really the prototype of Enoch, this lends a touch of realism to -the narrative. - -The Sumerian name Enmenunna means "exalted hero" or "exalted man." A -natural translation of this into Semitic Babylonian about 2000 B. C. would -be _Mutu-elu_,[380] or, in one word, _amelu_, and an equally natural -translation of this into Hebrew would give us Enosh. - -Pilikam,[381] the next name, means in Sumerian "with intelligence to -build." In Babylonian Semitic it would be literally _Ina-uzni-erêsu_, or, -rendered in one word, _ummanu_, "artificer." The Hebrew translation of -this is Kenan, which means "artificer." Melamkish gives us the Hebrew -Lamech by the simple elision of the first and last consonants. All people -are lazy and words sometimes wear away both at the beginning and at the -end.[382] - -Barsalnunna, translated into Semitic Babylonian, becomes -_Shithu-elu_.[383] Seth may well be a transfer of a part of this name to -Hebrew. The final radical of the first part of the name may have worn away -or have been accidentally omitted. - -Meskingashir is resolvable into four elements, MES-KI-INGA[384]-SHIR,[385] -"the hero" or "man who is great" or "exalted." Translate this into Semitic -Babylonian and it becomes _Mutu-sa-elu_, which is almost exactly -Methuselah. - -Enmeirgan becomes when translated into Semitic Mutu-salal-eqla,[386] and -Mahalalel is a much closer transfer of the first two elements of this to -Hebrew than are Sennacherib, Esar-haddon, Merodach-baladan, and -Evil-merodach of the names Sin-akhi-irba, Ashur-akhi-iddina, -Marduk-apal-iddin, and Amel-Marduk. Finally Dumuzi means "son of life," or -"living son," and Jared[387] means "descendant." - -The equivalent of Noah does not appear in this list, but there is no doubt -that he was Ziugiddu, otherwise called Ut-napishtim, of the Babylonian -accounts of the flood. - -We have then the following equivalents, four of which are Hebrew -translations of Sumerian names; three, transfers into Hebrew of the whole -or of parts of Semitic Babylonian equivalents of these Sumerian names, two -of which are transfers to Hebrew of portions of a Sumerian original, and -one of which, Noah, is still unexplained. - - Sumerian Semitic Babylonian Hebrew - - Adimê Adam - Barsalnunna Shithu-elu Seth - Enmenunna Mutu-elu (or amelu) Enosh - Pelikam Ina-uzni-ereshu (or ummanu) Kenan - Enmeirgan Mutu-salal-gan Mahalalel - Dumuzi Apal-napisti Jared - Etana Enoch - Meskingashir Mutu-sa-elu Methuselah - Melamkish Lamech - Ziugiddu Noah - -Of course, it may be objected that our list of kings did not furnish the -originals of these patriarchs, since there are more kings than patriarchs, -even though some of the names of kings have been lost by the breaking of -the tablet. In this connection, however, one should remember that in 1 -Chron. 1-9, many names which appear in the earlier books of the Bible are -omitted, and that in Matt. 1:8, three kings--Ahaziah, Joash, and -Amaziah--are omitted from the genealogy of Christ. (Compare 2 Kings -11-15.) It appears, then, that Biblical writers did not always copy a full -list. - -It thus seems that the tablet translated above may be related to the text -of Genesis 5 in the names of the patriarchs as well as in the matter of -their ages. When we recall that the tablet was apparently written in the -year 2170 B. C., it seems probable that it may be a source from which the -Biblical names came. - -=3. Comparison with Genesis 4.= - -But our examination of the matter cannot stop here. In Gen. 4:16-23 there -is a list of the descendants of Cain strikingly similar to the list of the -descendants of Seth in Genesis 5. If the names of Adam and Abel be -supplied from Gen. 4:1,2, the two lists appear as follows: - - Genesis 4 Genesis 5 - - Adam Adam - | - +----+------+ - | | | - | Abel Seth Seth - | | - | | - | Enosh Enosh - Cain (Hebrew [Hebrew]) Kenan (Hebrew [Hebrew]) - Enoch Mahalalel - Irad (Hebrew [Hebrew]) Jared (Hebrew [Hebrew]) - Mehujael Enoch - Methushael Methuselah - Lamech Lamech - Noah - -The close parallelism of these two lists of names is really greater than -it appears to the English reader to be. Cain, which means "artificer," is -in Hebrew the same word as Kenan, lacking only one formative letter at the -end. Irad and Jared differ in Hebrew only by the wearing away of one -consonant. Mehujael is as much like Mahalalel, and Methushael as much like -Methuselah as the Assyrian name of Tiglath-pileser, Tukultu-apal-esharra, -is like Tiglath-pileser, while Enoch and Lamech are the same. - -The importance of this likeness arises from the fact that the so-called -critical scholars claim that these two lists of names are in reality the -same original list as it came through two lines of tradition and was -worked up differently by two writers. This view has been vigorously -opposed by some conservative scholars, notably by the late Professor -Green, of Princeton.[388] - -Between rival critical hypotheses it is not the function of archæology to -decide. It must be admitted, however, that the names of the descendants of -Genesis 4 can be equated with those of our Babylonian kings, as well as -those of Gen. 5. Adam, Seth, Enosh, Cain, Enoch, Mehujael, and Methushael -would be derived exactly as it has been explained that the corresponding -names of Genesis 5 could be derived. It only remains to explain the names -Abel and Irad. It will be noticed that Abel occupies in the list a -position next to Adam and Cain; Abel is also said to have been a -shepherd. In the list of Babylonian kings Etana the shepherd comes in -between Adimê (Aripi) and Pilikam, the equivalent of Cain. It is probable, -therefore, that Etana is the king that corresponds to Abel. Etana is -described in the Sumerian as "the shepherd who went to heaven," SIBA LÙ -AN-SU NI-IB-E-DA. If the two words SIBA LÙ became detached and -misunderstood as a proper name, the _s_ at the beginning, according to a -well known phonetic law, could become _h_ and give us the Hebrew Abel. -Irad may also be _ir-tu_, a corruption of ZI-IR-TU, a name of the mother -of Dumuzi, who may at times have been referred to as the son of -ZI-IR-TU.[389] These possibilities are not proof that the names arose as -suggested, but are not without weight. - -If Abel arose from the traditions of Etana and Enoch did also, and if the -names of Genesis 4 are derived from the list of Babylonian kings, then -Etana figures twice in the fourth chapter of Genesis. If Enoch is a -fragment of the name Enmeduranki, a possibility already recognized, it is -not difficult to understand how Etana came into the tradition twice. - -=4. Comparison with the List of Berossos.= - -Another list of names awaits comparison. Berossos, a Babylonian priest who -died about 260 B. C., compiled a list of kings who lived before the flood, -and attributed to them incredibly long reigns. His work has not survived, -but his list is quoted by two early Christian writers, Eusebius and -Syncellus, and Hommel[390] and Sayce[391] have claimed that his names are, -many of them, identical with the patriarchs of Genesis 5. - -The list of Berossos is as follows: - - Kings Length of reign - - Alorus 36,000 years - Alaparos 10,800 " - Amelon 46,800 " - Ammenon 43,200 " - Megalaros 64,800 " - Daonos or Daos 36,000 " - Euedorachos 64,800 " - Amempsinos 36,000 " - Otiartes 28,800 " - Xisouthros 64,800 " - -------------- - Total 432,000 years. - -It has long been recognized that Amelon is the Semitic Babylonian word -_amelu_, "man." It is a Babylonian synonym of Mutu-elu, the equivalent of -Enosh, and is also a translation of Enmenunna. Ammenon has also been -recognized as the Semitic Babylonian _ummanu_, "artisan." It is a -translation in one word of the Sumerian Pilikam. - -Daonos or Daos has, too, been seen to be the phonetic transliteration into -Greek letters of the Sumerian Dumu, the first part of the name Dumuzi. - -Euedorachos has also been thought to be the Sumerian Enmeduranki, whom we -have recognized as another name for Etana. Four of the names of Berossos -are thus easily connected with names in the new list of kings. - -The fifth one, Megalaros, might be a corruption either of Mutu-shalal or -of Mutu-sa-elu, and so go back ultimately either to Enmeirgan or to -Meskingashir. Xisouthros is clearly the same person as Ziugiddu. He had no -connection with this list of kings, but is, like Noah in Genesis 5, -attached to it on account of the flood. Hommel long ago saw that Otiartes -is the same as Ubara-tutu, who is said in the account of the deluge which -was found at Nineveh to have been the father of Utnapishtim, the hero of -the deluge.[392] Berossos has, accordingly, not only added the hero of the -deluge, but has displaced one of the names from the king list in order to -find a place for the father of Xisouthros. - -The other names are puzzling. Poebel has suggested[393] that Alorus may be -a Greek corruption of the Sumerian name Laluralim, who is said to have -been a king of Nippur. An old text which contains this name[394] is -accompanied by a gloss _zugagib_, "scorpion,"[395] and the first king in -the list translated above is Zugagib. If, therefore, this suggestion is -true, the name may go back to the same source as the others, after all. - -Amempsinos has been thought by some to be a corruption of the well known -Babylonian name Amil-Sin. There was an Amil-Sin in the first dynasty of -Babylon, but why the name should be inserted here cannot at present be -explained; nor has a satisfactory explanation been suggested for -Alaparos. - -The above discussion may be summed up in a few words. The Babylonian list -of kings with which this chapter begins makes no reference to the flood, -neither does the fourth chapter of Genesis. All the names in Genesis 4 may -be found in the Babylonian list, though Etana seems to have been inserted -twice under different names. As Genesis 5 omits Abel, it has Etana only -once. All the other names of Genesis 5, except Noah, are found in the -Babylonian list. Noah has been added to connect the list with the flood. -The ages of the patriarchs in Genesis 5 correspond approximately to the -general lengths of the reigns assigned to the kings in the tablet. -Berossos seems to have exercised much greater freedom, inserting several -names, the origin of some of which cannot now be made out. He also greatly -exaggerated the lengths of the kings' reigns. - -These correspondences are simply noted. It is but a few months since the -writer discovered them, and he was the first to do so. It is too early to -correctly estimate their ultimate significance. It should, however, be -observed that the Biblical numbers (Gen. 5) lack the gross exaggerations -of Berossos, and that, if the correspondences here pointed out are real, -the tradition embodied in Genesis is carried back to a time from 800 to -1000 years earlier than Moses. - - - - -CHAPTER VI - -A BABYLONIAN ACCOUNT OF THE FLOOD, FROM A TABLET WRITTEN AT NINEVEH IN THE -SEVENTH CENTURY B. C.[396] - - TRANSLATION OF THE TEXT. COMPARISON WITH GENESIS 6-9. ANOTHER - BABYLONIAN VERSION. - - -=1. Translation of the Text.= - - 1. Gilgamesh said to him, to Utnapishtim, the far-away: - - 2. "I look upon thee, O Utnapishtim, - - 3. Thy appearance is unchanged; thou are like me; - - 4. Thou art not at all different, thou art like me. - - 5. Thy courage is unbroken, to make combat, - - 6. On thy side thou liest down--on thy back. - - 7. [Tell me] how hast thou advanced and in the assembly of the gods - hast found life?" - - 8. Utnapishtim spoke to him, to Gilgamesh: - - 9. I will reveal to thee, O Gilgamesh, the secret story, - - 10. And the decision of the gods to thee will I relate. - - 11. Shurippak, a city which thou knowest, - - 12. Is situated on the bank of the Euphrates. - - 13. That city was old and the gods in it-- - - 14. Their hearts prompted them--the great gods--to make a deluge. - - 15. [There drew near] their father Anu, - - 16. Their councillor, the warrior Ellil, - - 17. Their herald, Enmashtu, - - 18. Their hero, Ennugi. - - 19. The lord of wisdom, Ea, counselled with them; - - 20. Their words he repeated to the reed-hut: - - 21. "O reed-hut, reed-hut, O wall, wall, - - 22. O reed-hut, hearken; O wall, give heed! - - 23. O man of Shurippak, son of Ubaratutu, - - 24. Pull down thy house, build a ship, - - 25. Leave thy possessions, take thought for thy life, - - 26. Leave thy gods, thy life save! - - 27. Embark seed of life of all kinds on a ship! - - 28. The ship which thou shalt build, - - 29. Measure well its dimensions, - - 30. Make to correspond its breadth and its length; - - 31. Upon the ocean thou shalt launch it." - - 32. I understood and spoke to Ea, my lord: - - 33. "[I understand], my lord; what thou hast thus commanded - - 34. I will honor and will do. - - 35. [But] what shall I say to the city, the people, and the elders?" - - 36. Ea opened his mouth and spake, - - 37. He said unto me, his servant: - - 38. "Thus shalt thou say unto them: - - 39. Know that me--Ellil hates me. - - 40. I may not dwell in your city, - - 41. On Ellil's soil I may not lift my face. - - 42. I must go down to the ocean with Ea, my lord, to dwell. - - 43. Upon you will he (Ellil) then rain abundance-- - - 44. [A catch] of birds, a catch of fishes, - - 45. ................ a rich (?) harvest. - - 46. [A time Shamash[397] appointed, at evening] the senders of rain - - 47. [Shall rain upon] you a mighty rainstorm. - - 48. When the grey of dawn brightens, - -(Lines 49-55 are broken away.) - - 56. The strong ...... brought what was needed. - - 57. On the fifth day I raised its frame. - - 58. According to its plan (?) its walls were 120 cubits high; - - 59. 120 cubits correspondingly was the extent of its roof. - - 60. I laid down its hull; I enclosed it. - - 61. I constructed it in storys, up to six; - - 62. I divided it [without (?)] into seven parts. - - 63. Its interior I divided into nine parts. - - 64. .......... I fastened in its midst. - - 65. I looked out a rudder, and prepared what was necessary. - - 66. 6 _sars_ of bitumen I poured over its outside (?); - - 67. 3 _sars_ of bitumen I poured over its interior. - - 68. 3 _sars_ of oil the people who carry jars brought. - - 69. Besides a _sar_ of oil which was used as a libation, - - 70. 2 _sars_ of oil the ship's captain stowed away. - - 71. For the people I slaughtered bullocks. - - 72. I slaughtered lambs daily. - - 73. Must, beer, oil, and wine, - - 74. I gave the people to drink like river-water. - - 75. I made a feast, like a new year's festival. - - 76. I opened (?) [a box of ointment]; I put ointment in my hand. - - 77. [By the setting] of great Shamash, the ship was finished. - - 78. [To move it from the stocks] was difficult. - - 79. The men cleared the ship's ways above and below. - - 80. .............................. two-thirds of it. - - 81. With all that I had I laded it (the ship); - - 82. With all the silver I had I laded it. - - 83. With all the gold I had I laded it. - - 84. With all the living things I had I laded it. - - 85. I embarked on the ship all my family and kindred. - - 86. Cattle of the field, beasts of the field, craftsmen, all, I - embarked. - - 87. A fixed time Shamash had appointed, [saying]: - - 88. "When the senders of rain shall rain upon you a mighty rainstorm - at evening, - - 89. Embark upon the ship and close thy door." - - 90. The appointed time approached, - - 91. The senders of rain sent at evening a heavy rainstorm. - - 92. I observed the appearance of the day, - - 93. The day was terrible to look upon. - - 94. I embarked upon the ship, I closed my door. - - 95. To the master of the ship, to Puzur-Amurru, the sailor, - - 96. I entrusted the structure together with its contents. - - 97. When dew-dawn began to brighten, - - 98. There arose from the horizon a black cloud; - - 99. The god Adad thundered in its midst, - - 100. While Nebo and Sharru marched before; - - 101. They went as heralds over mountain and country. - - 102. Nergal tore away the anchor, - - 103. Enmashtu advanced, the floods he poured down; - - 104. The Anunnaki raised their torches, - - 105. At their brightness the land trembled. - - 106. The raging of Adad reached to heaven; - - 107. All light was turned to darkness - - 108. .......... the land like ............... - - 109. One day [raged the storm (?)] - - 110. Swiftly it raged [and the waters covered] the mountains, - - 111. Like a battle array over the people it swept. - - 112. No one could see his fellow; - - 113. No more were people recognized in heaven; - - 114. The gods were frightened at the deluge, - - 115. They fled, they climbed to the highest heaven; - - 116. The gods crouched like dogs, they lay down by the walls. - - 117. Ishtar cried like a woman in travail, - - 118. Wailed the queen of the gods with her beautiful voice: - - 119. "Those creatures are turned to clay, - - 120. Since I commanded evil in the assembly of the gods; - - 121. Because I commanded evil in the assembly of the gods, - - 122. For the destruction of my people I commanded battle. - - 123. I alone bore my people; - - 124. Like spawn of fishes they fill the sea." - - 125. The gods along with the Anunnaki wept with her, - - 126. The gods bowed, sat as they wept; - - 127. Closed were their lips; [silent their] assembly. - - 128. Six days and seven nights - - 129. Blew the wind, the deluge the flood overpowered. - - 130. When the seventh day approached, the deluge was prolonging the - battle - - 131. Which, like an army, it had waged. - - 132. The sea calmed, the destruction abated, the flood ceased. - - 133. I looked upon the sea, the roaring was stilled - - 134. And all mankind was turned to clay; - - 135. Like logs all were floating about. - - 136. I opened the window, the light fell on my cheek; - - 137. I was overcome, I sat down, I wept; - - 138. Over my cheek streamed the tears. - - 139. I looked in all directions--a fearful sea! - - 140. After twelve days an island appeared; - - 141. Toward mount Nizir the ship stood off; - - 142. Mount Nizir held it fast, that it moved not. - - 143. One day, two days, mount Nizir held it that it moved not, - - 144. Three days, four days, mount Nizir held it that it moved not, - - 145. Five days, six days, mount Nizir held it that it moved not, - - 146. When the seventh day approached, - - 147. I brought out a dove and let her go; - - 148. The dove went out and returned; - - 149. There was no resting-place and she came back. - - 150. I brought out a swallow and let it go; - - 151. The swallow went out and returned. - - 152. There was no resting-place and it came back. - - 153. I brought out a raven and let it go; - - 154. The raven went out, the diminution of the waters it saw; - - 155. It alighted, it waded about, it croaked, it did not come back. - - 156. I disembarked [all]; to the four winds I poured a libation. - - 157. I appointed a sacrifice on the top of the mountain peak; - - 158. Seven by seven I arranged the sacrificial vessels; - - 159. Beneath them I piled reeds, cedar wood, and myrtle. - - 160. The gods smelled the savor, - - 161. The gods smelled the sweet savor, - - 162. The gods above the sacrificer collected like flies. - - 163. When at length the queen of the gods drew near, - - 164. She raised the great bows (?) which Anu at her wish had made. - - 165. "O ye gods, as I shall not forget the jewel of my neck - - 166. These days I shall not forget--to eternity I shall remember! - - 167. Let the gods come to the sacrifice, - - 168. But let Ellil not come to the sacrifice, - - 169. For he was not wise; he sent the deluge, - - 170. And numbered my people for destruction." - - 171. When at last Ellil drew near, - - 172. He saw the ship, Ellil was angry, - - 173. His heart was filled against the gods and the Igigi.[398] - - 174. "Who then has come out alive? - - 175. No man must escape from destruction." - - 176. Then Enmashtu opened his mouth and spake, - - 177. He said to the warrior Ellil: - - 178. "Who but Ea accomplished the thing? - - 179. Even Ea knows every undertaking." - - 180. Ea opened his mouth and spake, - - 181. He said to the warrior Ellil: - - 182. "O thou, leader of the gods, warrior, - - 183. How, how couldst thou without thought send a deluge? - - 184. On the sinner let his sin rest, - - 185. On the wrongdoer rest his misdeed. - - 186. Forbear, let it not be done, have mercy, [that men perish not]. - - 187. Instead of thy sending a deluge - - 188. Had the lion come and diminished the people! - - 189. Instead of thy sending a deluge - - 190. Had a wolf come and diminished the people! - - 191. Instead of thy sending a deluge - - 192. Had a famine come and the land [depopulated!] - - 193. Instead of thy sending a deluge - - 194. Had a pestilence come and the land [depopulated!] - - 195. I have not divulged the decisions of the great gods. - - 196. I caused Adrakhasis to see a dream and the decisions of the gods - he heard. - - 197. Now take counsel concerning him." - - 198. Then went Ea on board the ship, - - 199. He took my hand and brought me forth, - - 200. He brought forth my wife and made her kneel at my side; - - 201. He turned us toward each other and stood between us; he blessed - us: - - 202. "In former time Utnapishtim was a man; - - 203. Now let Utnapishtim and his wife be like gods--even like us; - - 204. Let Utnapishtim dwell afar off at the mouth of the rivers!" - - 205. He took me and caused me to dwell afar off at the mouth of the - rivers. - -=2. Comparison with Genesis 6-9.= - -The above account of the deluge so closely resembles that in the Bible -(Gen. 6:9-9:19), that nearly all scholars recognize that they are two -versions of the same narrative.[399] In each case there is a divine -revelation to the hero of the deluge that a catastrophe is coming of which -every one else is ignorant. They both relate the building of the vessel, -the "pitching it within and without with pitch," the embarkation, the -flood in which other men are destroyed, the resting of the ship on a -mountain, the sending out of the birds, the disembarkation, the sacrifice, -and the intimation that in future a deluge shall not be. - -When the Babylonian account is compared with the Biblical, there are two -striking differences. 1. The Babylonian story makes the flood local; the -Biblical, general. 2. The Babylonian story, fascinating poetry though it -is, has a conception of deity in strong contrast with the dignity of the -Biblical monotheism. The Babylonian gods disagree; they blame each other; -they crouch with fear like dogs; they come swarming about the sacrifice -like hungry flies! Nothing could more strikingly illustrate the -inspiration of the Biblical story than to measure it against the -background of this Babylonian poem, which is clearly a variant version of -it. - -=3. Another Babylonian Version.= - -From the library of Ashurbanipal there has come another version of the -deluge, which represents the purpose of its coming as different. According -to this version, men had sinned and had been afflicted with famine, after -which they reformed for a time. The famine was removed, but soon, -apparently, they sinned again. Pestilence was then sent upon them. An -appeal brought mitigation of their sufferings, but soon they plunged into -sin again. This time they were punished with unfruitfulness of the land -and of their race, but soon sinned as before. When all other punishments -had failed, as a last resort the flood was sent. - -As this account does not so closely resemble that in Genesis, it is not -translated here. Those who wish to read it are referred to Rogers, -_Cuneiform Parallels to the Old Testament_, New York, 1912, p. 114, ff. - - - - -CHAPTER VII - -AN ACCOUNT OF THE CREATION AND FLOOD, FROM A TABLET WRITTEN AT NIPPUR -BEFORE 2000 B. C. - - TRANSLATION. COMPARISON WITH THE OTHER VERSION. - - -=1. Translation.= - -This tablet was published by Dr. Arno Poebel, of Breslau. It was -apparently written in the time of the dynasty of Nisin, but at any rate -not later than the period of the first dynasty of Babylon. Only a part of -the tablet has been found, so that the narrative is incomplete both at the -beginning and at the end. Possibly the remaining portion may some time be -found in the museum at Constantinople. The tablet is inscribed on both -sides, and there are three columns to the side. The portions that are -still extant read as follows:[400] - -_Column I (about three-fourths of the column missing)_ - - .......................................... - .......................................... - "My human-kind from its destruction I will [raise up]; - With the aid of Nintu my creation .......... I will raise up; - The people in their settlements I will establish; - The city, wherever man creates one--indeed its protection--therein I - will give him rest. - Our house--its brick may he cast in a clean spot! - Our places in a clean place may he establish!" - Its brilliant splendor, the temple platform, he made straight, - The exalted regulations he completed for it; - The land he divided; a favorable plan he established. - After Anu, Enlil,[401] Enki,[402] and Ninkharsag - The black-headed[403] race had created, - All that is from the earth, from the earth they caused to spring, - Cattle and beasts of the field suitably they brought into being. - -Here the first column ends. The passage opens in the midst of the speech -of some deity--perhaps Ninkharsag (a Sumerian name of Ishtar) or possibly -Enlil, the god of Nippur. First the deity tells how mankind, which has -been overthrown, shall be raised up again. Then we are told how he -perfected plans for the accomplishment of this purpose, and lastly how -four deities called into being men and animals. - -_Column II (about three-fifths of the text is missing)_ - - ...................................................... - ................. I will ............................... - ............. I will turn my eye upon him ............. - The ......... creator of the land ............................... - ................ of royalty ...................... - ................ of royalty by him was determined; - The exalted palace of the royal throne was by him set apart, - The exalted precepts .......... he made perfect, - In clean places .......... cities .......... he founded, - Their names were named, they were allotted to guardian-spirits (?) - Of these cities Eridu--the chief command to Nudimmud he gave, - Unto the second the _nisag_-priests of Umma (?) he gave, - Thirdly, Larak to Pabilkharsag he gave, - Fourthly, Sippar as the dwelling of Shamash he gave, - Fifthly, Shurippak unto _Lamkurru_ he gave. - Their names were assigned; to guardian-spirits (?) they were allotted; - Its rampart (?), a wall (?) he raised up, he established; - Small rivers, canals (?), and water-courses (?) he established. - -The last part of this column relates how five cities were established by -some deity. Of what the first part treated we cannot make out from the few -fragments of lines that are still legible. - -_Column III_ - - .......................................... - .......................................... - The land the sway of Anu .................. - The people .................... - A deluge ........................ - ......................................... - Their land (?) it entered .................... - Then Nintu [cried out] like [a woman in travail] .......... - The brilliant Ishtar [uttered] a groan on account of her people. - Enki with himself held communion in his wisdom; - Anu, Enlil, Enki, and Ninkharsag, - The gods of heaven and earth, invoked the names of Anu and Enlil, - At that time Ziugiddu was king, the priest of .......... - The chief deity he made of wood .......... - In humility prostrating himself, in reverence .......... - Daily at all times was he present in person .......... - Increasing dreams which had not come [before], - Conjuring by the name of heaven and earth .......... - -In this column the narrative has passed to the story of the deluge. The -gods have determined to send a deluge; Ziugiddu in consequence constructed -an idol from wood (compare Isa. 40:20), and earnestly worshiped it, -seeking oracles for his guidance. - -_Column IV_ - - For the settlement (?) the gods a wall (?) .......... - Ziugiddu stood by its side, he heard .......... - "At the wall at my left side stand .......... - At the wall I will speak a word to thee - O my brilliant one, let there enter thy ear .......... - By our hand a deluge .......... will be sent. - The seed of mankind to destroy .......... - Is the momentous decision of the assembly (of the gods); - The words of Anu and Enlil .......... - Their kingdom, their rule .......... - To them ...................." - -It is clear from these fragmentary lines that Ziugiddu is being informed -of the approaching deluge. It is also clear that some of the elements of -the narrative are identical with some of the elements of the one discussed -in Chapter VI. Ziugiddu is commanded to stand by a wall, where some deity -will speak to him. This appears in the other version in the form: - - "O reed-hut, reed-hut, O wall, wall,[404] - O reed-hut, hearken; O wall, give heed! - O man of Shurippak, son of Ubartutu, - Pull down thy house, build a ship," etc. - -In that account, too, the assembly of the gods is also referred to in line -120, ff. These are examples of the way the same theme, differently -treated, turns up in different forms. - -_Column V_ - - The evil winds, the wind that is hostile, came; all of them descended, - The deluge .......... came on with them - Seven days and seven nights - The deluge swept over the land, - The evil wind made the huge boat tremble. - Shamash[405] came forth, on heaven and earth he shone; - Ziugiddu the ship at the top uncovered, - The peace of Shamash, his light, entered into the boat. - Ziugiddu, the king - Before Shamash bowed his face to the earth. - The king--an ox he sacrificed, a sheep offered as oblation. - ......................................... - -In this column we have a fragment which relates some details similar to -those told in lines 128, 129, and 136-138 of the account given in Chapter -VI. - -_Column VI_ - - By the life of heaven and the life of earth ye shall conjure him, - That he may raise up from you; - Anu and Enlil by the soul of heaven and the soul of earth ye shall - conjure, - That they may raise up from you - The curse that has come upon the land, that they may remove it. - Ziugiddu the king - Before Anu and Enlil bowed his face to the earth. - Life like a god's he gave to him, - An immortal spirit like a god's he brought to him. - Then Ziugiddu the king, - Of the seed that was cursed, lord of mankind he made; - In the fruitful land, the land of Dilmun .......... they made him dwell - ......................................... - -At this point the last column is hopelessly broken. It is clear, however, -from the part which remains that Ziugiddu is in this narrative translated -to the Isle of the Blest as was Utnapishtim in the account translated in -Chapter VI, lines 202-205.[406] Indeed there is reason to believe that the -two accounts of the flood are divergent versions of the same story. In -addition to the likenesses already mentioned, the names of the two heroes, -though they appear so different, are the same in meaning. Utnapishtim (or -Unapishtim) means "day of life," or "day-life," while Ziugiddu means -"Life-day prolonged." - -=2. Comparison with the Other Version.= - -Although this tablet is much broken, so that we have not the whole of the -story, it is clear from the parts that we have that in this version -preserved at Nippur the story was much shorter than in the form translated -in Chapter VI, which was preserved in the library of Ashurbanipal. It was -also combined with a briefer account of the creation than that translated -in Chapter I from Ashurbanipal's library. - -Of this Nippurian version of the creation story we have in this tablet -only the small fragments preserved in Columns I and II. It is, however, -probable that the Nippurian version of the creation was in its main -features similar to that preserved in the library at Nineveh, only more -brief. - -If this be so, the conquest of the dragon Tiâmat is here attributed to -Enlil of Nippur, as in the other version it is attributed to Marduk of -Babylon, and as in Psa. 74:13, 14, it is attributed to Jehovah. This -older account from Nippur agrees in one respect more nearly with the -Biblical account than the one from the library at Nineveh does, for it -represents Ziugiddu as a very pious man, who was apparently saved from -destruction on account of his piety, and in blessing him God removed the -curse as Jehovah did in Gen. 8:21. - - - - -CHAPTER VIII - -AN ACCOUNT OF THE ORIGIN OF A CITY AND THE BEGINNING OF AGRICULTURE, FROM -A TABLET WRITTEN AT NIPPUR BEFORE 2000 B. C. - - TRANSLATION. COMPARISON WITH BIBLICAL MATERIAL. - - -This tablet begins with a description of a place the name of which is not -identified; it is, accordingly, indicated in the translation by X. -Possibly it was Eridu; possibly Dilmun. - -=1. Translation.= - -_Column I_[407] - - 1. They that are lofty, they that are lofty are ye, - - 2. O X, pure; - - 3. They that are holy, they that are lofty are ye. - - 4. O X, pure, - - 5. X is pure, X is bright, - - 6. X is splendid, X is resplendent. - - 7. Alone were they in X; they lay down. - - 8. Where Enki and his consort lay, - - 9. That place is splendid, that place is pure. - - 10. Alone [in X they lay down]. - - 11. Where Enki with Ninella lay down, - - 12. That place is splendid, [that place is pure]. - - 13. In X the raven cried not, - - 14. The kite gave not his kite-call, - - 15. The deadly lion destroyed not, - - 16. The wolf a lamb seized not, - - 17. The dog the weak kid worried not, - - 18. The ewes the food-grain destroyed not, - - 19. Offspring increased not .......... - - 20. The birds of heaven their offspring ..... not; - - 21. The doves were not put to flight (?). - - 22. Of eye-disease, "it is eye-disease," one said not; - - 23. Of headache, "it is headache," one said not. - - 24. To a mother, "mother," one said not, - - 25. To a father, "father," one said not. - - 26. In the holy place a libation was poured not; in the city one drank - not; - - 27. The river-man "cross it?" said not; - - 28. Fear one's couch troubled not; - - 29. The musician "sing," said not; - - 30. The prince of the city spoke not. - - 31. Ninella to her father Enki said: - - 32. "A city thou hast founded, a city thou hast founded, its destiny - thou hast fixed; - - 33. In X a city thou hast founded, - - 34. .......... thou hast founded a city, - - 35. ............ a canal there is not - - 36. .............. thou hast founded a city." - -The rest of the first column is broken away; probably about nine lines are -missing. - -All the first column is descriptive of a place inhabited only by a god and -goddess. Many activities are absent, because there is no one there to -carry them on. Lines 16-21 remind one a little of Isa. 11:6-9. - -After the break the text continues: - -_Column II_ - - 1. "From the bright covering of thy great heaven may the waters flow, - - 2. May thy city be refreshed with water, may it drink, - - 3. May X be refreshed with water, may it drink, - - 4. May thy well of bitter water flow as a well of sweet water. - - 5. May thy city be a resting, an abode of the people, - - 6. May X be a resting, an abode of the people. - - 7. Now, O sun-god, shine forth, - - 8. O sun-god, stand in heaven; - - 9. Bring the festal-grain from its place - - 10. [And] fish, O moon-god, from the water. - - 11. Along the face of the earth on the road with earth's sweet water - come." - - 12. From the bright covering of the great heavens the waters flowed, - - 13. His city was refreshed with water, it drank; - - 14. X was refreshed with water, it drank, - - 15. His well of bitter water became a well of sweet water. - - 16. The fields and meadows with moisture caused grain to sprout (?); - - 17. His city was a resting, an abode of the people; - - 18. X was a resting, an abode of the people. - - 19. Then the sun-god shone forth; this verily was so, - - 20. The brilliant one, creator of intelligence. - - 21. To Nintu, the mother of the people - -(Lines 22-30 describe with a frankness common among primitive people a -marital union of the god and goddess. In many parts of the world it has -been thought that acts of creation proceed from such unions.) - - 31. Enki, the father of Damgalnunna, his word spoke. - - 32. Ninkharsag flooded the fields, - - 33. The fields received the waters of Enki. - - 34. It was the first day whose month is first; - - 35. It was the second day whose month is second; - - 36. It was the third day whose month is third; - - 37. It was the fourth day whose month is fourth; - - 38. It was the fifth day whose month is fifth; - - 39. It was the sixth day whose month is sixth; - - 40. It was the seventh day whose month is seventh; - - 41. It was the eighth day [whose month is eighth]; - - 42. It was the ninth day whose month is ninth, the month of fertility. - - 43. Like fat, like fat, like abundant sweet oil, - - 44. [Nintu], mother of the land, - - 45. .......... had brought them forth. - -In the first part of the above column the description of the city is -continued. As a consequence of the union of the gods, water flowed to -irrigate the land. Lines 34-42 tell in a quaint way how the waters -continued to come for nine months and nine days. - -_Column III_ - - 1. Ninshar on the bank of the river cried (?): - - 2. "O Enki, for me are they filled! they are filled!" - - 3. His messenger, Usmu himself the word repeated. - - 4. The sons of men his favor did not understand, - - 5. Ninshar his favor did not understand. - - 6. His messenger, Usmu himself, answered; - - 7. The sons of men his favor did not understand, - - 8. Ninshar his favor did not understand. - - 9. "My king, a storm-cloud! A storm-cloud!" - - 10. With his foot on the boat he stepped, - - 11. Two strong men as watchers he stationed, - - 12. The command they received, they took. - - 13. Enki flooded the fields, - - 14. The fields received the waters of Enki. - - 15. It was the first day whose month is first; - - 16. It was the second day whose month is second; - - 17. It was the ninth day whose month is ninth, the month of the height - of the waters. - - 18. Like fat, like fat, like abundant sweet oil, - - 19. [Ninshar] like fat, - - 20. Ninshar had brought them forth. - - 21. Ninkurra[408] [on the bank of the river] c[ried (?)] - - 22. "O Enki, for me they are filled! they are filled!" - - 23. His messenger, Usmu, the word repeated. - - 24. The sons of men his favor did not understand, - - 25. Ninkurra his favor did not understand. - - 26. His messenger, Usmu himself answered; - - 27. The sons of men did not understand, - - 28. Ninkurra did not understand. - - 29. "My king, a storm-cloud! A storm-cloud!" - - 30. With his foot on the boat he stepped, - - 31. Two strong men as watchers he stationed; - - 32. The command they received, they took. - - 33. Enki flooded the fields - - 34. The fields received the waters of Enki. - - 35. It was the first day whose month is first; - - 36. It was the ninth day whose month is ninth, the month of the height - of the waters. - - 37. Like fat, like fat, like abundant sweet oil, - - 38. Ninkurra like fat had brought them forth. - - 39. The god Tagtug and his wife she received; - - 40. Ninkurra to Tagtug [and his wife] spoke: - - 41. "Verily I will help (?) thee, my upright one, .......... - - 42. With favorable words I speak .......... - - 43. One man for me shall be counted .......... - - 44. Enki for me shall .......... - -The rest of the column, consisting of two or three lines, is missing. The -repetition in this column is characteristic of early poetry. Primitive -peoples are fond of iteration, and in the description of the way the -waters came it was to them very effective. - -_Column IV (about twelve lines are broken from the tablet at the -beginning)_ - - 13. [To Tagtug and] his wife spoke .......... - - 14. ........................................ - - 15. ...................................... - - 16. ................ in the garden .................... - - 17. ........................................ - - 18. [Eba]raguldu let him found, - - 19. Erabgaran let him found, - - 20. At the temple let my fettered oxen stand, - - 21. For Enki let my fettered oxen be sacrificed, - - 22. Let two strong men pour out water, - - 23. Abundant water let them pour out, - - 24. Reservoir-water let them pour out, - - 25. The barren land let them irrigate, - - 26. As gardeners for the little plants let them go forth, - - 27. On the bank, along the bank let them (_i. e._, the plants) extend. - - 28. Who art thou? The garden .................... - - 29. For Enki the gardener ............................ - -(Five lines are here broken away.) - - 35. Ebaraguldu he founded, - - 36. Erabgaran he founded, on its foundation he set it. - - 37. Enki turned his eyes unto him; his scepter he lifted up; - - 38. Enki to Tagtug directed the way. - - 39. At the temple he cried: "Open the door, open the door;" - - 40. "Who is it that thou art?" - - 41. "I am a gardener, with gladness .......... - - 42. With .......... the price (?) of milk will I present thee." - - 43. Tagtug with joyful heart at the temple opened the door, - - 44. Enki spoke to Tagtug and his wife, - - 45. With joy his possessions he gave to him; - - 46. That Ebaraguldu he gave him; - - 47. That Erabgaran he gave him. - - 48. Tagtug and his wife bowed down; with the left hand they covered - the mouth; with the right they did obeisance. - -From the parts of Column IV, which are still legible, it appears that the -messenger was revealing to Tagtug the secrets of agriculture. This -corresponds to the statement in Gen. 9:20, that "Noah began to be a -husbandman." - -At the beginning of Column V some seven lines have crumbled away, and the -beginnings of eight more have also become illegible. - -_Column V_ - - ........................................... - - ........................................... - - 8. [The .......... plant] was green, - - 9. [The .......... plant] was green, - - 10. [The .......... plant] was green, - - 11. [The .......... plant] was green, - - 12. [The .......... plant] was green, - - 13. [The .......... plant] was green, - - 14. [The .......... plant] was green. - - 15. "O Enki, for me they are counted," - - 16. His messenger, Usmu himself, the word repeated; - - 17. "Plants I have called forth, their abundance ordained, - - 18. The water shall make them bright, the water shall make them - bright;" - - 19. His messenger, Usmu himself, answered: - - 20. "My king, as to the woody plants," he said, - - 21. "He shall prune, he shall [eat]." - - 22. "As to the tall plants," he said, - - 23. "He shall pluck, he shall eat." - - 24. "My king, as to the .......... plants," he said, - - 25. "He shall prune, he shall eat." - - 26. "As to the plants of the watered garden (?)," he said, - - 27. "He shall pluck, he shall eat." - - 28. "[My king], as to the .......... plants," he said, - - 29. "[He shall prune], he shall eat." - - 30. "[My king, as to the .......... plants]," he said, - - 31. "[He shall pluck, he shall eat]." - - 32. ["My king, as to the .......... plants"], he said, - - 33. "[He shall prune, he shall] eat." - - 34. ["My king, as] to the cassia plant," he said, - - 35. "He [shall pluck] ........ he shall eat." - - 36. ["Enki] for [me] the plant of his wisdom has plucked, his heart - has spoken." - - 37. Of Ninkharsag the name Enki uttered in curse: - - 38. "The face of life when he dies he shall not see." - - 39. Then Anunnaki in the dust sat down. - - 40. The rebellious one to Enlil said: - - 41. "I, Ninkharsag, brought forth for thee people; what is my reward?" - - 42. Enlil, the begetter, answered the rebellious one: - - 43. "Thou, Ninkharsag, hast brought forth people," - - 44. "'In my city let two creatures be made,' shall thy name be - called." - - 45. As a dignitary his head alone he exalted, - - 46. His heart (?) alone he made impetuous, - - 47. His eye alone he filled with fire (?). - -Langdon takes the portion of the narrative which we find in this column to -be an account of the fall of man, since line 36, as he rendered it, speaks -of Tagtug's plucking and eating, and the next line speaks of the uttering -of a curse. This view the writer does not share. If the above translation -is correct, there is no allusion to anything of the kind. - -_Column VI (perhaps five lines are broken away)_ - - 6. .......... the lord Enlil .......... - - 7. ........ the lord of life .......... - - 8. To .......... they went, .......... - - 9. To .......... they went, the lord of the gods .......... - - 10. Spoke to him, the water of life .......... - - 11. .............................. - - 12. Ninkharsag .................... - - 13. .............................. - - 14. .................................. - - 15. .............................. - - 16. .......................... - - 17. ............................ - - 18. Ninkharsag .................... - - 19. Enlil ...... his .......... they founded, - - 20. Priests (?) they ordained, - - 21. Fate they determined, - - 22. With power established it. - - 23. Ninkharsag in her temple granted his life to him: - - 24. "My brother, what of thee is ill?" - - 25. "My herd (?) is ill." - - 26. "The god Absham have I brought forth for thee." - - 27. "My brother, what of thee is ill?" - - 28. "My herd is ill." - - 29. "The goddess 'Queen of the herd'[409] have I brought forth for - thee." - - 30. "My brother, what of thee is ill?" "My face is ill." - - 31. "The goddess Ninkautu have I brought forth for thee." - - 32. "My brother, what of thee is ill?" "My mouth is ill." - - 33. "The goddess 'Queen who fills the mouth'[410] have I brought forth - for thee." - - 34. "My brother, what of thee is ill?" ["My ...... is ill"]. - - 35. "The goddess Nazi have I brought forth for thee." - - 36. "My brother, what of thee is ill?" "My hand [is ill."] - - 37. "My goddess 'Living hand'[411] have I brought forth for thee." - - 38. "My brother, what of thee is ill?" "My health is ill." - - 39. "The goddess 'Queen of health'[412] have I brought forth for - thee." - - 40. "My brother, what of thee is ill?" "My intelligence is ill." - - 41. "The god who makes the intelligence clear[413] have I brought - forth for thee." - - 42. "Grandly are they brought forth, they are created. - - 43. Let Absham be lord of vegetation, - - 44. Let Nintulla be lord of Magan, - - 45. Let Ninkautu choose Ninazu as a spouse, - - 46. May Ninkasi be the full heart's possession, - - 47. May Nazi become mistress of weaving (?), - - 48. May Dazima the house of strong life take, - - 49. May Nintil become mistress of the month, - - 50. May Enshagme become lord of X. - - 51. Glory!" - -=2. Comparison with the Bible.= - -Here the tablet concludes. This last column, which tells how the goddess -Ninkharsag came to favor the hero and to create a number of divine helpers -for him, has no parallel in the Biblical account. As Tagtug received the -especial protection of Ninkharsag who created for him all these divine -helpers, it seems certain that this tablet had no reference to the fall of -man, as Langdon supposes. It appears rather to be a mythical account of -the beginnings of agriculture and the medicinal use of plants in -Babylonia. Agriculture implies irrigation. "From the first day whose month -is first" to the ninth month, is the period when Babylonia is watered. The -Tigris begins to rise in March, the first month, the overflow of the -Euphrates does not subside till the sixth month, and the winter rains are -at their height in the ninth month. - -As Adam was driven from Eden to eat of the fruits of the earth (Gen. 3:18, -24; compare Gen. 1:29), and Noah became a husbandman (Gen. 9:20), the -story of Tagtug presents a remote similarity to both of them. Langdon[414] -compares the list of divine beings with which the tablet ends with the -antediluvian patriarchs of Gen. 4 and 5, and suggests the possibility that -here we have the original names of those patriarchs. Beyond the fact that -Absham somewhat resembles the name Abel and was, like Abel, an -agriculturist, there is no apparent connection. The names in no way -correspond. It is more probable that we have the names of those patriarchs -in the list of kings translated in Chapter V. - - - - -CHAPTER IX - -ABRAHAM AND ARCHÆOLOGY - - ABRAHAM HIRED AN OX. ABRAHAM LEASED A FARM. ABRAHAM PAID HIS RENT. WHO - WAS THIS ABRAHAM? TRAVEL BETWEEN BABYLONIA AND PALESTINE. HAMMURAPI, - KING OF THE WESTLAND. KUDUR-MABUG. KINGS SUPPOSED BY SOME TO BE THOSE - OF GENESIS 14. - - -Archæological investigation has brought to light a number of texts -believed by scholars to illumine the Biblical accounts of Abraham. It is -the purpose of this chapter to translate and discuss these. - -The documents which naturally attract us first are some contracts from -Babylonia in which an Abraham was one of the contracting parties. They are -as follows: - -=1. Abraham Hired an Ox.=[415] - - 1. One ox broken to the yoke, - - 2. an ox from Ibni-Sin, son of Sin-imgurani, - - 3. from Ibni-Sin - - 4. through the agency of Kishti-Nabium, - - 5. son of Eteru, - - 6. Abarama, son of Awel-Ishtar, - - 7. for one month has hired. - - 8. For one month - - 9. one shekel of silver - - 10. he will pay. - - 11. Of it 1/2 shekel of silver - - 12. from the hand of - - 13. Abarama - - 14. Kishti-Nabium - - 15. has received. - - 16. In the presence of Idin-Urash, son of Idin-Labibaal, - - 17. in the presence of Awêlê, son of Urri-bani, - - 18. in the presence of Beliyatum, scribe. - - 19. Month of the mission of Ishtar (_i. e._, Ulul), day 20th, - - 20. The year Ammizadugga, the king (built) - - 21. the wall of Ammizadugga, (_i. e._, Ammizadugga's 11th year). - - 22. Tablet of Kishti-Nabium. - -This tablet shows how Abarama (Abraham), a farmer, hired an ox for a -month. The tablet, as the last line shows, is the copy made for -Kishti-Nabium, the agent. In such business transactions three copies were -often made, one for each of the contracting parties and one for the -scribe. The date of this tablet is 1965 B. C. Ammizadugga was the tenth -king of that first dynasty of Babylon, of which Hammurapi was the sixth. - -=2. Abraham Leased a Farm.=[416] - - 1. To the patrician - - 2. speak, - - 3. saying, Gimil-Marduk (wishes that) - - 4. Shamash and Marduk may give thee health! - - 5. Mayest thou have peace, mayest thou have health! - - 6. May the god who protects thee thy head in luck - - 7. hold! - - 8. (To enquire) concerning thy health I am sending. - - 9. May thy welfare before Shamash and Marduk - - 10. be eternal! - - 11. Concerning the 400 _shars_ of land, the field of Sin-idinam, - - 12. which to Abamrama - - 13. to lease, thou hast sent; - - 14. the land-steward (?) and scribe - - 15. appeared and - - 16. on behalf of Sin-idinam - - 17. I took that up. - - 18. The 400 _shars_ of land to Abamrama - - 19. as thou hast directed - - 20. I have leased. - - 21. Concerning thy dispatches I shall not be negligent. - -It appears from this document that Abamrama, who is none other than a -Babylonian Abraham, was a small farmer, who leased a small tract of land. - -=3. Abraham Paid His Rent.=[417] - - 1. 1 shekel of silver - - 2. of the rent (?) of his field, - - 3. for the year Ammizadugga, the king, - - 4. a lordly, splendid statue (set up), - - 5. brought - - 6. Abamrama, - - 7. received - - 8. Sin-idinam - - 9. and Iddatum. - - 10. Month Siman, 28th day, - - 11. The year Ammizadugga, the king, - - 12. a lordly, splendid statue (set up). - - (This was Ammizadugga's 13th year.) - -This document, dated two years after that in which the ox was hired, shows -how Abamrama (Abraham) paid a part of his rent. - -The name Abamrama (Abraham) occurs in two other documents published in the -same volume (no. 101, and no. 102), where, in defining the boundaries of -other fields of Sin-idinam, they are said to be bounded on one side by the -field of Abamrama. As these documents mention the name of Abamrama only -incidentally, they are not translated here. - -=4. Who Was This Abraham?= - -These documents, which relate to the business of a Babylonian Abraham, -come from Dilbat, about eight miles south of Borsippa, which was just -across the Euphrates from Babylon. It is clear that this Abraham was a -small farmer, who hired a tract of land from a larger land-owner. He also -hired an ox wherewith to work his land, and paid the rent of the land and -the hire of the ox as a good citizen should. This Abraham was not the -Biblical patriarch. The patriarch's father was Terah and his brother -Nahor; the father of this Babylonian Abraham was Awel-Ishtar, and his -brother Iddatum (_ibid._, no. 101, 9). The Abraham of the Bible was a -monotheist according to Genesis; the ancestors of the Babylonian Abraham -worshiped the goddess Ishtar, who corresponded to the Canaanitish -Ashtoreth. The Bible connects the patriarch with Ur and Haran; this -Abraham lived about half-way between these two cities. - -Up to the present time this Babylonian Abraham is the only person known to -us other than the Biblical patriarch, who, in that period of history, bore -the name. He is the only one known to us outside the Biblical record.[418] -The only other occurrence of the name outside the Bible is in the name of -a place in Palestine, probably near Hebron, which Sheshonk I, the Biblical -Shishak, calls "The Field of Abram."[419] As Shishak lived much later -(945-924 B. C.), being a contemporary of Rehoboam the son of Solomon, this -Egyptian place name is not so significant. The Babylonian Abraham -mentioned in the documents just translated is welcome proof that Abraham -was a personal name in Babylonia near the time in which the Bible places -the patriarch. With these documents Gen. 11:27-25:10 should be compared. - -Another Babylonian contract is of interest in connection with the -migration of Abraham. - -=5. Travel between Babylonia and Palestine.= - - 1. A wagon[420] - - 2. from Mannum-balum-Shamash, - - 3. son of Shelibia, - - 4. Khabilkinum, - - 5. son of Appani[bi], - - 6. on a lease - - 7. for 1 year - - 8. has hired. - - 9. As a yearly rental - - 10. 2/3 of a shekel of silver - - 11. he will pay. - - 12. As the first of the rent - - 13. 1/6 of a shekel of silver - - 14. he has received. - - 15. Unto the land of Kittim - - 16. he shall not drive it. - - 17. In the presence of Ibku-Adad, - - 18. son of Abiatum; - - 19. in the presence of Ilukasha, - - 20. son of Arad-ilishu; - - 21. in the presence of Ilishu .......... - - 22. Month Ululu, day 25, - - 23. the year the king Erech from the flood - - 24. of the river as a friend protected. - -The date of the above interesting document has not been identified with -certainty. It is thought by some to belong to the reign of Shamsu-iluna, -the successor of Hammurapi. The writing clearly shows that at any rate it -comes from the period of this dynasty. That is, it comes from the period -to which Gen. 14 assigns the migration of Abraham. _Kittim_ in the -contract is the word used in the Hebrew of Jer. 2:10 and Ezek. 27:6 for -the coast lands of the Mediterranean. It undoubtedly has that meaning -here. This contract was written in Sippar, the Agade of earlier times, a -town on the Euphrates a little to the north of Babylon. It reveals the -fact that at the time the document was written there was so much travel -between Babylonia and the Mediterranean coast that a man could not lease a -wagon for a year without danger that it might be driven over the long -route to Syria or Palestine. Against such wear upon his vehicle the -particular wagon-owner of our document protected himself. - -When, therefore, Abraham went out from his land and his kindred, he was -going to no unknown land. The tide of commerce and of emigration had -opened the way. Apparently it was no more remarkable for him to do it -than for an Irishman to come to America half a century ago, or for a south -European to come today. - -=6. Hammurapi, King of the Westland.= - -It is thought by many scholars that Hammurapi was the Amraphel of Genesis -14. The following inscription[421] relates to this king: - - 1. To [Shar]ratum, - - 2. the bride of Anu - - 3. who has come to lordship, - - 4. lady of strength and abundance, - - 5. of the mountain-temple, - - 6. faithful lady, of exalted counsel, - - 7. lady who binds the heart, - - 8. who for her spouse - - 9. makes favorable her open oracle; - - 10. to his lady, - - 11. for the life of Hammurapi, - - 12. king of the Westland (MAR-TU), - - 13. Ibirum .......... - - 14. governor of the river-[district] .......... - - 15. son of Shuban ..........., - - 16. a guardian-deity appropriate to her divinity, - - 17. in the land which she loves, - - 18. for her service (?) - - 19. before her beloved temple has set up. - -This inscription is quoted here for two reasons: 1. It was erected "for -the life of Hammurapi," who is supposed by many to be the Amraphel of Gen. -14:1. Amraphel is supposed to be a corruption of Hammurapi, thus Amrapi. -The final _l_ of Amraphel is a difficulty. While many Assyriologists, from -Schrader onward, have recognized the equivalence, it is now seriously -questioned by Jensen and Eduard Meyer, and absolutely rejected by Bezold. -It must be said that, if Amraphel is intended for Hammurapi, the name had -undergone corruption before it was placed in the Biblical record.[422] 2. -In this inscription Hammurapi is called "king of MAR-TU," or the Westland, -a name by which the Babylonians often designated Syria and Palestine. -MAR-TU simply means "sunset," but was used like the Arabic _magrib_ as the -designation of a region. There is no reason to doubt that here it -designates Syria and Palestine, so that, if Amraphel is Hammurapi, this -is confirmatory of his connection with the West. - -=7. Kudur-Mabug.= - -The following inscription[423] has also often been brought into the -discussion of Genesis 14: - - 1. To Nannar, - - 2. his king, - - 3. Kudur-Mabug, - - 4. "Father" of the Westland (MAR-TU), - - 5. son of Simti-shilkhak, - - 6. when Nannar - - 7. his prayer - - 8. had heard, - - 9. Enunmakh, - - 10. belonging to Nannar, - - 11. for his life - - 12. and the life - - 13. of Arad-Sin, his son, - - 14. king of Larsa, - - 15. he built. - -This inscription has often been brought into connection with Abraham, -partly because some have seen in Kudur-Mabug the Chedorlaomer of Gen. -14:1, and partly because Kudur-Mabug in it calls himself "Father" or -governor of the Westland. If, however, Kudur-Mabug was intended by the -name Chedorlaomer, the name had been corrupted beyond all recognition in -the Biblical tradition before Gen. 14 was written. In reality there is no -reason to suppose that Kudur-Mabug and Chedorlaomer are the same. As to -the term "Westland," it probably does not here designate Palestine, but -either the western part of Elam or the southern part of Babylonia. -Babylonia lay to the west of Elam, and Kudur-Mabug placed on the throne of -Larsa, a city of South Babylonia, first his son, Arad-Sin, and then his -son, Rim-Sin, and apparently maintained an over-lordship over both of -them. "Westland" accordingly means in his inscription, not Palestine, but -Babylonia. One of Kudur-Mabug's sons calls his father "Father" (or -governor) of Emutbal, a region of Elam. It is a mistake, therefore, to -bring Kudur-Mabug into connection with Abraham and Gen. 14.[424] - -=8. Kings Supposed by Some to be Those Mentioned in Gen. 14.= - -Some fragmentary tablets from the Persian period, not earlier than the -fourth century B. C., contain references which have been brought by some -scholars into connection with Abraham and the fourteenth of Genesis. The -texts read as follows: - -I[425] - - 1. .................... - - 2. .............................. - - 3. .................... his work not .......... - - 4. .................. _su-ha-am-mu_ .......... - - 5. ................ before the gods the creation of .......... - - 6. ............ day .......... Shamash, who illumines .......... - - 7. .......... the lord of the gods, Marduk, in the satisfaction of his - heart, - - 8. .......... his servant, the region, all of it, a counsel not - fulfilled, - - 9. .......... by force of arms he overthrew. Dursirilani, son of - Arad-Malaku (Eri?-..aku) - - 10. ............ goods (?) he carried off, took as spoil, waters over - Babylon and Esagil - - 11. ........ his with the weapon of his hand like a lamb he killed - him, - - 12. .......... spoke to her, father, and son; with the weapon - - 13. [Great] and small he cut off, Tudkhula, son of Gazza .......... - - 14. ...... goods he took as spoil, waters over Babylon and Esagil - - 15. ...... his son with the weapon of his hands upon him fell. - - 16. ........ of his dominion before the temple of Annunit .......... - - 17. ........ Elam, the city Akhkhi to (?) the city Rabbatu he spoiled. - - 18. ...... like a deluge, he made the cities of Akkad, all of Borsippa - (?) - - 19. ...... ended.[426] Kukukumal, his son pierced his heart with a - girdle-dagger of iron. - - 20. ........ the enemy took and the destruction of these kings, - participators in wrong (?), - - 21. .......... bondage for which the king of the gods, Marduk, was - angry with them - - 22. .......... with sickness their breast was oppressed ........ - - 23. ........ unto ruins were reduced (?). All of them to the king, our - lord - - 24. ...... knowing (?) the hearts of the gods, the gracious Marduk, - for the commemoration of his name - - 25. ........ and named Esagil--to his place may he return. - - 26. .......... thy ...... may he make. This, O king, my lord we ...... - - 27. .......... his evil his heart the gods, his fathers .......... - - 28. ............ a participator in sin shall not be (?). - -II - - 1. ..................... gods (?) .......... - - 2. .......... in the city feared day (?) [and night (?)] - - 3. .......... Larsa (?), the bond of heaven which unto the four winds - .... - - 4. he decreed them the park (?) which is in Babylon, the city of [his] - majesty (?); - - 5. he decreed them the possessions of Babylon, small and great. - - 6. In their faithful counsel unto Kukukumal, King of Elam, - - 7. they established the fixed advance which to them [seemed] good. - - 8. In Babylon, the city of Karduniash, kingship he assumed .......... - - 9. In Babylon, the city of the gods, Marduk set his throne (?), - - 10. All, even the Sodomites of the plundered temples, obeyed [him]. - - 11. Ravens build nests; birds dwell [therein]; - - 12. The ravens croak (?), shrieking they hatch their young [in it]. - - 13. To the dog crunching the bone the lady .......... is favorable. - - 14. The snake hisses (?), the evil one who spits [poison]. - - 15. Who is the king of Elam who the great building of Esagil - de[stroyed], - - 16. which the Babylonians made, and their work was ..........? - - 17. This is what thou hast written, saying: "I am a king, the son of a - king" .... - - 18. Who is the son of a daughter of a king, who on the royal throne - will sit? ... - - 19. He is Dursil-ilâni, son of Arad-Malkua, who the throne .......... - - 20. on the royal throne he sat and before his warriors [he marched]. - - 21. Now let the king march who from ancient days ......... - - 22. has been proclaimed lord of Babylon; the work of ........ shall - not endure. - - 23. In the month Siman and the month Tammuz in Babylon there was done - .......... - - 24. the work of the son of the magician. The bull (_i. e._, warrior) - who devastates the land .......... - - 25. The elders in their faithful counsel .......... - - 26. [gave] the son of the magician the place instead of his father - - 27. ................. 1 maid .................... - -Two other similar fragmentary texts belonging to the series are published -as noted above, but it is unnecessary to quote them here. The two -fragments which we have translated contain the most important references, -and are sufficient to enable the reader to make up his mind as to the -bearing of these texts upon the fourteenth of Genesis. - -Pinches and Sayce read the name of the Elamite king, Kukukumal, -Kudurlakhmal, and identify it with Chedorlaomer. Pinches so reads it, -hesitatingly; Sayce, confidently. There is no reason for so reading it, -except the desire to discover Chedorlaomer. The first three syllables are -represented in the cuneiform by the same sign--a sign the most frequent -value of which is _ku_. It does sometimes have the value _dur_, but never -_lakh_. King reads it Kukukumal, and there is really no reason for reading -it otherwise. - -Another name which occurs twice is written in the two places with a slight -difference of spelling. It is according to the most natural reading of the -signs, Arad-Malkua, or Arad-Malaku. Sayce and Pinches read Eri-eaku and -identified him with "Arioch, king of Elassar," (Gen. 14:1). While this is -a possible reading, it is only secured by giving to the signs their -Sumerian, instead of their Semitic values, and, as the documents are in -Semitic, this is probably wrong. The name is to be read Arad-Malkua. -Another name, Tudkhula, which occurs in the first document, has been -identified by the same scholars with "Tidal, king of the nations" (Gen. -14:1), but in this text there is no evidence that Tudkhula was a king at -all, and the identification is purely fanciful. It should be noted also -that Arad-Malkua, the supposed Eri-eaku, does not himself take any part in -the wars here recorded; it is his son, Dursil-ilâni, who is represented as -a contemporary of Kukukumal, the supposed Chedorlaomer. - -It should be further noted that these documents represent a complete -conquest of Babylon by Elam--a conquest in which Babylon itself is laid -desolate. It is not certain just what part Dursil-ilâni played in the -story. He may have been a vassal king under Kukukumal, or the Babylonian -upon whom the hopes of the people centered, to free them from the yoke of -Elam. It is clear, however, that the events mentioned in these documents -are not in harmony with the supposition that these monarchs acted as -allies of Hammurapi in the invasion of Palestine. Hammurapi is excluded -from the account. Kukukumal conquered and desolated the very city in which -Hammurapi had his throne. Kukukumal must, accordingly, have lived at some -other period of the history, and the supposed confirmation of the account -of the fourteenth chapter of Genesis has not yet been found. - -As already stated, these tablets are not earlier than the fourth century -B. C. The events which they record were probably much later than the time -of Abraham. Babylon is called by its Cassite name, Kar-duniash, a name -which it did not bear until some hundreds of years after the time of -Hammurapi. Many times in the course of Babylonian history was the country -overrun by Elam, and there is no real reason to suppose that the war here -referred to belongs to the age of Hammurapi. - - - - -CHAPTER X - -JACOB AND JOSEPH - - APPEARANCES OF THESE NAMES IN BABYLONIAN AND EGYPTIAN RECORDS. "THE - TALE OF THE TWO BROTHERS"; ITS BEARING ON THE STORY OF JOSEPH IN - GENESIS. LETTERS TO A RULER LIKE JOSEPH. THE SEVEN YEARS OF FAMINE. - INSCRIPTION SHOWING PREPARATION FOR FAMINE. - - -=1. Jacob.= - -Three different men in Babylonia at the time of the Hammurapi dynasty bore -the name Jacob-el. Thus, in the reign of Apil-Sin, the fourth king of the -dynasty (2161 to 2144 B. C.), two witnesses, Shubna-ilu and Yadakh-ilu -gave their father's name as _Yakub-ilu_, or Jacob-el.[427] In the same -reign a witness to another document, one Lamaz, had a Jacob-el as his -father.[428] In the reign of Sin-muballit, the next king, a witness named -Nur-Shamash was also the son of a Jacob-el.[429] In the reign of the great -Hammurapi, the next king, a witness named Sin-erbiam gave his father's -name simply as _Yakub_,[430] or Jacob. This last is clearly a shortening -of Jacob-el. These men all lived from 75 to 190 years before the -Babylonian Abraham, whose documents are discussed in Chapter IX. - -In connection with these names it should be noted that Thothmes III of -Egypt, who made extensive conquests in Asia between 1478 and 1446 B. C., -records the name of a city which he captured in Palestine as -_Ya-'-k-b'-ra_, the Egyptian equivalent of Jacob-el.[431] It does not seem -a rash guess to suppose that in the period when intercourse between -Babylonia and Palestine was frequent and immigration from the former -country to the latter was in progress, some Babylonian bearing this name -migrated to Palestine, settled there and that a city was named after him. -Many parallels to this may be found in the names of places in the United -States and Canada. That this place name in Canaan had some connection with -the name of the Patriarch Jacob is probable, though just what that -connection was it is impossible in the present state of our knowledge to -say. - -=2. Joseph.= - -A Babylonian business document of the time of the first dynasty of Babylon -has among its witnesses a man named _Yashub-ilu_, or Joseph-el.[432] - -In the list of places which Thothmes III of Egypt conquered in Palestine -there is one _Ya-sha-p'-ra_, which many scholars have taken to be -Joseph-el, though Prof. W. Max Müller[433] thinks it rather is equivalent -to Yesheb-el, meaning "where God dwells." In view of the clear Babylonian -equivalence, however, it seems probable that it is Joseph-el. If so, it -probably became a place-name in Palestine because some important -Babylonian who bore the name settled there, just as we have supposed -Jacob-el did. Some scholars hold that it is connected with the name of the -Patriarch Joseph in some way, but what that connection was, we cannot now -say. - -=3. The Tale of the Two Brothers.=[434] - - Once there were two brethren, of one mother and one father; Anpu was - the name of the elder, and Bata was the name of the younger. Now, as - for Anpu, he had a house, and he had a wife. But his little brother - was to him, as it were, a son; he it was who made for him his clothes; - he it was who followed behind his oxen to the fields; he it was who - did the plowing; he it was who harvested the corn; he it was who did - for him all the matters which were in the field. Behold his younger - brother grew to be an excellent worker; there was not his equal in the - whole land; behold the spirit of a god was in him. - - Now after this the younger brother followed his oxen in the daily - manner; and every evening he turned again to the house, laden with all - the herbs of the field, with milk and with wood, and with all things - of the field. And he put them down before his elder brother who was - sitting with his wife; and he drank and ate, and he lay down in his - stable with the cattle. And at the dawn of day he took bread which he - had baked, and laid it before his elder brother; and he took with him - his bread to the field, and he drave his cattle to pasture in the - fields. And as he walked behind his cattle, they said to him, "Good is - the herbage which is in that place"; and he listened to all that they - said, and he took them to the good place which they desired. And the - cattle which were before him were exceeding excellent, and they - multiplied greatly. - - Now at the time of plowing his elder brother said unto him, "Let us - make ready for ourselves a goodly yoke of oxen for plowing, for the - land has come out from the water; it is fit for plowing. Moreover, do - thou come to the field with corn, for we will begin the plowing in the - morrow morning." Thus said he to him; and his younger brother did all - things as his elder brother had spoken unto him to do them. - - And when the morn was come, they went to the fields with their things; - and their hearts were pleased exceedingly with their task in the - beginning of their work. And it came to pass after this that as they - were in the field they stopped for corn, and he sent his younger - brother, saying, "Haste thou, bring to us corn from the farm." And the - younger brother found the wife of his elder brother, as she was - sitting tiring her hair. He said to her, "Get up, and give to me corn, - that I may run to the field, for my elder brother hastened me; do not - delay." She said to him, "Go open the bin, and thou shalt take to - thyself according to thy will, that I may not drop my locks of hair - while I dress them." - - The youth went to the stable; he took a large measure, for he desired - to take much corn; he loaded it with wheat and barley; and he went out - carrying it. She said to him, "How much of the corn that is wanted, is - that which is on thy shoulder?" He said to her, "Three bushels of - barley, and two of wheat, in all five; these are what are upon my - shoulder:" thus said he to her. And she conversed with him, saying, - "There is great strength in thee, for I see thy might every day." And - her heart knew him with the knowledge of youth. And she arose and came - to him, and conversed with him, saying, "Come stay with me, and it - shall be well for thee, and I will make for thee beautiful garments." - Then the youth became like a panther of the south with fury at the - evil speech which she had made to him; and she feared greatly. And he - spake unto her, saying, "Behold thou art to me as a mother, thy - husband is to me as a father, for he who is elder than I brought me - up. What is this wickedness that thou hast said to me? Say it not to - me again. For I will not tell it to any man, for I will not let it be - uttered by the mouth of any man." He lifted up his burden, and he went - to the field and came to his elder brother; and they took up their - work, to labor at their task. - - Now afterward, at eventime, his elder brother was returning to his - house; and the younger brother was following after his oxen, and he - loaded himself with all the things of the field; and he brought his - oxen before him, to make them lie down in their stable which was in - the farm. And behold the wife of the elder brother was afraid for the - words which she had said. She took a parcel of fat, she became like - one who is evilly beaten, desiring to say to her husband, "It is thy - younger brother who has done this wrong." Her husband returned in the - even as was his wont of every day: he came unto his house; he found - his wife ill of violence; she did not give him water upon his hands as - he used to have, she did not make a light before him, his house was in - darkness, and she was lying very sick. Her husband said to her, "Who - has spoken with thee?" Behold she said, "No one has spoken with me - except thy younger brother. When he came to take for thee corn he - found me sitting alone; he said to me, 'Come, let us stay together, - tie up thy hair': thus spoke he to me. I did not listen to him, but - thus spake I to him: 'Behold, am I not thy mother, is not thy elder - brother to thee as a father?' And he feared, and he beat me to stop me - from making report to thee, and if thou lettest him live I shall die. - Now behold he is coming in the evening; and I complain of these wicked - words, for he would have done this even in daylight." - - And the elder brother became as a panther of the south; he sharpened - his knife; he took it in his hand; he stood behind the door of the - stable to slay his younger brother as he came in the evening to bring - his cattle into the stable. - - Now the sun went down, and he loaded himself with herbs in his daily - manner. He came, and his foremost cow entered the stable, and she said - to her keeper, "Behold thy elder brother standing before thee with his - knife to slay thee; flee from before him." He heard what his first cow - had said; and the next entering, she also said likewise. He looked - beneath the door of the stable; he saw the feet of his elder brother; - he was standing behind the door, and his knife was in his hand. He - cast down his load to the ground, and betook himself to flee swiftly; - and his elder brother pursued after him with his knife. Then the - younger brother cried out unto Ra Harakhti,[435] saying, "My good - lord! thou art he who divides the evil from the good." And Ra stood - and heard his cry; and Ra made a wide water between him and his elder - brother, and it was full of crocodiles; and the one brother was on one - bank, and the other on the other bank; and the elder brother smote - twice on his hands at not slaying him. Thus did he. And the younger - brother called to the elder brother on the bank, saying, "Stand still - until the dawn of the day; and when Ra ariseth, I shall judge with - thee before him, and he discerneth between the good and the evil. For - I shall not be with thee any more forever; I shall not be in the place - in which thou art; I shall go to the valley of the acacia." - -We need not follow the story further. Those who wish to do so are referred -to Petrie's _Egyptian Tales_. From this point onward, it contains many -mythological features. - -This story, in the form in which we have it, was written for Seti II -(1209-1205 B. C.) of the nineteenth Egyptian dynasty, while that monarch -was still crown prince. Scholars of all shades of opinion have recognized -in it a striking parallel to the story of Joseph in the house of Potiphar, -in Genesis 39:1-20. Joseph, like the younger brother of this tale, was -trusted with everything about his master's place; Potiphar's wife, like -the sister-in-law of the tale, tempted Joseph; Joseph, like the younger -brother, resisted temptation; and Potiphar's wife, like the sister-in-law, -charged him with the crime which he had been unwilling to commit. - -Scholars of the critical school regard this as the original of the story -in Genesis. While they recognize that it is a theme which is not confined -to Egyptians and Hebrews (compare for other parallels Lang, _Myth, Ritual, -and Religion_, II, 303, ff.), the fact that the theme of the Biblical -story is laid in Egypt leads them to think it extremely probable that -there is a connection between the two. - -Conservative scholars on the other hand hold that in all probability there -was more than one such scandal in Egypt, and account for the likeness by -the similarity which would naturally present itself in such cases, holding -that the Egyptian tale has no bearing on the credibility of that in -Genesis. - -=4. Letters to a Ruler Like Joseph.= - -Among the letters in the Babylonian language and script found at El-Amarna -in Egypt in the winter of 1887-1888,[436] many of which were written to -Amenophis III and Amenophis IV, Kings of Egypt, 1411-1357 B. C., by -Egyptian vassals in Palestine and Syria, there are two which were written -to a Semite named Dûdu (David), which show that this Semite held at the -Egyptian court a position analogous to that which Joseph, as ruler of -Egypt, is said to have held (Gen. 41:39, f.; 50:26). These letters are as -follows: - -I[437] - - 1. To Dûdu, my lord, my father, - - 2. speaks Aziru, thy son, thy servant: - - 3. at the feet of my father I fall. - - 4. Unto my father may there be health! - - 5. O Dûdu, truly I have given (_i. e._, done) - - 6. the wish of the king, my lord, - - 7. and whatever is the wish - - 8. of the king, my lord, let him send - - 9. and I will give (do) it. - - 10. Further: see, thou art there, - - 11. my father, and whatever is the wish - - 12. of Dûdu, my father, send it - - 13. and I will indeed give (do) it. - - 14. Behold, thou art my father and my lord - - 15. and I am thy son. The lands of the Amorites - - 16. are thy lands, and my house is thy house, - - 17. and whatever thy wish is, - - 18. send, and I - - 19. shall behold, and verily will give (do) it. - - 20. And see, thou in the presence of - - 21. the king, my lord, sittest. - - 22. ............ enemies - - 23. words of slander - - 24. before my father, before - - 25. the king, my lord, have spoken, - - 26. but do thou not count them just! - - 27. And behold thou in the presence - - 28. of the king, my lord, as a dignitary (?) - - 29. sittest .................... - - 30. and the words of slander - - 31. against me do not count true. - - 32. Also I am a servant of the king, my lord, - - 33. and from the words of the king, my lord, - - 34. and from the words of Dûdu, my father, - - 35. I shall not depart forever. - - 36. But when the king, my lord, does not love me, - - 37. but hates me, - - 38. then I--what shall I say? - -II[438] - - 1. To Dûdu, my lord, my father, - - 2. speaks Aziru, thy servant: - - 3. at the feet of my lord I fall. - - 4. Khatib has come - - 5. and has brought the words - - 6. of the king, my lord, important and good, - - 7. and I am very, very glad, - - 8. and my land and my brethren, - - 9. the servants of the king, my lord, - - 10. and the servants of Dûdu, my lord, - - 11. are very, very glad, - - 12. when there comes - - 13. the breath of the king, my lord, - - 14. unto me. From the words - - 15. of my lord, my god, my sun-god, - - 16. and from the words of Dûdu, - - 17. my lord, I shall not depart. - - 18. My lord, truly Khatib - - 19. stands with me. - - 20. I and he will come. - - 21. My lord, the king of the Hittites - - 22. has come into Nukhashshi, - - 23. so that I cannot come. - - 24. Would that the king of the Hittites would depart! - - 25. Then truly I would come, - - 26. I and Khatib. - - 27. May the king, my lord, my words - - 28. hear! My lord, I fear - - 29. on account of the face of the king, my lord, - - 30. and on account of the face of Dûdu. - - 31. And now by my gods - - 32. and my angels verily I have sworn, - - 33. O Dûdu and nobles - - 34. of the king, my lord, that truly I will come. - - 35. And so, Dûdu - - 36. and the king, my lord, and the nobles, - - 37. "Truly we will not conceive anything - - 38. against Aziru that is unfavorable,"-- - - 39. even thus may ye swear - - 40. by my gods and the god A! - - 41. And truly I - - 42. and Khatib are faithful servants of the king. - - 43. O Dûdu, thou shalt truly know - - 44. that I will come to thee. - -The Aziru of these letters was the chieftain or petty king of the -Amorites, who were living at the time to the eastward of Phoenicia, -between the Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon mountains. The way in which he -addresses Dûdu is significant. Dûdu is classed continually with the king. -Aziru fears to offend Dûdu as he fears to offend the king; the words of -Dûdu are of equal importance with those of the king. Dûdu clearly occupied -a position of power with the king of Egypt similar to that ascribed to -Joseph in Genesis 41. Moreover, Dûdu is a Semitic name; vocalized a little -differently, it becomes David. - -The king to whom this letter was written was Amenophis III or Amenophis -IV, in whose reigns Semitic influence was especially strong in Egypt. -Amenophis III took as his favorite wife a woman named Tiy, daughter of -Yuaa and Tuau, whose mummies, discovered a few years ago, show, some -think, that they were Semitic. Queen Tiy was very influential during the -reign of her son, Amenophis IV, and was in part the cause of the -remarkable religious reform which he undertook (Part I, Chapter I, § 6 -(vii)). It is not, accordingly, strange to find that the chief minister of -one of these kings was a Semite. Of course, Dûdu cannot be identified with -Joseph, but his career shows that such careers as that of Joseph were not -impossible at this period of Egyptian history. - -=5. The Seven Years of Famine.= - -The following inscription was found cut on a rock between the island of -Elephantine and the First Cataract, and was first published by Brugsch in -1891. It is written in hieroglyphic characters, and was apparently -inscribed in the reign of Ptolemy X, 117-89 B. C. It relates how King -Zoser, of the third dynasty, who began to reign about 2980 B. C., nearly -2,800 years before the inscription was written, appealed to Khnum, the god -of Elephantine, because of a famine. The part of the text which interests -us is as follows:[439] - - "I am very anxious on account of those who are in the palace. My heart - is in great anxiety on account of misfortune, for in my time the Nile - has not overflowed for a period of seven years. There is scarcely any - produce of the field; herbage fails; eatables are wanting. Every man - robs his neighbor. Men move (?) with nowhere to go. The children cry, - the young people creep along (?). The aged heart is bowed down; their - limbs are crippled; they sit (?) on the earth. Their arms are ........ - The people of the court are at their wits' end. The store-houses (?) - were built, but .......... and all that was in them has been - consumed." - -As Brugsch[440] saw, this inscription gives a graphic account of the -suffering caused by seven such years of famine as are said to have -occurred in the time of Joseph (Gen. 41:30, 54, ff.). It cannot be the -same seven-year famine as that referred to in Genesis, as it is placed -several centuries too early to coincide with the time of Joseph. As the -inscription is about 2,800 years later than the event it describes, its -historical accuracy might be questioned, but it is probable that it was a -renewal of an earlier inscription. But even if its historical accuracy be -impugned, it witnesses to a native Egyptian tradition that such famines -were possible. - -=6. Inscription Showing Preparation for Famine.= - -Inscription of Baba of El-Kab[441] - - "The chief at the table of the sovereign, Baba, the risen again, - speaks thus: I loved my father; I honored my mother; my brothers and - sisters loved me. I went out of the door of my house with a benevolent - heart; I stood there with refreshing hand; splendid were my - preparations of what I collected for the festal day. Mild was (my) - heart, free from violent anger. The gods bestowed upon me abundant - prosperity upon earth. The city wished me health and a life of full - enjoyment. I punished the evil-doers. The children who stood before me - in the town during the days which I fulfilled were--great and - small--60; just as many beds were provided for them, just as many - chairs (?), just as many tables (?). They all consumed 120 ephahs of - durra, the milk of 3 cows, 52 goats, and 9 she-asses, a hin of balsam, - and 2 jars of oil. - - "My words may seem a jest to the gainsayer, but I call the god Mut to - witness that what I say is true. I had all this prepared in my house; - in addition I put cream in the store-chamber and beer in the cellar in - a more than sufficient number of hin-measures. - - "I collected corn as a friend of the harvest-god. I was watchful in - time of sowing. And when a famine arose, lasting many years, I - distributed corn to the city each year of famine." - -The Baba who wrote this inscription lived under the eighteenth Egyptian -dynasty, about 1500 B. C., or a little before. Brugsch pointed out many -years ago that Baba's concluding statement forms an interesting parallel -to the conduct of Joseph as told in Gen. 41:47-57. Baba claims to have -done for his city, El-Kab, what Joseph is said to have done for all Egypt. -His statement affords striking evidence of the historical reality of -famines in Egypt, and of such economic preparation for them. - - - - -CHAPTER XI - -PALESTINE IN THE PATRIARCHAL AGE - - THE TALE OF SINUHE. COMMUNICATION BETWEEN EGYPT AND PALESTINE. - - -=1. The Tale of Sinuhe.= - -In the year 1970 B. C., when Amenemhet I died and was succeeded by -Sesostris I, an Egyptian of high rank, named Sinuhe, for some reason now -unknown to us, fled from Egypt to Asia. The details of his escape from -Egypt are not of interest to the Biblical student, but his description of -the hardships encountered in the desert and of his experiences in eastern -Palestine are of great value, as they afford us our earliest description -of that country outside the Bible. The following extract begins just after -Sinuhe had told how he escaped the guards in the fort which stood at the -eastern frontier of Egypt.[442] - - I went on at the time of evening, - As the earth brightened, I arrived at Peten. - When I had reached the lake of Kemwer,[443] - I fell down for thirst, fast came my breath, - My throat was hot, - I said: "This is the taste of death." - I upheld my heart, I drew my limbs together, - As I heard the sound of lowing cattle, - I beheld the Bedawin. - That chief among them, who had been in Egypt, recognized me. - He gave me water, he cooked for me milk. - I went with him to his tribe, - Good was that which they did (for me). - One land sent me on to another, - I loosed for Suan,[444] - I arrived at Kedem;[445] - I spent a year and a half there. - Emuienshe,[446] that sheik of Upper [Ru]tenu,[447] brought me forth - saying to me: "Happy art thou with me, - (for) thou hearest the speech of Egypt." - He said this (for) he knew my character, - He had heard of my wisdom; - The Egyptians, who were there with him, bare witness of me. - -The Amorite chieftain then questioned Sinuhe concerning his flight. He -gave evasive answers, merging with his reply a long hymn in praise of the -king. After this Emuienshe said to him: - - "Behold, thou shalt now abide with me; - Good is that which I shall do for thee." - He put me at the head of his children, - He married me to his eldest daughter, - He made me select for myself of his land, - Of the choicest of that which he had, - On his boundary with another land. - It was a goodly land, named Yaa;[448] - There were figs in it and vines, - More plentiful than water was its wine, - Copious was its honey, plenteous its oil; - All fruits were upon its trees. - Barley was there and spelt, - Without end all cattle. - Moreover, great was that which came to me, - Which came for love of me, - When he appointed me sheik of the tribe, - From the choicest of his land. - I portioned the daily bread, - And wine for every day, - Cooked flesh and fowl in roast; - Besides the mid goats of the hills, - Which were trapped for me, and brought to me; - Besides that which my dogs captured for me. - There was much--made for me, - And milk in every sort of cooked dish. - I spent many years, - My children became strong, - Each the mighty man of his tribe. - The messenger going north, - Or passing southward to the court, - He turned in to me. - For I had all men turn in (to me). - -The tale goes on concerning the personal prowess of Sinuhe, who, in his -old age, returned to Egypt and made his peace with the king. - -=2. Communication between Egypt and Palestine.= - -This document from the early patriarchal age reveals a close relationship -between Egypt and Palestine. There was frequent communication between -Kedem and Egypt; messengers went to and fro. The Egyptian language was -understood at the court of the Amorite chieftain. These conditions throw -light on the narratives of the descent of Abraham and Jacob to Egypt. -Sinuhe's description of his life necessarily reminds one of the -description of Palestine so often met with in the Pentateuch, Joshua, and -the prophets, "a land flowing with milk and honey." (See, for example, -Exod. 3:8, 17.) - -(_For an addition to this chapter, see Appendix._) - - - - -CHAPTER XII - -MOSES AND THE EXODUS - - THE LEGEND OF SARGON OF AGADE; ITS RESEMBLANCE TO THE STORY OF MOSES. - THE PILLAR OF MERNEPTAH; THE ONLY APPEARANCE OF THE NAME "ISRAEL" - OUTSIDE OF THE BIBLE. - - -=1. The Legend of Sargon of Agade.= - -The following legend[449] contains a story of the exposure of an infant on -a river, strikingly like that told of Moses. - - 1. Sargon, the mighty king, king of Agade am I, - - 2. My mother was lowly; my father I did not know;[450] - - 3. The brother of my father dwelt in the mountain. - - 4. My city is Azupiranu, which is situated on the bank of the - Euphrates. - - 5. My lowly mother conceived me, in secret she brought me forth. - - 6. She placed me in a basket of reeds, she closed my entrance with - bitumen, - - 7. She cast me upon the river, which did not overflow me. - - 8. The river carried me, it brought me to Akki, the irrigator. - - 9. Akki, the irrigator, in the goodness of his heart lifted me out, - - 10. Akki, the irrigator, as his own son ...... brought me up; - - 11. Akki, the irrigator, as his gardener appointed me. - - 12. When I was a gardener the goddess Ishtar loved me, - - 13. And for four years I ruled the kingdom. - - 14. The black-headed[451] peoples I ruled, I governed; - - 15. Mighty mountains with axes of bronze I destroyed (?). - - 16. I ascended the upper mountains; - - 17. I burst through the lower mountains. - - 18. The country of the sea I besieged three times; - - 19. Dilmun[452] I captured (?). - - 20. Unto the great Dur-ilu I went up, I .......... - - 21. .......... I altered .......... - - 22. Whatsoever king shall be exalted after me, - - 23. .............................. - - 24. Let him rule, let him govern the black-headed peoples; - - 25. Mighty mountains with axes of bronze let him destroy; - - 26. Let him ascend the upper mountains, - - 27. Let him break through the lower mountains; - - 28. The country of the sea let him besiege three times; - - 29. Dilmun let him capture; - - 30. To great Dur-ilu let him go up. - -The rest is too broken for connected translation. - -It is thought by some scholars of the critical school that the parallelism -between the secret birth, the exposure, the rescue and adoption of Sargon, -and the account of the secret birth, exposure, rescue, and adoption of -Moses in Exod. 2:1-10 is too close to be accidental. Conservative -scholars, on the other hand, hold that, if the legend of Sargon is -historical, it merely affords an example of a striking coincidence of -events in two independent lives. - -=2. The Pillar of Merneptah.= - -In the fifth year of King Merneptah, who ruled from 1225-1215 B. C., and -who is thought to be the Pharaoh of the exodus, he inscribed on a pillar -an account of his wars and victories. The inscription concludes with the -following poetic strophe:[453] - - The kings are overthrown, saying: "salaam!" - Not one holds up his head among the nine bows.[454] - Wasted is Tehenu,[455] - Kheta[456] is pacified, - Plundered is the Canaan[457] with every evil, - Carried off is Askelon, - Seized upon is Gezer, - Yenoam[458] is made as a thing not existing. - Israel is desolated, his seed is not; - Palestine has become a widow for Egypt. - All lands are united, they are pacified; - Every one that is turbulent is bound by King Merneptah, who gives life - like Ra every day. - -This inscription contains the only mention of Israel in a document of this -age outside the Bible. It is, for that reason, of great importance. It -should be noted that Israel is mentioned along with peoples and places in -Palestine and Phoenicia. The Israel here referred to was not, accordingly, -in Egypt. Israel, on the other hand, may not have been more than a nomadic -people. The Egyptians used a certain "determinative" in connection with -the names of settled peoples. That sign is here used with Tehenu, Kheta, -Askelon, Gezer, and Yenoam, but not with Israel. - -As Merneptah has been supposed by many to be the Pharaoh in whose reign -the exodus occurred, the mention of Israel here has somewhat puzzled -scholars, and different explanations of the fact have arisen. At least one -scholar holds that the exodus occurred in Merneptah's third year, and that -he afterward attacked the Hebrews. Others have supposed that not all the -Hebrews had been in Egypt, but only the Joseph tribes. Still others have -thought that the Leah tribes had made their exodus during the eighteenth -dynasty, and that it was these with whom Merneptah fought, while the -Rachel tribes made their exodus under the nineteenth dynasty. Opinions -vary according to the critical views of different writers. All scholars -would welcome more information on these problems. - - - - -CHAPTER XIII - -THE CODE OF HAMMURAPI AND THE PENTATEUCH - - THE TEXT OF THE CODE; RESEMBLANCE TO AND CONTRAST WITH THE MOSAIC - CODE. THE MOSAIC CODE NOT BORROWED FROM THE BABYLONIAN; DIFFERENT - UNDERLYING CONCEPTIONS. - - -=1. The Text of the Code; Comparison with the Mosaic Code.= - -The following code of laws was inscribed by order of Hammurapi, of the -first dynasty of Babylon (2104-2061 B. C.), on a block of black diorite -nearly eight feet in height and set up in Esagila, the temple of Marduk, -in Babylon, so that the people might have the laws in the mother-tongue. -As this last statement implies, the laws are written in Semitic -Babylonian; before the time of Hammurapi the laws had been written in -Sumerian. At some later time an Elamite conqueror, who was overrunning -Babylonia, took this pillar away to Susa as a trophy. In course of time -the pillar was broken into three parts, which were found by the French -expedition under de Morgan in December, 1901, and January, 1902, while -excavating at Susa. As the code is the oldest known code of laws in the -world, being a thousand years older than Moses, and as it affords some -interesting peculiarities as well as some striking parallels to the laws -in Exodus 21-23 and in Deuteronomy, a translation of it, with some -comparison of Exodus and Deuteronomy, is here given: - -Against Witches - - § 1. If a man brings an accusation against a man, that he has laid a - death-spell upon him, and has not proved it, the accuser shall be put - to death.[459] - - § 2. If a man accuses another of practising sorcery upon him, but has - not proved it, he against whom the charge of sorcery is made shall go - to the sacred river; into the sacred river he shall plunge, and if the - sacred river overpowers him, his accuser shall take possession of his - house. If the sacred river shows that man to be innocent, and he is - unharmed, he who charged him with sorcery shall be killed. He who - plunged into the sacred river shall take the house of his accuser. - -With these laws we should compare Exod. 22:18, which imposes the death -penalty upon witches, and Deut. 18:10, ff., which declares that there -shall be no sorcerer, diviner, magician, or charmer in Israel and promises -a line of prophets to render these unnecessary. Magic is banished from -Israel; its presence in Babylonia is taken for granted, and only some of -its exercises, which were supposed to be especially deadly, were -forbidden. In § 2 the man accused of sorcery is to be tried by ordeal. He -is to plunge into the river and if he can swim in its current, he is -innocent. Trial by ordeal is found but once in the Hebrew laws (Num. -5:11-28). There both the crime and the ordeal are very different from -this. - -Note that in these sections the false accuser suffers in just the way he -has tried to bring suffering to the other. This is the law of retaliation, -which appears in Deut. 19:16-21, where it is applied to false witnesses in -the same way as here. It will be found underlying many of the penalties of -this code. - -Laws Concerning False Witness - - § 3. If in a case a man has borne false witness, or accused a man - without proving it, if that case is a capital case, that man shall be - put to death. - - § 4. If he has borne witness in a case of grain or money, the penalty - of that case he shall himself bear. - -Hebrew law was similar; a false witness was to be visited with the penalty -which he had purposed to bring upon his brother (Deut. 19:18, 19). - -Against Reversing a Judicial Decision - - § 5. If a judge has pronounced a judgment, made a decision, caused it - to be sealed, and afterward has altered his judgment, that judge they - shall convict on account of the case which he decided and altered; the - penalty which in that case he imposed he shall pay twelvefold, and in - the assembly from the seat of his judgment they shall expel him; he - shall not return; with the judges in a case he shall not sit. - -Hebrew law presents no parallel to this. - -Against Theft - - § 6. If a man steals the goods of a god (temple) or of a palace, that - man shall be put to death, and he by whose hand the stolen goods were - received shall be put to death. - - § 7. If a man purchases or receives on deposit either silver, gold, - man-servant, maid-servant, ox, sheep, ass, or anything whatever from - the hand of a minor or a slave without witnesses or contracts, that - man is a thief; he shall be put to death. - - § 8. If a man has stolen ox, or sheep, or ass, or pig, or a boat, - either from a god (temple) or a palace, he shall pay thirtyfold. If he - is a poor man, he shall restore tenfold. If the thief has nothing to - pay, he shall be put to death. - - § 9. If a man, who has lost anything, finds that which was lost in a - man's hand, (and) the man in whose hand the lost thing was found says: - "A seller sold it; I bought it before witnesses"; and the owner of the - lost thing says: "I will bring witnesses who know that the lost thing - is mine"; if the purchaser brings the seller who sold it to him and - the witnesses in whose presence it was bought, and the owner of the - lost thing brings the witnesses who know that the lost thing is his, - the judges shall examine their testimony. The witnesses before whom - the purchaser purchased it, and the witnesses who know the lost thing, - shall give their testimony in the presence of a god. The seller is a - thief; he shall be put to death. The owner of the lost thing shall - take that which was lost. The purchaser shall take from the house of - the seller the money which he had paid. - - § 10. If the purchaser does not produce the seller who sold it to him - and the witnesses before whom he bought it, and the owner of the lost - thing produces the witnesses who know that the lost thing is his, the - purchaser is the thief; he shall be put to death. The owner of the - lost thing shall take that which he lost. - - § 11. If the owner of the lost thing does not bring the witnesses who - know that the lost thing is his, he is one who has attempted fraud; he - shall be put to death. - - § 12. If the seller has died, the purchaser shall recover from the - house of the seller the damages of that case fivefold. - - § 13. If that man has not his witnesses near, the judges shall set an - appointed time within six months; and if, within six months, his - witnesses he does not produce, that man is a liar; the penalty of that - case he shall himself bear. - -The Hebrew laws comparable to these are found in Exod. 22:1-4, 9, and Lev. -6:3-5. Exodus directs (v. 1) that, if a man steals an ox or a sheep and -kills it or sells it, he shall restore live oxen for an ox and four sheep -for a sheep. In case it is not sold he shall restore double (v. 9). No -highly organized courts appear in the Biblical codes. The thief was -brought before God and his guilt determined by some religious test. The -law of Leviticus required a man guilty of theft to restore the lost -property, adding to it a fifth more, and to offer a ram in sacrifice. (See -Exod. 18:13-26. Cf. 2 Chron. 19:5-7 with 1 Chron. 23:4 and Deut. -16:18-20.) - -The Babylonian laws presuppose a much more highly organized social -community than the Hebrew. - -Against Stealing Children and Slaves - - § 14. If a man steals the son of a man who is a minor, he shall be put - to death. - - § 15. If a man causes a male or female slave of a palace, or the male - or female slave of a workingman to escape from the city gate, he shall - be put to death. - - § 16. If a man harbors in his house either a male or a female slave - who has escaped from a palace or from a workingman, and does not bring - him out at the summons of the officer, the owner of that house shall - be put to death. - - § 17. If a man finds in a field a male or a female slave who has - escaped and restores him to his owner, the owner of the slave shall - pay him 2 shekels of silver. - - § 18. If that slave will not name his owner, he shall bring him unto - the palace and they shall investigate his record and restore him unto - his owner. - - § 19. If he shall detain that slave in his house and afterward the - slave is found, that man shall be put to death. - - § 20. If the slave escapes from the hand of his captor, that man shall - declare it on oath to the owner of the slave and shall be innocent. - -These laws are analogous to Exod. 21:16 and Deut. 23:15. The former -inflicts the death penalty for stealing a man and selling him, and the -latter prohibits one in whose house a fugitive slave has taken refuge from -returning the slave to his master. Slavery was not in Israel such a firmly -established institution as in Babylonia. (See Exod. 21:2-6; Deut. -15:12-18; Lev. 25:25-46.) - -Housebreaking and Brigandage - - § 21. If a man breaks into a house, before that breach he shall be put - to death and thrown into it. - - § 22. If a man practices brigandage and is caught, that man shall be - put to death. - - § 23. If the robber is not caught, the man who is robbed shall declare - his loss, whatever it is, in the presence of a god, and the city and - governor in whose territory and jurisdiction the robbery was committed - shall compensate him for whatever was lost. - - § 24. If it is a life, that city and governor shall pay to his - relatives 1 mana of silver.[460] - -Hebrew law presents an analogy to the last of these sections in Deut. -21:1-9, though in Israel no compensation was offered to the heirs of the -man who was slain, but a sacrifice was performed by the elders of the -nearest city, to purge it of innocent blood. - -Stealing at a Fire - - § 25. If a fire breaks out in a man's house, and a man who has come to - extinguish it shall cast his eye upon the furniture of the owner of - the house, and the furniture of the owner of the house shall take, - that man shall be thrown into that fire. - -The Duties and Privileges of Soldiers, Constables, and Tax-collectors - - § 26. If a soldier or a constable[461] who is ordered to go on a - journey for the king does not go, but hires a substitute and - dispatches him instead, that soldier or constable shall be put to - death; his hired substitute shall appropriate his house. - - § 27. If a soldier or a constable is detained in a royal fortress and - after him they give his field or garden to another and he takes it - and carries it on, if the first one returns and reaches his city, they - shall restore to him his field and garden, and he shall take it and - carry it on. - - § 28. If a soldier or a constable who is detained in a royal fortress - has a son who is able to carry on his business, they shall give to him - his field and garden and he shall carry on the business of his father. - - § 29. If his son is small and not able to carry on the business of his - father, they shall give one-third of his field and garden to his - mother and she shall rear him. - - § 30. If a soldier or a constable from the beginning of his - appointment neglects his field, garden, and house and leaves them - uncared for, another after him shall take his field, garden, and - house, and carry on his business for three years. If he returns and - desires his field, garden, and house, they shall not give them to him. - He who has taken them and carried on the business shall carry it on. - - § 31. If he leaves it uncared for but one year and returns, they shall - give him his field, garden, and house, and he shall carry on his own - business. - - § 32. If a merchant ransoms a soldier (?) or a constable who, on a - journey of the king, was detained, and brings him back, to his city, - if in his house there is sufficient ransom, he shall ransom himself. - If in his house there is not sufficient to ransom him, by the temple - of his city he shall be ransomed. If in the temple of his city there - is not a sufficient ransom, he shall be ransomed by the palace. His - field, garden, and house shall not be given for ransom. - - § 33. If a governor or a magistrate harbors a deserting soldier or - accepts and sends a hired substitute on an errand of the king, that - governor or magistrate shall be put to death. - - § 34. If a governor or a magistrate takes the property of a soldier, - plunders a soldier, or hires out a soldier, has defrauded a soldier in - a suit before a sheik, or takes the present which the king has given - to a soldier, that governor or magistrate shall be put to death. - - § 35. If a man buys the cattle or sheep which the king has given to a - soldier, he shall forfeit his money. - - § 36. One shall not sell the field, garden, or house of a soldier, - constable, or tax-collector. - - § 37. If a man has bought the field, garden, or house of a soldier, - constable, or tax-collector, his tablet shall be broken, he shall - forfeit his money; the field, house, or garden shall return to its - owner. - - § 38. A soldier, constable, or tax-collector shall not deed to his - wife or daughter the field, house, or garden, which is his perquisite, - nor shall he assign them for debt. - - § 39. A field, garden, or house which he has purchased and possesses - he may deed to his wife or daughter, or may assign for debt. - - § 40. A priestess, merchant, or other creditor may purchase his field, - garden, or house. The purchaser shall conduct the business of the - field, garden, or house which he has purchased. - - § 41. If a man has bargained for the field, garden, or house of a - soldier, constable, or tax-collector and has given sureties, the - soldier, constable, or tax-collector shall return to the field, house, - or garden, and the sureties which were given him he shall keep. - -No such officers as these are mentioned in the laws of the Old Testament, -though some of them appear in earlier times in the records of Babylonia. -The tax-collectors mentioned here remind us of Solomon's tax-collectors -mentioned in 1 Kings 4:7, ff. - -Laws of Agriculture - - § 42. If a man rents a field for cultivation and produces no grain in - that field, they shall call him to account for doing no work in that - field, and he shall give to the owner of the field grain similar to - that of adjacent fields. - - § 43. If he does not cultivate that field and neglects it, he shall - give the owner of the field grain similar to that of adjacent fields, - and the field which he neglected he shall break up with mattocks, he - shall harrow, and return it to the owner of the field. - - § 44. If a man rents an uncultivated field for three years for - improvement and neglects its surface and does not develop the field, - in the fourth year he shall break up the field with mattocks, he shall - hoe and harrow it, and return it unto the owner of the field, and for - every _Gan_ of land he shall measure out 10 _Gur_ of grain. - - § 45. If a man lets his field for pay on shares to a farmer and - receives his rent, and afterward the storm-god inundates the field and - carries off the produce, the loss is the farmer's. - - § 46. If the rent of his field he has not received, and he has let the - field for one-half or one-third (of the crop), the farmer and the - owner of the field shall divide the grain which is in the field - according to agreement. - - § 47. If the farmer, because he has not in a former year received a - maintenance, entrusts the field to another farmer, the owner of the - field shall not interfere. He would cultivate it, and his field has - been cultivated. At the time of harvest he shall take grain according - to his contracts. - - § 48. If a man has a debt against him and the storm-god inundates his - field and carries away the produce, or if through lack of water grain - has not grown in the field, in that year he shall not make a return of - grain to his creditor; his contract he shall change, and the interest - of that year he shall not pay. - - § 49. If a man borrows money from a merchant, and has given to the - merchant a field planted with grain or sesame, and says to him: - "Cultivate the field and harvest and take the grain or sesame which it - produces"; if the tenant produces grain or sesame in the field, at the - time of harvest the owner of the field shall take the grain or sesame - which was produced by the field, and shall give to the merchant grain - for the money which he borrowed from the merchant with its interest, - and for the maintenance of the farmer. - - § 50. If the field was already planted [with grain or] sesame, the - owner of the field shall receive the grain or the sesame which is - produced in the field, and the money and its interest he shall return - to the merchant. - - § 51. If there is not money to return, he shall give to the merchant - [the grain or] sesame for the money and its interest which he had - received from the merchant, according to the scale of prices fixed by - the king. - - § 52. If the farmer does not produce grain or sesame in his field, he - shall not alter his contract. - - § 53. If a man the side of his strong dyke has neglected and has not - strengthened it, and in his dyke a break occurs, and the water - destroys the farm-land, the man in whose dyke the break occurred shall - restore the grain which was destroyed. - - § 54. If he is not able to restore the grain, they shall sell him and - his possessions for money, and the owners of the fields whose grain - was destroyed shall share it. - - § 55. If a man has opened his sluice for watering and has left it open - and the water destroys the field of his neighbor, he shall measure out - grain to him on the basis of that produced by neighboring fields. - - § 56. If a man opens the water and the water destroys the work[462] of - a neighboring field, he shall measure out 10 _Gur_ of grain for each - _Bur_ of land. - - § 57. If a shepherd causes his sheep to eat vegetation and has not - made an agreement with the owner of the field, and without the consent - of the owner of the field has pastured his sheep, the owner of the - field shall harvest that field, and the shepherd who without the - consent of the owner of the field caused his sheep to eat the field, - shall pay the owner of the field in addition 20 _Gur_ of grain for - each _Bur_ of land. - - § 58. If, after the sheep have come up out of the fields and are - turned loose on the public common by the city gate, a shepherd turns - his sheep into a field and causes the sheep to eat the field, the - shepherd shall oversee the field which he caused to be eaten, and at - harvest-time he shall measure to the owner of the field 60 _Gur_ of - grain for each _Bur_ of land. - -The Hebrew land laws are found in Exod. 22:5, 6; 23:10, 11; Lev. 19:9, and -Deut. 24:19-22; 23:24, 25. An examination of these passages reveals a wide -difference between Babylonia and Israel. In Babylonia it seems to have -often been the rule that a landlord let out the fields to tenants to work; -among the Hebrews the law presupposes that each man shall work his own -land. Many of the Babylonian laws are designed to secure the respective -rights of landlord and tenant. Naturally, there is nothing in the Old -Testament to correspond to these. Hebrew law (Exod. 22:5), like the -Babylonian, provides that one who causes a neighbor's crop to be eaten -shall make restitution, but the regulations are of the most general -character. In Babylonia a larger social experience had made much more -specific regulations necessary. - -The characters of the respective countries are reflected in the dangers -from which crops might be threatened. In waterless Palestine a fire -started by a careless man might burn his neighbor's crop (Exod. 22:6); in -Babylonia, where irrigation from canals was conducted to fields lower than -the surface of the water, one might flood his neighbor's field and destroy -his crop by carelessly leaving his sluice open. - -The Hebrew legislation presupposes a poorer community. It provides that -the land shall lie fallow, and whatever it produces shall belong to the -poor (Exod. 23:10, 11). At harvest-time, too, one must not reap the -corners of his field; that was left to the poor (Lev. 19:9). If one forgot -a sheaf in his field, he must not return to take it; that should be left -to the poor (Deut. 24:19). Rich Babylonia made no such provision for the -poor; it felt no such social sympathy. - -Again, even these agricultural laws show that commerce was highly -developed in Babylonia, with its necessary concomitant, the right to -charge interest for money. The uncommercial Hebrews regarded interest as -unlawful (Exod. 22:25), and it was Hillel, the contemporary of Herod the -Great, who invented an interpretation known as the Prosbul, which -practically did away with this law and permitted Jews to take interest. - -Horticultural Laws - - § 59. If a man shall cut down a tree in a man's orchard without the - consent of the owner, he shall pay 1/2 mana of silver. - - § 60. If a man gives a field to a gardener to plant as an orchard, the - gardener shall plant the orchard and cultivate it for 4 years. In the - fifth year the owner of the orchard and the gardener shall share it - together. The owner of the orchard shall mark off his share and take - it. - - § 61. If the gardener in planting does not complete it, but leaves a - part of it waste, unto his portion they shall count it. - - § 62. If the field which is given to a gardener he does not plant, if - vegetation is the produce of the field for the years during which it - is neglected, the gardener shall measure out to the owner of the field - on the basis of the adjacent fields, and shall perform the work on the - field and restore it to the owner of the field. - - § 63. If the field is [left] waste land, he shall perform the work on - the field and shall restore it to its owner, and 10 _Gur_ of grain for - each _Bur_ of land he shall measure out. - - § 64. If a man lets his orchard to a gardener to manage, as long as - the gardener is in possession of the garden he shall give to the owner - of the garden two-thirds of the produce; one-third he shall take - himself. - - § 65. If the gardener does not manage the garden and diminishes its - produce, the gardener shall measure out the produce of the orchard on - the basis of adjacent orchards.[463] - - § 66. If a man has received money from a merchant, and his merchant - puts him under bonds and he has nothing to give, and he gives his - orchard for management unto the merchant and says: "The dates as many - as are in my orchard take for thy money," that merchant shall not - consent; the owner of the orchard shall take the dates that are in the - orchard and the money and its interest according to the tenor of his - agreement he shall bring to the merchant. The remaining dates from the - orchard shall belong to the owner of the orchard. - -As in Palestine, there was no system of rental; the Bible contains almost -no horticultural laws. "Orchards" in Babylonia were, as the last section -shows, date orchards. The corresponding fruit in Palestine was the grape. -Hebrew laws deal with vineyards as with fields. If a man destroys the crop -in another's vineyard, he is to give the best of his own (Exod. 22:5). He -is to leave his crop unpicked every seventh year for the poor (Exod. -23:11). He is not, when he gathers it, to glean it carefully, but leave -some for the poor (Lev. 19:10). When one goes into his neighbor's -vineyard, he may pick what he wishes to eat, but must carry nothing away. -Horticulture among the Hebrews was not so highly developed as in -Babylonia. - -Five columns of writing have been erased after § 65 from the column on -which the laws are written. This erasure was probably made by the Elamite -conqueror, who carried the column as a trophy to Susa, in order to -inscribe his own name on it, but unfortunately, if that was the intention, -it was never carried out. We are accordingly in ignorance of his name. It -is estimated that 35 sections of laws were thus lost. As already noted, -one can be supplied from a fragment found at Susa, and from other tablets -fragments of two or three other sections can be made out. One of these -incomplete fragments refers to the rights of tenants of houses. It reads: - - [If] a man rents a house for money, and pays the whole rent for a year - to the owner of the house, and the owner of the house orders that man - to vacate before the expiration of his lease, the owner of the house - from the money that he received shall ............ - -Unfortunately, the tablet is broken and the penalty for breaking the lease -is unknown. It is interesting to know that Babylonian tenants were -protected from avaricious landlords, even though no parallel law exists in -the Old Testament. - -Two other sections of laws that once stood in this lacuna can now be -supplied from a considerably defaced tablet from Nippur in the University -Museum in Philadelphia, which once contained a part or all of the code of -Hammurapi. These sections are as follows: - -A Bankrupt Law[464] - - If a man borrows grain or money from a merchant and for the payment - has no grain or money, whatever is in his hand he shall in the - presence of the elders give to the merchant in place of the debt; the - merchant shall not refuse it; he shall receive it. - -A Partnership Law[465] - - If a man gives money to a man for a partnership, the gain and profit - that accrue are before the gods; together they shall do business. - -The phrase "before the gods" means that the division shall be made on -oath. Commercial life was not sufficiently developed among the Hebrews so -that they needed such a law, consequently the Pentateuch contains no -parallel to this. - -After the erasure of five columns the laws have to do with agents or -traveling salesmen. - -Agents and Merchants - - § 100. [If an agent has received money from a merchant, he shall write - down the amount and the amount of] the interest on the money, and, - when the time has expired, he shall repay the merchant as much as he - has received. - - § 101. If where he goes he does not meet with success, the agent shall - double the amount of the money he received and return it to the - merchant. - - § 102. If a merchant gives money to an agent as a favor, and where he - goes he meets with misfortune, he shall restore the principal unto the - merchant. - - § 103. If on the road as he travels an enemy robs him of anything he - carries, the agent shall give an account of it under oath and shall be - innocent. - - § 104. If a merchant has given to an agent grain, wool, or oil, or - anything whatever to sell, the agent shall write down the price and - shall return the money to the merchant. The agent shall take a receipt - for the money which he gives to the merchant. - - § 105. If the agent is careless and does not take a receipt for the - money he gave the merchant, money not receipted for shall not be - placed to his account. - - § 106. If an agent receives money from a merchant and has a dispute - with his merchant about it, that merchant shall put the agent on trial - on oath before the elders concerning the money he received and the - agent shall pay the merchant three times as much as he received. - - § 107. If a merchant lends to an agent and the agent returns to the - merchant whatever the merchant had given him, if the merchant has a - dispute with him about it, that agent shall put the merchant on trial - on oath in the presence of the elders, and the merchant, because he - had a dispute with his agent, whatever he received he shall give to - the agent six times as much. - -The Hebrews of the Old Testament time were not a commercial people and had -no such laws. Men today are inclined to think that the drummer, or -traveling salesman, is a modern invention, but these laws show that he was -an old institution in Babylonia four thousand years ago. - -Wine Merchants - - § 108. If a woman who keeps a wine-shop does not receive grain as the - price of drink, but takes money of greater value, or makes the measure - of drink smaller than the measure of grain, that mistress of a - wine-shop they shall put on trial and into the water shall throw her. - - § 109. If the mistress of a wine-shop collects criminals in her house, - and does not seize these criminals and conduct them to the palace, - that mistress of a wine-shop shall be put to death. - - § 110. If the wife of a god (_i. e._, a consecrated temple-woman), who - is not living in the house appointed, opens a wine-shop or enters a - wine-shop for a drink, they shall burn that woman. - - § 111. If the mistress of a wine-shop gives 60 _Qa_ of _sakani_-plant - drink on credit at the time of harvest, she shall receive 50 _Qa_ of - grain. - -The Old Testament affords no parallel. There were no wine-shops in Israel -so far as we know, and such consecrated women were prohibited by Deut. -23:17. - -Deposits and Distraints - - § 112. If a man continually traveling has given silver, gold, precious - stones, or property to a man and has brought them to him for - transportation, and that man does not deliver that which was for - transportation at the place to which it was to be transported, but has - appropriated it, the owner of the transported goods shall put that man - on trial concerning that which was to be transported and was not - delivered, and that man shall deliver unto the owner of the - transported goods five times as much as was entrusted to him. - - § 113. If a man has grain or money deposited with a man and without - the consent of the owner he takes grain from the heap or the granary, - they shall prosecute that man because he took grain from the heap or - the granary without the consent of the owner, and the grain as much as - he took he shall return, and whatever it was he shall forfeit an equal - amount. - - § 114. If a man does not have against a man [a claim] for grain or - money and secures a warrant against him for debt, for each warrant he - shall pay 1/3 of a mana of money. - - § 115. If a man holds against a man [a claim] for grain or money and - secures a warrant against him for debt and the debtor dies through his - fate in the house of the creditor, that case has no penalty. - - § 116. If the debtor dies through violence or lack of care, the owner - of the debtor shall prosecute the merchant; if it was the son of a - man, his son shall be put to death; if the slave of a man, he shall - pay 1/3 of a mana of money, and whatever [the debt] was, he shall - forfeit as much. - -Among the Hebrews, as among other ancient peoples, the poor at times -deposited their valuables with the more powerful for safekeeping. This was -natural before the invention of banks and safe deposit vaults. - -The Hebrew law in Exod. 22:7-10 provides that if goods are given to -another man to keep and are stolen out of his house, the thief should, if -found, restore double the amount taken. If the thief was not found, the -owner of the house should be brought to God (so American R. V.)[466], _i. -e._, to the temple, where in some way (probably by lot) it was determined -whether he was guilty. If guilty, the owner of the house had to restore -twofold. - -Somewhat parallel to the Babylonian laws which permit the imprisonment of -a debtor in one's house is the Hebrew law that a poor debtor might become -a slave for six years (Exod. 21:2-6; Deut. 15:7-18). The Old Testament -laws are not quite uniform. In reality it is only that of Deuteronomy -which contemplates slavery in consequence of indebtedness; Exodus speaks -as though the slave might not be bought in any way. The important point -is that in Babylonia a man might be imprisoned for debt; in Israel he -might become a temporary slave. - -As to the deposit of valuable property with a creditor for security, the -Hebrew law, while it shows that there were other kinds of pledges (Deut. -24:10, ff.), mentions but one kind. This was in the case of a man so poor -that he had to give his outer garment as security. The law provided that -this should be returned to him at night, since the poor peasants had no -other blankets than these garments. A hard-hearted creditor might, by -keeping the garment at night, risk the life of the debtor (Exod. 22:26, -27; Deut. 24:11-13). - -Debts - - § 117. If a man is subjected to an attachment for debt and sells his - wife, son, or daughter, or they are given over to service, for three - years they shall work in the house of their purchaser or temporary - master; in the fourth year they shall be set free. - - § 118. If he binds to service a male or a female slave, and the - merchant transfers or sells him, he can establish no claim. - - § 119. If a man is subjected to an attachment for debt and sells a - maid-servant who has borne him children, the owner of the maid-servant - shall pay and shall release his maid-servant. - -These laws are quite similar to Exod. 21:2-11 and Deut. 15:12-18. - -The main differences are that the Hebrew law contemplates that a man may -enter slavery himself; the Babylonian only that he shall permit his wife, -son, or daughter to do it. The Hebrews released such slaves at the end of -six years;[467] the Babylonians at the end of three. Hebrew law -recognized, too, that a man might sell his daughter into slavery (Exod. -21:7-11), but it stipulated that her treatment should be different from -that of men. It recognizes that either her master or his son would be -likely to make her a real or a secondary wife. She was not to be released -at the end of seven years, but in case her master did not deal with her in -certain specified ways she regained her freedom regardless of her period -of service. - -Storage of Grain - - § 120. If a man has stored his grain in heaps in the building of - another and an accident happens in the granary, or the owner of the - building has disturbed the heap and taken grain, or has disputed the - amount of grain that was stored in his building, the owner of the - grain shall give an account of his grain under oath, the owner of the - building shall double the amount of grain which he took and restore it - to the owner of the grain. - - § 121. If a man stores grain in a man's building, he shall pay each - year 5 _Qa_ of grain for each _Gur_ of grain. - -These laws have no Biblical parallel. - -Deposits and Losses - - § 122. If a man gives to another on deposit silver or gold or anything - whatever, anything as much as he deposits he shall recount to - witnesses and shall institute contracts and make the deposit. - - § 123. If without witnesses and contracts he has placed anything on - deposit and at the place of deposit they dispute it, that case has no - penalty. - - § 124. If a man gives to another on deposit silver or gold or anything - whatever in the presence of witnesses and he disputes it, he shall - prosecute that man and he shall double whatever he disputed and shall - repay it. - - § 125. If a man places anything on deposit and at the place of deposit - either through burglary or pillage anything of his is lost, together - with anything belonging to the owner of the building, the owner of the - building who was negligent and lost what was given him on deposit - shall make it good and restore it to the owner of the goods. The owner - of the house shall institute a search for whatever was lost and take - it from the thief. - - § 126. If a man has not lost anything, but says he has lost something, - or files a claim as though he had lost something, he shall give - account of his claim on oath, and whatever he brought suit for he - shall double and shall give for his claim. - -There is no mention in the laws of the Old Testament of this kind of -deposit, though, as already noted, it probably was sometimes practised. - -Against Slandering Women - - § 127. If a man causes the finger to be pointed at the woman of a god - or the wife of a man and cannot prove it, they shall bring him before - the judges and they shall brand his forehead. - -The nearest parallel to this in the Old Testament is in Deut. 22:13-21, -which is really quite a different law, for it applies only to cases where -men, when just married, slander their wives by charging them with previous -impurity. The Hebrew law provides a method of trial, a punishment for the -man, if guilty, and a much severer one for the woman, if the charge is -true. The two codes belong to quite a different legal development, as is -shown by the fact that the Babylonian law refers to "a woman of a god," -_i. e._, one of the temple-women who, under certain religious rules, -represented in a concrete way the procreative power of the god. - -This code recognizes several classes of these, as will appear later, but -Hebrew law forbade the existence of such women in Israel (Deut. 23:17). - -Chastity, Marriage, and Divorce - - § 128. If a man takes a wife and does not execute contracts for her, - that woman is no wife. - - § 129. If the wife of a man is caught lying with another man, they - shall bind them and throw them into the water. If the husband of the - woman would let her live, or the king would let his subject live, he - may do so. - - § 130. If a man forces the betrothed wife of another who is living in - her father's house and has not known a man, and lies in her loins and - they catch him, that man shall be put to death and that woman shall go - free. - - § 131. If the wife of a man is accused by her husband, and she has not - been caught lying with another man, she shall swear her innocence and - return to her house. - - § 132. If the finger has been pointed at the wife of a man because of - another man and she has not been caught lying with the other man, for - her husband's sake she shall plunge into the sacred river. - - § 133. If a man is taken captive and there is food in his house, his - wife shall not go out from his house, her body she shall guard, into - the house of another she shall not enter. If that woman does not guard - her body and enters into the house of another, that woman they shall - prosecute and throw her into the water. - - § 134. If a man is taken captive and in his house there is no food, - and his wife enters into the house of another, that woman is not to - blame. - - § 135. If a man is taken captive and there is no food in his house and - his wife has openly entered into the house of another and borne - children, and afterwards her husband returns and reaches his city, - that woman shall return to her husband and the children shall follow - their father. - - § 136. If a man deserts his city and flees and after it his wife - enters into the house of another, if that man returns and would take - his wife, because he deserted his city and fled, the wife of the - fugitive shall not return to the house of her husband. - - § 137. If a man sets his face against a concubine who has borne him - children or a wife that has presented him with children, to put her - away, he shall return to that woman her marriage portion, and shall - give her the income of field, garden, and house, and she shall bring - up her children. From the time that her children are grown, from - whatever is given to her children, a portion like that of a son shall - be given to her, and the husband of her choice she may marry. - - § 138. If a man would put away his spouse who has not borne him - children, he shall give her silver equal to her marriage gift, and the - dowry which she brought from her father's house he shall restore to - her and may put her away. - - § 139. If she had no dowry, he shall give her one mana of silver for a - divorce. - - § 140. If he belongs to the laboring class, he shall give her - one-third of a mana of silver. - - § 141. If the wife of a man who is living in the house of her husband - sets her face to go out and act the fool, her house neglects and her - husband belittles, they shall prosecute that woman. If her husband - says: "I divorce her," he may divorce her. On her departure nothing - shall be given her for her divorce. If her husband does not say: "I - divorce her," her husband may take another wife; that woman shall - dwell as a slave in the house of her husband. - - § 142. If a woman hates her husband and says: "Thou shalt not hold - me," they shall make investigation concerning her into her defects. If - she has been discreet and there is no fault, and her husband has gone - out and greatly belittled her, that woman has no blame; she may take - her marriage-portion and go to her father's house. - - § 143. If she has not been discreet, and has gone out and neglected - her house and belittled her husband, they shall throw that woman into - the water. - - § 144. If a man takes a priestess and that priestess gives a female - slave to her husband, and she has children; if that man sets his face - to take a concubine, they shall not favor that man. He may not take a - concubine. - - § 145. If a man takes a priestess and she does not present him with - children and he sets his face to take a concubine, that man may take a - concubine and bring her into his house. That concubine shall not rank - with the wife. - - § 146. If a man takes a priestess and she gives to her husband a - maid-servant and she bears children, and afterward that maid-servant - would take rank with her mistress; because she has borne children her - mistress may not sell her for money, but she may reduce her to bondage - and count her among the female slaves. - - § 147. If she has not borne children, her mistress may sell her for - money. - - § 148. If a man takes a wife and she is attacked by disease, and he - sets his face to take another, he may do it. His wife who was attacked - by disease he may not divorce. She shall live in the house he has - built and he shall support her as long as she lives. - - § 149. If that woman does not choose to live in the house of her - husband, he shall make good to her the dowry which she brought from - her father's house and she may go away. - - § 150. If a man presents his wife with field, garden, house, or goods, - and gives to her sealed deeds, after her husband's death her children - shall not press a claim against her. The mother after her death may - leave it to her child whom she loves, but to a brother she may not - leave it. - - § 151. If a wife who is living in the house of a husband has persuaded - her husband and he has bound himself that she shall not be taken by a - creditor of her husband; if that man had a debt against him before he - took that woman, the creditor may not hold that woman, and if that - woman had a debt against her before she entered the house of her - husband, her creditor may not hold her husband. - - § 152. If they become indebted after the woman enters the man's house, - both of them are liable to the merchant. - - § 153. If a woman causes the death of her husband on account of - another man, that woman they shall impale. - - § 154. If a man has known his daughter, the city shall drive out that - man. - - § 155. If a man has betrothed a bride to his son and his son has known - her and he afterward lies in her loins and they catch him, they shall - bind that man and throw him into the water. - - § 156. If a man has betrothed a bride to his son and his son has not - known her and he lies in her loins, he shall pay her half a mana of - silver and restore to her whatever she brought from the house of her - father, and the man of her choice may marry her. - - § 157. If a man after his father's death lies in the loins of his - mother, they shall burn both of them. - - § 158. If a man after his father's death is admitted to the loins of - his chief wife who has borne children, that man shall be expelled from - the house of his father. - - § 159. If a man who has brought a present unto the house of his - father-in-law and has given a bride-price looks with longing upon - another woman, and says to his father-in-law: "Thy daughter I will not - take," the father of the daughter shall keep whatever was brought to - him. - - § 160. If a man brings a present to the house of a father-in-law and - gives a bride-price, and the father of the daughter says: "I will not - give thee my daughter," whatever was brought him he shall double and - restore it. - - § 161. If a man brings a present to the house of his father-in-law and - gives a bride-price, and his neighbor slanders him, and the father - says to the groom: "Thou shalt not take my daughter," whatever was - brought he shall double and restore to him. - -These Babylonian laws present numerous points of contact and of -divergence, when compared with the Biblical laws on the same subject. -There is no Biblical parallel to § 128. The law (§ 129) which imposes the -death penalty upon a man who commits adultery with another man's wife and -upon the woman, finds an exact parallel in Lev. 20:10 and Deut. 22:22, -though the Biblical law, unlike the Babylonian, provides no way in which -clemency could be extended to the offenders. - -The laws in §§ 130, 156, concerning the violation of betrothed virgins, -are in a general way paralleled by Lev. 19:20-22 and Deut. 22:23-26, -though there are such differences that, while the underlying principles -are the same, it is clear that there was entire independence of -development. A religious element enters into Leviticus that is entirely -absent from the Babylonian code. The Bible contains two laws on this -subject that are without parallel in the Babylonian code. These are found -in Exod. 22:16, 17 and Deut. 22:28, 29, and impose penalties for the -violation of virgins who were not betrothed. In both codes the principle -is manifest that the loss of a girl's honor was to be compensated by -money, though Deut. 22:28, 29 recognizes that it has a value that money -cannot buy. - -The laws relating to a wife whose fidelity is suspected (§§ 131, 132) find -a general parallel in Num. 5:11-28. The provision at the end of § 132 that -the wife should plunge into the sacred river is in the nature of trial by -ordeal. The law in Numbers imposes on such a woman trial by ordeal, though -it is of a different sort. She must drink water in which dust from the -floor of the sanctuary is mingled--dust surcharged with divine -potency--and if she does not swell up and die, she is counted innocent. - -The laws which provide that a wife may present her husband with a -slave-girl as a concubine (§§ 137, 144-147) are without parallel in the -Biblical codes, but are strikingly illustrated by the patriarchal -narratives. Sarah gave Hagar to Abraham (Gen. 16); Rachel and Leah gave -Bilhah and Zilpah to Jacob (Gen. 30:1-13). The law (§ 146) which deals -with such a slave-girl who would rank with her mistress is closely -parallel to the story of the treatment of Hagar in Gen. 16:5-7 and 21:9, -10. - -The laws on divorce (§§ 138-141) are really in advance of the one Biblical -law on the subject (Deut. 24:1-4). The law in Deuteronomy permits a -husband to put away a wife, who in any way does not please him, without -alimony, while to the wife no privilege of initiating divorce proceedings -is granted at all. The Babylonian laws secure to the divorced woman a -maintenance, and, while by no means according her equal rights with the -man, provide (§ 142) that she may herself initiate the proceedings for -divorce. The ordeal must have been an unpleasant one, but in Israel's law -a woman had no such rights.[468] - -The law concerning adultery with a daughter-in-law (§ 155) is identical in -purpose and severity with Lev. 20:12. The laws in §§ 157, 158, which -prohibit immorality with one's mother or the chief wife of one's father, -just touch upon the great subject of incest and the prohibited degrees of -marriage which are treated at considerable length in Lev. 18:6-18; 20:11, -19-21, and Deut. 22:30. The Babylonian laws touch but two specific cases, -which may be said to be covered by Deut. 22:30, while the laws of -Leviticus treat the whole subject of the prohibited degrees of marriage in -a broad and comprehensive way. The main idea pervading Leviticus is -holiness. Israel is to be kept free from the pollution of incest in any -form. The religious motive exhibited here is foreign to the Babylonian -code. - -Inheritance - - § 162. It a man takes a wife and she bears him children and that woman - dies, her father may not lay claim to her dowry. Her dowry belongs to - her children. - - § 163. If a man takes a wife and she does not present him with - children and that woman dies; if his father-in-law returns unto him - the marriage-settlement, which that man brought to the house of the - father-in-law, unto the dowry of that woman her husband may not lay - claim. Her dowry belongs to the house of her father. - - § 164. But if his father-in-law does not return the - marriage-settlement unto him, he shall deduct from her dowry the - amount of the marriage-settlement, and then return the dowry to the - house of her father. - - § 165. If a man has presented to his son, the first in his eyes, - field, garden, or house, and written for him a sealed deed, and - afterward the father dies; when the brothers divide, he shall take the - present which his father gave him, and over and above they shall - divide the goods of the father's house equally. - - § 166. If a man takes wives for the sons which he possesses, but has - not taken a wife for his youngest son, and afterward the father dies; - when the brothers divide, for their younger brother who does not have - a wife they shall present over and above his portion money for a - marriage-settlement, and shall enable him to take a wife. - - § 167. If a man takes a wife and she bears him children and that woman - dies, and after her he takes a second and she bears him children, - after the father dies, the children shall not share according to their - mothers. They shall receive the dowries of their respective mothers, - and the goods of their father's house they shall share equally. - - § 168. If a man has set his face to cut off his son, and says to the - judges: "I will cut off my son," the judges shall make investigation - concerning him; if the son has not committed a grave crime which cuts - off from sonship, the father may not cut off his son from sonship. - - § 169. If he has committed against his father a grave crime which cuts - off from sonship, he shall pardon him for the first offense. If he - commits a grave crime the second time, the father may cut off his son - from sonship. - - § 170. If a man's wife bears him children and a slave-girl bears him - children, and the father during his lifetime says to the children - which the slave-girl bore him: "My children," and counts them with the - children of the wife, after the father dies the children of the wife - and the children of the slave-girl shall divide equally the goods of - their father's house. The sons that are sons of the wife shall at the - sharing divide and take. - - § 171. But if the father during his lifetime has not said unto the - children which the slave-girl bore him: "My children," after the - father dies the children of the slave-girl shall not share with the - children of the wife. The slave-girl and her children shall be given - their freedom; the children of the wife may not put a claim upon the - children of the slave-girl for service. The wife shall receive her - dowry and a gift which her husband gave her and wrote upon a tablet - and may dwell in the dwelling of her husband as long as she lives and - eat. She may not sell it. After her it belongs to her children. - - § 172. If her husband has not given her a gift, they shall restore to - her her dowry and she shall receive from the goods of the house of her - husband the portion of one son. If the children abuse her in order to - drive her from the house, the judges shall investigate concerning her - and if they find the children in the wrong, that woman shall not go - from the house of her husband. If that woman sets her face to go out, - she shall leave with her children the gift which her husband gave her; - the dowry from the house of her father she shall receive and the - husband of her choice may take her. - - § 173. If that woman, where she has entered, bears children to her - later husband, after that woman dies the children of her first and her - later husband shall share her dowry. - - § 174. If she did not bear children to her later husband, the children - of her first husband shall receive her dowry. - - § 175. If a slave of the palace or the slave of a workingman takes the - daughter of a patrician and she bears children, the owner of the slave - shall have no claim for service on the children of the daughter of a - patrician. - - § 176. But if a slave of the palace or the slave of a workingman takes - the daughter of a patrician, and when he takes her she enters together - with the dowry from her father's house into the house of the slave of - the palace or the slave of the workingman; if after they are united - they build a house and acquire property and afterward the slave of the - palace or the slave of the workingman dies, the daughter of the - patrician shall receive her dowry and they shall divide into two parts - whatever her husband and herself had acquired after their union. Half - the owner of the slave shall take, and the daughter of the patrician - shall receive half for her children. If the daughter of the patrician - had no dowry, whatever her husband and herself had acquired after - their union they shall divide into two parts. The owner of the slave - shall take half and the daughter of the patrician shall receive half - for her children. - - § 177. If a widow whose children are minors sets her face to enter the - house of a second husband, she shall not do it without the consent of - the judges. When she enters the house of a second husband, the judges - shall inquire into the estate of her former husband, and the estate of - the former husband they shall entrust to the second husband and to - that woman, and shall cause them to leave a tablet (receipt). The - estate they shall guard and rear the minors. The household goods they - may not sell. The purchaser of household goods belonging to the - children of a widow shall forfeit his money. The goods shall revert to - their owners. - - § 178. If there is a wife of a god, priestess, or sacred harlot, whose - father has given her a dowry and written her a record of gift, and in - the record of gift he has not written, "after her she may give it to - whomsoever she pleases," and has not given her full discretion; after - her father dies her brothers shall take her field and garden, and - according to the value of her share they shall give her grain, oil, - and wool, and shall content her heart. If her brothers shall not give - her grain, oil, and wool, according to the value of her share, and - shall not content her heart, she may let her field and garden unto any - tenant she pleases and her tenant shall maintain her. Her field, - garden, or whatever her father gave her she may enjoy as long as she - lives. She may not sell it for money or transfer it to another. Her - heritage belongs to her brothers. - - § 179. If there is a wife of a god, priestess, or sacred harlot, whose - father has given her a dowry and written a record of gift; and in the - record of gift he has written, "after her she may give it to - whomsoever she pleases," and has granted her full discretion; after - her father dies she may give it after her to whomsoever she pleases. - Her brothers have no claim upon her. - - § 180. If a father does not give a dowry to his daughter, a priestess - living in the appointed house, or a sacred harlot, after the father - dies she shall receive from the goods of her father's house the same - share as one son, and as long as she lives she shall enjoy it. After - her it belongs to her brothers. - - § 181. If the father of a priestess, sacred harlot, or temple maiden - gives her to a god and does not give her a dowry, after the father - dies she shall receive from the goods of her father's house a third of - the portion of a son and shall enjoy it as long as she lives. After - her it belongs to her brothers. - - § 182. If a father does not give a dowry to his daughter, a priestess - of Marduk of Babylon, and does not write a record of gift for her; - after her father dies she shall receive from the goods of her father's - house one-third of the portion of a son, and shall pay no tax. A - priestess of Marduk after her death may leave it to whomsoever she - pleases. - - § 183. If a father presents a dowry to his daughter who is a - concubine, and gives her to a husband and writes a record of gift; - after the father dies she shall not share in the goods of her father's - house. - - § 184. If a father does not present a dowry to his daughter who is a - concubine and does not give her to a husband; after her father's death - her brothers shall give her a dowry according to the value of the - father's estate and shall give her to a husband. - -In comparison with these Babylonian laws of inheritance those in the Old -Testament are comparatively simple. We learn from Deut. 21:15-17, that a -man's firstborn son received a "double portion" of his father's estate, -_i. e._, twice as much as any other son. The inference is that the other -sons shared equally. This law also provides that, when a man has two -wives, the sons of the favorite wife shall have no advantage as to -inheritance over the sons of the less loved wife. In Num. 27:8-11 it is -provided that if a man has no son, his estate (_i. e._, real estate) may -go to his daughter; if he has no daughter, it may go to his brothers; if -no brothers, it goes to his father's brothers. If his father has no -brothers, the estate is to go to the next of kin. In Num. 36:2-12 the law -that a daughter may inherit her father's estate is supplemented by the -provision that such a daughter must marry within the tribe, so that the -landed property may not in the next generation pass out of the tribe. - -Such were the Hebrew laws of inheritance. They apply to a much less -complexly organized society than the Babylonian. - -§§ 168, 169 of Hammurapi's code deal with the cutting off of a son. This -is paralleled in Deut. 21:18-21, though punishment inflicted by the law in -Deuteronomy is quite different from the Babylonian, since the Hebrew boy, -whose parents have proved him before the elders to be unworthy of sonship, -was not cast out and sent away, but stoned to death. Another form of this -law appears in Exod. 21:17. - -Adoption - - § 185. If a man takes a young child in his name unto sonship and - brings him up, one may not bring a claim for that adopted son. - - § 186. If a man takes a young child unto sonship, and when he has - taken him he rebels against his [adopted] father and mother, that - foster-child shall return to his father's house. - - § 187. One may not bring claim for the son of a temple-servant, a - palace guard, or of a sacred harlot. - - § 188. If an artisan takes a son to sonship and teaches him his - handicraft, one may not bring claim for him. - - § 189. If he does not teach him his handicraft, that foster-son may - return to the house of his father. - - § 190. If a man does not count among his sons a young child whom he - has taken to sonship and reared, that foster-child may return to his - father's house. - - § 191. If a man who takes a young child to sonship and rears him and - establishes a house and acquires children, afterward sets his face to - cut off that foster-son, that son shall not go his way. The father who - reared him shall give him from his goods one-third the share of a son - and he shall go. From field, garden, or house, he shall not give him. - -In the codes of the Old Testament there are no laws of adoption. The story -of the adoption of Ephraim and Manasseh by Jacob in Gen. 48 shows that the -idea was not unknown to the Hebrews, among whom the ceremony of adoption -would seem to have consisted of the act of acknowledging the children as -one's own by placing one's hands on their heads and giving them a paternal -blessing. - -Renunciation of Sonship - - § 192. If the son of a temple-servant or the son of a sacred harlot - says to the father that brought him up or to the mother that brought - him up, "Thou art not my father," or, "Thou art not my mother," they - shall cut out his tongue. - - § 193. If the son of a temple-servant or the son of a sacred harlot - has identified his father's house and hated the father who brought him - up or the mother who brought him up and goes back to his father's - house, they shall pluck out his eye. - -The Old Testament has no laws with which to compare these. The two classes -of persons whose children are mentioned were banished from Israel by Deut. -23:17, 18. - -Wet-nurses or Foster-mothers - - § 194. If a man gives his son unto a nurse and his son dies in the - hands of the nurse and the nurse substitutes another child without the - consent of the father or the mother, they shall prosecute her; because - she substituted another child without the consent of his father or his - mother they shall cut off her breast. - -This law also is without Biblical parallel. - -Assault and Battery - - § 195. If a son strikes his father, they shall cut off his hand. - - § 196. If a man destroys the eye of the son of a patrician, they shall - destroy his eye. - - § 197. If he breaks a man's bone, they shall break his bone. - - § 198. If one destroys the eye of a workingman or breaks the bone of a - workingman, he shall pay 1 mana of silver. - - § 199. If one destroys the eye of a man's slave or breaks the bone of - a man's slave, he shall pay half his value. - - § 200. If a man knocks out the tooth of a man of his own rank, they - shall knock his tooth out. - - § 201. If one knocks out the tooth of a workingman, he shall pay 1/3 - of a mana of silver. - - § 202. If a man shall strike the private-parts of a man who is of - higher rank than he, he shall receive sixty blows with an ox-hide - scourge in the assembly. - - § 203. If a patrician strikes the private-parts of a patrician of his - own rank, he shall pay 1 mana of silver. - - § 204. If a workingman strikes the private-parts of a workingman, he - shall pay 10 shekels of silver. - - § 205. If the slave of a patrician strikes the private-parts of the - son of a patrician, they shall cut off his ear. - - § 206. If a man strikes a man in a quarrel and wounds him, he shall - swear, "I did not strike with intent," and shall pay for the - physician. - - § 207. If from the stroke he dies, he shall swear [as above], and if - it was a patrician, he shall pay 1/2 mana of silver. - - § 208. If it was a workingman, he shall pay 1/3 of a mana of silver. - - § 209. If a man strikes a man's daughter and causes a miscarriage, he - shall pay 10 shekels of silver for her miscarriage. - - § 210. If that woman dies, they shall put his daughter to death. - - § 211. If through a stroke one causes a miscarriage of the daughter of - a workingman, he shall pay 5 shekels of silver. - - § 212. If that woman dies, he shall pay 1/2 mana of silver. - - § 213. If one strikes the slave-girl of a man and causes a - miscarriage, he shall pay 2 shekels of silver. - - § 214. If that slave-girl dies, he shall pay 1/3 of a mana of silver. - -These laws are strikingly parallel to Exod. 21:18-27, to which Exod. -21:12-14 should be prefixed. The Babylonian code, like the Hebrew, imposes -the death penalty for wilful murder. Both codes provide that one who is an -accidental homicide shall escape the penalty, but they do it in different -ways. Hammurapi provides that the killer may take an oath that he did it -without intent to kill. Exod. 21:13, 14 provides that the homicide may -find sanctuary at the altar of God. In place of this Deut. 19:4, ff., -provides that he may flee to a city of refuge. - -If a man injures another in a fight, the Bible (Exod. 21:18, 19) provides -that he shall pay for the lost time and, as does Hammurapi, the cost of -healing the injured man. Exod. 21:22 provides, as does Hammurapi, for the -payment of a fine for causing a woman to miscarry, but Exodus does not, -like the Babylonian code, fix the amount of the damage; that is left to -the judges. In the laws concerning the injury of slaves the two codes -differ. Exodus provides (21:20, 21, 26, 27) for cases in which owners -injure or kill their own slaves; Hammurapi, for cases in which the injury -is done by others. A mere reading of the penalties imposed by the parts of -the Babylonian code translated above impresses vividly upon the mind the -fact that underlying many of them is the principle so forcibly expressed -in Exod. 21:21-25: "life for life, eye for eye, tooth for tooth, hand for -hand, foot for foot, burning for burning, wound for wound, stripe for -stripe." The details of application are different, but the principle is -the same. Many of the differences were caused by the more complex nature -of Babylonian society, in which three classes, patricians, workingmen (or -semi-serfs), and slaves, existed. Hebrew law recognizes but two -classes--freemen and slaves. - -Physicians - - § 215. If a physician operates upon a man for a severe wound with a - bronze lancet and saves the man's life, or if he operates for cataract - with a bronze lancet and saves the man's eye, he shall receive 10 - shekels of silver. - - § 216. If it is a workingman, he shall receive 5 shekels of silver. - - § 217. If it is a man's slave, the owner of the slave shall give the - physician 2 shekels of silver. - - § 218. If a physician operates upon a man with a bronze lancet for a - severe wound, and the man dies; or operates upon a man with a bronze - lancet for cataract and the man's eye is destroyed, they shall cut off - his hand. - - § 219. If a physician operates with a bronze lancet upon the slave of - a workingman and causes his death, he shall restore a slave of equal - value. - - § 220. If he operates for cataract with a bronze lancet and destroys - his eye, he shall pay 1/2 his price. - - § 221. If a physician sets a broken bone for a man or has cured of - sickness inflamed flesh, the patient shall pay 5 shekels of silver to - the physician. - - § 222. If he is a workingman, he shall give 3 shekels of silver. - - § 223. If he is the slave of a patrician, the owner of the slave shall - give 3 shekels of silver to the physician. - - § 224. If an ox-doctor or an ass-doctor treats an ox or an ass for a - severe wound and saves its life, the owner of the ox or the ass shall - pay to the physician 1/6 of a shekel of silver as his fee. - - § 225. If he operates upon an ox or an ass for a severe wound and it - dies, he shall give unto the owner of the ox or the ass 1/4 of its - value. - -These laws about physicians have no parallel in the Old Testament, the -laws of which did not take account of the existence of doctors. They are -of interest, since they show the antiquity of physicians in Babylonia, not -only for men, but for animals. They also reveal the fact that the practice -of medicine in Babylonia was attended by some risks! - -Herodotus (I, 197) declares that the Babylonians had no physicians, but -brought their sick out into the streets and asked of each passer-by -whether he had had a like sickness and what he had done for it. Possibly, -as among ourselves, there were many who did not wish to incur the expense -of a doctor, and who did as Herodotus reports, but these laws, and the -existence of physicians at Nineveh at the time of the later Assyrian -kings, make it probable that Herodotus was wrong as to their non-existence -at Babylon in his day. - -Laws of Branding - - § 226. If a brander without the consent of the owner of a slave cuts a - mark on a slave, making him unsalable, they shall cut off the hands of - that brander. - - § 227. If a man deceives a brander and he brands a slave with a mark, - making him unsalable, they shall put that man to death and cause him - to perish in the gate of his house. The brander shall swear: "I did - not brand him knowingly" and shall go free. - -These laws have no parallel in the Old Testament. Evidently the simpler -organization of Hebrew society made them unnecessary. - -Responsibility of House-builders - - § 228. If a builder builds a house for a man and completes it, he - shall give him as his wages 2 shekels of silver for each _Shar_ of - house. - - § 229. If a builder builds a house for a man and does not make its - work strong and the house which he made falls and causes the death of - the owner of the house, that builder shall be put to death. - - § 230. If it causes the death of the son of the owner, the son of that - builder shall be put to death. - - § 231. If it causes the death of a slave of the owner of the house, a - slave like the slave he shall give to the owner of the house. - - § 232. If it destroys property, he shall restore whatever was - destroyed, and because he did not build the house strong and it fell, - he shall rebuild the house that fell from his own property. - - § 233. If a builder builds a house for a man and does not make his - work strong and a wall falls, that builder shall strengthen that wall - at his own expense. - -These laws have no parallel in the Bible. Among the agricultural -population of Palestine builders were not a separate class. The penalties -inflicted by the Babylonian code were severe, and yet, if modern -legislators would put upon the house-builders of our time a similar -responsibility for good work, fewer lives would be sacrificed by falling -buildings. - -Responsibility of Boatmen - - § 234. If a boatman builds a boat of 60 _Gur_ for a man, he shall give - him 2 shekels of silver as his wages. - - § 235. If a boatman builds a boat for a man and does not make his work - sound and in that year the boat is sent on a voyage and meets with - disaster, that boatman shall repair that boat and from his own goods - shall make it strong and shall give the boat in sound condition to the - owner of the boat. - - § 236. If a man gives his boat to a boatman for hire and the boatman - is careless and sinks or wrecks the boat, the boatman shall restore a - boat to the owner of the boat. - - § 237. If a man hires a boatman and a boat and loads it with grain, - wool, oil, dates, or any other kind of freight, and that boatman is - careless and sinks the boat or destroys its freight, the boatman shall - replace the boat and whatever there was in it which he destroyed. - - § 238. If a boatman sinks a man's boat and re-floats it, he shall give - money for 1/2 its value. - - § 239. If a man hires a boatman, he shall give him 6 _Gur_ of grain a - year. - -The Hebrews were not a maritime people, and had no such laws as these or -the following. - -The Collision of Ships - - § 240. If a boat that is floating downstream strikes a boat that is - being towed and sinks it, the owner of the boat that was sunk shall - declare in the presence of a god everything that was in that boat and - [the owner] of the boat floating downstream, which sunk the boat that - was being towed, shall replace the boat and whatever was lost. - -There is, naturally, nothing similar to this in the Old Testament. - -Laws Concerning Cattle - - § 241. If a man levies a distraint upon an ox as security for debt, he - shall pay 1/3 of a mana of silver. - - § 242. If a man hires for a year, the wages of a working ox is 4 _Gur_ - of grain. - - § 243. The hire of a milch cow, 3 _Gur_ of grain for a year he shall - give. - - § 244. If a man hires an ox or an ass and a lion kills it in the - field, the loss falls on the owner. - - § 245. If a man hires an ox and causes its death through neglect or - blows, he shall restore to the owner an ox of equal value. - - § 246. If a man hires an ox and crushes its foot or cuts the cord of - its neck, he shall restore to the owner an ox of like value. - - § 247. If a man hires an ox and destroys its eye, he shall pay to the - owner of the ox money to 1/2 its value. - - § 248. If a man hires an ox and breaks off its horn, or cuts off its - tail or injures the flesh which holds the ring, money to 1/4 of its - value he shall pay. - - § 249. If a man hires an ox and a god strikes it and it dies, the man - who hires the ox shall take an oath in the presence of a god and shall - go free. - - § 250. If an ox when passing along the street gores a man and causes - his death, there is no penalty in that case. - - § 251. If the ox of a man has the habit of goring and they have - informed him of his fault and his horns he has not protected nor kept - his ox in, and that ox gores a man and causes his death, the owner of - the ox shall pay 1/2 mana of money. - - § 252. If it is the slave of a man, he shall pay 1/3 of a mana of - money. - - § 253. If a man hires a man and puts him over his field and furnishes - him with seed-grain and intrusts him with oxen and contracts with him - to cultivate the field, if that man steals the seed-grain or the crop - and it is found in his possession, they shall cut off his hands. - - § 254. If he takes the seed-grain, but enfeebles the cattle, from the - grain which he has cultivated he shall make restoration. - - § 255. If he shall let the cattle to a man for hire, or steal the - seed-grain so that there is no crop, they shall prosecute that man, - and he shall pay 60 _Gur_ of grain for each _Gan_. - - § 256. If he is not able to meet his obligation, they shall tear him - in pieces in that field by means of the oxen. - -The Biblical legislation corresponding to this is found in Exod. 21:28-35, -but it covers only a portion of the cases of which the Babylonian law -treats. It provides that, if an ox gores a man or a woman to death, the ox -shall be stoned. If the ox was wont to gore and the owner had not kept it -in, but it had been permitted to kill a man or a woman, the owner as well -as the ox should be stoned. At the discretion of the tribunal a fine or -ransom might be laid on the owner. In case the ox gored a slave, the -owner of the ox was to pay 30 shekels of silver and the ox was to be -stoned. If a man opened a pit and a neighbor's ox or ass fell into it, the -digger of the pit must make good the loss to the owner of the animal, and -the dead beast became the property of the digger of the pit. If one man's -ox killed the ox of another man, the two men were to sell the live ox and -divide the price. If it were known that the ox was wont to gore in the -past, and its owner had not kept it in, he was to pay ox for ox, and the -dead animal should be his. - -It thus appears that the exigencies of Hebrew agricultural life were -different from those of Babylonia, and were naturally met in different -ways. - -Wages of Laborers - - § 257. If a man hires a field-laborer, he shall pay him 8 _Gur_ of - grain per year. - - § 258. If a man hires a herdsman, he shall pay him 6 _Gur_ of grain - per year. - -Hebrew law did not regulate wages. - -On Stealing Farming-tools - - § 259. If a man steals a watering-machine from a field, he shall pay - to the owner of the watering-machine 5 shekels of silver. - - § 260. If a man steals a watering-bucket or a plow, he shall pay 3 - shekels of silver. - -As the Hebrews did not systematically irrigate their land, the Old -Testament contains no similar laws. - -Laws Concerning Shepherds - - § 261. If a man hires a herdsman to tend cattle or sheep, he shall pay - him 8 _Gur_ of grain per year. - - § 262. If a man, oxen, or sheep .............. - - (The rest is broken away.) - - § 263. If he loses an ox or a sheep that is intrusted to him, he shall - restore ox for ox and sheep for sheep. - - § 264. If a herdsman who has had cattle or sheep intrusted to him - receives his full pay and is satisfied, and he causes the cattle or - the sheep to diminish in number or lessens the birth-rate, he shall - give increase and produce according to his contracts. - - § 265. If a shepherd to whom cattle or sheep have been given to tend - is dishonest and alters the price or sells them, they shall prosecute - him, and he shall restore to their owner 10 times the oxen or sheep - which he stole. - - § 266. If in a fold there is a pestilence of a god, or a lion has - slain, the shepherd shall before a god declare himself innocent, and - the owner of the fold shall bear the loss of the fold. - - § 267. If the shepherd is careless and causes a loss in the fold, the - shepherd shall make good in cattle or sheep the loss which he caused - in the fold and shall give them to the owner. - -The nearest approach in the Old Testament to laws of this character is in -Exod. 22:10-13, which provides that, if a man deliver to his neighbor an -ox, or ass, or sheep, or any beast to keep, and it dies, or is injured or -is carried off when no one sees the deed, the oath of Jehovah shall be -between them that the keeper has not put his hand to his neighbor's goods. -The owner was to accept this, and no restitution was necessary. If the -animals were stolen from the keeper, he must make restitution. If they -were torn in pieces by beasts of prey, he must bring the pieces for -witness, and need not make restitution. - -The same general principles of the limits of responsibility underlay the -two codes in these cases, though they differ in details. In Israel the -shepherding of the flocks and herds of other people was not, as in -Babylonia, a distinct occupation. - -On Wages of Animals and Men - - § 268. If a man hires an ox for threshing, 20 _Qa_ of grain is its - hire. - - § 269. If he hires an ass for threshing, 10 _Qa_ of grain is its hire. - - § 270. If he hires a kid for threshing, 1 _Qa_ of grain is its hire. - - § 271. If he hires cattle, a wagon and a driver, he shall pay 180 _Qa_ - of grain per day. - - § 272. If a man hires a wagon only, he shall pay 40 _Qa_ of grain per - day. - - § 273. If a man hires a field-laborer from the beginning of the year - until the fifth month, he shall pay him 6 _She_ of silver per day; - from the sixth month to the end of the year, 5 _She_ of silver per day - he shall pay. - - § 274. If a man hires an artisan, he shall give per day as the wages - of a ..... 5 _She_; as the wages of a brick-maker, 5 _She_ of money; - as the wages of a tailor, 5 _She_ of silver; as the wages of a - stone-cutter, ...... _She_ of silver; ............ _She_ of silver; - ............ _She_ of silver; ............ of a carpenter, 4 _She_ of - silver; as the wages of a ...... 4 _She_ of silver; as the wages of a - ...... _She_ of silver; the wages of a builder, ...... _She_ of - silver. - - § 275. If a man hires a boat (?) to go upstream (?), its hire is 3 - _She_ of silver per day. - - § 276. If he hires a boat to float downstream, he shall pay as its - hire 2-1/2 _She_ of silver per day. - - § 277. If a man hires a boat of 60 _Gur_ burden, he shall pay 1/6 of a - shekel of money per day. - -There are no parallels to these laws in the Bible, as the Old Testament -does not attempt to regulate prices. When one considers the customs of -trade all over the Orient, and the time fruitlessly consumed in making -bargains, one does not wonder that the practical sovereign of a great -commercial people, such as the Babylonians were, should regulate prices by -law. As a rule, to this day, a purchaser begins by offering only a -fraction of what he is willing to give, and the seller by asking at least -twice as much as he is willing to take. A long psychological battle -follows, during which there are many victories and capitulations on each -side. This law was designed to put an end to this time-consuming custom. - -When the Sales of Slaves are Void - - § 278. If a man buys a male or a female slave and before a month is - past he has an attack of rheumatism (?), he shall return to the - seller, and the purchaser shall receive back the money that was paid. - - § 279. If a man buys a male or a female slave, and another has a legal - claim upon him, the seller shall be responsible for that claim. - - § 280. If a man, while in a foreign country, purchases a male or a - female slave of a man, and, when he returns home, the former owner of - the male or the female slave recognizes his slave, if that male or - female slave is a native of the land, he shall give it its freedom - without recompense. - - § 281. If they are natives of another country, the purchaser shall - declare in the presence of a god the price that he paid, and the - former owner of the male or female slave shall pay the price to the - merchant, and shall receive back his slave. - -No laws similar to these are found in the Old Testament. - -The Penalty for Renouncing a Master - - § 282. If a slave shall say to his owner: "Thou art not my owner," - they shall make him submit as his slave, and shall cut off his ear. - -This penalty reminds one of the boring of a slave's ear (Exod. 21:6; Deut. -15:17) in token of perpetual slavery. - -=2. The Mosaic Code not Borrowed from the Babylonian; Different Underlying -Conceptions.= - -A comparison of the code of Hammurapi as a whole with the Pentateuchal -laws as a whole, while it reveals certain similarities, convinces the -student that the laws of the Old Testament are in no essential way -dependent upon the Babylonian laws. Such resemblances as there are arose, -it seems clear, from a similarity of antecedents and of general -intellectual outlook; the striking differences show that there was no -direct borrowing. The primitive Semitic custom of an eye for an eye and a -tooth for a tooth (Exod. 21:24; Lev. 24:20; Deut. 19:21) is made the basis -of many penalties in the Babylonian code. (See §§ 196, 197, 200, 229, 230, -etc.) The principle underlying it is found also in many other sections. -These similarities only show that Babylonia had a large Semitic element in -its population. Again, Hammurapi pictured himself at the top of the pillar -on which these laws are written as receiving them from the sun-god (Fig. -292). The Bible tells us that Moses received the laws of the Pentateuch -from Jehovah. The whole attitude of the two documents is, however, -different. Hammurapi, in spite of the picture, takes credit, both in the -prologue and in the epilogue of his code, for the laws. He, not Shamash, -established justice in the land. Moses, on the other hand, was only the -instrument; the legislation stands as that of Jehovah himself. - -This difference appears also in the contents of the two codes. The -Pentateuch contains many ritual regulations and purely religious laws, -while the code of Hammurapi is purely civil. As has been already pointed -out, the code of Hammurapi is adapted to the land of the rivers, and to a -highly civilized commercial people, while the Biblical laws are intended -for a dry land like Palestine, and for an agricultural community that was -at a far less advanced stage of commercial and social development. - -Religion is, however, not a matter of social advancement only. In all that -pertains to religious insight the Pentateuch is far in advance of -Hammurapi's laws. - - - - -CHAPTER XIV - -AN ALLEGED PARALLEL TO LEVITICUS--A CARTHAGINIAN LAW CONCERNING -SACRIFICES[469] - - THE TEXT OF THE CARTHAGINIAN LAW. COMPARISON WITH THE LEVITICAL LAW. - - -=1. The Text of the Carthaginian Law.= - - Temple of Baal[zephon], Tar[iff of d]ues, which [the superintendents - of d]ues fixed in the time [of our rulers, Khalas]baal, the judge, son - of Bodtanith, son of Bod[eshmun, and of Khalasbaal], the judge, son of - Bodeshmun, son of Khalasbaal, and their colleagues. - - For an ox as a whole burnt-offering[470] or a prayer-offering, or a - whole peace-offering,[471] the priests shall have 10 (shekels) of - silver for each; and in case of a whole burnt-offering, they shall - have in addition to this fee [300 shekels of fle]sh; and, in case of a - prayer-offering, the trimmings, the joints; but the skin and the fit - of the inwards[472] and the feet and the rest of the flesh the owner - of the sacrifice shall have. - - For a calf whose horns are wanting, in case of one not castrated (?), - or in case of a ram as a whole burnt-offering, the priests shall have - 5 shekels of silver [for each; and in case of a whole burnt-offering - they shall have in addit]ion to this fee 150 shekels of flesh; and, in - case of a prayer-offering, the trimmings and the joints; but the skin - and the fat of the inwards and the fe[et and the rest of the flesh the - owner of the sacrifice shall have]. - - In case of a ram or a goat as a whole burnt-offering, or a - prayer-offering, or a whole peace-offering, the priests shall have 1 - shekel of silver and 2 _zars_ for each; and, in case of a - prayer-offering, they shall [have in addition to this fee the - trimmings] and the joints; but the skin and the fat of the inwards and - the feet and the rest of the flesh the owner of the sacrifice shall - have. - - For a lamb, or a kid, or the young (?) of a hart, as a whole - burnt-offering, or a prayer-offering, or a whole peace-offering, the - priests shall have 3/4 (of a shekel) and ...... _zars_ of silver [for - each; and, in case of a prayer-offering, they shall have in addition] - to this fee the trimmings and the joints; but the skin and the fat of - the inwards and the feet and the rest of the flesh the own[er of the - sacrifice] shall have. - - For a bird, domestic or wild, as a whole peace-offering, or a - sacrifice-to-avert-calamity (?) or an oracular (?) sacrifice, the - priests shall have 3/4 (of a shekel) of silver and 2 _zars_ for each; - but the f[lesh shall belong to the owner of the sacrifice]. - - For a bird, or sacred first-fruits, or a sacrifice of game, or a - sacrifice of oil, the priests shall have 10 _g_[_erahs_] for each; but - ...................... - - In case of every prayer-offering that is presented before the gods, - the priests shall have the trimmings and the joints; and in the case - of a prayer-offering .... - - For a cake, and for milk, and for every sacrifice which a man may - offer, for a meal-offering[473] .......... - - For every sacrifice which a man may offer who is poor in cattle, or - poor in birds, the priests shall not have anything .......... - - Every freeman and every slave and every dependent[474] of the gods and - all men who may sacrifice .........., these men [shall give] for the - sacrifice at the rate prescribed in the regulations .......... - - Every payment which is not prescribed in this table shall be made - according to the regulations which [the superintendents of the dues - fixed in the time of Khalasbaal, son of Bodtani]th, and Khalasbaal, - son of Bodeshmun, and their colleagues. - - Every priest who shall accept payment beyond what is prescribed in - this table shall be fi[ned] ............ - - Every person who sacrifices, who shall not give ............ for the - fee which .............. - -=2. Comparison with the Levitical Law.= - -This document is not earlier than the fourth or fifth century B. C. The -Carthaginians, from whom it comes, were an offshoot of the Phoenicians, -who were, in turn, descended from the Canaanites. They were accordingly of -kindred race to the Hebrews. One can, therefore, see from this document -something of how the Levitical institutions of Israel resembled and how -they differed from those of their kinsmen. It will be seen that the main -sacrifices bore the same names among both peoples. We find the "whole -burnt-offering," the "peace-offering," and the "meal-offering." The -Carthaginians had no "sin-offering," while among the Hebrews we find no -"prayer-offering." The ways of rewarding the priests also differed with -the two peoples. The Hebrews had no such regular tariff of priests' dues -as the Carthaginians, but parts of certain offerings and all of others -belonged to them. Leviticus assigns from the peace-offering the -"heave-thigh" and the "wave-breast" to the priests (Lev. 7:14, 34; Num. -5:9, 10; 31:29, 41). Meal- or flour-offerings belonged to the priests -(Lev. 5:13; 7:9, 10), as did the sin- and trespass-offerings (Lev. 6:18, -29; 7:9, 10). Of the burnt-offerings the priests had the skin (Lev. 7:8). - -The interesting thing is that in the ritual, as in the social laws, we -find that the heathen Semites had a considerable number of regulations -similar to those of the Hebrews. - - - - -CHAPTER XV - -SOME LETTERS FROM PALESTINE - - LETTERS OF RIB-ADDA OF GEBAL. OF EBED-HEPA OF JERUSALEM. THEIR LIGHT - ON CONDITIONS IN THE PERIOD OF THE EGYPTIAN DOMINATION OF PALESTINE. - - -Many of the El-Amarna[475] Letters were written from Palestine and -Phoenicia. Some scholars think these letters come from the Patriarchal -period; others hold that they are contemporary with the Hebrew conquest, -and give us additional information concerning it. Some of those who hold -this last view believe that the conquest of Palestine by the Hebrews was -not made all at once. They think that the tribes descended from Leah -entered the land before those descended from Rachel. Such scholars hold -that these letters give us contemporary evidence of the wars of the Leah -tribes. Whichever view one takes, the letters are most interesting, as -they open to us a previously unknown chapter in the history of Jerusalem. - -=1. Some Letters of Rib-Adda of Gebal.=[476] - -I[477] - - To the king, my lord, the king of the countries, speak, saying, - Rib-Adda, thy servant, the footstool of thy feet; at the feet of the - sun, my lord, eight times and seven times I prostrate myself. Again, - there is clear to the king, my lord, the deed of Ebed-Ashera, the dog, - when all the lands of the king, my lord, are made over unto him and - are subservient to his land. And now behold the city of Sumur has been - won over--a fold of my lord and a temple of his shrine--to him, and he - has encamped in the temple of my shrine and has opened the place of - the curse of my lord and won it. What is he, a man ......... and dog - that he should judge? Again, when men say in the presence of the king, - my lord: "Learn that Gebal is ..........," then know that he has not - taken Gebal ............... and it is difficult for the lands of the - king, my lord. Again, let the king, my lord, send his inspector who - may judge ................ and may protect the city of the king, my - lord. And I ........ and will serve my lord, the king of the lands. - And may my lord send people and let them bring whatever belongs to my - .............. into the presence of the king, my lord, and let not - that dog take anything that belongs to thy gods. And is it clear now - that he would take Gebal? See, Gebal is like Memphis, loyal to the - king. A second time, see Ebed-Ninib, the man whom I sent with Buhiya, - is a .......... So send unto thy servant. Again see, Ummahnu is a - maid-servant of the Baal-goddess of Gebal; her husband is Ishkur - .......... send! .......... - -(The tablet is broken off at this point.) - -II[478] - - To the king, my lord, my sun, say: Rib-Adda, thy servant; at the feet - of my lord, my sun-god, seven times and seven times I prostrate - myself. May the king, my lord, listen to the words of his faithful - servant! It is going very hard for me! The hostility has become - strong. The sons of Ebed-Ashera have become great in Amurru; theirs is - the whole land. The city of Sumur and the city of Irkata are left to - the princes. And behold in Sumur I am strong. When it was difficult - for the princes on account of the enmity, I left Gebal and ........ - Zimridda and .......... Yapa-Addi ........ with me. Behold, then wrote - the prince unto them; but they did not hearken unto him. And may the - king, my lord, hearken to the words of his faithful servant! Send aid - very quickly unto the city Sumur for its protection until the arrival - of the mercenaries of the king, the sun. And may the king, the sun, - drive out the enemy from his land. Again may the king, my lord, - hearken to the word of his servant and send men as guards to the city - of Sumur and to the city of Irkata, in case that all the guards flee - from Sumur. And may it seem good to my lord, the sun of the countries, - to give to me 20 pairs of horses. And may he send help very quickly to - the city of Sumur to guard it. All the guards who remain are in - straits and few are the men in the city. If mercenaries thou dost not - send, then there will be no city remaining to thee. If there are - mercenaries, we will take all the lands for the king. - -These letters mention a certain Ebed-Ashera and claim that his sons are -gaining possession of all the land of Amurru. If the "Ebed" were dropped -out of the phrase, "sons of Ebed-Ashera,"[479] there would remain "sons of -Ashera," or, "sons of Asher." The "land of Amurru," or, "land of the -Amorites," lay, at the time these letters were written, in the later home -of the tribe of Asher, and a little to the north of it, between the -Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon mountains. Some scholars hold that we have in -these letters references to the coming of the "sons of Asher," or the -tribe of Asher into this region, but it is a theory which in the present -state of our knowledge we can neither prove nor disprove. If it should -prove to be true, these tablets would reflect a part of the Hebrew -conquest of this region. - -=2. Letters of Ebed-Hepa of Jerusalem.= - -I[480] - - [To the king, my lord, speak, saying, E]bed-H[epa thy servant--at] the - feet [of the king, my lord,] seven times and seven times [I prostrate - myself]. Behold I am not a [prefect]; a vassal am I unto [the king, - my lord]. Why did not the king, [my lord], send a messenger [quickly]? - In similar circumstances sent Ienhamu .................. I. [May] the - king [hearken unto Ebed]-Hepa, his servant. [Behold] there are no - mercenaries. [May] the king, my lord, s[end a governor] and let him - take [the prefects] with him .......... lands of the king ......... - and people .......... who are .......... [and Addaya], the governor of - the king [has] their house .......... So may the king care for them - and send a messenger quickly. When .......... - -II[481] - - To the king, my lord, speak, saying, Ebed-Hepa, thy servant--at the - feet of my lord, the king, seven times and seven times I prostrate - myself. What have I done to the king, my lord? They slander and - misrepresent me before the king, my lord, [saying]: Ebed-Hepa is - disloyal to the king, his lord. Behold I--neither my father nor my - mother set me in this place; the arm of the mighty king caused me to - enter into the house of my father. Why should I commit rebellion - against the king, my lord? As long as the king, my lord, lives I will - say unto the governor of the king, my lord: "Why dost thou love the - Habiri and hate the prefects?" But thus he misrepresents me before the - king, my lord. Now I say, "Lost are the lands of the king, my lord." - So he misrepresents me to the king, my lord. But let the king, my - lord, know (that) after the king, my lord, set guards, Ienhamu took - them all .................... Egypt .......... of the king, my lord; - [there are no] guards there. Then may the king care for his land! May - the king care for his land! Separated are all the lands from the king. - Ilimilku has destroyed all the country of the king; so may the king, - my lord, care for his land! I say: "I will enter the presence of the - king, my lord, and I will behold the eye of the king, my lord," but - the enemy is more mighty than I, and I am not able to enter into the - presence of the king, my lord. So may it seem right to the king - .......... may he send guards, and I will enter in and will behold the - eyes of the king, my lord! And so long as the king, my lord, lives, so - long as the governors are withdrawn, I will say: "Perished are the - lands of the king." Thou dost not hearken to me! All the prefects have - perished; there is left no prefect to the king, my lord! May the king - turn his face toward mercenaries, so that there may come forth - mercenaries of the king, my lord. There are no lands left to the king, - my lord. The Habiri plunder all the countries of the king. If there - are mercenaries in this year, then there will be left countries of the - king, my lord. If there are no mercenaries, the countries of the king - will be lost. Unto the scribe of the king, my lord, saying: - "Ebed-Hepa, thy servant. Take beautiful words to the king, my lord! - Lost are all the lands of the king, my lord." - -III[482] - - [To the king, my lord, [speak,] saying, Eb]ed-Hepa, thy servant. [Unto - the feet] of my lord seven [times and seven times I prostrate myself]. - [I have heard all] the words [which the king, my lord,] has sent to me - .......... Behold the deed which .......... has done .......... Copper - .......... word ........ He has brought [into the city Keilah]. [Cf. - Josh. 15:44.] May the king know that all the lands are gone and there - is enmity against me. So may the king care for his land! Behold the - land of the city Gezer, the land of the city Askelon and the city of - Lakish have given them food, oil, and all kinds of herbs. So may the - king give attention to the mercenaries! May he send mercenaries - against the people who commit outrages against the king, my lord! If - there are in this year mercenaries, then there will remain lands and - prefects to the king, my lord. But if there are no mercenaries, there - will be no lands and prefects to the king. Behold this land of the - city of Jerusalem--neither my father nor my mother gave it to me; the - mighty hand, the arm of the king gave it to me. Behold this deed; it - is the deed of Malkiel and the deed of the sons of Labaya, who have - given the land of the king to the Habiri. Behold, O king, my lord, - right is on my side as regards the Kashi-people. Let the king ask the - governors whether that house is very mighty and they have committed a - grievous, a great sin; they have taken their weapons and have cut off - the horsemen (?) .......... And may he send into that land .......... - who .......... with .......... servants. May [the king] care for them - ................ the lands in their hands [and] may the king provide - for them much food, much oil, much clothing until Paru, the governor - of the king, comes up to the country of the city of Jerusalem. Gone is - Addaya, together with the guards of the vassals whom the king - appointed. Let the king know that Addaya said to me: "Behold, I am - going away; do not thou abandon it" (the city). This year send me men - as guards and a governor, O king! Send us .......... I have sent to - the king, my lord .........., people, five thousand .......... three - hundred and eighteen porters for the caravans of the king. They were - indeed captured in the fields near the city Aijalon. (Cf. Josh. - 10:12.) Let the king, my lord, know that I am not able to send a - caravan to the king, my lord. Indeed thou knowest it. Behold the king - has set his name in the country of the city of Jerusalem forever and - he ought not to abandon the lands of the city of Jerusalem. - - To the scribe of the king, my lord, has Ebed-Hepa, thy servant spoken, - saying: At the feet I, thy servant, prostrate myself. Take beautiful - words to the king, my lord! A vassal of the king am I, exceedingly - loyal (?) as regards thee. Also an evil deed has been done against me - by the men of Kashi. I was all but killed by the men of Kashi in my - house. May the king make investigation concerning them. Seven times - and seven times, O king, justice is on my side. - -IV[483] - - To the king, my lord, my sun-god, speak, saying, Ebed-Hepa, thy - servant. At the feet of the king, my lord, seven times and seven times - I prostrate myself. Behold the king, my lord, has set his name at the - rising of the sun and the setting of the sun. It is slander which they - have multiplied against me. Behold I am not a prefect; a vassal of the - king, my lord, am I. Behold I am a shepherd of the king and one who - brings tribute to the king, am I. Neither my father nor my mother, but - the arm of the mighty king set me in the house of my father ........ - There came unto me ....... I gave 10 slaves into his hand. Shuta, the - governor of the king, came unto me. Twenty-one female slaves and - eighty prisoners I gave into the hand of Shuta as a present to the - king, my lord. Let the king take counsel for his land! Lost is the - land of the king. All of it is taken from me. Enmity is against me. As - far as the lands of Seir and as far as Gath-Carmel there is peace - among all the prefects, but enmity against me is practised. When I - sent a man, then he said: "I do not see the eyes of the king, my lord, - for hostility is against me." I set once a ship on the sea when the - mighty arm of the king took Naharina and Kapasi, but, behold the - Habiri take the cities of the king. There is no prefect to the king, - my lord; all are lost. Behold Turbazu was killed in the city gate of - Zilû and the king is inactive! Behold Zimridda of Lakish; his servants - were enraged at him; he adhered to the Habiri. Yapti-Adda was killed - in the city gate of Zilû and there is no action! Concerning it the - king makes no inquiry! Let the king care for his land and let the king - turn his face to mercenaries for the land of tribute! For if there - are no mercenaries in this year, lost, perished are all the lands of - the king, my lord. Let not one say in the presence of the king, my - lord, that the land of the king, my lord, is lost and all the prefects - are lost. If there are no mercenaries in this year, then let the king - send a governor to bring me and my brothers unto thee and we will die - with the king, our lord. - - To the scribe of the king, my lord, saying, Ebed-Hepa, thy servant. At - thy feet I prostrate myself. Bring beautiful words to the king. - Emphatically thy servant and thy son am I. - -V[484] - - To the king, my lord, speak, saying, Ebed-Hepa, thy servant. At the - feet of my lord I prostrate myself seven times and seven times. Behold - Malkiel, he has not separated himself from the sons of Labaya and from - the sons of Arzaya that they may seek the hand of the king for - themselves. A prefect who has done this deed--why does not the king - call him to account? Behold Malkiel and Tagi--the deed which they have - done is this: formerly they took Rabuda and now they seek Jerusalem. - If this land belongs to the king, why is it oppressed? Gaza has sided - with the king. Behold the land of Gath-Carmel belongs to Tagi and the - people of Gath are on guard in Beth-shean, and verily it will happen - to us when Labaya and the land of Shechem have been given to the - Habiri. Malkiel has written to Tagi and his sons: "Let our two forces - grant all their desire to the people of Keilah." Shall we indeed throw - open Jerusalem? The guards, whom thou didst send by the hand of Haya, - son of Miare, Addaya took, stationing them in his house in Gaza and - twenty men has he sent to Egypt. Let the king know that there are no - royal guards with me! It is so as the king lives! Verily Puru is - beaten. He has gone from me and is in Gaza. May the king remember it - and may the king send fifty men as guards to protect the land! All the - lands of the king are in revolt. Send Yinhenhame and let him care for - the land of the king. To the scribe of the king, my lord, say: - Ebed-Hepa, thy servant. Beautiful words give to the king. Ever - emphatically am I thy servant. - -VI[485] - - To the king, my lord, speak, saying, Ebed-Hepa, thy servant. At the - feet of the king, my lord, seven times and seven times I prostrate - myself. Behold the deed which Malkiel and Shuardatu have done against - the country of the king, my lord! They have won over the soldiers of - Gezer, the soldiers of Gath, and the soldiers of Keilah; they have - seized the country of the city of Rubute. The country of the king is - fallen away to the Habiri. And now also a city of the country of - Jerusalem (its name is Beth-shemesh),[486] a city of the king, has - gone over to the men of Keilah. May the king hearken unto Ebed-Hepa, - thy servant, and send mercenaries that the land of the king may remain - unto the king. If there are no mercenaries, lost is the land of the - king to the Habiri. This is the deed which Malkiel and Shuardatu have - done .......... May the king care for his land! - -=3. Their Light upon Conditions in the Period of the Egyptian Domination -of Palestine.= - -These letters are among the most interesting of the many fascinating -documents which have come to us from ancient times. They give us our -first historical glimpse of Jerusalem, giving us a view of it 350 years -before its capture by David. At this time its ruler was one Ebed-Hepa, a -vassal of Amenophis IV, King of Egypt. Jerusalem was at the time the -capital of a considerable territory. If the places mentioned have been -rightly identified by scholars, its dominion extended to Mount Carmel on -the northwest and as far as Rabbith in Issachar on the north. At the time -these letters were written, Jerusalem was hard pressed by some invaders -called Habiri, and Ebed-Hepa again and again appeals to the Egyptian king -to send mercenaries in that year or all the territories of the king would -be lost. Already the Egyptian army was composed in part of hired soldiers. -We know from Egyptian sources that Amenophis was much more interested in -religious reform than in statecraft. The desired troops were not sent, and -apparently Ebed-Hepa was overcome, for his letters cease. - -The condition of Palestine, as revealed by these letters, is the same as -that of Phoenicia as revealed by the letters of Rib-Adda. Egyptian -authority was breaking up; each ruler was doing his best to look after his -own interests; while invaders were overrunning the country. - -Who was Ebed-Hepa? All that we know of him is told in these letters. Hepa -was, however, the name of a Hittite and Mitannian goddess. It has, -accordingly, been inferred that Ebed-Hepa belonged to that race. Ezekiel -long afterward in speaking to Jerusalem said: "The Amorite was thy father -and thy mother was a Hittite" (Ezek. 16:3, 45). If this first ruler of -Jerusalem known to us was a Hittite, as seems probable, it would be a -striking confirmation of Ezekiel's statement. Another interesting question -is: Who were the Habiri who were invading Palestine when these letters -were written? The answer to this question is not certain. Four different -views have been held: - -1. They have been thought to be the same as the clan Heber which was -afterward a part of the tribe of Asher, and which is also mentioned in -connection with Malkiel in Gen. 46:17; Num. 26:45, and 1 Chron. 7:31. The -objection to this view is that the Habiri seem far too powerful in these -letters to be simply the ancestors of such a clan. - -2. It has been held that the Habiri were a branch of the Hittites. This -view is based upon the fact that among the tablets found by Winckler at -Boghaz Koi a list of Hittite gods was headed "gods of the Habiri." This -is, however, not decisive, as the gods may have been Semitic gods, whom, -after the fashion of antiquity, the Hittite scribe had identified with the -deities of his own country. - -3. It has been held that the Habiri were Hebrews, and that we have here -contemporary records of their wars of conquest. - -4. Some scholars maintain that it is impossible to tell who the Habiri -were. - -The writer is inclined to hold that the Habiri were Hebrews, though this -view is not without difficulty. The indications of the book of Exodus -point to Ramses II as the Pharaoh of the oppression and to Merneptah as -the Pharaoh of the Exodus. These kings belonged to the nineteenth dynasty, -while Amenophis IV, to whom Ebed-Hepa wrote his letters, belonged to the -eighteenth. How then could Hebrews be already in Palestine struggling to -conquer it? The view has been held by a number of scholars that the Hebrew -conquest took place in two parts, one of which was under the eighteenth -and the other under the nineteenth dynasty. The view is not without its -difficulties, but it _may_ prove to be true. If the Habiri were Hebrews, -it seems necessary to suppose that it is true. Perhaps further discovery -will throw more light upon it. - -The following letter, found in 1892 at Tell el-Hesy (Lachish) in -Palestine, belongs to the same period as the preceding letters.[487] - - To the chief officer speak, saying: Pabi--at thy feet I prostrate - myself. Thou shouldst know that Shiptibaal and Zimrida are conspiring - together and Shiptibaal has said to Zimrida: "My father of the city - Yarami has written to me: 'Give me six bows and three daggers and - three swords. If I go out against the land of the king and thou wilt - be the breath of life to me, then I shall surely (?) be superior to it - and shall subdue it.' He who makes this plan is Pabu, so send him to - me." Now I have sent thee Raphiel. He will bring to the chief officer - news of this matter. - -Another letter from Taanach belongs to the same general period. It is one -of four found by Sellin in 1903. It is as follows:[488] - - To Ishtarwashur speak, saying, Ahijah[489]--may the lord of the gods - protect thy life! Thou art my brother and love is in thy bowels and in - my heart. When I was detained in Gurra a workman gave to me two knives - and a lance and two baskets (?) for nothing. As the lance was broken, - he will repair it and send it by the hand of Buritpi. Again: is there - lamentation over thy cities, or hast thou indeed put thyself in - possession of them? Over my head is one who is over the cities. Now - let us see whether he will do good to thee. If his countenance is - favorable there will be great destruction. Further: let Ilurabi enter - Rahab and either send my man to thy presence or give him protection. - -This letter is chiefly interesting for the name _Ahi-ya-mi_, which is -probably the Babylonian equivalent of Ahijah or Ahi-Yahweh. If this is so, -and, while not certain, there is considerable collateral evidence in its -favor,[490] the divine name, Yahweh (Jehovah), was already known in -Palestine. - -Another phrase in this letter which has recalled to some a Biblical phrase -is "the lord of the gods." This has been compared with Baal-berith (_i. -e._, lord of the covenant), Judges 9:4, who is later called El-berith (god -of the covenant), Judges 9:46. Such a comparison is, however, somewhat -fanciful. - - - - -CHAPTER XVI - -DOCUMENTS FROM THE TIME OF ISRAEL'S JUDGES - - REPORT OF WENAMON. ITS ILLUSTRATION OF CERTAIN POINTS OF BIBLICAL - HISTORY ABOUT THE TIME OF DEBORAH OR GIDEON. REFERENCE TO THE - PHILISTINES. - - -The following vivid story of adventure dates from about 1100 B. C. and -throws a vivid light on the condition of the coast-lands of Palestine and -Phoenicia about the middle of the period of the Judges. - -=1. Report of Wenamon.=[491] - - Year five, third month of the third season (eleventh month), day 16, - day of departure of the "eldest of the hall," of the house of Amon, - the lord of the lands, Wenamon, to bring the timber for the great and - august barge of Amon-Re, king of the gods, which is on the river - .......... called: "Userhet" of Amon. - - On the day of my arrival at Tanis at the palace of Nesubenebded and - Tentamon, I gave to them the writings of Amon-Re, king of the gods, - which they caused to be read in their presence; and they said: "I will - do it, I will do it according to that which Amon-Re, king of our gods, - our lord, saith." I abode until the fourth month of the third season, - being in Tanis. - - Nesubenebded and Tentamon sent me with the ship-captain, Mengebet, and - I descended into the great Syrian sea, in the fourth month of the - third season, on the first day. I arrived at Dor, a city of Thekel [a - people kindred to the Philistines], and Bedel, its king, caused to be - brought for me much bread, a jar of wine, and a joint of beef. - - Then a man of my ship fled, having stolen: - - .. [vessels] of gold, [amounting to] 5 deben - 4 vessels of silver, amounting to 20 deben - a sack of silver 11 deben - -- - [Total of what] he [stole] 5 deben of gold. - 31 deben of silver. - - In the morning then I rose and went to the abode of the prince, and - said to him: "I have been robbed in thy harbor. Since thou art the - king of this land, thou art therefore its investigator, who should - search for my money. For the money belongs to Amon-Re, king of the - gods, lord of the lands; it belongs to Nesubenebded, and it belongs to - Hrihor, my lord, and the other magnates of Egypt; it belongs also to - Weret, and to Mekmel, and to Zakar-Baal, the prince of Byblos" - [Gebal]. He said to me: "To thy honor and thy excellence! but, behold, - I know nothing of this complaint which thou hast lodged with me. If - the thief belonged to my land, he who went on board thy ship, that he - might steal thy treasure, I would repay it to thee from my treasury - till they find thy thief by name; but the thief who robbed thee - belongs to thy ship. Tarry a few days here with me, and I will seek - him." When I had spent nine days moored in his harbor, I went to him - and said to him: "Behold, thou hast not found my money, therefore let - me depart with the ship-captain, and with those who go .......... the - sea. He said to me: "Be silent .............." .......... the harbor - ................ [I arrived at] Tyre. I went forth from Tyre at early - dawn .......... Zakar-Baal, the prince of Byblos [Gebal]. - - .......... the .......... I found 30 deben of silver therein. I seized - it, [saying to them: "I will take] your money, and it shall remain - with me until ye find [my money. Was it not a man of Thekel] who stole - it, and no thief [of ours]? I will take it .......... They went away, - while I .................. [I] arrived .......... the harbor of Byblos - [Gebal]. [I made a place of concealment, I hid] "Amon-the-way," and I - placed his things in it. The prince of Byblos sent to me, saying: - "Betake thyself from my harbor." I sent to him, saying, - "................ if they sail, let them take me to Egypt." .......... - I spent nineteen days in his harbor and he continually sent to me - daily, saying: "Betake thyself from my harbor." - - Now, when he sacrificed to his gods ......., the god seized one of his - noble youths, making him frenzied, so that he said: "Bring [the god] - hither! Bring the messenger of Amon who hath him. Send him and let him - go." - - Now, while the frenzied youth continued in frenzy during this night, I - found a ship bound for Egypt, and I loaded all my belongings into it. - I waited for the darkness, saying: "When it descends, I will embark - the god also, in order that no other eye may see him." - - The harbor-master came to me, saying: "Remain until morning by the - prince." I said to him: "Art not thou he who continually came to me - daily, saying, 'Betake thyself away from my harbor'? Dost thou not - say, 'Remain in the [land'], in order to let depart the ship that I - have found? thou that mayest come and say again, 'Away'? He went and - told it to the prince, and the prince sent to the captain of the ship, - saying: 'Remain until morning by the king.'" - - When morning came he sent and had me brought up, when the divine - offering occurred in the fortress where he was, on the shore of the - sea. I found him sitting in his upper chamber, leaning his back - against a window, while the waves of the great Syrian sea beat against - the ........ behind him. I said to him: "Kindness of Amon!" He said to - me: "How long is it until this day since thou camest away from the - abode of Amon?" I said: "Five months and one day until now." - - He said to me: "Behold thou art true, where is the writing of Amon, - which is in thy hand? Where is the letter of the High Priest of Amon, - which is in thy hand?" I said to him: "I gave them to Nesubenebded and - Tentamon." Then he was very wroth, and he said to me: "Now, behold, - the writing and the letter are not in thy hand! Where is the ship of - cedar which Nesubenebded gave to thee? Where is its Syrian crew? He - would not deliver thy business to this ship-captain ........ to have - thee killed, that they might cast thee into the sea. From whom would - they have sought the god then? And thee, from whom would they have - sought thee then?" So he spake to me. I said to him: "There are indeed - Egyptian ships and Egyptian crews who sail under Nesubenebded, (but) - he hath no Syrian crews." He said to me: "There are surely twenty - ships here in my harbor, which are in connection with Nesubenebded; - and at Sidon, whither thou wouldst go, there are indeed 10,000 ships - also which are in connection with Berket-el and sail to his house." - - Then I was silent in this great hour. He answered and said to me: "On - what business hast thou come hither?" I said to him: "I have come - after the timber of the great and august barge of Amon-Re, king of - gods. Thy father did it, thy grandfather did it, and thou wilt also do - it." So spake I to him. - - He said to me: "They did it, truly. If thou give me (something) for - doing it, I will do it. Indeed my agents transacted the business; the - Pharaoh, ...... sent six ships, laden with the products of Egypt, and - they were unloaded in their storehouses. And thou also shalt bring - something for me." He had the journal of his fathers brought in, and - he had them read it before me. They found 1,000 deben of every (kind - of) silver, which was in his book. - - He said to me: "If the ruler of Egypt were the owner of my property, - and I were also his servant, he would not send silver and gold, - saying: 'Do the command of Amon.' It was not the payment of tribute - which they exacted of my father. As for me, I am myself neither thy - servant nor am I the servant of him that sent thee. If I cry out to - the Lebanon, the heavens open, and the logs lie here on the shore of - the sea." - -A long speech of Wenamon follows, in which he claims Egypt as the home of -civilization, and claims Lebanon for Amon. He then continues: - - "Let my scribe be brought to me, that I may send him to Nesubenebded - and Tentamon, the rulers whom Amon hath given to the north of his - land, and they will send all that of which I shall write unto them, - saying: 'Let it be brought,' until I return to the south and send thee - all thy trifles again." So spake I to him. - - He gave my letter into the hand of his messenger. He loaded in the - keel, the head of the bow and the head of the stern, with four other - hewn timbers, together seven; and he had them taken to Egypt. His - messenger went to Egypt, and returned to me, to Syria in the first - month of the second season. Nesubenebded and Tentamon sent: - - Gold: 4 _Tb_-vessels, 1 _K'k-mn_-vessel; - Silver: 5 _Tb_-vessels; - Royal linen: 10 garments, 10 _hm-hrd_; - Papyrus: 500 rolls; - Ox-hides: 500; - Rope: 500 (coils); - Lentils: 20 measures; - Fish: 30 measures; - She[492] sent me: - Linen 5 ......, 5 _hm-hrd_; - Lentils: 1 measure; - Fish: 5 measures. - - The prince rejoiced, and detailed 300 men and 300 oxen, placing - overseers over them, to have the trees felled. They spent the second - season therewith .... In the third month of the second season (seventh - month) they dragged them [to] the shore of the sea. The prince came - forth and stood by them. - - He sent to me, saying: "Come." Now, when I had presented myself before - him, the shadow of his sunshade fell upon me. Penamon, a butler, he - stepped between us, saying: "The shadow of Pharaoh ........, thy lord, - falls upon thee." He was angry with him, saying: "Let him alone!" I - presented myself before him, and he answered and said unto me: "Behold - the command which my fathers formerly executed, I have executed, - although thou for thy part hast not done for me that which thy fathers - did for me. Behold there has arrived the last of thy timber, and there - it lies. Do according to my desire and come to load it, for they will - indeed give it to thee." - - "Come not to contemplate the terror of the sea, (but) if thou dost - contemplate the terror of the sea, thou shalt (also) contemplate mine - own. Indeed I have not done to thee that which they did to the - messengers of Khamwese, when they spent seventeen years in this land. - They died in their place." He said to his butler; "Take him, and let - him see their tomb, wherein they sleep." - - I said to him: "Let me not see it! As for Khamwese, (mere) people were - the messengers whom he sent unto thee; but people ......... there was - no [god among] his messengers. And yet thou sayest, 'Go and see thy - companions.' Lo, art thou not glad? and dost thou not have made for - thee a tablet, whereon thou sayest: 'Amon-Re, king of gods, sent to me - "Amon-the-way," his [divine] messenger, and Wenamon, his human - messenger, after the timber for the great and august barge of Amon-Re, - king of gods? I felled it, I loaded it, I supplied him (with) my ships - and my crews, I brought them to Egypt, to beseech for me 10,000 years - of life from Amon, more than my ordained (life), and it came to pass.' - Then in future days when a messenger comes from the land of Egypt, who - is able to write, and reads thy name upon the stela, thou shalt - receive water in the west, like the gods who are there." He said to - me: "It is a great testimony which thou tellest me." - - I said to him: "As for the many things which thou hast said to me, - when I reach the place of the abode of the High Priest of Amon, and he - shall see thy command in thy command, [he] will have something - delivered to thee." - - I went to the shore of the sea, to the place where the timbers lay; I - spied eleven ships, coming from the sea, belonging to the Thekel, - saying: "Arrest him! Let not a ship of his pass to Egypt!" I sat down - and began to weep. The letter-scribe of the prince came out to me, and - said to me: "What is the matter with thee?" I said to him: "Surely - thou seest these birds which twice descend upon Egypt. Behold them! - They come to the pool, and how long shall I be here, forsaken? For - thou seest surely those who come to arrest me again." - - He went and told it to the prince. The prince began to weep at the - evil words which they spoke to him. He sent out his letter-scribe to - me and brought me two jars of wine and a ram. He sent to me Tento, an - Egyptian singer (feminine), who was with him, saying: "Sing for him; - let not his heart feel apprehension." He sent to me, saying: "Eat, - drink, and let not thy heart feel apprehension. Thou shalt hear all - that I have to say unto thee in the morning." - - Morning came, he had (the Thekel) called into his ......., he stood in - their midst and said to the Thekel: "Why have ye come?" They said to - him: "We have come after the stove-up ships which thou sendest to - Egypt with our ...... comrades." He said to them: "I cannot arrest the - messenger of Amon in my land. Let me send him away, and ye shall - pursue him, to arrest him." - - He loaded me on board, he sent me away ..... to the harbor of the sea. - The wind drove me to the land of Alasa [Cyprus]; those of the city - came forth to me to slay me. I was brought among them to the abode of - Heteb, the queen of the city. I found her as she was going forth from - her houses and entering into her other [house]. I saluted her, I asked - the people who stood about her: "There is surely one among you who - understands Egyptian?" One among them said: "I understand (it)." I - said to him: "Say to my mistress: 'I have heard as far as Thebes, the - abode of Amon, that in every city injustice is done, but that justice - is done in the land of Alasa; (but), lo, injustice is done every day - here.'" She said: "Indeed! what is this that thou sayest?" I said to - her: "If the sea raged and the wind drove me to land where I am, thou - wilt not let them take advantage of me to slay me, I being a messenger - of Amon. I am one whom they will seek unceasingly. As for the crew of - the prince of Byblos whom they sought to kill, their lord will surely - find ten crews of thine, and he will slay them on his part." She had - the people called and stationed (before her); she said to me: "Pass - the night .........." - -Here the papyrus, which contains this vivid personal narrative of travel, -is broken off and the rest of the story is lost. We may be sure that -Wenamon escaped from Cyprus and succeeded in reaching Egypt again, or the -story would never have been told. - -=2. Its Illustration of Certain Points of Biblical History.= - -The story illustrates well a number of points in Biblical history. This -adventure was approximately contemporary with the career of Deborah or of -Gideon. It shows that the city of Dor, which was situated on the coast -just south of Mount Carmel, was in the possession of a tribe kindred to -the Philistines, who soon afterward appear in Biblical history. We also -learn from it that Egyptian authority in Palestine and Phoenicia, which -was at the time of the El-Amarna letters so rapidly decaying, had entirely -disappeared. Zakar-Baal stoutly asserts his independence, while the king -of the Thekel is evidently quite independent of Egypt. The way in which -these petty kingdoms deal with one another is quite after the manner of -the international relations reflected in the book of Judges. The -expedition of Wenamon to the Lebanon for cedar wood illustrates the way -Solomon obtained cedar for the temple. - -Lastly, the way one of the noble youths became frenzied and prophesied, is -quite parallel to the way in which Saul "stripped off his clothes and -prophesied ...... and lay down naked all that day and all that night" (1 -Sam. 19:24). The heed which Zakar-Baal gave to this youth shows that at -Gebal, as in Israel, such ecstatic or frenzied utterances were thought to -be of divine origin. Later in Israel this sort of prophecy became a kind -of profession, or trade. The members of these prophetic guilds were called -"sons of the prophets." The great literary prophets of Israel had nothing -to do with them. Amos is careful to say that he is not a "son of a -prophet" (Amos 7:14). - -=3. Reference to the Philistines.= - -Ramses III in his inscriptions makes the following statements:[493] - - "The northern countries are unquiet in their limbs, even the Peleset - [Philistines], the Thekel, who devastate their land - ................... O my august father [_i. e._, the god Amon] come to - take them, being: the Peleset, the Denyen [Dardanians], and the - Shekelesh [Sicilians] ............ - - Utterance of the vanquished Peleset: "Give to us the breath for our - nostrils, O king, son of Amon." - -The Peleset are undoubtedly the same people who appear in the Bible as the -Philistines. Ramses III, of the twentieth dynasty, from whose inscriptions -the above quotations are taken, reigned from 1198-1167 B. C. In his reign -the Philistines were coming over the sea and invading northern Egypt along -with other wanderers from different parts of the Mediterranean, the -Thekel, the Danaoi, and the Sicilians. Upon being repelled from Egypt by -Ramses, they passed on and invaded Palestine. As the report of Wenamon -shows, the Thekel were in possession of Dor by the year 1100, and no doubt -the Philistines had gained a foothold also in the cities farther to the -south, where we find them in the Biblical records (Judges 13-16; 1 Sam. -4-7; 13, 14; 17, 18, etc.). - -Amos says the Philistines came from Caphtor (Amos 9:7). This has long been -supposed to be Crete. Eduard Meyer thinks that confirmation of this has -now been found. A disc inscribed in a peculiar writing, which has not yet -been deciphered, was found in July, 1908, at Phæstos in Crete in strata of -the third middle Minoan period, _i. e._, about 1600 B. C.[494] This -writing is pictographic, and although not yet translated, appears to be a -contract.[495] One of the frequently recurring signs represents a human -head surmounted by a shock of hair (see Fig. 38), almost exactly like the -hair of the Philistines as they are pictured by the artists of Ramses III -on the walls of his palace at Medinet Habu (see Fig. 36). This sign was -probably the determinative for man. This likeness would make the proof of -the Cretan origin of the Philistines complete, were it not that some -scholars think that the disc exhumed at Phæstos had been brought thither -from across the sea. This is possible, but does not seem very probable. -The doubt will, perhaps, be resolved when we learn to read the -inscription. - - - - -CHAPTER XVII - -ARCHÆOLOGICAL LIGHT ON THE BOOKS OF KINGS - - GUDEA AND CEDAR-WOOD FOR HIS PALACE. THE EPONYM CANON. THE SEAL OF - SHEMA. SHISHAK'S LIST OF CONQUERED ASIATIC CITIES. ASHURNASIRPAL'S - DESCRIPTION OF HIS EXPEDITION TO MEDITERRANEAN LANDS. SHALMANESER - III'S CLAIMS REGARDING TRIBUTE FROM THE KINGS OF ISRAEL. THE MOABITE - STONE. ADADNIRARI IV'S MENTION OF THE "LAND OF OMRI." INSCRIPTION - DESCRIBING TIGLATHPILESER IV'S CAMPAIGN. SARGON'S CONQUESTS. - SENNACHERIB'S WESTERN CAMPAIGNS. THE SILOAM INSCRIPTION. ESARHADDON'S - LIST OF CONQUERED KINGS. ASHURBANIPAL'S ASSYRIAN CAMPAIGN. NECHO OF - EGYPT. NEBUCHADREZZAR II. EVIL-MERODACH. DISCOVERIES IN SHEBA. - - -=1. Gudea and Cedar-Wood for His Palace.= - -Gudea, a ruler of Lagash in Babylonia (the modern Telloh; see p. 45), who -lived about 2450 B. C., rebuilt Eninnû, the temple of Ningirsu, at Lagash. -In his account of the work he makes the following statement:[496] - - From Amanus, the mountain of cedar, cedar wood, the length of which - was 60 cubits, cedar-wood, the length of which was 50 cubits, - _ukarinnu_-wood, the length of which was 25 cubits, for the dwelling - he made; (from) their mountain they were brought. - -The Amanus mountains lay along the Mediterranean to the north of the river -Orontes. They belong to the same general range as the Lebanons. Again, in -the same inscription, Gudea says:[497] - - From Umanu, the mountain of Menua, from Basalla, the mountain of the - Amorites, great cut stones he brought; into pillars he made them and - in the court of Eninnû he erected them. From Tidanu, the mountain of - the Amorites, marble in fragments (?) he brought. - -This passage shows that a ruler of Babylonia came to this region for -cedar-wood and stones for his temple, as Solomon is said to have done (1 -Kings 5, especially vs. 6 and 17; 2 Chron. 2:8, ff.). That Egyptian rulers -did the same is clearly shown by the report of Wenamon. (See p. 352, ff.) - -=2. The Eponym Canon.= - -The Assyrians kept chronological lists called by scholars "Eponym Canons," -which are of great importance in determining the chronology of Hebrew -history at a number of obscure points. A translation of them has not been -included in this work, since so few Biblical names occur in them that they -would be of little use except to experts. Any who wish to consult them -will find them translated in Rogers, _Cuneiform Parallels to the Old -Testament_, pp. 219-238. - -=3. Jeroboam.= - -During Schumacher's excavation at Megiddo (see p. 96), a seal was found in -the palace; it is shown in Fig. 27. Its inscription reads: - - Belonging to Shema, servant of Jeroboam. - -We have no means of knowing whether the Jeroboam referred to was Jeroboam -I (1 Kings 12:12, ff.), or Jeroboam II (2 Kings 14:23, ff.). - -=4. Shishak.= - -Sheshonk I (954-924 B. C.), the founder of the twenty-second Egyptian -dynasty, the Shishak of the Bible (1 Kings 14:25-28), has left on the -walls of a pylon which he erected at the temple of Karnak a relief -picturing his victory. The pictures are of the conventional type, but they -are accompanied by a list of conquered Asiatic cities. Of these the names -of about one-hundred and twenty are legible, though it is possible to -identify but a small proportion of these with known localities. As it -would be of no interest to the general reader to place before him the -Egyptian spelling of unidentified place names, only those are here given -which have been identified or have some Biblical interest. The numbers -before each name designate its distance from the beginning of Sheshonk's -list. Among his conquered towns, then, are the following:[498] - - 11. _Gimty_ = Gath. 13. _Rub'ty_ = Rabbith (Josh. 19:20). 14. _T''nqy_ - = Taanach (Josh. 12:21; Judges 5:19). 15. _Sh'nm'y_ = Shunem (Josh. - 19:18; 2 Kings 4:8). 16. _B'tysh'nry_ = Beth-shean (Josh. 17:11; 1 - Sam. 31:10; 1 Kings 4:12). 17. _Rwh'b'iy_ = Rehob (Judges 1:31). 18. - _H'pwrwmy_ = Haphraim (Josh. 19:19). 22. _Myh'nm'_ = Mahanaim (Gen. - 32:2; Josh. 13:26; 2 Sam. 2:8; 17:24). _Q-b'-''-n'_ = Gibeon (Josh. - 10:1, f.). 24. _B'tyhwr'rwn_ = Beth-horon (Josh. 10:10; 1 Sam. 13:18). - 26. _Iywrwn_ = Aijalon (Josh. 10:12; 19:42). 27. _Myqdyw_ = Megiddo - (Josh. 12:21; Judges 1:27). 28. _Idyrw'_ = Edrei (Num. 21:33; Deut. - 1:4; Josh. 12:4). 32. _''rin'_ = Elon (Josh. 19:43). 38. _Sh'wka_ = - Soco (2 Chron. 11:7; 28:18). 39. _B'tylpwh_ = Beth-tapuah (Josh. - 15:53). 57. _Dymrwm_ = Zemaraim (Josh. 18:22). 58. [_M_]_gdrw_ = - Madgala (Matt. 15:39 A. V.). 71, 72. _P'hwqrw' 'b'r'm_ = The field of - Abram. 100. _Iwdri'_ = Addar (?) (Josh. 15:3). 124. _B'ty'nt_ = - Beth-anoth (?) (Josh. 15:59). - -According to 1 Kings 14:25, ff., Sheshonk's campaign was directed against -Judah, and there is no hint that the northern kingdom suffered too. This -may be because the interest of the author of Kings in the house of David -and in Jerusalem was greater than his interest in the north. It is clear -from the list of places just quoted that Sheshonk conquered both kingdoms. -He either took or received tribute from Megiddo, Taanach, Shunem, and -Beth-shean, cities in the great plain of Jezreel, but crossed the Jordan -and captured Mahanaim and Edrei. - -=5. Ashurnasirpal.= - -Ashurnasirpal, King of Assyria, 884-860 B. C., in describing his -expedition to the Mediterranean lands, makes the following statement:[499] - - At that time I marched along Mount Lebanon, unto the great sea of the - land of the Amorites I went up. In the great sea I cleansed my - weapons. I made sacrifices to the gods. The tribute of the kings by - the side of the sea, from the land of the Tyrian, the land of the - Sidonian, the land of the Gebalite, the land of the Mahallatite, the - land of the Maisite, the land of the Kaisite, the land of the Amorite, - and the city Arvad, which is in the midst of the sea; silver, gold, - lead, copper, copper vessels, garments of bright colored stuffs, - cloth, a great _pagutu_, a small _pagutu_, _ushu_-wood, - _ukarinnu_-wood, teeth of a sperm-whale porpoise, a creature of the - sea, as their tribute I received; they embraced my feet. To Mount - Amanus I ascended; beams of cedar, cypress, juniper, pine, I cut. - Sacrifices to my gods I offered. A pillar recording my warlike deeds I - set up. - -This inscription records the first approach of an Assyrian king to Hebrew -territory. He did not actually come into contact with the Israelites, -though he took tribute from their neighbors, the Tyrians and Sidonians. -The expedition of Ashurnasirpal was, however, the precursor of many others -which progressed further. - -Ashurnasirpal, like Gudea and Hrihor, secured wood from this region for -his buildings, thus affording another parallel to Solomon's procedure. - -=6. Shalmaneser III.= - -Shalmaneser III, the son and successor of Ashurnasirpal, reigned from 859 -to 825 B. C. He not only approached more closely to Palestine, but claims -to have taken tribute from her kings. In the case of King Jehu the claim -is no doubt true. The following extracts give the accounts in -Shalmaneser's own words.[500] - - In the eponym year of Dan-Ashur (_i. e._, 854 B. C.), month Aru, 14th - day, I departed from the city of Nineveh; I crossed the river Tigris - ....... to the city Qarqar I approached. Qarqar, his royal city, I - destroyed, I devastated, I burned with fire. 1,200 chariots, 1,200 - horsemen, 20,000 men of Hadadidri (Benhadad) of Damascus; 700 - chariots, 700 horsemen, 10,000 men of Irhulina, the Hamathite; 2,000 - chariots, 10,000 men of Ahab, the Israelite; 500 men of the Quæan (_i. - e._, Que, in Cilicia); 1,000 men of the Musræan; 10,000 chariots, - 10,000 men of the Irqantæan; 200 men of Matinu-ba'li, the Arvadite; - 200 men of the Usantæan; 30 chariots, 10,000 men of Adunu-ba'li, the - Shianian; 1,000 camels of Gindibu, the Arabian; 1,000 (?) men of Basa, - son of Ruhubi, the Ammonite--these 12 kings he took as his helpers and - they came to make battle and war against me. With the exalted power - which Ashur, the lord, had given me, with powerful weapons, which - Nergal, who goes before me, had presented me, I fought with them; from - Qarqar to Gilzan I accomplished their defeat. 14,000 of their troops I - overthrew with arms, like Adad I poured out a flood upon them; I flung - afar their corpses, I filled the plain with their mighty troops. With - weapons I made their blood to flow .......... The field was too narrow - for smiting (?) them, the broad plain (?) was used (?) for burying - their bodies. With their corpses I dammed the Orontes as with a dam - (?). In that battle their chariots, their horsemen, their horses, - harnesses, and yokes I took. - -It is of especial interest that Ahab and Benhadad, two kings well known -from the Bible, formed a part of the coalition that attempted to repel -this first Assyrian invasion. Shalmaneser's claim of victory is probably -exaggerated, for he retired without further effort to subdue the country. -Had it been as sweeping a triumph as he would have us believe, he would -surely have pressed forward. - -Another of his inscriptions describes the battle of Qarqar as -follows:[501] - - In the 6th year of my reign from Nineveh I set out .......... unto - Qarqar I approached. Hadadidri of Damascus, Irhulina, the Hamathite, - together with twelve kings of the sea-coast, trusted in their own - power and came to make war and fight with me. With them I fought. - 25,000 of their fighting men I destroyed with arms. Their chariots, - their horses, their implements of war I took from them. They fled to - save their lives. I embarked on a ship and went out to sea. - -Four years later Shalmaneser records the subjugation of Carchemish, on the -Euphrates (cf. Isa. 10:9; Jer. 46:2). His account of it is brief and runs -thus:[502] - - In the 10th year of my reign (850 B. C.), the river Euphrates I - crossed for the eighth time. The cities of Sangar, the Carchemishite, - I devastated, I destroyed I burned with fire. From the cities of - Carchemish I departed and approached the cities of Arame. - -The next year Shalmaneser again tried conclusions with the kings of the -west. His longer account of this runs as follows:[503] - - In the 11th year of my reign (849 B. C.) I set out from Nineveh. I - crossed the river Euphrates at high water for the ninth time - .......... At that time Hadadidri of Damascus, Irhulina the Hamathite, - together with twelve kings of the sea-coast, trusted to their own - power and to make war and battle with me they came. I fought with - them, I accomplished their defeat. 10,000 of their fighting men I slew - with arms. Their chariots, horsemen, and implements of war I took from - them. - -Shalmaneser's third campaign against these kings is thus described:[504] - - In the 14th year of my reign I mustered the broad land without number. - I crossed the Euphrates at high water with 120,000 troops. At that - time Hadadidri of Damascus and Irhulina, the Hamathite, together with - twelve kings of the sea-coast, upper and lower, mustered their - numerous armies without number and into my presence came. I fought - with them, I accomplished their defeat. I brought away their chariots - and horses, their implements of war I took from them; they fled to - save their lives. - -A fourth campaign another inscription describes thus:[505] - - In the 18th year of my reign (842 B. C.), I crossed the river - Euphrates for the sixteenth time. Hazael of Damascus (cf. 1 Kings - 19:15, 17; 2 Kings 8) trusted to the great numbers of his forces and - mustered his troops in large numbers. Saniru (_i. e._, Hermon, see - Deut. 3:9), a mountain-peak at the side of Mount Lebanon, he made his - fortress. I fought with him, I accomplished his defeat. 16,000 of his - fighting men I slew with arms. 1,121 of his chariots, 470 of his - horses with his camp I took from him. He fled to save his life. I - pursued him and in Damascus, his capital city, shut him up. I cut down - his parks. I marched to the mountains of Hauran. Cities innumerable I - destroyed, devastated, I burned with fire; their untold spoil I took - as plunder. To the mountain of Bilirasi,[506] a mountain at the head - of the sea, I marched. My royal portrait in it I set up. At that time - the tribute of the Tyrian, the Sidonian, and of Jehu, son of Omri, I - received. - -The tribute of Jehu of Israel, mentioned in the last line of this -inscription, is pictured on Shalmaneser's black obelisk; (see Figs. 295, -296). Above its various panels is the following inscription:[507] - - Tribute of Jehu, son of Omri: silver, gold, a bowl (?) of gold, a - basin (?) of gold, cups of gold, pails (?) of gold, bars of lead, - scepters (?) for the hand of the king and balsam wood I received from - him. - -A fifth expedition is thus briefly described:[508] - - In the 21st year of my reign (839 B. C.), the river Euphrates I - crossed, against the cities of Hazael of Damascus I went. Four of his - cities I captured. The tribute of the Tyrian, of the Sidonian, and of - the Gebalite I received. - -In still another inscription, which gives a summary of his wars, -Shalmaneser compresses the account of his various wars in the west as -follows:[509] - - At that time Hadadidri of the land of Damascus, together with 12 - princes, his helpers,--their defeat I accomplished. 29,000 mighty - warriors I prostrated like a simoom (?). The rest of his soldiers I - cast into the river Orontes. They fled to save their lives. Hadadidri - forsook his land. Hazael, son of a nobody, seized the throne. He - summoned his numerous soldiers and came to make war and battle with - me. With him I fought, I accomplished his defeat. The wall of his camp - I seized. He fled to save his life. I pursued him to Damascus, his - capital city. - -=7. The Moabite Stone.= - -This stone, which bears an inscription of Mesha, King of Moab, a -contemporary of King Ahab, was erected at Dibon (the modern Diban) on the -north shore of the Arnon, where it was found in the last century. The -upper portion of it was first seen by a Prussian clergyman, Rev. F. A. -Klein, in the year 1868. Reports of its existence had previously reached -the French scholar, Clermont-Ganneau, who was then in Jerusalem, and a -squeeze of it was afterward taken by an Arab for this French scholar. Both -the French and Prussian governments were desirous of obtaining it, and the -Arabs, conceiving that they could obtain more money for it by selling it -in parts, broke it up, thus greatly mutilating the inscription. Afterward -the French obtained it, putting the pieces together again, and it may now -be seen in the Louvre at Paris; (see Fig. 300). The inscription is as -follows:[510] - - I am Mesha, son of Chemoshmelek, King of Moab, the Dibonite. My father - ruled over Moab thirty years, and I ruled after my father. And I made - this high place to Chemosh in Qarhah (?) because of the deliverance - of Mesha, because he saved me from all the kings and because he caused - me to see [my desire] upon all who hated me. Omri, king of Israel--he - oppressed Moab many days, because Chemosh was angry with his land. And - his son succeeded him, and he also said I will oppress Moab. In my day - he spoke according to [this] word, but I saw [my desire] upon him and - upon his house, and Israel utterly perished forever. Now Omri had - possessed all the land of Medeba and dwelt in it his days and half the - days of his son, forty years, but Chemosh restored it in my day. And I - built Baal-meon and I made in it the reservoir (?), and I built - Kiryathaim. And the men of Gad had dwelt in the land of Ataroth from - of old and the king of Israel had built for himself Ataroth. And I - fought against the city and took it, and I slew all the people of the - city, a sight [pleasing] to Chemosh and to Moab. And I brought back - from there the altar-hearth of Duda and I dragged it before Chemosh in - Kiryoth. And I caused to dwell in it the men of Sharon (?) and the men - of Meharoth (?). And Chemosh said to me: "Go take Nebo against - Israel"; and I went by night and fought against it from break of dawn - till noon, and I took it and slew all, seven thousand men, boys (?), - and women, and girls, for I had devoted it to Ashtar-Chemosh. And I - took from there the altar-hearths of Yahweh (Jehovah), and I dragged - them before Chemosh. And the king of Israel built Jahaz and dwelt in - it while he fought with me and Chemosh drove him out from before me. - And I took from Moab two hundred men, all its chiefs, and I led them - against Jahaz and took it to add unto Dibon. And I built Qarhah (?), - the wall of the forests and the wall of the hill; and I built its - gates and I built its towers, and I built the king's house, and I made - the sluices (?) for the reservoir of water in the midst of the city. - And there was no cistern in the midst of the city, in Qarhah (?); and - I said to all the people: "Make you each a cistern in his house;" and - I cut the cuttings for Qarhah (?) with the help of the prisoners of - Israel. I built Aroer and I made the highway by the Arnon. And I built - Beth-bamoth, for it had been destroyed. And I built Bezer, for it was - in ruins .......... [Chi]efs of Dibon were fifty, for all Dibon was - obedient. And I ruled a hundred .........., in the cities which I had - added to the land. And I built [Mede]ba and Beth-diblathan. And [as - for] Beth-baal-meon, there I placed sheep-raisers ........... sheep of - the land. And [as for] Horonaim there dwelt in it ...... and - .......... Chemosh said unto me: "Go down, fight against Horonaim," - and I went down and ........... Chemosh in my day, and from there - .................... and I .......... - -The author of this inscription is the Mesha mentioned in 2 Kings 3:4. He -is there said to have been a "sheep-master" (Hebrew, _noqedh_). Mesha -appears to say in line 30 (the word is broken) that he placed _noqedhim_, -"sheep-raisers," or, "sheep-masters," in Beth-baal-meon. The _noqedh_ was -a raiser of a peculiar breed of sheep. Moab is excellent grazing land and -raised a great many. - -In general the inscription supplements the Biblical narrative. It mentions -persons and places well known from the Bible, and gives us an account of a -series of events of which the Bible makes no mention. The Biblical account -says nothing of Mesha's revolt, while Mesha in his turn says nothing of -the campaign described in 2 Kings 3. Neither document implies that the -events described in the other did not occur; the two are written from two -different points of view and their authors selected the events which -suited the purpose of the respective writers. In spite of this -consideration there are some differences of statement which are -perplexing. - -Mesha says in substance that Omri conquered Medeba and occupied it during -his reign, half the reign of his son, a period of forty years, but Chemosh -restored it to Moab in his (Mesha's) day. It is said in 2 Kings 3:5, on -the other hand, that "when Ahab was dead, the king of Moab rebelled -against the king of Israel." According to 1 Kings 16:23-29, Omri reigned -twelve years and Ahab twenty-two years. All the reign of Omri, and half of -that of Ahab would, accordingly, be but twenty-three years. It is -possible, however, as has been suggested by several scholars, that Mesha -uses the word son to denote descendant, and that he refers to the war with -Israel in the reign of Jehoram, son of Ahab, described in 2 Kings 3:6-27. -Another suggestion, which seems more probable, is that the recapture of -Medeba, mentioned near the beginning of Mesha's inscription, occurred -about the middle of the reign of Ahab, while the capture of Ataroth may -have belonged to the period of Jehoram, the whole time from Omri to -Jehoram being forty years. Some scholars have supposed that the Biblical -chronology is in error and that Omri and Ahab together ruled some fifty -years. This supposition can hardly be correct, since the general accuracy -of the chronology of this part of Kings is confirmed by the Assyrian -inscriptions. - -Mesha's inscription mentions a number of places which the Bible also -names, the Arnon (Num. 21:13, etc.; Deut. 2:24; 3:16, etc.), Aroer (Josh. -13:16), Ataroth (Num. 32:34), Baal-meon or Beth-baal-meon (Josh. 13:17; -Num. 32:38), Beth-bamoth[511] (Josh. 13:17), Beth-diblathaim (Jer. 48:22), -Bezer (Josh. 20:8), Dibon (Num. 32:34; Josh. 13:17; Isa. 15:2), Horonaim -(Isa. 15:5), Jahaz (Josh. 13:18; Isa. 15:4), Kerioth (Jer. 48:24), -Kirathaim (Josh. 13:19; Jer. 48:23), Medeba (Josh. 13:16; Isa. 15:2), and -Nebo (Num. 32:38; Deut. 34:1; Isa. 15:2). - -=8. Adadnirari IV.= - -Adadnirari IV of Assyria (810-782 B. C.) has left an inscription which -mentions Syria and Palestine. It reads as follows:[512] - - Palace of Adadnirari, the great king, the mighty king, the king of the - world, the king of Assyria, who conquered from the Euphrates, the - Hittite country, the Amorite land in its entirety; Tyre, Sidon, the - land of Omri, Edom, Palastu, to the coast of the great sea, where the - sun sets, cast themselves at my feet; I imposed tribute and imposts - upon them. To the land of Damascus I marched. Mari, King of Damascus, - in Damascus his royal city I besieged. The fear of the luster of Ashur - my lord overwhelmed him and he seized my feet and became subject. - 2,300 talents of silver, 20 talents of gold, 3,000 talents of copper, - 5,000 talents of iron, variegated garments, linen (?), an ivory bed, - an ivory couch (?) with inlaid border, his goods without measure I - received in the palace in his royal city Damascus. - -"The land of Omri" was the kingdom of Israel. Omri had made such an -impression on the East that the Assyrians still so called it. "Palastu" is -Philistia. Edom is here mentioned for the first time as paying tribute to -an Assyrian king, but Judah is not mentioned; she was still free. -Adadnirari was a contemporary of Jehoahaz and Jehoash of Israel, and of -Joash and Amaziah of Judah. - -=9. Tiglathpileser IV.= - -Tiglathpileser IV, one of the greatest of Assyria's kings, made several -campaigns into the west and had a profound influence upon the fortunes of -the Hebrew people. Unfortunately, his inscriptions have been greatly -mutilated. Esarhaddon, a later king, determined to remodel -Tiglathpileser's palace for his own use. Apparently he intended to erase -Tiglathpileser's inscriptions from the wall-tablets which adorned the -palace, in order to inscribe these tablets with his own. Esarhaddon died -before the work had progressed very far, so that the inscriptions were not -entirely ruined. The beginnings and ends of many lines are, however, -entirely destroyed, and at some points deplorable gaps exist in the body -of an inscription. Much that is of interest to the Biblical student can -still be made out, as the following translation will show:[513] - - 1. .............................. - - 2. [In] the progress of my expedition the tribute of ki[ngs] - .......... - - 3. ...... Azariah, the Yaudæan, like .......... - - 4. ...... Azariah of Yaudi in .......... - - 5. ........ without number exalted to heaven .......... - - 6. ...... in the eyes, when that which from heaven .......... - - 7. ........ by the onset of infantry .......... - - 8. [the advance] of my powerful [troops] they heard and [their hearts] - feared .......... - - 9. .......... I destroyed, devastated, burned with fire .......... - - 10. ...... who had joined with Azariah and had strengthened him. - - 11. ........... like vines ........... - - .................................. - - 23. ........... Azariah, the Yaudæan .......... my royal palace - ........... - - 24. ............... tribute like the [Assyrian I laid upon them.] - - ............................................ - - 30. ..................... the city Bumame,[514] 19 districts - - 31. of the city of Hamath, together with the cities of their environs - on the shore of the western sea, which sinfully and wrongfully they - had seized for Azariah, - - 32. unto the territory of Assyria I added. I set my officers over them - as governors. 30,000 men [I carried away captive] - - 33. ....... from their cities, in the city of Ku ...... I settled - them. 1,223 people I settled in the province of Ullubu. - - ............................................ - - 50. ....... Tribute of Kushtashpi, the Kummukhite, Rezin, the - Damascene, Menahem, the Samaritan, - - 51. Hiram, the Tyrian, Sibitti-baal, the Gebalite, Urikke, the Queite, - Pisiris of Carchemish, Eniel - - 52. the Hamathite, Panammu, the Samalite, Tarhulara, the Gamgumalite, - Sulumal, the Melidite, Dadilu, - - 53. the Kaskite, Ussurmi, the Tabalite, Ushkitti, the Tunite, Urballa, - the Tuhanite, Tuhammi, the Ishtundite, - - 54. Urimme, the Hushimnite, Zabibe, Queen of Arabia, gold, silver, - lead, iron, elephant-hide, ivory, - - 55. variegated garments, linen cloths, purple and red wool, - _ushu_-wood, _ukarinu_-wood, costly things, a royal treasure, fat - sheep whose wool - - 56. was dyed red, winged birds of heaven whose wings were dyed purple, - horses, mules, oxen and sheep, camels, - - 57. she-camels, together with their foals, I received. - -This account relates to the campaign of 738 B. C. The Azariah referred to -has been thought to be King Uzziah of Judah, who is called Azariah in 2 -Kings 14:21 and 15:1-27. It is probable that he was an Azariah of Yadi, of -northern Syria, mentioned in an inscription of Panammu, to whom -Tiglathpileser refers above, since the kings mentioned with him ruled in -the north. Manahem of Israel (2 Kings 15:14-23) yielded to Tiglathpileser, -as did Rezin, of Damascus (2 Kings 15:37 and 16:5-9), but for some reason -Azariah and Judah escaped. - -This inscription, fragmentary though it is, tells us that Tiglathpileser -now practised upon others the system of deportation from which Israel -herself afterward suffered. He forcibly removed thousands from their homes -to distant parts of the empire. This was an administrative measure, to -prevent future rebellion. Persons who had been influential at home among -their own people would be powerless to foment trouble in the midst of -strange surroundings and neighbors of an unfriendly race. - -The following relates to the campaign of 733-732:[515] - - 1. ................... his warriors I captured .......... I overthrew - with my weapons. - - 2. ......................................... before him. - - 3. the charioteers and .................... their weapons I broke. - - 4. the[ir chariots and] horses I seized .......... his bowmen - .......... - - 5. ............. who carried shields and spears my hands overthrew, - their battle - - 6. ............ to save his life he fled alone and - - 7. .............. like a mouse (?) entered the gate of his city. His - captains alive - - 8. [my hands captured and on] stakes I hung them and exhibited them to - his land. 45 people (?) from his camp - - 9. ...... I brought together before his city, and I shut him in like a - bird in a cage. His parks - - 10. ........ his orchards, which were without number, I cut down and - did not leave one. - - 11. .......... Hadara, the home of the father of Rezin of Damascus, - - 12. [the place where] he was born, I besieged, I captured. 800 people, - together with their possessions, - - 13. ...... their cattle, and sheep I took as spoil. 750 prisoners of - the city Kurussa, - - 14. ...... prisoners of the city Irma, 550 prisoners of the city - Mituna, I captured. 591 cities .......... - - 15. ...... of 16 districts of Damascus like a deluge heap I destroyed. - - ............................................ - - 19. .................... Hanno of Gaza[516] - - 20. fled before my weapons and escaped to Egypt. The city, Gaza, - - 21. [I captured. His goods], his possessions, his gods [I took as - spoil] ...... my royal image - - 22. .................... in the palace of [Hanno I set up]. - - ............................................ - - 27. The country of the house of Omri .......... all its people, - - 28. [and their possessions] I carried away unto Assyria. Pekah, their - king, they had overthrown. Hoshea - - 29. [as king] over them I placed. 10 talents of gold ...... talents of - silver I received as tribute from them. - - ............................................ - - 57. Tribute[517] of Kushtashpi, the Kummuchite, Urikki, the Queite, - Sibittibaal, the Gebalite, Pisiris, the Carchemishite, - - 58. Eni-el, the Hamathite, Panammu, the Samalite, Tarhulara, the - Gurgumite, Sulu[mal, the Melidite, Dadilu, the Kaskite], - - 59. Ussurmi, the Tabalite, Urassurme, the Tabalite, Ushhitti, the - Tunite, Urballa, the Turhanite, Tuhamm[e, the Ishtundite, Urimme, the - Hushimnite], - - 60. Matanbaal, the Arvadite, Sanipu, the Beth-Ammonite, Salamanu, the - Moabite, ............. - - 61. Mitinti, the Askelonite, Jehoahaz [Ahaz], the Judæan, Kaushmalaka, - the Edomite, Mus ............ - - 62. Hanno, the Gazaite, gold, silver, lead, iron, tin, variegated - garments, linen, red cloths of their lands, - - 63. every costly thing, products of sea and dry land produced by their - countries, royal treasures, horses, mules, harnesses ........ [I - received.] - -The record of this campaign, fragmentary as it is, shows how completely -Tiglathpileser conquered the west. He accomplished the overthrow of -Damascus, which his predecessors had been trying in vain to do for more -than a hundred years. His invasion of northern Israel led to the overthrow -of Pekah, and the deportation as captives to other parts of the empire of -numerous Israelites. This confirms 2 Kings 15:29, 30. It was this conquest -of Damascus and Israel that fulfilled Isaiah's prophecy given in 735 B. C. -(Isa. 7:16). It was while Tiglathpileser was at Damascus, receiving the -tribute, that Ahaz, whose full name was Jehoahaz, went to Damascus to -carry his tribute,--an act which prevented the invasion of Judah by -Assyria at this time. While Ahaz was in Damascus, he saw the altar of -which a copy was made for the temple in Jerusalem (2 Kings 16:10, ff.). -The list of kings from whom Tiglathpileser received tribute contains many -Biblical names. Not only Israel and Judah, but the Philistine cities, -Edom, Moab, Ammon, Damascus, Hamath, the Phoenician cities of Gebal and -Arvad, Samal in the extreme north of Syria, Que in Cilicia, and Carchemish -on the Euphrates, were all drawn into his net. - -=10. Sargon, 722-705 B. C.= - -Tiglathpileser IV was succeeded by Shalmaneser V, who ruled, as the eponym -canon shows, from 727 to 722 B. C. On account of a rebellion of Hoshea, -King of Israel, Shalmaneser overran his kingdom and besieged Samaria for -three years, as recorded in 2 Kings 17:3-5. Before the city fell, however, -Shalmaneser had passed away and Sargon, the founder of a new dynasty, was -on the throne of Assyria. In Sargon's first year Samaria fell into the -hands of the Assyrian army; Sargon counted this as his own victory and -tells of it in the following words:[518] - - At the beginning of my reign, in my first year ...... Samaria I - besieged, I captured. 27,290 people from its midst I carried captive. - 50 chariots I took there as an addition to my royal force .......... I - returned and made more than formerly to dwell. People from lands which - my hands had captured I settled in the midst. My officers over them as - governors I appointed. Tribute and taxes I imposed upon them after the - Assyrian manner. - -In another inscription the following summary account occurs:[519] - - From the beginning of my reign to my 15th year, the defeat of - Humbanigash, the Elamite, in the environs of Durilu I accomplished. - Samaria I besieged, I captured; I carried captive 27,290 people who - dwelt in it; 50 chariots I took from them, and permitted the rest to - keep their possessions (?), and placed my governor over them and - imposed on them the tribute of the former king. - -These statements confirm 2 Kings 17:6 and 24, ff. In one respect they -throw an interesting light upon the captivity of Israel. Only 27,290 -people were transported at this time. True, Tiglath-pileser IV had -previously transported the inhabitants of several towns of Galilee. (See 2 -Kings 15:29, and his inscriptions translated above.) When we put together -all those who were deported, however, they were but a fraction of the -population. As Sargon distinctly says, the others remained there. They -intermarried with the settlers whom he brought in and became the ancestors -of the sect of Samaritans. The "ten lost tribes" were not "lost," as is -often popularly supposed to have been the case. - -The first of the inscriptions quoted above contains also the following -passage:[520] - - In the second year of my reign Ilubidi, the Hamathite ...... collected - his numerous troops at Qarqar. The oath [of Ashur he despised]. Arpad, - Simirra, Damascus, Samaria, he made rebellious against me - ..................... Sib'u, his Tartan, he summoned to his aid, and - to give fight and battle came into my presence. In the name of Ashur, - my lord, I accomplished his defeat. Sib'u fled like a shepherd whose - sheep are stolen and escaped. Hanno I caught in my hand and took him - bound unto my city Ashur. The city Raphia I devastated, destroyed, - burned with fire. I took captive 9,033 people, together with their - numerous possessions. - -The Sib'u of this inscription is probably the same as So, King of Egypt, -in 2 Kings 17:4. He cannot be identified with any known Egyptian king. He -was probably a prince of a nome of the Delta. The above is Sargon's -description of the battle of Raphia, which occurred in the year 720 B. C. -This campaign was an aftermath of the fall of Samaria. - -717 B. C. - - [Sargon],[521] the exalted prince, who came upon Hummanigash, the King - of Elam, in the environs of Durilu and accomplished his overthrow, who - reduced to submission Yaudi, the place of which was distant, who - destroyed Hamath, whose hands captured Yaubidi. - -This Yaudi has been taken by some scholars for Judah, but it was probably -the kingdom in northern Syria mentioned by Tiglathpileser IV and in the -inscription of Panammu, of Samal, the modern Zendjirli. We know of no -Assyrian invasion of Judah at this time. - - The tribute of Pharaoh, King of Egypt, of Samsi, the Queen of Arabia, - Ithamara, the Sabæan, gold, the ...... of the mountain, horses, and - camels, I received ............[522] - - Yaubidi, the Hamathite, a soldier (?), with no right to the throne, a - bad Hittite, had set his heart on the kingdom of Hamath; he caused - Arpad, Simirra, Damascus, and Samaria to rebel against me, made them - of one intent and collected for battle. The whole army of Ashur I - mustered and in Qarqar, his favorite city, I besieged him together - with his soldiers. I captured Qarqar, I burned it with fire. His skin - I flayed and the partakers of his sin I killed in their cities; I - established peace. 200 chariots and 200 horsemen I collected from the - people of Hamath, and added to my royal force. - -This passage records the overthrow of Hamath and Arpad (Isa. 10:9), and -mentions the tribute of a king of Sheba, the account of the coming of -whose queen to Solomon is found in I Kings 10:1, ff. - -711 B. C. - - Azuri, King of Ashdod, planned in his heart not to pay tribute, and - among the kings of his neighborhood disseminated hatred of Assyria. On - account of the evil he had done I cut off his lordship over the people - of his land. I appointed Ahimiti, his younger (?) brother to the - kingship over them. But the Hittites, planning evil, hated him and - exalted over them Yamani, who had no claim to the throne, and who, - like them, knew no fear of authority. In the anger of my heart the - mass of my army I did not muster, I did not assemble my camp. With my - usual bodyguard I marched against Ashdod. Yamani heard of the progress - of my expedition from afar and fled to the borders of Egypt, which - lies by the side of Melucha, and was seen no more. Ashdod, Gath, - Ashdudimmu, I besieged, I conquered. I took as spoil his gods, his - wife, his sons, his daughters, his possessions, the treasures of his - palace, together with the people of his land. I seized those cities - anew, and settled in them peoples of lands I had captured from among - [the lands] of the east .......... With the people of Assyria I - numbered them, and they bore my yoke. The king of Melucha, who among - ...... an inaccessible place, a road ...... whose fathers from ancient - days as far back as the moon-god, his father, had sent no messengers - to my fathers to pay their respects, heard from afar of the might of - Ashur, Nabu, and Marduk; the fear of the luster of my royalty covered - him and fright was poured over him. He cast him [Yamani] into bonds, - fetters of iron, and brought him before me into Assyria,--a long - journey.[523] - -Another fragmentary account runs thus:[524] - - In the 9th [error for 11th] year of my reign I marched .......... to - the coast of the great sea ...... Azuri, King of Ashdod, .......... - Ahimiti .......... his younger (?) brother .......... I exalted over - them .......... tribute and taxes of my lordship ...... like those of - ...... kings, I imposed upon them ...... The evil in .......... in - order not to pay tribute .......... their princes .......... they - drove him away .......... Yamani, a soldier, they appointed to - kingship over them. Their city .......... in its environs a moat - .......... cubits in depth they dug, they reached the water-level - .......... To [punish] Philistia, Judah, Edom, Moab, who inhabit the - sea-coast, payers of tribute, and taxes to Ashur, my lord. Planning - rebellion and untold evil against me, they bore their pledges to - Pharaoh, King of Egypt, a prince who could not help them, and sought - his aid. I, Sargon, the faithful prince, who honors the oath of Nabu - and Marduk, who guards the name of Ashur, caused my trusty troops to - cross the Tigris and Euphrates at high water. As for him, Yamani, - their king, who had trusted to his own power, and had not submitted to - my lordship, he heard of the advance of my army. The fear of Ashur, my - lord, cast him down, and to ...... which is on the bank of the river - ...... waters ...... his land ...... far away ...... he fled ...... - Ashdod ...... - -The two passages just translated are Sargon's accounts of the events -alluded to in Isa. 20:1. These events were the occasion of the prophecy -there recorded. Until the discovery of the palace of Sargon by Botta in -1845, this passage in Isaiah, was the only place in extant literature -where the name of Sargon had been preserved. - -In the last of the passages just quoted, Sargon speaks as though he had -also punished Judah on this expedition. There is no direct allusion to -this in the Bible unless it be the vivid description in Isa. 10:28-32, -where an approach of an Assyrian army to Jerusalem from the north is -described. It is difficult to date those verses unless they also refer to -this expedition of 711 B. C. (_See Appendix._) - -=11. Sennacherib, 705-681 B. C.= - -Campaign of 701[525] - - In my third expedition I went to the land of the Hittites. The fear of - my lordship overthrew Luli, King of Sidon, and he fled to a distance - in the midst of the sea. His land I subdued. Great Sidon, little - Sidon. Beth-zet, Zareptah, Mahalliba, Ushu, Achzib, Accho, his - strongholds, his fortresses, the places of his food and drink, the - forts in which he trusted, the might of the weapons of Ashur, my lord, - overthrew them and they submitted to my feet. I caused Tubal to sit on - the royal throne over them, and imposed upon him the yearly payment of - tribute as the tax of my lordship. Minhimmu, the Shamsimurunian, - Tubalu, the Sidonian, Abdiliti, the Arvadite, Urumilke, the Gebalite, - Mitinti, the Ashdodite, Puduilu, the Beth-Ammonite, Kammusunadbi, the - Moabite, Milkirammu, the Edomite, kings of the Westland, all of them, - an extensive district, brought their heavy tribute together with their - possessions into my presence and kissed my feet. - - And Sidqa, the King of Askelon, who had not submitted to my yoke, the - gods of the house of his father, himself, his wife, his sons, his - daughters, his brothers, the seed of the house of his father I took - away and brought him to Assyria. Sharruludari, the son of Rukibti, - their former king, I placed over the people of Askelon, and imposed - upon him the payment of tribute as an aid to my rule, and he bore my - yoke. In the progress of my expedition Beth-Dagon, Joppa, Banabarka, - Azuru, the cities of Sidqa, who had not with alacrity submitted to my - feet, I besieged, I captured, I took their spoil. The governors, - princes, and people of Ekron, who had cast into fetters of iron Padi, - their king, my ally, bound by Ashur's oath, and had delivered him to - Hezekiah, the Judæan, who as an enemy imprisoned him,--their hearts - feared. The kings of Egypt, the soldiers, bows, chariots, and horses - of the king of Meluhu, an unnumbered force, they summoned, and they - came to their aid. In the environs of Elteke the battle array was - drawn up before me; they asked for their weapons. In the might of - Ashur, my lord, I fought with them and accomplished their defeat. My - hands took alive in the midst of the battle the commander of the - chariots and the sons of the Egyptian king, together with the - commander of the chariots of the king of Meluhu. Elteke [and] Timnath - I besieged, captured and took their spoil. I approached Ekron. The - governors and princes who had committed sin I killed and on stakes - round about the city I hung their bodies. The citizens who had - committed wickedness and rebellion I counted as spoil. I declared the - righteousness of the rest of them, who had committed no sin and - rebellion and in whom was no wickedness. I brought Padi, their king, - out of the midst of Jerusalem, and on the throne of dominion over them - I placed, and imposed the tribute of my over-lordship upon him. - - And as to Hezekiah, the Judæan, who had not submitted to my yoke, 46 - of his strongholds, fortified cities, and smaller cities of their - environs without number, with the onset of battering rams and the - attack of engines, mines, breaches, and axes (?), I besieged, I - captured. 200,150 people, small and great, male and female, horses, - mules, asses, camels, oxen, and sheep without number I brought out of - their midst and counted as booty. He himself I shut up like a caged - bird in Jerusalem, his capital city; I erected beleaguering works - against him, and turned back by command every one who came out of his - city gate. The cities, which I had captured, from his country I cut - off and gave them to Mitinti, King of Ashdod, Padi, King of Ekron, and - Sillibaal, King of Gaza, and diminished his land. In addition to the - former tribute, their yearly tax, I added a tax as the impost of my - over-lordship and laid it upon them. As to Hezekiah himself, the fear - of the luster of my lordship overcame him and the Urbi and his - favorite soldiers, whom he had brought in to strengthen Jerusalem, his - capital city, deserted. With 30 talents of gold, 800 talents of - silver, precious stones, rouge, _dakkasi_, lapis lazuli, great - _angugmi_-stones, beds of ivory, stationary ivory thrones, elephants' - hide, ivory, _ushu_-wood, _ukarinnu_-wood, all sorts of objects, a - heavy treasure; also his daughters, the women of his palace, male and - female musicians he sent after me to Nineveh, my capital city, and - sent his messenger to present the gift and to do homage. - -Inscription under Lachish-picture, 701 B. C. - - Sennacherib, king of the world, King of Assyria, sat on his throne, - and the spoil of the city of Lachish passed before him;[526] (see Fig. - 298). - -Expedition against Merodachbaladan, 703 B. C. - - In my first expedition I accomplished the defeat of Merodachbaladan, - King of Babylon, together with the forces of Elam, his ally, in the - environs of the city of Kish. In the midst of that battle he left his - camp and fled alone; he saved his life. The chariots, horses, wagons, - and mules, which at the onset of battle he had left, my hands - captured. I entered joyfully into his palace which was in Babylon. I - opened his treasure-house; gold, silver, gold and silver utensils, - precious stones of all kinds, his untold treasured possessions, a - great booty; the women of his palace, princes, his body-guards, male - and female musicians, the rest of his troops as many as there were, - and the servants of his palace I brought out and counted as - spoil.[527] - -Campaign against Arabia (between 688 and 682) - - Telhunu, the Queen of Arabia, in the midst of the desert--from her I - took ... camels. The [luster of] my [lordship] overthrew her and - Hazael. They left their tents and fled to Adummatu, which is situated - in the desert, ...... a thirsty place, where there is neither food nor - drink.[528] - -The material contained in the first two passages just quoted from -Sennacherib is parallel in a general way to 2 Kings 18, 19 and Isa. 36, -37. All Biblical students recognize that these two chapters in Isaiah are -practically identical with the two in Kings. In discussing the -parallelism, therefore, we shall refer to 2 Kings 18, 19 only. With -reference to the bearing of this Assyrian material upon the Biblical -narrative there are three different views which have been entertained by -three groups of scholars. - -1. One view, which was first expressed by the late Prof. Schrader,[529] of -Berlin, is that the inscription of Sennacherib, while differing from the -Biblical account in some particulars, really confirms it at nearly every -point. Sennacherib, though he claims to have diminished Hezekiah's -territory, and to have received from him a heavy tribute, does not claim -to have taken Jerusalem. According to 2 Kings 18:14, ff., Hezekiah -submitted to Sennacherib, sending his messenger to Lachish for the -purpose, and paid him a heavy tribute; according to 2 Kings 19:35, ff., a -great disaster so weakened Sennacherib's army that he was obliged to -withdraw. Schrader called attention to the close correspondence between 2 -Kings 18:14 and Sennacherib. Both state that Hezekiah paid 30 talents of -gold, though they differ as to the amount of silver, Kings making it 300 -talents, while Sennacherib makes it 800. It was supposed that the numbers -in the case of the silver were really equivalent to one another, the -present divergence being due to textual corruption. Assyrian kings never -record their failures, but Sennacherib's admission that he did not take -the city was held to be confirmation of 2 Kings 19:35, ff., which -describes a great destruction of the Assyrian army and a signal -deliverance of Jerusalem. - -2. A second view, of which Prof. Meinhold,[530] of Bonn, may be taken as -the chief exponent, starts from the fact that there seem to be two -accounts in 2 Kings 18 and 19. In 18:13-16 there is a statement of how -Hezekiah sent to Sennacherib, while Sennacherib was besieging Lachish, and -admitted that he had done wrong and promised to bear whatever Sennacherib -might choose to put upon him. Sennacherib thereupon imposed a heavy -tribute upon him, which he paid. The whole transaction seems to be -concluded, when at v. 17 the Tartan, or Rabsaris (Rabshakeh), appears upon -the scene and taunts Hezekiah for his obstinacy and he submits again. -Possibly this might be considered the details of the transaction that was -described in mere outline in 18:13-16. When, however, it has all been -described again, and the Rabshakeh has returned to Sennacherib at Lachish, -Sennacherib again sends messengers (chapter 19:9), again demanding a -surrender. These messengers are said to have been sent when Sennacherib -heard that Tirhakah, King of Ethiopia, was marching against him. This -narrative goes on to tell how Hezekiah, acting under the advice of Isaiah, -delayed his surrender, and how the camp of the Assyrians was decimated by -the angel of the Lord, and Jerusalem escaped. - -Meinhold and his followers hold that there are here two inconsistent -accounts. According to the first, Hezekiah surrendered; according to the -second, he did not. According to the first, Hezekiah paid tribute; -according to the second, Sennacherib's army was destroyed. The first of -these accounts is confirmed by Sennacherib's inscription; the second is, -so Meinhold holds, shown by it to be unhistorical: first, by the fact that -Sennacherib gives no hint that his army was harmed, and, secondly, by the -mention of Tirhakah, who did not come to the throne until 688 B. C., and -could not, therefore, have been a factor in the war of 701 B. C. - -A third view was suggested by Winckler[531] and is held by Prasek,[532] -Fullerton,[533] and Rogers.[534] According to this view, Sennacherib made -two expeditions against Jerusalem, and 2 Kings 18:13-19:8 is an account of -the first of these (the expedition of 701), while 2 Kings 19:9-36 is the -account of the second,--an expedition which did not occur until after the -accession of Tirhakah, eight or ten years later. The inscription of -Sennacherib, already quoted, refers to the first of these expeditions -only. We have no inscription of Sennacherib referring to the later -disastrous campaign, but that is not surprising, for unless the account of -his expedition against the queen of Arabia, already quoted above, belongs -to this period, we have no inscriptions referring to the last eight years -of his reign. It is thought by the scholars who believe that there were -two expeditions, that Sennacherib would approach the queen of Arabia only -from the west, so that that inscription is regarded as an incidental -confirmation of this view. Of course, an Assyrian king would not record a -disaster. - -The account in 2 Kings 19:9-36 receives confirmation from an interesting -passage in Herodotus, the Greek "father of history." He says (Book II, -141): - - And after this the next king [of Egypt] was a priest of Hephaistos, - called Sethôs. He held the warrior class of the Egyptians in contempt - as though he had no need of them. He did them dishonor and deprived - them of the arable lands which had been granted them by previous - kings, twelve acres to each soldier. And afterward Sennacherib, King - of the Arabians and Assyrians, marched a great army into Egypt. Then - the soldiers of Egypt would not help him; whereupon the priest went - into the inner sanctuary to the image of the god and bewailed the - things which he was in danger of suffering. As he wept he fell asleep, - and there appeared to him in a vision the god standing over him to - encourage him, saying that, when he went forth to meet the Arabian - army he would suffer no harm, for he himself would send him helpers. - Trusting to this dream he collected those Egyptians who were willing - to follow him and marched to Pelusium, where the entrance to his - country was. None of the warriors followed him, but traders, artisans, - and market men. There, as the two armies lay opposite to each other, - there came in the night a multitude of field mice, which ate up all - the quivers and bowstrings of the enemy, and the thongs of their - shields. In consequence, on the next day they fled, and, being - deprived of their arms, many of them fell. And there stands now in the - temple of Hephaistos a stone statue of this king holding a mouse in - his hand, bearing an inscription which says: "Let any who look on me - reverence the gods." - -George Adam Smith[535] pointed out several years ago that, when this -passage is compared with 2 Kings 19:36, it points clearly to the -conclusion that Sennacherib's army was attacked by bubonic plague. In -modern times this plague first attacks rats and mice, which in their -suffering swarm the dwellings of men and spread the disease. The Hebrews -regarded the attack of such a plague as a smiting by the angel of God. -This is shown by 2 Sam. 24:16, 17; Acts 12:23; 2 Kings 19:36. Such a -pestilence would render the Assyrian army helpless, and would be regarded -by the Hebrews as a divine intervention on their behalf. As it is -supported by both the book of Kings and Herodotus, it probably affords us -a clue to what really happened to Sennacherib's army. - -We hold, then, that the last of the three views concerning the campaigns -of Sennacherib to Palestine is probably correct. - -The Elteke mentioned in the inscription of Sennacherib is the city -referred to in Josh. 19:44 and 21:23. The Merodachbaladan referred to is -mentioned in Isa. 39:1, where it is said that he sent to congratulate -Hezekiah upon his recovery from sickness. It is clear from what the -Assyrian accounts tell us that his real motive in sending to Hezekiah was -to induce him to rebel against Assyria. - -=12. The Siloam Inscription.= - -The following inscription was discovered in 1880 on the right wall of the -tunnel which connects the Virgin's Well (Ain Sitti Maryam) at Jerusalem -with the Pool of Siloam (Birket Silwân). - - The boring through [is completed]. And this is the story of the boring - through: while yet [they plied] the drill, each toward his fellow, and - while yet there were three cubits to be bored through, there was heard - the voice of one calling unto another, for there was a crevice in the - rock on the right hand. And on the day of the boring through the - stone-cutters struck, each to meet his fellow, drill upon drill; and - the waters flowed from the source to the pool for a thousand and two - hundred cubits, and a hundred cubits was the height of the rock above - the heads of the stone-cutters;[536] (see Fig. 297). - -This inscription, though not dated, is believed to come from the time of -Hezekiah. Hezekiah is said in 2 Kings 20:20 to have built a conduit and to -have brought the water into the city. This inscription was found in a -remarkable conduit which still runs under the hill at Jerusalem, cut -through the solid rock. It is about 1,700 feet long. It was cleared of -silt by the Parker expedition of 1909-1911, and the tunnel is about 6 feet -in height throughout its entire length. When it was cut the wall of -Jerusalem crossed the Tyropoeon Valley just below it, so that, while the -Virgin's Spring (the Biblical Gihon) lay outside the walls, this aqueduct -brought the water to a pool within the walls, so that the inhabitants of -the city could, in case of siege, fill their water-jars without exposing -themselves to the enemy. - -The inscription is now in the Imperial Ottoman Museum at Constantinople. - -=13. Esarhaddon, 681-668 B. C.= - - I overthrew the kings of the Hittite country and those beyond the sea; - Baal, King of Tyre, Manassah, King of Judah, Kaushgabri, King of Edom, - Musuri, King of Moab, Silbaal, King of Gaza, Mitinti, King of Askelon, - Ikausu, King of Ekron, Milkiashapa, King of Gebal, Matanbaal, King of - Arvad, Abibaal, King of Shamsimuruna, Puduel, King of Beth-Ammon, - Ahi-milku, King of Ashdod, 12 kings of the sea-coast; Ekishtura, King - of Idalion, Pilagura, King of Kiti, Kisu, King of Sillua, Ituander, - King of Paphos, Erisu, King of Sillu, Damasu, King of Kuri, Atmizu, - King of Tamesu, Damusi, King of Kartihadasti, Unasagusu, King of - Lidir, Bususu, King of Nurenu; 10 kings of Cyprus in the midst of the - sea--altogether 22 kings of the Hittite land, of the sea-coast and the - midst of the sea--I sent to them and great cedar beams, etc. ......... - [they sent].[537] - -Esarhaddon, the author of the inscription from which this extract is -taken, is mentioned in 2 Kings 19:37 and Isa. 37:38 as Sennacherib's -successor, a statement which the inscriptions abundantly confirm. The -above quotation from his inscription shows that Manasseh, King of Judah, 2 -Kings 20:21 and chapter 21, was a vassal of Esarhaddon. Esarhaddon is also -alluded to in Ezra 4:2. - -=14. Ashurbanipal of Assyria, 668-626 B. C.= - - In my third campaign I marched against Baal, King of Tyre, who dwelt - in the midst of the sea. Because he had not kept the word of my - lordship nor heeded the utterance of my lips, I erected against him - siege-works and cut off his exit both by land and sea; their lives I - made narrow and straitened; I caused them to submit to my yoke. They - brought the daughters that came forth from his loins and the daughters - of his brothers into my presence to become concubines. Yahimilki, his - son, who had never crossed the sea, they brought at the same time to - do me service. His daughter and the daughters of his brothers with an - abundant dowry I received from him. I granted him favor and returned - to him the son that came forth from his loins.[538] - - Yakinlu, King of Arvad, who dwells in the midst of the sea, who had - not submitted to the kings, my fathers, I brought under my yoke. He - brought his daughter to Nineveh with an abundant dowry and kissed my - feet .......... - - On my return I captured Ushu, which is situated on the coast of the - sea. The inhabitants of Ushu, who had not been obedient to their - governors, who had not paid their tribute, I killed as the tribute of - their land. Among the rebellious peoples I set my staff. Their gods - and their peoples I carried as booty to Assyria. The people of Accho - who had not submitted I subdued. I hung their bodies on stakes around - the city. The rest I took to Assyria; I preserved them and added them - to the numerous army which Ashur had given unto me.[539] - -These extracts from the inscriptions of Ashurbanipal show that during the -reign of Manasseh he was active in reducing the rebellions of Phoenician -cities, some of which, as Tyre and Accho, were at the doors of Palestine. -No doubt Manasseh continued to pay him tribute and so was not molested. -The name of Ashurbanipal is preserved in Ezra 4:10 in the corrupt form of -Osnappar. - -=15. Necho of Egypt, 609-593 B. C.= - - Year 16, fourth month of the first season, day 16, under the majesty - of Horus: Wise-hearted; king of Upper and Lower Egypt; Favorite of the - two goddesses: Triumphant; Golden Horus: Beloved-of-the-Gods; - Uhemibre; Son of Ra, of his body, his beloved: Necho, living forever, - beloved of Apis, son of Osiris.[540] - -(An account of the interment of an Apis bull then follows.) - -The above is the beginning of an inscription of Pharaoh Necho, whose -defeat of King Josiah, of Judah, is recorded in 2 Kings 23:29, f. He -became over-lord of Judah for four years and placed Jehoiakim on the -Judæan throne (2 Kings 23:34). Necho was himself defeated at Carchemish on -the Euphrates by Nebuchadrezzar, of Babylon, in 604 B. C., and as he -retreated to Egypt Nebuchadrezzar pursued him through Palestine. The book -of Jeremiah speaks of this defeat and vividly describes the pursuit which -followed. (Cf. Jer. 46:2, f.) - -=16. Nebuchadrezzar II, 604-562 B. C.= - -Many inscriptions of Nebuchadrezzar are known, but most of them relate to -buildings. The following extracts are those which best illustrate the -Bible. - - In exalted trust in him (Marduk) distant countries, remote mountains - from the upper sea (Mediterranean) to the lower sea (Persian Gulf), - steep paths, blockaded roads, where the step is impeded, [where] was - no footing, difficult roads, desert paths, I traversed, and the - disobedient I destroyed; I captured the enemies, established justice - in the lands; the people I exalted; the bad and evil I separated from - the people.[541] - -Reference to the Lebanon - - From the upper sea to the lower sea, .......... [which] Marduk, my - lord, had entrusted to me, in [all] lands, the totality [of - dwelling-places] I [exalted] the city of Babylon to the first place. I - caused his name to be reverenced among the cities; the shrines of Nabu - and Marduk, my lords, I made them recognize, continually .......... At - that time the Lebanon mountain, the mountain [of cedar], the proud - forest of Marduk, the odor of whose cedars is good .......... of - another god ........... no other king had ........... my god, Marduk, - the king to the palace of the princes .......... of heaven and earth - shone as adornment .......... As a foreign enemy had taken possession - of (the mountain) and seized its riches, its people had fled and taken - refuge at a distance. In the power of Nabu and Marduk, my lords, I - drew up [my soldiers, for battle] in mount Lebanon. Its enemy I - dislodged above and below and made glad the heart of the land. I - collected its scattered people and returned them to their place. I did - what no former king had done; I cleft high mountains, stones of the - mountain I quarried, I opened passes. I made a straight road for the - cedars. Mighty cedars they were, tall and strong, of wonderful beauty, - whose dark appearance was remarkable,--the mighty products of mount - Lebanon .......... I made the people of mount Lebanon to lie down in - abundance; I permitted no adversary to possess it. That none might do - harm I set up my royal image forever.[542] - -A Building Inscription - - Nebuchadrezzar, King of Babylon, the restorer of Esagila and Ezida, - son of Nabopolassar am I. As a protection to Esagila, that no powerful - enemy and destroyer might take Babylon, that the line of battle might - not approach Imgur-Bel, the wall of Babylon, that which no former king - had done [I did]; at the enclosure of Babylon I made an enclosure of a - strong wall on the east side. I dug a moat, I reached the level of the - water. I then saw that the wall which my father had prepared was too - small in its construction. I built with bitumen and brick a mighty - wall which, like a mountain, could not be moved and connected it with - the wall of my father; I laid its foundations on the breast of the - under-world; its top I raised up like a mountain. Along this wall to - strengthen it I constructed a third and as the base of a protecting - wall I laid a foundation of bricks and built it on the breast of the - under-world and laid its foundation. The fortifications of Esagila and - Babylon I strengthened and established the name of my reign forever. - - O Marduk, lord of the gods, my divine creator, may my deeds find favor - before thee; may they endure forever! Eternal life, satisfied with - posterity, a secure throne, and a long reign grant as thy gift. Thou - art indeed my deliverer and my help, O Marduk, I by thy faithful word - which does not change--may my weapons advance, be sharp and be - stronger than the weapon of the foe![543] - -Nebuchadrezzar was the king who destroyed Jerusalem and carried the more -prominent of the people of Judah captive. (See 2 Kings 24 and 25.) His -inscriptions give no account of these events. In the first of the -quotations made above he covers all his conquests by one general -reference. In the second quotation he gives a more detailed account of his -conquest of the Lebanon, because that inscription was carved on the rocks -at the side of one of the deep valleys of the Lebanon. The third -inscription, relating to the building of Babylon, has been strikingly -confirmed by Koldewey's excavation of Babylon, by which the massive walls -and extensive temples were uncovered.[544] It also gives us a background -for Daniel 4:29, where Nebuchadrezzar is said to have walked upon[545] -the royal palace and said: "Is not this great Babylon which I have built?" - -=17. Evil-Merodach, 562-560 B. C.= - -Nebuchadrezzar was succeeded by his son, Amil-Marduk, whom the Bible (2 -Kings 25:27) calls Evil-Merodach. The only inscription of his that has -been found is the following, inscribed on an alabaster vase found at Susa, -whither the Elamites had at some time carried it as booty:[546] - - Palace of Amil-Marduk, King of Babylon, son of Nebuchadrezzar, King of - Babylon. - -This is the king who released Jehoiachin, King of Judah, from prison after -his thirty-six years in confinement and treated him kindly. - - * * * * * - -NOTE ON THE LAND OF THE QUEEN OF SHEBA.--This region, which lay in South -Arabia, was explored during the nineteenth century by a number of -travelers. Three of these, Thomas J. Arnaud in 1843, Joseph Halévy in -1869, and Eduard Glaser who made four expeditions between 1882 and 1894, -brought back from South Arabia many inscriptions, several of which were -made by rulers of Saba, the Biblical Sheba, whose queen is said to have -visited Solomon (1 Kings 10:1-13). As none of these relate to that queen, -it has not seemed fitting to include one of them. The inscriptions, -however, show that two important kingdoms existed there, Saba and Main. -Main is thought by some to be related to the Biblical Midianites. The -Greek version of Job makes Job's friend, Zophar, king of Main. The kingdom -of Saba lasted until 115 B. C. It established strong colonies in Africa. -In 115 B. C. one colony overthrew the mother-country and established the -kingdom of Saba and Raidhan, which lasted till about 300 A. D. After that -Saba became apparently unimportant, but various Semitic kingdoms succeeded -one another in Africa, including the present-day Abyssinian kingdom. The -Abyssinian king claims descent from Solomon and the Queen of Sheba. - - - - -CHAPTER XVIII - -THE END OF THE BABYLONIAN EXILE - - INSCRIPTIONS OF NABUNA'ID; THEIR BEARING ON BIBLICAL STATEMENTS - REGARDING BELSHAZZAR. ACCOUNT OF THE CAPTURE OF BABYLON BEARING ON THE - BOOK OF DANIEL. INSCRIPTION OF CYRUS BEARING ON THE CAPTURE OF - BABYLON. CYRUS' PERMISSION FOR THE RETURN TO JERUSALEM. - - -=1. Inscriptions of Nabuna'id.= - -Several inscriptions of this king, who ruled 555-538 B. C., are known, but -only a brief extract of one of them is given here, as the major part of -the material has no bearing on the Bible. - - Nabuna'id, King of Babylon, the restorer of Esagila and Ezida, the - worshiper of the great gods am I .......... O Sin, lord of the gods of - heaven and earth, god of the gods, .......... as for me, Nabuna'id, - King of Babylon, save me from sinning against thy great divinity. A - life of many days grant as thy gift. As for Belshazzar, the firstborn - son, proceeding from my loins, place in his heart fear of thy great - divinity; let him not turn to sinning; let him be satisfied with - fulness of life![547] - -Belshazzar is here said to be the son of Nabuna'id, whereas in Dan. 5:11, -18 Nebuchadrezzar is called his father. Nabuna'id, as the Babylonian -documents show, was not a descendant of Nebuchadrezzar, but a usurper of -another family. Some scholars hold that this shows the book of Daniel to -be in error, while others hold that "father" in Dan. 5:11, 18 is -equivalent to "ancestor," and think Belshazzar may have been descended -from Nebuchadrezzar on his mother's side. - -The Nabuna'id-Cyrus Chronicle - -This chronicle is known only from a tablet which is somewhat broken. The -following extract will show the nature of its contents: - - In the 9th year Nabuna'id was at Tema. The son of the king, the - princes, and soldiers were in Akkad. The king did not come to Babylon - in Nisan, Nebo did not go to Babylon. Bel did not go out. The festival - sacrifice was omitted. They offered sacrifices in Esagila and Ezida on - account of Babylon and Borsippa, that the land might prosper. On the - 5th of the month, Nisan the mother of the king, died in Dur-karashu - on the bank of the Euphrates above Sippar. The son of the king and the - soldiers mourned three days. In the month Sivan there was mourning for - the king's mother in Akkad. - - In the month Nisan Cyrus, King of Persia, mustered his soldiers, and - crossed the Tigris below Arbela and in the month Iyyar went to the - land of .......... its king he killed, he took his possessions. His - own governor (?) he placed in it ......... afterward his governor (?) - and a king (?) were there.[548] - -=2. Bearing on Biblical Statements Regarding Belshazzar.= - -Similar chronicles are given by the tablet for other years. It is stated -each time what Nabuna'id was doing; where the king's son (Belshazzar) was, -and what Cyrus was doing. Cyrus, who overthrew the Median king in 553 B. -C., was occupied for several years in subjugating other lands before he -attacked Babylon. He overthrew Croesus, King of Lydia, in 546. It would -seem that it was well known in Babylonia what he was doing each year. -Those scholars who believe that Isaiah 40-55 is the work of a prophet who -lived during the Babylonian Exile, claim that this chronicle explains how -that prophet could refer in Isa. 44:28; 45:1 to Cyrus as a well-known -figure. They see the exercise of the prophetic gift of the prophet in the -faith which he had that Cyrus would release Israel from captivity. Those -who believe that the whole of the book of Isaiah is the work of the son of -Amoz, see in these verses pure prediction of the rise of Cyrus as well as -of the release of the Jews. - -=3. Account of the Capture of Babylon.= - -From the chronicle just quoted we have the following statement for the -17th year of the reign of Nabuna'id: - - ...... Nebo to go forth from Borsippa .......... the king entered the - temple of Edurkalama. In the month .......... in the lower sea a - revolt ........ Bel came out; the feast of Akiti (Sept.-Oct.), - according to the custom .......... the gods of Marad, Zagaga, and the - gods of Kish, Bêltis, and the gods of Harsagkalama entered Babylon. - Unto the end of Elul (Aug.-Sept.) the gods of Borsippa, Cutha, and - Sippar did not enter. In the month Tammuz (June-July) Cyrus, when he - made battle in Opis, on the banks of the river Zalzallat, with the - soldiers of Akkad, conquered the inhabitants of Akkad. When they - assembled the people were killed. On the 14th Sippar was taken without - a battle. Nabuna'id fled. On the 16th Gobryas, governor of the land of - Gutium, and the soldiers of Cyrus entered Babylon without a battle. - Later Nabuna'id was captured because he remained in Babylon. To the - end of the month the shield-bearers of the land of Gutium assembled at - the gates of Esagila. No weapon of any kind was taken into Esagila or - the temples; nor was the standard raised. On the third day of - Marcheswan (Oct.-Nov.) Cyrus entered Babylon. The walls (?) were - broken down before him. Cyrus proclaimed peace to all of Babylon. He - appointed Gobryas his satrap, and also prefects in Babylon. From - Kisleu (Nov.-Dec.) unto Adar (Feb.-March), the gods of Akkad, whom - Nabuna'id had brought to Babylon, returned to their cities. In the - month Marcheswan, on the night of the 11th, Gobryas unto .......... - the son of the king was killed. From the 27th of Adar to the 3rd of - Nisan there was lamentation in Akkad. All the people bowed their - heads. On the 4th day Cambyses, the son of Cyrus, went to - Eshapakalama.[549] - -=4. Bearing of This Account on the Book of Daniel.= - -This interesting text here becomes too broken for connected translation. -It is clear that the document means to state that Nabuna'id was king of -Babylon when it was captured, and not Belshazzar, as stated in Daniel -5:30. It states, also, that Cyrus captured Babylon and not Darius the -Mede, as in Dan. 5:31. It is true that Gobryas took Babylon first, and -occupied it about two weeks before Cyrus arrived. He was, however, Cyrus's -officer and was acting in his name. Critical scholars, who believe that -Daniel was written 168-165 B. C., find in these statements a confirmation -of their views. They think its author lived so far from the events that he -confused their exact order. Those who defend the traditional date of -Daniel think that Gobryas is meant by Darius the Mede, and see in the -exalted position which Belshazzar held, as crown prince and commander of -the army, sufficient ground for the Biblical statement that he was king. -By such interpretations they harmonize this chronicle with the Bible. - -Dr. Theophilus G. Pinches has recently published[550] some extracts from -two tablets from Erech which are in the possession of an Englishman, Mr. -Harding Smith, which throw some additional light on these points. It was -customary for Babylonians in confirming a contract to swear by the name of -the reigning king, and one of these tablets contains a contract, dated in -the 12th year of Nabuna'id, in which a man bound himself by the oath of -Nabuna'id, King of Babylon, and of Belshazzar, the king's son. As -Belshazzar is here associated with the king, he must have been but -slightly lower in rank and power than the king himself. - -This is confirmed by a tablet at Yale, recently published by Prof. -Clay.[551] The text contains the interpretation of a dream for the King -Nabuna'id and for his son Belshazzar. It is dated in the seventh year of -the reign of Nabuna'id. - -The other tablet quoted by Pinches shows that in the fourth year of -Cambyses (_i. e._, 524 B. C.), Gobryas was still governor of Babylon. If -he is the man who in Daniel is called Darius the Mede, he exercised the -powers of governor in Babylon for a considerable number of years. - -=5. Inscription of Cyrus.= - -The following is an inscription of Cyrus. The lines are much broken at the -beginning, but it reads as follows:[552] - - .......................... begat (?) him ..................... [the - four] regions of the world ............. great coward was established - as ruler over the land ............. a similar one he set over them; - like Esagila he made .......... to Ur and the rest of the cities a - rule not suitable for them ....... he planned daily and in enmity he - caused the established sacrifice to cease. He appointed .......... he - established within the city. The worship of Marduk, king of the gods - ........... he wrought hostility against his city daily ........... - his [people] all of them he destroyed through servitude, without rest. - On account of their lamentation the lord of the gods was exceedingly - angry and [left] their territory; the gods who dwelt among them left - their dwellings. In anger because he brought [them] into Babylon, - Marduk ........... to return to all the dwellings, their habitations, - which were overthrown. The people of Sumer and Akkad, who were like - corpses, he brought back and ............ granted them a return. - Through all lands he made his way, he looked, he sought a righteous - prince, a being whom he loved, whom he took by the hand. Cyrus, King - of Anshan, he called by name and designated him to rule over all the - lands. The land of Qutu, all the Scythian hordes, he made to submit to - his feet. The black-headed people (_i. e._, the Babylonians), whom he - caused his hand to capture, in faithfulness and righteousness he - sought. Marduk, the great lord, looked joyfully upon the return of his - people, his kindly deeds and upright heart. To his city, Babylon, he - commanded him to go; he caused him to take the road to Babylon, going - as a friend and companion at his side. His numerous army, the number - of which was, like the waters of a river, unknown, marched at his side - girded with their weapons. He caused him to enter Babylon without war - or battle. He preserved his city, Babylon, from tribulation; he filled - his (Cyrus's) hand with Nabuna'id, the king who did not fear him. All - the people of Babylon, all of Sumer and Akkad, the princes and - governors, prostrated themselves under him and kissed his feet. They - rejoiced in his sovereignty; their faces shone. The lord, who by his - power makes the dead to live, who from destruction and injustice had - saved them, altogether they blessed him in joy; they revered his name. - - I am Cyrus, king of the world, the great king, the mighty king, king - of Babylon, king of Sumer and Akkad, king of the four quarters of the - world, son of Cambyses, the great king, king of Anshan, grandson of - Cyrus, the great king, king of Anshan, great-grandson of Teïspes, the - great king, king of Anshan; an everlasting seed of royalty, whose - government Bel and Nabu love, whose reign in the goodness of their - hearts they desire. When I entered in peace into Babylon, with joy and - rejoicing I took up my lordly dwelling in the royal palace, Marduk, - the great lord, moved the understanding heart of the people of Babylon - to me, while I daily sought his worship. My numerous troops dwelt - peacefully in Babylon; in all Sumer and Akkad no terrorizer did I - permit. In Babylon and all its cities in peace I looked about. The - people of Babylon [I released] from an unsuitable yoke. Their - dwellings--their decay I repaired; their ruins I cleared away. Marduk, - the great lord, rejoiced at these deeds and graciously blessed me, - Cyrus, the king who worships him, and Cambyses, my son, and all my - troops, while we in peace joyfully praised before him his exalted - divinity. All the kings who dwell in palaces, from all quarters of the - world, from the upper sea to the lower sea, who live [in palaces], all - the kings of the Westland who live in tents, brought me their heavy - tribute in Babylon and kissed my feet. From .......... to Ashur and - Susa, Agade, Eshnunak, Zamban, Meturnu, Deri, to the border of Gutium, - the cities [beyond] the Tigris, whose sites had been founded of - old,--the gods who dwelt in them I returned to their places, and - caused them to settle in their eternal shrines. All their people I - assembled and returned them to their dwellings. And the gods of Sumer - and Akkad, whom Nabuna'id, to the anger of the lord of the gods, had - brought into Babylon, at the command of Marduk, the great lord, I - caused in peace to dwell in their abodes, the dwellings in which their - hearts delighted. May all the gods, whom I have returned to their - cities, pray before Marduk and Nabu for the prolonging of my days, may - they speak a kind word for me and say to Marduk, lord of the gods, - "May Cyrus the king, who fears thee, and Cambyses, his son, their - .......... caused all to dwell in peace" - ........................................ - -=6. Bearing on the Capture of Babylon and the Return of the Jews.= - -This inscription confirms the statement of the chronicle already quoted -that Cyrus conquered the city of Babylon without a blow. The most -important feature of it for the student of the Bible is, however, its -revelation of the reversal of the Assyrian policy of transportation. That -policy had been inaugurated by Tiglathpileser IV more than two hundred -years before. In accordance with it the kingdom of Israel had first been -stripped of its more prominent inhabitants who had been carried captive to -distant lands, and then the kingdom of Judah. Cyrus determined to attach -his subjects to himself by gratitude instead of terror, so he permitted, -as he says here, those who had been transported to return to their several -countries and rebuild their temples. It was in consequence of this general -policy that the Jews were permitted to return from Babylonia and rebuild -the temple at Jerusalem. This is referred to in Ezra, chapter 1. It is -there implied that Cyrus made a special proclamation concerning the temple -at Jerusalem. Some scholars infer from the above inscription of Cyrus, -that the book of Ezra (chapter 1) has freely interpreted the general -policy of Cyrus as a special permission granted to the Jews. It may be, -however, as others have held, that a special edict was issued in favor of -each individual nation in order that this general policy might be carried -out without opposition. - -In any event, the inscription confirms the statement of Ezra that Cyrus -permitted the Jews to return. - - - - -CHAPTER XIX - -A JEWISH COLONY IN EGYPT DURING THE TIME OF NEHEMIAH - - PAPYRI WITNESS TO THE EXISTENCE OF A COLONY AT ELEPHANTINE. - TRANSLATION OF A PETITION RELATING TO THEIR TEMPLE. REPLY OF PERSIAN - GOVERNOR. HISTORICAL BEARINGS OF THESE DOCUMENTS. A LETTER RELATING TO - THE PASSOVER. A LETTER SHOWING THAT THE JEWS WERE UNPOPULAR AT - ELEPHANTINE. - - -Numerous papyri found since 1895 at Elephantine, an island at the First -Cataract of the Nile, reveal the existence of a Jewish community there. -The documents are dated from the year 494 B. C. to the year 400 B. C. They -show that this Jewish community had at Elephantine a temple to Jehovah, -that they were soldiers, and that some of them were engaged in trade. One -document declares that when Cambyses conquered Egypt (525 B. C.) he then -found the temple of Jehovah in existence there, and that it had been built -under native Egyptian kings. How came such a community of Jews to be -established there? It is thought that they were a garrison placed there by -Psammetik II, King of Egypt, 593-588 B. C. This Psammetik endeavored to -conquer Nubia,[553] and according to a confused statement in Josephus -(Contra Apion, I, 26, 27) Rhampses (perhaps a corruption of Psammetik), -employed some Jews in an expedition to that country.[554] However, these -Jews came to dwell at this point, and whensoever the settlement was made, -the documents[555] are most interesting, and open to us a hitherto wholly -unknown vista in the history of the Jews. - -=1. Temple Papyrus from Elephantine.= - - Unto our lord, Bagohi, governor of Judah, thy servants Jedoniah and - his associates, the priests who are in Yeb, the fortress, health! May - our Lord, the God of heaven, abundantly grant unto thee at all times, - and for favors may he appoint thee before Darius, the king, and the - princes of the palace more than at present a thousand times, and long - life may he grant to thee, and joy and strength, at all times! Now - thy servant, Jedoniah, and his associates thus speak: In the month - Tammuz, year 14 of Darius, the king, when Arsames departed and went - unto the king, the priests of the god Khnub, who were in Yeb, the - fortress, made an agreement with Waidrang who was acting governor - here; it was as follows: The temple of Yahu (Jehovah), the God, which - is in Yeb, the fortress they would remove from there. Afterward this - Waidrang wickedly sent a letter unto Nephayan, his son, who was - commander of the army at Syene, the fortress, saying: "The temple - which is in Yeb, the fortress they shall destroy." Afterward Nephayan, - mustering Egyptians with the other forces, came to the fortress Yeb - with their quivers (?); they entered into this temple, they destroyed - it to the ground, and the pillars of stone which were there they - brake. Also it came to pass (that) five gates of stone, constructed of - cut stone, which were in this temple, they destroyed, and their - swinging doors and the bronze hinges of these doors. And the roof - which was of cedar wood, all of it, together with the rest of the - furnishings and the other things which were there, the whole they - burned with fire. And the vessels of gold and silver and the things - which were in this temple, the whole was taken, and they made it their - own. - - Now from the days of the kings of Egypt, our fathers built this temple - in Yeb, the fortress, and when Cambyses came to Egypt, this temple was - found built, and the temples of the gods of Egypt were overthrown, but - not a thing in this temple was harmed. And after they (_i. e._, - Waidrang and the priests of Khnub) had done this, we and our wives and - sons were clothed in sackcloth and were fasting and praying to Yahu, - God of heaven, that he would show us this Waidrang, the cur, with the - anklets torn from his feet, that all the goods which he possesses - might perish, and all the men who desired the pollution of this - temple--all might be killed, and we might see (our desire) upon them. - Also formerly, at the time this shameful deed was done to us we sent a - letter to our lord, and unto Jehohanan, the high priest, and his - associates, the priests who are in Jerusalem, and unto Ostan, the - brother of Anani and the elders of Judah, but a letter they have not - sent unto us. Also from the month Tammuz of the 14th year of Darius - the king even unto this day we have worn sackcloth and fasted, our - wives have been made like widows, we have not anointed ourselves with - oil, wine we have not drunk; also from then unto the 17th year of - Darius the king a meal-offering and incense and a burnt-offering they - have not offered in this temple. Now thy servants Jedoniah and his - associates and the Jews, all who are citizens of Yeb, thus speak: If - unto our lord it seems good to think on this temple to rebuild it, - because they will not permit us to rebuild it, look upon those who - share thy favor and kindnesses who are here in Egypt--let a letter be - sent unto them concerning the temple of Yahu God, to build it in Yeb, - the fortress, in the way it was built formerly, and meal-offerings and - incense and burnt-offerings let them offer upon the altar of Yahu God - in thy name, and we will pray for thee at all times, we and our wives - and our sons and the Jews, all who are here. If thus they do until - this temple is built, then merit (righteousness) shall be thine before - Yahu, God of heaven, more than (that of) the man who offers to him - burnt-offerings and sacrifices of the value of a thousand pieces of - silver. And concerning gold for this we have sent information. Also - the whole is told in a letter we sent in our name to Dalajah and - Shelemjah, sons of Sanballat, governor of Samaria. Also concerning - this which is done to us, all of it Arsames does not know. - - On the 20th of Marcheswan, year 17 of Darius the king. - -To this letter Bagohi (Bagoas) sent the following reply: - - Memorandum of Bagohi and Dalajah. They spoke to me a memorandum for - them: It shall be thine to say among the Egyptians before Arsames - concerning the place of sacrifice of the god ...... of heaven, which - was built in Yeb the fortress formerly before Cambyses, which this - wicked Waidrang destroyed in the year fourteen of Darius the king, to - build it in its place like as it was before, and meal-offerings and - incense let them offer upon this altar in the manner it formerly was - done. - -The first of these documents is dated in the 17th year of Darius II, _i. -e._, the year 407 B. C. It states that the temple at Elephantine (Yeb) had -been destroyed by Waidrang and had lain in ruins for three years. The -community which worshiped in the temple had previously written to -Jehohanan, high priest at Jerusalem, probably to ask that he intercede -with the Persian governor Bagohi (Bagoses), but had written in vain. They -now write to Bagohi himself, and also to the two sons of Sanballat, -governor of Samaria (cf. Neh. 2:10, 19, etc.), with the result that the -request is granted, and authority is given to rebuild the temple. - -The fact that there was a temple at Elephantine at all is new and -startling. Its significance is differently interpreted by different -scholars. More conservative scholars claim that it is opposed to the date -which the critical school assign to the date of Deuteronomy, viz.: 621 B. -C., because, if the law against more altars than one had been introduced -then, Jews would not have so soon violated it by building this shrine. -Critics, on the other hand, hold that it fits well with their views, since -they believe that Deuteronomy was accepted by Jews as a whole only -gradually, and after considerable struggle. - -One thing is clear: at the time the temple at Elephantine was overthrown, -the Jews at Jerusalem looked upon it with disfavor.[556] They took no -steps to lay the matter before the Persian governor. It was not till the -aggrieved Egyptian Jews wrote to the heretical Samaritans, Dalajah and -Shelemjah, sons of Sanballat, who would naturally be glad to encourage -another rival to the temple at Jerusalem, that the matter was pushed and -permission given to rebuild the temple. - -This appeal to Sanballat's family throws interesting light on the progress -of the schism between the Jews and the Samaritans.[557] (Compare Nehemiah -4:1, ff; 6:1, ff.; and 13:28.) - -The existence of this temple has an interesting bearing upon the date of -Isa. 19. Some scholars have held that that prophecy, which refers to a -temple of Jehovah in the land of Egypt, is late and must refer to the -temple built by Onias III, about 170 B. C. (Cf. Josephus, _Antiquities_, -xiii, 3:1, 6.) It is now possible to suppose that the reference may well -have been to this hitherto unsuspected temple at Elephantine. - -=2. Hananiah's Passover Letter.= - - To my brethren, Jedoniah and his associates, the Jewish garrison, your - brother Hananiah. The peace of my brethren may God ...... And now this - year, the year 5 of Darius the king, there was sent from the king unto - Arsames .......... Now ye thus shall count fourteen .......... and - from the 15th day unto the 21st day [of Nisan] .......... be ye clean - and guard yourselves. Work ye shall not [do] .......... ye shall not - drink, and all which is leavened ye shall n[ot eat] .......... from - the going down of the sun unto the 21st day of Nisan .......... take - into your rooms and seal between the days of .......... - -This letter is from some Hananiah who seems to have stood high in -authority among Jewish communities. Several Hananiahs are mentioned in the -post-exilic literature. One of them was a military commander in Jerusalem -in the time of Nehemiah (Neh. 7:2), but as that was at least twenty-five -years before the date of our letter, it would be precarious to assert that -that Hananiah was the writer of this letter, though it is possible that he -was. - -From the letter it is clear that the writer is informing the Jewish -garrison at Elephantine concerning the details of the provisions for the -observance of the Jewish Passover, as they are laid down in Exod. 12 and -Lev. 23. It seems strange that these Jews at Elephantine who were faithful -enough to Jehovah to have a temple in his honor, should have needed to be -informed of such details, if they had copies of the Pentateuch. Adherents -of the modern school of criticism see in this fact a confirmation of their -view, that the Levitical law had been introduced into the Jewish community -at Jerusalem only in the time of Ezra and Nehemiah, for, they urge, this -letter shows that it was unknown to the garrison at Elephantine until the -reign of Darius II. To this, conservative scholars reply that it was -customary among the Jews to make yearly proclamation of the approach of -the festival, and that this may be simply such a proclamation. They also -urge that ignorance of the law on the part of some Jews is no proof that -it did not exist. - -=3. Letter Showing that the Jews of Egypt were Unpopular.= - - To my lords, Jedoniah, Uriah, and the priests of the God, Jehovah, - Mattan, son of Joshibiah and Neriah son of ...... thy servant - Mauziyah; the peace of my lords .......... and be favored before the - God of heaven. And now, when Waidrang, the chief of the garrison, came - to Abydos, he imprisoned me on account of a certain precious stone - which they found stolen in the hands of the traders. At last Seha and - Hor, who were known to Anani, exerted themselves with Waidrang and - Hornufi, under the protection of the God of heaven, until they secured - my release. Now behold they are coming thither to you. Do you attend - to them whatever they may desire. And whatever thing Seha and Hor may - desire of you, stand ye before them so that no cause of blame may they - find in you. With you is the chastisement which without cause has - rested upon us, from the time Hananiah was in Egypt until now. And - whatever you do for Hor you do for yourselves. Hor is known to Anani. - Do you sell cheaply from our houses any goods that are at hand; - whether we lose or do not lose, is one to you. This is why I am - sending to you: he said to me: "Send a letter before us." Even if we - should lose, credit will be established because of him in the house of - Anani. What you do for him will not be hidden from Anani. To my lords, - Jedoniah, Uriah, and the priests and the Jews. - -This is a letter sent by a member of the Jewish colony of Elephantine to -his Jewish brethren there, highly recommending to them two men. He was -especially anxious to make a good impression upon these because they were -acquaintances of a certain Anani. This Anani apparently was a man of -influence at the Persian court. His name may be the same as Hanani, -Nehemiah's brother (Neh. 7:2). It has been pointed out that the existence -of two men of the same name who could have influence at the Persian court -would be improbable. This letter shows that since Hananiah came to Egypt, -the Jews have been in affliction, and the writer of this letter is anxious -to make a good impression upon the friends of Anani, so that this -affliction may be removed. - -Scholars of the critical school see in this letter a confirmation of their -view that the Levitical law had but just been introduced into the Egyptian -community. The reference to the "chastisement" or "affliction" which had -rested on the community is thought by them to be, probably, the friction -between Jews and Egyptians caused by the less friendly relations toward -foreigners, which the Levitical law imposed on its devotees. It is, of -course, possible that the "chastisement" may have been due to something -quite different. It should be said, too, that the papyrus is torn somewhat -just where the word rendered chastisement occurs, so that the word itself -is not certain. - - - - -CHAPTER XX - -A BABYLONIAN JOB - - TRANSLATION OF A POEM RELATING TO THE AFFLICTIONS OF A GOOD MAN. - COMPARISON WITH THE BOOK OF JOB. A FRAGMENT OF ANOTHER SIMILAR POEM. - - -=1. Babylonian Poem Relating to Affliction.= - -The following Babylonian poem treats of a mysterious affliction which -overtook a righteous man of Babylonia, and has been compared with the book -of Job.[558] - - 1. I advanced in life, I attained to the allotted span; - Wherever I turned there was evil, evil-- - Oppression is increased, uprightness I see not. - I cried unto god, but he showed not his face. - 5. I prayed to my goddess, but she raised not her head. - The seer by his oracle did not discern the future; - Nor did the enchanter with a libation illuminate my case; - I consulted the necromancer, but he opened not my understanding. - The conjurer with his charms did not remove my ban. - 10. How deeds are reversed in the world! - I look behind, oppression encloses me - Like one who the sacrifice to god did not bring, - And at meal-time did not invoke the goddess, - Did not bow down his face, his offering was not seen; - 15. (Like one) in whose mouth prayers and supplications were locked, - (For whom) god's day had ceased, a feast day become rare, - (One who) has thrown down his fire-pan, gone away from their images, - God's fear and veneration has not taught his people, - Who invoked not his god, when he ate god's food; - 20. (Who) abandoned his goddess, and brought not what is prescribed, - (Who) oppresses the weak, forgets his god, - Who takes in vain the mighty name of his god; he says, I am like him. - But I myself thought of prayers and supplications; - Prayer was my wisdom, sacrifice, my dignity; - 25. The day of honoring the gods was the joy of my heart, - The day of following the goddess was my acquisition of wealth; - The prayer of the king,--that was my delight, - And his music,--for my pleasure was its sound. - I gave directions to my land to revere the names of god, - 30. To honor the name of the goddess I taught my people. - Reverence for the king I greatly exalted, - And respect for the palace I taught the people; - For I knew that with god these things are in favor. - What is innocent of itself, to god is evil! - 35. What in one's heart is contemptible, to one's god is good! - Who can understand the thoughts of the gods in heaven? - The counsel of god is full of destruction; who can understand? - Where may human beings learn the ways of god? - He who lives at evening is dead in the morning; - 40. Quickly he is troubled; all at once he is oppressed; - At one moment he sings and plays; - In the twinkling of an eye he howls like a funeral-mourner. - Like sunshine and cloud[559] their thoughts change; - They are hungry and like a corpse; - 45. They are filled and rival their god! - In prosperity they speak of climbing to Heaven; - Trouble overtakes them and they speak of going down to Sheol. - -(At this point the tablet is broken. We do not know how many lines are -wanting before the narrative is resumed on the back of the tablet.) - -Reverse - - Into my prison my house is turned. - Into the bonds of my flesh are my hands thrown; - Into the fetters of myself my feet have stumbled. - .................................... - 5. With a whip he has beaten me; there is no protection; - With a staff he has transfixed me; the stench was terrible! - All day long the pursuer pursues me, - In the night watches he lets me breathe not a moment; - Through torture my joints are torn asunder; - 10. My limbs are destroyed, loathing covers me; - On my couch I welter like an ox, - I am covered, like a sheep, with my excrement. - My sickness baffled the conjurers, - And the seer left dark my omens. - 15. The diviner has not improved the condition of my sickness; - The duration of my illness the seer could not state; - The god helped me not, my hand he took not; - The goddess pitied me not, she came not to my side; - The coffin yawned; they [the heirs] took my possessions; - 20. While I was not yet dead, the death wail was ready. - My whole land cried out: "How is he destroyed!" - My enemy heard; his face gladdened; - They brought as good news the glad tidings, his heart rejoiced. - But I knew the time of all my family, - 25. When among the protecting spirits their divinity is exalted. - -The above is from a tablet called the "Second" of the series _Ludlul bêl -nimeqi_, _i. e._, "I will serve the lord of wisdom." The "Third" tablet of -the series has been published by R. Campbell Thompson in the _Proceedings -of the Society of Biblical Archæology_, XXXII, p. 18, f. It is -considerably broken, but the parts which are legible are as follows: - - ............................................ - ............................................ - Let thy hand grasp the javelin - Tabu-utul-Bêl, who lives at Nippur, - 5. Has sent me to consult thee, - Has laid his .......... upon me. - In life .......... has cast, he has found. [He says]: - "[I lay down] and a dream I beheld; - This is the dream which I saw by night:-- - 10. [He who made woman] and created man, - Marduk, has ordained (?) that he be encompassed with sickness (?)." - 15. And .......... in whatever .......... - He said: "How long will he be in such great affliction and distress? - What is it that he saw in his vision of the night?" - "In the dream Ur-Bau ap[peared], - A mighty hero wearing his crown, - 20. A conjurer, too, clad in strength, - Marduk indeed sent me; - Unto Shubshi-meshri-Nergal he brought abu[ndance]; - In his pure hands he brought abu[ndance]. - By my guardian-spirit (?) he st[opped] (?)," - 25. [By] the seer he sent a message: - "A favorable omen I show to my people." - .......................................... - ...... he quickly finished; the ...... was broken - ........ of my lord, his heart [was satisfied]; - 30. .......... his spirit was appeased - ............ my lamentation ................. - ................ good .... .......... - -Reverse - - .......................................... - .......................................... - ................ like ................ - He approached (?) and the spell which he had pronounced (?), - 5. He sent a storm wind to the horizon; - To the breast of the earth it bore [a blast], - Into the depth of his ocean the disembodied spirit vanished (?); - Unnumbered spirits he sent back to the under-world. - The ...... of the hag-demons he sent straight to the mountain. - 10. The sea-flood he spread with ice; - The roots of the disease he tore out like a plant. - The horrible slumber that settled on my rest - Like smoke filled the sky .......... - With the woe he had brought, unrepulsed and bitter, he filled the - earth like a storm. - 15. The unrelieved headache which had overwhelmed the heavens - He took away and sent down on me the evening dew. - My eyelids, which he had veiled with the veil of night. - He blew upon with a rushing wind and made clear their sight. - My ears, which were stopped, were deaf as a deaf man's-- - 20. He removed their deafness and restored their hearing. - My nose, whose nostril had been stopped from my mother's womb-- - He eased its deformity so that I could breathe. - My lips, which were closed--he had taken their strength-- - He removed their trembling and loosed their bond. - 25. My mouth, which was closed so that I could not be understood-- - He cleansed it like a dish, he healed its disease. - My eyes, which had been attacked so that they rolled together-- - He loosed their bond and their balls were set right. - The tongue, which had stiffened so that it could not be raised-- - 30. [He relieved] its thickness, so its words could be understood. - The gullet which was compressed, stopped as with a plug-- - He healed its contraction, it worked like a flute. - My spittle which was stopped so that it was not secreted-- - He removed its fetter, he opened its lock. - ............................................ - ............................................ - -=2. Comparison with the Book of Job.= - -A commentary on this text, which has been preserved on a tablet, informs -us that Tabu-utul-Bêl was an official of Nippur in Babylonia.[560] This -story has some striking similarities to the book of Job. It presents also -some striking dissimilarities. - -Tabu-utul-Bêl, like Job, had been a just man. He had been also a religious -man. (See lines 23, ff., p. 392.) The virtues which he claims are similar -to those of Job (see Job 29 and 31); there is, however, this difference: -Job's virtues are social; those of Tabu-utul-Bêl consist of acts of -worship and loyalty. Tabu-utul-Bêl is smitten, like Job, with a sore -disease. To him, as to Job, the providence is inexplicable. He, like Job, -charges his god with inscrutable injustice. The chasm which often yawns -between experience and moral deserts was as keenly felt by the Babylonian -as by the Hebrew. - -Here the parallelism with the book of Job ends. The two works belong to -widely different religious worlds. Job gains relief by a vision of God--an -experience which made him able to believe that, though he could not -understand the reason for the pain of life or its contradictions and -tragedy, God could, and Job now knew God. (See Job 42:4-6.) Tabu-utul-Bêl, -on the other hand, is said to have gained his relief through a magician. -We are apparently told by the fragmentary text that at last he found a -conjurer who brought a messenger from the god Marduk, who drove away the -evil spirits which caused the disease, and so Tabu-utul-Bêl was relieved. -This difference sets vividly before us the greater religious value and -inspiration of the book of Job. It treats the same problem that the -Babylonian poet took for his theme, but between the outlook of the poet -who composed Job and that of the Babylonian poet there is all the -difference between a real experience of God and faith in the black art. - -=3. Another Similar Lament.= - -Another fragment of a lament of a somewhat similar character, written in -the Sumerian language, comes to us on a tablet from Nippur, the very city -with which Tabu-utul-Bêl is said to have been connected. It reads as -follows:[561] - -_Column I_ - - 1. .............................. - 2. .................................. - 3. .................... he carried away, - 4. .................... he destroyed, - 5. .................. spoke to .......... - 6. .................. was destroyed, - 7. .......... completely from on high was destroyed. - 8. I, even I, am a man of destruction. - 9. With might from below he destroyed, - 10. I, even I, am a man of destruction. - 11. Nippur (?)--its temple verily is destroyed, - 12. My city verily is destroyed. - 13. O Enlil, from the height descend, - 14. May Ububul destroy them! - -_Column II_ - - 1. .............................. - 2. .............................. - 3. .............. my food (?) is not, - 4. The ground grain is removed, with the hand he seized it; - 5. My eyes fail. - 6. The shrine of the mother which the silver-smith cast, - 7. To earth he has ground, - 8. Its contents on the earth verily he flung-- - 9. I am a man of destruction!-- - 10. Its contents on the earth verily he destroyed; - 11. I am a man of destruction! - 12. The man from above is wise; - 13. On earth he dwells. - 14. The man who went before, - 15. Hides in the rear. - 16. Namtar my maiden (he snatched away); - 17. Who shall bring the maiden back? - -_Column III_ - - 1. Namtar verily is smitten, yea verily, - 2. Who shall bring back strength? - 3. The smiter has smitten, - 4. Who shall strike him down? - 5. The hero bearing the dagger - 6. He has cast down, - 7. Who shall drag him off? - 8. At the gate of my palace no protector stands, - 9. A man of desolation am I! - 10. The land is completely overthrown, I have no defender, - 11. A man of desolation am I! - 12. The flood fills not the marsh land; - 13. My eye thereon I lift not. - 14. To man's plantations water reaches not, - 15. My hand stretches not out to it. - 16. To the marsh land which the flood filled - 17. Truly the foot walks upon it! - -From this point on the tablet is too broken for connected translation. Dr. -Langdon calls this the lament of a Sumerian Job, but his woes, in so far -as this fragment recounts them, are due to the conquest of his land by an -enemy, and to famine due to a failure of the rivers to overflow. The -parallelism to Tabu-utul-Bêl and to Job might be closer, if we had the -whole tablet. As this tablet is in the script of the first dynasty of -Babylon, it is evident that this kind of lamentation was as early as 2000 -B. C. - - - - -CHAPTER XXI - -PSALMS FROM BABYLONIA AND EGYPT - - CHARACTER OF THEIR PSALMS. BABYLONIAN PRAYERS TO THE GODDESS ISHTAR. - COMPARISON WITH THE PSALTER. A BABYLONIAN HYMN TO THE MOON-GOD. A - BABYLONIAN HYMN TO BEL. AN EGYPTIAN HYMN TO THE SUN-GOD. IS THE HYMN - MONOTHEISTIC? AN EGYPTIAN HYMN IN PRAISE OF ATON. COMPARISON WITH THE - PSALTER. - - -Both from Babylonia and from Egypt a large number of hymns and prayers -have been recovered. Some of these are beautiful on account of their form -of expression, the poetical nature of their thoughts, and the sense of sin -which they reveal. Most of them are clearly polytheistic, and it is rare -that they rise in the expression of religious emotion to the simple -sublimity of the Old Testament Psalms. Such likenesses to the Psalms as -they possess only serve to set off in greater relief the rich religious -heritage which we have in our Psalter. - -A few examples only of the many known hymns are here given. - -=1. A Babylonian Prayer to the Goddess Ishtar.=[562] - - O fulfiller of the commands of Bel .......... - ............................................ - Mother of the gods, fulfiller of the commands of Bel, - Thou bringer-forth of verdure, thou lady of mankind,-- - 5. Begetress of all, who makest all offspring thrive, - Mother Ishtar, whose might no god approaches, - Majestic lady, whose commands are powerful, - A request I will proffer, which--may it bring good to me! - O lady, from my childhood I have been exceedingly hemmed in by - trouble! - 10. Food I did not eat, I was bathed in tears! - Water I did not quaff, tears were my drink! - My heart is not glad, my soul is not cheerful; - ....................... I do not walk like a man. - ............................................. - -Reverse - - ..................... painfully I wail! - My sighs are many, my sickness is great! - O my lady, teach me what to do, appoint me a resting-place! - My sin forgive, lift up my countenance! - 5. My god, who is lord of prayer,--may he present my prayer to thee! - My goddess, who is mistress of supplication,--may she present my - prayer to thee! - God of the deluge, lord of Harsaga,--may he present my prayer to - thee,-- - The god of pity, the lord of the fields,--may he present my prayer - to thee! - God of heaven and earth, the lord of Eridu,--may he present my - prayer to thee! - 10. The mother of the great water, the dwelling of Damkina,--may she - present my prayer to thee! - Marduk, lord of Babylon,--may he present my prayer to thee! - His spouse, the exalted offspring (?) of heaven and earth,--may she - present my prayer to thee! - The exalted servant, the god who announces the good name,--may he - present my prayer to thee! - 15. The bride, the firstborn of Ninib,--may she present my prayer to - thee! - The lady who checks hostile speech,--may she present my prayer to - thee! - The great, exalted one, my lady Nana,--may she present my prayer to - thee! - -=2. A Babylonian Prayer to Ishtar.=[563] - - ........................... He raises to thee a wail; - ........................... He raises to thee a wail; - [On account of his face which] for tears is not raised, he raises to - thee a wail; - On account of his feet on which fetters are laid, he raises to thee - a wail; - 5. On account of his hand, which is powerless through oppression, he - raises to thee a wail; - On account of his breast, which wheezes like a bellows, he raises to - thee a wail; - O lady, in sadness of heart I raise to thee my piteous cry, "How - long?" - O lady, to thy servant--speak pardon to him, let thy heart be - appeased! - To thy servant who suffers pain--favor grant him! - 10. Turn thy gaze upon him, receive his entreaty! - To thy servant with whom thou art angry--be favorable unto him! - O lady, my hands are bound, I turn to thee! - For the sake of the exalted warrior, Shamash, thy beloved husband, - take away my bonds! - 15. Through a long life let me walk before thee! - My god brings before thee a lamentation; let thy heart be appeased! - My goddess utters to thee a prayer, let thy anger be quieted! - The exalted warrior, Anu, thy beloved spouse,--may he present my - prayer to thee! - [Shamash], god of justice,--may he present my prayer to thee! - 20. .......... the exalted servant,--may he present my prayer to thee! - .......... the mighty one of Ebarbar,--may he present my tears to - thee! - ["Thine eye turn truly] to me," may he say to thee! - ["Thy face turn truly to] me," may he say to thee! - ["Let thy heart be at rest"], may he say to thee! - 25. ["Let thy anger be pacified"], may he say to thee! - [Thy heart like the heart of a mother who has brought forth], may it - rejoice! - [Like a father who has begotten a child], may it be glad! - -=3. Comparison of These Prayers with the Psalter.= - -The writers of these lamentations, like the Hebrew Psalmist (see Psa. -17:1; 18:6), cried unto a deity for help. They were both in great -distress, and naturally inferred that their deity was angry, as do Psalms -85:5; 90:7. There is, however, no great consciousness of sin in these -Babylonian complaints. They simply express distress. Unlike the Biblical -Psalms these are polytheistic and their authors call upon other deities to -intercede for them with the goddess, to whom the prayer is addressed and -whom, for the time being, they regard as supreme. The author of this last -penitential psalm asks "How long?" as does Psa. 6:3; 74:10; 90:13. The -idea seems to be that the suffering of the penitent will either atone for -sin or touch the heart of the deity so that the suffering shall be abated. - -=4. A Babylonian Hymn to Sin, the Moon-god.=[564] - - O brilliant barque of the heavens, ruler in thy own right, - Father Nannar, lord of Ur, - Father Nannar, lord of Ekishshirgal, - Father Nannar, lord of the brilliant rising, - 5. O lord, Nannar, firstborn son of Bel, - Thou standest, thou standest - Before thy father Bel. Thou art ruler, - Father Nannar; thou art ruler, thou art guide. - O barque, when standing in the midst of heaven, thou art ruler. - 10. Father Nannar, thou thyself ridest to the brilliant temple. - Father Nannar, when, like a ship, thou goest in the midst of the - deep, - Thou goest, thou goest, thou goest, - Thou goest, thou shinest anew, thou goest, - Thou shinest anew, thou livest again, thou goest. - 15. Father Nannar, the herd thou restorest. - When thy father looketh on thee with joy, he commandeth thy waxing, - Then with the glory of a king brilliantly thou risest. - Bel a scepter for distant days for thy hands has completed. - In Ur as the brilliant barque thou ridest, - 20. As the lord, Nudimmud, thou art established; - In Ur as the brilliant boat thou ridest. - ........................................... - -Reverse - - ............................................... - The river of Bel (?) [Nannar] fills with water. - The brilliant (?) river [Nannar] fills with water. - The river Tigris [Nannar] fills with water. - 5. The brilliance of the Euphrates [Nannar] fills with water. - The canal with its gate Lukhe, [Nannar] fills with water. - The great marsh and the little marsh Nannar fills with water. - -The preceding hymn is made up of a description of the movements and -changes of the moon, together with the expression of a superstition, which -is still widely prevalent, that the moon's changes control the rainfall. -It is a fair example of a Babylonian nature-psalm. It lacks the inspired -and inspiring power of such Hebrew nature-psalms as Psalms 8, 19, 146, -147, and 148. - -=5. A Babylonian Hymn to Bel.=[565] - - O lord of wisdom ................ ruler in thy own right, - O Bel, lord of wisdom .......... ruler in thy own right, - O father Bel, lord of the lands, - O father Bel, lord of truthful speech, - 5. O father Bel, shepherd of the black-headed ones,[566] - O father Bel, who thyself openest the eyes, - O father Bel, the warrior, prince among soldiers, - O father Bel, supreme power of the land, - Bull of the corral, warrior who leadest captive all the land. - 10. O Bel, proprietor of the broad land, - Lord of creation, thou art chief of the land, - The lord whose shining oil is food for an extensive offspring, - The lord whose edicts bind together the city, - The edict of whose dwelling place strikes down the great prince - 15. From the land of the rising to the land of the setting sun. - O mountain, lord of life, thou art indeed lord! - O Bel of the lands, lord of life, thou thyself art lord of life. - O mighty one, terrible one of heaven, thou art guardian indeed! - O Bel, thou art lord of the gods indeed! - 20. Thou art father, Bel, who causest the plants of the gardens to grow! - O Bel, thy great glory may they fear! - The birds of heaven and the fish of the deep are filled with fear - [of thee]. - O father Bel, in great strength thou goest, prince of life, shepherd - of the stars! - O lord, the secret of production thou openest, the feast of fatness - establishest, to work thou callest! - 25. Father Bel, faithful prince, mighty prince, thou createst the - strength of life! - -A line at the end states that the hymn consisted of 25 lines. - -It is a hymn to Bel of Nippur, whose Sumerian name was Enlil. It reveals -an exalted conception of Bel as supreme ruler, as a god who gives life, as -a god of justice whose rule holds society together, but it lacks both the -poetical sublimity and the religious depth and fire of the Hebrew psalms. - -=6. An Egyptian Hymn to the Sun-god (about 1400 B. C.).=[567] - - Hail to thee, beautiful god of every day! - Rising in the morning without ceasing, - [Not] wearied in labor. - When thy rays are visible, - 5. Gold is not considered, - It is not like thy brilliance. - Thou art a craftsman shaping thy own limbs; - Fashioner without being fashioned; - Unique in his qualities, traversing eternity; - 10. Over ways with millions under his guidance. - Thy brilliance is like the brilliance of the sky, - Thy colors gleam more than the hues of it. - When thou sailest across the sky all men behold thee, - (Though) thy going is hidden from their sight. - 15. When thou showest thyself at morning every day, - ...... under thy majesty, though the day be brief, - Thou traversest a journey of leagues, - Even millions and hundred-thousands of time. - Every day is under thee. - 20. When thy setting comes, - The hours of the night hearken to thee likewise. - When thou hast traversed it - There comes no ending to thy labors. - All men--they see by means of thee. - 25. Nor do they finish when thy majesty sets, - For thou wakest to rise in the morning, - And thy radiance, it opens the eyes (again). - When thou settest in Manu,[568] - Then they sleep like the dead. - 30. Hail to thee! O disc of day, - Creator of all and giver of their sustenance, - Great Falcon, brilliantly plumaged, - Brought forth to raise himself on high of himself, - Self-generator, without being born. - 35. Firstborn Falcon in the midst of the sky, - To whom jubilation is made at the rising and the setting likewise. - Fashioner of the produce of the soil, - ............................................... - Taking possession of the Two Lands (Egypt), from great to small-- - 40. A mother profitable to gods and men, - A craftsman of experience, .......... - Valiant herdsman who drives cattle, - Their refuge and the giver of their sustenance, - Who passes by, running the course of the sun-god, - 45. Who determines his own birth, - Exalting his beauty in the body of Nut, - Illuminating the Two Lands (Egypt) with his disc, - The primordial being, who himself made himself; - Who beholds that which he has made, - 50. Sole lord taking captive all lands every day, - As one beholding them that walk therein; - Shining in the sky a being as the sun. - He makes the seasons by the months, - Heat when he desires, - 55. Cold when he desires. - He makes the limbs to languish - When he enfolds them, - Every land is in rejoicing - At his rising every day, in order to praise him. - -This hymn is, so far as its expressions go, monotheistic. One would not -dream from it that there was any god but the sun-god. Nevertheless, other -gods were worshiped. The monotheism here expressed was not of the -intolerant kind which prevailed in Israel, and which ultimately put down -the worship of all rival deities. - -Such an intolerant monotheism was introduced into Egypt by Amenophis IV -(see Part I, p. 29), who took an old name for the sun disc, Aton, as the -name of the one god, and who tried to suppress the worship of all other -gods. The movement failed, but while it lasted it produced the following -beautiful hymn. - -=7. An Egyptian Hymn in Praise of Aton.=[569] - - Thy dawning is beautiful in the horizon of the sky, - O loving Aton, Beginning of life! - When thou risest in the eastern horizon, - Thou fillest every land with thy beauty. - 5. Thou art beautiful, great, glittering, high above every land, - Thy rays, they encompass the lands, even all that thou hast made, - Thou art Re,[570] and thou carriest them all away captive; - Thou bindest them by thy love. - Though thou art far away, thy rays are upon the earth; - 10. Though thou art on high, thy footprints are the day. - - When thou settest in the western horizon of the sky, - The earth is in darkness like the dead; - They sleep in their chambers, - Their heads are wrapped up, - 15. Their nostrils are stopped, - And none seeth the other, - While all their things are stolen - Which are under their heads, - And they know it not. - 20. Every lion cometh forth from his den, - All serpents, they sting. - Darkness ................ - The world is in silence; - He that made them resteth in his horizon. - 25. Bright is the earth when thou risest in the horizon. - When thou shinest as Aton by day - Thou drivest away the darkness. - When thou sendest forth thy rays, - The Two Lands (Egypt) are in daily festivity, - 30. Awake and standing upon their feet - When thou hast raised them up. - Their limbs bathed, they take their clothing, - Their arms uplifted in adoration to thy dawning. - (Then) in all the world they do their work. - - 35. All cattle rest upon their pasturage, - The trees and the plants flourish, - The birds flutter in their marshes, - Their wings uplifted in adoration to thee. - All the sheep dance upon their feet, - 40. All wingèd things fly, - They live when thou hast shone upon them. - - The barques sail upstream and downstream alike. - Every highway is open because thou dawnest. - 45. The fish in the river leap up before thee. - The rays are in the midst of the great green sea. - - Creator of the germ in woman, - Maker of seed in man, - Giving life to the son in the body of his mother, - 50. Soothing him that he may not weep, - Nurse (even) in the womb, - Giver of breath to animate every one that he maketh! - When he cometh forth from the body ...... on the day of his birth, - Thou openest his mouth in speech, - 55. Thou suppliest his necessities. - - When the fledgling in the egg chirps in the shell, - Thou givest him breath therein to preserve him alive. - When thou hast brought him together, - To (the point of) bursting it in the egg, - - 60. He cometh forth from the egg - To chirp with all his might. - He goeth about on his two feet - When he hath come forth therefrom. - - How manifold are thy works![571] - 65. They are hidden from before (us), - O sole God, whose powers no other possesseth. - Thou didst create the earth according to thy heart - While thou wast alone: - Men, all cattle large and small, - 70. All that are upon the earth, - That go about upon their feet; - [All] that are on high, - That fly with their wings. - The foreign countries, Syria and Kush, - 75. The land of Egypt; - Thou settest every man into his place, - Thou suppliest their necessities. - Every one has his possessions, - And his days are reckoned. - 80. The tongues are divers in speech, - Their forms likewise and their skins are distinguished. - (For) thou makest different the strangers. - - Thou makest the Nile in the Nether World, - Thou bringest it as thou desirest, - 85. To preserve alive the people. - For thou hast made them for thyself, - The lord of them all, resting among them; - Thou lord of every land, who risest for them, - Thou Sun of day, great in majesty. - 90. All the distant countries, - Thou makest (also) their life, - Thou hast set a Nile in the sky; - When it falleth for them, - 95. It maketh waves upon the mountains, - Like the great green sea, - Watering their fields in their towns. - - How excellent are thy designs, O lord of eternity! - There is a Nile in the sky for the strangers - 100. And for the cattle of every country that go upon their feet. - (But) the Nile, it cometh from the Nether World for Egypt. - - Thy rays nourish every garden; - When thou risest they live, - They grow by thee. - 105. Thou makest the seasons - In order to create all thy work: - Winter to bring them coolness, - And heat that they may taste thee. - Thou didst make the distant sky to rise therein, - 110. In order to behold all that thou hast made, - Thou alone, shining in thy form as living Aton, - Dawning, glittering, going afar and returning. - Thou makest millions of forms - Through thyself alone; - 115. Cities, towns, and tribes, highways and rivers. - All eyes see before them, - For thou art Aton of the day over the earth. - ............................................. - Thou art in my heart, - 120. There is no other that knoweth thee - Save thy son Ikhnaton.[572] - Thou hast made him wise - In thy designs and in thy might. - The world is in thy hand, - 125. Even as thou hast made them. - When thou hast risen they live, - When thou settest they die; - For thou art length of life of thyself, - Men live through thee, - 130. While (their) eyes are upon thy beauty - Until thou settest. - All labor is put away - When thou settest in the west. - ............................................... - 135. Thou didst establish the world, - And raise them, up for thy son, - Who came forth from thy limbs, - The king of Upper and Lower Egypt, - Living in Truth, Lord of the Two Lands, - 140. Nefer-khepru-Re, Wan-Re (Ikhnaton), - Son of Re, living in Truth, lord of diadems, - Ikhnaton, whose life is long; - And for the chief royal wife, his beloved, - Mistress of the Two Lands, Nefer-nefru-Aton, Nofretete, - 145. Living and flourishing for ever and ever. - -=8. Comparison with the Psalter.= - -This long hymn contains many beautiful passages, and, in addition to the -line "How manifold are thy works!" often reminds one of Psa. 104, though -in religious feeling it falls well below that psalm. Ikhnaton speaks of -himself toward the end of his hymn as the one "whose life is long," but -the poor fellow died before he was thirty years old.[573] His mummy was -found a few years ago, and it is that of a young man. Vain were his hopes, -unless his words refer to the immortal life. - -These Egyptian hymns, like the Babylonian, exhibit a high degree of poetic -and intellectual power, and much deep religious feeling, but the men who -wrote them somehow lacked that deep religious insight and simple power of -emotional expression that were given to the Hebrews. Their compositions -but set in clearer relief the beauty, depth, and inspirational power of -the Hebrew Psalms. - - - - -CHAPTER XXII - -PARALLELS TO PROVERBS AND ECCLESIASTES - - THE NATURE OF THE BOOK OF PROVERBS AND THE PARALLELS. BABYLONIAN - PROVERBS FROM THE LIBRARY OF ASHURBANIPAL. PRECEPTS FROM THE LIBRARY - OF ASHURBANIPAL. COMPARISON WITH THE BIBLE. EGYPTIAN PRECEPTS OF - PTAHHOTEP. COMPARISON WITH THE BIBLE. PARALLEL TO ECCLESIASTES FROM - THE GILGAMESH EPIC. - - -Both Egypt and Babylon furnish parallels to the book of Proverbs. The -Biblical book of Proverbs contains a long connected discourse of advice -(Prov. 1-9) and various collections of disconnected proverbs (Prov. -10-29). Parallels to both are found in Egypt and in Babylonia. The library -of Ashurbanipal contained a collection of proverbs in two languages, -arranged as reading lessons for students. A few examples are here given. - -=1. Some Babylonian Proverbs from the Library of Ashurbanipal.=[574] - - 1. A hostile act thou shalt not perform, that fear of vengeance (?) - shall not consume thee. - - 2. Thou shalt not do evil, that life (?) eternal thou mayest obtain. - - 3. Does a woman conceive when a virgin, or grow great without eating? - - 4. If I put anything down it is snatched away; if I do more than is - expected, who will repay me? - - 5. He has dug a well where no water is; he has raised a husk without - kernel. - - 6. Does a marsh receive the price of its reeds, or fields the price of - their vegetation? - - 7. The strong live by their own wages; the weak by the wages of their - children. - - 8. He is altogether good, but he is clothed with darkness. - - 9. The face of a toiling ox thou shalt not strike with a goad. - - 10. My knees go, my feet are unwearied; but a fool has cut into my - course. - - 11. His ass I am; I am harnessed to a mule; a wagon I draw; to seek - reeds and fodder I go forth. - - 12. The life of day before yesterday has departed today. - - 13. If the husk is not right, the kernel is not right; it will not - produce seed. - - 14. The tall grain thrives, but what do we understand of it? The - meager grain thrives, but what do we understand of it? - - 15. The city whose weapons are not strong--the enemy before its gates - shall not be thrust through. - - 16. If thou goest and takest the field of an enemy, the enemy will - come and take thy field. - - 17. Upon a glad heart oil is poured out of which no one knows. - - 18. Friendship is for the day of trouble; posterity for the future. - - 19. An ass in another city becomes its head. - -The idea is similar to Matt. 13:57: "A prophet is not without honor, save -in his own country, and in his own house." - - 20. Writing is the mother of eloquence and the father of artists. - - 21. Be gentle to thy enemy as to an old oven.[575] - - 22. The gift of the king is the nobility of the exalted; the gift of - the king is the favor of governors. - - 23. Friendship in days of prosperity is servitude forever. - - 24. There is strife where servants are; slander where anointers - anoint. - - 25. When thou seest the gain of the fear of god, exalt god and bless - the king.[576] - -=2. Precepts from the Library of Ashurbanipal.=[577] - - Thou shalt not slander, (but) speak kindly; - Thou shalt not speak evil, (but) show mercy. - Him who slanders (and) speaks evil, - With its recompense will Shamash[578] visit (?) his head. - - Thou shalt not make large thy mouth, but guard thy lip; - In the time of anger thou shalt not speak at once. - If thou speakest quickly, thou wilt repent (?) afterward, - And in silence wilt thou sadden thy mind. - - Daily present to thy god - Offering and prayer, appropriate to incense. - Before thy god mayest thou have a pure heart, - For that is appropriate to deity. - - Prayer, petition, and prostration - Early in the morning shalt thou render him; he will judge thy - burdens (?), - And with the help of God thou wilt be abundantly prosperous. - - In thy wisdom learn of the tablet; - The fear (of God) begets favor, - Offering enriches life, - And prayer brings forgiveness of sins. - -(The text of the rest is too broken for connected translation.) - -=3. Comparison with the Bible.= - -None of the sentiments expressed in these proverbs is identical with any -in the Bible. No. 21 is on the same subject as Prov. 24:17; No. 22 reminds -one slightly of the first clause of Prov. 14:35; No. 23 has the same -sentiment as Prov. 18:24: "He that maketh many friends doeth it to his own -destruction"; while No. 6 is somewhat similar to Prov. 24:21. - -Among the "precepts," that on guarding the lips recalls to one's mind -Prov. 10:19; 13:3; 14:3; 17:28. Reference is made to the "gain of the fear -of God" and it is declared to "beget favor." Job 28:28 declares "the fear -of the Lord, that is wisdom." - -=4. The Precepts of Ptahhotep.= - -These precepts are attributed to a man who lived in the time of the fifth -Egyptian dynasty, about 2650 B. C., and are at least as old as 2000 B. C. -The text is very difficult. The examples given below are taken from -Breasted's[579] condensation of the moral precepts which the treatise -contains. - - 1. If thou findest a wise man in his time, a leader of understanding - more excellent than thou, bend thy arms and bow thy back. - - 2. If thou findest a wise man in his time, thy equal, .......... be - not silent when he speaks evil. Great is the approval by those who - hear, and thy name will be good in the knowledge of the princes. - - 3. If thou findest a wise man in his time, a poor man and not thy - equal, be not overbearing against him when he is unfortunate. - - 4. If thou art a leader (or administrator) issuing ordinances for the - multitude, seek for thee very excellent matter, that thy ordinance may - endure without evil therein. Great is righteousness (truth, right, - justice), enduring ..........; it has not been disturbed since the - time of Osiris. - - 5. Put no fear (of thee?) among the people .......... What the god - commands is that which happens. Therefore live in the midst of quiet. - What they (the gods?) give comes of itself. - - 6. If thou art a man of those who sit by the seat of a man greater - than thou, take what (food) he gives, ...... look at what is before - thee, and bombard him not with many glances (don't stare at him) - ...... Speak not to him until he calls. One knows not what is - unpleasant to (his) heart. Speak thou when he greets thee, and what - thou sayest will be agreeable to (his) heart. - - 7. If thou art a man of those who enter, whom (one) prince sends to - (another) prince, ...... execute for him the commission according as - he saith. Beware of altering a word which (one) prince speaks to - (another) prince, by displaying the truth with the like of it. - - 8. If thou plowest and there is growth in the field, the god gives it - (as) increase in thy hand. Satisfy not thy own mouth beside thy kin. - - 9. If thou art insignificant, follow an able man and all thy - proceedings shall be good before the god. - - 10. Follow thy desire as long as thou livest. Do not more than is told - (thee). Shorten not the time of following desire. It is an abomination - to encroach upon the time thereof. Take no care daily beyond the - maintenance of thy house. When possessions come, follow desire, (for) - possessions are not complete when he (the owner) is harassed. - - [Compare with this precept Eccles. 11:9 and 7:15-17.] - - 11. If thou art an able man, (give attention to the conduct of thy - son). - - ............................................ - - 16. If thou art a leader (or administrator), hear quietly the speech - of the petitioner. He who is suffering wrong desires that his heart be - cheered to do that on account of which he hath come ....... It is an - ornament of the heart to hear kindly. - - 17. If thou desirest to establish friendship in a house, into which - thou enterest as lord, as brother, or as friend, wheresoever thou - enterest in, beware of approaching the women ...... A thousand men are - undone for the enjoyment of a brief moment like a dream. Men gain - (only) death for knowing them. - - [Compare Prov. 5:3, f.] - - 18. If thou desirest that thy procedure be good, withhold thee from - all evil, beware of occasion of avarice ...... He who enters therein - does not get on. It corrupts fathers, mothers, and mothers' brothers. - It divides wife and man; it is plunder (made up) of everything evil; - it is a bundle of everything base. Established is the man whose - standard is righteousness, who walks in its way. He is used to make - his fortune thereby, (but) the avaricious is houseless. - - 19. Be not avaricious in dividing ...... Be not avaricious towards thy - kin. Greater is the fame of the gentle than (that of) the harsh. - - 20. If thou art successful, establish thy house. Love thy wife in - husbandly embrace, fill her body, clothe her back. The recipe for her - limbs is ointment. Gladden her heart as long as thou livest. She is a - profitable field for her lord. - - [Compare Eccles. 9:9.] - - 21. Satisfy those who enter to thee (come into thy office) with that - which thou hast. - - 22. Repeat not a word of hearsay. - - 23. If thou art an able man who sits in the council of his lord, - summon thy understanding to excellent things. Be silent. - - 24. If thou art a strong man, establish the respect of thee by wisdom - and by quietness of speech. - - 25. Approach not a prince in his time. [Apparently an idiom for some - particular mood.] - - 26. Instruct a prince (or official) in that which is profitable for - him. - - 27. If thou art the son of a man of the council, commissioned to - content the multitude, ...... be not partial. Beware lest he (the man - of the multitude?) say, "His plan is that of the princes. He utters - the words in partiality." - - ............................................... - - 29. If thou becomest great after thou wert little, and gettest - possessions after thou wert formerly poor in the city, ...... be not - proud-hearted because of thy wealth. It has come to thee as a gift of - the god. - - 30. Bend thy back to thy superior, thy overseer of the king's house, - and thy house shall endure because of his (or its) possessions and thy - reward shall be in the place thereof. It is evil to show disobedience - to a superior. One lives as long as he is gentle. - - 31. Do not practise corruption of children. - - 32. If thou searchest the character of a friend, ...... transact the - matter with him when he is alone. - - 33. Let thy face be bright as long as thou livest. As for what goes - out of the storehouse, it comes not in again; and as for loaves - (already) distributed, he who is concerned therefor has still an empty - stomach. ["There is no use in crying over spilt milk."] - - 34. Know thy merchants when thy fortunes are evil. - - ......................................... - - 37. If thou hearkenest to these things which I have said to thee, all - thy plans will progress. As for the matter of the righteousness - thereof, it is their worth. The memory thereof shall circulate in the - mouths of men, because of the beauty of their utterances. Every word - will be carried on and not perish in this land forever ....... He who - understands discretion is profitable in establishing that through - which he succeeds on earth. A wise man is satisfied by reason of that - which he knows. As for a prince of good qualities, they are in his - heart and tongue. His lips are right when he speaks, his eyes see, and - his ears together hear what is profitable for his son. Do right - (righteousness, justice, truth), free from lying. - - 38. Profitable is hearkening for a son that hearkens ...... How good - is it when a son receives that which his father says. He shall reach - advanced age thereby. A hearkener is one whom the god loves. Who - hearkens not is one whom the god hates. It is the heart (= - understanding) which makes its possessor a hearkener or one not - hearkening. The life, health, and prosperity of a man is his heart. - The hearkener is one who hears and speaks. He who does what is said is - one who loves to hearken. How good it is when a son hearkens to his - father! How happy is he to whom these things are said! ...... His - memory is in the mouth of the living who are on the earth and those - who shall be. - - 39. If the son of a man receives what his father says, none of his - plans will miscarry. Instruct as thy son one who hearkens, who shall - be successful in the judgment of the princes, who directs his mouth - according to that which is said to him ...... How many mishaps befall - him who hearkens not! The wise man rises early to establish himself, - while the fool is scourged. - - [With the first of this section compare Exod. 20:12; Deut. 5:16. With - the end of it, Prov. 6:9-11; 10:26; 13:4.] - - 40. As for the fool who hearkens not, he accomplishes nothing. He - regards wisdom as ignorance, and what is profitable as diseased - ....... His life is death thereby, ....... he dies, living every day. - Men pass by (avoid?) his qualities, because of the multitude of evils - upon him every day. - - 41. A son who hearkens is a follower of Horus. He prospers after he - hearkens. He reaches old age, he attains reverence. He speaks likewise - to his (own) children, renewing the instruction of his father. Every - man who instructs is like his sire. He speaks with his children; then - they speak to their children. Attain character, ...... make - righteousness to flourish and thy children shall live. - - 42. .......... Let thy attention be steadfast as long as thou - speakest, whither thou directest thy speech. May the princes who shall - hear say, "How good is that which comes out of his mouth!" - - 43. So do that thy lord shall say to thee, "How good is the - instruction of his father from whose limbs he came forth! He has - spoken to him; it is in (his) body throughout. Greater is that which - he hath done than that which was said to him." Behold, a good son, - whom the god gives, renders more than his lord says to him. He does - right (righteousness, etc.), his heart acts according to his way. - According as thou attainest me ("what I have attained"), thy limbs - shall be healthy, the king shall be satisfied with all that occurs, - and thou shalt attain years of life not less than I have passed on the - earth. I have attained one hundred and ten years of life [compare Gen. - 50:26], while the king gave to me praise above (that of) the ancestors - (in the vizierial office) because I did righteousness for the king - even unto the place of reverence (the grave). - -=5. Comparison with the Bible.= - -These precepts, which were written before 1800 B. C., like most of those -in the book of Proverbs, embody much worldly wisdom. They are based on -experience, and while, like Proverbs, they sometimes urge a religious -motive as a reason for right conduct, they frankly advocate it, as -Proverbs often does, on the ground of expediency. The points where the -text is closely parallel to that of Proverbs are few, and these have been -sufficiently pointed out. Some of the passages, as already noted, are -closely parallel to parts of the book of Ecclesiastes. The religious -appeal of the precepts is to Egyptian polytheism, while that of Proverbs -is to Hebrew monotheism. - -=6. A Parallel to Ecclesiastes.= - -The following striking parallel to a passage in Ecclesiastes is taken from -a tablet of the _Gilgamesh Epic_,[580] written in the script of the time -of Hammurapi, about 2000 B. C. - - Since the gods created man,[581] - Death they ordained for man, - Life in their hands they hold. - Thou, O Gilgamesh, fill indeed thy belly, - Day and night be thou joyful, - Daily ordain gladness, - Day and night rage and make merry, - Let thy garments be bright, - Thy head purify, wash with water, - Desire thy children which thy hand possesses, - A wife enjoy in thy bosom, - Peaceably thy work (?) .......... - -This is not only in sentiment strikingly like Eccles. 9:6-9, but in part -closely approaches its language. - - - - -CHAPTER XXIII - -EGYPTIAN PARALLELS TO THE SONG OF SONGS - - NATURE OF THE SONG OF SONGS. TRANSLATION OF SOME EGYPTIAN LOVE-POEMS. - COMPARISON WITH BIBLICAL PASSAGES. - - -For many centuries the Song of Songs has been interpreted allegorically, -but even those who give it an allegorical meaning must admit that its -sentiments are couched in the terms of earthly love. Love poems, which -sometimes express sentiments that remind us of the Song of Songs, have -been discovered on some Egyptian papyri and ostraca. The documents in -which they are written range in their dates from 2000 B. C. to about 1100 -B. C. Selections from these follow:[582] - -I[583] - - Thy love has penetrated all within me - Like [honey?] plunged into water, - Like an odor which penetrates spices, - As when one mixes juice in .......... - - [Nevertheless] thou runnest to seek thy sister, - Like the steed upon the battlefield, - As [the warrior rolls along] on the spokes of his wheels. - - For heaven makes thy love - Like the advance of [flames in straw], - And its [longing] like the downward swoop of a hawk. - -II[584] - - Disturbed is the condition (?) of [my] pool. - [The mouth] of my sister is a rosebud. - Her breast is a perfume. - Her arm [is a ...... bough?] - [Which offers] a delusive seat. - Her forehead is a snare of _meryu_-wood. - - I am a wild goose, a hunted one (?), - My gaze is at thy hair, - At a bait under the trap - That is to catch (?) me. - -"Brother" and "sister" are terms frequently applied to lovers in these -poems. Perhaps it arose from an ancient custom of marriages between -brothers and sisters, which was perpetuated in the royal families of Egypt -down to Roman times. - -The description of the physical attractions of the loved one reminds one -of Cant. 4:1-7. - -III[585] - - Is my heart not softened by thy love-longing for me? - My dogfoot-(fruit) which excites thy passion,-- - Not will I allow it - To depart from me. - - Although cudgeled even to the "Guard of the overflow,"[586] - To Syria, with _shebôd_-rods and clubs, - To Ethiopia, with palm-rods, - To the highlands, with switches, - To the lowlands, with twigs, - - Never will I listen to their counsel, - To abandon longing. - -IV[587] - - The voice of the wild goose cries, - (Where) she has seized their bait, - (But) thy love holds me back, - I am unable to liberate her. - - I must, then, take home my net! - What shall I say to my mother, - To whom formerly I came each day - Loaded down with fowls? - - I shall not set the snares today - For thy love has caught me. - -This is a vivid description of the power of the tender passion. - -V[588] - - The wild goose flies up and soars, - She sinks down upon the net. - - The birds cry in flocks, - But I hasten [homeward], - Since I care for thy love alone. - - My heart yearns for thy breast, - I cannot sunder myself from thy attractions. - -This is a continuation of the preceding. - -VI[589] - - Thou beautiful one! My heart's desire is - To procure for thee thy food as thy husband, - My arm resting upon thy arm.[590] - - Thou hast changed me by thy love. - Thus say I in my heart, - In my soul, at my prayers: - "I lack my commander tonight, - I am as one dwelling in a tomb." - - Be thou but in health and strength,[591] - Then the nearness of thy countenance - Sheds delight, by reason of thy well-being, - Over a heart, which seeks thee (with longing). - -This poem expresses on the part of the man a longing similar to that -expressed by the woman in Cant. 8:1-3. - -VII[592] - - The voice of the dove calls, - It says: "The earth is bright." - What have I to do outside? - Stop, thou birdling! Thou chidest me! - - I have found my brother in his bed, - My heart is glad beyond all measure. - We each say: - "I will not tear myself away." - - My hand is in his hand. - I wander together with him - To every beautiful place. - He makes me the first of maidens, - Nor does he grieve my heart. - -In this poem the loved woman speaks, as in Cant. 8:1-3. - -VIII[593] - - _Sa'am_-plants are in it, - In the presence of which one feels oneself uplifted! - - I am thy darling sister, - I am to thee like a bit of land, - With each shrub of grateful fragrance. - - Lovely is the water-conduit in it, - Which thy hand has dug. - While the north wind cooled us. - A beautiful place to wander, - - Thy hand in my hand, - My soul inspired, - My heart in bliss, - Because we go together. - - New wine it is, to hear thy voice; - I live for hearing it. - To see thee with each look, - Is better than eating and drinking. - -The figure of the garden, with which this poem begins, is also used in -Cant. 5:1 and 6:2, 3. - -IX[594] - - _Ta-'a-ti_-plants are in it! - I take thy garlands away, - When thou comest home drunken, - And when thou art lying in thy bed - When I touch thy feet, - (And) children are (?) in thy .......... - ........................ - [I rise up] rejoicing in the morning - Thy nearness [means to me] health and strength. - -In ancient as in modern times wives loved fondly, while husbands gave way -to drunkenness. - -The poems as a whole make it clear that in Egypt love, which lies at the -basis of all home life, and is in the New Testament made a figure of the -relation of Christ to the Church (see John 3:29; Rev. 21:2, 9), was as -warmly felt as in Israel, and was likewise poetically and passionately -expressed. - - - - -CHAPTER XXIV - -ILLUSTRATIONS OF PASSAGES IN THE PROPHETS - - UNIQUENESS OF THE PROPHETIC BOOKS. AN ASSYRIAN PROPHETIC VISION. - COMPARISON WITH THE BIBLE. THE EGYPTIAN SOCIAL CONSCIENCE. TALE OF THE - ELOQUENT PEASANT. COMPARISON WITH THE BIBLE. AN IDEAL KING; EXTRACT - FROM THE ADMONITIONS OF IPUWER. COMPARISON WITH MESSIANIC - EXPECTATIONS. SHEOL. ISHTAR'S DESCENT TO THE UNDER-WORLD. COMPARISON - WITH PROPHETIC PASSAGES. A LAMENTATION FOR TAMMUZ. - - -There is no other body of literature which closely corresponds to the -books of the Hebrew prophets. The depth of their social passion and the -power of their moral and religious insight form a unique combination. -Nevertheless, texts which have come from Babylonia and Egypt do show that -certain phases of prophetic thought were not without parallels elsewhere. -At times they also illustrate for us thoughts and practices which the -prophets abhorred. A few such texts are here translated. - -=1. A Prophetic Vision.= - -The following statement is taken from the annals of Ashurbanipal, King of -Assyria, 668-626 B. C. It is the conclusion of a passage in which the king -is relating his strenuous struggle with Tiuman, King of Elam. Ashurbanipal -tells how he poured out a libation to Ishtar of Arbela and offered to her -a long prayer against the Elamite king. The narrative then continues:[595] - - In an hour of that night when I prayed to her, a seer lay down; he saw - a prophetic dream. Ishtar caused him to see a vision of the night, and - he announced it to me, saying: "Ishtar who dwells at Arbela entered, - and on her right and left she was behung with quivers, she was holding - a bow in her left hand, she brandished a heavy sword to make war. Thou - wast sitting before her. She, like the mother who bore thee, was - speaking to thee and talking to thee. Ishtar, the exalted one of the - gods, was appointing thee a message: 'Thou shalt expect to accomplish - that[596] at the place which is situated before thee. I am coming.' - Thou wast answering her, saying: 'Where thou goest I will go with - thee, O lady of ladies.' She repeated to thee, saying: 'Thou ...... - indeed dwellest in the place of Nebo. Eat food, drink wine, appoint - rejoicing, exalt my divinity until I go and accomplish this - undertaking ...... I will cause thee to accomplish the wish of thy - heart. Thy face he shall not harm, thy feet he shall not resist; thy - cry shall not come to nought.' In the midst of battle she arms thee - with the desolation of her goodness. She will protect thy whole body. - Before her a fire is blown to capture thy foes." - -The night vision of this seer reminds one a little of Isaiah's vision of -Jehovah in the temple (Isa. 6) and of Zechariah's vision of Joshua and -Satan (Zech. 3:1). The Hebrew prophets as late as the time of Jeremiah -often received their divine messages in dreams. (See Jer. 23:27.) Assyria -had something of the same ideas as Israel as to the revelations of deity -to a prophet, but she lacked Israel's ethical deity. - -=2. The Egyptian Social Conscience.= - -A remarkable appreciation of the rights of the common people is revealed -in an Egyptian story called the "Tale of the Eloquent Peasant,"--a story -which has come down to us in copies made before 1800 B. C. It has been -claimed that this tale indicates the existence of a social conscience in -Egypt analogous to that of the Hebrew prophets. The principal part of the -story is, accordingly, given here. - -The Eloquent Peasant[597] - - There was a man, Hunanup by name, a peasant of Sechet-hemat, and he - had a wife, .......... by name. Then said this peasant to his wife: - "Behold, I am going down to Egypt to bring back bread for my children. - Go in and measure the corn that we still have in our storehouse, - ........ bushel." Then he measured for her 8 (?) bushels of corn. Then - this peasant said to his wife: "Behold, 2 bushels of corn shall be - left for bread for thee and the children. But make for me the 6 - bushels into bread and beer for each of the days [that I shall be on - the road]." Then this peasant went down to Egypt after he had loaded - his asses with all the good products[598] of Sechet-hemat. - - This peasant set out and journeyed southward to Ehnas. He came to a - point opposite Per-fefi, north of Medenit, and found there a man - standing on the bank, Dehuti-necht by name, who was the son of a man - named Iseri, who was one of the serfs of the chief steward, - Meruitensi. - - Then said this Dehuti-necht, when he saw the asses of this peasant - which appealed to his covetousness: "Oh that some good god would help - me to rob this peasant of his goods!" - - The house of Dehuti-necht stood close to the side of the path, which - was narrow, not wide. It was about the width of a ......-cloth, and - upon one side of it was the water and upon the other side was growing - grain. Then said Dehuti-necht to his servant: "Hasten and bring me a - shawl from the house!" And it was brought at once. Then he spread this - shawl upon the middle of the road, and it extended, one edge to the - water, and the other to the corn. - - The peasant came along the path which was the common highway. Then - said Dehuti-necht: "Look out, peasant, do not trample on my clothes!" - The peasant answered: "I will do as thou wishest; I will go in the - right way!" As he was turning to the upper side, Dehuti-necht said: - "Does my corn serve you as a road?" Then said the peasant: "I am going - in the right way. The bank is steep and the path lies near the corn - and you have stopped up the road ahead with your clothes. Will you, - then, not let me go by?" - - Upon that one of the asses took a mouthful of corn. Then said - Dehuti-necht: "See, I will take away thy ass because it has eaten my - corn .........." - - Then the peasant said: "I am going in the right way. As one side was - made impassable I have led my ass along the other, and will you seize - it because it has taken a mouthful of corn? But I know the lord of - this property; it belongs to the chief steward, Meruitensi. It is he - who punishes every robber in this whole land. Shall I, then, be robbed - in his domain?" - - Then said Dehuti-necht: "Is it not a proverb which the people employ: - 'The name of the poor is only known on account of his lord?' It is I - who speak to you, but the chief steward of whom you think."[599] Then - he took a rod from a green tamarisk and beat all his limbs with it, - and seized his asses and drove them into his compound. - - Thereupon the peasant wept loudly on account of the pain of what had - been done to him. Dehuti-necht said to him: "Don't cry so loud, - peasant, or thou shalt go to the city of the Silence-maker" (a name of - the god of the underworld). The peasant said: "Thou beatest me and - stealest my goods, and wilt thou also take the wail away from my - mouth? O Silence-maker! give me my goods again! May I never cease to - cry out, if thou fearest!" - - The peasant consumed four days, during which he besought Dehuti-necht, - but he did not grant him his rights. Then this peasant went to the - south, to Ehnas, to implore the chief steward, Meruitensi. He met him - as he was coming out of the canal-door of his compound to embark in - his boat. Thereupon the peasant said: "Oh let me lay before thee this - affair. Permit one of thy trusted servants to come to me, that I may - send him to thee concerning it." Then the steward, Meruitensi, sent - one of his servants to him, and he sent back by him an account of the - whole affair. Then the chief steward, Meruitensi, laid the case of - Dehuti-necht before his attendant officials, and they said to him: - "Lord, it is presumably a case of one of your peasants who has gone - against another peasant near him. Behold, it is customary with - peasants to so conduct themselves toward others who are near them. - Shall we beat Dehuti-necht for a little natron and a little salt? - Command him to restore it and he will restore it." - - The chief steward, Meruitensi, remained silent; he answered neither - the officials nor the peasant. The peasant then came to entreat the - chief steward, Meruitensi, for the first time, and said: - - "Chief steward, my lord, thou art greatest of the great, thou art - guide of all that which is not and which is. When thou embarkest on - the sea of truth, that thou mayest go sailing upon it, then shall not - the .......... strip away thy sail, then thy ship shall not remain - fast, then shall no misfortune happen to thy mast, then shall thy - spars (?) not be broken, then shalt thou not be stranded; if thou - runnest fast aground, the waves shall not break upon thee, then thou - shalt not taste the impurities of the river, then thou shalt not - behold the face of fear; the shyest (?) fish shall come to thee, and - thou shalt capture the fat birds. For thou art the father of the - orphan, the husband of the widow, the brother of the desolate, the - garment of the motherless. Let me place thy name in this land higher - than all good laws: thou guide without avarice, thou great one free - from meanness, who destroyest deceit, who createst truthfulness. Throw - the evil to the ground. I will speak; hear me. Do justice, O thou - praised one, whom the praised ones praise. Remove my oppression: - behold, I have a heavy ....... to carry; behold, I am troubled of - soul; examine me, I am in sorrow." - -The reference in this address to the orphan and the widow touches a chord -which runs through much of the Old Testament and is especially prominent -in the prophets, as the following references will indicate: Isa. 1:17, 23; -9:17; 10:2; 47:8; Jer. 7:6; 15:8; 18:21; 22:3; 49:11; Ezek. 22:7, 25; -Zech. 7:10; Mal. 3:5; Deut. 10:18; 14:29; Job 29:13, and Psa. 68:5. - -In the Egyptian story Meruitensi was so pleased with the eloquence of the -peasant that he passed him on to another officer and he to still another -until he came before the king. Altogether the peasant made nine addresses. -For lack of space we can reproduce but one more. For this purpose we -select his eighth address. - - This peasant came to implore him for the eighth time, and said: - - "Chief steward, my lord, man falls on account of ...... Greed is - absent from a good merchant. His good commerce is ........ - - "Thy heart is greedy; it does not become thee. Thou despoilest: this - is not praiseworthy for thee ...... Thy daily rations are in thy - house; thy body is well filled ...... The officers, who are set as a - protection against injustice,--a curse to the shameless are these - officers, who are set as a bulwark against lies. - - "Fear of thee has not deterred me from supplicating thee; (if thou - thinkest so), thou hast not known my heart. The silent one, who turns - to report to thee his difficulties, is not afraid to present them to - thee ....... Thy real estate is in the country; thy bread is on thy - estate; thy food is in the storehouse. Thy officials give to thee and - thou takest it. Art thou, then, not a robber? They drag for thee - ...... for thee to the plots of arable land. Do the truth for the sake - of the lord of truth ....... Thou reed of a scribe, thou roll of a - book, thou palette, thou god Thoth, thou oughtest to keep thyself far - removed from injustice. Thou virtuous one, thou shouldst be virtuous; - thou virtuous one, thou shouldst be really virtuous. Further, truth is - true to eternity. She goes with those who perform her to the region of - the dead. He will be laid in the coffin and committed to the earth; - his name will not perish from the earth, but men will remember him on - account of his property: so runs the right interpretation of the - divine word. - - "Does it then happen that the scales stand aslant? Or is it thinkable - that the scales incline to one side? - - "Behold, if I come not, if another comes, then thou hast opportunity - to speak as one who answers, as one who addresses the silent, as one - who responds to him who has not spoken to thee. Thou hast not been - ......; thou hast not been sick. Thou hast not fled; thou hast not - departed. But thou hast not yet granted me any reply to this beautiful - word which comes from the mouth of the sun-god himself: 'Speak the - truth; do the truth: for it is great, it is mighty, it is everlasting. - It will obtain for thee merit, and will lead thee to veneration.' - - "For does the scale stand aslant? It is their scale-pans that bear the - objects, and in just scales there is no ...... wanting." - -The beauty of the sentiments about truth is obvious. The references to -scales are to those that were supposed to weigh the deeds of the dead in -the under-world. - -After a ninth speech on the part of the peasant, the tale concludes as -follows: - - Then the chief steward, Meruitensi, sent two servants to bring him - back. Thereupon the peasant feared that he would suffer thirst, as a - punishment imposed upon him for what he had said. Then the peasant - said ...... (The Egyptian of this address contains difficulties which - have never been solved.) - - Then said the chief steward, Meruitensi: "Fear not, peasant! See, thou - shalt remain with me." Then said the peasant: "I live because I eat of - thy bread and drink thy beer forever." - - Then said the chief steward, Meruitensi: "Come out here ........" Then - he caused them to bring, written on a new roll, all the addresses of - these days. The chief steward sent them to his majesty, the king of - Upper and Lower Egypt, Neb-kau-re, the blessed, and they were more - agreeable to the heart of his majesty than all that was in his land. - His majesty said, "Pass sentence thyself, my beloved son!" Then the - chief steward, Meruitensi, caused two servants to go and bring a list - of the household (of Dehuti-necht) from the government office, and his - possessions were six persons, with a selection from his ......, from - his barley, from his spelt, from his asses, from his swine, from his - .......... - -From this point on only a few words of the tale can be made out, but it -appears from these that the goods selected from the estate of Dehuti-necht -were given to the peasant and he was sent home rejoicing. - -=3. An Ideal King.= - -In the wisdom literature of Egypt appear the admonitions of an Egyptian -sage called Ipuwer. In these admonitions a time of dire distress is -pictured, in view of which the sage longs for the presence of an ideal -king. Some scholars have compared the description of this ideal king with -the prophetic conception of the Messiah. - -It is unnecessary to quote the whole work, which is fragmentary and -difficult of translation. A few passages will answer our purpose. - -From the Admonitions of Ipuwer[600] - - .......... The door-keepers say: Let us go and plunder. The - confectioners .......... The washerman refuses to carry his load - .......... The bird-catchers have drawn up in line of battle - .......... The inhabitants of the Marshes carry shields. The brewers - .......... sad. A man looks upon his son as his enemy; - .................... - - .................................................................. - - Noble ladies suffer like slave girls. Musicians are in the chambers - within the halls. What they sing to the goddess Mert is dirges - ........... Forsooth, all female slaves are free with their tongues. - When the mistress speaks it is irksome to the servants. Forsooth, - princes are hungry and in distress. Servants are served .......... by - reason of mourning. Forsooth, the hot-headed (?) man says: "If I knew - where God is, then would I make offerings unto him." Forsooth, right - is throughout the land in this its name. What men do in appealing to - it is wrong. Forsooth, all animals, their hearts weep. Cattle moan - because of the state of the land .................... Forsooth, the - ways are .......... The roads are guarded. Men sit over the bushes - until the benighted traveler comes, in order to plunder his burden. - What is upon him is taken away. He is belabored with blows of the - stick and slain wrongfully. - - Forsooth, that has perished which yesterday was seen (?). The land is - left over to its weariness (?) like the cutting of flax. Poor men are - in affliction .......... Would that there might be an end of men, no - conception, no birth! O that the earth would cease from noise, and - tumult be no more! .......... Forsooth, grain has perished on every - side. People are stripped of clothes, spices (?) and oil. Everybody - says there is none. The storehouse is ruined. Its keeper is stretched - on the ground. It is no happy thing for my heart (?) .......... Would - that I had made my voice heard at that moment, that it might save me - from the pain in which I am (?) .......... Behold, the powerful of the - land, the condition of the people is not reported to them. All is - ruin! Behold, no craftsmen work. The enemies of the land have spoilt - its crafts. - -Similar descriptions of the disorganized state of society might be quoted -at much greater length. The passage in which Ipuwer mentions the ideal -king is as follows: - - .......... lack of people .................... Re; command (?) - .......... the West to diminish (?) .......... by the [gods?]. Behold - ye, wherefore does he [seek] to fashion [mankind], .......... without - distinguishing the timid man from him whose nature is violent. He - bringeth coolness upon that which is hot. It is said: he is the - herdsman of mankind. No evil is in his heart. When his herds are few, - he passes the day to gather them together, their hearts being on fire. - Would that he had perceived their nature in the first generation of - men; then would he have repressed evils, he would have stretched forth - his arm against it, he would have destroyed their seed and their - inheritance .......... Where is he today? Is he sleeping? Behold, his - might is not seen. - -Vogelsang held this to be a picture of a kind of ideal king, comparable in -some respects to the prophetic conception of the Messiah in such passages -as Isa. 9:1-6; 11:1-8. To this view Gardiner has objected that the -parallelism is not real, in that there seems to have been in the mind of -the Egyptian sage no expectation that such a king would actually rise, but -rather the belief that he once existed as the god Re and has now vanished -from earth. To this Breasted and Gressmann reply that the kingly figure is -a purely ideal one, and that Ipuwer feels strongly that, if he were on -earth all wrongs would be set right, and that in some degree the picture -is parallel to the conceptions of the Messiah. - -The description of disorganized society which is here reflected is -patterned on conditions which existed in Egypt before 2000 B. C., and the -conception of the ideal king is equally old. - -=4. Sheol.= - -In Isa. 14:9-11 and Ezek. 32:21-31 we find descriptions of Sheol or the -under-world. These descriptions are closely parallel to the following -Babylonian poem. - -Ishtar's Descent to the Under-world[601] - - Unto the land of No-return, the land of darkness, - Ishtar, the daughter of Sin, determined to go, - The daughter of Sin determined to go, - Unto the house of darkness, the dwelling of Irkalla, - 5. Unto the house whose enterer never comes out, - Along the way whose going has no return, - Unto the house whose enterer is deprived of light, - Where dust is their food, their sustenance, clay, - Light they do not see, in darkness they dwell; - 10. They are clothed, like birds, with a covering of wings. - Over door and bolt the dust is spread. - Ishtar, when she arrived at the gate of the land of No-return - To the keeper of the gate addressed a word: - "Keeper of the waters, open thy gate! - 15. Open thy gate! Let me enter! - If thou dost not open thy gate, that I may enter, - I will shatter the door, I will break the bolt, - I will shiver the threshold, break down the doors; - I will bring up the dead to devour the living!" - 20. The keeper opened his mouth and spake, - He said to Ishtar, the great: - "Stay, my lady, do not destroy it, - Let me go, let me announce thy name to Queen Allat." - The keeper went in, he spake [to Allat]: - 25. "This water thy sister, Ishtar, [has crossed] - As a servant of great powers [she comes]." - When Allat heard this, - Like the cutting of the tamarisk [was her laugh], - 30. Like the crackling of reeds. [She cried]: - "What has turned her mind to me? .......... - These waters I with .......... - For food I will eat clay, for drink I will drink .......... - I will weep for men who have abandoned their wives, - 35. I will weep for maidens torn from their husbands' bosoms, - I will weep for children snatched away before their time. - Go, keeper, open thy gate to her; - Do to her according to the ancient custom." - The keeper went and opened to her his gate: - 40. "Enter, my lady; the under-world is glad, - The palace of the land of No-return rejoices at thy coming." - He brought her through the first gate, made it wide, he took the - great crown from her head. - "Why, O keeper, hast thou taken the great crown from my head?" - "Enter, my lady, such are the commands of Allat." - 45. He brought her through the second gate, he made it wide, he took - the ornaments from her ears. - "Why, O keeper, hast thou taken the ornaments from my ears?" - "Enter, my lady, for such are the commands of Allat." - He brought her through the third gate, he made it wide, he took the - necklace from her neck. - "Why, O keeper, hast thou taken the necklace from my neck?" - 50. "Enter, O lady, for such are the commands of Allat." - He brought her through the fourth gate, he made it wide, he took - the ornaments from her breasts. - "Why, O keeper, hast thou taken the ornaments from my breast?" - "Enter, my lady, for such are the commands of Allat." - He brought her through the fifth gate, he made it wide, he took the - girdle with birth-stones from her waist. - 55. "Why, O keeper, hast thou taken the girdle with birth-stones from - my waist?" - "Enter, my lady, for such are the commands of Allat." - He brought her through the sixth gate, he made it wide, he took the - bracelets from her hands and feet. - "Why, O keeper, hast thou taken the bracelets from my hands and - feet?" - "Enter, my lady, for such are the commands of Allat." - 60. He brought her through the seventh gate, he made it wide, he took - the breech-cloth from her body. - "Why, O keeper, hast thou taken the breech-cloth from my body?" - "Enter, my lady, for such are the commands of Allat." - When Ishtar had gone down to the land of No-return, - Allat saw her and became enraged at her. - 65. Ishtar took no heed; she sat down above her. - Allat opened her mouth and spake, - To Namtar, her messenger, she addressed a word: - "Go, Namtar, lock [her in my palace], - Bring out against her sixty diseases .......... Ishtar, - 70. Disease of the eyes against her [eyes], - Disease of the side against her [sides], - Disease of the feet against her [feet], - Disease of the heart against [her heart], - Disease of the head against [her head], - 75. Against her altogether .........." - After Ishtar, the lady, [went down to the land of No-return] - The bull with the cow did not unite, nor the ass approach the - she-ass; - The man in the street no more approached the maid; - The man slept in his chamber, - 80. The maid slept by her oven. - Papsukal, messenger of the great gods, was sad of countenance - before [Shamash], - Clad in mourning, wearing foul garments. - Then went Shamash into the presence of Sin, his father; he wept, - Before Ea, the king, his tears flowed: - 85. "Ishtar has gone down into the earth; she has not come up. - Since Ishtar went down to the land of No-return, - The bull with the cow does not unite, nor the ass approach the - she-ass; - The man no more approaches the maid in the street; - The man sleeps in his chamber, - 90. The maid sleeps by her oven. - Then Ea in the wisdom of his heart created a man, - He created Asushunamir, the priest. - "Go, Asushunamir, to the gate of the land without return set thy - face, - The seven gates of the land without return shall be opened before - thee, - 95. Allat shall behold thee, and shall rejoice in thy presence. - When her heart has been appeased, and her soul revived, - Conjure her also by the name of the great gods. - Turn thy thoughts to the skin which pours forth life: - 'O lady, give me the skin which pours forth life, that I may drink - water from it.'" - 100. When Allat heard this, - She beat upon her thigh, she bit her finger: - "Thou hast uttered a wish not to be wished. - Go, Asushunamir; I curse thee with a great curse. - The sewage of the gutters of the city shall be thy food, - 105. The cesspools of the city shall be thy drink, - The shadow of the walls shall be thy dwelling, - The thresholds shall be thy habitation, - Confinement and privation shall shatter thy strength." - Allat opened her mouth and spoke, - 110. To Namtar, her messenger, she addressed the word: - "Go, Namtar, knock at the palace of justice, - Tap at the thresholds of gleaming (?) stones, - Bring out the Annunaki,[602] seat them on golden thrones, - Sprinkle Ishtar with the water of life and bring her before me." - 115. Namtar went, he knocked at the palace of justice, - He tapped at the thresholds of gleaming (?) stones, - He brought forth the Annunaki, he seated them on golden thrones, - He sprinkled Ishtar with the water of life, he brought her forth. - He brought her out of the first gate, he restored to her the - breech-cloth of her body; - 120. He brought her through the second gate, he restored to her the - bracelets of her hands and feet; - He brought her through the third gate, he restored to her the - girdle with birth-stones for her waist; - He brought her through the fourth gate, he restored to her the - ornaments of her breasts; - He brought her through the fifth gate, he restored to her the - necklace of her neck; - He brought her through the sixth gate, he restored to her the - ornaments of her ears; - 125. He brought her through the seventh gate, he restored to her the - crown of her head. - (End of legend. The priest begins:) - "If she does not grant to thee her release, turn to her again; - To Tammuz, the beloved of her youth, - Pour out water, offer good oil, - With red clothing clothe him, let him play a flute of lapis lazuli. - 130. Let the joyful maidens turn, ..................... - When Belili has established her ritual, - With precious stones her bosom is filled." - The wailing for her brother she heard; Belili interrupted the - ritual of .... - With precious stones she filled the front of .......... - (Voice from the dead.) - 135. "My only brother, harm me not; - On the day of Tammuz, play for me the lapis lazuli flute, play the - _Santu_-flute with it, - When the wailing men and women play with it, - Let the dead return, let them smell incense." - -The description of the darkness of the under-world and the sad conditions -of life with which this poem begins, shows that the Babylonians shared the -gloomy views of Sheol which Isa. 14:9-11 and Ezek. 32:21-31 express. - -The middle of the poem expresses the view of the ancient Semites, that the -goddess of love once went down to the under-world, and that as a result -all propagation of life ceased on the earth. The end of it alludes to the -later belief that the goddess went down every year for her beloved Tammuz -who had died, and the wailing alluded to is that spoken of by Ezekiel in -Ezek. 8:14, where the prophet says he saw women wailing for Tammuz. The -kind of sentiment uttered in this wailing the next extract will -illustrate. - -=5. A Lamentation for Tammuz.=[603] - - The lord of destiny (?) lives no more, the lord of destiny (?) - lives no more. - [Tammuz the ...... ] lives no more, ...... lives no more. - The bewailed one (?) lives no more, the lord of destiny (?) - lives no more. - I am queen, my husband lives no more. - 5. My son lives no more. - Dagalushumgalanna lives no more. - The lord of Arallu lives no more. - The lord of Durgurgurru lives no more. - The shepherd, the lord Tammuz lives no more. - 10. The lord, the shepherd of the folds lives no more. - The consort of the queen of heaven lives no more. - The lord of the folds lives no more. - The brother of the mother of wine lives no more. - [He who creates] the fruit of the land lives no more. - 15. The powerful lord of the land lives no more. - When he slumbers the sheep and lambs slumber also. - When he slumbers the goats and kids slumber also. - As for me, to the abode of the deep will I turn my thoughts, - To the abode of the great ones I turn my thoughts. - 20. "O hero, my lord, ah me," I will say, - "Food I eat not," I will say, - "Water I drink not," I will say, - "My good maiden," I will say, - "My good husbandman," I will say, - 25. "Thy lord, the exalted one, to the nether world has taken his way, - Thy lord, the exalted one, to the nether world has taken his way." - On account of the exalted one of the nether world, him of the - radiant face, yea, radiant, - On account of the exalted one of the nether world, him of the - dovelike voice, yea, dovelike, - On account of the exalted one, the lord, on account of the lord, - 30. Food I eat not on account of the lord, - Water I drink not, on account of the lord. - "My good maiden, because of the lord, - My good husbandman, on account of the lord, - The hero, your lord has been destroyed, - 35. The god of grain, the child, your lord, has been destroyed." - His kindly look gives peace no more, - His kindly voice imparts cheer (?) no more; - .......... in his place, like a dog he sleeps; - My lord in his .......... slumbers like a raven - 40. Alone is he, himself, - My lord, for whom the wail is raised. - - (Forty-one lines--a psalm on the flute to Tammuz.) - -This poem illustrates what Ezekiel may have heard in vision, when in -spirit he was brought to the northern gate of the temple, and heard women -wailing for Tammuz (Ezek. 8:14). - - - - -CHAPTER XXV - -REPUTED SAYINGS OF JESUS FOUND IN EGYPT - - EARLY COLLECTIONS OF THE WORDS OF JESUS. TRANSLATION OF SAYINGS FOUND - IN 1897. COMMENTS. TRANSLATION OF A LEAF FOUND IN 1904. COMMENTS. - OPINIONS AS TO THESE SAYINGS. - - -The Gospel of Luke begins with the words: "Forasmuch as many have taken in -hand to draw up a narrative concerning those matters which have been -fulfilled among us,"--words which imply that there were in the early -Church many attempts at Gospel writing. Some of these attempts apparently -took the form of collecting the sayings of Jesus. At Oxyrhynchus in Egypt -two different leaves of papyrus have been found on which such sayings are -written. The first of these was found by Grenfell and Hunt in 1897; (Fig. -301). It begins in the middle of a sentence, but it is a sentence the -beginning of which can be supplied from Matt. 7:5. When complete the -sentence runs thus:[604] - - =[Jesus saith, Cast out first the beam from thine own eye], and then - shalt thou see clearly to cast out the mote that is in thy brother's - eye.= - -On this saying compare Matt. 7:5; Luke 6:42. - -The second one runs: - - =Jesus saith, Except ye fast to the world, ye shall in no wise find - the kingdom of God; and except ye keep the sabbath, ye shall not see - the Father.= - -This saying does not occur in the Gospels, and has given rise to wide -discussion among scholars. - -The third is as follows: - - =Jesus saith, I stood in the midst of the world, and in the flesh was - I seen of them, and I found all men drunken, and none found I athirst - among them, and my soul grieveth over the sons of men, because they - are blind in their heart [and see not], poor, and know not their - poverty.= - -This saying also is not found in the Gospels. It is difficult to tell -whether it was thought to have been spoken by Jesus before or after the -resurrection. - -The fourth saying is difficult of translation and interpretation, since -the text is not at all clear. As emended by Harnack and Swete, it would -run: - - =Jesus saith, Wherever there are two they are not without God, and if - one is alone anywhere, I say I am with him. Raise the stone, there - thou shalt find me; cleave the wood, and there I am.= - -This saying has given rise to much discussion and to a large literature, -but reference can here be made only to Henry van Dyke's poem _Felix_. With -the last part of the saying Matt. 18:20 should be compared. - -The fifth saying is as follows: - - =Jesus saith, A prophet is not acceptable in his own country, neither - doth a physician work cures upon them that know him.= - -The first part of this is akin to Luke 4:24; Mark 6:4; Matt. 13:57, and -John 4:44. The last part of it is not in the Gospels. - -The sixth one reads: - - =Jesus saith, A city built on the top of a high hill and firmly - established can neither fall nor be hid.= - -In this saying the thought of Matt. 5:14 is combined with that of Matt. -7:24, 25, but there is no necessary literary dependence upon Matthew. - -The seventh and last saying on this leaf is: - - =[Jesus saith,] Thou hearest with one ear, but the other thou hast - closed.= - -This, too, is not found in our Gospels. - -In 1904 another leaf of sayings of Jesus was found at the same place. It -begins with a general introduction, thus:[605] - - =These are the [wonderful?][606] words which Jesus the living Lord - spake [to the disciples] and to Thomas, and he said to them: Every one - that hearkens to these words shall never taste of death.= - -These words formed the general introduction to a collection of sayings of -Jesus, similar to that from which the sayings already quoted were taken. -The leaf also contained a few of the sayings which stood in the -collection. They are as follows: - - =Jesus saith, Let not him who seeks ...... cease until he finds, and - when he finds he shall be astonished; astonished he shall reach the - kingdom, and having reached the kingdom he shall rest.= - -The Gospels contain parallels to parts of this saying. (See Matt. 6:33; -7:7; 13:44; Luke 5:9.) - -The second of these sayings is longer: - - =Jesus saith, [Ye ask (?) who are those] that draw us [to the kingdom, - if] the kingdom is in heaven? ...... the fowls of the air, and all the - beasts that are under the earth or upon the earth, and the fishes of - the sea, [these are they which draw] you, and the kingdom of heaven is - within you; and whosoever shall know himself shall find it. [Strive - therefore (?)] to know yourselves, and ye shall be aware that ye are - the sons of the [Almighty (?)] Father; [and (?)] ye shall know that ye - are in [the city of God (?)] and ye are [the city (?)].= - -The first part of this saying attributes to Christ a saying evidently -based on the thought of Job 12:7, 8. Other parts of the saying recall Luke -17:21 and Luke 20:36, though the phrases which remind us of these passages -form but a small part of the saying and appear here in quite a different -connection. - -The third saying runs: - - =Jesus saith, A man shall not hesitate ...... to ask ...... concerning - his place [in the kingdom. Ye shall know] that many that are first - shall be last and the last first and [they shall have eternal life - (?)].= - -A part of this saying follows Mark 10:31 and Matt. 19:30; cf. also Luke -13:30. The last clause is conjectural, but, if correct, is similar to John -3:16, 36; 5:24. - -The fourth: - - =Jesus saith, Everything that is not before thy face and that which is - hidden from thee shall be revealed to thee. For there is nothing - hidden which shall not be made manifest, nor buried which shall not be - raised.= - -The last part of this saying is parallel to Matt. 10:26; Luke 12:2; see -also Mark 4:22. - -The fifth: - - =His disciples question him and say, How shall we fast and how shall - we [pray (?)] ...... and what [commandment] shall we keep? ...... - Jesus saith, ...... do not ...... of truth ...... blessed is he - ........= - -The papyrus is so broken that we cannot hope to recover this saying in its -entirety, but it is clear that it differed from the others in having an -introductory clause which gave the occasion when it was uttered. - -Judgments have differed as to whether all these sayings are really sayings -of Jesus. That there were sayings of his known in ancient times that are -not recorded in our Gospels is shown by Acts 20:35. Some, at least, of -these sayings are so like those of Jesus that it is not difficult to -believe them his. But whether they are his or not, these papyri make clear -to us what Luke meant when he said "many have taken in hand to draw up a -narrative." - - - - -CHAPTER XXVI - -ARCHÆOLOGICAL LIGHT ON THE ENROLMENT OF QUIRINIUS - - TRANSLATION OF A PAPYRUS SHOWING THAT IN THE SECOND CENTURY ENROLMENT - WAS MADE EVERY FOURTEEN YEARS. COMMENTS. TRANSLATION REFERRING TO AN - ENROLMENT IN THE REIGN OF NERO. FRAGMENT FROM THE REIGN OF TIBERIUS. - ENROLMENTS PROBABLY INAUGURATED BY AUGUSTUS. DOCUMENT SHOWING THAT - PEOPLE WENT TO THEIR OWN TOWNS FOR ENROLMENT. INSCRIPTION SUPPOSED TO - REFER TO QUIRINIUS. INSCRIPTION FROM ASIA MINOR REFERRING TO - QUIRINIUS. DISCUSSION. CONCLUSIONS. - - -Archæological research has recently thrown much light upon the census of -Quirinius mentioned in Luke 2:1-5. The evidence has come in part from -ancient records on papyri which have been dug up in Egypt, some of which -are herewith translated. - -The following extract from a large papyrus establishes the fact that a -census or an assessment-list was made in the Roman empire every fourteen -years. - -=1. Papyrus Showing Enrolment Every Fourteen Years.=[607] - - After the death of my wife Aphrodite, or, as she was called by some, - Aphroditoute, having departed from the district of Herakles and - Sabinos, I enrolled the other children who dwell with Mysthes who is - called Ninnos, who was 33 years old, and after the others, the wife of - my son Mysthes who is called Ninnos, viz.:--Zozime, freed-woman of - Ptolemaios Ammoniarios, daughter of Marion Geomytha, and was 22 years - old, (who was living with her mistress, in the enrolment of the 9th - year; at the time of the enrolment she [Zozime] was living in the - Greek quarter, but has now moved into the neighboring quarter of - Apolloneios Hierax) and the children of these two, Ammonios, aged 5, - and Didymos, aged 4, and Aut ........, were not otherwise enrolled in - the enrolment in the first year of the Emperor Cæsar Marcus Aurelius - Antoninus Augustus and the Emperor Cæsar Lucius Aurelius Verus - Augustus, on the thirtieth of Payni [_i. e._, June 24, 161 A. D.]. To - Potomon, governor of the Arsinoite district of Herakles, and - Asclepiades, the royal census-taker, and Agathos Daimon and Dioskoros, - census-takers of the metropolis, on behalf of Mysthes who is called - Ninnos, Mysthes, son of Philo, whose mother is Herais, daughter of - Ammoniosone, of the citizens of the metropolis, who are enrolled from - the quarter of Apolloneios Hierax: there belongs to me in the district - of Ammonios 1/12 part of the place called Nekpherotios, in which I - enroll myself and my household for the current enrolment of the 14th - year according to the household enrolment, as also I enrolled myself - according to the household enrolment in the 23rd year of Antoninus - (_i. e._, 160-161 A. D.); I am also Mysthes who is also called Ninnos; - the one enrolled is 59 years old, and his wife, Zozime, the - freed-woman of Ammoniarios, daughter of Marion, who was enrolled in - the household enrolment of the 23rd year in the same quarter, is 38 - years old, and the children of those two, ........ not enrolled in the - enrolments, 11 years old, and likewise Dioskoros 10 (?) years old, and - likewise ........, 9 years old, and a daughter, Isidora, 8 years old: - thus I make my deposition. 15th year of the Emperor Marcus Aurelius - Antoninus Cæsar, the lord. Intercalary Mesore: (_i. e._, the end of - August, 175 A. D.). - -This papyrus, dated in the year 175 A. D., is very important as it proves -that the census came every fourteen years. The enrolment mentioned at the -end of it was made in connection with the census of 174-175 A. D., since -the document is dated in August of the year 175. The enrolment mentioned -about the middle of the document was the enrolment of 160-161 A. D. That -was dated in the summer of 161. The one mentioned near the beginning of -the quotation as having been made in the 9th year must refer to the census -of the year 146-147, and the 9th year of Antoninus Pius, which was the -year 147. The proof that the census was taken every fourteen years[608] is -of the greatest importance to our subject, as will appear below. - -This enrolment was made by one Mysthes Ninnos on behalf of his son, who -was also called Mysthes Ninnos, the wife of the son who was a freed-woman, -called Zozime, and their children, who were the grandchildren of the man -making the enrolment. Mysthes Ninnos, the grandfather, had been married -twice. His first wife was named Aphrodite; after her death he married -Herais, the mother of the son, Mysthes Ninnos. - -=2. Translation Referring to an Enrolment in the Reign of Nero.=[609] - - Copy of an enrolment of Ammonios and ...... ios, the gymnasiarch and - librarian of the public library in the city of Arsinoe, in the - presence of Pa ...... xineos ...... Paesios, son of Myo, priest of - those who are from Karanis of the district of Heracles. According to - the commands through the most excellent governor, Lucius Julius - Vestinus, I have enrolled today my goods which are free from debt and - mortgage and lien; in the neighboring village, a third part of my - father's house and courtyard, and places cleared of abodes, two lots - of a half acre each, which were bought from Mesoereus, son of - Nekpheros, in the fifth year of Nero Claudius Cæsar Augustus - Germanicus, Emperor, and a house in the village, which was bought from - Onnophreus, son of Peteoræpeus, in the sixth year of Nero Claudius - Cæsar Augustus Germanicus, Emperor. Whatever I make from these or buy - in addition I will first report as it shall occur. - -The date of this document, which is only a copy, is not given, but as it -refers to two transactions in real estate, which were dated respectively -in the 5th and 6th years of Nero, and as that monarch's reign began in -October of the year 54 A. D., it is probable that this is a copy of an -enrolment made in connection with the census of 62-63 A. D. This proves -that the system of taking the census once in fourteen years was in -operation as early as the reign of Nero. - -=3. Fragment from the Reign of Tiberius.=[610] - - To Eutychides and Theon, local census-takers and village - census-takers, from Horion and Petosiris, priest of Isis, the most - great goddess, of the temple called the Two Brothers in the city of - Oxyrhynchus on the street Myrobalanos, near the Serapeum. Those who - live in the house which belongs to me and my wife Tasis and to - Taurius, son of Harbichis, and to Papontos, son of Nechthesorios, and - to Thæchemere, in the house which is near the aforesaid temple of the - Two Brothers are as follows: - -The papyrus at this point becomes too mutilated for further translation. - -The importance of this document is revealed by an examination of the names -of the officers, Eutychides and Theon. Another papyrus from the same -place, which contains a notice of a removal, is dated in the 6th year of -the Emperor Tiberius.[611] As these officers were still in office when -this census was taken, this must be the census of the year 20-21 A. D. - -=4. Enrolments Probably Inaugurated by Augustus.= - -Another papyrus contains a list of people who were exempt from poll-tax in -the 41st year of the reign of Augustus.[612] As the poll-tax was -intimately connected with the census, it is altogether probable that the -census was inaugurated by Augustus. As he became emperor in 27 B. C. and -at once proceeded to organize his empire, the census may have begun early -in his reign. If there was one in 20 A. D. there would be one in 6 A. D., -9-8 B. C., and possibly in 23-22 B. C. If there was not one in 23-22, that -in 9-8 B. C. would be the first. This is the one to which reference is -made in Luke 2:2. If the birth of Jesus occurred at the time of this -census, it must have been earlier than we usually suppose. Ramsay thinks -that the taking of the census in Judah may have been delayed till 7 or 6 -B. C., on account of Jewish prejudices. - -=5. Document Showing that People Went to Their Own Towns for Enrolment.= - -In connection with the census of Quirinius it is stated in Luke 2:3: "All -went to enroll themselves, every one to his own city." This has been felt -by many scholars to be an improbable statement, and has been cited as an -evidence of the unhistorical character of the whole story of the census in -Luke. In this connection part of a papyrus discovered in Egypt, which is -dated in the 7th year of the Emperor Trajan, 103-104 A. D., is of great -interest. This document contains three letters. The third of the letters -is the one which relates to our subject. It is as follows:[613] - - Gaius Vibius, chief prefect of Egypt. Because of the approaching - census it is necessary that all those residing for any cause away from - their own homes, should at once prepare to return to their own - governments, in order that they may complete the family administration - of the enrolment, and that the tilled lands may retain those belonging - to them. Knowing that your city has need of provisions from the - country, I wish .......... (At this point the papyrus becomes too - fragmentary for connected translation.) - -It is perfectly clear that in Egypt the enrolment was done on the basis of -kinship. The word rendered "family" above [[Greek: synêthê]] means -"kindred" in the larger sense. The phrase rendered "belonging to" [them, -_i. e._, the tilled lands] also means "kindred." It appears, then, that in -Egypt the enrolment of each district was intended to include all the -kinsmen belonging to that district, and that, lest those residing -elsewhere should forget to return home for the census, proclamations were -issued directing them to do so. It is well known that in many respects the -customs of administration in Syria and Egypt were similar. Luke's -statement, that Joseph went up from Nazareth to Bethlehem, because he was -of the house and lineage of David, to enroll himself with Mary (Luke 2:4, -5), turns out to be in exact accord with the governmental regulations as -we now know them from the papyri. - -=6. Inscription Supposed to Refer to Quirinius.= - -A fragmentary inscription found at Rome in 1828 is thought by Mommsen and -others to prove that Quirinius was governor of Syria twice, and that the -governorship to which Josephus refers (_Antiquities_, XVII, i, 1), which -was coincident with the deposition of Archelaus in 6 A. D., was his -second appointment. The inscription as filled out by Mommsen and others -reads:[614] - - [P. Sulpicius Quirinius, consul ..........; as proconsul obtained - Crete and Cyrene as a province ..........; as legate of the divine - Augustus, obtaining Syria and Phoenicia he waged war with the tribe of - Homonadenses who had killed Amyntas the k]ing; when he returned into - the domi[nion of the Emperor Cæsar] Augustus and the Roman people, the - senate [decreed] thanksgivings [to the immortal gods] on account of - the two success[ful accomplishments] and triumphal ornaments to him; - as proconsul he ob[tained] Asia as a province; as the legate of the - divine Augustus he [obtained] again Syria and Phoenicia. - -If this inscription were intact its evidence would be decisive, but -unfortunately it is only a fragment, and the name of Quirinius is just -that which has to be supplied from other inscriptions. That so eminent a -scholar as Mommsen thought that this name was the one which once began the -inscription is of weight, but it does not compensate for the loss of the -name. - -=7. Inscription from Asia Minor Referring to Quirinius.=[615] - -The following inscription, discovered by Prof. Ramsay and Mr. J. G. C. -Anderson, of Oxford, is believed by Ramsay to prove that Quirinius was -governor of Syria between 10 and 7 B. C. - - To Gaius Caristanius - (son of Gaius of the Sergian tribe) Fronto - Caesianus Juli[us], - Chief of engineers, pontifex, - priest, prefect of P. Sulpicius Quirinius duumvir, - prefect of M. Servilius. - To him first of all men - at public expense by decree of the decuriones, - a statue was erected. - -This inscription was found at Antioch, a fortified colony in southeastern -Phrygia or southern Galatia, in the year 1912. The name Caristanius -connects its erection with the time of the Hamonadian war, 10-7 B. C. That -Quirinius received the honor of an election to the office of honorary -duumvir of the colony at this time, is held by Ramsay to prove that he had -been sent to Syria as governor, and had been military commander in the war -against the Hamonades. It was the benefits which accrued to the little -colony of Antioch from his victories in this war, which led to the -election and the erection of this statue. Ramsay, accordingly, holds that -this inscription proves Quirinius to have been governor of Syria about -11-7 B. C., and this confirms the statement of Luke 2:2, that the census -at the time when Jesus was born was the first enrolment, when Quirinius -was governor of Syria. - -One objection to this theory is that from other sources (Josephus, -_Antiquities_, XVI, x, 8; xi, 3), it appears that Sentius Saturninus was -governor of Syria at this time, _i. e._, from 9-7 B. C., just at the time -when, according to the papyri, the census should occur. This is supported -by a statement of Tertullian, that Jesus was born when Saturninus was -governor of Syria. To meet this objection, Ramsay supposes either that the -authority of Quirinius and of Saturninus overlapped, the former being -military commander and the latter civil governor, or that Quirinius ruled -until about July 1st of the year 8, the census year, and Saturninus then -took office. These are, however, mere possibilities. We have not yet clear -information concerning these points. - -Later, in 6 A. D., Quirinius was sent out to Syria again (see Tacitus, -_Annales_, III, 48), and took over as governor of Syria the kingdom of -Judah on the deposition of Archelaus, and conducted the census there of -6-7 A. D. (See Josephus, _Antiquities_, XVIII, i.) Many scholars have held -that Luke confused this governorship with earlier events and was -accordingly in error as to his chronology by at least ten years, but the -archæological facts here collected tend to corroborate Luke's accuracy on -this point. It should be added that Luke knew that Quirinius had charge of -the census in Palestine in 6 A. D., as Josephus states, for he says: "This -was the first enrolment made when Quirinius was governor of Syria." - -=8. Conclusions.= - -It should in all candor be noted just what archæology has proved -concerning this matter, and what points are still, from the archæological -side, outstanding. It has proved that the census was a periodic occurrence -once in fourteen years, that this system was in operation as early as 20 -A. D., and that it was customary for people to go to their ancestral -abodes for enrolment. It has made it probable that the census system was -established by Augustus, and that Quirinius was governor of Syria twice, -though these last two points are not yet fully established by -archæological evidence. So far as the new material goes, however, it -confirms the narrative of Luke. - - - - -CHAPTER XXVII - -ARCHÆOLOGICAL LIGHT ON THE ACTS AND EPISTLES - - THE POLITARCHS OF THESSALONICA. AN ALTAR TO UNKNOWN GODS. AN - INSCRIPTION FROM DELPHI AND THE DATE OF PAUL'S CONTACT WITH GALLIO. - SOME EPISTLES FROM EGYPT. INSCRIPTIONS MENTIONING ARETAS, KING OF - ARABIA. - - -=1. The Politarchs of Thessalonica.= - -In Acts 17:6 the rulers of Thessalonica are called in the Greek -"politarchs." It is a unique term, and its accuracy had been called in -question by some scholars. Within the past hundred years no less than -nineteen inscriptions have come to light which prove its accuracy, by -referring to the rulers of Thessalonica as "politarchs." One of the most -important of these is from an arch in Thessalonica. It runs in part as -follows, the beginning being illegible:[616] - - In the time of the Politarchs, Sosipatros, son of Cleopatra, and - Lucius Pontius Secundus Publius Flavius Sabinus, Demetrius, son of - Faustus, Demetrius of Nicopolis, Zoilos, son of Parmenio, and Meniscus - Gaius Agilleius Poteitus ...... - -Another fragmentary inscription shows that the rulers of the city bore -this title as early as the time of Augustus. It is in part:[617] - - Bosa, proconsul, made a stone-quarry for the temple of Cæsar, in the - time of the priest and judge, the Emperor Cæsar, the divine son - Augustus .........., the politarchs remaining faithful, - viz.:--Diogenes, the son of Kleon, the ...., etc. - -It is not clear from the inscriptions whether the number of politarchs was -five or six. - -=2. An Altar to Unknown Gods.= - -In Acts 17:23 it is stated that Paul saw in Athens an altar with this -inscription: TO AN UNKNOWN GOD. In the year 1909 an altar was discovered -in the sacred precinct and temple of Demeter at Pergamos in Asia Minor, -the home of one of the seven churches of the book of Revelation (Rev. -2:12, f.), which bore a mutilated inscription; (see Fig. 299). This -inscription in the judgment of several impartial epigraphists should be -restored as follows:[618] - - To unknown gods, - Capito, - torch-bearer. - -This is not only a confirmation of the statement of Acts 17:23, but of -Pausanias[619] (second century A. D.) and Philostratus[620] (third century -A. D.) that altars to unknown gods existed. - -=3. The Date of Paul's Contact with Gallio.= - -The chronology of the life of Paul cannot be fully determined from the -Bible itself. Such chronological data as the New Testament affords help us -only to a relative chronology. Could the year of one of the dates given by -the New Testament be determined by a date of the Roman empire, it would -enable scholars to fix with approximate certainty the other dates. -Hitherto the endeavor to do this has centered about the recall of Felix -from Palestine and the coming of Festus (Acts 24:27), but there has been -so much uncertainty about the date of this recall, that systems of -chronology, differing from one another by from four to five years, have -been constructed. A fragmentary inscription has come to light from Delphi, -which seems to give us the desired aid for our Pauline chronology in that -it fixes the date of the coming of Gallio to Corinth (Acts 18:12). This -inscription, as its lacunæ are supplied by Deissmann, is as follows: - - Tiberius Claudius Cæsar Augustus Germanicus, Pontifex Maximus, of - tribunican authority for the 12th time, imperator the 26th time, - father of the country, consul for the 5th time, honorable, greets the - city of the Delphians. Having long been well disposed to the city of - the Delphians .......... I have had success. I have observed the - religious ceremonies of the Pythian Apollo .................... now it - is said also of the citizens .................... as Lucius Junius - Gallio, my friend, and the proconsul of Achaia, wrote .......... on - this account I accede to you still to have the first[621] .......... - -At this point the inscription is too broken for translation, although the -beginnings of several lines can be made out. The importance of the -inscription lies (1) in the fact that it mentions Gallio as proconsul of -Achaia, and (2) in the reference to the 12th tribunican year and the 26th -imperatorship of Claudius. It can be deduced from these, in comparison -with other inscriptions of his, that this letter was written between -January and August of the year 52 A. D.[622] If Gallio was then in office, -and had been in office long enough to give information to Claudius of -material importance to the purpose of the emperor's letter to the -Delphians, Gallio must have arrived in Corinth not later than the year 51. -According to Dio Cassius, Claudius had decreed that new officials should -start for their provinces not later than the new moon of the month of -June.[623] Gallio must, therefore, have arrived in Corinth not later than -July. - -Paul's stay in Corinth extended over eighteen months (Acts 18:11), and the -narrative in Acts implies that a large part of it had passed before Gallio -went there. Paul must, then, have arrived in Corinth not later than the -end of the summer of the year 50. As the journey described in Acts 16 must -have occupied some months, the council at Jerusalem, described in Acts 15, -cannot have taken place later than the year 49 A. D. In Gal. 2:1 Paul says -that this visit occurred fourteen years after the visit which followed his -return from Damascus. As the Jews in counting time usually reckoned the -two extremes as a part of the number, even if a part of them only should -really have been included, the visit of Paul to Jerusalem, mentioned in -Gal. 1:18 must have occurred not later than 36 A. D., nor earlier than 35 -A. D. As this visit occurred "three" years after his conversion, we find, -if we make similar allowance for the possibilities of Jewish reckoning, -that his conversion occurred not later than 34 A. D., and possibly as -early as 31 A. D.[624] - -=4. The Epistles.= - -The Epistles of the New Testament, especially those of Paul, are cast in -the form of ancient letter-writing. This form in its more stately aspects -has long been known through the letters of Aristotle, Epicurus, Cicero, -Seneca, Pliny, etc., but the papyri discovered in Egypt afford us many -examples of the more familiar and affectionate style of informal -letter-writing, and frequently, at the beginning, afford parallels to -expressions which are found in the introductions of Paul's Epistles. The -following examples will illustrate this: - - Isias to her brother, greeting: If you are well and other things - happen as you wish, it would be in accordance with my constant prayer - to the gods. I too am in good health, and so is the boy; and all at - home make constant remembrance of you. When I got the letter through - Horus, in which you explain that you are in sanctuary at the Serapeum - in Memphis, I straightway gave thanks to the gods for your being in - good health, but as for your not coming to us when the evils that - threatened you there have passed away, I am disconsolate because such - a long time I have been keeping myself and the child, and am come to - the lowest point on account of the price of bread, and I did think - that now you were coming I should find a little relief, but you seem - to have no idea of coming to us, nor to have an eye to our - circumstances, as you would if you were still here. We are in need of - everything, not only because such a long time and so many seasons have - passed since you were here, but because you have not sent us anything. - And besides that, Horus, who brought your letter, tells me further - that you are released from sanctuary, and I am perfectly miserable. - No, indeed! and your mother, too, takes it very hard, and you will do - well to come for her sake as well as ours to the city, unless some - more pressing need draws you elsewhere. Farewell, then, and have a - care for your body so as to be in health. Good-bye. - - Epephi 30th, of the 9th year.[625] - -This letter was written in the year 172 B. C. "Brother" in it probably -means husband. The husband had gone on a religious mission and has left -the wife without support. He at last sent her a letter, and this is her -reply. She wishes to persuade him to return, and writes with great tact. -What she says about remembering her husband in her prayers, and her thanks -to the gods for his health, reminds one of the language of Paul in 1 -Thess. 1:2; 3:9; 2 Thess. 1:3, 11; 2:13; 1 Cor. 1:4; 2 Cor. 1:4-6; Phil. -1:3, 9; Col. 1:3; Philemon 4. - -Another letter which illustrates the same points is this: - - Ammonios to his sister Tachnumi, much greeting: Before all things I - pray that you may be in health, and each day I make the act of worship - for you. I salute heartily my goodest little boy Leo. I am jolly and - so is the horse and Melas. Don't neglect my son. I salute Senchris, - and I salute your mother. I likewise salute Pachnumi and Pachnumi - junior. I salute ...... and Amenothis. Hurry up about the boy until we - go to my place. If I come to the place and see the place, I will send - for you and you shall come to Pelusium, and I will come to you at - Pelusium. I salute Steches, the son of Pancrates. I salute Psemmouthis - and Plato. If your brothers dispute with you, come to my house and - stay there until we see what to do. Don't neglect it. Write me of your - own welfare and of my boy's. Hurry up over the matter of the farm. I - wrote this letter in Themuis on the fifth of the month Phamenoth. We - have two days more, and then we will arrive at Pelusium. Melas greets - you all by name. I salute Psenchnumi, the son of Psentermout. I pray - that you may be well and strong.[626] - -The sentence of this letter which follows the greeting is couched in -almost the same language as 3 John 2, and the number of people saluted in -it and the manner of their salutation reminds one strongly of Rom. -16:3-16. - -Clearly the New Testament Epistles conform in their affectionate -expressions to the forms that were often employed by other letter-writers -of that period of history. - -=5. Paul and Aretas, King of Arabia.= - -Paul says: "In Damascus the governor under Aretas the king guarded the -city of the Damascenes in order to take me."[627] Aretas is called by -Josephus king of Arabia. He was Haretat IV, King of the Nabathæan Arabs. -These Nabathæans were found in Arabia by the Assyrian King Ashurbanipal -(668-626 B. C.); they conquered Edom about 400 B. C., driving the Edomites -over into southern Judah; they helped one of the successors of Alexander -the Great at the battle of Gaza in 312 B. C., and founded a dynasty of -kings that lasted until overthrown by the Roman Emperor Trajan in 106 A. -D. Haretat IV belonged to this line. The following Aramaic inscription, -dated in his reign, affords monumental confirmation of his existence: - - This is the tomb which Halafu, son of Kosnatan, made for himself and - for Shaidu, his son, and his brothers, whatever males are born from - this Halifu, both their sons and descendants by right of inheritance - forever. And those who may be buried in this sepulcher and in this - structure are this Shaidu and Manuath, Kenushath, and Ribamath, and - Umaiyath and Shalimath, daughters of this Halifu. Also no descendant - of Shaidu has authority, and no man after him of their sons or - descendants, to sell this sepulcher, or to inscribe an epitaph or an - emblem for anyone, except for the wife of one of them, or for his - daughters, or kinsman, or relative by marriage he may inscribe the - tomb. If any one shall do contrary to this, then the fine of Dushara, - the god, our lord, shall be imposed upon him to the extent of five - hundred silver shekels of Haretat, and in accordance with this - inscription shall be deposited in the temple of Kaisha. Month Nisan, - year fortieth of Haretat, King of the Nabathæans, who loves his - people. Rauma and Abdobodat, stone-cutters.[628] - -As Haretat ruled from 9 B. C. to 40 A. D., this inscription was written in -31 A. D., just a few years before Paul escaped from the officers of -Haretat at Damascus. There are many other inscriptions dated in the reign -of this king. - -Another reads as follows: - - This is the sepulcher and two monuments over it, which Abdobodat, the - general, made for Aitebel, the general, his father, and for Aitebel, - the commander of the two camps which are in Luhitu and Abarta, the son - of Abdobodat. This is in the district of their command, which they - exercised in the two places for thirty-six years in the reign of - Haretat, King of the Nabathæans, who loves his people. The - above-mentioned (monument) was constructed in the forty-sixth year of - his reign.[629] - -The forty-sixth year of Haretat was the year 37 A. D. The monument here -translated was found at Medeba east of the Jordan (see Num. 21:30; Josh. -13:9), and the two places mentioned in it are believed to be Nabathæan -names for Medeba and Rabbah Ammon (2 Sam. 11:1, etc.). It is evidence that -Haretat had held this territory for a long time. Paul's escape from -Damascus (2 Cor. 11:32) occurred between the date of the preceding -inscription and this one. - - - - -APPENDIX - -(Appearing first in Second Edition.) - - -I - -Addition to Part I, Chapter III, §2, (3), p. 70. - -The discoveries at Carchemish included Hittite inscriptions, one of which -is said to be longer than any Hittite writing yet discovered. A number of -stone deities were also found, one of which is a bearded god of the eighth -century B. C. seated on a heavy base supported by two lions. Three large -gateways were found. On the inside of the court of one of these were -dadoes from five to six feet high, "with sculptured slabs of alternating -black diorite and white limestone adorned with carved figures of bulls, -horses, and chariots." The acropolis was surmounted by the ruins of a -palace of King Sargon of Assyria, who conquered Carchemish, and by the -ruins of a Roman palace. An avenue of broad steps, more than a hundred -feet long, led up to these. - - -II - -Addition to Part I, Chapter III, §3, to be read after (7) on p. 74. - -(8) _Hrozny_, a Hungarian scholar, published in the _Mitteilungen der -deutschen Orient-Gesellschaft zu Berlin_, No. 56 (December, 1915), a new -study of the problem of Hittite decipherment. Owing to the war the -publication has not reached the writer. An excellent _résumé_ of it has, -however, been published by Professor J. H. Moulton in the _Expository -Times_, xxviii, 106 ff. (December, 1916). - -It appears that in April, 1914, Professor Hrozny and Doctor Figulla went -to Constantinople and copied cuneiform inscriptions from Boghaz Koi until -the war recalled them. Hrozny's study is based on this cuneiform material. -He reaches the conclusion that Hittite is not only an Indo-European -language, but that it also belongs to the western half of the -Indo-European family. In other words, he finds it more closely related to -Greek, Latin, Keltic, and the Teutonic tongues than to the Slavonic, -Lithuanian, Armenian, and Persian languages, or to Sanscrit and its -daughters. According to Hrozny, then, the Hittites came from western -Europe, or the center from which the western European peoples radiated. He -thinks they crossed into Asia by way of the Bosphorus. He supports his -contention by some most interesting philological analogies. The Mitanni, -on the other hand, belonged, he thinks, to the eastern half of the -Indo-European family. They were closely related to the Slavs, Lithuanians, -Armenians, Persians, etc. The indications seem to be that they entered -Asia by way of the Caucasus. We await further evidence with great -interest. - - -III - -Addition to Part I, Chapter III, §9, p. 102. - -Professor George L. Robinson, who was in Jerusalem in the spring of 1914 -as Director of the American School, has published in the _American Journal -of Archæology_, Vol. XXI, p. 84 (January-March, 1917), a brief statement -of the discoveries on Ophel and at Balata. He mentions the finding on -Ophel of a tower with rock-cut foundations, certain cave-tombs with oval -roofs, a cistern with Roman baths, an inn, a Greek inscription (which -tells of a synagogue), and an underground, rock-cut aqueduct, running -parallel to and probably older than that of Hezekiah, which conducts the -water of Gihon to the Pool of Siloam. - -At Balata the foundations of old Hebrew houses were discovered, together -with a portion of the Amorite city-wall, which was thick and oblique. The -ruins of a palace were also found and a great triple gateway, the longest -yet excavated in Palestine. This gate was on the west of the city. Near -the tell an Egyptian sarcophagus was found, which some have thought might -be the coffin of Joseph. - - -IV - -A NEW BABYLONIAN ACCOUNT OF THE CREATION OF MAN - -To supplement Part II, Chapter II, p. 257. - -Since the first edition of this book went to press, the writer has had the -good fortune to discover among the tablets from Nippur in the University -Museum in Philadelphia a new Babylonian account of the creation of man. -The text is written in the Sumerian language, and the script is of the -mixed cursive variety that was employed during the time of the first -dynasty of Babylon and the Kassite dynasty. The text is accordingly older -than 1200 B. C., and may have been written before 2000 B. C. It reads as -follows: - - 1. The mountain of heaven and earth - - 2. The assembly of heaven, the great gods, entered. Afterwards, - - 3. Because Ashnan had not come forth, they conversed together. - - 4. The land Tikku had not created; - - 5. For Tikku a temple-platform had not been filled in; - - 6. A lofty dwelling had not been built; - - 7. The arable land was without any seed; - - 8. A well and a canal (?) had not been dug; - - 9. Horses and cattle had not been brought forth, - - 10. So that Ashnan could shepherd herd and corral. - - 11. The Anunna, the great gods, had made no plan; - - 12. There was no _ses_-grain of thirty-fold; - - 13. There was no _ses_-grain of fifty-fold; - - 14. Small grain, mountain-grain, and great _sal_-grain there were not; - - 15. A possession and houses there were not; - - 16. Tikku had neither entered a gate nor gone out; - - 17. Together with the lady Nintu the lord had not brought forth men. - - 18. The god Ug came; as leader he came to plan; - - 19. Mankind he planned; many men were brought forth. - - 20. Food and sleep he planned for them; - - 21. Clothing and dwellings he did not plan for them. - - 22. The people with rushes and rope came, - - 23. By making a dwelling a kindred was formed. - - 24. To the gardens ...... they gave drink. - - 25. On that day their [gardens] sprouted (?) .... - - 26. Their lands covered (?) ............ - - ..................................................... - - .......................................................... - - ............................................................. - - ............................................................... - -Reverse - - 1. ........................................ - - 2. Father Enlil (?) ............................. - - 3. ........ standing grain .................... - - 4. For mankind ............................ - - 5. .................. creation of Entu .................... - - 6. Father Enlil ................................ - - 7. Duazagga, the way of the gods ............ - - 8. Duazagga, the brilliant, for my god I guard (?). - - 9. Entu and Enlil to Duazagga ............ - - 10. A dwelling for Ashnan from out of Duazagga I will [make?] for - thee. - - 11. Two-thirds of the fold perished (?); - - 12. His plants for food he created for them; - - 13. Ashnan rained on the field for them; - - 14. The moist (?) wind and the fiery storm-cloud he created for them. - - 15. Two-thirds of the fold stood. - - 16. For the shepherd of the fold joy was overthrown; - - 17. The house of rushes did not stand; - - 18. From Duazagga joy departed. - - 19. From his dwelling, a lofty height, his boat - - 20. Descended; from heaven he came - - 21. To the dwelling of Ashnan; the scepter he brought forth to them; - - 22. His brilliant city he raised up, he appointed for them; - - 23. The reed-country he planted, he appointed for them; - - 24. The falling rain the hollows caught for them; - - 25. A dwelling-place was their land; food made men multiply; - - 26. Prosperity entered the land; it caused them to become a multitude. - - 27. He brought to the hand of man the scepter of command. - - 28. The lord caused them to be, and they came into existence. - - 29. Companions calling them, a man with his wife he made them dwell. - - 30. At night as fitting companions they are together. - -A colophon states that the tablet contained sixty lines. Only five lines -are entirely broken away. - -Ashnan was a god of vegetation. Tikku, who had not created the land, was a -personified river-bank. The story begins, therefore, before the beginning -of vegetation and before the creation of dykes in Babylonia. As in the -text translated in Chapter VIII, Part II, considerable space is occupied -with the things that were non-existent when the process of creation began. -The last sentence of this section asserts that the lord and Nintu had not -brought forth men. Nintu is the goddess who in the creation story -translated in Chapter VII, Part II, appears as the mother of mankind (see -p. 279). The new tablet then states that Ug, the lion god, identified by a -later text with Shamash, the sun god, first came forth to plan. "Mankind -he planned; many men were brought forth." The word rendered "planned" has -also the meaning "know," as in Gen. 4:1, where Adam is said to have known -Eve. It seems probable, therefore, that the text indicates that men were -born from a natural union of Ug and Nintu, just as it is said on p. 284, -in another text from Nippur, that irrigation resulted from a similar union -of the sun-god and Nintu. This shows that among the Sumerians there were -different conceptions of the way mankind was made. A Babylonian story of -the making of a man which is much more like the narrative of Gen. 2 than -that contained in this new tablet is given on p. 256. - -After telling how men were brought forth, and how they were left to -provide houses and clothing for themselves, the new tablet tells how reed -huts, similar to those still seen in the Babylonian marshes, were made. -Clans were formed and irrigation begun. Here the obverse becomes too -broken for connected translation. - -At the beginning of the reverse several lines are fragmentary. From what -can be made out, some god seems to be addressing Enlil. Reference is made -to Duazagga, the heavenly abyss, which is described as "the way of the -gods," probably an allusion to the Milky Way. It is implied that the gods -live along this way. It seems that all was not going well with men on the -earth, so this deity proposed to make a dwelling for Ashnan, the god of -agriculture, outside of Duazagga, presumably on the earth. Two-thirds of -the fold perished; Ashnan accordingly created plants as food for men. This -reminds us of how plants and fruits were given to man as food in Gen. -1:29. Ashnan also caused it to rain in order to promote the growth of -vegetation. This, however, created a new evil. The reed huts were washed -away, together with a third of the fold. Some god, probably Enlil, -accordingly came down from heaven, and built a city. This gave to human -society the required stability. In this stable society the god gave the -scepter of command into man's hand just as in Gen. 1:28 man is given -dominion over all the lower orders of life. In this connection we find the -statement: - -"The lord caused them to be and they came into existence," the form of -which reminds one of the statement in Gen. 1:3, "God said, Let there be -light: and there was light." - -The next line: "Companions calling them, a man with his wife he made them -dwell," recalls Gen. 2:18 and 24. The last line of the text is the -Babylonian equivalent of the last clause of Gen. 2:24. - -This text as a whole describes the creation of man, sketches the -vicissitudes of pastoral life, and ends with a statement of the greater -security and prosperity of urban life. It attributes the origin of -everything to the gods. - - * * * * * - -Addition to Part II, Chapter XI, p. 309. - -The entrance of Abraham and later of Jacob and his sons into Egypt in time -of famine (Gen. 12:10 and 47:5-12) is strikingly illuminated by the -following reports of officials stationed at fortresses on the Egyptian -border. - -The first of these texts was inscribed in the tomb of Harmhab, the -founder of the nineteenth dynasty, though there is reason to believe that -it was written during the reign of Amenophis IV of the eighteenth dynasty -(1375-1357 B. C.). Some of the lines are broken. It reads as follows: - - ....... Asiatics; others have been placed in their abodes ...... they - have been destroyed, and their town laid waste, and fire has been - thrown ......... [they have come to entreat] the Great in Strength to - send his mighty sword before ....... Their countries are starving, - they live like goats of the mountain, [their] children ....... saying: - "A few of the Asiatics, who knew not how they should live, have come - [begg]ing [a home in the domain] of Pharaoh ....., after the manner of - your fathers' fathers since the beginning under, ......... Now, the - Pharaoh .... gives them into your hand, to protect their - borders."[630] - -The second text comes from the reign of Merneptah (1225-1215 B. C.). It -reads as follows: - - Another matter for the satisfaction of my lord's heart [to wit]: We - have finished passing the tribes of the Shasu of Edom through the - fortress of Merneptah-Hotephirma ... in Theku, to the pools of Pithom, - of Merneptah-Hotephirma in Theku, in order to sustain them and their - herds in the domain of Pharaoh ..., the good sun of every land - ......... I have caused them to be brought ........ other names of - days when the fortress of Merneptah-Hotephirma may be passed, - ....[631] - -These texts make it evident that at different periods of Egyptian history -Asiatic tribes in time of famine and stress sought and found refuge in -Egypt as the Israelites are said to have done. - - -VI - -ALLEGED TRACES OF THE "TEN TRIBES" IN EXILE - -To supplement Part II, Chapter XVII, at the end of § 10, p. 372. - -In 2 Kings 15:29 it is said that Tiglath-pileser [IV] captured certain -cities in Galilee, and carried their inhabitants captive to Assyria. In 2 -Kings 17:6 it is said that when Samaria was destroyed by the Assyrian king -[Sargon, in 722 B. C.], Israelites were carried captive to Halah and -Gozan, which were situated on the Khabur River in Mesopotamia. - -Two groups of cuneiform tablets, one in the museum at Berlin, the other in -the British Museum, are thought to confirm these statements by the -evidence they give that Hebrews who reverenced Jehovah were living in -that region.[632] The evidence consists chiefly of a divine name _A-u_, -employed as a component part of proper names just as _Jo-_ and _Jeho-_, -abbreviations of the name of Jehovah, are employed in Hebrew proper names -in the Old Testament. Indeed, _A-u_ is the form that _Jo-_ or _Jeho-_ -would take, if expressed in Assyrian characters. - -The names in question occur in a series of documents which record the -transfer of slaves. If the men in question were Hebrews they would seem to -have been interested in the business of buying and selling slaves. The -documents are much alike. It will suffice to translate one of them: - - 1. Seal of Atarkhasis, - - 2. son of Aushezib, - - 3. the Kannuean, - - 4. owner of the slave-girl. A transfer - - 5. of Kabili, his slave-girl he - - 6. has made, and Nabushallimshunu - - 7. for the price of 1-1/2 manas of silver - - 8. has taken her. The money in full - - 9. is paid. That slave - - 10. is purchased and delivered. Whoever in the future - - 11. at any time shall rise up and - - 12. lay claim, whether Atarkhasis - - 13. or his sons,--whoever against - - 14. Nabushallimshunu or his sons - - 15. legal process - - 16. shall begin, 10 manas of silver - - 17. shall pay. Against an attack of rheumatism for 100 days - - 18. and legal claim for all time (he is guaranteed). - - 19. Month Airu, 17th day, - - 20. eponym of Ashurrimani, rabshekeh. - - 21. In the presence of Padi, - - 22. In the presence of Khani, - - 23. In the presence of Ashurnadinakhi, - - 24. In the presence of Tubusu, - - 25. In the presence of Belbelshaduni, - - 26. In the presence of Ilumia. - - 27. In the presence of Ashurikhtamusur - - 28. In the presence of Bariku, - - 29. In the presence of Kennusharruni. - -The significant name here is Aushezib, meaning, "Au saves." If _Au_ is a -translation of _Jeho-_, the name, in its entirety, would be a translation -of one of the Hebrew forms of the name Joshua. Other names, into which -the name of the god _Au_ enters, appear sometimes in the body of a -contract and sometimes among the witnesses. They are _{il}A-u-salim_, "the -god Au gives peace"; _A-u-iddina_, "Au gives," equivalent to the Hebrew -Jonathan; _A-u-akhiddin_, "Au has increased the brothers"; _A-u-daninani_, -"Au is our mighty-one"; _A-u-e-ballitani_, "O Au, make us live"; -_{il}A-u-dân(?)-ilani_, "Au is judge of the gods"; _A-u-sabi_, "Au -satisfies."[633] - -The tablets were written at Kannu, the Canneh of Ezek. 27:23, which was -near Haran in Mesopotamia. One text states that if the seller of the slave -ever brings legal action, he shall pay ten silver manas and one gold mana -"at the sanctuary of the god _A-u_, who dwells in Kannu." If the god _A-u_ -be really the Hebrew Jehovah, the captives from Samaria and Galilee had -built for him a temple in Kannu, as the Jews at Elephantine afterward did -on the island in the Nile. (See p. 387, f.) - -The documents in which these names occur appear to be dated between 666 -and 606 B. C. They are dated according to the Assyrian method of dating, -which shows that they were written under the Assyrian monarchy, but the -eponyms in which they are dated are not found in the extant portions of -the Assyrian Eponymlist. They were therefore written after the year -666.[634] This fixes the dates of these documents in the seventh -century--the century after Tiglath-pileser IV and Sargon transported to -this region parts of the ten "lost tribes," and, if _A-u_ really is a form -of the name Jehovah, these tablets afford us a little glimpse of some of -these Hebrews in exile. - - - - -INDEX OF SCRIPTURE PASSAGES - - -GENESIS-- - - 1 247 - 1:7 248 - 1:24-26 266 - 2 256 - 3 260 - 3:18, 24 289 - 4:1, 2, 16-23 269 - 5 264 - 5:24 266 - 6, 7, 8, 9 277 - 9:20 287, 289 - 10:10 44, 47, 58 - 10:11 43, 47, 60 - 10:23 116 - 11:2 58 - 11:9 42 - 11:27 109 - 11:31 77 - 11:31, ff. 112 - 12:4 77, 109 - 14:1 58, 294, 295, 297, 298 - 14:5 215 - 14:6 106, 116 - 14:15 213 - 15:2 213 - 16:5-7 329 - 16:7 95 - 19:1 129 - 21 111 - 21:9, 10 329 - 22 172 - 22:2 168 - 22:6, 10 152 - 22:9 169 - 23 76 - 23:10 68 - 24:22 161 - 24:30 156 - 25:15 307 - 25:34 134 - 26:34 68 - 29:1 108 - 30:1-13 328 - 34:20 129 - 36:20 106, 308 - 36:20-22 109 - 36:21 106 - 36:24 308 - 36:29 106, 109 - 37:17 133 - 40:11 136 - 41:30 305 - 41:39 303 - 41:42 157 - 41:45 34 - 41:47-57 306 - 41:54 305 - 46:17 349 - 50:13 180 - 50:26 303, 411 - -EXODUS-- - - 1:11 35 - 2:1-10 311 - 3:8, 17 139, 309 - 4:25 152 - 5:7-18 36 - 11:5 135 - 12 390 - 12:37 36 - 13:20 36 - 14:23-28 37 - 16:36 158 - 18:13-26 315 - 20:8-11 258 - 20:12 411 - 20:24 172 - 20:24-26 198 - 21:2-6 316, 323 - 21:2-11 324 - 21:6 340 - 21:12-14, 18-27 334 - 21:16 316 - 21:17 332 - 21:24 340 - 21:28-35 337 - 22:1-4, 9 315 - 22:5 319, 320 - 22:5, 6 319 - 22:7-10 323 - 22:10-13 339 - 22:11, 25 320 - 22:16, 17 328 - 22:18 314 - 22:26, 27 324 - 23:10, 11 319 - 29:40 158 - 34:20 172 - 35:22 156 - 38:26 161 - -LEVITICUS-- - - 5:13 343 - 6:3-5 315 - 6:18, 29 343 - 7:8-10, 14, 34 343 - 11:35 149 - 18:6-18 329 - 19:9 319 - 19:20-22 328 - 20:10 328 - 20:11, 12, 19-21 329 - 22:30 329 - 23 390 - 24:20 340 - 25:5 137 - 25:25-46 316 - 26:26 149 - -NUMBERS-- - - 5:9, 10 343 - 5:11-28 314, 328 - 13:23 136 - 14:8 139 - 16:13, 14 139 - 21:13 365 - 21:15, 16 116 - 21:21 116, 308 - 21:30 443 - 26:45 349 - 27:8-11 332 - 31:29, 41 343 - 31:50 157 - 32:8 95 - 32:34 112, 365 - 32:38 365 - 32:42 215 - 33:5, 6 36 - 36:2-12 332 - -DEUTERONOMY-- - - 1:4 111, 112, 116, 308 - 2:12, 22 106 - 2:24 365 - 2:26 307 - 3:9 116 - 3:11 217 - 5:12-15 258 - 5:16 411 - 6:3 139 - 7:5 91 - 10:18 420 - 11:10 84 - 12:3 91 - 14:29 420 - 15, 16, 17 340 - 15:7-18 323 - 15:12-18 316, 324 - 16:9 135 - 16:18-20 315 - 18:10 314 - 19:4 334 - 19:5 152 - 19:16-21 314 - 19:21 340 - 21:1-9 316 - 21:15-21 332 - 22:6 139 - 22:13-21 325 - 22:22-29 328 - 22:30 329 - 23:15 316 - 23:17 323, 326 - 23:17, 18 333 - 23:24 137 - 23:24, 25 319 - 24:1-4 329 - 24:6 136 - 24:10-13 324 - 24:19-22 319 - 25:4 135 - 26:2, 4 153 - 28:5, 17 153 - 34:1 365 - -JOSHUA-- - - 2:6 138 - 5:2, 3 152 - 6:20 125 - 9:17, 20 111 - 10:3 89, 112 - 10:33 92, 112, 116, 117 - 11:1, 2 111 - 11:22 91 - 12:4 111 - 12:21 96, 97 - 12:22 133 - 13:9 443 - 13:16-19 365 - 13:25 217 - 15:10 94, 112 - 15:37 114, 116 - 15:41 111, 116 - 15:44 346 - 15:59 111 - 15:63 188 - 17:11 111, 114, 133, 214 - 18:24 111 - 19:6 110 - 19:18-20, 25, 28 111 - 19:35, 37 111, 114 - 19:44 377 - 20:7 133 - 20:8 365 - 21:19 111 - 21:23 377 - -JUDGES-- - - 1:5, 27-36 116 - 1:17 111 - 1:21 188 - 1:27 92, 111 - 1:29 117 - 4, 5, 6 133 - 4:2 111 - 4:21 153 - 5:19 97 - 5:26 153 - 6:3 108, 307 - 6:11 111, 193 - 6:19 153 - 6:33 108 - 7:12 108, 307 - 7:22 111 - 8:10 108, 307 - 9:4, 46 351 - 9:53 136 - 11:3, 5 111 - 13:2 112 - 13:19 193 - 16:23-30 93, 176 - 18:7, 18 111 - 18:29 133 - 19:10, 11 188 - -1 SAMUEL-- - - 2:13, 14 151 - 4:1 111 - 5:8 91 - 9:12 169 - 10:5 155 - 10:26 133 - 11:4 133 - 13:20, 21 161 - 17:1 111 - 17:4 91 - 17:43 139 - 19:24 356 - 23:1 112, 188 - 25:2 188 - 28:41 111 - 31:5 154 - 31:10 133 - 31:10, 12 214 - -2 SAMUEL-- - - 1:10 156 - 2:16 154 - 3:27 129 - 5:6-8 188 - 5:9 189 - 5:25 92 - 7:2 176 - 8:9, ff. 81 - 11:1 217, 443 - 12:27 130 - 12:31 152 - 15:2 190 - 16:9 139 - 17:28 134 - 20:14 111 - 21:12 214 - 23:11 134 - 24 190, 192 - 24:16 193 - 24:16, 17 377 - 24:18, 22 135 - -1 KINGS-- - - 1:33 101 - 1:40 155 - 3:1 190 - 3:1, ff. 30 - 3:2 169 - 4:7 317 - 4:12 214 - 5:6, 17 358 - 6:4 194, 195 - 6:29, 32, 35 194 - 6:36 195 - 7:2, 6 196 - 7:8, 12, 23-37, 39 195 - 7:9 152 - 7:49 194 - 9:15 112, 190 - 9:15-19 94 - 9:16 30 - 9:24 189 - 10:1 371 - 10:1-13 381 - 10:5, 18-20 193 - 11:14-25 118 - 11:27 190 - 11:40 30 - 12:12 359 - 14:25 37, 118, 360 - 14:25-28 30, 259 - 15:20 111 - 16:23-29 365 - 16:24 127 - 16:34 99, 100, 125, 128 - 16:36 128 - 17:10 133 - 19:16, 17 124 - 19:19 134, 135 - 21:8 155 - 22:39 100, 127 - -2 KINGS-- - - 2:19-22 98 - 3:4 364 - 3:4-12 197 - 3:5-27 365 - 4:8 111 - 4:23 259 - 5:12 214 - 6:5 152 - 6:13 133 - 6:25 158 - 11, 12, 13, 14, 15 268 - 11:12, 13 195 - 12:17 91 - 12:20 189 - 13:20, 21 183 - 14:7 173 - 14:8-14 94, 95 - 14:13 196 - 14:19 89 - 14:21 367 - 14:23 259 - 15:1-27 367 - 15:19 61, 62 - 15:29 370 - 15:29, 30 62, 369 - 15:37 367 - 16:5-9 367 - 16:10 369 - 16:10-16 198 - 16:14 195 - 17:3-5 369 - 17:4 370 - 17:5 62, 123 - 17:16 370 - 17:24 124, 125, 370 - 17:24-34 100, 118 - 18 374, 375 - 18:1-6, 9 198 - 18:4 171 - 18:13 44 - 18:13-16 375 - 18:13--19:8 376 - 18:14 89 - 18:14, ff. 374 - 18:17 375 - 18:32 139 - 19 374, 375 - 19:9 31, 375 - 19:9-36 376 - 19:35 374 - 19:36 377 - 19:37 44, 64, 378 - 20:12 63 - 20:20 198, 377 - 20:21 378 - 21 378 - 21:6 172 - 22:14 199 - 23:5, 8 169 - 23:10 172, 199 - 23:29 32, 96 - 23:29, ff. 379 - 23:34 32, 379 - 24, 25 44, 65, 380 - 25:9, 10 200 - 25:27. 381 - 25:27-30 66 - -1 CHRONICLES-- - - 1:30 307 - 1:38 109 - 1:40 308 - 2:18 116 - 4:8 116 - 7:31 349 - 8:12 111 - 18:9, ff. 82 - 21:23 135 - 23:4 315 - 24 117 - 29:7 163 - -2 CHRONICLES-- - - 1:5, 6 195 - 2:8 358 - 3:1 168 - 5:2 189 - 11:5-10 90 - 19:5-7 315 - 33 64 - -EZRA-- - - 1 386 - 2:69 163 - 3:12 201 - 4:2 378 - 4:10 379 - 5:16 200 - 8:27 163 - -NEHEMIAH-- - - 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 118 - 1:1 47 - 1:3 200 - 2:10, 19 389 - 3, 4, 5, 6 90 - 3:13, 28 202 - 4:1, ff. 389 - 6:1, ff. 389 - 7:2 390, 391 - 7:37 111 - 7:70-72 163 - 11:25 111 - 12:31-40 202 - 13:28 389 - -ESTHER-- - - 1:2 47 - 3:10, 12 157 - -JOB-- - - 1:3 108 - 3:8 253 - 9:13, 14 251 - 12:7, 8 430 - 26:12, 13 251, 252 - 28:28 409 - 29 395 - 29:13 420 - 31 395 - 38:14 154 - 39:13 139 - 41 253 - 41:24 136 - 42:4-6 395 - -PSALMS-- - - 6:3 400 - 8 401 - 17:1 400 - 18:6 400 - 19 401 - 21:9 149 - 68:4 147 - 68:5 420 - 74:10 400 - 74:13, 14 282 - 74:13, 14, 16, 17 252 - 85:5 400 - 87:4 254 - 89:10 253 - 90:7, 13 400 - 104 406 - 104:24 404 - 137 200 - 146, 147, 148 401 - -PROVERBS-- - - 1:9 156 - 5:3 410 - 6:9-11 411 - 10:19 409 - 10:26 411 - 11:1 162 - 13:3 409 - 13:4 411 - 14:3 409 - 14:35 408 - 17:28 409 - 18:24 409 - 20:23 162 - 24:17 408 - 24:21 409 - 31:13 138 - 31:31 129 - -ECCLESIASTES-- - - 7:15-17 409 - 9:6-9 412 - 9:9 410 - 11:9 409 - -CANTICLES-- - - 1:10 156 - 2:13 136 - 3:6 156 - 4:1-7 414 - 5:1 416 - 6:2, 3 416 - 8:1-3 415 - -ISAIAH-- - - 1:13 259 - 1:17, 23 420 - 3:18 157 - 3:19, 20 156 - 5:1-8 137 - 5:12 155 - 6 418 - 7:1 197 - 7:1, ff. 62 - 7:3 198 - 7:16 369 - 8:1 154 - 8:6 198 - 9:1-6 422 - 9:17 420 - 10:2 420 - 10:9 63, 81, 116, 361, 371 - 10:14 139 - 10:28-32 372 - 11:1-8 422 - 11:6-9 284 - 14:9-11 180, 422, 426 - 15:1 116 - 15:2, 4, 5 365 - 19 389 - 19:13 27 - 19:19-22 38 - 20:1 43, 372 - 22:22 151 - 27:1 253 - 30:7 254 - 31:5 64 - 36 44 - 36, 37 63, 374 - 37:9 31 - 37:38 378 - 39:1 377 - 40:12 158 - 41:15 135 - 44:28 383 - 45:1 383 - 47:8 420 - 51:9 253 - 57:3 172 - 66:23 259 - -JEREMIAH-- - - 2:10 293 - 2:16 27 - 7:6 420 - 7:31 172, 199 - 15:8 420 - 18:21 420 - 22:3 420 - 23:27 418 - 23:29 153 - 32:35 172 - 36 32 - 41:4, 5 200 - 43:7, 8 37 - 43:8 38 - 44:1 27, 37 - 46 32, 65 - 46:2 361 - 46:2, ff. 379 - 46:14, 19 27 - 48:22-24 365 - 49:11 420 - 50:16 135 - -LAMENTATIONS-- - - 4:3 139 - 5:10 150 - -EZEKIEL-- - - 1:1 65, 66 - 4:9 134 - 4:12-15 149 - 5:1, 2 152 - 8:14 426, 427 - 8:16 194 - 16:3 77, 349 - 16:11 156 - 16:45 349 - 22:7, 25 420 - 23:40 156 - 27:6 293 - 27:8, 9 112 - 30:13, 16 27 - 30:17 31 - 32:21-31 422, 426 - 32:22-32 180 - 43:13-17 198 - 45:11, 14 158 - 46:3 259 - -DANIEL-- - - 3:5, 15 155 - 4:29 380 - 5:11, 18 382 - 5:25 160 - 5:30, 31 384 - 8:2 47 - -HOSEA-- - - 2:5, 9 138 - 2:11 259 - 7:4, 6, 7 150 - 9:6 27 - -JOEL-- - - 3:13 135 - -AMOS-- - - 5:19 126 - 6:2 116 - 7:14 356 - 8:1, 2 153 - 8:5 162, 259 - 9:7 116, 357 - -MICAH-- - - 1:14 92, 140 - 6:15 136 - -NAHUM-- - - 3:8 31, 64 - -ZEPHANIAH-- - - 1:10, 11 199 - -ZECHARIAH-- - - 3:1 418 - 4 201 - 7:10 420 - -MALACHI-- - - 3:5 420 - -ECCLESIASTICUS-- - - 50:1-4 203 - -1 MACCABEES-- - - 1:21, 22 201 - 1:33 204 - 5:37 215 - 7:32, 33 204 - 9:52 124 - 13:48 128 - 14:34 94 - 14:36 204 - -MATTHEW-- - - 1:8 268 - 3:12 135 - 4:25 213, 218 - 5:14 123, 429 - 5:15 151 - 5:26 165 - 5:29 199 - 6:30 149 - 6:33 430 - 7:5 428 - 7:7 430 - 7:24, 25 429 - 10:26 431 - 10:28 199 - 10:29 165 - 11:27 405 - 12:1 132 - 13:4 132 - 13:57 408, 429 - 14:3 165 - 16:13 133 - 19:24 151 - 19:30 431 - 22:19 165 - 23:37 140 - 24:41 135, 136 - 25:1-12 148 - 26:34, 74 140 - 26:36 137 - 26:57 101 - 28:2 184 - -MARK-- - - 2:23 132 - 4:4 132 - 4:23 431 - 5:1 218 - 5:20 213, 218 - 6:4 429 - 6:17 165 - 7:11 159 - 7:31 213, 218 - 8:27 133 - 10:12 329 - 10:25 151 - 10:31 431 - 12:15-17 165 - 12:41 209 - 12:42 165 - 13:35 140 - 13:44 430 - 14:26 211 - 14:30, 68, 72 140 - 14:32 137, 211 - 16:3, 4 184 - -LUKE-- - - 2:1-5 432 - 2:2 434, 437 - 2:3-5 435 - 3:17 135 - 3:19 165 - 4:24 429 - 4:26 133 - 5:9 430 - 6:1 132 - 6:42 428 - 7:5 98 - 8:5 132 - 9:51-54 119 - 11:47, 48 183 - 12:2 431 - 12:6 165 - 12:28 149 - 13:30 431 - 15:8 165 - 15:22 157 - 17:21 430 - 18:25 151 - 20:36 430 - 21:1 209 - 21:2 165 - 22:34, 60 140 - 22:39 211 - 23:18, 21 206 - 24:2 184 - -JOHN-- - - 2:20 208 - 3:16, 36 431 - 3:29 416 - 4:5 133 - 4:9, 20 119 - 4:44 429 - 5:4 187 - 5:24 431 - 13:38 140 - 18:1 211 - 18:24 101 - 18:27 140 - 20:1 184 - -ACTS-- - - 3:2 210 - 8:27 39 - 8:27-39 33 - 9:11 214 - 9:32 111 - 12:23 377 - 15, 16 440 - 16:14 226 - 17:6 438 - 17:22-31 220 - 17:23 438, 439 - 17:27 178 - 18:1 220 - 18:4, 7 221 - 18:11 220, 440 - 18:12 221, 439 - 19:23-41 224 - 20:15, 17 222 - 20:35 431 - 23:23, 24 133 - 24:27 439 - 26:14 135 - -ROMANS-- - - 16:3-16 441 - -1 CORINTHIANS-- - - 1:4 441 - 3:10-17 223 - 14:7 155 - 15:32 224 - -2 CORINTHIANS-- - - 1:46 441 - 3:14 194 - 11:32 174, 442, 443 - -GALATIANS-- - - 1:18 440 - 2:1 440 - -PHILIPPIANS-- - - 1:3, 9 441 - -COLOSSIANS-- - - 1:3 441 - 4:13 230 - -1 THESSALONIANS-- - - 1:2 441 - 3:9 441 - -2 THESSALONIANS-- - - 1:3, 11 441 - 2:13 441 - -PHILEMON-- - - 4 441 - -HEBREWS-- - - 13:12 211 - -3 JOHN-- - - 2 441 - -REVELATION-- - - 2:10 230 - 2:12 438 - 2:13 225 - 2:18-29 226 - 3:1-6 227 - 3:5 228 - 3:12 229 - 3:15, 16 230 - 6:13 136 - 21:2, 9 416 - - - - -INDEX - - - Abana, 214 - - Abbi-Teshub, makes treaty with Mursil, 80 - - Abdi-Hepa, vassal of Amenophis IV, 76 - - Abi-Adda, 80 - - Abraham, sojourn in Egypt, 35; - purchase of the cave of Machpelah, 76; - home in Mesopotamia, 112; - sacrifice of Isaac, 172 - - Abraham, Babylonian account of farmer of this name, 108, 290 - - "Absalom's Pillar," 183 - - Abu Haba, Turkish exploration of, 46 - - Abu Shusheh (Gezer), 93 - - Abydos, chief town of This, 25 - - Acts, archæological light on the book of, 438 - - Adab (Bismya), 47, 57 - - Adad-nirari III, King of Assyria, 53 - - Adad-nirari IV, inscription regarding Syria and Palestine, 61, 365 - - Adam, Biblical account of, 289; - Babylonian forms of the name, 266 - - Adapa and the fall of man, legend of, 260 - - Adime, 266 - - "Admonitions of Ipuwer, The," 28 - - Adzes, 153 - - Ælia Capitolina, 122, 212 - - Africanus, Julius Sextus, _Chronigraphiai_ of, 21 - - Agade (Sippar), 54, 57, 266 - - Agricultural implements, 134; - calendar, 138 - - Agriculture, 134 - - Ahab, in confederacy against Shalmaneser III, 61; - palace of, 100; - pays tribute to Tiglathpileser IV, 369 - - Ahaz, vassal to Tiglath-pileser IV, 62; - altar of, 198 - - Ahmose I, siege of Sharuhen, 110 - - Ain es-Sultan (Elisha's Fountain), 98 - - Ain Kades, 95 - - Ain Shems (Beth-shemesh), 94 - - Ain Sitti Miriam, see _Gihon_. - - Akkad, derivation of, 58 - - Akra, 203 - - Alaparos, 271 - - Alexander Jannæus, 120, 201, 205 - - Alexander the Great, empire of, 33; - conquests of, 66; - death of, 119 - - Alexandra, Asmonæan queen, 120 - - Alorus, 271 - - Altar of incense, 173 - - Amanus, source of cedar, 58, 358 - - Amelon, 271 - - _Amelu_, 267, 271 - - Amempsinos, 271 - - Amenemhet I, 76 - - Amenemhet III, 28 - - Amenophis I, 23, 110 - - Amenophis III, 60, 304 - - Amenophis III and IV, 29 - - American Exploration Society, 86 - - American Palestine Exploration Society, 86 - - American School of Oriental Research in Palestine, 99 - - American School of Classical Studies at Athens, 221 - - Amil-Marduk (Evil-Merodach), 66; - inscription of, 381 - - Amman, 218 - - Ammenon, 271 - - Ammienshi, Amorite chieftain, 108, 109 - - Ammi-zadugga, reign of, 53 - - Amorites, conquests of the, 107 - - Amosis I, 29 - - Amosis II, 32 - - Anderson, H. J., explorations in Palestine, 86 - - Anderson, J. G. C., inscription discovered at Antioch, 436 - - Andrae, W., exploration at Kalah-Sherghat, 47; - inscription of Tukulti-Ninib, 52 - - Animals, representative of Egyptian tribes, 24; - domestic, 138 - - Anklets, 157 - - Antigonus, 120, 205 - - Antiochus III, 130 - - Antiochus IV, 203 - - Antipas, 121 - - Antiquities, preservation of Egyptian, 19; - of Babylonian, 41 - - Antonia, fortress, 205 - - Anu, 260 - - Anubanini, King of Lulubi, 57 - - Apollophanes, tomb of, 183 - - Arad-Sin, King of Larsa, 58 - - Aramæans, migration of, 113 - - Arandas, successor of Subbiluliuma, 79 - - Araunah the Jebusite, 168 - - Archæological Institute of America, 99 - - Archelaus, 121 - - Areopagus, 220 - - Aretas, see _Haretat IV_. - - Arioch, identified with Arad-Sin and Rim-Sin, 58 - - Aripi, 266 - - Aristobulus I and II, 120 - - Arnuanta, successor of Dudkhalia, 81 - - Arpad, overthrow of, 371 - - Arrows, 153 - - Artatama I, King of the Mitanni, 77; - alliance with Thothmes IV, 77 - - Artatama II, King of the Harri, 78 - - Artaxerxes, inscriptions of, 48 - - Artaxerxes III, Jews rebel against, 66 - - Asarjik, Hittite remains at, 70 - - Asenath, wife of Joseph, 33 - - Asherim, at Tell es-Safi, 169 - - Ashmolean Museum, 19 - - Ashteroth-Karnaim, 215 - - Ashtoreth, figures of, at Taanach, 173 - - Ashur, 47, 60 - - Ashurbanipal, succeeds Esarhaddon, 64; - his account of his campaign against Tyre, 378; - proverbs from library of, 407 - - Ashur-dan, 52 - - Ashur-nasirpal II, records of, referred to, 60; - military exploits of, 61; - advance toward Hebrew territory, 360 - - Ashur-rim-nishishu, King of Assyria, 53, 60 - - Ashur-uballit, King of Assyria, 60 - - Asia, churches of, 221 - - Asmonæan coins, 164 - - Asmonæans, 120 - - Assumptionist Fathers, excavations at Jerusalem, 101; - collection of flint implements, 103 - - Assurbanipal, invasion of Egypt, 31 - - Assyria, wars with Egypt, 31; - the land, 40; - explorations in, 47; - relations to Babylonia, 59; - early period of, 60; - second period of, 61 - - Atbara, 18 - - Athenæ Polias, temple of, 225 - - Athens, 219 - - Aton, Egyptian hymn in praise of, 403 - - Atys, worship of, 226 - - Augustus, temple to, at Samaria, 178 - - Awls, 152 - - Axes, 152 - - Azariah (Uzziah), 367 - - Azekah, excavation at, 90 - - Aziru, Amorite king, 79, 113, 304 - - - Babylon, capture of, 383 - - Babylonia, the land, 40; - exploration by Harper and Banks, 47; - historical periods, 55; - early period, 59; - Persian period, 66; - psalms from, 398; - proverbs from, 407 - - Babylonian column, 50 - - Babylonian creation epic, 235, 247; - account of the flood, 273 - - Babylonian exile, 65; - termination of, 118 - - Bacchides, Syrian general, 124 - - Bactria, secedes from the empire of the Seleucidæ, 67 - - Bagoses, general of Artaxerxes III, 66 - - Baking-trays, 150 - - Balata, 102 - - Ball, C. J., decipherment of Hittite inscriptions, 71 - - Banks, Edgar J., exploration in Babylonia, 47 - - Barada, 214 - - Bar Chocaba, 121 - - Baris, castle of, 204 - - Barsalnunna, 267 - - Baskets, 153 - - Bath, 158 - - Beads, 156 - - Beautiful gate, 210 - - Bees, 139 - - Behistun inscription of Darius I, 50 - - Beit Jibrin, caves at, 106 - - Bel (Enlil), god of Nippur, 55; - Babylonian hymn to, 401 - - Belshazzar, son of Nabuna'id, 382 - - Ben-Hadad in league with Ahab, 61 - - Benjamin of Tudela, explorations of, 42 - - _Beqa_, 161 - - Bergama, 224 - - Berossos, list of Babylonian kings, 54; - Babylonian priest, 247; - list of kings, 270 - - Bethesda, Pool of, 210 - - Beth-Ninib (Beth-shemesh), 95 - - Beth-shemesh, excavations at, 94; - capture of, 117; - walls of, 125; - gates of, 129; - burial caves at, 180 - - Bezetha, hill, 212 - - Birds, 139 - - "Bishop Gobat's School," 191 - - Bismya (Adab), mound of, 47; - Luguldaudu, King of, 57 - - Blanche-Garde, fortress of the Crusaders, 91 - - Bliss, Frederick J., excavations at Lachish, 89 - - Boghaz Koi, excavations at, 69; - Hittite kingdom at, 77; - the "Hittite City," 78 - - Bor (Tyan), 82 - - Bork, Ferdinand, studies in the Mitanni language, 73 - - Botta, Paul Emil, exploration of Nineveh, 43 - - Bowls, 150 - - Bracelets, 156 - - Breasted, Henry James, accession of Mena, 23; - _Ancient Records, Egypt_, 76, 352 - - British Museum, trustees direct excavation at Carchemish, 70 - - Bruce, James, 20 - - Brugsch, H., _History of Egypt_, 76; - inscription at Elephantine, 305 - - Brünnow, R., studies in the Mitanni language, 71; - explorations in Edom, 88 - - Bubastis, capital of Shishak dynasty, 31 - - Bulghar-Maden, Hittite remains at, 70 - - Burckhardt, J. L., explorations in Palestine, 85 - - Burial customs, 180 - - Burnaburiash, 60 - - Burnouf, Eugène, 50 - - Butler, H. C., explorations in Syria, 102, note; - excavations at Sardis, 228 - - - Cab, 158 - - Cain, list of descendants, 269 - - Cairo, 17, 19 - - Calah, made capital of Assyria, 60 - - Calendar, 138 - - Calvary, site of, 211 - - Cambyses, son of Cyrus, 32; - extends power of Persia, 66 - - Canaanites, migration of the, 109 - - Capernaum, identification of, 98 - - Caphtor, home of the Philistines, 115, 116 - - Captivity, Babylonian, 65 - - Carchemish, excavations at, 70; - alliance with Assyria, 81 - - Carthaginian law regarding sacrifices, 342 - - Cataracts of the Nile, 18 - - Cave-dwellers, 142, 187 - - Caves of the stone age, 104 - - Chaldæan Empire, 65 - - Champollion, Jean François (Le Jeune), 21, 22 - - Chaplin, Thomas, description of weight from Samaria, 160 - - Charles, B. B., explorations in Asia Minor, 70; - _Travels and Studies in the Nearer East_, 73 - - Châteaubriand, explorations in Palestine, 85 - - Chedorlaomer, 295 - - Cheops, 25 - - Child sacrifice, 172 - - Chisels, 152 - - Chosroes II, captures Jerusalem, 122 - - Christian Nubians, 39 - - Church of the Holy Sepulcher, 211 - - Churches of Asia, 221 - - Cistern burial, 180 - - Cities, topography of Palestinian, 123; - situated near springs, 186 - - City gates, 129 - - Clark, Herbert, 160 - - Clay, A. T., _Babylonian Texts from the Yale Collection_, 384 - - Clermont-Ganneau, explorations in Palestine, 88, 89, 198; - Moabite Stone, 363 - - Code of Hammurapi, 313 - - Coins, 162; - Roman, 165 - - "Columbarium," 182 - - Combs, 156 - - Conder, Lieut.-Col. C. R., _The Hittites and Their Language_, 72; - survey of Palestine, 88 - - Constantine, interest in holy places, 84, 85, 122 - - Constantinople, tablets hoarded in, 48 - - Cor (Homer), 158 - - Corinth, 220 - - Corners, considered sacred, 128 - - Cossæans, see _Kassites_. - - Creation, epic of, 235; - comparison with first chapter of Genesis, 247; - second account of, found at Babylon, 255; - compared with second chapter of Genesis, 256 - - Creation and flood, account of, from Nippur, 278 - - Cremation, 179 - - Croesus, temple of, 223; - wealth of, 227; - overthrown by Cyrus the Great, 163, 383 - - Cromlech (heap of stones), 104 - - Cros, Gaston, explorations of, 45 - - Crucifixion, site of the, 211 - - "Cuneiform" characters, origin of, 56 - - Curtis, Samuel Ives, discovery at Petra, 102 - - Cybele, worship of, 226; - temple of, 228 - - Cyprus, seal of Sargon found in, 57 - - Cyrus the Great, founder of Persian empire, 32; - conquests of, 66; - overthrows Croesus, 163, 383; - captures Sardis, 227; - inscription of, 385 - - - Dalman, Gustaf II., explorations in Petra, 88 - - Damascus, 213, 248, 369 - - Danaoi, migration of, 115 - - Daniel, book of, 384 - - Daonos (Daos), 271 - - Daphne, 38 - - Darics, 163 - - Darius I, rule in Egypt, 32; - inscriptions of, 48; - extends power of Persia, 66; - coinage of, 163 - - Darius the Mede, 384 - - David, conquests of, 117, 118; - captures Jebus, 188; - Tower of, 206 - - Decapolis, description of, 213 - - Delitzsch, Friedrich, development of Hittite grammar, 74 - - _Deutscher Palästina-Verein_, 96 - - Dilmun, 283 - - Dion, 216 - - Domazewsky, Alfred von, explorations in Edom, 88 - - Domestic animals, 138 - - Doorway tombs, 182 - - Dor, excavations at, 117 - - _Drachma_, 165 - - Drovetti, M., collection of, 22 - - Dudkhalia, successor of Hattusil II, 81 - - Dûdu, 304 - - Dulcimer, 155 - - Dumuzi, 271 - - Dung Gate, 202 - - Dungi, King of Babylonia, 58 - - Dushratta, a king of Mitanni, 69; - two El-Amarna letters from, 71; - contemporary with Amenophis IV, 77; - death of, 78 - - "Dynastic tablets," 52 - - - Ea, 260 - - Eannatum, King of Lagash, 56 - - Early Assyrian period, 60 - - Early Babylonian period, 59 - - Earth-graves, 181 - - Ebed-Ashera, Amorite king, 113 - - Ebed-Hepa, 187; - letters of, 345; - history of, 349 - - Ecbatana, visited by Rawlinson, 50 - - Ecclesiastes, parallel to, 412 - - Ecclesiasticus, 203 - - Eclipse at Nineveh, 51 - - Egypt, the land, 17; - history of, 21, 23; - division of, 24; - Roman period, 33; - Hyksos invasion of, 34; - period of the Oppression and the Exodus, 35; - Jewish colony in, 387; - psalms from, 402; - parallels to Song of Songs from, 413; - social conscience in, 418; - wisdom literature of, 421 - - Elam, invasion of, during reign of Kurigalzu, 59 - - El-Amarna letters, 35, 60; - from Dushratta, 69; - Palestinian cities mentioned in, 112; - source of information regarding Jerusalem, 187; - selections from, 303; - from Rib-Adda of Gebal, 344; - from Ebed-Hepa of Jerusalem, 345; - reflecting conditions in Palestine, 348 - - Elamites, subjugated by Eannatum, 56; - invade Babylonia, 60 - - Elephantine, papyri discovered at, 37, 387 - - El-Gib, 130 - - Elisha's Fountain, 98 - - "Eloquent Peasant, The," 28, 418 - - El-Wad, 185 - - Eni-Teshub, King of Carchemish, 81 - - Enlil, 279; - see also _Bel_. - - Enmeduranki, King of Sippar, 266, 271 - - Enmeirgan, 267 - - Enmenunna, 267 - - Enoch, identified with Etana, 266 - - Enosh, 267 - - En-rogel, 186 - - Enrolment of Quirinius, 432 - - Entemena, successor of Eannatum, 57 - - Enu-ilu, King of Hamath, 82 - - Ephah, 158 - - Ephesus, 221 - - Ephraim, gate of, 202 - - Epic of creation, text of, 235 - - Epiphanius, on measures, 158, 159 - - Epistles, archæological light on the, 440 - - "Eponym Canon," 359 - - "Eponym Lists," 51 - - Erech, exploration at, 44, 47; - dynasties of, 54; - founding of, 55 - - Eridu, 55, 283 - - Esarhaddon, invasion of Egypt, 31; - succeeds Sennacherib, 64; - money in reign of, 163; - kings conquered by, 378 - - Eski Hissar, 230 - - Etana, 266; - identified with Abel, 270 - - Etruscans, relation to Lydians, 227 - - Euedorachos, 271 - - Eumenes I, 224 - - Euphrates river, 40 - - Eusebius, _Chronicon_ of, 21; - list of Palestinian names, 85, 133 - - Evil-Merodach (Amil-Marduk), 66; - inscription of, 381 - - Exile, Babylonian, 65; - termination of, 382 - - Eye-paint, 156 - - Eyuk, Hittite monuments at, 78 - - Ezekiel, 65 - - - Fahl, 216 - - Famine, the seven years of, 305 - - Feast of Marduk and Zarpanit, 258 - - Feeding-bottles, 150 - - Fibulæ, 156 - - Files, 153 - - Fish Gate, 199 - - Fish-hooks, 154 - - Flesh-hooks, 151 - - Flood, Babylonian account of, 273; - comparison with the Biblical account of, 277; - second Babylonian account of, 277 - - Forks, 151 - - Foundation sacrifices, 128 - - Fountain Gate, 202 - - Fraktin, Hittite remains at, 70 - - Fruits, 136 - - "Furnaces, Tower of the," 202 - - - Gadara, 216 - - Gallio, 439 - - Galumum, 266 - - Gate, see _descriptive name_. - - Gateways, 129 - - Gath (Tell es-Safi), 91; - walls of, 124 - - Gebal, excavations at, 117 - - Gebel Fureidis, 121, 131 - - Gennath, gate of, 211 - - Genouillac, H. de, exploration at Ukhaimir, 48 - - Gerasa, topography of, 123, 216 - - Gerizim, Mount, 119 - - Germer-Durand, Père, 159 - - Gethsemane, Garden of, 137, 210 - - Gezer, excavations at, 92; - caves at, 104; - walls of, 109, 124; - besieged by Merneptah, 115; - captured by the Hebrews, 117; - gates of, 129; - pottery at, 142, 145; - weights found at, 160; - sanctuary at, 167; - high place of, 169; - temple at, 175; - tombs at, 179 - - Giaour-Kalesi, Hittite remains at, 70 - - Gibeon, water supply of, 130 - - Gihon, springs at, 87, 186; - caves at, 101, 106 - - Gilgal (menhirs set in a circle), 104; - burial in, 180 - - Gilgamesh, epic, 256 - - Glassware, 150 - - Gobryas, 384 - - Golgotha, site of, 211 - - Gordon, Gen. C. E., suggestion regarding Golgotha, 211 - - Granaries, 134 - - Green, William Henry, 269 - - Grenfell, B. P., and A. S. Hunt, discovery of Oxyrhynchus papyri, 39, 428 - - Griffith, F. L., 39 - - Grinding, 135 - - Grotefend, Georg Friedrich, interpretation of inscriptions found at - Persepolis, 49 - - Gudea, ruler at Lagash, 58; - rebuilds Eninnû, 358 - - Guérin. H. V., explorations in Palestine, 86 - - Gurun, Hittite remains at, 70 - - Guthe, H., excavations in Jerusalem, 96 - - Gutium, dynasty of, 54; - hordes from, overrun Babylonia, 58 - - Gyges, dynasty of, 163 - - - Habiri, 113, 188, 349 - - Hadrian, restores Jerusalem under name of Ælia Capitolina, 212 - - Haggai, assists in rebuilding the temple, 118 - - Hamadan (Ecbatana), visited by Rawlinson, 50 - - Hamath, Hittite kingdom at, 81; - overthrow of, 371 - - Hammeah, tower of, 202 - - Hammers, 153 - - Hammurapi, laws of, 47; - King of Larsa, 53, 58; - conqueror of Babylonia, 59; - conquest of the "west land," 108; - identified with Amraphel, 294; - code of, 313 - - Hananel, tower of, 202 - - Hananiah, Passover letter of, 390 - - Haran, possibly a Hittite capital, 77 - - Haretat IV, Nabathæan king, 174; - besieges Jerusalem, 205; - inscription regarding, 442 - - Harper, Robert, exploration in Babylonia, 47 - - Harps, 155 - - Harri, become part of Subbiluliuma's kingdom, 78 - - Hasmonæans, see _Asmonæans_. - - Hattusil I, King of Boghaz Koi, 78 - - Hattusil II, successor of Mutallu, 69, 80 - - Hawara, 28 - - Haynes, John H., Babylonian explorations of, 46 - - Head, B. V., date of ancient coins, 162 - - Hebrews, migration of, 116 - - Hebron, possessed by the Hittites, 76 - - Helena, mother of Constantine, 211 - - Helena of Adiabene, tomb of, 183 - - Heliopolis, 35 - - Hens, 139 - - Herod Agrippa I, 121 - - Herod the Great, rebuilds the Jewish temple, 121; - capture of Rabbah Ammon, 130; - coinage of, 165; - building in Jerusalem, 205 - - Herodotus, on early navigation, 32; - on wars between Egypt and Assyria, 32; - comparison with 2 Kings, 376 - - Hezekiah, threatened by Sennacherib, 63, 374; - improvements made by, 198 - - High places, 167 - - Hill, G. F., on Palestinian coins, 164 - - Hilprecht, Herman V., Babylonian explorations of, 46 - - Hin, 158 - - Hincks, Edward, 50 - - Hinnom, valley of, 185, 199 - - Hippacus, tower of, 206, 212 - - Hippos, 215 - - Hittites, invade Babylonia, 59; - monuments of, 68; - theories concerning, 68; - ethnology of, 74; - history of, 75 - - Hoes, 134 - - Homer, _The Odyssey_, 79 - - Homer, a measure, 158 - - Hophra, lures Judah to destruction, 32; - palace of, at Memphis, 37 - - Horam, King of Gezer, 117 - - Horites, 106 - - Horse, domestication of the, 74 - - Horse Gate, 202 - - Hoshea, rebels against Assyria, 62, 369 - - Houses in ancient Palestine, 126 - - Howe, Fisher, suggestion regarding Golgotha, 211 - - Hull, Edward, geological survey of the valley of the Dead Sea, 89 - - Human sacrifice, 172 - - Hunt, A. S., discovery of Oxyrhynchus papyri, 39, 428 - - Huntington, Ellsworth, 95 - - Hyksos, invasion of Egypt, 28, 34, 110; - possibly Hittites, 75 - - Hystaspes, father of Darius, 49 - - - Ilu-bidi (Yau-bidi), 82 - - Ilumailu, founder of the second dynasty of Babylon, 59 - - Ilu-shumma, King of Assyria, 52 - - Ina-uzni-erêsu, 267 - - Ipuwer, Egyptian sage, 421 - - Irad, 270 - - Irhulina, King of Hamath, 82 - - Ishmi-Dagan, 52 - - Ishtar, on coins, 163; - Babylonian prayer to, 399 - - Israel, the northern kingdom, 118 - - Ivriz, Hittite remains at, 70 - - - Jacob, historical study of the name, 299 - - Jacobel, 111, 112 - - Jars, 142 - - Jebus, 188 - - Jehoahaz, deposed by Necho, 32 - - Jehoash, breaks wall of Jerusalem, 196 - - Jehoiachin, imprisoned by Nebuchadrezzar, 66 - - Jehoiakim, rebellion of, 65 - - Jehu, pays tribute to Shalmaneser III, 61 - - Jensen, Peter, studies in the Hittite and the Mitanni languages, 71 - - Jerabis, site of ancient Carchemish, Hamath, etc., 71, 72 - - Jerash, temple at, 178; - ruins at, 217 - - Jericho, excavations at, 98; - walls of, 109; - capture of, 117; - topography of, 123; - area of, 125; - remains of buildings, 127 - - Jeroboam, 30; - name on seal, 359 - - Jerome, _Onomasticon_, 85, 133 - - Jerusalem, sieges and destruction of, 65; - captured by Orodes I, 120; - besieged by Pompey, 120; - destroyed by Titus, 121; - captured by the Persians, 122; - passes under Mohammedan control, 122; - area of, 126; - water supply of, 130; - rock altar at, 168; - topography of, 185; - in the time of Solomon, 190; - destruction of, by Nebuchadrezzar, 199; - walls of, rebuilt, 202; - capture of, by Ptolemy I, 203; - during the Asmonæan period, 204; - construction during reign of Agrippa I, 212 - - Jesus, in the Decapolis, 218; - reputed sayings of, found in Egypt, 428 - - Jewish colony in Egypt, 387 - - Joab, captures Rabbah, 217 - - Job, Babylonian parallel to, 392 - - John Hyrcanus, conquers Samaria and Edom, 100, 120; - coinage of, 165; - builds palace in Jerusalem, 204; - supplies Jerusalem with water, 205 - - John Hyrcanus II, 120 - - Johns, C. H. W., 163 - - Jordan, Julius, exploration at Warka, 47 - - Joseph, texts bearing on story of, 33, 303; - historical study of the name, 300 - - Josephel, 111, 112 - - Josephus, story of Onias, 38; - on measures, 158 - - Joshua, conquest of Palestine, 117 - - Jovanoff, Alexander, numismatist of Constantinople, 70 - - Judah, the southern kingdom, 118 - - Judas Maccabæus, 119 - - Judges, period of, 352 - - Justus, house of, 221 - - - Kadashman-turgu, 60 - - Kadesh, battle at, 80 - - Kadesh-Barnea, identification of, disputed, 95 - - Kalah-Sherghat, exploration at, 47 - - Kanatha, 215 - - Kara-Bel, Hittite remains at, 70 - - Karaburna, Hittite remains at, 70 - - Kara Dagh, Hittite remains at, 70 - - Karaindash, King of Babylon, 53, 60 - - Karanog, exploration of, 39 - - Kara Su, 69 - - Karnak, temple of, 37 - - Kassites, invade Babylonia, 59; - migration of the, 109 - - Kenan, 267 - - Keys, 151 - - Khafre, 26 - - Khartum, 18 - - Khattu land, name given to Hittite settlement in Cappadocia, 75 - - _Kheta_, see _Hittites_. - - Khnum, 305 - - Khufu (Cheops), 25 - - Kidron, valley of, 185 - - King list of Karnak, etc., 22 - - Kings, books of, archæological light on, 358 - - King's Gardens, 189 - - Kish, exploration at, 48; - dynasty of, 54 - - Kitchener, H. H., Major and Lord, survey of Palestine, 88; - surveys in Arabia, 89 - - Kizil Dagh, Hittite remains at, 70 - - Klein, F. A., 363 - - Knives, 152 - - Knudtzon, J. A., _Die El-Amarna Tafeln_, 303 - - _Kok_ (shaft), 182 - - Koldewey, Robert, Babylonian exploration, 46, 65 - - Kudur-Mabug, 295 - - Kugler, Franz Xaver, astronomical calculation relating to Assyrian - chronology, 53 - - Kukukumal, 297 - - Kummukh, Hittite kingdom, 82 - - Kurigalzu, invasion of Elam during reign of, 59 - - - Labyrinth, 28 - - Lachish, excavations at, 89; - walls of, 124 - - Lagash, 47; - founding of, 55; - colonists from, found Ashur, 47, 60 - - Lamartine, A. M., explorations in Palestine, 85 - - Lamech, 267 - - Lamentation for Tammuz, 426 - - Lamp-stands, 151 - - Langdon, Stephen, _Sumerian Epic of Paradise, the Flood, and the Fall of - Man_, 283 - - Laodicea, 230 - - Larsa, kings of, 53; - divided power with Nisin, 58 - - Lassen, Christian, 50 - - Lawrence, T. E., explorations in the wilderness of Zin, 95 - - Layard, Austen Henry, explorations of, 43; - discoveries at Nineveh, 64, 71 - - Lebanon, copper from, 58 - - Leontopolis, Jewish temple at, 38 - - _Lepton_, 165 - - Letters from Palestine, 344 - - Leviticus, alleged parallel to, 342 - - Library of Ashurbanipal at Nineveh, 64 - - Liverpool, University of, directs Hittite exploration, 70 - - Loftus, William Kennett, explorations of, 44 - - Log, 158 - - Lotan, 109 - - Lowenstern, Isidore, 50 - - Lugaldaudu, statue of, 48; - King of Adab, 57 - - Lugalzaggisi, 54, 57 - - Lydia, origin of coinage in (?), 163; - kingdom of, 226 - - Lynch, Lieut. W. F., explorations in Palestine, 86 - - Lyon, D. G., excavations at Samaria, 100 - - Lyres, 155 - - - Macalister, Alexander, anatomist, 105 - - Macalister, R. A. Stewart, excavations at Gezer, 92; - conjecture regarding walls of Gezer, 124 - - Maccabæan period, 203 - - Maccabees, 119 - - MacIver, R., exploration at Karanog, 39 - - Mackenzie, Duncan, excavations at Bethshemesh, 94 - - Magan, conquered by Naram-Sin, 57; - quarries at, 58 - - Magdol, 34 - - Mana, 160 - - Manasseh, vassal of Esarhaddon and Ashurbanipal, 64 - - Manetho, Egyptian priest, 21 - - Manishtusu, King of Kish, 47 - - Manissia, Hittite sculptures and remains near, 77, 79 - - Marash, Hittite remains at, 70, 92 - - Marduk, central figure in Babylonian creation epic, 247 - - Marduk and Zarpanit, feast of, 258 - - Marduknadinakhi, King of Babylon, 51, 52 - - Margolis, Max L., meaning of _Pim_, 161 - - Mars' Hill, 220 - - Masterman, E. W. G., estimate of Parker's excavations, 101 - - Mattiuaza, made king of the Mitanni, 78 - - "Maudsley's Scarp," 90, 191 - - Measures, 158 - - Medeba, taken by Omri, 365 - - Megalaros, 271 - - Megiddo, battle of, 32; - excavations at, 96; - wall of, 109; - topography of, 123; - area of, 126; - remains of buildings, 128; - gates of, 129; - rock altar at, 168; - temple at, 176; - seal found at, 359 - - Melamkish, 267 - - Memphis, capital of Egypt, 27 - - Mena, accession of, 23; - reign of, 25 - - Menahem, 62 - - Menant, Joachim, decipherment of Hittite inscriptions, 71 - - Menhir (stone columns), 104; - burial in, 180 - - Menkaure, 26 - - _Men-nofer_, 27 - - Merneptah, successor of Ramses II, 30; - Pharaoh of the Exodus, 37; - siege of Gezer, 114, 115; - pillar of, 311 - - Merodachbaladan, takes the throne of Babylon, 63; - relations with Hezekiah, 377 - - Meroe, 32, 39 - - Merrill, Selah, explorations in Palestine, 86 - - Meruitensi, 420 - - Meselim, King of Kish, 56 - - Mesha, King of Moab, 170, 363 - - Meskingashir, 267 - - Mesopotamian Valley, 40 - - Messerschmidt, L., studies in the Mitanni language, 72 - - Methuselah, 267 - - Meyer, Edward, accession of Mena, 23; - origin of the Philistines, 357 - - Meyer, Rudolph, map of Palestine, 86 - - Middle Kingdom, period of (Egypt), 27 - - Migdol, 34 - - Miletus, 222 - - Millo, 189, 190 - - Millstones, 136 - - Mina, 160 - - Mitanni, 69; - kingdom of, 77 - - Mite, coin, 165 - - Moabite Stone, 363 - - Mohammedans, prevail in Palestine, 122 - - Money, 162 - - Monoliths, at Gezer, 170 - - Mordtmann, A. D., account of Hittite inscriptions, 70 - - Moresheth-Gath (Marash), 70, 92 - - Morgan, J. de, exploration at Susa, 47, 313 - - Moriah, Mount, 168; - site of the temple, 192 - - Mortars, 136 - - Mosaic Code, not borrowed from the Babylonians, 340 - - Mosque of Omar, 168 - - Moulton, W. J., 100 - - Mount, see _descriptive name_. - - Mukês, 216 - - Müller, W. Max, origin of the Hittites, 69 - - Mursil, successor of Arandas, 79; - makes treaty with the Amorites, 80; - death of, 80 - - Mutallu, successor of Mursil, 80 - - Mutu-elu, 267 - - Mutu-sa-elu, 267 - - Mutu-salal-eqla, 267 - - - Nabathæans, 174 - - Nabopolassar, 65 - - Nabuna'id, King of Babylon, 54, 55; - inscriptions of, 382 - - Nails, 153 - - Names, Sumerian, with Semitic, Babylonian, and Hebrew equivalents, 268 - - Napata, 31 - - Napoleon I, invasion of Egypt, 20 - - Naram-Sin, 54, 57 - - Naville, E., excavation of Pithom, 35 - - Nebuchadrezzar I, King of Babylon, 60 - - Nebuchadrezzar II, defeats Necho, 32, 65; - destroys Jerusalem, 199; - inscriptions of, 379 - - Necho, 32, 65, 379 - - Necklaces, 156 - - Needles, 151 - - Nehemiah, rebuilds the walls of Jerusalem, 202 - - Nehushtan, 171 - - Neo-Babylonian period, 65 - - Neolithic implements, 103 - - Nicanor's gate, 210 - - Niebuhr, Carsten, inscriptions at Persepolis, 49 - - Nile, 17 - - Nineveh, explored by Botta, Place, and Layard, 43; - by Rassam and Loftus, 44; - by George Smith, 45; - eclipse at, 51; - Ashurbanipal's library at, 64 - - Ninkharsag, 279, 289 - - Nippur, exploration of, 46; - founding of, 55; - account of creation and flood discovered at, 278; - account of the origin of a city and the beginning of agriculture, 283 - - Nisin, 53, 54, 58 - - Noah, 268, 287 - - Nomes, divisions of Egypt, 24 - - Noph, 27 - - Norden, F. L., 19 - - Nubians, Christian, 39 - - Nuffar, exploration of, 46 - - - Odoric, 49 - - _Odyssey, The_, referred to, 79 - - Old Gate, 202 - - Olive-presses, 137 - - Olives, Mount of, 211 - - Olmstead, A. T., explorations in Asia Minor, 70 - - Omar, Mosque of, 168 - - Omer, 158 - - Omri, 100, 365, 366 - - On, 35; - priest of, founder of fifth dynasty, 26 - - Onias, 38 - - _Onomasticon_, by Jerome, 85, 133 - - Ophel, excavations on, 102; - topography of, 123 - - Opis, dynasty of, 54 - - Oppert, Jules, explorations of, 44, 50 - - _Orient-Gesellschaft_, Babylonian exploration, 46 - - Ornaments, personal, 156 - - Ornan, 168 - - Orodes I, King of Parthia, 120 - - Osorkon II, 30 - - Otiartes, 271 - - Ovens, 149 - - Oxyrhynchus, papyri from, 39, 428 - - - Paine, John A., explorations in Palestine, 86 - - Palaces of ancient Palestine, 127 - - Palæolithic implements, 103 - - "Palermo Stone," 22 - - Palestine, physical geography of, 83; - Mohammedans invade, 122 - - Palestine Exploration Fund, 87 - - Papyri, discovered at Elephantine, 37; - at Oxyrhynchus, 39, 428 - - Papyrus Ebers, 23 - - Parchment, origin of the word, 224 - - Parker, Capt., the Hon. Montague, excavations in Jerusalem, 101 - - Parthia, secedes from the empire of the Seleucidæ, 67 - - Pashe dynasty, succeeds the Kassite dynasty, 60 - - Paton, L. B., excavations in Jerusalem, 100 - - Patriarchs before the flood, 264 - - Paul, scene of his missionary activity, 219 - - _Payim_, 161 - - Peiser, F. E., decipherment of Hittite inscriptions, 71 - - Pekah, 62, 369 - - Peleset (Philistines), 356 - - Pella, 114, 216 - - Pentateuch, Code of Hammurapi compared with, 313; - laws of, not borrowed from Babylonia, 340 - - Perfume-boxes, 156 - - Pergamum, 222, 224 - - Persepolis, inscriptions at, 49 - - Persia, languages of ancient, 48 - - Persian period of Babylonia, 66 - - Persians, dominant in Palestine, 122 - - Pesibkhenno II, 30 - - Peters, John P., Babylonian explorations of, 45; - discovery at Beit Jibrin, 102 - - Petra, 173, 174 - - Petrie, William Matthew Flinders, excavation at Tell el-Yehudiyeh, 34, - 38; - discovery of Raamses, 36; - of Hophra's palace, 37; - excavation at Tell Defenneh, 38; - at Lachish, 89; - _Egyptian Tales_, 302 - - Phæstos, disc discovered at, 115, 357 - - Pharaoh of the Exodus, 30, 311 - - Philadelphia, 123, 217, 228 - - Philadelphus, 33 - - Philetærus, King of Pergamum, 224 - - Philip, son of Herod the Great, 121 - - Philistia, 83 - - Philistines, migration of, 115; - civilization of, 117; - Ramses III, reference to, 356; - Meyer's opinion of origin, 357 - - Phoenicians, weight standards of, 160 - - Pilate, Pontius, 121 - - Pilikam, 267, 271 - - Pillar of Merneptah, 311 - - Pillars, at Tell es-Safi, 169; - at Taanach, 173 - - _Pim_, 161 - - Pinches, Theophilus G., tablets from Erech, 384 - - "Pipe," musical instrument, 155 - - Pithom, 34, 35 - - Place, Victor, explorations of, 43 - - Plows, 134 - - Pococke, R., 19 - - Poebel, Arno, 54, 267, 271, 278 - - Politarchs, of Thessalonica, 438 - - Pompey, siege of Jerusalem, 120, 205 - - Pool of Bethesda, 210 - - Pools of Solomon, 131 - - Potiphar, 34 - - Pottery, 141 - - Pre-Babylonian period, 56 - - Prophets, character of the Hebrew, 417 - - Proverbs, parallels to book of, 407 - - Psalms, from Babylonia and Egypt, 398 - - Psammetik I, 31 - - Psammetik II, 387 - - Psephinus, tower of, 212 - - Ptahhotep, precepts of, 409 - - Ptolemaic period, 32 - - Ptolemy I, captures Jerusalem, 203 - - Ptolemy, Claudius, king list compiled by, 51 - - Ptolemy Lagi, 33, 119 - - Ptolemy Philadelphus, 33 - - Puchstein, Otto, discoveries at Boghaz Koi, 70 - - Pul, 61 - - Pumpelly, Raphael, explorations in Turkestan, 74 - - Put-akhi, Amorite king, 80 - - Pyramids, 25 - - - Qarqar, 61 - - _Quadrans_, 165 - - Quirinius, archæological light on enrolment of, 432 - - - Raamses, built by the Israelites, 35 - - Rabbah Ammon, rebuilt and renamed by Philadelphus, 33; - topography of, 123; - site of Philadelphia, 217 - - Ramsay, Sir William Mitchell, view of Quirinius' enrolment, 434 - - Ramses II, 29, 35, 69; - treaty with Hattusil, 69; - conquests in northern Syria, 80; - Palestinian rule of, 114 - - Ramses III, 30, 115 - - Ramses IV, IX, XII, 30 - - Raphana, 215 - - Rassam, Hormuzd, explorations of, 44, 45, 64 - - Rawlinson, Sir Henry C., explorations of, 44, 50, 51 - - Rehoboam, 30; - opposed by Shishak, 118 - - Reisner, G. A., excavations at Samaria, 100 - - Renan, Ernest, explorations in Palestine, 86 - - Rephaim, 104 - - Reservoirs, 130 - - Retenu (Lotan), 109 - - Rich, Claude James, explorations of, 42 - - Richardson, Rufus B., excavations at Corinth, 221 - - Rim-Sin, King of Larsa, 58 - - Rings, finger, 157; - money, 162 - - Roads, 132 - - Robinson, Edward, explorations in Palestine, 85 - - Robinson, George L., discovery at Petra, 102 - - "Robinson's Arch," 87, 204 - - Rockefeller, John D., 47 - - Roman rule of Egypt, 33 - - "Rosetta Stone," 20 - - - Sacrifices in foundations, 128; - human, 172; - Carthaginian law concerning, 342 - - Sacy, Sylvestre de, interpretation of Sassanian inscriptions, 49 - - Sakje-Geuze, excavations at, 75 - - Samal, kingdom of, 81 - - Samaria, siege of, 62; - excavations at, 100; - topography of, 123; - remains of palaces at, 127; - temple at, 178 - - Samaritans, origin of, 118 - - Samsuiluna, King of Larsa, 53 - - Sarbut el-Khadem, 28 - - Sardis, 226, 228 - - Sargon of Agade, 54, 57; - conquests of, 63, 107; - legend of, 310 - - Sargon of Assyria, besieges Samaria, 63, 369 - - Sarzec, Ernest de, explorations of, 45 - - Sassanian dynasty of Persia, 49, 67 - - Saturninus, Sentius, 437 - - Saul, reign of, 117 - - Saws, 152 - - Sayce, A. H., theories regarding Hittites, 68; - decipherment of Hittite inscriptions, 70, 73 - - "Scarp, Maudsley's," 191 - - Scheil, V., exploration of, 46, 54 - - Schick, Dr. Conrad, discoveries in Jerusalem, 207 - - Schmidt, Nathaniel, explorations in Palestine, 100 - - Schumacher, Gottlieb, explorations in Palestine, 88; - excavations at Megiddo, 96, 124 - - Scythians threaten Assyria, 64 - - Scythopolis, 214 - - Seah, 158 - - Seals, 154; - found at Megiddo, 359 - - Sebaste, see _Samaria_. - - Second Assyrian period, 61 - - Sela, 173 - - Seleucus, King of Babylonia, 67 - - Sellin, Ernst, excavations at Taanach, 97, 124; - excavations at Jericho, 98 - - Semites, first inhabitants of Mesopotamia, 55 - - Sendjirli, excavations at, 69 - - Seneferu, 25 - - Sennacherib, 31; - discovery of seal at Babylon, 52; - succeeds Sargon, 63; - his account of his campaigns, 372 - - Seplel, see _Subbiluliuma_. - - Septuagint, translation of, 33 - - Sesostris, monarchs of Middle Kingdom, 27 - - Seth, 267; - list of descendants, 269 - - Seti I, 29; - campaigns against Palestine, 80; - conquests in Asia, 114 - - _Shabatum_, 259 - - Shaft tombs, 181 - - Shalmaneser I, 60 - - Shalmaneser III, campaigns of, 61; - oppression of Palestine, 360 - - Shalmaneser V, 62 - - Shamash-shumukin, 64 - - Shamshi-Adad, 52 - - Shamshi-Adad IV, 61 - - Shamsu-ditana, King of Babylon, 75 - - Shamsu-iluna, successor of Hammurapi, 108 - - Sheba, 381 - - Shechem, captured by Sesostris III, 28; - excavations at, 102 - - Sheep Gate, 202 - - Shema, seal of, 176 - - Sheol, 423 - - Shephelah, borderland between Judæa and Philistia, 90, 94, 186 - - "Shepherd Kings," 28 - - Sheshonk, see _Shishak_. - - "Shinar" (Sumir), 58 - - Shishak, 30; - record of his campaign in Palestine, 37, 118, 359 - - Shithu-elu, 267 - - Shur, 95 - - Shushan, 47 - - Shutarna I, successor of Artatama I, 77 - - Siamon, 30 - - Sicilians, migration of, 115 - - Sickles, 135 - - Siloah, 189 - - Siloam inscription, 377 - - Simon the Maccabee, coinage of, 164 - - Sin, the moon-god, Babylonian hymn to, 400 - - Sinuhe, adventures of, 108, 307 - - Sippar (Agade), temple at, 54 - - Smith, Eli, explorations in Palestine, 85 - - Smith, George, explorations of, 45 - - Smyrna, Hittite sculptures and remains near, 76, 79; - general account of, 229 - - Solomon marries daughter of Pharaoh, 30; - empire of, 118; - Pools of, 131, 205; - buildings of, 192 - - Song of Songs, Egyptian parallels to, 413 - - "Sothic Cycle," 22 - - Spatulæ, for eye-paint, 156 - - Spears, 154 - - Sphinx, 26 - - Spinning "whorls," 151 - - Spoons, 150 - - Springs, favorite sites for cities, 186 - - "Stele of the vultures," 56 - - Step Pyramid, 25 - - Stone age in Palestine, 103 - - Styli, 154 - - Subbiluliuma, extends power of the Hittites, 77; - deposes Sutatarra, 78; - Amorites conquered by, 113 - - Sumerian, early language of Babylonia, 51 - - Sumerian names, with Semitic, Babylonian, and Hebrew equivalents, 268 - - Sumerians, ethnology of, 56 - - Sumir, derivation of, 58 - - Sun-god, Egyptian hymn to the, 402 - - Susa, exploration at, 47 - - Sutarna II, King of the Harri, 78 - - Sutatarra, successor of Dushratta, 78 - - Swords, 154 - - "Synagogue of the Hebrews" in Corinth, 221 - - Sypilus, Mount, 70 - - - Taanach, excavations at, 97; - walls of, 124; - buildings at, 127; - pillars and altar of incense at, 173; - letter from, 350 - - Tabu-utul-Bêl, 395 - - Tagtug, 288, 289 - - Tahpanhes, castle at, 37 - - Talbot, Fox, 50 - - Tale of the Eloquent Peasant, 418 - - Tale of Sinuhe, 307 - - Tale of the Two Brothers, 300 - - Tamerlane, 227 - - Tammuz, lamentation for, 426 - - Tanut-amon, 31 - - Tashji, Hittite remains at, 70 - - Taylor, J. E., explorations of, 44 - - Tell Defenneh, 38 - - Tell el-Hesy (Lachish), 89, 110 - - Tell el-Jazar, excavations at, 92 - - Tell el-Judeideh, excavations at, 91 - - Tell el-Retabeh, site of Raamses, 36 - - Tell el-Yehudiyeh, 38 - - Tell es-Safi, 91, 110, 124, 169 - - Tell Hum (Capernaum), 98 - - "Tell of the Jewess," 38 - - Tell Sandahanna (Marash), 92; - weight found at, 162 - - Tell Taanek, see _Taanach_. - - Tell Zakariya (Azekah), 90 - - Temple, Solomon's, site of, 168; - description of, 193; - building of the second, 200; - Herod's, 207 - - Temple at Gezer, 175 - - Temple to Augustus at Samaria, 178 - - Temple of Jewish colony in Egypt, 387 - - Thakut, 34 - - Thebes, nome of, 27 - - Thekel, migration of, 115, 116 - - Thenius, Otto, suggestion regarding Golgotha, 211 - - Thessalonica, politarchs of, 438 - - Thiersch, Hermann, discovery at Beit Jibrin, 102 - - This, nome of, 25 - - Thompson, R. Campbell, decipherment of Hittite inscriptions, 73 - - Thothmes I, raids through Palestine, 110 - - Thothmes III, 29, 77, 111 - - Thothmes IV, alliance with Artatama I, 77 - - Threshing, 135 - - Thyatira, 226 - - Ti, tomb of, 26 - - _Tiâmat_, 248, 251 - - Tiberius, coinage of, 165 - - Tiglath-pileser I, 51, 60 - - Tiglath-pileser IV, conquests of, 61, 366 - - Tigris river, 40 - - Timur (Tamerlane), 227 - - Tirhakah, 31, 64 - - Titus, destroys Jerusalem, 121 - - Tiuman, King of Elam, 417 - - Tobler, Titus, explorations in Palestine, 86 - - Toi, King of Hamath, 81 - - Tombs, 181 - - "Tombs of the Judges," 182 - - "Tombs of the Kings," 183, 212 - - Topheth, 199 - - Tou, see _Toi_. - - Towers, 202 - - Toys, 155 - - Trajan, 133; - organizes province of Arabia, 174 - - Travel, between Babylonia and Palestine, 293 - - Trumbull, Henry Clay, identification of Kadesh-Barnea, 95 - - Tukulti-Ninib I, 52, 60 - - "Turin Papyrus," 22 - - Two Brothers, Tale of the, 300 - - Tyana, Hittite capital, 82 - - Tyropoeon valley, 199 - - - Ukhaimir, exploration at, 48 - - Umm Keis, 216 - - Ummanu, 267 - - Uni, officer of Pepi I, 107 - - University Museum, Philadelphia, 53, 54 - - Upper Retenu, 109 - - Ur, founding of, 55; - kings of, 53, 54, 58 - - Urkagina, King of Lagash, 57 - - Ur-Nina founds dynasty at Lagash, 56 - - Utensils, 149 - - Uzziah, 196, 367 - - - Valley Gate, 202 - - Van Dyke, Henry, reference to _Felix_, 429 - - Vincent, Hughes, 99, 101 - - Vineyards, 137 - - - Wady Maghara, turquoise mines in, 25 - - Walls of Palestinian cities, 109, 123, 125, 202 - - Ward, William Hayes, Babylonian explorations of, 45 - - Warka, exploration at, 47 - - Warren, Gen. Sir Charles, excavations at Jerusalem, 87; - at Gihon, 101 - - Water Gate, 202 - - Water supply in Palestine, 129 - - Weidner, Ernst, 74 - - Weights, 160 - - Weil, Captain, excavations on Ophel, 102 - - Wenamon, report of, 117, 352 - - Whetstones, 153 - - White Wall, 27 - - Wilderness of Zin, explorations in, 95 - - Winckler, Hugo, excavations at Boghaz Koi, 69, 79; - first instalment of the El-Amarna letters, 71 - - Winckler und Abel, _Thoutafelnfund von El-Amarna_, 303 - - Wine-vats, 137 - - Winnowing, 135 - - _Wisdom of Jesus, the Son of Sirach_, 203 - - Wood, J. T., discoveries in Ephesus, 223 - - Woolley, C. Leonard, 75, 95 - - Wrench, J. E., explorations in Asia Minor, 70 - - Wright, William, _The Empire of the Hittites_, 68 - - - Xerxes, inscriptions of, 48 - - Xisouthros, 271 - - Xystus, 203 - - - Yadi, kingdom of, 81 - - Yaila, Hittite remains at, 70 - - Yakut, Arabian geographer, 217 - - Yau-bidi, King of Hamath, 82 - - Yaudi, identity of, 371 - - Year, divisions of, 138 - - - Zamama, temple of, 48 - - Zaphenath-Paneah, 34 - - Zechariah, assists in rebuilding the temple, 118, 200 - - Zedekiah, rebellion against Babylon, 32, 65 - - Ziggurat of Zamama temple, 48 - - Zin, explorations in the wilderness of, 95 - - Zion, site of Jebus, 188 - - Ziugiddu, 280 - - Zoser, first king of third dynasty, 25, 305 - - Zugagib, 266 - - - - -PLATES - - -PLATE 1 - -[Illustration: FIG. 1. SYRIAN TRADERS IN EGYPT, FROM A TOMB AT BENI -HASAN.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 2. CROWN OF LOWER EGYPT.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 3. CROWN OF UPPER EGYPT.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 4. CROWN OF UNITED EGYPT.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 5. SPHINX AND PYRAMID OF KHAFRE.] - - -PLATE 2 - -[Illustration: FIG. 6. PYRAMIDS OF KHUFU AND KHAFRE.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 7. STEP PYRAMID OF ZOSER.] - - -PLATE 3 - -[Illustration: FIG. 8. BODY FROM A PRE-DYNASTIC TOMB.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 9. HEAD OF THE MUMMY OF RAMSES II.] - - -PLATE 4 - -[Illustration: FIG. 10. A STORE-CHAMBER AT PITHOM (_after Naville_).] - -[Illustration: FIG. 11. ANCIENT AND MODERN BRICK-MAKING (_after Petrie_).] - - -PLATE 5 - -[Illustration: FIG. 12. PLAN OF CITY AND TEMPLE OF LEONTOPOLIS (_after -Petrie_).] - -[Illustration: FIG. 13. A PASSOVER-OVEN (_after Petrie_).] - - -PLATE 6 - -[Illustration: FIG. 14. THE ROSETTA STONE. - -_By permission of Thomas Nelson & Sons._] - -[Illustration: FIG. 15. THE "ISRAEL" INSCRIPTION OF MERNEPTAH.] - - -PLATE 7 - -[Illustration: FIG. 16. MOUNDS OF NUFFAR (_after Clay_).] - -[Illustration: FIG. 17. EXCAVATION AT NUFFAR (_after Clay_).] - - -PLATE 8 - -[Illustration: FIG. 18. GATE OF ISHTAR, BABYLON (_after Koldeway_).] - -[Illustration: FIG. 19. PHALANX OF SOLDIERS FROM EANNATUM'S "STELE OF -VULTURES."] - - -PLATE 9 - -[Illustration: FIG. 20. INSCRIBED COLUMN FROM PERSEPOLIS.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 21. SILVER VASE OF ENTEMENA.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 22. MOUND OF BIRS NIMRÛD (_after Peters_).] - - -PLATE 10 - -[Illustration: FIG. 23. HITTITE GATES AT BOGHAZ KOI (_after Puchstein_).] - -[Illustration: FIG. 24. HITTITE TYPES FROM EGYPTIAN MONUMENTS (_after -Garstang_).] - - -PLATE 11 - -[Illustration: FIG. 25. A HITTITE KING (_after Puchstein_).] - -[Illustration: FIG. 26. THE BOSS OF TARKONDEMOS.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 27. THE SEAL OF SHEMA, SERVANT OF JEROBOAM.] - - -PLATE 12 - -[Illustration: FIG. 28. TELL EL-HESY AFTER EXCAVATION.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 29. THE SITE OF THE OLD TESTAMENT JERICHO.] - - -PLATE 13 - -[Illustration: FIG. 30. EXCAVATION OF GEZER.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 31. REMAINS OF A COLONNADED STREET AT SAMARIA.] - - -PLATE 14 - -[Illustration: FIG. 32. EXCAVATION AT TELL HUM.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 33. EGYPTIANS ATTACKING A PALESTINIAN CITY (_after -Perrot and Chipiez_).] - - -PLATE 15 - -[Illustration: FIG. 34. ISRAELITISH JERICHO (_after Sellin_).] - -[Illustration: FIG. 35. ISRAELITISH HOUSES AT JERICHO (_after Sellin_).] - - -PLATE 16 - -[Illustration: FIG. 36. PHILISTINES FROM THE PALACE OF RAMSES III.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 37. CANAANITISH FORTRESS AT JERICHO (_after Sellin_).] - - -PLATE 17 - -[Illustration: FIG. 38.--INSCRIBED DISC FROM PHÆSTOS (ONE-FOURTH ACTUAL -SIZE).] - -[Illustration: FIG. 39. GEBEL FUREIDIS.] - - -PLATE 18 - -[Illustration: FIG. 40. BASTION FOR THE PROTECTION OF AN INSERTED TOWER -(_after Macalister_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - -[Illustration: FIG. 41. REMAINS OF WALLS OF MEGIDDO (_after Schumacher_).] - - -PLATE 19 - -[Illustration: FIG. 42. WALLS OF BUILDINGS AT SAMARIA (_after Reisner_).] - -[Illustration: FIG. 43. SPECIMENS OF STONE-WORK AT GEZER (_after -Macalister_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - -[Illustration: FIG. 44. BUILDING-BRICKS FROM GEZER (_after Macalister_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - - -PLATE 20 - -[Illustration: FIG. 45. PLAN OF PALACE AT TAANACH (_after Sellin_).] - -[Illustration: FIG. 46. THE GREAT CITY WALL AT GEZER (_after Macalister_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - - -PLATE 21 - -[Illustration: FIG. 47. ISRAELITISH HOUSES AT GEZER. - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - -[Illustration: FIG. 48. SPECIMENS OF MOSAIC FLOORS (_after Macalister_). - -_By Permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - - -PLATE 22 - -[Illustration: FIG. 49. A DOORWAY AT GEZER (_after Macalister_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - -[Illustration: FIG. 50. DOOR-SOCKETS FROM GEZER (_after Macalister_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - - -PLATE 23 - -[Illustration: FIG. 51. SUPPOSED HOUSE OF HIEL, JERICHO (_after Sellin_).] - -[Illustration: FIG. 52. FOUNDATION OF THE PALACE OF OMRI, SAMARIA (_after -Reisner_).] - -[Illustration: FIG. 53. HEBREW PALACE AT MEGIDDO (_after Schumacher_).] - - -PLATE 24 - -[Illustration: FIG. 54. PLAN OF THE MACCABÆAN CASTLE AT GEZER (_after -Macalister_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - -[Illustration: FIG. 55. STONE-WORK OF THE MACCABÆAN CASTLE (_after -Macalister_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - -[Illustration: FIG. 56. A FOUNDATION-DEPOSIT, GEZER (_after Macalister_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - - -PLATE 25 - -[Illustration: FIG. 57. A CITY GATE AT MEGIDDO (_after Schumacher_).] - -[Illustration: FIG. 58. THE SOUTH GATE AT GEZER (_after Macalister_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - -[Illustration: FIG. 59. THE SOUTH GATE AT BETHSHEMESH (_after Mackenzie_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - - -PLATE 26 - -[Illustration: FIG. 60. ENTRANCE TO THE UNDERGROUND TUNNEL AT GEZER -(_after Macalister_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - -[Illustration: FIG. 61.--THE NORTH GATE AT GEZER (_after Macalister_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - - -PLATE 27 - -[Illustration: FIG. 62. PLANS OF THE UNDERGROUND TUNNEL AT GEZER (_after -Macalister_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - - -PLATE 28 - -[Illustration: FIG. 63. PLAN OF UNDERGROUND TUNNEL AT GIBEON (_after -Abel_).] - -[Illustration: FIG. 64. ONE OF SOLOMON'S POOLS.] - - -PLATE 29 - -[Illustration: FIG. 65. POST OF CITY GATE, SAMARIA (_after Reisner_).] - -[Illustration: FIG. 66. PART OF CITY WALL AND GATE, SAMARIA (_after -Reisner_).] - - -PLATE 30 - -[Illustration: FIG. 67. ROAD SOUTH OF GERIZIM.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 68. LINES OF ROMAN ROADS AT TELL EL-FUL.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 69. ROMAN ROAD NORTH OF AMMAN.] - - -PLATE 31 - -[Illustration: FIG. 70. A GRANARY AT GEZER (_after Macalister_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - -[Illustration: FIG. 71. SOME ROMAN MILE-STONES.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 72. PLAN OF A GRANARY AT GEZER (_after Macalister_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - - -PLATE 32 - -[Illustration: FIG. 73. A HOE (_after Macalister_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - -[Illustration: FIG. 74. AN EGYPTIAN REAPING (_after Wreszinski_).] - -[Illustration: FIG. 75. A SICKLE (_after Wreszinski_).] - -[Illustration: FIG. 76. PLOWSHARES FROM MEGIDDO (_after Schumacher_).] - - -PLATE 33 - -[Illustration: FIG. 77. EGYPTIAN PLOWING (_after Wilkinson_).] - -[Illustration: FIG. 78. A MODERN THRESHING-FLOOR.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 79. EGYPTIANS THRESHING AND WINNOWING (_after -Wilkinson_).] - -[Illustration: FIG. 80. EGYPTIAN THRESHING-SLEDGE (_after Wilkinson_).] - - -PLATE 34 - -[Illustration: FIG. 81. A SADDLE-QUERN FROM MEGIDDO (_after Schumacher_).] - -[Illustration: FIG. 82. A ROTARY-QUERN (_after Macalister_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - -[Illustration: FIG. 83. A MORTAR AND PESTLE (_after Macalister_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - -[Illustration: FIG. 84. TWO WOMEN GRINDING AT A MILL (_after -Schumacher_).] - - -PLATE 35 - -[Illustration: FIG. 85. AN ANCIENT OLIVE-PRESS (_after Macalister_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - -[Illustration: FIG. 86. A MODERN OLIVE-PRESS (_after Macalister_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - - -PLATE 36 - -[Illustration: FIG. 87. A WINE VAT (_after Macalister_). - -_By Permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - -[Illustration: FIG. 88. AN OLIVE-PRESS AT WORK (_after Macalister_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - - -PLATE 37 - -[Illustration: FIG. 89. COWS' HORNS FROM GEZER (_after Macalister_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - -[Illustration: FIG. 90. ANIMALS' HEADS FROM GEZER (_after Macalister_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - -[Illustration: FIG. 91. A HORSE'S BIT FROM GEZER (_after Macalister_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - -[Illustration: FIG. 92. DRAWINGS OF HORSES FROM GEZER (_after -Macalister_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - - -PLATE 38 - -[Illustration: FIG. 93. A CLAY BIRD FROM GEZER (_after Macalister_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - -[Illustration: FIG. 94. A COCK FROM MARISSA (_after Peters and Thiersch_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - -[Illustration: FIG. 95. A BEE-HIVE FROM GEZER (_after Macalister_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - - -PLATE 39 - -[Illustration: FIG. 96. PRE-SEMITIC JARS (_after Macalister_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - -[Illustration: FIG. 97. PRE-SEMITIC POTTERY (_after Macalister_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - -[Illustration: FIG. 98. FOUR PITCHERS FROM THE FIRST SEMITIC STRATUM -(_after Macalister_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - -[Illustration: FIG. 99. THREE PITCHERS FROM THE FIRST SEMITIC STRATUM -(_after Macalister_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - -[Illustration: FIG. 100. A JAR FROM THE FIRST SEMITIC STRATUM (_after -Macalister_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - - -PLATE 40 - -[Illustration: FIG. 101. JUGS FROM THE SECOND SEMITIC STRATUM (_after -Macalister_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - -[Illustration: FIG. 102. A JUG FROM THE SECOND SEMITIC STRATUM (_after -Macalister_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - -[Illustration: FIG. 103. A JAR FROM THE SECOND SEMITIC STRATUM (_after -Macalister_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - - -PLATE 41 - -[Illustration: FIG. 104. SOME FINE POTTERY FROM THE FIRST SEMITIC STRATUM -(_after Macalister_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - -[Illustration: FIG. 105. "EAR" AND "BUTTON" JAR-HANDLES (_after -Macalister_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - -[Illustration: FIG. 106. A "PILLAR" HANDLE (_after Macalister_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - -[Illustration: FIG. 107. A FLAT-BOTTOMED JUG (_after Macalister_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - - -PLATE 42 - -[Illustration: FIG. 108. A PAINTED PHILISTINE VASE FROM BETH-SHEMESH -(_after Mackenzie_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - -[Illustration: FIG. 109. WAR-SCENE ON POTSHERD FROM MEGIDDO (_after -Schumacher_).] - -[Illustration: FIG. 110. JARS OF THIRD SEMITIC STRATUM FROM BETH-SHEMESH -(_after Mackenzie_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - -[Illustration: FIG. 111. HEBREW POTTERY FROM MEGIDDO (_after -Schumacher_).] - - -PLATE 43 - -[Illustration: FIG. 112. HEBREW JARS AND PITCHERS FROM JERICHO (_after -Sellin_).] - -[Illustration: FIG. 113. HEBREW PITCHERS AND BOWLS FROM JERICHO (_after -Sellin_).] - - -PLATE 44 - -[Illustration: FIG. 114. A FUNNEL FROM GEZER (_after Macalister_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - -[Illustration: FIG. 115. A POTTER'S SEAL FROM GEZER (_after Macalister_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - -[Illustration: FIG. 116. AN INSCRIBED HEBREW JAR-STAMP FROM THE SHEPHELAH -(_after Bliss and Macalister_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - -[Illustration: FIG. 117. HEBREW POTTERY FROM GEZER (_after Macalister_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - - -PLATE 45 - -[Illustration: FIG. 118. A SCARAB USED AS A JAR-STAMP (_after -Macalister_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - -[Illustration: FIG. 119. A JAR-HANDLE STAMPED WITH A SCARAB (_after -Macalister_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - -[Illustration: FIG. 120. A JAR WITH TAPERING BASE FROM GEZER (_after -Macalister_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - -[Illustration: FIG. 121. HELLENISTIC FILTER FROM GEZER (_after -Macalister_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - -[Illustration: FIG. 122. HELLENISTIC POTTERY FROM GEZER (_after -Macalister_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - - -PLATE 46 - -[Illustration: FIG. 123. HELLENISTIC STRAINER FROM GEZER (_after -Macalister_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - -[Illustration: FIG. 124. ROMAN POTS FROM GEZER (_after Macalister_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - -[Illustration: FIG. 125. HELLENISTIC JAR FROM GEZER (_after Macalister_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - -[Illustration: FIG. 126. A LAMP OF THE FIRST SEMITIC PERIOD, MEGIDDO -(_after Schumacher_).] - - -PLATE 47 - -[Illustration: FIG. 127. LAMPS FROM THE SECOND SEMITIC PERIOD, GEZER -(_after Macalister_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - -[Illustration: FIG. 128. LAMPS FROM THE ISRAELITISH PERIOD, GEZER (_after -Macalister_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - -[Illustration: FIG. 129. A BYZANTINE LAMP FROM JERICHO (_after Sellin_).] - -[Illustration: FIG. 130. A LAMP BEARING A CHRISTIAN LEGEND (_after -Macalister_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - - -PLATE 48 - -[Illustration: FIG. 131. HELLENISTIC LAMPS FROM GEZER (_after -Macalister_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - -[Illustration: FIG. 132. HEBREW LAMPS FROM JERICHO (_after Sellin_).] - - -PLATE 49 - -[Illustration: FIG. 133. OVENS FOUND AT GEZER (_after Macalister_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - -[Illustration: FIG. 134. A BAKING-TRAY FROM GEZER (_after Macalister_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - -[Illustration: FIG. 135. BRONZE DISHES FROM GEZER (_after Macalister_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - -[Illustration: FIG. 136. SHELL SPOONS FROM GEZER (_after Macalister_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - - -PLATE 50 - -[Illustration: FIG. 137. SILVER DISHES FROM A PHILISTINE GRAVE AT GEZER -(_after Macalister_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - -[Illustration: FIG. 138. GLASS OINTMENT VESSELS FROM GEZER (_after -Macalister_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - - -PLATE 51 - -[Illustration: FIG. 139. FEEDING-BOTTLES (?). GEZER (_after Macalister_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - -[Illustration: FIG. 140. FORKS FROM GEZER (_after Macalister_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - -[Illustration: FIG. 141. PHILISTINE SILVER LADLE. GEZER (_after -Macalister_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - -[Illustration: FIG. 142. BRONZE NEEDLES AND PINS FROM GEZER (_after -Macalister_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - - -PLATE 52 - -[Illustration: FIG. 143. BONE NEEDLES FROM GEZER (_after Macalister_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - -[Illustration: FIG. 144. MODERN WOMAN SPINNING. - -_By permission of Mrs. Grant Williams._] - -[Illustration: FIG. 145. SPINDLE WHORLS FROM GEZER (_after Macalister_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - -[Illustration: FIG. 146. A LARGE KEY FROM GEZER (_after Macalister_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - -[Illustration: FIG. 147. A SMALLER KEY FROM GEZER (_after Macalister_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - - -PLATE 53 - -[Illustration: FIG. 148. LAMP STANDS FROM MEGIDDO (_after Schumacher_).] - -[Illustration: FIG. 149. FLINT KNIVES FROM JERICHO (_after Sellin_).] - - -PLATE 54 - -[Illustration: FIG. 150. IRON KNIVES FROM GEZER (_after Macalister_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - -[Illustration: FIG. 151. BRONZE KNIVES FROM GEZER (_after Macalister_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - - -PLATE 55 - -[Illustration: FIG. 152. A CHISEL FROM GEZER (_after Macalister_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - -[Illustration: FIG. 153. A FILE FROM GEZER (_after Macalister_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - -[Illustration: FIG. 154. A CONE OF FLINT FOR MAKING KNIVES, GEZER (_after -Macalister_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - -[Illustration: FIG. 155. A BRONZE HAMMER-HEAD, GEZER (_after Macalister_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - -[Illustration: FIG. 156. A FISH-HOOK, GEZER (_after Macalister_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - -[Illustration: FIG. 157. A BONE AWL-HANDLE FROM GEZER (_after -Macalister_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - -[Illustration: FIG. 158. WHETSTONES FROM JERICHO (_after Sellin_).] - -[Illustration: FIG. 159. NAILS FROM GEZER (_after Macalister_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - - -PLATE 56 - -[Illustration: FIG. 160. AXE-HEADS FROM GEZER (_after Macalister_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - -[Illustration: FIG. 161. CARPENTERS' TOOLS FROM GEZER (_after -Macalister_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - - -PLATE 57 - -[Illustration: FIG. 162. A SCIMITAR FROM GEZER (_after Macalister_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - -[Illustration: FIG. 163. IMPRESSION OF A BASKET ON MUD, GEZER (_after -Macalister_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - -[Illustration: FIG. 164. FLINT ARROW-HEADS FROM GEZER (_after -Macalister_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - -[Illustration: FIG. 165. BRONZE ARROW-HEADS FROM GEZER (_after -Macalister_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - - -PLATE 58 - -[Illustration: FIG. 166. BRONZE SWORDS FROM GEZER (_after Macalister_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - -[Illustration: FIG. 167. BRONZE SPEAR-HEADS, GEZER (_after Macalister_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - - -PLATE 59 - -[Illustration: FIG. 168. A PIPE FROM GEZER (_after Macalister_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - -[Illustration: FIG. 169. AN EGYPTIAN HARP (_after Haupt_).] - -[Illustration: FIG. 170. AN ASSYRIAN UPRIGHT HARP (_after Haupt_).] - -[Illustration: FIG. 171. AN ASSYRIAN HORIZONTAL HARP (_after Haupt_).] - -[Illustration: FIG. 172. A BABYLONIAN HARP (_after Haupt_).] - -[Illustration: FIG. 173. JEWISH HARPS ON COINS OF BAR COCHEBA, 132-135 A. -D. (_after Madden_).] - -[Illustration: FIG. 174. ASSYRIAN DULCIMER (_after Haupt_).] - - -PLATE 60 - -[Illustration: FIG. 175. SEALS FROM GEZER (_after Macalister_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - -[Illustration: FIG. 176. A COMB FROM GEZER (_after Macalister_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - -[Illustration: FIG. 177. TOYS FROM GEZER (_after Macalister_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - -[Illustration: FIG. 178. STYLI FROM GEZER (_after Macalister_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - -[Illustration: FIG. 179. CHILDREN'S RATTLES FROM GEZER (_after -Macalister_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - - -PLATE 61 - -[Illustration: FIG. 180. A PERFUME-BOX, GEZER (_after Macalister_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - -[Illustration: FIG. 181. A NECKLACE FROM GEZER (_after Macalister_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - -[Illustration: FIG. 182. BRACELETS FROM GEZER (_after Macalister_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - -[Illustration: FIG. 183. SPATULÆ FROM GEZER (_after Macalister_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - -[Illustration: FIG. 184. RINGS FROM GEZER (_after Macalister_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - - -PLATE 62 - -[Illustration: FIG. 185. SUPPOSED HEBREW MEASURES FROM JERUSALEM (_after -Germer-Durand_).] - - -PLATE 63 - -[Illustration: FIG. 186. A _Neseph_ WEIGHT.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 187. A _Payim_ WEIGHT BELONGING TO HAVERFORD COLLEGE.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 188. A _Beqa_ WEIGHT (_after Torrey_).] - -[Illustration: FIG. 189. A "DARIC" OF DARIUS (_after Benzinger_).] - -[Illustration: FIG. 190. A TETRADRACHMA OF ALEXANDER THE GREAT (_after -Benzinger_).] - -[Illustration: FIG. 191. A COIN OF PTOLEMY LAGI (_after Benzinger_).] - - -PLATE 64 - -[Illustration: FIG. 192. HALF-SHEKEL OF SIMON THE MACCABEE (_after -Benzinger_).] - -[Illustration: FIG. 193. A COIN OF JOHN HYRCANUS (_after Madden_).] - -[Illustration: FIG. 194. TETRADRACHMA OF LYSIMACHUS.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 195. A COIN OF AUGUSTUS.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 196. A DENARIUS OF TIBERIUS.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 197. A COIN OF CLAUDIUS.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 198. A COIN OF HEROD THE GREAT.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 199. A ROMAN QUADRANS (?).] - -[Illustration: FIG. 200. A COIN OF HEROD AGRIPPA I.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 201. A SHEKEL OF THE REVOLT OF A. D. 70.] - - -PLATE 65 - -[Illustration: FIG. 202. CAVE-DWELLERS' PLACE OF SACRIFICE, GEZER (_after -Macalister_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - -[Illustration: FIG. 203. PLAN OF CAVES AT SEMITIC HIGH PLACE, GEZER -(_after Macalister_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - -[Illustration: FIG. 204. "PILLARS" OF THE HIGH PLACE AT GEZER.] - - -PLATE 66 - -[Illustration: FIG. 205. ROCK-ALTAR AT MEGIDDO (_after Schumacher_).] - -[Illustration: FIG. 206. THE "BETH-EL" OF GEZER (_after Macalister_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - -[Illustration: FIG. 207. THE SUPPOSED SERPENT-PEN AT GEZER (_after -Macalister_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - - -PLATE 67 - -[Illustration: FIG. 208. THE ROCK-ALTAR AT JERUSALEM (_after Dalman_).] - -[Illustration: FIG. 209. THE LAVER AT GEZER (_after Macalister_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - - -PLATE 68 - -[Illustration: FIG. 210. THE TERRA-COTTA ALTAR FROM TAANACH (_after -Sellin_).] - -[Illustration: FIG. 211. SUPPOSED HIGH PLACE AT TAANACH (_after Sellin_).] - - -PLATE 69 - -[Illustration: FIG. 212. HIGH PLACE AT TELL ES-SAFI (_after Bliss and -Macalister_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - -[Illustration: FIG. 213. LIBATION BOWL FROM TAANACH (_after Sellin_).] - -[Illustration: FIG. 214. AN ASTARTE PLAQUE FROM GEZER (_after -Macalister_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - - -PLATE 70 - -[Illustration: FIG. 215. PLAN OF THE HIGH PLACE AT PETRA (_after -Brünnow_).] - -[Illustration: FIG. 216. PLAN OF HEROD'S TEMPLE AT SAMARIA (_after -Lyon_).] - - -PLATE 71 - -[Illustration: FIG. 217. THE ALTAR AT PETRA (_after Brünnow_).] - -[Illustration: FIG. 218. THE "ROUND ALTAR" AT PETRA (_after Brünnow_).] - -[Illustration: FIG. 219. SUPPOSED "PILLARS" AT PETRA (_after Brünnow_).] - - -PLATE 72 - -[Illustration: FIG. 219_a_. A BRAZEN SERPENT FROM GEZER (_after -Macalister_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - -[Illustration: FIG. 220. PLAN OF SUPPOSED SEMITIC TEMPLE AT GEZER (_after -Macalister_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - -[Illustration: FIG. 221. WALLS OF HEROD'S TEMPLE, SAMARIA (_after -Reisner_).] - - -PLATE 73 - -[Illustration: FIG. 222. "PILLARS" OF A SUPPOSED TEMPLE, GEZER (_after -Macalister_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - -[Illustration: FIG. 223. CHAPEL OF THE PALACE AT MEGIDDO (_after -Schumacher_).] - - -PLATE 74 - -[Illustration: FIG. 224. VOLUTED CAPITAL (PROBABLY PHILISTINE) FROM -MEGIDDO (_after Schumacher_).] - -[Illustration: FIG. 225. INCENSE-BURNER FROM MEGIDDO (_after -Schumacher_).] - - -PLATE 75 - -[Illustration: FIG. 226. PHILISTINE GRAVES, GEZER (_after Macalister_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - -[Illustration: FIG. 227. A ROCK-HEWN TOMB AT SILOAM (_after Benzinger_).] - -[Illustration: FIG. 228. A SHAFT-TOMB (_after Bliss and Macalister_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - -[Illustration: FIG. 229. A CISTERN-BURIAL AT GEZER (_after Macalister_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - - -PLATE 76 - -[Illustration: FIG. 230. A COLUMBARIUM AT PETRA (_after Dalman_).] - -[Illustration: FIG. 231. ENTRANCE TO THE TOMB OF THE JUDGES.] - - -PLATE 77 - -[Illustration: FIG. 232. A SUNKEN-DOOR TOMB (_after Mitt. u. Nach. d. -Deutsch. Palästina-Vereins_).] - -[Illustration: FIG. 233. _Kokim_ IN THE TOMB OF THE JUDGES.] - - -PLATE 78 - -[Illustration: FIG. 234. PLAN OF A HELLENISTIC TOMB AT MARISSA (_after -Peters and Thiersch_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - -[Illustration: FIG. 235. A CROSS-SECTION OF THE TOMB OF THE JUDGES.] - - -PLATE 79 - -[Illustration: FIG. 236. ARCHITECTURAL DECORATION OF A HELLENISTIC TOMB AT -MARISSA (_after Peters and Thiersch_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - -[Illustration: FIG. 237. PLAN OF THE UPPER FLOOR OF THE TOMB OF THE -JUDGES.] - - -PLATE 80 - -[Illustration: FIG. 238. A TOMB WITH A ROLLING-STONE AT BEIT JIBRIN -(_after Moulton_).] - -[Illustration: FIG. 239. INTERIOR OF A HELLENISTIC TOMB AT MARISSA (_after -Peters and Thiersch_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - - -PLATE 81 - -[Illustration: FIG. 240. THE HILLS AND VALLEYS OF JERUSALEM (_after -Vincent_).] - - -PLATE 82 - -[Illustration: FIG. 241. UNDERGROUND JEBUSITE TUNNEL AT GIHON, JERUSALEM -(_after Vincent_).] - -[Illustration: FIG. 242. MAUDSLEY'S SCARP, JERUSALEM.] - - -PLATE 83 - -[Illustration: FIG. 243. PLAN OF SOLOMON'S BUILDINGS, JERUSALEM (_after -Stade_).] - -[Illustration: FIG. 244. PHOENICIAN QUARRY-MARKS, JERUSALEM (_after -Warren_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - - -PLATE 84 - -[Illustration: FIG. 245. SHAFT AT THE SOUTHEAST CORNER OF THE TEMPLE AREA -(_after Warren_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - -[Illustration: FIG. 246. EXAMINING ANCIENT WALLS IN AN UNDERGROUND TUNNEL -(_after Warren_). - -_By permission of Palatine Exploration Fund._] - - -PLATE 85 - -[Illustration: FIG. 247. FRONT VIEWS OF SOLOMON'S TEMPLE (_after Stade_).] - -[Illustration: FIG. 248. SIDE VIEWS OF SOLOMON'S TEMPLE (_after Stade_).] - - -PLATE 86 - -[Illustration: FIG. 249. PLAN OF SOLOMON'S TEMPLE (_after Stade_).] - -[Illustration: FIG. 250. THE SEVEN-BRANCHED LAMP-STAND FROM THE ARCH OF -TITUS.] - - -PLATE 87 - -[Illustration: FIG. 251. THE BRAZEN LAVER OF SOLOMON'S TEMPLE (_after -Stade_).] - -[Illustration: FIG. 252. A PORTABLE LAVER OF SOLOMON'S TEMPLE (_after -Stade_).] - - -PLATE 88 - -[Illustration: FIG. 253. STONE-WORK OF A WALL OF JERUSALEM BUILT IN THE -FIFTH CENTURY A. D.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 254. STONE-WORK IN NEHEMIAH'S WALL, JERUSALEM.] - - -PLATE 89 - -[Illustration: FIG. 255. RESTORATION OF THE ASMONÆAN BRIDGE OVER THE -TYROPOEON VALLEY (_after Hanauer_).] - -[Illustration: FIG. 256. FRONT OF "DAVID'S TOWER" (HEROD'S PALACE) TODAY -(_after Breen_).] - - -PLATE 90 - -[Illustration: FIG. 257. RECONSTRUCTION OF HEROD'S TEMPLE (_after -Caldecott_).] - -[Illustration: FIG. 258. "SOLOMON'S STABLES."] - - -PLATE 91 - -[Illustration: FIG. 259. ONE OF THE SUPPOSED POOLS OF BETHESDA (_after -Hanauer_).] - -[Illustration: FIG. 260. FRONT OF THE CHURCH OF THE HOLY SEPULCHER.] - - -PLATE 92 - -[Illustration: FIG. 261. "GORDON'S CALVARY," LOOKING TOWARD JERUSALEM -(_after Breen_).] - -[Illustration: FIG. 262. "GORDON'S CALVARY," FROM THE CITY WALL (_after -Breen_).] - - -PLATE 93 - -[Illustration: FIG. 263. OUTSIDE OF "GORDON'S HOLY SEPULCHER" (_after -Breen_).] - -[Illustration: FIG. 264. INSIDE OF "GORDON'S HOLY SEPULCHER" (_after -Breen_).] - - -PLATE 94 - -[Illustration: FIG. 265. THE BARADA (ABANA), DAMASCUS.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 266. THE STREET CALLED STRAIGHT, DAMASCUS.] - - -PLATE 95 - -[Illustration: FIG. 267. PALACE AT KANATHA (_after Brünnow_).] - -[Illustration: FIG. 268. CIRCULAR FORUM AND COLONNADED STREET, GERASA.] - - -PLATE 96 - -[Illustration: FIG. 269. TEMPLE OF THE SUN, GERASA.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 270. SITE OF RABBAH AMMON.] - - -PLATE 97 - -[Illustration: FIG. 271. THEATER AT AMMAN (PALESTINIAN PHILADELPHIA).] - -[Illustration: FIG. 272. ROMAN FORUM AT ATHENS.] - - -PLATE 98 - -[Illustration: FIG. 273. MARS' HILL, ATHENS.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 274. FOUNTAIN IN THE AGORA, CORINTH.] - - -PLATE 99 - -[Illustration: FIG. 275. LINTEL OF JEWISH SYNAGOGUE, CORINTH (_after -Richardson_).] - -[Illustration: FIG. 276. LECHÆUM ROAD, CORINTH (_after Richardson_).] - - -PLATE 100 - -[Illustration: FIG. 277. PARTHENON, ATHENS, FROM THE EAST.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 278. MAIN STREET AT EPHESUS.] - - -PLATE 101 - -[Illustration: FIG. 279. SITE OF THE TEMPLE OF DIANA, EPHESUS, IN 1902.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 280. THE THEATER, EPHESUS.] - - -PLATE 102 - -[Illustration: FIG. 281. THE AMPHITHEATER, EPHESUS.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 282. THE STADIUM, EPHESUS.] - - -PLATE 103 - -[Illustration: FIG. 283. PERGAMUM (_after Ramsay_).] - -[Illustration: FIG. 284. THE ACROPOLIS AND PARTLY EXCAVATED TEMPLE, SARDIS -(_after Butler_).] - - -PLATE 104 - -[Illustration: FIG. 285. EXCAVATED TEMPLE, SARDIS, LOOKING TOWARD THE -HERMUS VALLEY (_after Butler_).] - - -PLATE 105 - -[Illustration: FIG. 286. A CHRISTIAN CHURCH AT SARDIS (_after Butler_).] - -[Illustration: FIG. 287. SMYRNA (_after Ramsay_).] - - -PLATE 106 - -[Illustration: FIG. 288. A RUIN AT LAODICEA (_after Ramsay_).] - -[Illustration: FIG. 289. A BRIDGE OVER THE JORDAN ON THE LINE OF A ROMAN -ROAD.] - - -PLATE 107 - -[Illustration: FIG. 290. FRAGMENT OF A CREATION-TABLET.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 291. ASSYRIAN SACRED TREE CONVENTIONALIZED.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 292. HAMMURAPI RECEIVING THE LAWS FROM THE SUN-GOD.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 293. THE SO-CALLED ADAM AND EVE SEAL.] - - -PLATE 108 - -[Illustration: FIG. 294. A TABLET FROM NIPPUR. RELATING THE BEGINNINGS OF -IRRIGATION AND AGRICULTURE (_after Langdon_).] - -[Illustration: FIG. 295. TOP OF THE BLACK OBELISK OF SHALMANESER.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 296. JEHU OF ISRAEL DOING HOMAGE TO SHALMANESER.] - - -PLATE 109 - -[Illustration: FIG. 297. THE SILOAM INSCRIPTION.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 298. SENNACHERIB RECEIVING TRIBUTE AT LACHISH (_after -Ball_).] - - -PLATE 110 - -[Illustration: FIG. 299. AN ALTAR TO UNKNOWN GODS (_after Deissmann_).] - -[Illustration: FIG. 300. THE MOABITE STONE.] - - -PLATE 111 - -[Illustration: FIG. 301. PAPYRUS CONTAINING SAYINGS OF JESUS (_after -Grenfell and Hunt_).] - - -PLATE 112 - -[Illustration: Jerusalem of Solomon] - -[Illustration: Early Jerusalem] - - -PLATE 113 - -[Illustration: Jerusalem from Uzziah to the Exile] - -[Illustration: Jerusalem of Nehemiah] - - -PLATE 114 - -[Illustration: Asmonæan Jerusalem] - -[Illustration: Jerusalem of Herod and of Christ] - - - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[1] _Century Dictionary_, edition of 1903, Vol. I, p. 293. - -[2] The chronology of Archbishop Usher, printed in the margin of many -Bibles, is not a part of the Biblical text, but a collection of -seventeenth century calculations and guesses. - -[3] For fuller accounts of the history of Egypt, see Breasted's _History -of the Ancient Egyptians_, New York, Scribner's, 1908; or Breasted's -_History of Egypt_, second edition, 1909, New York, Scribner's. - -[4] See Petrie, _Hyksos and the Israelite Cities_, London, 1906. - -[5] See Naville, _The Store-City of Pithom and the Route of the Exodus_, -4th ed., London, 1903. - -[6] See Petrie, _Hyksos and the Israelite Cities_, p. 28, f. - -[7] See Petrie, _The Palace of Apries_, London, 1909. - -[8] See Petrie, _Hyksos and the Israelite Cities_, p. 191, ff. - -[9] See _Annals of Archæology and Anthropology_, VII, Liverpool, 1914, pp. -1-10. - -[10] So called from the name of the mountain on which it is written. - -[11] First published by Hilprecht, _Babylonian Expedition of the -University of Pennsylvania_, Vol. XX, No. 47; cf. p. 46. - -[12] See Poebel, _Historical and Grammatical Texts_, Philadelphia, 1914, -Nos. 2-5, and _Historical Texts_, Philadelphia, 1914, pp. 73-140. - -[13] It is the prevailing view of scholars that Arabia was the cradle-land -of the Semites. The reasons for this view as well as a _résumé_ of other -views will be found in G. A. Barton's _Sketch of Semitic Origins, Social -and Religious_, New York, 1902, Chapter I. - -[14] In Gen. 10:11 it is by implication said that the city was founded by -Nimrod. - -[15] For a discussion of the reasons for the view here stated, and a -presentation of other views, see Part II, p. 374, ff. - -[16] The Chaldæans were a Semitic people who came into the marsh-lands of -southern Babylonia from Arabia. We can first detect their presence in -Babylonia about 1000 B. C. - -[17] Those who desire fuller accounts of the history should read L. W. -King's _History of Sumer and Akkad_, London, 1910, and R. W. Rogers' -_History of Babylonia and Assyria_. 2d ed., New York, 1915. - -[18] In the _Mitteilungen der vorderasiatischen Gesellschaft_, 1899, Heft. -4. - -[19] In the _Mitteilungen der vorderasiatischen Gesellschaft_, 1900, Hefte -4 and 5. - -[20] See Pumpelly, _Explorations in Turkestan_, Washington, 1908, I, p. -50, f. - -[21] See L. W. King, _Chronicles Concerning Early Babylonian Kings_, -London, 1907, Vol. II, p. 22. - -[22] _History of Egypt_, II. 404, 405. - -[23] _Expository Times_, November, 1914, p. 91. - -[24] _Asien und Europa nach altägyptischen Denkmälern_, 319, note 3. - -[25] _Ancient Records, Egypt_, I, 227, 228. - -[26] Breasted's _Ancient Records, Egypt_, II, § 773. - -[27] Winckler in _Mitteilungen der vorderasiatischen Gesellschaft_, 1913, -Heft 4, p. 81. - -[28] _Itinéraire de Paris a Jérusalem_, Paris, 1811. - -[29] _Travels in Syria_, 1821. - -[30] _Souvenirs, impressions, el paysages, pendant un voyage en Orient_, -Paris, 1835. - -[31] For a more complete account see F. J. Bliss, _The Development of -Palestine Exploration_, New York, 1906. - -[32] See _Official Report of the United States Expedition to Explore the -Dead Sea and the River Jordan_, Baltimore, 1852. - -[33] See his "Identification of Pisgah" in the third _Statement_ of the -American Exploration Society, 1870. - -[34] See his _East of the Jordan_, New York, 1883. - -[35] Warren's results were first published in _The Recovery of Jerusalem_, -London, 1870, and more fully in _Jerusalem_, London, 1889, one of the -Memoirs of the Palestine Exploration Fund. The arch mentioned is called -"Robinson's Arch," because its significance was first perceived by -Robinson. - -[36] _Across the Jordan_, London, 1886; _Jaulan_, London, 1886, and -_Abila, Pella, and Northern Aijlun_, London, 1889. - -[37] _Die Provincia Arabia_, Strassburg, 1904-1909 (3 volumes). - -[38] _Petra_, Leipzig, 1908, and _Neu-Petra Forschung_, Leipzig, 1912. - -[39] _Archæological Researches in Palestine_, London, 1896-1899. - -[40] _Geology of Palestine and Arabia Petræa_, London, 1886. - -[41] See Petrie, _Tell el-Hesy (Lachish)_, London, 1891. - -[42] See his _Mound of Many Cities_, London, 1894. - -[43] See Bliss, _Excavations at Jerusalem_, London, 1898. - -[44] An artificially made precipice on which a fortress once stood. It is -named from an Englishman, Maudsley, who first perceived its true nature. - -[45] Bliss and Macalister, _Excavations in Palestine during the Years -1898-1900_, London, 1902. - -[46] See his _Archæological Researches in Palestine_, II, p. 251, f. - -[47] This is the period called by Petrie and Bliss "Seleucid." - -[48] See Macalister, _The Excavation of Gezer_, London, 1912, II, 381-403. - -[49] _Ibid._, 406-408. - -[50] _Ibid._, I, 256-268. - -[51] See Macalister, _The Excavation of Gezer_, London, 1912, II, 200-223. - -[52] _Ibid._, 236-266. - -[53] See the _Annual_ of the Palestine Exploration Fund, Vols. I and II, -for the details here given, and for many others. - -[54] _Zeitschrift des deutschen Palästina-Vereins._ - -[55] See _Zeitschrift des deutschen Palästina-Vereins_, V, pp. 7-204. - -[56] See Schumacher und Steuernagel, _Tell el-Mutesellim_, Leipzig, 1908. - -[57] Sellin, _Tell Taanek_, Wien, 1904. - -[58] See _Mitteilungen der deutschen Orient-Gesellschaft_, No. 29, Berlin, -1905, p. 14, f. - -[59] See Sellin und Watzinger, _Jericho_, Leipzig, 1913. - -[60] See _Journal of Biblical Literature_, Vol. XXII, Boston, 1903, pp. -164-182; XXIV, 196-220; XXV, 82-95. - -[61] See _Harvard Theological Review_, Cambridge, Mass., I, 1908, p. 92. - -[62] _Ibid._, II, 102-113; III, 136-138, 248-263. - -[63] Josephus, _Antiquities of the Jews_, xiii, 10, 2 and 3; _Wars of the -Jews_, i, 2, 7. - -[64] _Revue biblique_, 1912 (Paris), pp. 86-116. - -[65] _Biblical World_, Vol. XXXIX, Chicago, 1912, pp. 295-306. - -[66] See Germer-Durand in _Revue biblique_, 1914, pp. 71-94, and -Frontispiece. - -[67] See _Quarterly Statement_ of the Palestine Exploration Fund, October, -1914, p. 167, f. Additional material on Ophel and Balata is given in the -Appendix, p. 446. - -[68] First noticed by Prof. George L. Robinson, of McCormick Seminary, -Chicago, and afterward by Prof. Samuel Ives Curtis, of the Chicago -Theological Seminary; see Chapter XI, p. 173, f. - -[69] Discovered in 1902 by Dr. J. P. Peters and Dr. Thiersch; see their -_Painted Tombs of Marissa_, London, 1905. - -[70] Reference should also be made to the expedition from Princeton -University, referred to on p. 107, led by Prof. H. C. Butler, which went -out in 1899-1900, in 1904-1905, and in 1909, and examined the ruins in the -Hauran (or region east of the Sea of Galilee), in the Lebanon Mountains, -and in that part of Syria to the east of Lebanon. The expedition gathered -many inscriptions, most of which belong to the Christian period. The -results of this exploration are published in _The Publications of an -Archæological Expedition to Syria in 1899-1900_, New York, 1904, and -_Publications of the Princeton Archæological Expeditions to Syria in -1904-1905 and 1909_, Leyden, 1908-1914. - -[71] See R. A. S. Macalister, _History of Civilization in Palestine_, -Cambridge University Press, 1912, pp. 10, 11. - -[72] See Barton, _A Year's Wandering in Bible Lands_, Philadelphia, 1904, -p. 143. - -[73] See Barton, in the _Biblical World_, Chicago, 1904, Vol. XXIV, p. -177. - -[74] See Conder, _Survey of Eastern Palestine_, I, pp. 125-277, and -Mackenzie in the _Annual_ of the Palestine Exploration Fund, I, pp. 5-11. - -[75] See Gen. 14:5; 15:20. - -[76] See H. S. Cowper, _The Hill of the Graces, a Record of Investigation -among the Trilithons and Megalithic Sites of Tripoli_, London, 1897, and -Brandenburg, _Über Felsarchitektur im Mittelmeergebiet_ in _Mitteilungen -der Vorderasiatischen Gesellchaft_, 1914. - -[77] See the _Annals of Archæology and Anthropology_, Vol. V, Liverpool, -1913, pp. 112-128. - -[78] See Macalister, _The Excavation of Gezer_, I, 72-152. - -[79] See Macalister, _The Excavation of Gezer_, I, 145-152. - -[80] _Ibid._, 236, ff. - -[81] R. A. S. Macalister, _Bible Side-lights from the Mound of Gezer_, -London, 1906, Chapter II. - -[82] See P. E. Mader in _Zeitschrift des deutschen Palästina-Vereins_, -Vol. XXXVII, 1914, pp. 20-44. - -[83] See Amos 4:4; 5:5. - -[84] See Dr. Masterman, in _Biblical World_, XXXIX, 301, f. - -[85] See the legend concerning him translated in Part II, p. 310, f. - -[86] See Clay, _Amurru_, Philadelphia, 1909, pp. 102, 103. - -[87] See _Recueil de travaux relatifs à phil. et à arch. egpt. et assyr._, -XXXIV, 105-108. - -[88] See Breasted, _Ancient Records, Egypt_, Vol. I, Chicago, 1906, § 315. - -[89] See Chapter II, p. 59. - -[90] Translated in Part II, p. 313, f. - -[91] See Part II, p. 293. - -[92] See Part II, p. 290, ff. - -[93] See Part II, p. 299, ff. - -[94] See Breasted, _Ancient Records, Egypt_, I, p. 233, f. - -[95] See Barton, _Commentary on Job_, New York, 1911, pp. 5-7, and -Breasted, _Ancient Records, Egypt_, I, p. 238, note _a_. - -[96] See Breasted, _Ancient Records, Egypt_, § 680, and Barton in _Journal -of Biblical Literature_, Vol. XXVIII, p. 29. - -[97] Macalister, _Excavation of Gezer_, I, 238-243 and 253. - -[98] _Tell el-Mutesellim_, Tafeln, vii-xi. - -[99] See Chapter IV, p. 96. - -[100] See Chapter II, p. 59, f. - -[101] See Chapter I, p. 28. - -[102] See Chapter III, p. 75, f. - -[103] See Chapter IV, pp. 89, 91. - -[104] See Breasted, _Ancient Records, Egypt_, III, § 616. - -[105] Translated from W. Max Müller's publication in the _Mitteilungen der -vorderasiatischen Gesellschaft_, 1907, Heft 7. - -[106] Hammath means "hot." - -[107] See Chapter I, p. 29. - -[108] See pp. 79, 80, and 345. - -[109] See the letters of its king translated in Part II, p. 345, f. - -[110] Chapter XIII. - -[111] See Chapter III, p. 78, f. - -[112] See Part II, p. 349, f. - -[113] See Breasted's _History of Egypt_, New York, 1909, p. 414. - -[114] See Breasted's _Ancient Records, Egypt_, III. §§ 81 and 140. - -[115] Translated from W. Max Müller's _Egyptological Researches_, -Washington, 1906, pl. 59, ff. - -[116] See Part II, p. 311. - -[117] See Sir Arthur Evans. _Scripta Minoa_, Oxford, 1909, pp. 280, 282, -and R. A. S. Macalister in the _Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy_, -Vol. XXX, § C, p. 342; also his _Philistines, Their History and -Civilization_, London, 1913, pp. 84, 85. - -[118] See _Sitzungsberichte of the Berlin Academy_, 1909, p. 1022, f. - -[119] Caphtor is the same as _Keftiu_ of the Egyptian inscriptions, but it -is uncertain whether _Keftiu_ refers to Crete or Asia Minor. - -[120] Translated from W. Max Müller's _Egyptological Researches_, I, pl. -64, f. - -[121] See Macalister, _The Excavation of Gezer_, I, p. 21. - -[122] See p. 99. - -[123] See p. 95. - -[124] See the books of I and II Samuel. - -[125] See Chapters VI, IX, and XI. - -[126] See Part II, Chapter XVII. - -[127] See Part II, p. 385, f. - -[128] See J. A. Montgomery, _The Samaritans, the Earliest Jewish Sect, -Their History, Theology, and Literature_, Philadelphia, 1907. - -[129] For the narrative of the struggle, see the book of I Maccabees, and -S. Mathews, _History of the New Testament Times in Palestine_, New York, -1908. - -[130] See I Macc. 14:41. - -[131] For details see Guy Le Strange, _Palestine Under the Moslems_, -London, 1890. - -[132] For details see C. R. Conder, _The Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem_, -London, 1897. - -[133] See Chapter XIV. - -[134] See p. 94. - -[135] On these walls, see Macalister, _Excavation of Gezer_, I, 236-256. - -[136] Petrie, _Tell el-Hesy_, p. 17 and Plates 2 and 3. - -[137] See his _Tell Taanek_, p. 13. - -[138] See p. 96 and Fig. 41. - -[139] See p. 91. - -[140] _Harvard Theological Review_, III, 137. - -[141] Palestine Exploration Fund's _Annual_, II, 17, f. - -[142] Sellin and Watzinger's _Jericho_, p. 29, f. and Tafel I. - -[143] _Ibid._, 54, ff. - -[144] See Macalister, _Excavation of Gezer_, I, 244. - -[145] See Dickie, in _Quarterly Statement_ of Palestine Exploration Fund, -1897, 61-67. - -[146] These remarks about the house are based on the excavation at Gezer. -The excavators of other sites have not given as much attention to the -construction of houses as Mr. Macalister did. - -[147] Sellin, _Tell Taanek_, p. 21. - -[148] One of these is translated in Part II, p. 350. - -[149] See the writer's article, "Corners," in Hastings' _Encyclopædia of -Religion and Ethics_, Vol. IV 119, ff. - -[150] Sellin, _Tell Taanek_, p. 61. - -[151] Schumacher, _Tell el-Mulesellim_, pp. 45, 54. - -[152] See Macalister, _The Excavation of Gezer_, I, 240. - -[153] In 2 Sam. 12:27 we should read "pool of waters" instead of "city of -waters"; see Barton in _Journal of Biblical Literature_, XXVII, 147-152. - -[154] See Polybius, V, 71. - -[155] Josephus, _Jewish Wars_, I, xix, 5, ff. - -[156] For the conflicting evidence and theories, see G. A. Smith, -_Jerusalem_, I, 124-131. - -[157] Josephus, _Antiquities_, XVIII, iii, 2. - -[158] See p. 85. - -[159] See Thomsen in _Zeitschrift des deutschen Palästina-Vereins_, XXVI, -170, ff. - -[160] See Chapter XIV. - -[161] See Macalister, _Excavation of Gezer_, I, 199, f; II, 22, ff. - -[162] See Macalister, _Excavation of Gezer_, II, 22, f. - -[163] The reader who cares to pursue the subject is referred to -Macalister's _Excavation of Gezer_, II, 48, ff., and Sellin's _Tell -Taanek_, 61, f., and Bliss and Macalister's _Excavations in Palestine_, -1898-1900, pp. 193, 196, f., 208, 227, and 248. - -[164] See Macalister, _Excavation of Gezer_, II, 1-15. - -[165] See Pumpelly, _Excavations in Turkestan_, Washington, 1908, p. 384, -f. - -[166] See Schumacher, _Mutesellim_, p. 89. - -[167] Ward, _Seal Cylinders of Western Asia_, p. 422, and Nos. 554, 556, -1126, and 1254. - -[168] See Dr. John P. Peters' article "The Cock" in the _Journal of the -American Oriental Society_, Vol. XXXIII, pp. 363-396. - -[169] See Peters and Thiersch, _The Painted Tombs of Marissa_, London, -1905. - -[170] See Sellin, _Tell Taanek_, 61, f. - -[171] Especial mention may be made of the following: Petrie, _Tell -el-Hesy_; Bliss and Macalister, _Excavations in Palestine, 1898-1900_, -Part II; Vincent, _Canaan d'après l'exploration récente_, Paris, 1907, -Chapter V, and Macalister, _The Excavation of Gezer_, II, 128-231. - -[172] A "button" handle is a "ledge" handle made into a round knob. - -[173] See Macalister, _Excavation of Gezer_, II, 158. - -[174] See Chapter V, p. 115, f., and Figs. 108, 109. - -[175] For discussions of the subject, see Bliss and Macalister, -_Excavations in Palestine, 1898-1900_, 106-123; Macalister in the -_Quarterly Statement_ of the Palestine Exploration Fund, 1905, 243 and -328; also _Excavation of Gezer_, II, 209, ff., and Vincent, _Canaan -d'après l'exploration récente_, pp. 357-360. - -[176] See Sellin, _Jericho_, p. 156. - -[177] For a fuller discussion of children's toys, see Rice, _Orientalisms -in Bible Lands_, pp. 49-58. - -[178] An early Christian writer, born in 315, died in 403 A. D., who was -bishop of Salamis in Cyprus. - -[179] From this equivalence the reader can easily compute the value which -the intermediate measures would have according to this theory. The -multiples of the Log which formed the Cab, etc., are given above. - -[180] See Père Germer-Durand, "Mesures de capacité des Hebreux au temps de -l'évangile" in _Conferences de Saint-Étienne_, Paris, 1910, pp. 89-105, -and Fig. 185. - -[181] The Jewish name for an offering to God. (See Mark 7:11.) - -[182] "Mana" is both the Babylonian and the Hebrew term. In English it has -usually been corrupted to "Mina." - -[183] Some scholars understand MENE to be such a reference. - -[184] The weight is now in the library of Haverford College, near -Philadelphia. - -[185] The words rendered "the price was a _pim_" are translated in the -Authorized Version, "they had a file," margin, "a file with mouths"; in -the Revised Version, "they had a file," margin, or "when the edges ... -were blunt." The Revisers add, "The Hebrew text is obscure." The Hebrew -word rendered "file" and "blunt" comes from a root that means "to -prescribe" or "appoint." It could easily mean the "established price," but -can mean neither "file" nor "blunt." _Pim_ means "mouths" and is employed -figuratively for "edges," but neither of those meanings fits the passage. -The discovery of these weights has cleared up the whole obscurity. This -interpretation was suggested by Pilcher in the _Palestine Exploration Fund -Quarterly Statement_, 1914, p. 99. - -[186] See Macalister, _Excavation of Gezer_, II, 279. - -[187] See Macalister, _ibid._, pp. 278-293. - -[188] See Bliss and Macalister, _Excavations in Palestine_, 1898-1900, p. -61. - -[189] See Macalister, _Excavation of Gezer_, II, 291. - -[190] See Breasted, _Ancient Records, Egypt_, II, §§ 436, 489, 490, 518, -and _History of Egypt_, 2d ed., pp. 277, 307. - -[191] See Schrader's _Keilinschriftliche Bibliothek_, I, 105 (cl. III, -62). - -[192] See C. H. W. Johns, _Assyrian Deeds and Documents_, I, Nos. 38, 39, -40, 41, 44, 45, 46, 50, and 108; cf. also III, 8. - -[193] See Hill, _Catalogue of the Greek Coins of Palestine_, London, 1914, -p. xciii, ff. - -[194] Cf. Luke 21:2. - -[195] The temples of Solomon, Zerubbabel, and Herod are treated in Chapter -XIII, on Jerusalem. - -[196] See Macalister, _The Excavation of Gezer_, I, 102; II, 378, ff. - -[197] See Schumacher, _Tell el-Mutesellim_, 156, ff. - -[198] In Gen. 22:9 Abraham, we are told, built the altar. He did not, -therefore, intend to use the rock-altar. The analogy of this altar with -the other two is not quite complete. It appears to have no cup-marks on -its surface. - -[199] See Bliss and Macalister, _Excavations in Palestine, 1898-1900_, p. -31, ff. - -[200] See Macalister, _The Excavation of Gezer_, I, 51, 105-107; II, -381-404. - -[201] See Part II, p. 364. - -[202] See C. H. Toy, _Introduction to the History of Religions_, Boston, -1913, §§ 250, 257. - -[203] _Tell Taanek_, p. 68, ff. - -[204] See Part II, p. 442. - -[205] For descriptions of this high place, see the article by its -discoverer, George L. Robinson, in the _Biblical World_, XVII, 6-16; by S. -I. Curtis in the _Quarterly Statement_ of the Palestine Exploration Fund, -October, 1900, pp. 350-355; Savignac in _Révue biblique_, 1903, 280-284; -Libby and Hoskins, _The Jordan Valley and Petra_, New York, 1905, II, 172, -ff.; Brünnow and Domaszewski, _Provincia Arabia_, Vol. I, Strassburg, -1904, 239-245; Dalman, _Petra_, Leipzig, 1908, 56-58. - -[206] See the writer's _A Year's Wandering in Bible Lands_, Philadelphia, -1904, pp. 193, 194. - -[207] Those interested in them will find them described in Brünnow and -Domaszewski's _Provincia Arabia_, I, 246, ff., and in Dalman's _Petra_, -142, 225, 272, etc. - -[208] See Macalister, _Excavation of Gezer_, II, 405, ff. - -[209] Schumacher, _Tell el-Mutesellim_, 110-124. - -[210] Schumacher, _Tell el-Mutesellim_, 105-110. - -[211] _Ibid._, 125-130. - -[212] See _Harvard Theological Review_, II, 102-113; III, 248-263. - -[213] See Josephus, _Antiquities of the Jews_, XV, viii, 5, and _Wars of -the Jews_, I, xxi, 2. - -[214] See especially Fig. 269. - -[215] See Chapter V, p. 105. - -[216] See Macalister, _Excavation of Gezer_, I, 286. - -[217] _Ibid._, p. 122, f. - -[218] Palestine Exploration Fund's _Annual_, II, 42, ff. - -[219] For a Babylonian parallel, see Part II, p. 423, ff. - -[220] See Macalister, _Excavation of Gezer_, II, 429, f. - -[221] See _Biblical World_, Vol. XXIV, p. 177. - -[222] See Macalister, _Excavation of Gezer_, I, 288, f. - -[223] _Ibid._, 289, ff. - -[224] See Bliss and Macalister, _Excavations in Palestine, 1898-1900_, p. -9, ff. - -[225] So called because of a tradition that the members of the Sanhedrin -were buried there. The tradition probably arose because the _kôkim_ and -shelves make provision for seventy bodies. - -[226] See _Journal of Biblical Literature_, XXII, 1903, p. 164, ff. - -[227] See Josephus, _Antiquities of the Jews_, XX, ii, 1; iv, 3. - -[228] See Peters and Thiersch, _Painted Tombs at Marissa_, London, 1905. - -[229] All who can do so should read George Adam Smith's _Jerusalem from -the Earliest Times to A. D. 70_, New York, 1908, and Hughes Vincent's -_Jerusalem_, Paris, 1912. Or, if this is not possible, L. B. Paton's -_Jerusalem in Bible Times_, Chicago, 1905. - -[230] See Dr. Masterman in the _Biblical World_, Vol. XXXIX, p. 295, f. - -[231] See Part II, Chapter XV, Letter V, and the writer's note in the -_Biblical World_, XXII, p. 11, n. 5. - -[232] See _Biblical World_, XXXIX, 306. - -[233] See Part II, Chapter XV. - -[234] See Chapter VI, § 8. - -[235] Some scholars think the words are a distorted repetition of "in -Millo," which was accidentally repeated by a scribe. - -[236] Bliss and Dickie, _Excavations at Jerusalem_, 1894-1897, _passim_, -and p. 319, ff. - -[237] For "Bethso," see Josephus, _Wars of the Jews_, V, iv, 2. - -[238] See J. E. Hanauer, _Walks about Jerusalem_, London, 1910, 88, 89. - -[239] The writer is well aware that the name Moriah for this part of the -hill rests on slender evidence, but he employs it nevertheless as a -convenient term, since it is well understood by readers of the Bible. - -[240] Warren and Conder, _Jerusalem_, pp. 148-158. - -[241] See Chapter XI, p. 168. - -[242] _Wars of the Jews_, V, v, 1. - -[243] So Stade, _Geschichte des Volkes Israels_, Berlin, 1889, I, 314, and -G. A. Smith, _Jerusalem_, II, 60. - -[244] In giving the dimensions of the various temples, the writer has -followed the calculations of George Adam Smith in his _Jerusalem_. W. Shaw -Caldecott has published four volumes, one on the _Tabernacle_, one on -_Solomon's Temple_, one on the _Second Temple_, and one on _Herod's -Temple_, in which he claims to have discovered a key that harmonizes all -the Biblical statements as to the measurements of these structures. His -supposed key is his belief that the Babylonians had three different cubits -which they used side by side, that these cubits were known to Moses, and -that their use was perpetuated in the temple. Should these pages be read -by one who has accepted that claim as true, it is but fair that he be -informed that Caldecott's whole system is based upon a misinterpretation -of a Babylonian tablet that was published in Rawlinson's _Cuneiform -Inscriptions of Western Asia_, Vol. IV, p. 37. (See _Tabernacle_, pp. -107-139, and _Solomon's Temple_, pp. 215, 216.) This tablet contains a -table of time and of distances. The unit of time in Babylonia was a -_kaskal-gid_. An astronomical tablet published thirty years ago in the -book most widely used by beginners in Assyrian says that at the equinox -"six _kaskal-gid_ was the day, six _kaskal-gid_ the night." The -_kaskal-gid_ was, then, a period of two hours' duration. Just as in many -countries the word for "hour" is used for distance, and a place is said to -be so many "hours" away, so in Babylonia and Assyria _kaskal-gid_ was used -as a measure of distance. The tablet referred to gives a table of the ways -of writing fractions of _kaskal-gid_ and its other divisions in the -simplest of the two Babylonian numerical systems. The Assyriologist learns -from this tablet that 1 _kaskal-gid_ (the distance of two hours) equalled -30 _ush_, that 1 _ush_ equalled 60 _gar_, that 1 _gar_ equalled 12 _u_ or -cubits, and that 1 _u_ equalled 60 _shu_ or "fingers." Caldecott, however, -mistook the sign _gid_ for a numeral five, the sign _kaskal_ for a word -meaning "ell," and the word _u_ meaning "cubit" for a sign signifying -"plus"! He accordingly makes _gar_ a "palm"; _shu_, a "three-palm ell"; -_ush_, a "four-palm ell," and _kaskal-gid_, a "five-palm ell"! His whole -system is without foundation. - -Tables similar to the one published by Rawlinson were compiled in the -scribal school at Nippur. One was published without translation by -Hilprecht in 1906 in the _Babylonian Expedition of the University of -Pennsylvania_, Vol. XX, and interpreted by the present writer in 1909 in -_The Haverford Library Collection of Cuneiform Tablets_, Part II, pp. -13-18. The writer has examined other similar tablets in the University -Museum, Philadelphia. - -[245] See Chapter IX, p. 151. According to I Kings 7:48, there was a -"golden altar" here also, but as this is not mentioned in chapter 6 many -scholars think that it is a post-exilic gloss, introducing a feature from -the second temple. - -[246] _Antiquities of the Jews_, VIII, v, 2. - -[247] See translation, Part II, p. 377. - -[248] See Bliss, _Excavations at Jerusalem_, pp. 96-109. - -[249] See G. A. Smith, _Jerusalem_, I, 226. For another view, see Paton, -_Journal of Biblical Literature_, XXV, 1-13. - -[250] See G. A. Smith, _Jerusalem_, II, Chapters X and XI. - -[251] See Chapter II, p. 66; also Part II, p. 385, f. - -[252] Ezra 5:16 states that Sheshbazzar laid the foundations of the house -in the reign of Cyrus, but as Haggai and Zechariah give no hint of this, -many scholars think there must be some error in the text. - -[253] _Antiquities of the Jews_, XIII, xiii, 5. - -[254] See the Mishnah, _Middoth_ 3:6. - -[255] _Excavations at Jerusalem_, 16, ff. - -[256] See Josephus, _Antiquities of the Jews_, XI, vii, 1; cf. also G. A. -Smith, _Jerusalem_, II, 358-361. - -[257] See Josephus, _Antiquities of the Jews_, XII, i. - -[258] See Ecclesiasticus iii-v, vii, ix, xxiii, xxv, ff., and xxviii. - -[259] See Eccles. 50:1-4. - -[260] Cf. Josephus, _Antiquities of the Jews_, XII, v, 1. - -[261] See Selah Merrill, _Ancient Jerusalem_, New York, 1908, pp. 83-88. - -[262] See G. A. Smith, _Jerusalem_, II, 447-452. - -[263] Josephus, _Antiquities of the Jews_, XII, v, 1. - -[264] Josephus, _Antiquities of the Jews_, XIII, vi, 7. - -[265] See Chapter V, p. 119. - -[266] Josephus, _Antiquities of the Jews_, XV, xi, 4; XVIII, iv, 3. - -[267] Josephus, _Antiquities of the Jews_, XX, viii, 11; _Wars of the -Jews_, II, xvi, 3. - -[268] Merrill, _Ancient Jerusalem_, p. 88. - -[269] Josephus, _Antiquities of the Jews_, XIV, iv, 2, and Fig. 255. - -[270] Because its identity as a part of this bridge was first perceived by -Prof. Edward Robinson, of Union Seminary, New York. - -[271] Josephus, _Wars of the Jews_, I, vii, 2. - -[272] Warren and Conder, _Jerusalem_, 178, f. - -[273] See Chapter VI, p. 131. - -[274] Quoted by Alexander Polyhistor and Eusebius; see G. A. Smith, -_Jerusalem_, II, 462. - -[275] Josephus, _Antiquities of the Jews_, XIII, xiii, 5. - -[276] _Ibid._, XIV, ii, 1. - -[277] _Ibid._, XIV, iv, 2. - -[278] _Ibid._, XIV, xiii, 3, 4, 5. - -[279] _Ibid._, XIV, xv, 2; xvi. - -[280] _Ibid._, XV, viii, 5. - -[281] Josephus, _Wars of the Jews_, V, iv, 3. - -[282] _Ibid._, V, iv, 4. (See Fig. 256.) - -[283] Josephus, _Antiquities of the Jews_, XVII, ix, 3; _Wars of the -Jews_, II, ii, 2; xiv, 8. - -[284] Colonel Conder, the late Dr. Merrill, Georg Gatt, Dr. Rückert, and -Dr. Mommert. - -[285] Josephus, _Antiquities of the Jews_, XV, viii, 1. - -[286] See _Quarterly Statement_ of the Palestine Exploration Fund, 1887, -p. 161, ff. Dr. Schick calls it an amphitheater, but it is simply a -theater of the Greek type. - -[287] Josephus, _Antiquities of the Jews_, XV, xi, 2. - -[288] Josephus, _Antiquities of the Jews_, XX, ix, 7. - -[289] _Ibid._, XV, xi, 3. - -[290] Above it was a chamber 30 cubits high. - -[291] Josephus, _Wars of the Jews_, V, v, 6. - -[292] See Josephus, _Wars of the Jews_, V, v, and the Mishna tract -_Middoth_ for the authority for this description. For a fuller -description, see G. A. Smith, _Jerusalem_, II, Chapter XVIII. - -[293] See Chapter VI, p. 131. - -[294] That is, the "Pool of Israel." - -[295] _Wars of the Jews_, V, iv, 2. - -[296] The city, restored under the heathen name of Ælia Capitolina by the -Emperor Hadrian in 135 A. D., made Christian by Constantine in 325, sacked -by the Persian Chosroes in 614, taken by the Arabs in 636, captured after -many vicissitudes in 1072 by the Seljuk Turks, made by the First Crusade -the seat of the Latin kingdom of Jerusalem from 1099 to 1187, when Saladin -took it, was once more after many other vicissitudes captured by the -Ottoman Turks in 1517. - -[297] _Historia Naturalis_, V, xviii, 74. - -[298] Josephus, _Wars of the Jews_, I, vii, 7. - -[299] See Chapter V, p. 111. - -[300] See Schürer, _Geschichte des Jüdischen Volkes im Zeitalter Jesu -Christi_, Leipzig, 1907, II, 172, and note 321. - -[301] See Josephus, _Antiquities of the Jews_, XII, iv, 5. - -[302] See Barton, _A Year's Wandering in Bible Lands_, Philadelphia, 1904, -p. 176. - -[303] See Neubauer, _Géographie du Talmud_, Paris, 1868, 238-240. - -[304] Josephus, _Antiquities of the Jews_, XII, viii, 4. - -[305] Brünnow and Domaszewski, _Provincia Arabia_, III, 107-144, and Fig. -267. - -[306] See Polybius, V, 71. - -[307] Josephus, _Antiquities of the Jews_, XIII, xiii, 3. - -[308] Schürer, _Geschichte des Jüdischen Volkes im Zeitalter Jesu -Christi_, 4th ed., II, 1907, p. 175. - -[309] Neubauer, _Géographie du Talmud_, 274. - -[310] See Merrill, _East of the Jordan_, New York, 1883, 184, ff. and 442, -f.; also Schumacher, _Across the Jordan_, London, 1886, p. 272, f. - -[311] Merrill, _ibid._, 298, and G. A. Smith, _Historical Geography of the -Holy Land_, map. - -[312] So Brünnow and Domaszewski, _Provincia Arabia_, III, 264. - -[313] Josephus, _Wars of the Jews_, I, iv, 8. - -[314] See Merrill, _East of the Jordan_, 281-284; Schumacher in -_Zeitschrift des deutschen Palästina-Vereins_, XXV, 1912, 111-177; Brünnow -and Domaszewski, _Provincia Arabia_, II, 234-139; Barton, _A Year's -Wandering in Bible Lands_, 158, f. - -[315] See Polybius, V, 71. - -[316] See 2 Sam. 12:27 and Barton in the _Journal of Biblical Literature_, -XXVII, 147-152. - -[317] See Josephus, _Wars of the Jews_, I, xix, 5. - -[318] See Merrill, _East of the Jordan_, 399, ff.; Schumacher, _Across the -Jordan_, 308; Brünnow and Domaszewski, _Provincia Arabia_, II, 216-220, -and Barton, _A Year's Wandering in Bible Lands_, 155, f. - -[319] Ramsay, _St. Paul the Traveller and Roman Citizen_, New York, 1896, -243, ff. - -[320] See Farnell, _Cults of the Greek States_, II, Oxford, 1896, 618-699. - -[321] See _American Journal of Archæology_, 2d series, II, 133, f.; III, -204, f.; IV, 306, f.; VI, 306, f, 439, f.; X, 17, f., and XIV, 19, f. - -[322] See Benjamin Powell in _American Journal of Archæology_, 2d series, -VII, 60, f., and Fig. 275. - -[323] See Ramsay's article "Ephesus" in Hastings' _Dictionary of the -Bible_, Vol. II, p. 721, f., for further details. - -[324] Book II, 1. 868. - -[325] See Hogarth's _Ionia and the East_, Oxford, 1909, p. 45, f. - -[326] See _De Neocoria_, p. 38. - -[327] See Ramsay in Hastings' _Dictionary of the Bible_, III, 750. - -[328] Wood, _Discoveries at Ephesus_, London, 1877. See Fig. 279. - -[329] Hogarth, _Excavations at Ephesus_, London, 1908. - -[330] See Couze (and others), _Ausgrabungen zu Pergamos_, Berlin, 1880, -and Thrämer, _Pergamos_, Leipzig, 1888; also F. E. Clark, _The Holy Land -of Asia Minor_, New York, 1914, p. 67, f. - -[331] See Bousset, _Die Offenbarung des Johannes_, Göttingen, 1896, p. -245, ff.; Ramsay, _The Letters to the Seven Churches_, New York, 1905, -283, ff., and Moffat in _The Expositor's Greek Testament_, Vol. V, New -York, 1910, p. 355, f. - -[332] See Ramsay, _The Church and the Roman Empire_, New York, 1893, p. -252, f. - -[333] Josephus, _Antiquities of the Jews_, XII, iii, 1. - -[334] See Ramsay, _Letters to the Seven Churches_, p. 325, ff. - -[335] See Butler in _American Journal of Archæology_, 2d series, Vol. -XVIII, 1914, p. 428. - -[336] Book, I, 7. - -[337] See Herbig's article, "Etruscan Religion," in Hastings' -_Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics_, Vol. V, New York, 1912, p. 532, ff. - -[338] _American Journal of Archæology_, Vol. XVII, 1912, p. 474. - -[339] Barton, _A Year's Wandering in Bible Lands_, 76-79. - -[340] See _American Journal of Archæology_, Vols. XIV-XVIII, and Fig. 285. - -[341] _Ibid._, XV, 452. - -[342] _Ibid._, XV, 457. - -[343] _Ibid._, XVI, 475, ff., and Fig. 286. - -[344] See "Altar (Christian)" in Hastings' _Encyclopædia of Religion and -Ethics_, Vol. I, p. 338, f. - -[345] _Ecclesiastical History_, X, 4. - -[346] See Barton, _A Year's Wandering in Bible Lands_, p. 71. - -[347] See Chapter XIV, p. 217, f. - -[348] Ramsay, _Letters to the Seven Churches_, 407, ff. - -[349] _Ibid._, 410, ff. - -[350] See Curtius, _Philadelphia_, Berlin, 1873, and Barton, _A Year's -Wandering in Bible Lands_, 79, ff. - -[351] Ramsay, _Letters to the Seven Churches_, 25, 1. - -[352] See Ramsay, _Letters to the Seven Churches_, 257 and 274, ff. - -[353] See Barton, _A Year's Wandering in Bible Lands_, p. 82. - -[354] See Ramsay, _The Cities and Bishoprics of Phrygia_, Oxford, 1895, p. -32, f. - -[355] See Ramsay, _Letters to the Seven Churches_, 424, ff. - -[356] See F. E. Clark, _The Holy Land of Asia Minor_, New York, 1914, p. -145, f. - -[357] Other translations of this epic have been made. The most important -are as follows: Zimmern, in Gunkel's _Schöpfung und Chaos_, pp. 401, ff.; -Delitzsch, _Das Babylonische Weltschöpfungsepos_ (Abhandlungen der -sächsischen Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften, Bd. XVII, 1896); Muss-Arnolt, -in _Assyrian and Babylonian Literature_, Aldine ed., edited by R. F. -Harper; Jensen in Schrader's _Keilinschriftliche Bibliothek_, Bd. VI; L. -W. King, _The Seven Tablets of Creation_; Dhorme, _Choix de textes -religieux assyrobabyloniens_; Ungnad, in Gressman's _Altorientalische -Texte und Bilder zum Alten Testament_; Rogers, _Cuneiform Parallels to the -Old Testament_. A fragment of this tablet is shown in Fig. 290. - -[358] That is, Sea and Abyss, mentioned in lines 3 and 4. Apsu was the -waters underneath the dry land and Tiâmat the salt sea. - -[359] _I. e._, the spirits of earth. - -[360] Another name for Tiâmat. - -[361] Marduk's temple in Babylonia. - -[362] _I. e._, the captive gods of line 27. - -[363] The name which the Babylonians gave themselves. - -[364] Translated from _Cuneiform Texts from Babylonian Tablets in the -British Museum_, Part XIII, p. 35, ff. - -[365] Translated from Rawlinson's _Cuneiform Inscriptions of Western -Asia_, IV, 2d. ed., pl. 32, lines 28-38. - -[366] See _Proceedings of the Society of Biblical Archæology_, Vol. XXVI, -pp. 51-56. - -[367] _Miscellaneous Inscriptions in the Yale Babylonian Collection_, New -Haven, 1916, Nos. 46-51. - -[368] Translated from _Recueil de Traveaux_. XX, 127, ff.; Winckler and -Abel's _Thontafelnfund von El-Amarna_, No. 240, _Keilinschriftliche -Bibliothek_, VI, p. xvii, f., and _Proceedings of the Society of Biblical -Archæology_, XVI, 294, f. - -[369] The lines 14a, etc., are supplied from a parallel tablet. - -[370] Translated from Poebel, _Historical and Grammatical Texts_, -Philadelphia, 1914, No. 2. From the beginning of each column 16 to 18 -lines are broken away. - -[371] The sun-god. - -[372] Perhaps "palm-tree-fertilizer" instead of hunter. It is not the -usual ideogram for hunter, but one element stands for "hand" and the other -for "female flower of the date palm." (See Barton, _The Origin and -Development of Babylonian Writing_, Nos. 311({12}) and 303({6}).) - -[373] Seven lines are broken away from the end of the column. - -[374] The subject-matter shows that several columns are entirely broken -away. Dr. Poebel estimates that Column IV was originally Column X. If this -is true, six columns are entirely lost. Of Column IV, only a few lines out -of the middle remain. - -[375] A number of lines are lost at the end of the column. - -[376] Numbers 3, 4, and 5. - -[377] Poebel reads the name _Arpi_, apparently because in another -fragmentary tablet he thinks the name is _Arbum_, but both Poebel's copy -and the photograph of the tablet indicate that the reading was _A-ri-pi_. -The writer has endeavored to settle the matter by collating both tablets, -but both have unfortunately crumbled too much to make collation decisive. - -[378] Sumerian words which begin with a vowel, when they are taken over -into Hebrew, assume a guttural at the beginning. Thus the Sumerian AS-TAN, -"one," which became in Semitic Babylonian _istin_, comes into Hebrew as -_'estê_ with an Ayin at the beginning. (See Jer. 1:3 and elsewhere.) -_Ayin_ in Semitic phonetics frequently changes to Heth. (See Brockelmann's -_Vergleichende Grammatik der Semitischen Sprachen_, I, § 55, b, [Greek: -a].) In accordance with these facts AN-KU came into Hebrew as _Henok_. - -[379] He is mentioned in Zimmern's _Ritualtafeln für den Wahrsager_, -Leipzig, 1901, No. 24:1, ff., as the discoverer of the art of forecasting -events by pouring oil on water. - -[380] Poebel has shown, _Historical Texts_, 114, that EN-ME designates a -hero or special kind of priest. _Mutu_ in Semitic means both "man" and "a -kind of priest"; cf. Muss-Arnolt, _Assyrisch-Englisch-Deutsches -Handwörterbuch_, 619, 620, and Knudtzon, _El-Amarna Tafeln_, No. 55, 43. -_Mutu_ was a popular element in Semitic proper names about 2000 B. C., -but later ceased to be employed. - -[381] The sign _kam_ Poebel failed to recognize. It is No. 364[Hebrew] of -Barton's _Origin and Development of Babylonian Writing_. It is sometimes -employed in early texts instead of other signs which had the values _ka_ -or _kam_. Here it is used for sign No. 357 of the work referred to. - -[382] Langdon makes the suggestion (_Sumerian Epic of Paradise, the Flood, -and the Fall of Man_, Philadelphia, 1915, p. 56, note 7) that Lamech is -the Sumerian LUMHA, an epithet of the Babylonian god Ea as the patron of -music. A more plausible theory would be that Lamech is a corruption of a -king's name, as suggested above, and after it was corrupted it was -confused with the name of the Sumerian god LAMGA, the constructive god, -whose emblem was the sign for carpenter. (See Barton, work cited, No. -503.) - -[383] See Meissner, _Seltene assyrische Ideogramme_, No. 1139. - -[384] See Barton, work cited, No. 275{(5)}. IN is the Sumerian verb -preformative. - -[385] See Delitzsch, _Sumerisches Glossar_, p. 262, f. - -[386] See Barton, work cited, No. 229{(18)}. - -[387] Jared might, of course, be a corruption of Irad (see p. 270). It -could have arisen by the wearing away of the Hebrew letter _Ayin_. - -[388] See his _Unity of the Book of Genesis_, New York, 1895, Chapter II. - -[389] See Rawlinson's _Cuneiform Inscriptions of Western Asia_, II, 59, -rev. 9, and Zimmern's _Babylonischer Gott Tamuz_, p. 13. - -[390] _Proceedings of the Society of Biblical Archæology_, XV, 243-246. - -[391] _Expository Times_, X, 253. - -[392] See Chapter VI, p. 273. - -[393] _Historical Texts_, p. 42. - -[394] Rawlinson's _Cuneiform Inscriptions of Western Asia_, V, 44, 17b. -The Semitic name of this king is also said to have been Tabu-utul-bel. He -is the one whose fortunes correspond so closely to those of Job. (See -Chapter XX.) - -[395] See Meissner, _Seltene assyrische Ideogramme_, No. 6945. - -[396] Translated from Haupt's _Das Babylonische Nimrodepos_, p. 134, f. - -[397] The sun. - -[398] The spirits of heaven. - -[399] Or two accounts of the same event. - -[400] Translated from A. Poebel's _Historical and Grammatical Texts_ in -the University of Pennsylvania's "University Museum's publications of the -Babylonian Section," Vol. V, Philadelphia, 1914, No. 1. - -[401] Often called Bel. - -[402] Called Ea, p. 273. - -[403] A term by which the Semites of Babylonia designated themselves. The -Sumerians shaved their heads. - -[404] See Part II, Chapter VI, line 21, ff. - -[405] _I. e._, the sun. - -[406] See p. 277. - -[407] Translated from Langdon, _The Sumerian Epic of Paradise, the Flood, -and the Fall of Man_, Philadelphia, 1915, Plates I and II. Langdon, as his -title shows, regards the text as a description of Paradise, the flood, and -the fall of man,--a view that the present writer cannot share. Dilmun is -the name of the Babylonian Paradise, but the signs rendered Dilmun are not -the ones employed to express that name. For the rest the text seems to -describe the coming of rains, the beginnings of irrigation and -agriculture, and the revelation of the medicinal qualities of certain -plants. See _The Nation_, New York, November 18, 1915, pp. 597, ff. (For -the tablet, see Fig. 294.) - -[408] Apparently another name of Ninshar. - -[409] In Sumerian the goddess Nintulla. - -[410] In Sumerian the goddess Ninkasi. - -[411] In Sumerian the goddess Dazima. - -[412] In Sumerian, Nintil. - -[413] In Sumerian, Enshagme. - -[414] See his _Sumerian Epic of Paradise, the Flood, and the Fall of Man_, -p. 56. - -[415] Translated from _Vorderasiatische Schriftdenkmäler der königlichen -Museen zu Berlin_, VII. No. 92. - -[416] _Vorderasiatische Schriftdenkmäler der königlichen Museen zu -Berlin_, VII, No. 198. - -[417] _Ibid._, VII, No. 97. - -[418] Since this manuscript was sent to the printer, another Abraham has -been found in some tablets in the Yale University Collection. - -[419] Breasted, _Ancient Records, Egypt_, IV, pp. 352, 353. (See p. 360.) - -[420] See _Beiträge zur Assyriologie_, V, p. 498, no. 23; cf. p. 429, ff. - -[421] King, _Letters and Inscriptions of Hammurabi_, Vol. I, No. 66. - -[422] Some scholars suppose that the writer of the account in Genesis had -before him a source in the cuneiform writing in which the "pi" at the end -of Hammurapi's name was spelled with a sign that could be read either "pi" -or "pil" (see Barton, _Origin and Development of Babylonian Writing_, -Leipzig, 1913, No. 185), and that the _l_ was attached in consequence of a -misreading of this sign. That, however, admits corruption, though it -attempts to explain its cause. - -[423] _Cuneiform Texts, &c., in the British Museum_, XXI, 33. - -[424] It was until recently not known that Arad-Sin and Rim-Sin were -different persons, and some thought the king might be called either -Rim-Sin or Eri-aku (Arioch, Gen. 14:1). It is possible that Arad-Sin may -have been called Ari-aku in Sumerian, but it is improbable. It is now -known that Arad-Sin died 30 years before Hammurapi came to the throne. -With our present knowledge it is difficult to see how Arioch could be the -name of Rim-Sin unless Rim-Sin be read partly as Semitic and partly as -Sumerian and then considerably corrupted. - -[425] The text was published by Pinches in the _Journal of Transactions of -the Victoria Institute_, Vol. XXIX, 82, 83; cf. emendations by L. W. King, -_Letters and Inscriptions of Hammurabi_, Vol. I, p. li, ff. Sayce has also -translated them, filling out the lacunæ by freely exercising the -imagination, in the _Proceedings of the Society of Biblical Archæology_, -XXVIII, 203-218, 241-251, and XXIX, 7-17. - -[426] This could be read _Kudurkumal_. - -[427] _Cuneiform Texts, &c., in British Museum_, IV, 33, 22b. - -[428] Meissner, _Altbabylonisches Privatrecht_, 36, 25. - -[429] _Cuneiform Texts_, VIII, 25, 22. - -[430] _Ibid._, II, 9, 26. - -[431] Cf. _Mittheilungen der Vorderasiatischen Gesellschaft_, 1907, p. 27. - -[432] _Cuneiform Texts, &c., in the British Museum_, II, 23, 15. - -[433] _Mittheilungen der vorderasiatischen Gesellschaft_, 1907, p. 23. - -[434] Taken from Griffith's translation in Petrie's _Egyptian Tales_, -second series, London, 1895, p. 36, ff. - -[435] The sun-god. - -[436] Cf. Part I, p. 35. - -[437] Winckler und Abel, _Thontafelnfund von El-Amarna_, No. 40. Cf. -Knudtzon, _Die El-Amarna Tafeln_, No. 158. - -[438] Winckler und Abel, _Thontafelnfund von El-Amarna_, No. 38. See also -Knudtzon, _Die El-Amarna Tafeln_, No. 164. - -[439] Translated from the German rendering of Ranke in Gressmann's -_Altorientalische Texte und Bilder zum Allen Testament_, Tübingen, 1909, -p. 223. - -[440] See his _Sieben Jahre der Hungersnot_, 1891. - -[441] From Brugsch's _Egypt under the Pharaohs_, London, 1881, I, 303, ff. - -[442] From Breasted's _Ancient Records, Egypt_, I, p. 237, ff. - -[443] An Egyptian name of the northern extension of the Gulf of Suez. - -[444] Some Egyptian trading-post in Asia. - -[445] An early name for the region east of the Jordan and the Dead Sea. It -is called Kedemah in Gen. 25:15 and 1 Chron. 1:30; Kedemoth in Deut. 2:26, -and translated "East" in Judges 6:3, 33; 7:12; 8:10, 11. In Gen. and -Chron. the name is applied to a person. - -[446] This is an Amorite name, Ammi-anshi. It shows that the Amorites were -already in this region. Later the Hebrews found Sihon, the Amorite here; -see Num. 21:21, ff. and Deut. 1:4, ff. - -[447] The Egyptian name for the higher parts of Palestine and Syria. The -Egyptians had no _l_; they always used _r_ instead. The name is identical -with the Hebrew Lotan, Gen. 36:20, of which Lot is a shorter form. - -[448] Perhaps the same name as Aiah (Ajah) of Gen. 36:24 and 1 Chron. -1:40. - -[449] From _Cuneiform Texts, &c., in the British Museum_, XIII, 42; cf. -also King, _Chronicles of Early Babylonian Kings_, II, 87, ff. - -[450] Another tablet reads "a father I had not." - -[451] A name for the Semitic peoples of Babylonia. - -[452] An island in the Persian Gulf. - -[453] Taken from Breasted's _Ancient Records, Egypt_, III, p. 264, ff. - -[454] That is, the foreign nations. - -[455] That is, Lybia, which lay to the west of the Egyptian Delta. - -[456] That is, the Hittites. - -[457] "The Canaan" refers to the land of Canaan, probably here Phoenicia. - -[458] Yenoam was a town situated at the extreme north of Galilee, just at -the end of the valley between the two ranges of the Lebanon mountains. - -[459] Translated from the cuneiform text in Harper's _Code of Hammurabi_, -and Ungnad's _Keilschrifttexte der Gesetze Hammurabis_. - -[460] The mana consisted of sixty shekels. Tn English it is corrupted to -_mina_. - -[461] The nature of these officials is in doubt. Scheil and others think -the first a recruiting-officer; Delitzsch and Ungnad, a soldier. The name -of the second officer is literally fish-catcher, but it is certain that -here he was some kind of a fisher of men. - -[462] Such as plowing, or the young plants early in the season. - -[463] At this point five columns of the pillar are erased. It is estimated -that 35 sections of the laws are thus lost. § 66 is added from a fragment -found at Susa. - -[464] Translated from Poebel, _Historical and Grammatical Texts_, -Philadelphia, 1914, No. 93, col. ii. - -[465] Translated from _ibid._, col. iii. - -[466] The translation, "be brought to the judges," has no warrant in the -Hebrew. - -[467] Since Deut. 15:18 says that such a slave has served "double the hire -of a hireling," Dr. Johns thinks that it betrays a knowledge of the -Babylonian three-year regulation. This seems, however, quite -problematical. - -[468] In a marriage contract on a papyrus from the Jewish colony at -Elephantine in Egypt, written in the fifth century B. C., it is provided -that the wife may institute divorce proceedings on an equality with the -husband. Some Jewish women thus secured by contract that which the law did -not grant them. Christ assumed such cases among Palestinian women; see -Mark 10:12. - -[469] From the _Corpus Inscriptionum Semiticarum_, I, No. 165. - -[470] It is the word so translated in Deut. 33:10. - -[471] So rendered in Lev. 7:13; 10:14. Many scholars would render it -"thank-offering." - -[472] Compare Exod. 29:13, 14. The Hebrew law differed from the -Carthaginian. - -[473] This is the rendering of the Revised Version for this word. The -Authorized Version rendered it less accurately "meat-offering." - -[474] Each temple had a number of officials connected with it besides the -priests, such as carpenters, gate-keepers, slaughterers, barbers, -Sodomites, and female slaves. Another Phoenician inscription mentions -these. - -[475] See Part I, Chapter I. § 7 (3). - -[476] From Winckler und Abel's _Thontafelnfund von El-Amarna_, No. 73. Cf. -Knudtzon, _Die El-Amarna Tafeln_, No. 84. - -[477] The letter takes up assertions made by Rib-Adda in previous letters. - -[478] Winckler und Abel, _op. cit._, No. 77, Knudtzon, _op. cit._, No. -103. - -[479] These "sons of Ebed-Ashera" are mentioned in many other letters. - -[480] Winckler und Abel, _op. cit._, No. 174, and Knudtzon, _op. cit._, -No. 286. - -[481] Winckler und Abel, No. 102; Knudtzon, 286. - -[482] Winckler und Abel, _op. cit._, No. 103; Knudtzon, _op. cit._, No. -287. - -[483] Winckler und Abel, No. 104; Knudtzon, No. 288. - -[484] Winckler und Abel, No. 105 plus No. 199; Knudtzon, No. 289. - -[485] Winckler und Abel, No. 106; Knudtzon, No. 290. - -[486] The tablet reads Beth-Ninib, but scholars are agreed that it refers -to Beth-shemesh. - -[487] For the text cf. Hilprecht, _Old Babylonian Inscriptions_, No. 17. -See also Knudtzon, _El-Amarna Tafeln_, No. 333. - -[488] Published by Hrozny in Sellin's _Tell-Taanek_, pp. 115 and 121. - -[489] In the Babylonian script, _Ahi-ya-mi_. - -[490] See the writer's article, "Yahweh before Moses," in _Studies in the -History of Religions Presented to C. H. Toy_, especially pp. 188-191. - -[491] Taken from Breasted's _Ancient Records, Egypt_, IV, pp. 278, ff. - -[492] "She" refers to Tentamon, the queen. - -[493] These statements are taken from Breasted's _Ancient Records, Egypt_, -IV. §§ 44, 81, and 82. - -[494] See Evans, _Scripta Minoa_, Oxford, 1909, pp. 22, ff., 273, ff. - -[495] See R. A. S. Macalister, _The Philistines, Their History and -Civilization_, London, 1913, p. 83, ff. - -[496] See Sarzec, _Découvertes en Chaldée_, p. ix, col. v, 28, ff. See -also Thureau-Dangin, _Les inscriptions de Sumer et d' Akkad_, Paris, 1905, -p. 109, and his _Sumerischen und akkadischen Königsinschriften_, Leipzig, -1907, p. 68, f. - -[497] _Ibid._, col. vi, 3, ff. - -[498] Translated from W. Max Müller's _Egyptological Researches_, -Washington, D. C., 1906, Plates 75-87, with a comparison of Breasted's -_Ancient Records_, IV, pp. 350-354. - -[499] See Le Gac, _Les Inscriptions d' Assur-nasir-aplu III_, Paris, 1908, -p. 111, line 84, ff.; cf. also Rogers, _Cuneiform Parallels to the Old -Testament_, New York, 1912, p. 277, ff. - -[500] The text is published in Rawlinson's _Cuneiform Inscriptions of -Western Asia_, III, 7, 8. These lines are at the bottom of p. 8. Cf. also -Craig, _Hebraica_, III, 220, ff., and Rogers, _Cuneiform Parallels to the -Old Testament_, 295, ff. - -[501] From Layard's _Inscriptions in the Cuneiform Character from the -Assyrian Monuments_, London, 1851, p. 15. Cf. Delitzsch in _Beiträge zur -Assyriologie_, VI, 146. - -[502] Layard, _op. cit._, line 84, ff. - -[503] Layard, _op. cit._, line 90, ff. - -[504] _Ibid._, line 99, ff. - -[505] From Rawlinson's _Cuneiform Inscriptions of Western Asia_, III, 5, -No. 6. The text is also published in Delitzsch's _Assyrische Lesestücke_, -4th ed., p. 51, ff. - -[506] The cliff at the mouth of the Dog river, a short distance north of -Beirût. This portrait, with that of Ramses II and other kings, may still -be seen carved in the cliff. - -[507] From Abel und Winckler's _Keilschrifttexte_, Berlin, 1890, p. 12. - -[508] Layard. _op. cit._, p. 10, line 102, ff. - -[509] Messerschmidt, _Keilschrifttexte aus Assur historischen Inhalts_, -Leipzig, 1911, No. 30, line 13, ff. Cf. Langdon's translation _Expository -Times_, Vol. XXIII, 1911, p. 69; also Rogers, _Cuneiform Parallels_, p. -298, ff. - -[510] Translated from Smend and Socin's _Die Inschrift Mesa von Moab_, -Freiburg I. B., 1886. Cf. also Lidzbarski, _Nordsemitische Epigraphik_, -Weimar, 1898, Tafel I; G. A. Cooke, _North Semitic Inscriptions_, Oxford, -1903, p. 1, ff.; Davis, in _Hebraica_, VII (1891), 178-182; Bennett, _The -Moabite Stone_, Edinburgh, 1911; and Hastings, _Dict. of the Bible_, III, -406, ff. - -[511] In Joshua the name appears as Bamoth-baal. - -[512] Translated from Rawlinson's _Cuneiform Inscriptions of Western -Asia_, Vol. I, p. 35, No. 1. Cf. also Rogers, _Cuneiform Parallels to the -Old Testament_, p. 305, ff., and the references there given to other -translations. - -[513] Translated from Rawlinson's _Cuneiform Inscriptions of Western -Asia_, III, 9, No. 2, with a comparison of Rost, _Die Keilschrifttexte -Tiglathpilesers III_. - -[514] Translated from Rawlinson, _ibid._, No. 3. - -[515] Translated from Layard, _Inscriptions in the Cuneiform Character_, -with a comparison of Rost, _op. cit._ - -[516] From Rawlinson, _op. cit._, 10, No. 2, with a comparison of Rost, -_op. cit._ - -[517] From Rawlinson, _op. cit._, Vol. II, p. 67. - -[518] From Winckler's _Keilschrifttexte Sargons_, p. 1, line 10, f. - -[519] Translated from Winckler. _op. cit._, p. 30, No. 64, 23, f. - -[520] _Ibid._, pp. 1, 2, beginning at p. 1, No. 2, line 10. - -[521] _Ibid._, p. 48, line 8, ff. - -[522] From Winckler, _op. cit._, p. 31, lines 27, ff. and 33, ff. - -[523] _Ibid._, p. 33, line 90, ff. - -[524] From Winckler's work previously cited, p. 44. - -[525] From Abel und Winckler's _Keilschrifttexte_, p. 18, col. ii, 34, ff. - -[526] From Winckler's _Keilschrifttextbuch_, 1892, p. 36. - -[527] From Abel und Winckler's _Keilschrifttexte_, p. 17, line 9, ff. - -[528] From _Vorderasiatische Schriftdenkmäler der königlichen Museen zu -Berlin_, I, 75. - -[529] _Keilinschriften und das Alte Testament_, 1872, 168, ff. - -[530] Meinhold, _Die Jesaiaerzählungen_, Jes. 36-39, 1898. - -[531] Winckler, _Alttestamentliche Untersuchungen_, 1892, pp. 27-50. - -[532] Prasek, _Sanheribs Feldzüge gegen Juda_, 1903. - -[533] In _Bibliotheca Sacra_, LXIII (1906), 577-634. - -[534] _Cuneiform Parallels to the Old Testament_, 1912, 332-340. - -[535] _Historical Geography of the Holy Land_, 158, ff. - -[536] Translated from a facsimile in the Kautzsch-Gesenius, _Hebraische -Grammatik_, 1902. - -[537] Translated from Rawlinson's _Cuneiform Inscriptions of Western -Asia_, Vol. III, p. 16, col. v, line 12, ff. - -[538] _Ibid._, Vol. V, 2, 49, f. - -[539] _Ibid._, 9, 115, f. - -[540] From Breasted's _Ancient Records, Egypt_, IV, 498. - -[541] Translated from Rawlinson's _Cuneiform Inscriptions of Western -Asia_, I, 33, col. ii, line 12, ff. - -[542] Translated from Pognon, _Les inscriptions babyloniennes du Wadi -Brissa_, Pl. xiii, f., and _Recueil de traveaux relatifs à la philologie -et à l'archeologie egyptiennes et assyriennes_, XXVIII, 57. See also -Langdon, _Neubabylonischen Königsinschriften_, 174, ff. - -[543] Translated from the _Zeitschrift für Assyriologie_, I, 337, f. - -[544] See Part I, Chapter II, p. 46, f. - -[545] This is the reading of the margin in R. V., and correctly translates -the original. He was not walking "in" the palace, but upon its flat roof, -from which he could see the great city. - -[546] From de Morgan's _Délégation en Perse_, Vol. XIV, p. 60. - -[547] From Rawlinson's _Cuneiform Inscriptions of Western Asia_, V, 68, -No. 1. - -[548] From _Transactions of the Society of Biblical Archæology_, VII, 157, -f. - -[549] From _Transactions of the Society of Biblical Archæology_, VII, 162, -f., and Clay, _Light on the Old Testament from Babel_, 374, f. - -[550] See _Expository Times_. Vol. XXVI, 297-299 (April, 1915). - -[551] _Babylonian Texts from the Yale Collection_, No. 39. - -[552] From Rawlinson's _Cuneiform Inscriptions of Western Asia_, V, 35. - -[553] Herodotus, Book II, 161. - -[554] Josephus professes to be quoting Manetho, and puts the incident in -the time of Ramses. Perhaps Aristeas in his letter refers to this colony, -when he speaks of Jewish soldiers. (See Kautzsch, _Apokryphen und -Pseudepigraphen_, II, 7.) - -[555] The documents have been published by Sayce and Cowley, _Aramaic -Papyri Discovered at Assuan_, London, 1906, and Sachau. _Aramäische -Papyrus und Ostraka aus Elephantine_, Leipzig, 1911. Those translated here -are Nos. 1, 4, 6, and 11 of Sachau's publication. - -[556] Perhaps this disfavor arose in part from the fact that, as a papyrus -not translated here shows, two other deities were worshiped along with -Jehovah. - -[557] It is possible that the Elephantine colony were taken from northern -Israel. - -[558] Translated from the _Proceedings of the Society of Biblical -Archæology_, X, 478, f., and Rawlinson's _Cuneiform Inscriptions_, IV, -60*. - -[559] Literally, "like opening and shutting." - -[560] Perhaps one of the antediluvian Babylonian kings. (See Part II, -Chapter IV.) The Sumerian form of his name was Laluralim and in -Rawlinson's _Cuneiform Inscriptions of Western Asia_, Vol. V, p. 44, 17b, -is glossed as Zugagib or "scorpion." Zugagib is one of the early kings of -Babylonia, who is said to have ruled 840 years. - -[561] Translated from S. Langdon's _Historical and Religious Texts from -the Temple Library of Nippur_, Munich, 1914, No. 16. - -[562] Translated from Haupt's _Akkadische und sumerische -Keilschrifttexte_, 116, ff., with comparison of Zimmern's _Babylonische -Busspsalmen_, 33, f. - -[563] Translated from Haupt's _Akkadische und Sumerische -Keilschrifttexte_, p. 122, f. - -[564] Translated from _Cuneiform Texts from Babylonian Tablets, &c., in -the British Museum_, Part XV, pp. 16, 17. - -[565] Translated from _Cuneiform Texts from Babylonian Tablets, &c. in the -British Museum_, XV, 10. - -[566] An epithet of the inhabitants of Babylonia. - -[567] Taken from Breasted's _Religion and Thought in Ancient Egypt_, p. -315, f. - -[568] A fabulous mountain beyond the western horizon, over which the sun -was believed to pass at evening. - -[569] Taken from Breasted's _Development of Religion and Thought in -Ancient Egypt_, p. 324, f. - -[570] There is a pun on the word Re; it is the same as "all." Such puns -are frequent in the Hebrew of the Old Testament prophets. - -[571] Compare Psa. 104:24. - -[572] Ikhnaton is the name adopted by Amenophis IV in connection with his -reform. It means "Aton's man." His old name meant "Amon is gracious" and -had heathen associations. On the sentiment of lines 120, 121, compare -Matt. 11:27. - -[573] See Weigall, _The Treasury of Ancient Egypt_, London, 1911, p. 206. - -[574] The first twenty are culled from a tablet in the British Museum, -published by Langdon in the _American Journal of Semitic Languages_, Vol. -XXVIII, 217-243, under the title "Babylonian Proverbs." For convenience -those quoted are numbered consecutively without reference to the parts -omitted. - -[575] Translated from Delitzsch's _Assyrische Lesestücke_, 4th ed., p. -118, f. - -[576] Translated from Meissner's _Beiträge zum Altbabylonischen -Privatrecht_, p. 108. - -[577] Taken from Macmillan's translation, _Beiträge zur Assyriologie_, V, -557, ff. - -[578] The sun-god, the god of justice. - -[579] _Development of Religion and Thought in Ancient Egypt_, p. 231, f. -Breasted's references to the sections of the original text are here -omitted. - -[580] The Gilgamesh Epic is an early Babylonian poem in twelve tablets or -cantos. It is a collection of early legends and myths. The Babylonian -account of the flood, translated in Chapter VI (Part II), forms the -eleventh canto of it. - -[581] Translated from the _Mitteilungen der vorderasiatischen -Gesellschaft_, 1902, Heft 1, p. 8. - -[582] These are translated from the German rendering in W. Max Müller's -_Liebpoesie der alten Ägypter_, Leipzig, 1899. - -[583] From Müller, p. 15. - -[584] _Ibid._, p. 16. - -[585] From Müller, _ibid._, p. 17. - -[586] Perhaps the name of a Nileometer station in the vicinity of Memphis. - -[587] Müller, _ibid._, p. 22. - -[588] Müller, _ibid._, p. 22. - -[589] Müller, _ibid._, p. 23. - -[590] Married couples are usually so represented in Egyptian pictures. - -[591] The Egyptian is here followed, rather than the German. - -[592] Müller, p. 24. - -[593] _Ibid._, p. 27. It describes a walk in a garden. - -[594] The garden again. - -[595] Translated from Rawlinson's _Cuneiform Inscriptions of Western -Asia_, III, 32, 16, f. - -[596] _I. e._, the thing thou hast prayed for. - -[597] Translated from the German of Vogelsang und Gardiner, _Klagen des -Bauern_, Leipzig, 1908. - -[598] The original contains a list of plants, stones, birds, etc., the -modern equivalents of which are not known. - -[599] See Gardiner in _Proceedings of the Society of Biblical Archæology_, -XXXV, 269. - -[600] Taken from A. H. Gardiner's _Admonitions of an Egyptian Sage_, -Leipzig, 1909, pp. 19 and 39, f., pp. 69 and 78. - -[601] Translated from Rawlinson's _Cuneiform Inscriptions of Western -Asia_, Vol. IV, p. 31. - -[602] The spirits of earth. - -[603] Translated from _Cuneiform Texts from Babylonian Tablets, &c., in -the British Museum_, Part XV, 18. - -[604] These sayings are translated from Grenfell and Hunt's _Sayings of -Our Lord_, 1897, with a comparison of Lock and Sanday's _Two Lectures on -the Sayings of Jesus Recently Discovered at Oxyrhynchus_, 1897. - -[605] Translated from Grenfell and Hunt's _New Sayings of Jesus and -Fragment of a Lost Gospel from Oxyrhynchus_, 1904. - -[606] Compare John 21:24, 25. - -[607] Translated from Viereck's publication of the text in _Philologus_, -Vol. LII, 234, f. - -[608] These assessments, then, occurred in the following years: 174-5; -160-1; 146-7; 132-3; 118-9; 104-5; 90-1; 76-7; 62-3; 48-9; 34-5; 20-1; -6-7; 9-8 B. C. - -[609] From _Hermes_, XXVIII, 1893, p. 233. - -[610] Translated from Grenfell and Hunt's _Oxyrhynchus Papyri_, II, 1898, -p. 214. Kenyon, _Greek Papyri in the British Museum_, II, 19, thinks that -this cannot refer to a census because the term by which it is described is -different, but, as Grenfell and Hunt remark, the simpler term in the -papyri earlier than the year 61 A. D., indicates that we are nearer the -beginning of the institution of the census. - -[611] _Ibid._, p. 205; cf. p. 206. - -[612] _Ibid._, p. 282. - -[613] Translated from Kenyon and Bell's _Greek Papyri in the British -Museum_, Vol. III, 1907, p. 125. - -[614] Translated from the _Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum_, XIV, No. 3613. - -[615] Translated after Ramsay, _Expositor_, series 8. Vol. IV, 1912, p. -401. For Ramsay's opinions, see the article of which the inscription forms -a part. - -[616] Translated from Burton's publication in the _American Journal of -Theology_, II, 600. - -[617] Translated from _ibid._, p. 604. - -[618] Taken from Deissmann's _St. Paul_, p. 261, f. - -[619] Pausanias, i, 1:4, and v. 14:8. - -[620] Philostratus, _Vita Apollonii_, vi, 3. - -[621] Translated from Deissmann's _St. Paul_, pp. 246, 247. - -[622] See Deissmann's _St. Paul_, p. 248, ff. - -[623] Dio Cassius, lvii, 14, 5. - -[624] The most reliable chronologies of the life of Christ now place his -crucifixion not later than 30 A. D. - -[625] The original is in Berlin and the publication is not accessible to -the writer. The above translation is taken from that of J. Rendel Harris -in the _Expositor_, 5th series, Vol. VIII, p. 164. - -[626] Translated by J. Rendel Harris, _ibid._, p. 166. - -[627] 2 Cor. 11:32. - -[628] Translated from the _Corpus Inscriptionum Semiticarum_, Pars II, -Tom. I, Fasc. ii, No. 209. - -[629] _Ibid._, Pars II, Tom. I, Fasc. ii. No. 196. - -[630] Taken from Breasted, _Ancient Records, Egypt_, III, p. 7. - -[631] Taken from Breasted, _ibid._, p. 273. - -[632] See S. Schiffer, _Keilschriftliche Spuren in der zweiten Hälfte des -8ten Jahrhunderts von den Assyrern nach Mesopotamien deportierten -Samarier_, Berlin, 1907. - -The text of the Berlin tablets was published by Ungnad in -_Vorderasiatische Schriftdenkmäler_, I, Leipzig, 1907, Nos. 84-94, 101, -104. Those in the British Museum, by Johns, in _Assyrian Deeds and -Documents_, I, Cambridge, 1898, Nos. 22, 69, 73, 74, 98, 153, 154, 170, -229, 234, 245, 312. - -[633] _Vorderasiatische Schriftdenkmäler_, I, No. 88. 15. - -[634] See Rogers, _Cuneiform Parallels to the Old Testament_, New York, -1912, p. 226. - - - - -Transcriber's Notes: - -Passages in italics are indicated by _italics_. - -Passages in bold are indicated by =bold=. - -Superscripted characters are indicated by {superscript}. - -The original text contains letters with diacritical marks that are not -represented in this text version. - -The original text includes Greek characters that have been replaced with -transliterations in this text version. - -The original text includes Hebrew characters that are represented as -[Hebrew] in this text version. - - - - - - -End of Project Gutenberg's Archæology and the Bible, by George A. 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Barton—A Project Gutenberg eBook @@ -54,45 +54,7 @@ </style> </head> <body> - - -<pre> - -The Project Gutenberg EBook of Archæology and the Bible, by George A. Barton - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org - - -Title: Archæology and the Bible - -Author: George A. Barton - -Release Date: July 1, 2013 [EBook #43070] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ARCHÆOLOGY AND THE BIBLE *** - - - - -Produced by The Online Distributed Proofreading Team at -http://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images -generously made available by The Internet Archive.) - - - - - - -</pre> - - +<div>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 43070 ***</div> <p class="figcenter"><img src="images/cover.jpg" alt="" /></p> @@ -30698,383 +30660,7 @@ Documents</i>, I, Cambridge, 1898, Nos. 22, 69, 73, 74, 98, 153, 154, 170, <p><a name='f_634' id='f_634' href='#fna_634'>[634]</a> See Rogers, <i>Cuneiform Parallels to the Old Testament</i>, New York, 1912, p. 226.</p> - - - - - - - - -<pre> - - - - - -End of Project Gutenberg's Archæology and the Bible, by George A. 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You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org - - -Title: Archaeology and the Bible - -Author: George A. Barton - -Release Date: July 1, 2013 [EBook #43070] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ASCII - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ARCHAEOLOGY AND THE BIBLE *** - - - - -Produced by The Online Distributed Proofreading Team at -http://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images -generously made available by The Internet Archive.) - - - - - - - - - -ARCHAEOLOGY AND THE BIBLE - - - - -[Illustration: A HILLSIDE STREET IN ROMAN JERUSALEM ALONG WHICH JESUS AND -THE DISCIPLES MAY WELL HAVE WALKED (_after Germer-Durand_). - ---_Frontispiece._] - - - - - Green Fund Book, No. 17 - - - ARCHAEOLOGY AND THE BIBLE - - - BY GEORGE A. BARTON, PH. D., LL. D. - PROFESSOR OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE AND SEMITIC LANGUAGES - IN BRYN MAWR COLLEGE; SOMETIME DIRECTOR OF THE - AMERICAN SCHOOL OF ORIENTAL RESEARCH IN JERUSALEM - - - PART I - - THE BIBLE LANDS, THEIR EXPLORATION, AND THE RESULTANT - LIGHT ON THE BIBLE AND HISTORY - - - PART II - - TRANSLATIONS OF ANCIENT DOCUMENTS WHICH CONFIRM OR - ILLUMINATE THE BIBLE - - - PHILADELPHIA - AMERICAN SUNDAY-SCHOOL UNION - 1816 Chestnut Street - - - - - Copyright, 1916, by - AMERICAN SUNDAY-SCHOOL UNION - - All rights vested in and reserved by - AMERICAN SUNDAY-SCHOOL UNION - - First Edition, May, 1916. - Second Edition, June, 1917. - - - - - To - CAROLINE B. D. BARTON - Faithful Comrade in - the Campaign of Life - - - - -PREFACE - - -For a hundred years or more the explorer and the excavator have been busy -in many parts of the world. They have brought to light monuments and texts -that have in many cases revolutionized our conceptions of history and have -in other cases thrown much new light on what was previously known. - -In no part of the world have these labors been more fruitful than in the -lands of the Bible. In Egypt and Babylonia vistas of history have been -opened to view that were undreamed of before exploration began. The same -is true for that part of the history of Palestine which antedates the -coming of Israel. Information has also been obtained which illumines later -portions of the history, and makes the Biblical narrative seem much more -vivid. It is now possible to make real to oneself the details of the life -of the Biblical heroes, and to understand the problems of their world as -formerly one could not do. Exploration has also brought to light many -inscriptions in the various countries that confirm or illuminate the -traditions, history, poetry, and prophecy of the Bible. The sands of Egypt -have even yielded us some reputed new sayings of our Lord. - -It is the purpose of this book to gather into one volume the most valuable -information of all sorts that the excavations in Bible lands have -afforded, and to put it in such form that it may be of service to the -pastor and Sunday-school teacher. An attempt has been made so to present -the material that one may not only have the wealth of illumination for -Biblical study that exploration has produced, but also that he may possess -an outline of the history of the exploration and of the countries -sufficient to enable him to place each item in its proper perspective. -Whether in handling so large a mass of data the writer has achieved his -aim, the reader must judge. The preparation of the volume was undertaken -at the request of the Board of Managers of the American Sunday-School -Union, for publication under the John C. Green Income Fund,--a fund -founded in 1877 "for the purpose of aiding ... in securing a -Sunday-school literature of the highest order of merit ... by procuring -works ... germane to the objects of the Society." The foundation requires -that the manuscripts procured by the fund shall become the exclusive -property of the American Sunday-School Union, and, that the selling price -may be reduced, the Society is prohibited from including the cost of the -manuscript in the price of the book. - -This work is confined to those phases of archaeology upon which light has -been thrown by exploration. No attempt is made, for example, to treat the -constitution of the Hebrew family, or the dress worn in ancient Palestine, -for these are subjects to which exploration has contributed no new -knowledge. - -The texts published in Part II have, with few exceptions, been freshly -translated by the writer especially for this work. This is true of all -except the majority of the Egyptian texts and two Greek papyri which were -not accessible in the original. Translations of these were taken from the -works of well-known scholars, to each of whom credit is given in -connection with the passage quoted from his work. The quotations of -Palestinian place names from the inscriptions of the Egyptian kings, of -which the writer has made a special study, are based on his own -translations of the originals. - -An archaeological fact, or a text brought to light by excavation, is often -of little significance apart from its interpretation, and the -interpretation of such data frequently varies according to the point of -view occupied by the interpreter. As stated in the foreword of Part II, it -has been the writer's aim throughout to maintain a neutral attitude on -controverted points. - -Not the least service that archaeology has rendered has been the -presentation of a new background against which the inspiration of the -Biblical writers stands out in striking vividness. Often one finds -traditions in Babylonia identical with those embodied in the Old -Testament, but they are so narrated that no such conception of God shines -through them as shines through the Biblical narrative. Babylonians and -Egyptians pour out their hearts in psalms with something of the same -fervor and pathos as the Hebrews, but no such vital conception of God and -his oneness gives shape to their faith and brings the longed-for strength -to the spirit. Egyptian sages developed a social conscience comparable in -many respects with that of the Hebrew prophets, but they lacked the vital -touch of religious devotion which took the conceptions of the prophets -out of the realm of individual speculation and made them the working -ethics of a whole people. Archaeology thus reinforces to the modern man -with unmistakable emphasis the ancient words, "Men spake from God, being -moved by the Holy Spirit" (2 Peter 1:21). - -The writer is under obligation to all his predecessors. Endeavor has been -made in the footnotes to acknowledge each individual obligation. Lest any -oversight may have occurred there, he would here express both his -indebtedness and his gratitude to all who by their various explorations -and studies have preceded him and been his teachers. - -Of these, Prof. R. A. Stewart Macalister should, perhaps, be singled out -for an especial word of gratitude, for in Chapters VI-XI of Part I his -work of excavation has been quoted more frequently than any other. This -apparent partiality is due to the fact that Gezer was excavated more -completely than any other Palestinian site; that, because of its early and -long-continued occupation in ancient times, it reveals a great variety of -civilizations; and that, in _The Excavation of Gezer_, Prof. Macalister -has presented the results of his work with a completeness and a degree of -intelligibility that no other excavator in Palestine has approached. He -has made his work a model of what such a publication should be, and has -thereby made us all his debtors. - -Especial thanks are due to Dr. George B. Gordon, Director of the -University Museum, Philadelphia, for his kindness in furnishing an advance -copy of the proof-sheets of Volume X of the _Publications of the -Babylonian Section_ of the museum, from which the material embodied in -Chapter VIII of Part II was translated, and to Prof. Morris Jastrow, Jr., -and Dr. Edward Chiera for the benefit of their fresh collation of the -text. This was of considerable importance, since Dr. Langdon's copy of -large portions of it had been made from photographs, rather than from the -original tablet. The writer is also indebted to Prof. W. R. Arnold, of -Andover Theological Seminary, for helpful suggestions concerning the -interpretation of a passage in the temple-papyrus from Elephantine which -has hitherto baffled translators. Thanks are also due to the following -authors and publishers for permission to reproduce illustrations contained -in books written or published by them: The Palestine Exploration Fund, for -permission relating to Warren's _Jerusalem_; Bliss and Macalister's -_Excavations in Palestine, 1898-1900_; Macalister's _Excavation of -Gezer_, and Peters and Thiersch's _Painted Tombs of Marissa_; Rev. Prof. -C. J. Ball, of Oxford, _Light from the East_; J. C. Hinrichs'sche -Buchhandlung, Koldewey's _Das Wieder Erstehende Babylon_; Dr. I. Benzinger -and Herr Paul Siebeck, _Hebraeische Archaeologie_; Monsieur J. Gabalda, -Vincent's _Jerusalem_; Prof. A. T. Clay, of Yale, _Light on the Old -Testament from Babel_; Prof. Paul Haupt, of Johns Hopkins, _The Psalms_ in -his _Sacred Books of the Old Testament_; Rev. J. P. Peters and G. P. -Putnam's Sons, Peters' _Nippur_; Prof. C. C. Torrey, of Yale, _Journal of -the American Oriental Society_; George H. Doran Co., Ramsay's _Letters to -the Seven Churches of Asia_; Dr. Mitchell Carroll, _American Journal of -Archaeology_ and _Art and Archaeology_; Rev. A. E. Breen, _Diary of My Life -in the Holy Land_; Thomas Nelson and Sons, _The Illustrated Teachers' -Bible_; and to Ferris and Leach, for permission to use again a number of -photographs published in the writer's _A Year's Wandering in Bible Lands_. -Dr. R. E. Bruennow not only granted permission to reproduce illustrations -from Bruennow and Domaszewski's _Provincia Arabia_, but generously loaned -the original photographs and drawings. Prof. Harold N. Fowler, Editor of -the _American Journal of Archaeology_, also kindly loaned an original -photograph of the excavation at Sardis. The source of each illustration, -when not the writer's own, is indicated in the list of illustrations by -mentioning the name of the author of the book or article from which it is -taken. - -Grateful acknowledgment should also be made to Rev. Edwin Wilbur Rice, D. -D., Litt. D., Honorary Editor of the Publications of the American -Sunday-School Union, who carefully read the book in manuscript and made -many valuable criticisms and suggestions. - -The table of contents and the chapter-headings were prepared by James -McConaughy, Litt. D., Editor of the Publications of the American -Sunday-School Union; the indices, by A. J. R. Schumaker, M. A., Assistant -Editor. The writer is grateful to them, not only for this service, but for -many helpful criticisms and courtesies while the book has been passing -through the press. Valuable suggestions have also been made by Mrs. -Barton, who has carefully read the proofs. Miss Bertha V. Dreisbach has -given intelligent and painstaking service in preparing the manuscript for -the press, and in proof-reading; Mr. V. Winfield Challenger and Miss Laura -G. Leach have rendered a like valuable service in assembling and arranging -the illustrations. - -The quotations of Scripture passages throughout are from the American -Standard Revised Version. - -If this volume should bring to some remote worker or secluded young person -a tithe of the inspiration and joy that such a book would have brought the -writer in the rural home of his boyhood, he would ask no higher reward for -the labor it has cost. - -GEORGE A. BARTON. - - BRYN MAWR, PA. - MAY, 1916. - - - - -PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION - - -It is gratifying to know that this book has been found useful by so many -students of the Bible and that a second edition is necessary. Minor -errors, especially typographical, have been corrected throughout the -volume. The chief feature of this edition is the addition of an Appendix, -in which will be found some material that has come to light in the last -year, and one or two items that were overlooked when the first edition was -written. - -GEORGE A. BARTON. - - BRYN MAWR, PA. - JUNE, 1917. - - - - -CONTENTS - - - PART I - - CHAPTER PAGE - - LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 1 - - TABLE OF SIGNS 9 - - INTRODUCTION 11 - - I. EGYPT 17 - - The Land. The Preservation of Antiquities. Egyptian - Discoveries. Decipherment. Chronology. Outline of the - History. Egyptian Discoveries which bear on the Bible. - - II. BABYLONIA AND ASSYRIA 40 - - The Land. The Preservation of Antiquities. The Discovery of - Antiquities. The Decipherment of the Inscriptions. - Chronology. Outline of the History. Discoveries which - illumine the Bible. - - III. THE HITTITES 68 - - A Forgotten Empire. Hittite Monuments. Hittite Decipherment. - Hittite History. - - IV. PALESTINE AND ITS EXPLORATION 83 - - The Land. Early Exploration. Early American Explorations. - Palestine Exploration Fund. The German Palestine Society. - The American School at Jerusalem. Samaria. Parker's - Excavations at Jerusalem. Latest Excavations. - - V. OUTLINE OF PALESTINE'S ARCHAEOLOGICAL HISTORY 103 - - The Early Stone Age. The Late Stone Age. The Amorites. The - Canaanites. Egyptian Domination. The Philistines. The - Hebrews. Philistine Civilization. The Hebrew Kingdoms. The - Exile and After. The Coming of Rome. Later History. - - VI. THE CITIES OF PALESTINE 123 - - Their Sites. The Walls. The Stone Work. Houses. Palaces. - Foundation Sacrifices. City Gates. Water Supply. - - VII. ROADS AND AGRICULTURE 132 - - VIII. POTTERY 141 - - Importance of Pottery. Pre-Semitic Pottery. First Semitic - Pottery to 1800 B. C. Pottery of Second Semitic Period. - Third Semitic Period. Israelitish or Fourth Semitic Period. - Hellenistic Period. - - IX. UTENSILS AND PERSONAL ORNAMENTS 149 - - X. MEASURES, WEIGHTS, AND MONEY 158 - - Measures. Weights. Inscribed Weights. Money. - - XI. HIGH PLACES AND TEMPLES 167 - - A Sanctuary of the Pre-Semitic Cave-Dwellers. A Rock-Altar - at Megiddo. A Rock-Altar at Jerusalem. High Place at Tell - es-Safi. High Place at Gezer. At Taanach. High Places at - Petra. A Supposed Philistine Temple. At Megiddo. The Temple - to Augustus at Samaria. - - XII. THE TOMBS OF PALESTINE 179 - - Burning the Dead. Cave Burials. Cistern Burial. Burial under - Menhirs. Earth-Graves. Rock-Hewn Shaft Tombs. Doorway Tombs. - Tombs with a Rolling-Stone. - - XIII. JERUSALEM 185 - - Situation. Gihon. Cave-Dwellers. The El-Amarna Period. - Jebusite Jerusalem. The City of David. Solomon's Jerusalem. - From Solomon to Hezekiah. Hezekiah. From Hezekiah to the - Exile. The Destruction of 586 B. C. The Second Temple. - Nehemiah and the Walls. Late Persian and Early Greek - Periods. In the Time of the Maccabees. Asmonaean Jerusalem. - Herod the Great. The Pool of Bethesda. Gethsemane. Calvary. - Agrippa I and the Third Wall. - - XIV. THE DECAPOLIS 213 - - Origin. Damascus. Scythopolis. Cities East of the Sea of - Galilee. Gadara. Pella and Dion. Gerasa. Philadelphia. Jesus - in the Decapolis. - - XV. ATHENS, CORINTH, AND THE CHURCHES OF ASIA 219 - - - PART II - - I. AN EPIC OF THE CREATION WHICH CIRCULATED IN BABYLON AND - ASSYRIA IN THE SEVENTH CENTURY B. C. 235 - - Text of the Epic. Comparison of the Epic with the First - Chapter of Genesis. The Epic and Other Parts of the Bible. - - II. ANOTHER ACCOUNT OF THE CREATION FOUND AT BABYLON 255 - - Text of the Account. Comparison of it with Genesis 2. - - III. THE BABYLONIAN SABBATH 258 - - Feast of Marduk and Zarpanit. A Day called Shabatum. A Day - in Some Tablets at Yale. - - IV. THE LEGEND OF ADAPA AND THE FALL OF MAN 260 - - Comparison with Genesis 3. The Adapa Myth. - - V. THE PATRIARCHS BEFORE THE FLOOD 264 - - Babylonian Long-Lived Kings. Comparison with Genesis 5. - Comparison with Genesis 4. Comparison with the List of - Berossos. - - VI. A BABYLONIAN ACCOUNT OF THE FLOOD, FROM A TABLET WRITTEN - AT NINEVEH IN THE SEVENTH CENTURY B. C. 273 - - Translation of the Text. Comparison with Genesis 6-9. - Another Babylonian Version. - - VII. AN ACCOUNT OF THE CREATION AND FLOOD, FROM A TABLET - WRITTEN AT NIPPUR BEFORE 2000 B. C. 278 - - Translation. Comparison with the Other Version. - - VIII. AN ACCOUNT OF THE ORIGIN OF A CITY AND THE BEGINNING OF - AGRICULTURE, FROM A TABLET WRITTEN AT NIPPUR BEFORE 2000 B. C. 283 - - Translation. Comparison with Biblical Material. - - IX. ABRAHAM AND ARCHAEOLOGY 290 - - Abraham hired an Ox. Abraham leased a Farm. Abraham paid his - Rent. Who was this Abraham? Travel between Babylonia and - Palestine. Hammurapi, King of the Westland. Kadur-Mabug. - Kings supposed by some to be those of Genesis 14. - - X. JACOB AND JOSEPH 299 - - Appearances of these Names in Babylonian and Egyptian - Records. "The Tale of the Two Brothers"; its Bearing on the - Story of Joseph in Genesis. Letters to a Ruler like Joseph. - The Seven Years of Famine. Inscription showing Preparation - for Famine. - - XI. PALESTINE IN THE PATRIARCHAL AGE 307 - - The Tale of Sinuhe. Communication between Egypt and - Palestine. - - XII. MOSES AND THE EXODUS 310 - - The Legend of Sargon of Agade; its Resemblance to the Story - of Moses. The Pillar of Merneptah; the Only Appearance of - the Name "Israel" outside of the Bible. - - XIII. THE CODE OF HAMMURAPI AND THE PENTATEUCH 313 - - The Text of the Code; Resemblance to and Contrast with the - Mosaic Code. The Mosaic Code not borrowed from the - Babylonian; Different Underlying Conceptions. - - XIV. AN ALLEGED PARALLEL TO LEVITICUS--A CARTHAGINIAN LAW - CONCERNING SACRIFICES 342 - - The Text of the Carthaginian Law. Comparison with the - Levitical Law. - - XV. SOME LETTERS FROM PALESTINE 344 - - Letters of Rib-Adda of Gebal. Of Ebed-Hepa of Jerusalem. - Their Light on Conditions in the Period of the Egyptian - Domination of Palestine. - - XVI. DOCUMENTS FROM THE TIME OF ISRAEL'S JUDGES 352 - - Report of Wenamon. Its Illustration of Certain Points of - Biblical History about the Time of Deborah or Gideon. - Reference to the Philistines. - - XVII. ARCHAEOLOGICAL LIGHT ON THE BOOKS OF KINGS 358 - - Gudea and Cedar-Wood for his Palace. The Eponym Canon. The - Seal of Shema. Shishak's List of Conquered Asiatic Cities. - Ashurnasirpal's Description of his Expedition to - Mediterranean Lands. Shalmaneser III's Claims regarding - Tribute from the Kings of Israel. The Moabite Stone. - Adadnirari IV's Mention of the "Land of Omri." Inscription - describing Tiglathpileser IV's Campaign. Sargon's Conquests. - Sennacherib's Western Campaigns. The Siloam Inscription. - Esarhaddon's List of Conquered Kings. Ashurbanipal's - Assyrian Campaign. Necho of Egypt. Nebuchadrezzar II. - Evil-Merodach. Discoveries in Sheba. - - XVIII. THE END OF THE BABYLONIAN EXILE 382 - - Inscriptions of Nabuna'id; their Bearing on Biblical - Statements regarding Belshazzar. Account of the Capture of - Babylon bearing on the Book of Daniel. Inscription of Cyrus - bearing on the Capture of Babylon. Cyrus's Permission for - the Return to Jerusalem. - - XIX. A JEWISH COLONY IN EGYPT DURING THE TIME OF NEHEMIAH 387 - - Papyri Witness to the Existence of a Colony at Elephantine. - Translation of a Petition relating to their Temple. Reply of - Persian Governor. Historical Bearings of these Documents. A - Letter relating to the Passover. A Letter showing that the - Jews were Unpopular at Elephantine. - - XX. A BABYLONIAN JOB 392 - - Translation of a Poem relating to the Afflictions of a Good - Man. Comparison with the Book of Job. A Fragment of Another - Similar Poem. - - XXI. PSALMS FROM BABYLONIA AND EGYPT 398 - - Character of their Psalms. Babylonian Prayers to the Goddess - Ishtar. Comparison with the Psalter. A Babylonian Hymn to - the Moon-God. A Babylonian Hymn to Bel. An Egyptian Hymn to - the Sun-God. Is the Hymn Monotheistic? An Egyptian Hymn in - Praise of Aton. Comparison with the Psalter. - - XXII. PARALLELS TO PROVERBS AND ECCLESIASTES 407 - - The Nature of the Book of Proverbs and the Parallels. - Babylonian Proverbs from the Library of Ashurbanipal. - Precepts from the Library of Ashurbanipal. Comparison with - the Bible. Egyptian Precepts of Ptahhotep. Comparison with - the Bible. Parallel to Ecclesiastes from the Gilgamesh Epic. - - XXIII. EGYPTIAN PARALLELS TO THE SONG OF SONGS 413 - - Nature of the Song of Songs. Translation of Some Egyptian - Love-Poems. Comparison with Biblical Passages. - - XXIV. ILLUSTRATIONS OF PASSAGES IN THE PROPHETS 417 - - Uniqueness of the Prophetic Books. An Assyrian Prophetic - Vision. Comparison with the Bible. The Egyptian Social - Conscience. Tale of the Eloquent Peasant. Comparison with - the Bible. An Ideal King; Extract from the Admonitions of - Ipuwer. Comparison with Messianic Expectations. Sheol. - Ishtar's Descent to the Underworld. Comparison with - Prophetic Passages. A Lamentation for Tammuz. - - XXV. REPUTED SAYINGS OF JESUS FOUND IN EGYPT 428 - - Early Collections of the Words of Jesus. Translation of - Sayings found in 1897. Comments. Translation of a Leaf found - in 1904. Comments. Opinions as to these Sayings. - - XXVI. ARCHAEOLOGICAL LIGHT ON THE ENROLMENT OF QUIRINIUS 432 - - Translation of a Papyrus showing that in the Second Century - Enrolment was made Every Fourteen Years. Comments. - Translation referring to an Enrolment in the Reign of Nero. - Fragment from the Reign of Tiberius. Enrolments probably - inaugurated by Augustus. Document showing that People went - to their own towns for Enrolment. Inscription supposed to - refer to Quirinius. Inscription from Asia Minor referring to - Quirinius. Discussion. Conclusions. - - XXVII. ARCHAEOLOGICAL LIGHT ON THE ACTS AND EPISTLES 438 - - The Politarchs of Thessalonica. An Altar to Unknown Gods. An - Inscription from Delphi and the Date of Paul's Contact with - Gallio. Some Epistles from Egypt. Inscriptions mentioning - Aretas, King of Arabia. - - APPENDIX 445 - - Discoveries at Carchemish. Hrozny's Decipherment of Hittite. - Discoveries at Jerusalem and Balata. A New Babylonian - Account of the Creation of Man. Reports of Commanders of - Egyptian Frontier-Fortresses Relating to the Entrance of - Asiatics into Egypt in Time of Famine. Supposed Trace of the - Ten Lost Tribes in Mesopotamia. - - INDEX OF SCRIPTURE PASSAGES 453 - - INDEX 459 - - ILLUSTRATIONS: Plates 1-114. - - - - -LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS - - - A Hillside Street in Roman Jerusalem along which Jesus - and the Disciples may well have walked _Frontispiece._ - - FIGURE PLATE - - 1 Syrian Traders in Egypt, from a Tomb at Beni Hasan (_after - Ball_) 1 - - 2 Crown of Lower Egypt 1 - - 3 Crown of Upper Egypt 1 - - 4 Crown of United Egypt 1 - - 5 Sphinx and Pyramid of Khafre 1 - - 6 Pyramids of Khufu and Khafre 2 - - 7 Step Pyramid of Zoser 2 - - 8 Body from a Pre-dynastic Tomb 3 - - 9 Head of the Mummy of Ramses II 3 - - 10 A Store-Chamber at Pithom (_after Naville_) 4 - - 11 Ancient and Modern Brick-Making (_after Petrie_) 4 - - 12 Plan of City and Temple of Leontopolis (_after Petrie_) 5 - - 13 A Passover-Oven (_after Petrie_) 5 - - 14 The Rosetta Stone (_after Thomas Nelson and Sons_) 6 - - 15 The "Israel" Inscription of Merneptah 6 - - 16 Mounds of Nuffar (_after Clay_) 7 - - 17 Excavation at Nuffar (_after Clay_) 7 - - 18 Gate of Ishtar, Babylon (_after Koldewey_) 8 - - 19 Phalanx of Soldiers from Eannatum's "Stele of Vultures" 8 - - 20 Inscribed Column from Persepolis 9 - - 21 Silver Vase of Entemena 9 - - 22 Mound of Birs Nimrud (_after Peters_) 9 - - 23 Hittite Gates at Boghaz Koi (_after Puchstein_) 10 - - 24 Hittite Types from Egyptian Monuments (_after Garstang_) 10 - - 25 A Hittite King (_after Puchstein_) 11 - - 26 The Boss of Tarkondemos 11 - - 27 The Seal of Shema, Servant of Jeroboam 11 - - 28 Tell el-Hesy after Excavation 12 - - 29 The Site of the Old Testament Jericho 12 - - 30 Excavation of Gezer 13 - - 31 Remains of a Colonnaded Street at Samaria 13 - - 32 Excavation at Tell Hum 14 - - 33 Egyptians Attacking a Palestinian City (_after Perrot and - Chipiez_) 14 - - 34 Israelitish Jericho (_after Sellin_) 15 - - 35 Israelitish Houses at Jericho (_after Sellin_) 15 - - 36 Philistines from the Palace of Ramses III 16 - - 37 Canaanitish Fortress at Jericho (_after Sellin_) 16 - - 38 Inscribed Disc from Phaestos (one-fourth actual size) 17 - - 39 Gebel Fureidis 17 - - 40 Bastion for the Protection of an Inserted Tower (_after - Macalister_) 18 - - 41 Remains of Walls of Megiddo (_after Schumacher_) 18 - - 42 Walls of Buildings at Samaria (_after Reisner_) 19 - - 43 Specimens of Stone-Work at Gezer (_after Macalister_) 19 - - 44 Building-Bricks from Gezer (_after Macalister_) 19 - - 45 Plan of Palace at Taanach (_after Sellin_) 20 - - 46 The Great City Wall at Gezer (_after Macalister_) 20 - - 47 Israelitish Houses at Gezer 21 - - 48 Specimens of Mosaic Floors (_after Macalister_) 21 - - 49 A Doorway at Gezer (_after Macalister_) 22 - - 50 Door-Sockets from Gezer (_after Macalister_) 22 - - 51 Supposed House of Hiel, Jericho (_after Sellin_) 23 - - 52 Foundation of the Palace of Omri, Samaria (_after Reisner_) 23 - - 53 Hebrew Palace at Megiddo (_after Schumacher_) 23 - - 54 Plan of the Maccabaean Castle at Gezer (_after Macalister_) 24 - - 55 Stone-Work of the Maccabaean Castle (_after Macalister_) 24 - - 56 A Foundation-Deposit, Gezer (_after Macalister_) 24 - - 57 A City Gate at Megiddo (_after Schumacher_) 25 - - 58 The South Gate at Gezer (_after Macalister_) 25 - - 59 The South Gate at Beth-shemesh (_after Mackenzie_) 25 - - 60 Entrance to the Underground Tunnel at Gezer (_after - Macalister_) 26 - - 61 The North Gate at Gezer (_after Macalister_) 26 - - 62 Plans of the Underground Tunnel at Gezer (_after Macalister_) 27 - - 63 Plan of Underground Tunnel at Gibeon (_after Abel_) 28 - - 64 One of Solomon's Pools 28 - - 65 Post of City Gate, Samaria (_after Reisner_) 29 - - 66 Part of City Wall and Gate, Samaria (_after Reisner_) 29 - - 67 Road South of Gerizim 30 - - 68 Lines of Roman Roads at Tell el-Ful 30 - - 69 Roman Road North of Amman 30 - - 70 A Granary at Gezer (_after Macalister_) 31 - - 71 Some Roman Mile-Stones 31 - - 72 Plan of a Granary at Gezer (_after Macalister_) 31 - - 73 A Hoe (_after Macalister_) 32 - - 74 An Egyptian Reaping (_after Wreszinski_) 32 - - 75 A Sickle (_after Wreszinski_) 32 - - 76 Plowshares from Megiddo (_after Schumacher_) 32 - - 77 Egyptian Plowing (_after Wilkinson_) 33 - - 78 A Modern Threshing-Floor 33 - - 79 Egyptians Threshing and Winnowing (_after Wilkinson_) 33 - - 80 Egyptian Threshing-Sledge (_after Wilkinson_) 33 - - 81 A Saddle-Quern from Megiddo (_after Schumacher_) 34 - - 82 A Rotary-Quern (_after Macalister_) 34 - - 83 A Mortar and Pestle (_after Macalister_) 34 - - 84 Two Women Grinding at a Mill (_after Schumacher_) 34 - - 85 An Ancient Olive-Press (_after Macalister_) 35 - - 86 A Modern Olive-Press (_after Macalister_) 35 - - 87 A Wine Vat (_after Macalister_) 36 - - 88 An Olive-Press at Work (_after Macalister_) 36 - - 89 Cows' Horns from Gezer (_after Macalister_) 37 - - 90 Animals' Heads from Gezer (_after Macalister_) 37 - - 91 A Horse's Bit from Gezer (_after Macalister_) 37 - - 92 Drawings of Horses from Gezer (_after Macalister_) 37 - - 93 A Clay Bird from Gezer (_after Macalister_) 38 - - 94 A Cock from Marissa (_after Peters and Thiersch_) 38 - - 95 A Bee-Hive from Gezer (_after Macalister_) 38 - - 96 Pre-Semitic Jars (_after Macalister_) 39 - - 97 Pre-Semitic Pottery (_after Macalister_) 39 - - 98 Four Pitchers from the First Semitic Stratum (_after - Macalister_) 39 - - 99 Three Pitchers from the First Semitic Stratum (_after - Macalister_) 39 - - 100 A Jar from the First Semitic Stratum (_after Macalister_) 39 - - 101 Jugs from the Second Semitic Stratum (_after Macalister_) 40 - - 102 A Jug from the Second Semitic Stratum (_after Macalister_) 40 - - 103 A Jar from the Second Semitic Stratum (_after Macalister_) 40 - - 104 Some Fine Pottery from the First Semitic Stratum (_after - Macalister_) 41 - - 105 "Ear" and "Button" Jar-Handles (_after Macalister_) 41 - - 106 A "Pillar" Handle (_after Macalister_) 41 - - 107 A Flat-bottomed Jug (_after Macalister_) 41 - - 108 A Painted Philistine Vase from Beth-shemesh (_after Mackenzie_) 42 - - 109 War-Scene on Potsherd from Megiddo (_after Schumacher_) 42 - - 110 Jars of Third Semitic Stratum from Beth-shemesh (_after - Mackenzie_) 42 - - 111 Hebrew Pottery from Megiddo (_after Schumacher_) 42 - - 112 Hebrew Jars and Pitchers from Jericho (_after Sellin_) 43 - - 113 Hebrew Pitchers and Bowls from Jericho (_after Sellin_) 43 - - 114 A Funnel from Gezer (_after Macalister_) 44 - - 115 A Potter's Seal from Gezer (_after Macalister_) 44 - - 116 An Inscribed Hebrew Jar-Stamp from the Shephelah (_after - Bliss and Macalister_) 44 - - 117 Hebrew Pottery from Gezer (_after Macalister_) 44 - - 118 A Scarab used as a Jar-Stamp (_after Macalister_) 45 - - 119 A Jar-Handle Stamped with a Scarab (_after Macalister_) 45 - - 120 A Jar with Tapering Base from Gezer (_after Macalister_) 45 - - 121 Hellenistic Filter from Gezer (_after Macalister_) 45 - - 122 Hellenistic Pottery from Gezer (_after Macalister_) 45 - - 123 Hellenistic Strainer from Gezer (_after Macalister_) 46 - - 124 Roman Pots from Gezer (_after Macalister_) 46 - - 125 Hellenistic Jar from Gezer (_after Macalister_) 46 - - 126 A Lamp of the First Semitic Period, Megiddo (_after - Schumacher_) 46 - - 127 Lamps from the Second Semitic Period, Gezer (_after - Macalister_) 47 - - 128 Lamps from the Israelitish Period, Gezer (_after Macalister_) 47 - - 129 A Byzantine Lamp from Jericho (_after Sellin_) 47 - - 130 A Lamp bearing a Christian Legend (_after Macalister_) 47 - - 131 Hellenistic Lamps from Gezer (_after Macalister_) 48 - - 132 Hebrew Lamps from Jericho (_after Sellin_) 48 - - 133 Ovens found at Gezer (_after Macalister_) 49 - - 134 A Baking-Tray from Gezer (_after Macalister_) 49 - - 135 Bronze Dishes from Gezer (_after Macalister_) 49 - - 136 Shell Spoons from Gezer (_after Macalister_) 49 - - 137 Silver Dishes from a Philistine Grave at Gezer (_after - Macalister_) 50 - - 138 Glass Ointment Vessels from Gezer (_after Macalister_) 50 - - 139 Feeding-Bottles (?), Gezer (_after Macalister_) 51 - - 140 Forks from Gezer (_after Macalister_) 51 - - 141 Philistine Silver Ladle, Gezer (_after Macalister_) 51 - - 142 Bronze Needles and Pins from Gezer (_after Macalister_) 51 - - 143 Bone Needles from Gezer (_after Macalister_) 52 - - 144 Modern Woman Spinning 52 - - 145 Spindle Whorls from Gezer (_after Macalister_) 52 - - 146 A Large Key from Gezer (_after Macalister_) 52 - - 147 A Smaller Key from Gezer (_after Macalister_) 52 - - 148 Lamp-Stands from Megiddo (_after Schumacher_) 53 - - 149 Flint Knives from Jericho (_after Sellin_) 53 - - 150 Iron Knives from Gezer (_after Macalister_) 54 - - 151 Bronze Knives from Gezer (_after Macalister_) 54 - - 152 A Chisel from Gezer (_after Macalister_) 55 - - 153 A File from Gezer (_after Macalister_) 55 - - 154 A Cone of Flint for making Knives, Gezer (_after Macalister_) 55 - - 155 A Bronze Hammer-Head, Gezer (_after Macalister_) 55 - - 156 A Fish-Hook, Gezer (_after Macalister_) 55 - - 157 A Bone Awl-Handle from Gezer (_after Macalister_) 55 - - 158 Whetstones from Jericho (_after Sellin_) 55 - - 159 Nails from Gezer (_after Macalister_) 55 - - 160 Axe-Heads from Gezer (_after Macalister_) 56 - - 161 Carpenters' Tools from Gezer (_after Macalister_) 56 - - 162 A Scimitar from Gezer (_after Macalister_) 57 - - 163 Impression of a Basket on Mud, Gezer (_after Macalister_) 57 - - 164 Flint Arrow-Heads from Gezer (_after Macalister_) 57 - - 165 Bronze Arrow-Heads from Gezer (_after Macalister_) 57 - - 166 Bronze Swords from Gezer (_after Macalister_) 58 - - 167 Bronze Spear-Heads, Gezer (_after Macalister_) 58 - - 168 A Pipe from Gezer (_after Macalister_) 59 - - 169 An Egyptian Harp (_after Haupt_) 59 - - 170 An Assyrian Upright Harp (_after Haupt_) 59 - - 171 An Assyrian Horizontal Harp (_after Haupt_) 59 - - 172 A Babylonian Harp (_after Haupt_) 59 - - 173 Jewish Harps on Coins of Bar Cocheba, 132-135 A. D. (_after - Madden_) 59 - - 174 Assyrian Dulcimer (_after Haupt_) 59 - - 175 Seals from Gezer (_after Macalister_) 60 - - 176 A Comb from Gezer (_after Macalister_) 60 - - 177 Toys from Gezer (_after Macalister_) 60 - - 178 Styli from Gezer (_after Macalister_) 60 - - 179 Children's Rattles from Gezer (_after Macalister_) 60 - - 180 A Perfume-Box, Gezer (_after Macalister_) 61 - - 181 A Necklace from Gezer (_after Macalister_) 61 - - 182 Bracelets from Gezer (_after Macalister_) 61 - - 183 Spatulae from Gezer (_after Macalister_) 61 - - 184 Rings from Gezer (_after Macalister_) 61 - - 185 Supposed Hebrew Measures from Jerusalem (_after Germer-Durand_) 62 - - 186 A _Neseph_ Weight 63 - - 187 A _Payim_ Weight belonging to Haverford College 63 - - 188 A _Beqa_ Weight (_after Torrey_) 63 - - 189 A "Daric" of Darius (_after Benzinger_) 63 - - 190 A Tetradrachma of Alexander the Great (_after Benzinger_) 63 - - 191 A Coin of Ptolemy Lagi (_after Benzinger_) 63 - - 192 Half-Shekel of Simon the Maccabee (_after Benzinger_) 64 - - 193 A Coin of John Hyrcanus (_after Madden_) 64 - - 194 Tetradrachma of Lysimachus 64 - - 195 A Coin of Augustus 64 - - 196 A Denarius of Tiberius 64 - - 197 A Coin of Claudius 64 - - 198 A Coin of Herod the Great 64 - - 199 A Roman Quadrans (?) 64 - - 200 A Coin of Herod Agrippa I 64 - - 201 A Shekel of the Revolt of A. D. 70 64 - - 202 Cave-Dwellers' Place of Sacrifice, Gezer (_after Macalister_) 65 - - 203 Plan of Caves at Semitic High Place, Gezer (_after Macalister_) 65 - - 204 "Pillars" of the High Place at Gezer 65 - - 205 Rock-Altar at Megiddo (_after Schumacher_) 66 - - 206 The "Beth-el" of Gezer (_after Macalister_) 66 - - 207 The Supposed Serpent-Pen at Gezer (_after Macalister_) 66 - - 208 The Rock-Altar at Jerusalem (_after Dalman_) 67 - - 209 The Laver at Gezer (_after Macalister_) 67 - - 210 The Terra-cotta Altar from Taanach (_after Sellin_) 68 - - 211 Supposed High Place at Taanach (_after Sellin_) 68 - - 212 High Place at Tell es-Safi (_after Bliss and Macalister_) 69 - - 213 Libation Bowl from Taanach (_after Sellin_) 69 - - 214 An Astarte Plaque from Gezer (_after Macalister_) 69 - - 215 Plan of the High Place at Petra (_after Bruennow_) 70 - - 216 Plan of Herod's Temple at Samaria (_after Lyon_) 70 - - 217 The Altar at Petra (_after Bruennow_) 71 - - 218 The "Round Altar" at Petra (_after Bruennow_) 71 - - 219 Supposed "Pillars" at Petra (_after Bruennow_) 71 - - 219_a_ A Brazen Serpent from Gezer (_after Macalister_) 72 - - 220 Plan of Supposed Semitic Temple at Gezer (_after Macalister_) 72 - - 221 Walls of Herod's Temple, Samaria (_after Reisner_) 72 - - 222 "Pillars" of a Supposed Temple, Gezer (_after Macalister_) 73 - - 223 Chapel of the Palace at Megiddo (_after Schumacher_) 73 - - 224 Voluted Capital (probably Philistine) from Megiddo (_after - Schumacher_) 74 - - 225 Incense-Burner from Megiddo (_after Schumacher_) 74 - - 226 Philistine Graves, Gezer (_after Macalister_) 75 - - 227 A Rock-hewn Tomb at Siloam (_after Benzinger_) 75 - - 228 A Shaft-Tomb (_after Bliss and Macalister_) 75 - - 229 A Cistern-Burial at Gezer (_after Macalister_) 75 - - 230 A Columbarium at Petra (_after Dalman_) 76 - - 231 Entrance to the Tomb of the Judges 76 - - 232 A Sunken-Door Tomb (_after Mitt. u. Nach. d. Deutsch. - Palaestina-Vereins_) 77 - - 233 _Kokim_ in the Tomb of the Judges 77 - - 234 Plan of a Hellenistic Tomb at Marissa (_after Peters and - Thiersch_) 78 - - 235 A Cross-Section of the Tomb of the Judges 78 - - 236 Architectural Decoration of a Hellenistic Tomb at Marissa - (_after Peters and Thiersch_) 79 - - 237 Plan of the Upper Floor of the Tomb of the Judges 79 - - 238 A Tomb with a Rolling-Stone at Beit Jibrin (_after Moulton_) 80 - - 239 Interior of a Hellenistic Tomb at Marissa (_after Peters and - Thiersch_) 80 - - 240 The Hills and Valleys of Jerusalem (_after Vincent_) 81 - - 241 Underground Jebusite Tunnel at Gihon, Jerusalem (_after - Vincent_) 82 - - 242 Maudsley's Scarp, Jerusalem 82 - - 243 Plan of Solomon's Buildings, Jerusalem (_after Stade_) 83 - - 244 Phoenician Quarry-Marks, Jerusalem (_after Warren_) 83 - - 245 Shaft at the Southeast Corner of the Temple Area (_after - Warren_) 84 - - 246 Examining Ancient Walls in an Underground Tunnel (_after - Warren_) 84 - - 247 Front Views of Solomon's Temple (_after Stade_) 85 - - 248 Side Views of Solomon's Temple (_after Stade_) 85 - - 249 Plan of Solomon's Temple (_after Stade_) 86 - - 250 The Seven-branched Lamp-Stand from the Arch of Titus 86 - - 251 The Brazen Laver of Solomon's Temple (_after Stade_) 87 - - 252 A Portable Laver of Solomon's Temple (_after Stade_) 87 - - 253 Stone-Work of a Wall of Jerusalem built in the Fifth Century - A. D. 88 - - 254 Stone-Work in Nehemiah's Wall, Jerusalem 88 - - 255 Restoration of the Asmonaean Bridge over the Tyropoeon Valley - (_after Hanauer_) 89 - - 256 Front of "David's Tower" (Herod's Palace) Today (_after Breen_) 89 - - 257 Reconstruction of Herod's Temple (_after Caldecott_) 90 - - 258 "Solomon's Stables" 90 - - 259 One of the Supposed Pools of Bethesda (_after Hanauer_) 91 - - 260 Front of the Church of the Holy Sepulcher 91 - - 261 "Gordon's Calvary," looking toward Jerusalem (_after Breen_) 92 - - 262 "Gordon's Calvary," from the City Wall (_after Breen_) 92 - - 263 Outside of "Gordon's Holy Sepulcher" (_after Breen_) 93 - - 264 Inside of "Gordon's Holy Sepulcher" (_after Breen_) 93 - - 265 The Barada (Abana), Damascus 94 - - 266 The Street Called Straight, Damascus 94 - - 267 Palace at Kanatha (_after Bruennow_) 95 - - 268 Circular Forum and Colonnaded Street, Gerasa 95 - - 269 Temple of the Sun, Gerasa 96 - - 270 Site of Rabbah Ammon 96 - - 271 Theater at Amman (Palestinian Philadelphia) 97 - - 272 Roman Forum at Athens 97 - - 273 Mars' Hill, Athens 98 - - 274 Fountain in the Agora, Corinth 98 - - 275 Lintel of Jewish Synagogue, Corinth (_after Richardson_) 99 - - 276 Lechaeum Road, Corinth (_after Richardson_) 99 - - 277 Parthenon, Athens, from the East 100 - - 278 Main Street at Ephesus 100 - - 279 Site of the Temple of Diana, Ephesus, in 1902 101 - - 280 The Theater, Ephesus 101 - - 281 The Amphitheater, Ephesus 102 - - 282 The Stadium, Ephesus 102 - - 283 Pergamum (_after Ramsay_) 103 - - 284 The Acropolis and partly Excavated Temple, Sardis (_after - Butler_) 103 - - 285 Excavated Temple, Sardis, looking toward the Hermus Valley - (_after Butler_) 104 - - 286 A Christian Church at Sardis (_after Butler_) 105 - - 287 Smyrna (_after Ramsay_) 105 - - 288 A Ruin at Laodicea (_after Ramsay_) 106 - - 289 A Bridge over the Jordan on the Line of a Roman Road 106 - - 290 Fragment of a Creation-Tablet 107 - - 291 Assyrian Sacred Tree Conventionalized 107 - - 292 Hammurapi Receiving the Laws from the Sun-God 107 - - 293 The So-called Adam and Eve Seal 107 - - 294 A Tablet from Nippur, Relating the Beginnings of Irrigation - and Agriculture (_after Langdon_) 108 - - 295 Top of the Black Obelisk of Shalmaneser 108 - - 296 Jehu of Israel Doing Homage to Shalmaneser 108 - - 297 The Siloam Inscription 109 - - 298 Sennacherib Receiving Tribute at Lachish (_after Ball_) 109 - - 299 An Altar to Unknown Gods (_after Deissmann_) 110 - - 300 The Moabite Stone 110 - - 301 Papyrus Containing Sayings of Jesus (_after Grenfell and Hunt_) 111 - - - MAPS - - Map of Egypt to First Cataract _Facing page_ 18 - - Map of the Ancient World _Facing page_ 40 - - Map of Palestine _Facing page_ 104 - - PLATE - - Map of Jerusalem in the Time of the Jebusites and David 112 - - Map of Solomon's Jerusalem 112 - - Map of Jerusalem from Hezekiah to the Exile 113 - - Map of Nehemiah's Jerusalem 113 - - Map of Asmonaean Jerusalem 114 - - Map of Herodian Jerusalem 114 - - - - -EXPLANATION OF SIGNS - - - Sec. = section. - - ibid. = the same. - - op. cit. = work cited. - - f. = and following page. - - ff. = and following pages. - - cf. = compare. - - v. = verse. - - col. = column. - - p. = page. - - [ ] in translations of tablets indicate words supplied where not - decipherable. - - ..... in translations of tablets indicate missing line or words which - cannot be supplied. - - - - -INTRODUCTION - - -One who would write on archaeology and the Bible must at the outset define -the scope of his undertaking, for the word archaeology conveys different -meanings to different people. Judgments also differ as to how things -ancient can best serve the interests of the Biblical student. To many the -word archaeology calls up visions of ancient pottery, jewelry, swords, -utensils, etc., which are valued as objects of curiosity simply because -they are old. Others, when they think of archaeology, call to mind -excavations, in which the walls of ancient temples and cities are laid -bare, so that we may see how men lived in other days. To such, archaeology -is identical with antiquarianism. A book on archaeology and the Bible -written from this point of view would confine itself to the way in which -texts of Scripture are illustrated or illumined by antiquarian objects. - -To still others the word archaeology calls up ancient tablets or papyri, -inscribed with hieroglyphics or some other strange characters, from which -the initiated can decipher texts that prove the truth of one's views of -Scripture. According to this view, archaeology is the science of ancient -documents, and a book dealing with archaeology and the Bible should confine -itself to the discussion of documents which confirm or illustrate the -Biblical text. - -Those who hold either of these views of archaeology will find in this book -much that will accord with their expectations, but much also that will -seem to them irrelevant. In Part I, Chapters IV, VI-XII deal with -antiquities, their discovery, and the light which these shed upon the -inspired page, for antiquarianism is a part of archaeology. Portions of -Part I are devoted to the discovery of inscribed objects; in Part II the -reader will find a full presentation of the bearing of these upon the -different parts of the Sacred Volume. Those who hold the second of the -views mentioned above will not, therefore, be disappointed. - -Neither of the views mentioned corresponds, however, with the limits of -archaeology. Archaeology is "that branch of knowledge which takes cognizance -of past civilizations, and investigates their history in all fields, by -means of the remains of art, architecture, monuments, inscriptions, -literature, language, implements, customs, and all other examples which -have survived."[1] This definition is accepted by the writer of this work -and has guided him in the preparation of the following pages. It has, of -course, been impossible in one volume to deal adequately with the -antiquities and the ancient documents and to treat fully the history of -the civilizations of the Biblical countries, but an endeavor has been made -to place the reader in possession of an intelligent point of view with -reference to these things. As the physical structure of a country -determines to a large degree the nature of its buildings, the utensils -employed by its inhabitants, their writing materials, and their relations -with other peoples,--as well as the way the objects were preserved from -ancient to modern times,--brief descriptions of the physical features of -Egypt, Mesopotamia, and Palestine, the three most prominent of Biblical -countries, have been introduced. - -Our knowledge of the early history of Egypt and Babylonia has come almost -wholly from archaeological exploration; it has seemed fitting, therefore, -to introduce in Part I, Chapter I, Sec. 6, and Chapter II, Sec. 6, brief -sketches of the history of these countries. This appeared all the more -necessary since the inhabitants of these two countries worked out, in -advance of any other peoples, the initial problems of civilization. -Palestine borrowed from them both, so that it is impossible to understand -the history and archaeology of Palestine apart from Egyptian and Babylonian -antecedents. Whenever it is possible the reader should supplement these -sketches by reference to the larger works cited in the notes. - -Similarly in Part I, Chapter V, an outline of the history of Palestine -from the earliest times is presented. To some this may seem unnecessary, -since centuries of that history passed before the Hebrew people came to -the country, but it is hoped that every reader will be glad to know the -various vicissitudes through which passed the land that was chosen by God -as the home of the religious leaders of the human race. This history also -gives emphasis to the promise "to give thee great and goodly cities, which -thou buildedst not, and houses full of all good things, which thou -filledst not, and cisterns hewn out, which thou hewedst not, vineyards and -olive-trees, which thou plantedst not" (Deut. 6:10, 11). - -Some, too, may be surprised that the chronologies of Egypt and Babylonia -and Assyria should be treated as fully as they are in Part I, Chapter I, Sec. -5, and Chapter II, Sec. 5, but in the writer's view this treatment was -necessary and appropriate for several reasons: (1) The data on which these -chronologies are built up are for the most part the fruits of -archaeological research. (2) They are our only means of measuring the -antiquity of civilization, since the Bible itself affords no continuous -system of chronology.[2] If the student of the Bible is to have any -intelligent idea of what "the fulness of time" (Gal. 4:4) means, he should -know what the sources of our chronology are and how they are rightly used. -(3) Such a presentation seemed all the more necessary because in many -books, especially those of some English Egyptologists, the materials are -employed uncritically, and civilization is made to appear much older than -it really is. - -To accomplish all these aims the writer has adopted the following plan: In -three chapters the archaeology, history, and civilization of Egypt, -Babylonia and Assyria, and the Hittites are briefly treated, together with -the discoveries which especially interest the Biblical student. These are -the three great civilizations which preceded the Israelitish. A much more -detailed treatment is given to Palestine, to which Chapters IV-XIV of Part -I are devoted. In the last chapter of Part I an attempt has been made to -present the discoveries in Greece and Asia Minor which throw light on the -New Testament. In Part II the texts, Babylonian, Assyrian, Egyptian, -Hebrew, Moabitish, Phoenician, Aramaic, Greek, and Latin, which bear on -the Bible, are translated. They are arranged in the order of the Biblical -books which they illuminate. Each translation is accompanied by a brief -discussion in which its chief bearing on the Bible is pointed out. - -In conclusion it may not be out of place to offer a word of guidance to -two or three classes of readers. Those who are not interested in the -history of Babylonia and Egypt, but wish simply to know what has been -discovered in those countries which throws light on the Scriptures, should -turn at once to Part I, Chapter I, Sec. 7, and Chapter II, Sec. 7, and to the -translations of the various texts in Part II. A reader that is interested -especially in Palestine, rather than in the ancient civilizations to which -the Hebrews were indebted, should begin Part I at Chapter IV. Possibly -after he has read that which the Holy Land has contributed to the -understanding of the Bible, he may be ready to give a little attention to -such outlying peoples as the Egyptians, Babylonians, and Hittites. In that -case he will turn back and read Chapters I-III. - -Pastors or Sunday-school teachers who wish to employ the book as a tool by -means of which to study certain texts or lessons should follow a different -course. These will be able with the aid of the full index of Scripture -references to turn at once to all the material bearing on the passage in -question. If the use of this index does not afford all the information -desired, reference should then be made to the analytical table of contents -at the beginning, or to the index of subjects at the end, or to both. - -It is the writer's hope that, in addition to its use as a book of -reference for the elucidation or illustration of individual texts, there -may be some who will enjoy reading the whole work, and who will find, as -he himself has found, that every scrap of knowledge of ancient life in -Bible lands serves to make the Bible story and the lives of Biblical -characters so much more real, or puts them or their words in a perspective -so much more clear, that the eternal message comes with new power and can -be transmitted with greater efficiency. - - - - -PART I - -THE BIBLE LANDS, THEIR EXPLORATION, AND THE RESULTANT LIGHT ON THE BIBLE -AND HISTORY - - - - -ARCHAEOLOGY AND THE BIBLE - - - - -CHAPTER I - -EGYPT - - THE LAND. THE PRESERVATION OF ANTIQUITIES. EGYPTIAN DISCOVERIES. - DECIPHERMENT. CHRONOLOGY. OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY: The pre-dynastic - period. The archaic period. The old kingdom. The first period of - disintegration. The middle kingdom. Second period of disintegration. - The empire period. The period of foreign dynasties. The lower empire. - The Persian period. The Ptolemaic period. The Roman period. EGYPTIAN - DISCOVERIES WHICH BEAR ON THE BIBLE: Texts bearing on the story of - Joseph. The Invasion of Egypt by the Hyksos. The El-Amarna letters. - Period of the Oppression and the Exodus. Campaign of Sheshonk I. - Papyri discovered at Elephantine. The palace of Hophra. The castle at - Tahpanhes. The Jewish temple at Leontopolis. Papyri from Oxyrhynchus. - Discoveries in Nubia. - - -=1. The Land.=--Egypt is in many ways unique among the countries of the -world. One of these unique features is its form. If we omit the Delta, it -has but one dimension,--length. From Cairo to the First Cataract is a -distance of 583 miles, while the breadth of the valley, including the -barren lands on each side of it, varies from 12-1/2 to 31 miles. If we -include Nubia to the Fourth Cataract, which the Egyptians ultimately -conquered, the length is much greater, being about 1,100 miles. In Nubia -the banks are much more precipitous, the valley varying from 5 to 9-1/2 -miles. The verdant portion is, however, often not more than a mile in -width. - -This land is flanked on each side by extensive barren deserts on which -there is almost no rainfall. Egypt itself would be a part of this desert, -were it not for the overflow of the Nile. This overflow is caused by the -peculiar formation of this marvelous river. - -The upper part of the Nile consists of two main branches, called, -respectively, the White and the Blue Nile. The White Nile rises 3 degrees -south of the equator, some 4,000 miles south of the Mediterranean, to the -south of Lake Victoria Nyanza. This region is watered by tropical rains, -which fall almost daily. This steady water supply gives to the Nile its -constant volume. At Khartum, 1,350 miles from the Mediterranean in a -direct line, and 1,650 miles as the river winds, the White Nile is joined -by the Blue Nile. This branch of the river drains a large part of -Abyssinia, an upland and mountainous region which has a dry and a rainy -season. In the dry season this stream dwindles almost to nothing; in the -rainy season it is a turbid mountain torrent, which rushes impetuously -onward, laden with loose soil from all the land which it drains. For this -reason it is called the Blue, _i. e._, the Dark or Turbid, Nile. - -At a distance of 140 miles north of the union of the two Niles the river -receives its only other tributary, the Atbara, which also flows in from -the eastern side. The Atbara, like the Blue Nile, is an insignificant -stream except in the rainy season, when it is a torrent. - -It is the variation of the water supply from the Blue Nile and Atbara -which causes the overflow of the river in Egypt. At the beginning of June -the river begins slowly to swell; between the 15th and the 20th of July -the increase becomes very rapid; toward the end of September the water -ceases to rise and remains at the same height for twenty to thirty days. -In October it rises again, attaining its greatest height. It then -decreases, and in January, February, and March the fields gradually dry -off. This overflow prepares the soil of Egypt for cultivation, first by -softening it and then by fertilizing it. It was easy, under these -conditions, to develop agriculture there. - -Indeed, the width of productive Egypt is determined by the lateral extent -of this overflow. For the last 1,500 miles of its course the Nile receives -no tributary. It plows its way through regions of desert which, but for -the Nile itself, are unbroken. At six points, beginning at Khartum and -ending at Assuan, the river makes its way over granite ridges, through -which it has never succeeded in cutting a smooth channel. These are called -the Cataracts. As civilized man discovered these from the north, that at -Assuan is known as the First Cataract, and that at Khartum as the Sixth. -The calendar of ancient Egypt was shaped in part by the Nile. The year was -divided into three seasons of four months each. Beginning with the rise of -the water about July 19th, there was the season of the inundation, which -was followed by four months of winter and four months of summer. - -[Illustration: MAP OF EGYPT.] - -In late geologic time all Egypt north of Cairo was a bay of the -Mediterranean. In the course of the centuries the sea has been driven out -by deposits of detritus brought down by the Nile. As the mud was deposited -in this level region, the water continued to make its way through it here -and there. Several mouths were kept open, and thus the Delta was formed. -This Delta is called Lower Egypt. Upper Egypt extends from Cairo to the -First Cataract; Nubia, from the First Cataract to the Sixth. - -=2. The Preservation of Antiquities.=--Rain in Egypt is very, very rare. -One might almost say that it never rains. The country lies in a latitude -so far south that frost is rarely known. These two conditions have united -to preserve the ruins of many ancient buildings in both Egypt and Nubia in -a state of perfection which is rare in other countries. It was the custom -of the ancient Egyptians to bury their dead in the dry land beyond the -reach of the Nile's overflow. Like many other peoples, they placed in the -tombs of their dead many objects used by the departed in life. Further, -their peculiar beliefs concerning immortality led them to mummify the -bodies of the departed; _i. e._, they fortified them against decay. Thus -archaeological objects have been preserved in Egypt in an abundance and a -perfection without parallel. So many of these are massive temples of -stone, which, through all the ages, have stood unconcealed as silent -witnesses of a past greatness, that from Cairo to the First Cataract Egypt -is one great archaeological museum. - -=3. Egyptian Discoveries.=--Although many Egyptian antiquities have always -been visible, they attracted little attention until modern times. Egyptian -temple walls are covered with hieroglyphic writing, but the art of reading -it had long been lost. Coptic, a language descended from the ancient -Egyptian, was still preserved as the sacred language of the Egyptian -Church, as Latin is the ecclesiastical language of Roman Catholics, but no -one realized that Coptic was simply late Egyptian. - -In the seventeenth century European travelers began to bring home Egyptian -antiquities. In 1683 a specimen of Egyptian art was presented to the -Ashmolean Museum at Oxford. In the eighteenth century R. Pococke -(1704-1765) and F. L. Norden (1704-1742) described a number of Egyptian -ruins and identified a number of the sites mentioned by classical authors. -Pococke was an Englishman and Norden a Dane. Others, like the explorer -Bruce, who was seeking the sources of the Nile (1768-1773), participated -to some extent in the work. - -No systematic examination of the antiquities was made, however, until the -time of Napoleon I. When Napoleon invaded Egypt in 1798, he was -accompanied by an army of eminent scholars and artists, nearly a hundred -strong, and although in the settlement with England, which followed in -1802, the French were compelled to surrender their archaeological treasures -to Great Britain, they were permitted to publish the results of their -observations and explorations. The publication of these advanced slowly, -but between 1809 and 1822 the great work, consisting of one volume of -introduction, three volumes of plates, and three volumes of texts, was -given to the world. In these volumes the antiquities from the First -Cataract to Alexandria were systematically described, and many of them -were reproduced in magnificent water-color illustrations. As the -nineteenth century progressed, additional discoveries were made, partly by -the labors of such scientists as Lepsius and Mariette, and partly through -the rifling of tombs by natives, who often sold their finds to Europeans. -Since Egypt passed under English control, exploration has been fostered by -the government, and English, French, German, Italian, and American -explorers have taken part in it. The tombs of many of the ancient -Pharaohs, the mummies of a considerable number of them, all sorts of -implements and household furniture, have been discovered, as well as a -great variety of historical, literary, religious, and business documents. - -Within the last twenty years a series of tombs of a previously unknown -type has been discovered. The bodies buried in these tombs did not lie on -the back as the ordinary Egyptian mummy does, but on the side, with the -knees drawn up to the chin. It was at first thought that these tombs were -the work of a new race of men who had invaded Egypt at some time in the -historical period, but further study indicates that they are the tombs of -the early Egyptians from whom the Egyptians known to history were -descended. - -=4. Decipherment.=--One of the objects found by the French at the time of -Napoleon's expedition was the "Rosetta Stone," so called because found at -Rosetta (_Ar-Rashid_), a town near the mouth of the westernmost of the -large branches of the Nile. This stone was set up about 200 B. C. by some -priests, who expressed, through the inscription which it bore, their -thanks to the young king, Ptolemy V, because certain taxes formerly -imposed on them had been remitted. The inscription was written in three -kinds of writing--hieroglyphic Egyptian (picture-writing), demotic -Egyptian (developed from picture-writing), and Greek; (see Fig. 14). It -was among the objects which the English took in 1802, and had been placed -in the British Museum. Although the Greek portion of the inscription could -be easily read, the attempts of various scholars, through a period of -twenty years, had succeeded in establishing the values of only a few -characters of the Egyptian. In 1818 Jean Francois Champollion, a French -scholar, who before this had busied himself with the study of Coptic and -Egyptian geography, began the study of the Rosetta Stone. He assumed that -the language of the upper registers must be an older form of the Coptic -tongue. By a most painstaking comparison of the characters in the upper -registers with the Coptic equivalents of the words in the lower or Greek -register, he succeeded in deciphering the long-forgotten writing of -ancient Egypt. He published his discovery in 1822. Thus the door to the -historical and literary treasures of ancient Egypt was unlocked, and from -that time to this the study of Egyptian inscriptions and documents has -gone steadily forward. Many universities now maintain chairs of -Egyptology. The ability to read Egyptian has opened up vistas of history -of which men had hitherto no conception. - -=5. Chronology.=--We are dependent for our main outline of Egyptian -chronology upon the work of Manetho, an Egyptian priest, who lived about -250 B. C., and wrote a chronicle of his native land in the Greek language. -He grouped the kings of Egypt from the time of Menes (or Mena) to the -conquest of Alexander the Great (332 B. C.) into thirty-one dynasties. -Manetho's dynasties enable scholars to determine the relative order of the -kings, and thus form the backbone of our chronology. Around his statements -the discoveries of the excavators and explorers are grouped. Manetho's -work has not, however, come down to us. We know it only through quotations -in the _Chronographiai_ of Julius Africanus (221 A. D.) and the -_Chronicon_ of Eusebius of Cesarea (265-340 A. D.). The number of years -assigned to each king, and consequently the length of time covered by the -dynasties, differ in these two copies, so that, while the work of Manetho -forms the backbone of our chronology, it gives us no absolutely reliable -chronology. It is for this reason that the chronological schemes of modern -scholars have differed so widely. - -Another source of chronological information is the so-called "Palermo -Stone," which is preserved in the Museum of Palermo, Sicily. This stone is -a hard diorite, and is but a fragment of the original. It was inscribed -about the middle of the fifth dynasty, and originally contained a list of -the kings of Egypt from a time long before Mena to the middle of the fifth -dynasty. Though now but a fragment, it is still of great value for the -period which it covers. In addition to this, we also have the King List of -Karnak, set up by Thothmes III, of the eighteenth dynasty, the King List -of Abydos, inscribed by Seti I and Ramses II, of the nineteenth dynasty, -and the King List of Sakkarah, inscribed by Ramses II. As these are all -simply selections from the list of the predecessors of their authors, they -are of secondary importance. The "Turin Papyrus" would be of value -chronologically, but for its unfortunate history. This papyrus originally -contained the most complete list of Egyptian kings that has come down to -us, with the exception of Manetho's chronology. It formed part of the -collection of M. Drovetti, the French Consul-General in Egypt. The -collection was offered to the French government in 1818, but was finally -purchased by the king of Sardinia. When the collection arrived in Turin, -it was found that this papyrus was broken into small fragments in the -bottom of the box in which it had been shipped. The fragments were -afterward (1824) examined by Champollion the younger, who discovered their -true character. In 1826 another Egyptologist went to Turin and joined the -fragments; but the science of Egyptology was then in its infancy, and he -in his ignorance joined pieces which did not naturally belong together. -For this reason it is only occasionally that the document yields us any -chronological data. - -The greatest aid in fixing Egyptian chronology is the "Sothic Cycle." At -an early date the Egyptians adopted a calendar which made up a year of 365 -days. Their year originally began when the rapid rising of the Nile -coincided with the rising of the star Sirius, called by them Sothis. These -events coincided on July 19th. As their calendar made no allowance for -leap year, in four years their new year began a day too soon, in eight -years two days too soon, and so on. In 1,460 years (_i. e._, 365 x 4) -their New Year's Day would make a complete circuit of the year. These -periods of 1,460 years are called Sothic Cycles. Censorinus, in Chapters -XVIII and XXI of his _De Die Natali_, written in 238 A. D., tells us that -a new Sothic cycle began at some time between 140 and 144 A. D. If a new -cycle began in 140 A. D., the previous one began in 1320 B. C.; the one -before that, in 2780 B. C.; and the one before that,--if they had their -calendar so early,--in 4240 B. C. Reisner holds that the Egyptians adopted -their calendar in 2780 B. C., but Meyer and Breasted hold that it is -unthinkable that they should have been without a calendar until that time, -as by that date the civilization of the pyramid builders was at its -height; they accordingly maintain that the Egyptian calendar was adopted -in 4240 B. C. - -An illustration will show how the Sothic cycle helps in determining dates. -A priest in the 120th year of the twelfth dynasty wrote a letter to his -subordinates, to inform them that the rising of Sothis would occur on the -fifteenth day of the eighth month. As there were thirty days in each -month, the year diverged at this time 225 days. This date, then, was just -900 years after the beginning of the cycle in 2780 B. C.; _i. e._, the -letter was written in the year 1880 B. C. It proves that the twelfth -dynasty began in 2000 B. C., and fixes for us all the dates of that -dynasty. The calendar in the so-called _Papyrus Ebers_ shows that in the -tenth year of Amenophis I, of the eighteenth dynasty, the divergence had -increased to 308 days. This must have been 1,232 years after the beginning -of the cycle, which was the year 1548 B. C. Data gained from these -sources are supplemented by what is called dead reckoning; _i. e._, by -adding together all the specific dates of the length of reigns which are -given in the inscriptions, and testing them by collateral references. -Meyer and Breasted have worked out the chronology from these data in this -way. Meyer places the accession of Mena at 3200 B. C., while Breasted -places it at 3400 B. C. This difference is slight when compared with the -differences in the chronologies of the older Egyptologists. - -=6. Outline of History.=[3]--The history of Egypt, as it concerns our -subject, extends over a period of five thousand years. It falls into -twelve periods: - -(1) _The Pre-Dynastic Period_, which we suppose extended from about 5000 -B. C., or earlier, until about 3400 B. C., is the period before that -covered by Manetho's dynasties. At the beginning of this period Egypt was -divided into 42 districts, which the Egyptians called _spt_ or _hsp_, and -which the Greeks afterwards called _nomes_. Each nome was occupied by a -different tribe, which at the first lived in isolation from the other -tribes. Each tribe had its god, to which an animal was sacred. This -condition prevailed for so many centuries that the customs of this time -became permanently fixed. The sacredness of these animals continued right -down to Roman times. During this period the dead were buried on their -sides with the knees drawn up to the chin; (see Fig. 8). The Egyptians of -this period lived partly by hunting, partly by fishing, and partly by -agriculture. From objects found in their tombs we infer that they used -stone implements, wore a great many beads, made implements and combs of -bone, made decorated pottery, constructed boats for use on the Nile and -fitted sails to them, and each tribe had its own standard or emblem. Of -course, during the centuries when Egypt was so politically divided there -were many wars between nome and nome. - -After some centuries, through the conquest of one nome by another, these -42 nomes were consolidated into two kingdoms. The 20 nomes of the Delta -formed the kingdom of Lower Egypt; the 22 nomes, which were ranged along -the Nile from Cairo to the First Cataract, formed the kingdom of Upper -Egypt. The symbol of Upper Egypt was a papyrus plant; that of Lower Egypt, -the bee. The crown of Upper Egypt was a kind of tall helmet; that of Lower -Egypt, a diadem of openwork; (see Figs. 2, 3, and 4). - -At what period this union of the nomes into two kingdoms occurred, we can -only conjecture. Probably it was as early as 4200 or 4300 B. C. At all -events, the two kingdoms existed separately for so long a time that their -memory was ever afterward preserved. To the end of Egyptian history the -kings bore the title, "king of Upper Egypt and Lower Egypt." Even in the -Hebrew of the Old Testament the name for Egypt is literally "The two -Egypts." In this long pre-dynastic period the people were gradually -emerging from savagery toward civilization. They were solving the initial -problems of civilized life. According to Meyer and Breasted the people of -Lower Egypt had progressed far enough before 4200 B. C. to invent a -calendar which approximately coincided with the solar year. - -(2) _The Archaic Period._--The history of united Egypt begins with the -reign of Menes or Mena, who in some way, whether by conquest or marriage -is uncertain, united the two crowns. He came from the nome of This, of -which the city of Abydos, sacred to the worship of Osiris, was the chief -town. He and his successors continued to administer the two parts of Egypt -as separate countries. Mena founded the first dynasty, and the second -dynasty seems to have been connected with his house; it was, at all -events, from the nome of This. These two dynasties ruled Egypt for 420 -years, from 3400 to 2980 B. C. This is known as the _archaic period_ of -Egyptian history. Men were, during this time, gradually developing the art -of expressing thought by means of picture-writing. At some time during the -first dynasty the Egyptians began to work the turquoise mines in the Wady -Maghara in the peninsula of Sinai. The tombs of this period were low, flat -houses of brick. The Arabs call them _mastabas_ or "benches." During the -second dynasty the Egyptians began to conceive of their gods in human -form. They preserved the continuity of the earlier animal and bird forms -by putting the old heads on human bodies. - -(3) _The Old Kingdom_ embraces dynasties three to six, and extended from -2980 to 2475 B. C., a period of more than 500 years. During the third and -fourth dynasties the power of the king was supreme and the first great -culmination of Egypt's civilization occurred. It was in this period that -the pyramids developed. Zoser, the first king of the third dynasty, built -as his tomb the so-called Step Pyramid; (see Fig. 7). It consists of five -stages which vary from 29-1/2 to 36 feet in height. It is not, therefore, -a true pyramid. At the base it is 352 x 396 feet. Seneferu, the last king -of the third dynasty, built a similar tomb, but, as he made the stages -lower and more numerous, it approached more nearly the pyramidal form. - -Khufu or Cheops, the founder of the fourth dynasty, improving upon the -work of his predecessors, constructed the first real pyramid and the -greatest of them all. The blocks with which he built were about three feet -high, and he made a step with each course of stones. A covering, which has -now been removed, was originally placed over the whole, thus securing a -perfect pyramidal form. This pyramid is now 750 (originally 768) feet on -each side, and 451 (originally 482) feet high. It contains some 2,300,000 -blocks of stone, each weighing on the average two and a half tons; (see -Fig. 6). The stone was quarried from the Mokattam hills on the other side -of the Nile, more than twelve miles away. - -Khafre, the next king but one after Khufu, built the second pyramid, which -is almost as high as that of Khufu, being 447-1/2 feet, but measures on -the sides but 690-1/2 feet. Within and under the pyramids are the tomb -chambers. Khafre also carved out of the native rock, not far from these -two pyramids, the great Sphinx, the head of which bore a portrait of -himself. From the top of the head to the pavement under the paws is 66 -feet; the breadth of the face is 13 feet 8 inches, and the other parts are -in proportion. Near the Sphinx stands a temple, built of polished granite, -which is connected by an underground passage with the pyramid of Khafre. -All these are silent but eloquent witnesses to the skill of the Egyptians -of this period in stone work, and to the absolute power of the Pharaoh; -(see Figs. 5 and 6). - -Menkaure, the next king, constructed a smaller pyramid, the side of its -base being 356-1/2 feet and its height 204 (originally 219) feet. Either -his power was less or the resources of the kingdom were becoming -exhausted. Though the pyramidal form of tombs continued for several -centuries, no others were ever built that approached these in size. - -The fifth dynasty was founded by a priest of On. During its rule the power -of the king was not so absolute, and a powerful nobility began to develop. -These nobles had themselves buried in tombs of the old mastaba type, and -adorned the walls with pictures of the industries which were carried on -upon their country estates. One of the most famous of these is the tomb of -a certain Ti, from the pictures in which much has been learned of the -various industries of ancient Egypt. - -By the time of the sixth dynasty a strong nobility had been developed in -the different nomes, so that the monarchy was thoroughly feudal. The -absolute power that the kings of the first four dynasties had exercised -had passed away. During the sixth dynasty the conquest of northern Nubia -was begun, an expedition was sent to the far-away land of Punt, a country -far to the south. It was probably the region on both sides of the straits -of Bab-el-Mandeb, comprising southwestern Arabia and Somaliland. An -expedition was also sent over sea to Palestine, to chastise the -inhabitants of the southern portion of that country for invading Egypt. -The capital of Egypt during the whole of the Old Kingdom was Memphis. The -city thus gained a prominence which made it ever afterward famous. In -early times it had been called the White Wall, but after the sixth dynasty -it was called _Men-nofer_, of which Memphis (Hosea 9:6) is a corruption. -It is in the Old Testament more often called Noph, a corruption of the -last part of the name. (See Isa. 19:13; Jer. 2:16; 44:1; 46:14, 19; Ezek. -30:13, 16.) - -(4) _The First Period of Disintegration_ covers dynasties seven to ten of -Manetho's list, a period lasting from 2475 to 2160 B. C. At the beginning -of this period the powerful nobles in the different nomes seem, many of -them, to have set up each a government of his own. Thus Egypt was once -more resolved into many contending kingdoms. Through a cycle of 2,500 -years a whole circle of political evolution had been completed. Starting -with 42 chiefs or kinglets, the country had first become two kingdoms, -then one kingdom. In this struggle the local nobility had been eliminated. -Through nine hundred years the central monarchy was supreme, then slowly a -new nobility developed, which finally overthrew the kingdom and once more -made Egypt a group of weak and contending states. - -During the last two hundred and fifty years of this period of darkness we -gain some glimpses of a feudal monarchy which had its residence at -Heracleopolis in central Egypt and controlled a good part of the land with -varying degrees of success. These kings were apparently the ninth and -tenth dynasties of Manetho. - -(5) _The Middle Kingdom._--About 2160 B. C. an eleventh dynasty arose and -began to struggle for the supremacy, finally achieving it. This family -belonged to the nome of Thebes, which had hitherto been of no particular -importance. It now became the seat of government, and remained for 1,500 -years one of the most important cities of Egypt. - -About the year 2000 this dynasty was followed by the twelfth, a powerful -line of kings which ruled from 2000 to 1788 B. C. This was the period of -the great Middle Kingdom. The nobles were still strong, and the monarchy -was thoroughly feudal in its organization. Three of these monarchs bore -the name Sesostris. They raised Egypt to a high degree of prosperity and -power. Trade with Punt was resumed, Nubia was conquered to the Second -Cataract, which was made the southern frontier of the realm, the mines of -Sinai were worked, and one of the kings, Amenemhet III, built a large -temple there, at a point now called Sarbut el-Khadem. This temple was -explored a few years ago by Petrie. - -Trade with Palestine and Syria flourished during this period. A noble of -middle Egypt pictured in his tomb some of those who came to trade with -him. When the pictures were first discovered, it was thought that they -were the sons of Jacob, come to buy corn in Egypt; (see Fig. 1). - -Sesostris III invaded Palestine before 1850 B. C. and captured a city -which was apparently Shechem, though the spelling of the name is peculiar. -The kings of this period were buried in tombs of pyramidal form, though -the pyramids were not large. One of them built a great administration -building at Hawara, which was known to the Greeks as the Labyrinth and was -regarded as one of the wonders of the world. - -During this and the preceding period a social conscience was developed in -Egypt which found expression in a remarkable literature. Extracts from two -examples of this, "The Eloquent Peasant" and "The Admonitions of Ipuwer," -are published in Part II, p. 418, ff., 421, ff. - -(6) _Second Period of Disintegration._--The thirteenth dynasty, which -began in 1788 B. C., had not been long upon the throne, when powerful -rebellions again broke up the kingdom. Petty kinglets ruled once more in -many parts of the land. These kings comprise Manetho's thirteenth and -fourteenth dynasties. The land, disunited, became an easy prey to an -invader. Such an invader came. For more than 3,000 years Egypt, protected -by her deserts, had lived her life unmolested. The uncivilized Nubians on -the south, the Lybians on the west of the Delta, and the uncivilized -tribes of Sinai had been easily held in check. But now a powerful invader -came from Asia with a well organized, though barbaric army. They conquered -Egypt and imposed upon her two dynasties of kings, who ruled for about a -hundred years, until they were driven out about 1580 B. C. These kings -were Manetho's fifteenth and sixteenth dynasties. He calls them Hyksos, -which has been held to mean "Shepherd Kings," but which probably meant -"Ruler of Countries." They have been generally believed to be Semitic, -though some scholars now think they may have been of Hittite origin. In -any event, large numbers of Semites came to Egypt with them, and left many -Semitic names in the Delta. Some of these will be discussed below. This -invasion broke up Egypt's splendid isolation and brought her into the -current of world events, from which she was never afterward to free -herself. - -(7) _The Empire Period._--At some time before 1600 B. C. a seventeenth -dynasty arose at Thebes and began the struggle to expel the foreign kings. -This was not accomplished until the founder of the eighteenth dynasty, -Amosis I (1580-1577), achieved it. In order to secure freedom from -invasion the kings of this dynasty were compelled to follow the invaders -into Asia, and in time Thothmes III (1501-1447) conquered Palestine, -Phoenicia, and Syria to the Euphrates, and organized it into a compact -empire, which held together until about 1360. The kings of this dynasty -also carried the conquest of Nubia to Napata, at the Fourth Cataract. They -worked the mines of Sinai, traded with Punt, and inaugurated the "empire -period," which lasted in reality till well into the twentieth dynasty, -about 1165, and which, for convenience, we count as extending to the fall -of the twenty-first dynasty in 945 B. C. - -The foreign conquests brought many immigrants to Egypt and also took many -Egyptians for longer or shorter periods to foreign lands. Egyptian customs -in dress as well as the Egyptian language changed rapidly during this -time. The Asiatic conquests of Thothmes III brought Egypt into relations -with Asiatic kings, and in time his successors, Amenophis III and -Amenophis IV, had an interesting exchange of letters with kings of -Babylon, Assyria, Mitanni, and Alashia (or Cyprus), as well as with -Egyptian viceroys in Syria and Palestine. Some of these letters are -translated in Part II, p. 344, ff. - -Amenophis IV made the first attempt known in history to establish a -monotheistic religion. Although it was unsuccessful, it produced a -beautiful hymn, which is translated in Part II, p. 403, ff. The kings of -this period were buried in tombs of a new type. These were excavated out -of the solid rock, cut deep into the mountain-side. They were all in the -famous Valley of the Tombs of the Kings back of Thebes. - -The nineteenth dynasty succeeded the eighteenth about 1350 B. C. During a -period of weakness between the two, the Asiatic dominions had been lost. -These were in large part reconquered by Seti I and Ramses II. The -last-mentioned king ruled 67 years, from 1292 to 1225 B. C. He did much -building in all parts of Egypt and Nubia. Among his enterprises were the -cities of Pithom and Raamses in the Delta. He has long been thought to -have been the Pharaoh who oppressed the Hebrews. Early in his reign he -fought with the Hittites, but afterward made a treaty of peace with their -king and married his daughter. The text of this treaty has been preserved. -It is the earliest extant international treaty, and it contained an -extradition clause, though this applied to political offenders only. (For -head of Ramses, see Fig. 9.) - -Merneptah, the son and successor of Ramses II, has been supposed to be the -Pharaoh of the Exodus. His hymn of victory over his enemies is translated -in Part II, p. 311. - -In the reign of Ramses III, of the twentieth dynasty (1198-1167 B. C.), -the Philistines and other tribes, coming from across the sea, from Crete -and Asia Minor, invaded Egypt. Repulsed by him, they invaded Palestine, -where they secured a foothold. Ramses IV, his successor, was the last -Pharaoh to work the mines in Sinai. By the reign of Ramses IX (1142-1123 -B. C.), Egypt's Asiatic empire was gone and her prosperity had so declined -that the natives of Thebes took to robbing the tombs of kings for a -living. The records of the trials of some of these have survived. In the -reign of Ramses XII (1118-1090 B. C.), Wenamon made his famous expedition -to Phoenicia, a part of which is narrated in Part II, p. 352, ff. - -The twenty-first dynasty (1090-945 B. C.) was a line of weak monarchs, who -simply held Egypt together. During their rule David built up Israel's -empire. One of them, either Siamon or Pesibkhenno II, was the Pharaoh -whose daughter Solomon married. (See 1 Kings 3:1, f.; 9:16.) - -(8) _The Period of Foreign Dynasties_ (945-663 B. C.).--During the time of -the twenty-first dynasty the Lybians, who for centuries had made -unsuccessful attempts to invade Egypt, settled in large numbers in -different parts of the country, and adopted Egyptian customs, while some -of them became wealthy and powerful. In 945 B. C. one of these, named -Sheshonk, founded the twenty-second dynasty. This king is the Shishak of -the Bible. It was he who gave asylum to Jeroboam, when he fled from -Solomon (1 Kings 11:40), and who in the days of Rehoboam invaded -Palestine. (See 1 Kings 14:25-28.) The dynasty founded by Shishak lasted -for two hundred years. During the first century of this time it was very -flourishing. One of its kings, Osorkon II, was apparently an ally of -Ahab; at all events, a vase bearing Osorkon's name was found at Samaria in -Ahab's palace. This dynasty made its capital at Bubastis in the Egyptian -Delta, called Pi-beseth in Ezekiel 30:17. - -During the last century of this dynasty's rule Nubia, which had been for -many centuries under Egyptian sway, gained her independence under a -powerful dynasty which made Napata, at the Fourth Cataract, its capital. -In 745 B. C. the twenty-second dynasty was succeeded by the twenty-third, -which held a precarious existence until 718, when it was succeeded by the -one king of the twenty-fourth. Egypt was during this period in great -disorder, and in 712 the Nubian kings swept down from the south and -conquered the country, establishing the twenty-fifth dynasty. The control -thus passed from the Lybians to the Nubians. Tirhakah, the third king of -this dynasty, took part in the wars against Sennacherib in Palestine. (See -2 Kings 19:9; Isa. 37:9, and Part II, p. 375, ff.) In 670 Esarhaddon, King -of Assyria, invaded Egypt, defeated Tirhakah and made all the Delta as far -as Memphis an Assyrian province. Some years later, when Tanut-amon, the -successor of Tirhakah, endeavored to regain the Delta, Assurbanipal, of -Assyria, marched up the Nile, took Thebes, that for 1,500 years had been -mistress of Egypt, and during much of that time mistress of a large part -of the then known world, and barbarously sacked it. This was in 661 B. C. -This event made a great impression on surrounding nations. It is referred -to in Nahum 3:8, where Thebes is called No-amon, or the city of the god -Amon. - -(9) _The Lower Empire_ is the name given by scholars to the period of the -twenty-sixth dynasty, 663-525 B. C. This dynasty was founded by Psammetik -I, who became the viceroy of Egypt under Assurbanipal, of Assyria, in 663 -B. C. Psammetik was descended from a native Egyptian family of the city of -Sais in the western Delta, and a number of his ancestors had been -prominent in the history of Egypt during the preceding century. At first -he was a vassal of Assyria, but soon troubles in the eastern part of the -Assyrian dominions enabled him to make Egypt independent. The Egyptians, -finding themselves once more free under a native dynasty, experienced a -great revival of national feeling. Everything Egyptian interested them. -They looked with particular affection upon the age of the pyramid -builders, who lived more than two thousand years before them. They revived -old names and old titles, and emulated the art of the olden days. They -manifested such vigor and originality withal, that the art of the lower -empire rivals that of the best periods of Egyptian history. - -Necho, the son and successor of Psammetichus, endeavored, as Assyria was -declining to her fall, to regain an Asiatic empire. Josiah, of Judah, who -sought to thwart him, was defeated by Necho and killed at the battle of -Megiddo in 608 B. C. (2 Kings 23:29). Necho afterward deposed Jehoahaz and -took him captive to Egypt (2 Kings 23:34). Four years later, when Necho -made a second campaign into Asia, he was defeated by Nebuchadrezzar at -Charchemish on the Euphrates, and compelled to hastily retreat to Egypt, -hotly pursued by the Babylonians. Jeremiah, who perhaps caught sight of -the rapidly moving armies from the Judaean hills, has given a vivid account -of the flight in Jeremiah 46. Jeremiah considered this event so important -that he began then to commit his prophecies to writing. (See Jeremiah 36.) -After this Necho devoted himself to the internal government of Egypt, -though he became the patron of an enterprise for the circumnavigation of -Africa, which was carried out by some Phoenicians. (See Herodotus, IV, -42.) Hophra, a later king of this dynasty (588-569 B. C.), in order to -gain influence in Asia, tempted King Zedekiah to rebel against Babylon, -and thus lured the little state of Judah to its destruction. During the -reign of Hophra's successor, Amosis II, Cyrus the Great founded the -Persian empire, and in 525 B. C. Cambyses, the son of Cyrus, overthrew the -twenty-sixth dynasty, and made Egypt a Persian province. - -(10) _The Persian Period._--Cambyses, after conquering Egypt, attempted in -vain to conquer Nubia. The Nubian monarchs at this time moved their -capital from Napata, at the Fourth Cataract, to Meroe, at the Sixth -Cataract. Darius (521-485 B. C.) ruled Egypt with great wisdom and tact, -but under his successors there were frequent rebellions. Finally, in 406 -B. C., the Egyptians actually gained their independence, which they -maintained until 342 B. C. During this period three native dynasties, the -twenty-eighth, the twenty-ninth, and the thirtieth, successively occupied -the throne. Manetho counts the Persians as the twenty-seventh dynasty. In -342 B. C. the Persians reconquered the country and held it for ten years -until it was taken by Alexander the Great. This ten years of Persian rule -constitutes Manetho's thirty-first dynasty. - -(11) _The Ptolemaic Period_ (332-31 B. C.).--For eleven years Egypt -formed a part of Alexander's empire. Upon his death, in 323 B. C., it fell -to the control of his general, Ptolemy Lagi, who founded a line of -Ptolemies that ruled until overthrown by Augustus in 31 B. C. With the -accession of the Ptolemies many Greeks settled in Egypt; Greek became one -of the languages of commerce, and had a considerable influence in -transforming the Egyptian language into Coptic. Until the year 198 B. C. -the Ptolemies controlled Palestine. Philadelphus, the second of the line, -rebuilt in the Greek style the city of Rabbah Ammon east of the Jordan, -and named it Philadelphia. He, like his father, encouraged many Jews to -settle in Alexandria, and, according to tradition, became the patron of -the translation of the Old Testament Scriptures into Greek. At all events, -the Pentateuch was translated in his time, and the translation of the -other books followed. This translation is known as the "Septuagint" -because of the legend that Ptolemy Philadelphus set 72 men to translate -it. By the beginning of the Christian era there were so many Jews in -Alexandria that it had become a second Judah. - -(12) _The Roman Period._--The Romans, upon conquering Egypt, disturbed in -no way the internal affairs of the country. They gave it good government -and fostered its internal institutions. Many old Egyptian customs -persisted among the people; it is in regard to some of these that -discoveries of interest to Biblical scholars have been made. From tombs -and the places in the dry sands of the desert, where waste-baskets were -emptied, many records have been discovered, some of which are translated -in Part II, p. 432, ff., 440, ff. - -Meantime, a state had developed out of the old monarchy of Nubia, -described above, which was ruled by a woman, whose official title was -Candace. It was an officer of hers to whom Philip preached, as described -in Acts 8:27-39. Recent excavations in Nubia have recovered some of the -art of these people, who became Christian in the second or third century, -as well as some inscriptions of theirs in a script that is not yet -deciphered. - -=7. Egyptian Discoveries which Bear on the Bible.= - -(1) _Texts Bearing on the Story of Joseph._--A number of texts from the -Middle Kingdom and other periods present features similar to parts of the -story of Joseph and afford somewhat faint parallels to certain conceptions -of the Hebrew Prophets. These are translated in Part II, p. 300, ff., and -p. 418, ff. - -The name of Joseph's wife, Asenath (in Egyptian _As-Neit_, "favorite of -the goddess Neith"), occurs from the eighteenth dynasty onward. Such names -as Potiphar, the master of Joseph (Gen. 39:1), and Potiphera, Joseph's -father-in-law (Gen. 41:45), in Egyptian _Pedefre_, "he whom the god Re -gives," as well as the name given to Joseph, Zaphenath-paneah (Gen. -41:45), in Egyptian _De-pnute-ef-'onkh_, "the god speaks and he lives," -are common in Egypt from the beginning of the twenty-second dynasty, 945 -B. C. - -(2) _The Invasion of Egypt by the Hyksos._--This took many Semites to -Egypt. The very name Hyksos is held by Breasted to mean "ruler of -countries." It was probably a title by which these kings called -themselves, for they evidently ruled a considerable portion of western -Asia, as well as Egypt. "Ruler of countries" is just the -Semitic-Babylonian and Assyrian _shar-matati_, a title which Mesopotamian -kings gave to themselves through much of their history. It had been -employed by the Sumerians before them, being the familiar Sumerian _lugal -kurkurra_, "king of countries." If the Hyksos were Amorites, kinsmen of -theirs had ruled in Babylonia long before their invasion of Egypt, and -that these may have been Amorites is indicated by the name Jacob-her, -which was borne by one of their kings. This is an Egyptian form of the -Babylonian _Yagub-ilu_, or _Jacob-el_, an Amorite name found on business -documents in Babylonia three or four hundred years earlier. In the time of -Thothmes III this name was, Thothmes tells us, borne by a Palestinian -city, to which it had apparently been given by some Amorite from -Babylonia. Whether the Hyksos were Amorites or not, a number of Semitic -names were given to places in Lower Egypt at the time of their occupation. -Such was the name Magdol, or Migdol. The Egyptian name of Tanis was Zar, -which Brugsch claims as Semitic. Thakut, an old name of Pithom, is the -same as the Semitic Succoth, "booths." - -In the winter of 1905-1906 Petrie, excavating at Tell el-Ye-hudiyeh,[4] -about 20 miles north of Cairo, discovered what he believes to have been -one of the original encampments of the Hyksos in Egypt. This encampment -consisted of a large space, averaging about 1,500 feet in each direction, -surrounded by a wall of sloping sand and mud. This wall, varying from 80 -to 140 feet wide at the top and from 130 to 200 feet wide at the bottom, -presented on the outer side a long slope, and is quite unlike any -structure of the native Egyptians. From the nature of the wall and the -small objects found near it, Petrie infers that it was the rampart of a -people who defended themselves with bows and arrows. A cemetery of the -same level yielded to the explorer a considerable amount of black pottery, -not at all like pottery of native Egyptian manufacture, and a number of -crude scarabs. These objects Petrie believes are products of the art of -the Hyksos before they had been in Egypt long enough to adopt Egyptian -civilization. In 1912 Petrie discovered a similar Hyksos camp at the site -of Heliopolis, the Biblical On. - -It has been held by many that Abraham, Joseph, and Jacob all went to Egypt -during the reign of the Hyksos dynasty. It would be natural for Semites to -enter such a country, if it were ruled by a dynasty of the same blood as -themselves. Egypt has, however, furnished no positive archaeological -evidence of this view. The Semitic names just alluded to, which are -sometimes cited as evidence of it, in reality only prove that many Semites -came with the Hyksos. They make it probable, indeed, that some of the -Hyksos were Semites, but give us no positive evidence concerning the -patriarchs. On the other hand, nothing has been discovered in Egypt to -disprove this view. - -(3) _The El-Amarna Letters._--In the winter of 1887-1888 a native Egyptian -woman, according to one account, accidentally discovered some clay tablets -in the soil at Tell el-Amarna, about 200 miles south of Cairo on the east -bank of the Nile. She is said to have sold her rights in the discovery for -about 50 cents. It was thus that nearly four hundred clay tablets, -inscribed in the Babylonian language and characters, which opened an -entirely unknown vista in the history of Palestine and the surrounding -countries, were found. These were letters written to Kings Amenophis III -and Amenophis IV, of the eighteenth dynasty. (See Sec. 6 (7).) Seven of them -were written by Ebed-hepa, King of Jerusalem, about 1360 B. C., and give -us a glimpse of that city more than 350 years before David conquered it -for Israel. Others of the letters came from other cities of Palestine and -Phoenicia, and reveal to us through contemporary documents the conditions -there in the patriarchal age. Some of these are translated in Part II, p. -344, ff. - -(4) _Period of the Oppression and the Exodus._--The statement in Exodus -1:11 that the Pharaoh who oppressed the Egyptians built the store-cities -of Pithom and Raamses, indicates that this Pharaoh was Ramses II, for -Naville, who excavated the site of Pithom (Egyptian _Pi-tum_, "House of -the god Tum") in 1883, found much work of Ramses II there, including -colossal statues of this king, and also found no evidence that there had -been any town of importance on the site before.[5] The name of the other -city, Raamses, also points to the same king, since Ramses I, the only -other king of the name Egypt had known, reigned less than two years--a -time insufficient for the building of a city. The Bible evidently refers, -then, to Ramses II. Concerning Ramses II and his reign much is now known, -as has been pointed out in Sec. 6 (7); (see Fig. 10). - -All through the nineteenth dynasty peoples from Syria were employed by the -kings on public works. Among these was a people called _'prw_ = Aperu or -Apuri, which some have thought to be Hebrews. Whether the Hebrews are -really mentioned in this way is doubted by others, for references to the -_'prw_ do not cease at the time the Exodus of Israel must have occurred. -They were employed by Ramses IV, of the twentieth dynasty, as late as 1165 -B. C. - -Much has been learned from archaeology about Egyptian brick-making, and it -corresponds to the description of it given in Exodus. We have pictures of -men at the work. No one thought of burning bricks in Egypt. The clay was -moulded and dried in the sun. Straw was mixed with the clay to increase -its adhesive quality. Naville says that some of the corners of some of the -buildings at Pithom were actually built of _bricks without straw_. (See -Exod. 5:7-18; and Fig. 11.) - -The name Pithom continued as one of the names of this store-city or -fortress until at least 250 B. C., for it is found on a pillar which -Ptolemy Philadelphus set up there, but side by side with this name the -place, all through its history, bore the name Thakut, which is -philologically the Egyptian equivalent of the Hebrew Succoth. As this was -the first station of the Hebrews when they left Egypt (Exod. 12:37; 13:20; -Num. 33:5, 6), Naville holds that the Hebrews, after leaving the land of -Goshen, must have passed out on the south side of the Isthmus of Suez. - -Petrie believes that in the winter of 1905-1906 he discovered the city of -Raamses[6] at Tell el-Retabeh, eight miles west of the site of Pithom, on -the Wady Tumilat. The objects found here show that the site was occupied -in the time of the Old Kingdom and onward, but as Ramses II and Ramses III -both set up here statues of themselves, and erected important buildings, -and as the location is the only one that fulfils the conditions of the -city Raamses, Petrie feels confident that this was the site. This view -receives some confirmation from the title of an officer who served here -under Ramses III, and who is called: "Chief archer, keeper of the -granaries, keeper of the palace; chief archer, keeper of the granaries of -Arabia (or Syria)." - -Merneptah, who is generally supposed to have been the Pharaoh under whom -the Exodus occurred, was not drowned in the Red Sea, as some have wrongly -inferred from Exod. 14:23-28, but was duly buried like his predecessors. -His mummy has been found and is now in the Gizeh Museum at Cairo. - -Merneptah in the fifth year of his reign set up a hymn of victory on a -pillar in a temple erected by his father, Ramses II. This hymn, discovered -by Petrie in 1896, is famous as the only writing outside the Bible that -mentions Israel by name. A part of it is translated in Part II, p. 311, -where its bearing on the Exodus is discussed; (see Fig. 15). - -(5) _Campaign of Sheshonk I._--The record on a wall of the temple of -Karnak in Egypt by Sheshonk I, the Shishak of 1 Kings 14:25, of his -campaign in Palestine, confirms the statement of Kings and puts the whole -campaign in a new perspective. It is treated in detail in Part II, p. 359, -f. - -(6) _Papyri Discovered at Elephantine._--In recent years papyri discovered -at Elephantine, an island in the First Cataract, reveal the existence of a -Jewish colony there, which had a Jewish temple on the island. This colony -was established there at some time during the twenty-sixth dynasty, and -was thus one of the earliest of those Jewish settlements in foreign -countries which formed the dispersion. A number of the records of these -papyri, which relate the fortunes of this temple, the relations of this -colony to their Egyptian neighbors and their knowledge of the law, are -translated in Part II, p. 387, ff. The origin of the colony is also -discussed there. - -(7) _The Palace of Hophra._--Hophra, of the twenty-sixth dynasty, was, as -noted in Sec. 6 (9), the king who lured Judah to her ruin. Petrie in 1907 -discovered his palace at Memphis. The discovery makes Hophra seem a little -more real.[7] - -(8) _The Castle at Tahpanhes._--We learn from Jer. 43:7, 8 and 44:1 that, -after the destruction of Jerusalem, Jeremiah with many other Jews fled to -Tahpanhes in Egypt and established a Jewish colony there. Jeremiah, as a -symbolical act, was directed to hide some stones in the cement of the -tiled area of the court of Pharaoh's house there (Jer. 43:8). Tahpanhes -was the Daphne of the Greeks. It was on the site of the modern Tell -Defenneh. This was in ancient times the easternmost city of the northern -Delta. A hundred and fifty miles of desert stretched away to the east of -it, until one came to the gardens of Gaza in Palestine. Petrie excavated -Tell Defenneh in 1883-1884, and discovered the large castle there, which -is probably the building in which Jeremiah buried his stones. This was the -last act of Jeremiah's life of which we have any record. He was then an -old man and apparently died soon afterward, probably at Tahpanhes, -certainly in Egypt. - -(9) _The Jewish Temple at Leontopolis._--Josephus tells us twice, once in -his _Antiquities of the Jews_, Book XIII, Chapter III, and again in his -_Wars of the Jews_, Book VII, Chapter X, that, when Jonathan, the -Maccabee, was made high priest of the Jews, about 153 B. C., Onias, the -son of Onias III, the deposed high priest, went to Egypt and obtained a -grant of land and permission to build a Jewish temple. This land was in -the region of the city of Bubastis, the nome where the cat goddess was -sacred, and was accordingly called by the Greeks Leontopolis. There were -at this time about as many Jews in Egypt as in Palestine, and doubtless -Ptolemy VII thought to keep them more loyal by granting them a temple. He -gave to Onias the revenues of a considerable territory for the support of -the temple. Josephus tells us that Onias urged as a reason for the -construction of this temple that it would be in fulfilment of the prophecy -in Isa. 19:19-22. Josephus goes on to say that this temple was built as an -exact reproduction of the temple at Jerusalem and that it continued to -exist as a place of worship until after the destruction of Jerusalem by -Titus, when troubles caused by Jewish zealots led the Roman government to -close the temple at Leontopolis and discontinue its worship; (see Fig. -12). - -The site of this temple was at Tell el-Yehudiyeh, the "Tell of the -Jewess," about 20 miles north of Cairo. This tell was excavated by Petrie -in 1905-1906. He found there remains of the Jewish temple, which fully -confirm the statements of Josephus. Not only the temple, but the form of -the Jewish settlement, was made as far as possible a replica of the city -of Jerusalem. One of the most interesting discoveries was a series of -ovens for the roasting of Paschal lambs. Others of a similar character -were found higher up in the mound, but this first series was most -numerous. Petrie infers that the temple was dedicated by a great Passover -Feast, to which Jews came in large numbers from throughout Egypt;[8] (see -Fig. 13). - -(10) _Papyri from Oxyrhynchus._--About 123 miles south of Cairo and nine -miles to the west of the Nile lies the town of Behnesa, which the Greeks -called Oxyrhynchus, from a sharp-nosed fish which was sacred there. Since -1897 Grenfell and Hunt, two English explorers, have been season after -season exploring the rubbish heaps of the old town. The inhabitants -committed the contents of their waste-baskets to the sands, and on account -of the dry climate these have never decayed. Here were found the "Sayings -of Jesus," some of the documents concerning the Roman census, and some of -the letters translated in Part II, pp. 432, ff., 440, ff., as well as many -remains of the works of classical authors. Similar documents have been -found in other parts of Egypt, but no other site has yielded as many as -Oxyrhynchus. - -(11) _Discoveries in Nubia._--During the winter of 1908-1909 MacIver -explored at Karanog in Nubia for the University of Pennsylvania. He found -in a cemetery many remains of the civilization of the Christian Nubians. -They still called their queen Candace (see Acts 8:27), fed her on milk, -and regarded obesity as an attribute of royalty. More will be known of the -Nubians of this period when the inscriptions discovered at Karanog and at -Shablul, deciphered by Mr. Griffith, have been more completely studied. -The explorations of the English at Meroe have afforded a connected view of -the development of this Nubian civilization. They found there the remains -of an early period extending from about 650-400 B. C., which was followed -by about a century when the royal residence was elsewhere, a middle period -from 300 to 1 B. C., during the latter part of which Hellenic influences -were felt, and a late period, from 1 to 350 A. D., during which Roman -forms of art penetrated the country.[9] - - - - -CHAPTER II - -BABYLONIA AND ASSYRIA - - THE LAND. THE PRESERVATION OF ANTIQUITIES. THE DISCOVERY OF - ANTIQUITIES: By Benjamin of Tudela. By Rich. By Botta and Place. By - Layard. By Loftus and Rawlinson. By Oppert and Rassam. By George - Smith. By Sarzec. By Peters, Ward, and Haynes. By Koldeway. By Andrae. - By de Morgan. By Harper and Banks. By Genouillac. THE DECIPHERMENT OF - THE INSCRIPTIONS: By Niebuhr. By Grotefend, De Sacy, and Rawlinson. - Babylonian column. Babylonian-Semitic. CHRONOLOGY. OUTLINE OF THE - HISTORY: The prehistoric period. Sumerians. The Pre-Babylonian period. - "Stele of the Vultures." The early Babylonian period. Kassites. Pashe - dynasty. The early Assyrian period. The second Assyrian period. The - Neo-Babylonian period. The Persian period. The Greek and Parthian - periods. DISCOVERIES WHICH ILLUMINE THE BIBLE. - - -=1. The Land.=--The Mesopotamian Valley, as the great region watered by -the Tigris and the Euphrates Rivers is called, in many respects resembles -Egypt, although in other respects it differs strikingly from Egypt. The -country is like Egypt in that it is formed by rivers; it differs from -Egypt in that it has two rivers instead of one. In late geologic time the -Persian Gulf extended far up toward the Mediterranean. All of what was -Babylonia has been formed by detritus (silt) brought down by the Tigris -and the Euphrates. The process of forming land is still going on. At the -head of the Persian Gulf about seventy feet a year is still formed in this -way, or a mile in about seventy-five years. - -Both the Tigris and the Euphrates rise in the mountainous regions of -Armenia, on opposite sides of the same range of mountains. The melting of -the snows on these mountains gives both rivers, like the Nile, a period of -overflow. As the source of the Tigris is on the south side of the -mountains, it begins to rise first. Its rise begins about the first of -March, its overflow is at its height in May, and the water recedes in June -or July. The Euphrates begins to rise about the middle of March, continues -to rise until June, and does not recede to its ordinary level until -September. The soil thus formed is of rich materials, and the retreating -flood leaves it each year well watered and softened for agriculture. Here, -as in Egypt, one of the earliest civilizations of the world developed. -It was quite independent of that in Egypt, and consequently differed -from the Egyptian in many respects. Unlike Egypt, Babylonia had a rainy -season; nevertheless she was mainly dependent upon the overflow of the -rivers for her irrigation and her fertility. As she possessed two rivers, -her breadth was greater than that of Egypt, but she lacked the contiguity -of protecting deserts, such as Egypt possessed. All through her history -her fertile plains attracted the mountain dwellers of the East and the -peoples of the West. Subject to frequent invasion by these, Babylonia had -no long peaceful development such as Egypt enjoyed before the Hyksos -invasion. From before the beginning of written history race mingled with -race in this great valley, invasions were frequent, and the construction -of permanent empires difficult. - -[Illustration: MAP OF BIBLE LANDS] - -The breadth of the Mesopotamian Valley affected also the building -materials and the character of the art. Stone was much more difficult to -obtain than in Egypt. Clay only was abundant. All buildings were -consequently of brick. These structures were far less enduring than those -in Egypt; their upper parts have disintegrated and buried the lower -portions. Babylonian ruins are accordingly all under ground. The abundant -clay was also used by the Babylonians as writing material. When baked, it -proved far more enduring than the Egyptian papyrus. Thus, notwithstanding -the general similarities which the Mesopotamian Valley presents to Egypt, -its differences profoundly affected Babylonian history and Babylonian art. - -=2. The Preservation of Antiquities.=--Babylonian cities were usually -built on terraces of brick. The walls of the cities and their buildings -were constructed of the same material. Refuse from the houses in these -towns was always thrown out into the streets, so that, as the centuries -passed, the streets were gradually elevated. The walls of the brick houses -gradually became unstable in the lapse of time, and as the houses were -repaired they were brought up to the level of the street. Consequently -even in peaceful times the mounds on which the cities were built gradually -grew higher. Most of these cities were at various times destroyed in -warfare. Sometimes all the houses would be partially demolished and the -site would be for a time practically uninhabited. When at length the place -was repeopled, the top of the mound would be smoothed off and taken as the -base of a new city. In this way through the many centuries of Babylonian -history the sites of her cities have become great mounds. When these -cities finally fell into ruin, the clay of the upper part of the walls -gradually disintegrated in the weather and formed a coating of earth over -the whole, which preserved the foundations of the walls both of cities and -houses, as well as the inscribed clay, stone tablets, and the works of art -buried underneath. - -Connected with each Babylonian and Assyrian temple was a kind of staged -tower, shaped in a general way like the stepped pyramid of Zoser at -Sakkarah in Egypt. The Babylonians called these towers _Ziggurats_. As the -bricks of these towers decayed, they formed in connection with the city -mound a kind of hillock or peak, which varied in accordance with the -height of the tower. The ruin of the _Ziggurat_ at Birs Nimrud, the -ancient Borsippa, is one of the most imposing to be seen in ancient -Babylonia; it was long thought to be the original of the Tower of Babel -(Gen. 11:9). It thus came about that no ancient temple of Babylonia, like -some of those in Egypt, has remained above ground. Explorers have had to -dig to discover antiquities; (see Fig. 22). - -=3. The Discovery of Antiquities:= _By Benjamin of Tudela_.--The first man -from western Europe who traveled through Babylonia and Assyria and noted -their ruins was a Jew, Benjamin of Tudela, in the kingdom of Navarre. -Leaving home about 1160 A. D., he traveled through Palestine, crossed the -desert by way of Tadmor, visited Mosul opposite ancient Nineveh, and went -southward to the site of Babylon. He also saw the ruin of Birs Nimrud, and -believed it to be the Tower of Babel. Between the sixteenth and eighteenth -centuries many other travelers visited the Mesopotamian Valley and -described what they saw. Some of these, toward the close of the eighteenth -century, described curious inscriptions which they had seen there on -bricks. This information led the British East India Company in 1797 to -instruct its resident at Bussorah, in southern Babylonia, to try to secure -some of these inscriptions. This he did, and early in 1801 the first case -of inscribed bricks arrived at the East India House in London, where they -are still preserved. - -_By Rich._--Early in the nineteenth century Claude James Rich became -resident of the East India Company at Bagdad. In his travels through the -region he visited the mounds of Hillah (Babylon), Kouyunjik (Nineveh), and -others, where he made some slight excavations, and found many -inscriptions. The smaller ones he added to his collection, but many of -them were of too monumental a character to be removed. Through these -efforts a wide-spread interest was aroused. - -_By Botta and Place._--In 1842 the French government created a -vice-consulate at Mosul, opposite the site of ancient Nineveh, and -appointed to the position Paul Emil Botta, who had served as French consul -at Alexandria in Egypt. Botta's mission was made in part archaeological. In -December, 1842, Botta began digging in the mound of Kouyunjik, the site of -ancient Nineveh. Here he worked for three months. As he found only a few -inscribed bricks and the fragments of some bas-reliefs, he became -discouraged, and changed the field of his operations to a mound called -Khorsabad, situated about fourteen miles to the northeast of Kouyunjik. -Here he discovered a palace filled with interesting inscribed bas-reliefs -made of alabaster, as well as a city about a mile in circumference. Under -the corners of the palace and under the city gates were many inscribed -cylinders of clay. This proved to be the palace and city built by Sargon, -King of Assyria (722-705 B. C.), as his new capital. He named it -Dur-Sharrukin, or Sargonsburgh. His name had so entirely disappeared from -ancient literature that only one reference to him has survived, that in -Isaiah 20:1, but here was his palace arising from the dust together with -abundant annals of his reign. (See Part II, p. 369, ff.) - -Botta and his successor, Victor Place, excavated intermittently at -Khorsabad for ten years, uncovering the palace and making a plan of it, -excavating the city walls and gates, studying the drainage of the ancient -town, and fully describing the whole. Although a part of the antiquities -found were lost in the Tigris by the wreck of a raft on which they were -being floated down the river, a large collection reached France, where -they are preserved in the Louvre. - -_By Layard._--The success of Botta fired the enthusiasm of Austen Henry -Layard, a young Englishman of Huguenot descent, who began to excavate in -1845 at Nimrud, a mound further down the Tigris than Mosul, and the site -of the Biblical Calah (Gen. 10:11). His money was at first furnished by a -few friends, but as he soon discovered a royal palace there similar to the -one Botta had unearthed at Khorsabad, the trustees of the British Museum -commissioned him to excavate for them. He thus continued the work -intermittently until 1849. During this time he spent most of his energy -upon the mound of Kouyunjik, where he discovered another royal palace. -This palace proved to be the work of Sennacherib, the son of Sargon (named -in 2 Kings 18:13; Isa. 36), who built the one at Khorsabad, while the -palace at Calah was, in its final form, the work of Esarhaddon, the son of -Sennacherib. (See 2 Kings 19:37.) The palace at Nineveh had in turn been -repaired by Esarhaddon's son, Assurbanipal. - -_By Loftus and Rawlinson._--As these excavations progressed, others were -stimulated to make minor explorations. Thus in 1850 William Kennett Loftus -carried on small excavations at the mound of Warka, the site of the -Biblical Erech (Gen. 10:10), in southern Babylonia, from which he -recovered important antiquities. From 1851-1855 the oversight of English -excavations was entrusted to Sir Henry C. Rawlinson, the British -consul-general at Bagdad. Under his direction J. E. Taylor, British -vice-consul at Bassorah, made an excavation at the mound of Mugheir, the -site of Ur of the Chaldees, where he unearthed important inscriptions. At -the same time Loftus was traveling about Babylonia collecting antiquities. - -_By Oppert and Rassam._--In 1852 a French expedition under the direction -of Jules Oppert reached Babylonia. Oppert made important excavations at -Hillah, the site of the city of Babylon, and at Birs Nimrud, the ancient -Borsippa. In 1852 Hormuzd Rassam, who had been one of Layard's helpers, -continued under Rawlinson's direction the excavation at Nineveh. This work -continued until 1854; Rassam had the good fortune to find, in a part of -the mound previously untouched, still another palace. This was the palace -of Assurbanipal, the last of Assyria's great kings, who ruled from 668 to -626 B. C., and who collected here a great library. This library Rassam -discovered, and as it contained every variety of Babylonian and Assyrian -literature, including dictionaries and grammatical exercises, it was one -of the most important archaeological discoveries ever made. During the last -part of the time Rassam was succeeded by Loftus. Finally, in the autumn of -1854, Rawlinson himself undertook an excavation at Birs Nimrud, and -unearthed some important inscriptions of Nebuchadrezzar II, King of -Babylon, 604-562 B. C. (See 2 Kings 24, 25.) - -After this the interest in excavation waned for a time, while scholars -were busy reading the tablets already found. - -_By George Smith._--In December, 1872, George Smith, an employee of the -British Museum, announced that among the tablets from Nineveh he had -found an account of the flood which closely resembled that in the Bible. -This aroused so much interest that the proprietors of the London _Daily -Telegraph_ contributed money to send George Smith to Assyria to explore -further the mounds there. George Smith thus led two expeditions of -exploration, one in 1873 and the other in 1874. He extended the trenches -of his predecessors at Nineveh and discovered many more important -inscriptions. In 1876 he was on his way to Mesopotamia for the third time, -when he died of fever at Aleppo. The British Museum immediately secured -the services of Rassam again, who during that year and 1877 extended the -work at Kouyunjik (Nineveh) and also found a palace of Shalmaneser III, -King of Assyria, 860-824 B. C., at a mound called Balawat, situated to the -east of Kouyunjik. - -_By Sarzec._--Meantime, the interest of France was again aroused, and in -1877 her consul at Bassorah, Ernest de Sarzec, began the excavation of -Telloh, a mound in southern Babylonia, which turned out to be the site of -Shirpurla or Lagash, one of the oldest and most important of the ancient -cities of Babylonia. Work was carried on at intervals here by Sarzec until -his death in 1901, and has since been continued by Gaston Cros. The -results have not received the popular acclaim accorded to the discoveries -of Botta and Layard, but scientifically they are far more important. Some -of the oldest examples of Babylonian art have been discovered, as well as -many thousands of tablets. One room alone contained an archive of business -documents estimated at thirty thousand. Much of our knowledge of the -history of early Babylonia is derived from material found at Telloh. - -_By Peters, Ward, and Haynes._--In 1884 America began to take an interest -in Babylonian exploration. This was due largely to the initiative of Dr. -John P. Peters, then Professor of Hebrew in the University of -Pennsylvania, now Rector of St. Michael's Church, New York. Through his -efforts Miss Catherine L. Wolfe, of New York, contributed the money to -defray the expenses of an expedition to Babylonia for a preliminary -survey. This expedition was led by Dr. William Hayes Ward, Editor of the -New York _Independent_. It spent the winter of 1884-1885 in Mesopotamia, -made many observations of the various mounds, and collected some -archaeological material. Dr. Peters continued his efforts, and as a result -a fund was raised in Philadelphia to defray the expenses of an excavation -in the interest of the University of Pennsylvania. This expedition set out -in 1888 under the direction of Dr. Peters. The site chosen for the -exploration was Nuffar, about sixty miles to the southeast of Babylon. The -work was continued for two seasons under the direct control of Dr. Peters. -After an interruption of three years the work was resumed under the -general direction of Dr. Peters, with Dr. John H. Haynes as Field -Director. Dr. Haynes, in the most self-sacrificing and heroic manner, -continued the work both summer and winter until February, 1896, laying -bare many of the features of the ancient city of Nippur, which had -occupied the site, and discovering many inscribed tablets. While this work -was in progress Prof. Herman V. Hilprecht became nominal head of the -expedition on account of the removal of Dr. Peters to New York. A fourth -expedition under the guidance of Dr. Haynes began work at Nuffar (Nippur) -in February, 1899, and worked until March, 1900. During this work Dr. -Haynes discovered a large archive of tablets, the exact number of which is -variously estimated. The find was similar to that made by Sarzec at -Telloh; (see Figs. 16 and 17). - -Nuffar, the ancient Nippur, was one of the oldest centers of Babylonian -civilization, and the work of the Americans there is, for our knowledge of -the history of ancient Babylonia, next in importance to that done by the -French at Telloh. A large number of the tablets discovered at Nippur are -now in the University Museum in Philadelphia. Meantime, the Turkish -government had undertaken on its own account an excavation at Abu Haba, -the site of the ancient Sippar in northern Babylonia. The direction of the -work was committed to the oversight of the French Assyriologist Pere -Scheil, and the work was carried on in the early part of the year 1894. -Much interesting material was brought to light. - -_By Koldewey._--Also during this decade a new Society, the -_Orient-Gesellschaft_, had been formed in Berlin for the purpose of -excavation. This Society began in 1899 the excavation of the great mound -which covered the ruins of the ancient city of Babylon. The work was -committed to the direction of Dr. Robert Koldewey, who has carried it -steadily forward until the present time. Koldewey has laid bare at Babylon -a number of the great works of King Nebuchadrezzar--the magnificent walls -with which he surrounded Babylon, and the palace and temples with which he -adorned it. As the work at Babylon has progressed, Koldewey has made a -number of minor excavations in smaller mounds of Babylonia. During the -season of 1912-1913 Dr. Julius Jordan undertook, under Dr. Koldewey's -general direction, an excavation at Warka, the Biblical Erech, where -Loftus had dug sixty years before. A part of the great temple of Ishtar -has been uncovered by Dr. Jordan, together with a portion of the city wall -and many houses. Many tablets have also been found, some of them having -been written as late as the Seleucid and Parthian periods, 312-50 B. C.; -(see Fig. 18). - -_By Andrae._--While the excavation at Babylon has been in progress, the -_Orient-Gesellschaft_ has also conducted another at Kalah-Sherghat, on the -Tigris, in ancient Assyria. This is the site of the city of Ashur, from -which the country of Assyria took its name. (Cf. Gen. 10:10, 11.) The work -has been under the direction of Dr. Andrae and has been in progress from -1902 to the present time. Temples and palaces have been uncovered, and -inscriptions from every period of Assyrian history have been found. The -latest reports of the work at Ashur tell of the discovery of objects which -connect the founding of the city with immigrants from Lagash in southern -Babylonia. - -_By de Morgan._--In 1900 a French expedition began the excavation of Susa, -in ancient Elam, the Shushan of the Bible. (See Neh. 1:1; Esther 1:2, -etc., and Dan. 8:2.) This work was under the direction of J. de Morgan. -While Susa is not in Babylonia, the excavations here added greatly to our -knowledge of Babylonian history and life, for during the first two seasons -of the excavation, two inscribed stone pillars were discovered, which the -ancient Elamites had at some time taken as trophies of war from the -Babylonians. One of these was an inscription of Manishtusu, King of Kish, -who ruled about 2700 B. C., and the other the pillar which contained the -laws of Hammurapi, the most important single document relating to -Babylonian life that is known to us. (See Part II, Chapter XIII.) - -_By Harper and Banks._--During the year 1903-1904 the University of -Chicago sent an expedition to Babylonia. The expenses were borne by a -contribution from John D. Rockefeller. The late Prof. Robert Harper was -Scientific Director of the expedition, and Dr. Edgar J. Banks, Field -Director. The work was conducted at the mound of Bismya, which proved to -be the site of the ancient city of Adab, one of the oldest Babylonian -cities, which seems not to have been occupied since about 2600 B. C. Many -interesting finds were made, including a statue of a king, Lugaldaudu, and -many tablets. Friction with the Turkish government brought the expedition -to an untimely close, and owing to the same cause the tablets discovered -are hoarded at Constantinople and have not been given to the world. - -_By Genouillac._--During the early part of the year 1914 a French -expedition, under the direction of H. de Genouillac, excavated at -Ukhaimir, the site of ancient Kish. They have discovered the great -_Ziggurat_ of the temple of Zamama, the god of Kish, and are said to have -made other important finds, but the details are not yet published. - -=4. The Decipherment of the Inscriptions.=--The task of learning to read -the inscriptions of Babylonia and Assyria was much more difficult than the -decipherment of the Egyptian hieroglyphs, for no such simple key as the -Rosetta Stone was at hand. The key that finally unlocked the mystery came -not from Babylonia, but from Persepolis in Persia. When Cyrus the Great -conquered Babylon in 538 B. C. the Persians had not developed a system of -writing. They accordingly adapted to their language the characters of the -Babylonian script. The Babylonian script had begun, like the Egyptian -hieroglyphs, as a system of picture-writing, in which each picture -represented an idea. These had gone through a long development, in which -the original picture-forms had been supplanted by conventional characters -derived therefrom. In making these characters on clay, one end of a line -was always wider than the other, hence the characters are called -"wedge-shaped" or "cuneiform." In the course of the ages the Babylonians -had come to use the characters to express both syllables and whole words, -and a scribe might mingle these uses of a sign at will in writing a -composition. Many of the signs might also express any one of several -syllables. In adapting this complicated system, the Persians had the -wisdom to simplify it. They selected or constructed a character for each -sound, making a real alphabet. Three of the Persian kings, Darius -(521-485), Xerxes (456-465), and Artaxerxes II (405-359), wrote their -inscriptions in three languages,--Babylonian, Elamite, and -Persian,--employing wedge-shaped scripts for all of them. - -_By Niebuhr._--In the ruins of the great palace of the Persian kings at -Persepolis many of these inscriptions in three languages were preserved. -These ruins attracted the notice of many travelers from the time that -Odoric, a monk, saw them in 1320 A. D., and a number of travelers had made -copies of some of them and brought them back to Europe. The inscriptions -were a great puzzle. After Alexander the Great (331-323 B. C.) Persia had -been subject to foreign powers until 220 A. D., when the Sassanian dynasty -(220-641 A. D.) made Persia again an independent kingdom. In the revival -of Persian letters that occurred in Sassanian times, a form of the -Phoenician alphabet was used, because the old characters of these -inscriptions had been forgotten. In 1765 Carsten Niebuhr, a Dane, visited -Persepolis and made accurate copies of a large number of these -inscriptions. The first correct reading of any of these inscriptions was -done from Niebuhr's copies; (see Fig. 20). - -_By Grotefend_, _de Sacy_, and _Rawlinson_.--A number of scholars had -studied Niebuhr's copies, but the first to read any of them correctly was -Georg Friedrich Grotefend, a German scholar. He began with the assumption -that the three groups of lines in the inscriptions contained respectively -three languages, and that the first of these was the Persian of Cyrus and -his successors. In the years 1787-1791 Sylvestre de Sacy, a French -Oriental scholar, had studied and in part expounded some Sassanian -alphabetic inscriptions from Persia, which had also long attracted the -notice of scholars. These Sassanian inscriptions were many of them cast in -the same mould. They ran thus: - - "X the great king, king of kings, the king of Iran and Aniran, son of - Y, the great king," etc. - -Grotefend had these inscriptions before him, and compared this formula -with the inscriptions from Persepolis. He noted that as often as the -formula contained the word "king" the inscriptions from Persepolis -contained the same group of signs, and that as often as it had "of kings," -they reproduced the group with a different ending. He therefore rightly -concluded that these signs were the old Persian spelling of the Persian -word for "king" with its genitive plural. Taking from the Sassanian -inscriptions the word for king, he proceeded to parcel out its sounds -among the characters with which the word was spelled in the Persepolis -inscriptions. He also found a king, who was the son of a man not a king. -This, he rightly held, could be none other than Darius, the son of -Hystaspes. Apportioning the proper groups of signs among the sounds of -these names, he obtained still further alphabetical values. Thus a -beginning was made. Grotefend was, however, unable to carry the work far, -and in the years that followed Eugene Burnouf, Christian Lassen, Isidore -Lowenstern, Henry C. Rawlinson, and Edward Hincks all made contributions -to the subject. The honor of having first correctly read and interpreted a -long inscription belongs to Rawlinson. Rawlinson was a young army officer, -who as a boy had been in India, where he learned Persian and several of -the dialects of India. In 1833 he was sent to Persia with other British -officers to assist in the reorganization of the Persian army. Here his -attention was attracted by the great Persian inscriptions in the mountains -near Hamadan, the ancient Ecbatana, and in the intervals of military -duties he copied and studied several of them. He was, in the early stages -of his work, quite unaware of the work done by Grotefend and others, but -hit independently upon the method followed by Grotefend. Owing to the fact -that the inscriptions on which Rawlinson worked were longer than those -accessible to Grotefend, and also contained more proper names, Rawlinson -attained greater success than any of his predecessors. He did not publish -his results, however, until he had become thoroughly familiar with all -that others had done. It was not until 1846 that he published a full -interpretation of the Persian column of the great Behistun[10] inscription -of Darius I. - -_Babylonian Column._--This successful achievement related, however, only -to the Persian column. The mysteries of the Babylonian column had not yet -been solved. This task, as will be evident from the complicated nature of -the writing mentioned above, was a much more difficult one. The -decipherment of the Persian had, however, taught the sound of many -cuneiform signs. These sounds were carried over to the Babylonian column -as a nucleus of information. Excavations were all the time also bringing -new material to light, and a comparison of inscriptions, in many of which -the same words were written in different ways, sometimes ideographically -and sometimes syllabically, helped on the general stock of knowledge. -Rawlinson, Hincks, Jules Oppert, and Fox Talbot were the men who at this -stage of the work were still wrestling with the problem. Again Rawlinson -was the man to achieve the first distinguished success. In 1851 he -published one hundred and twelve lines of the Babylonian portion of the -Behistun inscription with transliteration and translation, and accompanied -the whole with copious notes in which the principles of the grammar were -set forth. A list of the signs and their values was also added. From that -day to this the study has steadily gone forward. - -_Babylonian-Semitic._--The work of Rawlinson and his co-laborers proved -that the language of the ancient Babylonians was a Semitic language, -closely akin to Hebrew, Aramaic, Arabic, and Ethiopic. Within the next few -years after he had found the key to the cuneiform writing, Rawlinson -announced that the inscriptions from Babylonia contained material in -another and very different language. The researches of later years have -fully confirmed this, and scholars call this language Sumerian. The people -who spoke it were the inventors of many elements in the civilization of -early Babylonia, and for many centuries at the dawn of history divided the -country with the Semites. - -=5. Chronology.=--The materials for constructing the chronology of -Babylonian and Assyrian history are as follows: - -(1) Claudius Ptolemy, an Egyptian astronomer who flourished in the second -century A. D., made a list of the kings of Egypt, Persia, and Babylonia -back to the accession of the Babylonian king, Nabonassar, in 747 B. C. -This list was compiled as an astronomical aid, and is very accurate. - -(2) The Assyrian kings kept lists of years and of principal events, to -which scholars have given the name "Eponym Lists," because each year was -named after the king or some officer. Tablets containing these lists have -been recovered on which we can still read the chronology from 893 to 666 -B. C. This list accordingly overlaps the list or "canon" of Ptolemy. Some -of these Assyrian kings were also kings of Babylon, and where the lists -overlap they agree. One of these lists mentions an eclipse which occurred -at Nineveh in the month Sivan (May-June), 763 B. C. This eclipse has been -calculated and verified by modern astronomers, so that the chronology -covered by these lists rests upon a secure scientific basis. - -(3) For dates in Assyrian history anterior to 893 B. C. we have to depend -upon incidental notices in the inscriptions. Thus Sennacherib, whose date -is fixed by the Eponym Lists as 705-681 B. C., relates that during his -reign he recovered from Babylon the images of two gods that had been taken -as booty by Marduknadinakhi, King of Babylon, from Tiglath-pileser, King -of Assyria, 418 years before Sennacherib brought them back. It follows -from this that Tiglath-pileser I of Assyria and Marduknadinakhi of -Babylon were ruling from about 1120 to 1100 B. C. - -We also have a long inscription from the Tiglath-pileser mentioned here, -who relates that in his reign he restored a temple, which had been built -by Shamshi-Adad, ruler of Assyria, son of Ishmi-Dagan, ruler of Assyria, -641 years before the time of Ashur-dan, King of Assyria. Ashur-dan had, he -tells us, pulled the temple down and it had lain in ruins 60 years until -he (Tiglath-pileser) rebuilt it. By adding these numbers we reach 1819 or -1820 B. C. as the accession of Shamshi-Adad. - -Again Sennacherib found at Babylon a seal which bore the following -inscription: - - "Tukulti-Ninib, king of the world, son of Shalmaneser, King of - Assyria, conqueror of the land of Chaldaea. Whoever changes the writing - of my name, may Ashur and Adad destroy his name. This seal was - presented by the land of Assyria to the land of Akkad" (Babylonia). - -To this Sennacherib added the following inscription: - - "I, Sennacherib, after 600 years conquered Babylon, and from its - treasures brought it out and took it." - -We learn from this that Tukulti-Ninib was ruling in Assyria from about -1300 to 1290 B. C. - -Andrae has recently (1914) published an inscription of Tukulti-Ninib in -which he states that he repaired a temple which had been built by his -ancestor, Ilu-shumma, King of Assyria, 720 years before. Ilu-shumma was, -accordingly, ruling in Assyria about 2020 to 2010 B. C. - -(4) Among the tablets in the British Museum are two so-called "dynastic -tablets" which contain lists of the kings of Babylon from the time that -Babylon became the leading city of the country to its capture by the -Persians. The kings are divided into eight dynasties, the length of the -reign of each king was originally given, and at the end of each dynasty a -statement was given of the number of kings in that dynasty and the total -length of their reigns. These tablets are unfortunately much broken, so -that they afford us little help after the year 1000 B. C. We learn from -them, however, that Marduknadinakhi, the king mentioned by Sennacherib as -ruling about 1100 B. C., belonged to the fourth Babylonian dynasty, and, -if we add together the years given for the previous dynasties, we are -taken back nearly to the year 2400 B. C. for the accession of the first -dynasty of Babylon. Evidence has, however, come to light in recent years -which proves that the first and second of these dynasties overlapped, one -ruling in the north while the other ruled in the south. A reliable -chronology cannot, therefore, be obtained by adding these numbers -together. In order to correct them recourse must be had to other evidence. - -(5) Franz Xaver Kugler, who is both an astronomer and an Assyriologist, -has recently shown that an astronomical tablet which was published as long -ago as 1870, and which notes for a series of years when Venus was the -evening and when the morning star, contains a date formula which fixes its -compilation in the reign of Ammi-zadugga, the tenth of the eleven kings of -the first dynasty of Babylon. From mathematical calculations of the -position of the planet Venus, Kugler is accordingly able to fix the -accession year of Ammi-zadugga as either 2040, 1976, or 1857 B. C. As the -first of these dates is too early, and the third is, in the judgment of -most scholars, too late, it follows that his accession year was in 1976. -From the lengths of the reigns of the various kings of this dynasty as -given in the dynastic tablets, it follows that the first dynasty of -Babylon began its rule in 2206 B. C. - -(6) Under Adad-nirari III, King of Assyria (810-782 B. C.), a so-called -synchronistic history of Assyria and Babylonia was compiled. It covered -about 600 years, beginning with a treaty of peace between Karaindash, King -of Babylon, and Ashur-rim-nishishu, King of Assyria. It aids in filling -gaps left by breaks in other lists. - -(7) A chronological tablet in the Babylonian collection of Yale University -contains a list of the kings of Larsa. This city was conquered by -Hammurapi, of the first dynasty of Babylon, in the 31st year of his reign. -The tablet, therefore, counts Hammurapi one of the kings of Larsa, -ascribing to him twelve years of rule. The tablet was apparently compiled -in the twelfth year of Samsuiluna, Hammurapi's successor, to whom twelve -years are also ascribed. It gives the total length of the dynasty of Larsa -as 289 years. That dynasty, accordingly, began its rule in 2358 B. C. - -(8) In a chronological list of the kings of Ur and Nisin on a tablet in -the University Museum, Philadelphia,[11] it is stated that the kings of -Ur ruled 117 years and the kings of Nisin 225 years and 6 months. A tablet -has now been discovered which shows that the dynasty of Nisin was not -overthrown until 2117 or 2116 B. C. Its 225 years, therefore, were all -parallel to the time of the dynasty of Larsa. As the dynasty of Nisin rose -upon the ruins of the kingdom of Ur, the dates of the kingdom of Ur are, -therefore, fixed as 2458-2341 B. C. - -(9) A chronological tablet published by Scheil in the _Comptes rendus_ of -the French Academy for 1911 gives a list of five early dynasties of -Babylonia: a dynasty of Opis, one of Kish, one of Agade, and two of Erech. - -(10) A group of chronological tablets in the University Museum in -Philadelphia,[12] which assign several dynasties to each of several -well-known Babylonian cities, ascribe to their kings incredibly long -reigns. One of these is translated in Part II, Chapter IV. - -(11) Fragments of a work of Berossos, a Babylonian priest who lived after -the time of Alexander the Great, contain a list of Babylonian kings. He -based his work on such tablets as those in the University Museum. His -statements abound accordingly in incredible numbers. - -From these tablets it appears that the dynasty of Ur was preceded by the -dynasty of Gutium, which ruled for 159 years; the dynasty of Gutium was -preceded by a dynasty of Erech for 26 years; that, by a dynasty of Agade -for 197 years; that, by one king of Erech, Lugalzaggisi, who ruled 25 -years; he was apparently preceded by a dynasty of Kish for 106 years; -that, by a dynasty of Opis for 99 years. These figures take us back to -3070 B. C., though the arrangement for the time before Lugalzaggisi is in -part conjectural. Four dynasties of what are known to have been historical -kings existed before this time, so that we are led to place the beginning -of the historical period in Babylonia about 3200 B. C. or earlier. - -(12) Nabuna'id, King of Babylon, 555-538 B. C., states that he found, in -repairing the temple at Sippar (Agade), the temple-platform of Naram-Sin, -son of Sargon, which no one had seen for 3,200 years. As he made this -statement about 550 B. C., it was long supposed that this fixed the date -of Naram-Sin as 3750 B. C., and that of his father, Sargon, at about 3800 -B. C. These dates will be found in many of the older books, but they are -incredible. They would, if true, leave long gaps in the history that we -have no information to fill. Since it has been clearly proved that the -dynasties overlapped, it seems that Nabuna'id reached his date by adding -together the totals of dynasties, some of which were contemporary. It now -seems probable that he placed Naram-Sin about 1,100 years too early. - -The sources here enumerated afford us a tolerably accurate chronology back -to about 2450 B. C. All dates earlier than this have to be estimated by -combining statements of early dynastic tablets with archaeological and -palaeographic considerations. - -=6. Outline of the History.=--The history of Babylonia and Assyria falls -into eight different periods. Our information is not yet sufficiently -complete to enable us to write the history of any one of them, but we can -discern in outline a most fascinating course of events. - -(1) _The Prehistoric Period_, or the period before the rise of written -history, during which we can ascertain from various inferences the general -course of events. This period must have begun about 4500 or 5000 B. C. and -lasted down to about 3200 B. C. The Semites from Arabia[13] were the first -to pour into the fertile valley of Mesopotamia. They came up from the -south, establishing the city of Eridu on the shore of the Persian Gulf, -then the cities of Ur, Erech, Lagash, Nippur, etc. They carried with them -the culture of the palm-tree, and learned to raise grain in the alluvial -soil of the rivers, but they had no system of writing. The early cities of -Babylonia were the fortified residences of different tribes, which were -frequently at war with one another. One city would subjugate its neighbors -for a time and establish a small empire. As long as it continued to rule, -a certain degree of homage was paid to its god by all the cities over -which it ruled. In prehistoric times there were kingdoms of this sort -ruled at one time by Eridu, at another by Erech, and at another by Nippur, -for Ea, the god of Eridu, Anu, the god of Erech, and Enlil or Bel, god of -Nippur, were ever after worshiped as the supreme gods of Babylonia. - -_Sumerians._--At some time before the dawn of history a people whom we -call Sumerians moved into Babylonia from the East. These people spoke a -language which possesses some features in common with Finnish and Turkish. -They were neither Aryans nor Semites. The Semites wore thick hair and long -beards; the Sumerians shaved both their heads and faces. These Sumerians -overran southern Babylonia as far north as Nippur and in this region -became the ruling race. They grafted the worship of their own gods upon -the worship of the deities of the cities which they conquered, but the -Semitic elements of these local deities persisted even in Sumerian -thought. It thus came about that the bald and beardless Sumerians picture -their gods with hair and beards. After settling in Babylonia, the -Sumerians developed a system of writing. It was at first hieroglyphic, -like the Egyptian system. Afterward the Semites, who still retained the -supremacy in the cities of Kish and Agade in the north, and who had -probably been reinforced there by fresh migrations from Arabia, adapted -this system of writing to their own language. As clay was the usual -writing material and it was difficult to make good pictures on it, the -pictographic form of the writing was soon lost. The pictures degenerated -into those conventional symbols which are today known as the "cuneiform" -characters. - -(2) _The Pre-Babylonian Period_ of the history includes the period from -about 3200 B. C. down to the rise of the city of Babylon, about 2100 B. C. -This period, like the preceding, was a time of successive city kingdoms. -One city would establish an empire for a while, then another, having -become more powerful, would take the leadership. When first our written -records enable us to trace the course of events, Lagash in the south and -Kish in the north were the rival cities. Lagash was ruled by a king, -Enkhegal. A little later Meselim, King of Kish, conquered all of southern -Babylonia, including Lagash. After Meselim had passed away, Ur-Nina -founded a new dynasty at Lagash and gained his independence. Ur-Nina's -grandson, Eannatum, raised the power of Lagash to its greatest height, -conquering all the cities of Babylonia, even Kish. The Elamites were -always invading the fertile plains of Babylonia, so Eannatum ascended the -eastern mountains and subjugated Elam. - -"_Stele of the Vultures._"--He celebrated his victories by the erection of -one of the most remarkable monuments which the ancient world produced, the -so-called "stele of the vultures." From the pictures on the monument we -learn that the soldiers of Lagash, about 2950 B. C., waged their battles -in a solid phalanx protected by shields. The Greeks were formerly supposed -to have invented this form of attack, but were anticipated by 2,500 years; -(see Fig. 19). - -Although this dynasty furnished several other rulers, the leadership of -all Babylonia was lost after the death of Eannatum. It passed first to -Opis and then again to Kish. Lagash continued to flourish, however, during -200 years, while these cities were the overlords of its rulers. Its wars -had made it rich, and all the arts flourished there. Our best specimens of -terra-cotta and stone work come from this period of this city. Under -Entemena, the successor of Eannatum, a silver vase of exquisite -workmanship and ornamentation was made; (see Fig. 21). After a century or -more of wealth and luxury, during which priests and officials became -corrupt, a new king, Urkagina, seized the throne and endeavored to reform -the administration. Naturally, his reforms were unpopular with the -priesthood and the army, and, though popular with the people, he -unintentionally weakened the defensive power of his country. - -At this juncture a new ruler named Lugalzaggisi arose in the city of Umma, -who ultimately overthrew Lagash and became king of all Babylonia. He made -Erech his capital. This was about 2800 B. C. Lugalzaggisi claims to have -overrun the country from the Persian Gulf to the Mediterranean. If so, and -there is no good reason to doubt his claim, Babylonia and the Palestinian -coast-lands were under him brought together for the first time. - -After Lugalzaggisi the city of Agade came to the fore. Its great King -Sargon about 2775 B. C. founded a dynasty which ruled for nearly two -hundred years. The kings of this line were Semitic and resided sometimes -at Agade and sometimes at Kish. Sargon conquered Syria and a later -chronicle says that he crossed the western sea. As a seal of this dynasty -was found in Cyprus, it is possibly true. Naram-Sin, one of the most -famous kings of this line, conquered the country of Magan, which some -believe to be the peninsula of Sinai, but which others hold was situated -in eastern Arabia. - -About the time of this dynasty, or a little before, King Lugaldaudu -flourished at Adab, the modern Bismya, where Dr. Banks found his statue. -In this same general period a king named Anubanini ruled in a city to the -northward, called Lulubi. - -Perhaps it was under the later kings of this dynasty of Agade, or under a -dynasty of Erech which held sway for a brief period after them, that Gudea -flourished at Lagash. This ruler does not claim to be a king, but his city -enjoyed great prosperity under him, and he rebuilt it in fine style. He -seems to have been on peaceful terms with much of the world, and brought -for his structures stone from Magan, cedar wood from Amanus on the -Mediterranean coast, and copper from Lebanon. After this time the land was -overrun by hordes from Gutium, a region to the northeast beyond the -Tigris. They established a dynasty which lasted for 125 (or 159) years. - -In 2458 B. C. a dynasty arose in the city of Ur, situated far to the -south. These kings were Sumerians and under them a great Sumerian revival -occurred. By this time northern Babylonia was called Akkad, from the city -of Agade, and southern Babylonia was called Sumir, from a corruption of -the name of one of the quarters of Lagash. These kings combined with the -title "king of Ur" the title "king of Sumir and Akkad." Sumir is the -Biblical "Shinar" (Gen. 10:10; 11:2, etc.). - -Dungi, the second king of this dynasty of Ur, reigned 58 years and -established a wide empire, which included Elam and the city of Susa. He -established a system of government posts to aid the royal officers of army -and state in the performance of their duties. - -Upon the fall of the dynasty of Ur, the dominion of Babylonia was divided -between two cities, Nisin and Larsa, each of which furnished a dynasty -which flourished for more than two and a quarter centuries. Naturally, -these kings were continually struggling with each other for the supremacy, -and sometimes one city was the more powerful, sometimes the other. The -Elamites, who during the whole period had occasionally swooped down into -the Mesopotamian Valley, overran Larsa and furnished the last two kings of -its dynasty,--Arad-Sin and Rim-Sin. These kings have each been thought by -different scholars to be the Arioch of Gen. 14:1. (See Part II, Chapter -IX.) - -About 2210 B. C. a dynasty of rulers was founded in the city of Babylon -that was destined to bring a new era into the history of the country. -After a struggle of more than a century Hammurapi, the sixth king of this -line, broke the power of Larsa and made Babylon the leading city of the -country. Nisin had previously fallen. With the rise of Babylon another -period of the life of the country was ended. - -The above sketch calls attention to a few only of the more prominent -features and cities of Babylonia. There were many others which -participated in her life during the millennium of the pre-Babylonian -period. The recovery of more inscriptions will no doubt make this -statement more true even than we now dream. Each of these contributed its -mite to the progress of civilization in this melting-pot of races in this -far-off time. - -(3) _The Early Babylonian Period_ began with the reign of Hammurapi and -continued till about 1050 B. C. It includes the rule of the first four -dynasties of Babylon. The period began gloriously under Hammurapi, who -conquered all of Babylonia, and extended his sway also to the -Mediterranean. He was as great as an administrator as he was as a -conqueror; he codified the laws of Babylonia and inscribed them on a stone -pillar, which was set up in the temple of Marduk in Babylon. These laws -have been recovered, and are one of the most valuable archaeological -discoveries of modern times. (See Part II, Chapter XIII.) - -Soon after the death of Hammurapi, a revolt occurred under one Ilumailu, -who established in the region near the Persian Gulf a dynasty known as the -"dynasty of the sea lands," which was afterward called the second dynasty -of Babylon. Down to 1924 B. C. the two dynasties divided the country -between them. In that year Babylonia was invaded by the Hittites, who came -from the northwest, and the first dynasty of Babylon was overthrown. The -Hittites appear to have ruled the country for a short time, when they were -driven out by the "dynasty of the sea lands," which, so far as we know, -controlled the country for the next hundred and fifty years. - -_Kassites._--About 1750 B. C., or shortly before, Babylonia was once more -invaded by a race of barbarians from the east of the Tigris, called -Kassites or Cossaeans. They captured Babylon and founded the third dynasty -of Babylon, which ruled for 576 years. The kings of this dynasty gradually -absorbed Babylonian culture. Soon after 1700 B. C. they expelled the kings -of the sea lands from the south and ruled the whole country. - -Assyria, which under the first dynasty had been a Babylonian colony, -gained her independence before 1400 B. C., so that after that the -independent histories of the two lands run on parallel lines. During the -long period of Kassite rule, Babylon experienced many vicissitudes. -Assyria was at times friendly and at times hostile. In the reign of -Kurigalzu, Elam was successfully invaded and spoil formerly taken by the -kings of Elam was brought back to Babylonia. Kadashman-turgu and -Burnaburiash, kings of this dynasty, carried on friendly correspondence -with Amenophis III and Amenophis IV, kings of Egypt, 1400-1350 B. C. - -_Pashe Dynasty._--About 1175 B. C. the Kassite dynasty was superseded by -the Pashe dynasty, which ruled the country for more than a hundred and -thirty years. The greatest king of this time was Nebuchadrezzar I, who -reigned about 1150 B. C. He emulated with considerable success the career -of his great predecessor, Hammurapi. After the fall of the fourth dynasty, -the country was divided and fell a prey to the Elamites, who overran it -about 1050. For the following 450 years Babylonia, though often -independent, was of little political importance. - -(4) _The Early Assyrian Period._--Assyria's empire grew out of the -domination of the city of Ashur, as that of Rome grew out of the -domination of the city of Rome. Ashur and Nineveh had been founded by -colonists from Lagash about 3000 or 2800 B. C. This is shown by -archaeological remains found at Ashur, and by the name of Nineveh. We can -first trace the names of Assyria's rulers shortly before the year 2000 B. -C. They do not call themselves kings, and were, perhaps, then subject to -Babylon. - -About 1430 B. C. we learn that Assyria had become an independent kingdom. -Her king at that time, Ashur-rim-nishishu, was a contemporary of -Karaindash, King of Babylon. Ashur-uballit about 1370-1343 was a -contemporary of Burnaburiash, King of Babylon, and shared in the -correspondence with Egyptian kings contained in the El-Amarna letters. -Shalmaneser I about 1300 B. C. conquered the region to the west of Assyria -extending across the Euphrates in the direction of the Mediterranean. -Ashur-nasirpal, a later king (884-860 B. C.), says that Shalmaneser "made" -the city of Calah[14] as a new capital for his country. His son, -Tukulti-Ninib I, turned his arms to the southward and conquered Babylon, -which he held for seven years. After him Assyria's power declined for a -time, but was revived by Tiglath-pileser I, who carried Assyria's -conquests again across the Euphrates to the Mediterranean Sea and -northward to the region of Lake Van. After the reign of Tiglath-pileser I, -Assyria's power rapidly declined again, and the first period of Assyria's -history was closed. Our sources almost fail us for a hundred years or -more. - -(5) _The Second Assyrian Period._--Assyria slowly emerged from the -obscurity into which she had fallen after the death of Tiglathpileser I. -The progress went forward through the reigns of eleven different kings. -Finally, in the reign of Ashur-nasirpal II, 884-860 B. C., a period of -foreign conquest was once more inaugurated. This monarch again carried the -conquests of his country northward and also to the Mediterranean. (See -Part II, p. 360.) Under him Assyria became the best fighting machine in -the ancient world--a machine that was run with ruthless cruelty over all -conquered peoples. This king set his successors the example of flaying and -impaling numbers of conquered peoples, and of boasting of such deeds in -his chronicles. Probably such deeds were not now committed for the first -time, but so far as we know they had not been so gloated over. - -Ashur-nasirpal's successor, Shalmaneser III, 868-824 B. C., made, besides -campaigns into Armenia and elsewhere, six campaigns against the lands of -Syria and Palestine. On his first campaign in 854 he was met at Qarqar by -a confederation of kings, among whom were Ahab of Israel and Ben-Hadad of -Damascus. (See Part II, p. 360, ff.) On his fourth campaign in 842 B. C. -Jehu, who had in that year usurped the throne of Israel, hastened to make -his peace with Shalmaneser by giving him a heavy tribute. Thus Assyria -gained a right to claim Israel as a vassal state. (See Part II, p. 362, -f.) - -The next two kings, Shamshi-Adad IV and Adad-nirari IV, controlled Assyria -until 783 B. C., and maintained her power. The last-mentioned king made -three expeditions into the West, and claims to have received tribute not -only from Israel but from Philistia and Edom, but no details of his -campaigns have survived. - -After 783 the power of Assyria declined again, and the decline lasted -until 745, when the reigning dynasty was overthrown, and an able general, -whose name was apparently Pul, gained the throne (cf. 2 Kings 15:19), and -took the great name of Tiglath-pileser. He reigned as the fourth king of -that name. Tiglath-pileser IV was great both as a warrior and as a -statesman. He broke for the time being the power of the kingdom of Urartu -in Armenia, conquered parts of Media on the east, and also annexed Babylon -to Assyria. Babylon during this later Assyrian period had usually been -permitted to retain a king of her own, though the kingdom was of little -political importance as compared with Assyria. Tiglath-pileser made his -power dominant in Babylonia at the beginning of his reign, and during the -last two years of his life actually reigned there as king. The Babylonian -scribes did not recognize his high-sounding name of Tiglath-pileser, but -still called him Pul. - -In the first year of his reign Tiglath-pileser IV inaugurated a new policy -with reference to conquered peoples. This was the policy of transporting -to a distant part of his empire the wealthy and influential members of a -conquered nation, and of putting similar exiles from other lands in their -place. Individuals so transported would be unable longer to foment -rebellion against him. It was a brutal policy, but it was a measure -designed to build up a permanent empire. - -Tiglath-pileser made four expeditions to the west, though the first two -touched northern Phoenicia only. In 739, when he made his appearance in -Palestine, Menahem, King of Israel, hastened to pay him tribute (2 Kings -15:19). Four years later, however, after Pekah had usurped the throne of -Israel, that king formed an alliance with Rezin of Damascus for the -purpose of throwing off the Assyrian yoke, and tried to force Ahaz of -Judah to join in the enterprise. (See Isa. 7:1, f.) This, Ahaz, supported -by the prophet Isaiah, refused to do. In 733-732 Tiglath-pileser came -again into the West, overran the territory of the kingdom of Israel, -deported the chief inhabitants of Galilee to distant parts of his -dominions (2 Kings 15:29, 30), and replaced Pekah, who had been killed, by -King Hoshea, who ruled over a greatly diminished territory and upon whom a -heavy Assyrian tribute was imposed. Tiglath-pileser then turned eastward -and conquered Damascus, which his predecessors since the days of -Shalmaneser III had been vainly trying to capture. While the Assyrian -monarch was at Damascus, King Ahaz of Judah went thither and became his -vassal. (See 2 Kings 16:10, f.) Thus Judah also passed under the Assyrian -yoke. (See Part II, p. 366.) - -Tiglath-pileser IV was succeeded by Shalmaneser V, 727-722 B. C., and soon -after the death of Tiglath-pileser, Hoshea of Israel was persuaded to join -several petty rulers of Philistia and Egypt in rebelling against Assyria. -In 725 an Assyrian army overran Hoshea's territory, and laid siege to -Samaria. The military position of Samaria and its strong walls made it -almost impregnable, and the siege dragged on for three years (2 Kings -17:5). Before the city fell, another king had ascended the throne of -Assyria. He was a usurper, a general, who took the great name of Sargon, -and who ruled from 722 to 705 B. C. Samaria succumbed in Sargon's first -year and 27,290 of its inhabitants were deported. The discontent of the -west was not at once quieted. Other states remained in rebellion and an -Assyrian army finally defeated them at Raphia, southwest of Gaza, in 719 -B. C. Sargon then turned his arms in other directions, fighting at various -times with the kingdom of Urartu in Armenia, overcoming Carchemish, a -Hittite kingdom on the Euphrates in 717 (see Isa. 10:9), and making an -expedition into Arabia in 715. In 711 Ashdod revolted and Sargon's Tartan -or chief officer came to put the rebellion down (Isa. 20:1). - -At the beginning of Sargon's reign his arms had been defeated in -Babylonia, and Merodachbaladan, a Chaldaean (see 2 Kings 20:12), seized the -throne of Babylon and held it from 721 to 709. Then he was defeated and -Sargon took over the control of Babylonia. Merodachbaladan, however, -escaped to the marsh lands at the head of the Persian Gulf, and survived -to make trouble later. In 705 Sargon died and was succeeded by his son, -Sennacherib, who ruled from 705 to 681 B. C. At the beginning of his reign -troubles broke out in Babylonia, which cannot here be followed in detail. -They lasted for years, and none of Sennacherib's measures gave the country -permanent peace. At last Sennacherib became so incensed that he destroyed -Babylon. Her buildings were burned and battered down, her walls -overthrown, and the Euphrates turned through canals into the land on which -she had stood, to make it a marsh. One incident in the series of events -which led up to this sad climax was the reappearance in 702 of -Merodachbaladan, who seized the throne of Babylon and tried to stir up a -rebellion against Assyria. He even sent letters to Hezekiah, King of -Judah. (See 2 Kings 20:12.) At the beginning of Sennacherib's reign a -number of the petty kings of Philistia had withheld their tribute. Into -this revolt Hezekiah, King of Judah, had been drawn. Busied with other -wars, Sennacherib was unable to quell this rebellion until the year 701. -In that year his army met the forces of the confederated kingdoms at -Elteke in the valley of Aijalon and overcame them. Sennacherib then -proceeded to Lachish, where he received the submission of the neighboring -kinglets. From Lachish he sent a messenger who summoned Hezekiah of Judah -to submit (cf. Isa. 36, 37). Hezekiah obeyed the summons and paid a heavy -tribute. Space does not permit us to speak of the wars of Sennacherib -against Elam and other countries. - -It would seem that after Tirhakah ascended the throne of Egypt in 688 B. -C., he persuaded the kingdoms of Palestine to rebel. The Assyrian came -west again and threatened to invade Egypt and to destroy Jerusalem. Isaiah -then predicted that Jerusalem would be delivered (Isa. 31:5), a prediction -which was fulfilled. Sennacherib's army was attacked by bubonic plague and -was compelled to retire.[15] - -Sennacherib was assassinated in 681 and was succeeded by his son, -Esarhaddon, who ruled till 668. Esarhaddon rebuilt Babylon, which his -father had destroyed, and two years before his death conquered all of -Lower Egypt and made it an Assyrian province. During his reign a great -horde of Scythians poured into Asia through the Caucasus region from -southern Russia. The Assyrian army prevented Assyria from being -overwhelmed by this horde. The stream of invaders was divided, one part -flowing east to Media, the other part westward to Asia Minor. - -Esarhaddon's son and successor, Ashurbanipal, ruled from 668 to 626. His -reign was the Augustan age of Assyria. At the beginning he was called upon -to put down a rebellion in Egypt, and as trouble there recurred several -times, trouble which was fomented by emissaries from Thebes and Nubia, he -finally in 661 pushed up the Nile and conquered Thebes and gave it over to -plunder. (See Nahum 3:8.) Space does not permit us to follow -Ashurbanipal's wars. About the middle of his reign his brother, -Shamash-shumukin, who was ruling Babylon, rebelled along with many other -vassals, and although the rebels were finally put down, the seeds of the -decay of Assyria's power were sown. Manasseh, King of Judah, as long as he -lived was a faithful vassal of Esarhaddon and Ashurbanipal. (Cf. 2 Kings -19:37; 2 Chron. 33.) - -The great work of Ashurbanipal was the collection of his library at -Nineveh. He sent to all the old temples of Babylonia and had copies made -of their incantations, hymns, and epics. These, together with chronicles, -medical tablets, dictionaries, etc., he collected in his palace, where -they were found by Layard and Rassam, and form the basis of our knowledge -of the Assyrian and Babylonian language, literature, and history. With the -death of Ashurbanipal, the last Assyrian period had really closed. Though -the kingdom continued for twenty years more, they were but the years of a -lingering death. - -(6) _The Neo-Babylonian Period._--In 625, the year after Ashurbanipal's -death, Nabopolassar, the viceroy of Babylon, who appears to have been a -Chaldaean,[16] gained his independence, and established the Neo-Babylonian, -or Chaldaean empire. Nabopolassar himself reigned till 604 B. C. During his -reign the power of the city of Babylon gradually extended over all -southern Babylonia, and up the Euphrates to Carchemish. During these years -Assyria was gradually diminishing in territory. As Assyria had declined, -Media, which had long been in greater or less degree subject to Assyria, -had become free, and Median kings had little by little gained control of -the country toward Assyria. Nabopolassar finally made an alliance with the -Median king, and together they overthrew Nineveh in 606 B. C. - -In 604 Necho of Egypt marched with an army to the Euphrates, and -Nabopolassar sent his son, Nebuchadrezzar II, to meet him. Nebuchadrezzar -defeated Necho at the battle of Carchemish, and hotly pursued him toward -Egypt. (See Jer. 46.) The pursuit was, however, interrupted by the death -of Nabopolassar, and the recall of Nebuchadrezzar to Babylon to be crowned -as king. The defeat of Necho had made Judah a Babylonian vassal-state. -Nebuchadrezzar ruled until 562 B. C., and raised Babylon to a height of -power which rivaled that attained under the great Hammurapi. He also -rebuilt the city in great magnificence. The palaces, temples, and walls of -this period, unearthed by Koldewey, were most magnificent structures. -Owing to rebellions, first of Jehoiakim and then of Zedekiah, kings of -Judah, Nebuchadrezzar twice besieged Jerusalem, once in 597, and again in -586 B. C., on both occasions capturing the city. In 586 he destroyed it. -(2 Kings 24, 25.) Following the Assyrian practice, which had prevailed -since Tiglath-pileser IV, he transported considerable numbers of the more -influential people of the city each time he took it. These were settled in -Babylonia. One colony of them was stationed near Nippur. Among those who -were transported in 597 was a young priest, who afterward became the -prophet Ezekiel. The colony with which he came was settled by the Khubur -canal near Nippur. (See Ezek. 1:1.) The young king, Jehoiachin, who was -also taken captive at that time, remained in confinement during the rest -of Nebuchadrezzar's reign. He was only released by Amil-Marduk, -Nebuchadrezzar's son, who succeeded his father and reigned two years. (See -2 Kings 25:27-30.) - -After Nebuchadrezzar the kingdom of Babylon rapidly declined through four -reigns. Meantime, Cyrus, who in 553 had overthrown the kingdom of Media -and erected the kingdom of Persia on its ruins, had been gradually -extending his realm to the AEgean Sea on the west, and to the borders of -India on the east. In 538 B. C. Cyrus captured Babylon and overthrew -Nabuna'id. - -(7) _The Persian Period_ lasted from 538 to 331 B. C. During this time -Babylonia was but a province of the Persian empire, though the Persian -kings made it one of their capitals. Cyrus reversed the policy of -transportation, which had been practised by the Assyrians and Babylonians -for two hundred years, and permitted subject peoples to return to their -lands and restore their institutions and worship. He sought to attach them -to his government by gratitude instead of fear. It was owing to this -policy that the Jewish state was once more established with Jerusalem as -its capital, though still a Persian colony. Cambyses extended Persian -power to Egypt in 525, and Darius I, 521-485 B. C., extended it to India -and into Europe. Under Darius the temple at Jerusalem was rebuilt and the -Jews there tried unsuccessfully to regain their independence. This they -attempted once more under Artaxerxes III about 350 B. C., but his general, -Bagoses, put down their rebellion with great severity. During the Persian -period life in Babylonia went on as before. The old gods were worshiped, -the old culture was continued, the same language was used, and many -business documents written in it have come down to us. The earlier Persian -kings employed it for their inscriptions, and in a short time the Persians -made from it an alphabet of their own. - -(8) _The Greek and Parthian Periods._--Alexander the Great overthrew -Darius III, the last of the Persian kings, in 331 B. C., when Assyria and -Babylonia passed under the sway of the Macedonian. When Alexander returned -from his conquest of hither India in 325 B. C., he planned to extend his -empire westward to the Atlantic Ocean, and to make Babylon its capital. -Plans for the enlargement and beautifying of the city, so as to make it a -worthy capital for such an empire, were under way when Alexander suddenly -died in June, 323 B. C. In the final division of the world among -Alexander's successors, Babylonia fell to Seleucus, together with all the -territory from the Mediterranean to the borders of India. As Seleucus -desired a capital on the Mediterranean, so as to watch more successfully -the movements of his rivals, he built Antioch on the Orontes and made it -his residence. Babylon was, however, made the capital of the eastern half -of the empire, and the king's son, as viceroy, made it his residence. - -Soon after 260 B. C. Bactria and Parthia, in the eastern part of the -empire of the Seleucidae, gained their independence. In course of time -Parthia absorbed Bactria and became an empire, which lasted till 230 A. D. -About 150 B. C. the Parthians conquered Babylonia, which remained with -little interruption under their sway till the establishment of the -Sassanian kingdom of the Persians in 220 A. D. Babylonia was under the -control of this last dynasty until the coming of the Mohammedans in the -year 637 A. D. The old culture of the Babylonians, their religion, -language, and writing were maintained well down toward the Christian era. -Copies of old Sumerian hymns have been found in Babylonia which bear dates -as late as 81 B. C., and business documents in Semitic are numerous.[17] - -=7. Discoveries Which Illumine the Bible.=--Discoveries in Babylonia and -Assyria which illumine the Biblical narratives are numerous. The sites of -many cities, such as Ur of the Chaldees, Erech, Babylon, Ashur, Nineveh, -and Calah, have been excavated. The number of documents which have come to -light which in one way or another have a bearing on the Bible is too -numerous to mention here. An effort has been made in Part II to translate -examples of most of them. Indeed, the greater part of the material in Part -II was recovered by excavations in these countries. - -To Babylonia and to Egypt mankind owes the working out of the initial -problems of civilization, the processes of agriculture, the making of -bricks, the working of stone, the manufacture and use of the ordinary -implements of life, the development of elementary mathematics and -astronomy, etc. These problems were by slow processes independently worked -out in each country through long ages. The higher spiritual concepts which -have now become the heritage of man neither Babylonia nor Egypt was fitted -to contribute. These came through the agency of other peoples. - - - - -CHAPTER III - -THE HITTITES - - A FORGOTTEN EMPIRE. HITTITE MONUMENTS: Sendjirli. Boghaz Koi. Other - recent excavations. HITTITE DECIPHERMENT: Sayce's early work. Peiser. - Jensen. Conder. Sayce's later work. Thompson. Delitzsch. HITTITE - HISTORY: First appearance. Hyksos possibly Hittites. The Mitanni. - Kingdom of "Hittite City." Carchemish. Samal and Yadi. Hamath. - - -=1. A Forgotten Empire.=--Among the peoples who are said to have been in -Palestine in the Patriarchal age are the Hittites (Gen. 23:10; 26:34, -etc.). They are mentioned most often in the list of peoples whom the -Israelites drove out of the country when they conquered it: "the -Canaanite, the Hittite, the Amorite, the Hivite, and the Jebusite," and -the man is still living who first suspected that anything more than this -could be known of them. This man was Prof. Sayce, of Oxford. In the -inscriptions of the Egyptian kings of the eighteenth and nineteenth -dynasties there is frequent mention of a people called _Kheta_. In the -inscriptions of Assyrian kings there is also frequent mention of a people -called _Kha-at-tu_. Slowly, too, during the nineteenth century -rock-carvings, often accompanied by inscriptions in a peculiar hieroglyph, -were found scattered through northern Syria and Asia Minor. The figures of -gods and men on these carvings usually wore caps of a peculiarly pointed -type and shoes turned far up at the toe. In 1876 it dawned upon Prof. -Sayce that these were all references to the Biblical Hittites. He -proceeded to elaborate this view in two articles published in the -_Transactions of the Society of Biblical Archaeology_, Vols. V and VII. - -About the same time the Rev. William Wright independently started the same -idea, and gave it expression in his book, _The Empire of the Hittites_, -1884, 2d ed., 1885. At this period it was impossible to discern more than -that there had been a widely scattered Hittite civilization, which might -have been an empire. - -=2. Hittite Monuments.=--This civilization, it was seen, had left its -monuments at Hamath in Syria, at Carchemish on the Euphrates, at various -points in ancient Cappadocia, Lycaonia, and Phrygia, as well as near -Smyrna in Asia Minor and on the Lydian mountains to the west of Sardis. In -1891 Prof. W. Max Mueller, of Philadelphia, reached the conclusion from a -study of the Egyptian inscriptions that the Hittites had come into Syria -from the northwest, and that their main strength was in Asia Minor. Among -the letters found at El-Amarna in Egypt in 1887-1888 were some from -Dushratta, a king of Mitanni. A study of these made it clear that the -Mitanni inhabited the region on both sides of the Euphrates north of -Carchemish, and that they were of the same stock as the Hittites. Our -sources of information indicate that the territory of the Mitanni lay east -of the Euphrates, but scattered monuments of the Hittite type are found on -the west of that river. - -(1) _Sendjirli._--From 1888 to 1891 a German expedition excavated at -Sendjirli, near the head-waters of the Kara Su in northern Syria, and -brought to light most interesting remains of a civilization that was -fundamentally Hittite. Inscriptions found here dated in the reigns of -Tiglath-pileser IV and Esarhaddon were in Aramaic. By this time there had -been an influx of Aramaeans, but the art shows that Hittites held the place -at an earlier time, and there is reason to believe that one of the kings -mentioned here had, about 850 B. C., joined in a Hittite federation. - -(2) _Boghaz Koi._--Among the monuments known to Prof. Sayce at the -beginning of his brilliant studies of the Hittites, were some from Boghaz -Koi, in Asia Minor. Different travelers had noted that here must have been -a somewhat extensive city, adorned with several large buildings, all of -which were ornamented with carvings of the peculiar Hittite type. In 1906 -the late Prof. Winckler, of Berlin, excavating here in connection with the -authorities of the Turkish Museum at Constantinople, discovered an archive -of clay tablets inscribed in Babylonian characters. A group of similar -tablets from Cappadocia had been previously purchased by the British -Museum. Winckler's discovery was important because he found some of the -tablets inscribed in Hittite written in cuneiform characters. Of those -written in the Babylonian language, one contained a copy of the great -treaty between Hattusil, a Hittite king, and Ramses II of Egypt. There -were also tablets containing Sumerian and Semitic equivalents of Hittite -words. Owing to the long illness of Winckler which followed these -discoveries, an illness that terminated in death, the results of this -discovery are only now being given to the world. - -In 1907 Winckler and Puchstein, in conjunction with Makridy Bey of the -Turkish Museum, made a thorough examination of the remains of walls and -buildings at Boghaz Koi. The results have since been published in a -handsome volume entitled _Boghaskoi, die Bauwerke_, Leipzig, 1912; (see -Figs. 23 and 25). - -(3) _Other Recent Excavations._--An American expedition consisting of Drs. -Olmstead, Charles, and Wrench, of Cornell University, explored in Asia -Minor in 1907-1908. The members of this expedition collated all the known -monuments of the Hittites, but so far only their collation of the -inscriptions has been published. - -The Institute of Archaeology of the University of Liverpool has also sent -one or more expeditions to explore the Hittite country. In 1910 they -excavated to some extent at Sakje-Geuze, not far from Sendjirli, but their -results are not yet published. - -Since 1911 the trustees of the British Museum have had an excavation in -progress at the site of ancient Carchemish on the Euphrates. Here most -important Hittite remains have been discovered, though again the details -of the work have not been given to the public. The expedition has also -made some minor excavations at several points in the neighborhood, and -find that Hittite remains are numerous in that region. In addition to -these places, Hittite remains have been observed at Yaila, Marash, -Giaour-Kalesi, Karaburna, Kizil Dagh, Fraktin, Ivriz, Kara-Bel, Mount -Sypilus, Tashji, Asarjik, Bulghar-Maden, Gurun, and Kara Dagh. One who -will look up these places on a map of modern Turkey will see that Hittite -monuments are distributed from near the shores of the AEgean Sea to the -Euphrates at Carchemish and to Hamath in Syria. (_For addition to this -section, see Appendix._) - -=3. Hittite Decipherment.= - -(1) _Sayce's Early Work._--Prof. Sayce, whose insight first grasped the -significance of the Hittite monuments, was also the first to attempt the -solution of the riddle which the inscriptions present. In 1880 he thought -he had found a key to the writing, such as the Rosetta Stone had been to -Egyptian, in the so-called "Boss of Tarkondemos"; (see Fig. 26). This -"boss" consisted of a round silver plate, in form like half an orange, -which must have covered the knob of a staff or dagger. This had been -described by Dr. A. D. Mordtmann, in the Journal of the German Oriental -Society in 1872. The original was then in the possession of Alexander -Jovanoff, a numismatist of Constantinople, who had obtained it at Smyrna. -The "boss" bore in its center a figure of the peculiar Hittite form, -flanked on both sides by writing in the Hittite characters, while around -the whole was an inscription in the cuneiform writing of Assyria. From -this Sayce tentatively determined the values of a number of Hittite signs. -The results were, however, attended with considerable uncertainty, since -the Assyrian characters were capable of being read in more than one way. -Using the key thus obtained, Sayce enlarged his list of supposed -sign-values and in 1884 and 1885 published as known the values of -thirty-two Hittite signs. In the years that followed Ball and Menant took -up the discussion of the Hittite signs, but with no decisive result. - -In 1889 Winckler and Abel published in one of the volumes of the Royal -Museum at Berlin the first instalment of the text of the El-Amarna -letters, in which there were two from Dushratta, King of Mitanni, in the -native language of that country, though written in Babylonian characters. -In the following year, 1890, Profs. Jensen, Bruennow, and Sayce all -published in the _Zeitschrift fuer Assyriologie_ studies of this language, -Sayce even venturing a translation of a part of the text. Each of these -scholars had worked independently of the others, but none of them seems to -have suspected that the language had anything to do with Hittite. - -(2) _Peiser._--In 1892 Dr. Peiser, then of Breslau University, published -his book on the Hittite inscriptions, in which he essayed another method -of decipherment. Layard had found four Hittite seals in the palace of -Sennacherib at Nineveh. Peiser inferred that these must be seals of four -Hittite kings mentioned in the inscriptions of that time, and proceeded to -assign each seal to the name of a known Hittite king, and interpret the -signs on the seal by the name of that king as spelled out in the cuneiform -characters of the Assyrian inscriptions. Having obtained in this way -tentative values for several signs, he proceeded by inference to guess at -other signs, and so tentatively read some inscriptions. - -(3) _Jensen._--Prof. Jensen, of Marburg, wrote in that same year an -unfavorable review of Peiser's work. When reading the proofs of his review -he added a postscript to say that he believed he had himself discovered -the key to Hittite. Two years later, 1894, he published in the Journal of -the German Oriental Society his method of solving the problem. Jensen's -starting-point was gained from inscriptions from Jerabis, the site of -ancient Carchemish, Hamath, and other places. He inferred that a certain -sign was the determinative for city, and that the names preceding this -sign were names of places. Gaining in this way some values for signs, he -read the names of some kings. He found that these names had nominatives -ending in _s_ and accusative cases ending in _m_; he accordingly leaped to -the conclusion that the Hittite language was a member of the Indo-European -group of languages, as this is the only known group of tongues in which -this phenomenon occurs. This inference later research has in part -confirmed. Jensen, however, went further and endeavored to show that the -Hittites were the ancestors of the Armenians of later time. This theory -led to the publication in 1898 of his book, _Hittiter und Armenier_. Of -the correctness of this view he has not been able to convince other -scholars. By this time Jensen and others had begun to see that the -Mitannians and the Hittites were kindred peoples and worshiped the same -gods. It is now recognized that Jensen correctly ascertained the value of -some signs, though many of his guesses, like those of his predecessors, -have proved incorrect. - -(4) _Conder._--In 1898 Lieut.-Col. C. R. Conder published _The Hittites -and Their Language_, a work in which he presented still another -decipherment of the inscriptions. Conder's decipherment was based on a -comparison of the Hittite characters with the Sumerian pictographs on the -one hand and the syllabary which was used by Greeks in Cyprus, Caria, and -Lydia on the other. He assumed that if a picture had in Sumerian a certain -syllabic value, and if the Cypriotic syllabary presented a character -somewhat resembling it which had a similar value, the Hittite character -which most closely resembled these must have the same value, since the -Hittites lived between the two peoples who used the other syllabaries. -This system of decipherment has attracted no adherents because it is based -on a fallacious inference. It does not follow because a nation lives -between two other nations, that its institutions are kindred to those of -its neighbors. One could not explain writings of the Indian tribes of -Arizona, for example, by comparing them with books printed in English in -St. Louis and in Spanish in Los Angeles! In 1899 Messerschmidt, who was -collecting in one body all the known Hittite inscriptions for publication, -published a study of the language of Mitanni,[18] which advanced our -knowledge of the language of the letters of Dushratta. Messerschmidt's -later publication of the Hittite inscriptions[19] made it far easier for -scholars to study the subject. - -(5) _Sayce's Later Work._--Stimulated by Jensen's efforts, Prof. Sayce -returned to the study of Hittite in 1903, and published in the -_Proceedings of the Society of Biblical Archaeology_ of that year (Vol. -XXV) a new decipherment. He followed Jensen's method, accepting a number -of Jensen's readings as proved, and with the originality and daring that -characterize so much of his work, launched many new readings. Some of -these have commended themselves to his successors. - -In 1909 Ferdinand Bork returned to the problem of the language of Mitanni, -and published a pretty complete decipherment of the Mitannian tablets in -the El-Amarna letters. In 1911 Dr. B. B. Charles, the philologist of the -Cornell expedition to Asia Minor, published as Part II of Volume I of -_Travels and Studies in the Nearer East_, which is to embody the results -of the Cornell expedition, his collation of the Hittite inscriptions. This -publication added some new texts to those previously known. In 1912 Prof. -Clay, of Yale, rendered the subject of Hittiteology a distinct service by -including in his volume of _Personal Names from Cuneiform Inscriptions of -the Cassite Period_ a list of Hittite and Mitannian proper names, and a -list of the nominal and verbal elements which enter into the composition -of such names. - -(6) _Thompson._--The latest attempt on a large scale to unravel the -mystery of the Hittite inscriptions is that of R. Campbell Thompson, "A -New Decipherment of the Hittite Hieroglyphs," published in _Archaeologia_, -second series, Vol. XIV, Oxford, 1913. Mr. Thompson was a member of the -British expedition which excavated Carchemish, and gained the idea which -gave him the starting-point for his decipherment from an inscription -excavated by that expedition. This inscription contained many proper -names, and, after passing it and looking at it every day for a long time, -it occurred to Mr. Thompson that a certain elaborate sign which frequently -occurred in it might be a part of the name of the Hittite King Sangar, who -is frequently mentioned by Ashurnasirpal II and Shalmeneser III of -Assyria. In seeking proof for this Mr. Thompson was led into a study of -the texts which resulted in a new interpretation of the Hittite signs. His -work is logical at every point, he makes no inference without first -examining all the occurrences in the known texts of the group of signs in -question, and he tests his inferences wherever possible by the known -results of a study of Mitannian and cuneiform Hittite. It is too soon to -pronounce a final verdict, but it looks as though Thompson had materially -advanced the decipherment of Hittite. - -(7) _Delitzsch._--After the death of Prof. Winckler, the cuneiform tablets -which he had discovered at Boghaz Koi were turned over to Ernst Weidner -for publication. That publication is soon to appear, but Prof. Friedrich -Delitzsch, under whose general direction Weidner is working, published in -May, 1914, a study based on twenty-six fragments of lexicographical texts -which are to appear in Weidner's work. These texts defined Hittite words -in Sumerian and in Assyrian. Although the texts are very fragmentary, -Prof. Delitzsch has been able to gain in this way a vocabulary of about -165 Hittite words, the meanings of most of which are known, and to -ascertain some facts about the grammar of Hittite. - -We are, it would seem, just on the eve of a complete mastery of the -secrets of the Hittite inscriptions. The more our knowledge of the -Hittites grows, the less simple seems the problem of their racial -affinities. Some features of their speech clearly resemble features of the -Indo-European family of languages, but other features would seem to denote -Tartar affinities. In a number of instances the influence of the Assyrian -language can clearly be traced. The same confusion presents itself when we -study the pictures of Hittites as they appear in Egyptian reliefs. Two -distinct types of face are there portrayed. One type has high cheek bones, -oblique eyes, and wears a pigtail, like the peoples of Mongolia and China; -the other has a clean-cut head and face which resemble somewhat the early -Greeks. These may well have been Aryans. That there was a strain in the -Hittite composition that came from Turkestan or that came through that -country is also indicated by the fact that the Hittites were the first of -the peoples of western Asia to use the horse. Evidence of the use of the -horse as a domestic animal by the people of Turkestan at an early date was -brought to light by the excavations of Prof. Pumpelly[20] in that land, so -that the presence of horses among the Hittites naturally suggests some -connection with that region. Among the Hittite allies Semitic Amorites are -also pictured. These have receding foreheads and projecting beards. - -=4. Hittite History.= - -(1) _First Appearance._--The earliest reference to the Hittites which we -have in any written record occurs in a Babylonian chronicle, which states -that "against Shamsu-ditana the men of the country Khattu marched."[21] -Shamsu-ditana was the last king of the first dynasty of Babylon. His reign -terminated in 1924 B. C. Khattu land, as will appear further on, was the -name later given to the Hittite settlement in Cappadocia. One would -naturally suppose that the name would have the same significance here, but -of this we cannot be certain. The tablet on which this chronicle was -written was inscribed in the Persian or late Babylonian period, but there -is evidence that it was copied from an earlier original. If its statement -is true, the Hittites had made their appearance in history and were -prepared to mingle in that _melee_ of the races which occurred when the -first dynasty of Babylon was overthrown. Nothing is said in the chronicle -as to the location of the land of Khattu, but there can be no doubt that -the Hittites approached Babylonia from the northwest. Their seat must have -been in the region where we later find the Hittites, or Mitanni. At what -period the Hittites came into this region we can only conjecture. The -excavations at Sakje-Geuze reveal a civilization there extending back to -about 3000 B. C., which resembled that found at Susa in Elam belonging to -the same period. This civilization may not have been Hittite in its -beginnings. Mr. Woolley, a member of the British expedition which has -excavated at Carchemish, in a study of the objects found in tombs at -Carchemish and at other places near by, thinks it possible that the coming -of the Hittites is marked by a transition period in the art--a period the -termination of which he marks by the date of the fall of the first dynasty -of Babylon. It may well be that Indo-Europeans followed by Mongols came -about 2100 or 2000 into this region, or that the Mongols were there -earlier and that the Indo-Europeans then came. In the resultant -civilization it would seem, from the information that we have, that there -was a mingling of the two races; (see Fig. 24). - -(2) _Hyksos Possibly Hittites._--Since the Hittites were able to help -overthrow the first dynasty of Babylon, some scholars have recognized the -possibility that those invaders of Egypt who established the dynasties -called Hyksos may have been Hittites, or may have been led by Hittites. -There is much evidence that many Semites entered Egypt at that time, but -as Syria and Palestine were peopled with Semites earlier than this, such -an invasion would naturally have had many Semites among its camp -followers, if not in its armies, even if the leaders were Hittites. At -present, however, this is but a possibility. Some slight evidence in favor -of the possibility may be found in the name of the king of Jerusalem who -was a vassal of Amenophis IV, and who wrote the letters from Jerusalem -which are in the El-Amarna collection. (See Part II, p. 345, ff.) His name -was Abdi-Hepa, and Hepa was a Hittite and Mitannian deity. Abdi-Hepa had -grown up a trusted subject of the Egyptians. His ancestors must, -therefore, have been in Palestine for some time. A settlement of Hittites -there in the Hyksos days would account for this. The twenty-third chapter -of Genesis represents the city of Hebron as in the possession of the -Hittites when Abraham purchased the cave of Machpelah as a place of burial -for his dead, and, though many scholars regard Genesis 23, which gives -this account, as a late composition, its representation would receive some -confirmation from archaeology, if the Hyksos were Hittites. - -There is a possibility that the Hittites were in southern Palestine -earlier than this. Brugsch[22] thought that he found in an inscription in -the Louvre, written by an officer of Amenemhet I, King of Egypt, 2000-1970 -B. C., a statement that this officer had destroyed the palaces of the -Hittites near the Egyptian frontier of Palestine. This reading is still -defended by Prof. Sayce,[23] though other Egyptologists, such as W. Max -Mueller[24] and Breasted,[25] claim that the word that was thought to be -Hittites is not a proper name, but a common noun meaning nomads. The text -of the passage is uncertain, and no important inference can in any case be -made from it. - -During the period when we obtain glimpses of the history of the Hittites, -they were never united in one empire. Different kingdoms flourished here -and there, such as that of the Mitanni in Mesopotamia, the Hittites at -Boghaz Koi, the kingdoms of Carchemish, of Hamath, and Tyana. These -flourished at different times all the way from 1400 to 700 B. C., and -there were doubtless other kingdoms also, for the Hittite sculptures near -Smyrna and Manissia cannot have been made by any of these, unless -possibly the great Hittite kingdom at Boghaz Koi may once have extended -its power to the AEgean. - -(3) _The Mitanni._--The earliest of these kingdoms which we can trace is -that of the Mitanni. When Thothmes III of Egypt extended his conquests to -the Euphrates in 1468 B. C., he came into contact with the Mitanni. The -king of the country is not named, but it was claimed that her chiefs hid -themselves in caves.[26] There is some reason for believing that their -chief city was at Haran[27] in Mesopotamia, the city where Abraham -sojourned for a time (Gen. 11:31; 12:4). If this be true, it gives a new -meaning to Ezek. 16:3: "The Amorite was thy father and thy mother was a -Hittite." Thothmes evidently touched the kingdom of Mitanni on its western -border. He did not penetrate its heart or overcome its king. Although he -took tribute, he does not tell us the name of the king of the Mitanni -whose armies he fought. - -Half a century later the king of the Mitanni was Artatama I. He was a -contemporary of Thothmes IV of Egypt, who ruled 1420-1411 B. C. Perhaps it -was their mutual fear of the rising power of the Hittite kingdom at Boghaz -Koi that led Artatama and Thothmes IV to form an alliance. At all events, -such an alliance was made, and Thothmes married a daughter of Artatama, -though Artatama's grandson says that the Egyptian king sent his request -for her hand seven times before Artatama yielded to his solicitations. -Artatama I was succeeded by Shutarna I, whose reign overlapped a part of -that of Amenophis III of Egypt, 1411-1375 B. C. Among the queens of -Amenophis III was a daughter of Shutarna I. Before the reign of Amenophis -III had ended Shutarna I had been succeeded by Dushratta, who continued -the friendly relations with Egypt. Dushratta's reign also overlapped in -part that of Amenophis IV of Egypt, 1375-1357 B. C., and Dushratta wrote -several letters to both of these Egyptian kings. It is from these letters -that we gain most of our information about Mitanni. - -Meanwhile the great kingdom of the Hittites at Boghaz Koi had entered upon -its era of expansion under Subbiluliuma, who pushed his conquests first -eastward and then southward. Dushratta feared to meet the Hittite in -battle and retired to the eastward, allowing much of his country to be -overrun. This land Subbiluliuma gave to one of his allies, and Dushratta -was murdered soon afterward by his son, Sutatarra, who usurped the crown. -Soon after this the Assyrians invaded the lands of the Mitanni from the -east, and the land, already distracted by its internal divisions, was -thrown into a worse confusion. At this juncture Subbiluliuma crossed the -Euphrates again and entered Mitannian territory. He was accompanied by -settlers who brought cattle, sheep, and horses to remain in the country. -Advised by an oracle, he deposed Sutatarra and placed upon the throne -Mattiuaza, a son of Dushratta, who had been heir-apparent and who had fled -when his father was murdered. To Mattiuaza Subbiluliuma gave his daughter -in marriage, and Mitanni became a vassal state of the Hittite realm. After -this our sources tell us no more of its history. - -Near the Mitanni were the Harri, who were probably of the same race, for -in the time of Subbiluliuma they were ruled first by Artatama II, a -brother of Dushratta, and then by Sutarna II. This state also became a -part of Subbiluliuma's kingdom. - -(4) _Kingdom of "Hittite City."_--The wave of migration from the northeast -which brought the Mitanni into upper Mesopotamia had swept on westward -into Cappadocia, where the greatest Hittite state afterward developed. The -monuments erected by the Hittites were nearly all of a religious -character. In the earlier time they wrote few historical inscriptions. -Such inscriptions as we have in Hittite hieroglyphs seem to come from the -later periods and to record alliances. It is probable that in the -development of the Hittite state in Cappadocia first one city and then -another had the upper hand. The Hittite monuments at Eyuk are of a more -primitive character than those at Boghaz Koi, and it is natural to suppose -that a Hittite state flourished here before the rise of the one at Boghaz -Koi. Be that as it may, the most powerful Hittite monarchy of which we -know arose at Boghaz Koi, which they called "Hittite City." This monarchy -emerged about 1400 B. C. Its first king was Hattusil I, of whom we know no -more than that he was the founder of the great dynasty which ruled from -the "Hittite City" for two hundred years. - -The king who laid the foundations of the greatness of this dynasty was -Subbiluliuma, the next king, whose conquests over the Mitanni and Harri we -have already traced. He conquered also a number of neighboring states, and -compelled them to sign with him treaties of alliance which made them his -vassals. Chronicles of these events were discovered by Winckler among the -clay tablets found at Boghaz Koi. Subbiluliuma also turned his armies -southward and conquered Syria down to the confines of Palestine. These -conquests were in progress when some of the El-Amarna letters, written to -Amenophis IV of Egypt and translated in Part II, p. 344, ff., were -written. Here he pursued the same policy that he had pursued in -Mesopotamia, and compelled the conquered countries to enter into treaties -with him, which subjugated them to his will. Among the kings so treated -was the Amorite King Aziru, who at that time ruled Amorites living in the -southern part of the valley between the Lebanon mountain ranges and in the -region afterward occupied by the tribe of Asher. They also held some of -the southern Phoenician cities. This represents the most southerly -extension of Subbiluliuma's power. - -Whether Subbiluliuma also extended his conquests to the west of Asia -Minor, we have no means of knowing. Some scholars suppose that he had done -so before he began the conquest of Mitanni. Certain it is that Hittite -rock sculptures of gigantic size exist in the mountains near Smyrna and -Manissia, to the west of Sardis. These sculptures represent the great -Hittite goddess. Near Smyrna there are also the remains of great -buildings. We know of no Hittite monarch who would be so likely to have -carried Hittite power to these parts as Subbiluliuma. If he did so, -possibly in later time the Hittites here became independent. At all -events, some centuries later they were known to Ionian Greeks in this -region, for Homer's _Odyssey_, Book XI, line 521, records the tradition -that some Hittites were killed with Eurypylos. - -When Subbiluliuma died he was succeeded by his son, Arandas, whose -occupation of the throne was brief, and who seems to have been without -effective power. After a short time he was replaced by his brother, -Mursil, who appears to have enjoyed a long reign. Subbiluliuma, called by -the Egyptians Seplel, was reigning when Amenophis IV of Egypt came to the -throne in 1375 B. C., for he sent an embassy to congratulate him, and -Mursil appears to have reigned until after the year 1320 B. C. The two -reigns, therefore, covered more than half a century. The first years of -Mursil's reign were apparently passed in peace, but soon after 1320 -Shalmeneser I invaded the countries in the eastern part of the Hittite -confederacy, conquering all the territory east of the Euphrates, and a -considerable territory to the west of that river. Meantime, Mursil had -renewed the treaty with the Amorites of Syria, whose king at this time was -Abbi-Teshub, or Abi-Adda. Ere long, however, trouble arose for him on his -southern border. Seti I of Egypt came to the throne in 1313 B. C., and -began a series of vigorous campaigns for the conquest of Palestine. In -time he came face to face with the Hittite power in Syria. - -At this juncture Mursil died and was succeeded by his son, Mutallu, who -soon met Seti I in battle and convinced that monarch that it was unwise to -attempt to extend Egypt's empire in Asia to the Euphrates, as Thothmes III -had done. Owing to internal troubles in Assyria the eastern border of the -Hittite realm was left undisturbed for a considerable time, during which -Mutallu could devote himself to other matters. In 1292 B. C. Ramses II -succeeded Seti I as king of Egypt and soon began vigorously to push -Egyptian conquests into northern Syria. Mutallu recognized the importance -of the struggle and collected a large army from all his allies. These -forces were drawn from all parts of Asia Minor; even the countries of the -extreme west contributed their quota. Aleppo and states in that region -also contributed their share. A great battle was fought at Kadesh on the -Orontes in 1287 B. C., in which Mutallu, by surprising his foe, -disorganized a part of the Egyptian forces and endangered the life of -Ramses himself. By the opportune arrival of reinforcements the Egyptians -escaped entire defeat, so that the result was a drawn battle. - -The battle had, however, cost the Hittites much. The slaughter of their -forces had been enormous. Among the slain were many chieftains, including -the king of Aleppo. The Amorites at once threw off their allegiance to the -Hittites, and many of the other troops mutinied. Mutallu was assassinated. -He was succeeded by Hattusil II, the Khetasar of the Egyptian -inscriptions. - -Assyria had become weak, so that Hattusil was no longer pressed upon his -eastern border. After a little he reduced the Amorites once more to -submission, and compelled them to take back their king, Put-akhi, whom -they had driven out at the time of their rebellion against Mutallu. He -gave Put-akhi a Hittite princess for a wife. Later, about 1271 B. C., -Hattusil concluded an offensive and defensive alliance with Ramses II of -Egypt. The treaty which guaranteed this alliance has come down to us, and -is the first international treaty the details of which are known to us. -(See Chapter I, p. 30.) - -Hattusil II must have enjoyed a long reign, but we do not know the date of -his death. He had two successors, Dudkhalia and Arnuanta, whose reigns are -known to us, and who continued the sway of the dynasty down to about 1200 -B. C. They were respectively the son and grandson of Hattusil II. An edict -of Dudkhalia concerning the vassal states has survived, in which the name -of Eni-Teshub, King of Carchemish, appears. Carchemish would seem to have -been the chief of the allied states. Of Arnuanta we have no details, -though two fragments of royal edicts and a seal of his have come down to -us. He was called "the great king, the son of Dudkhalia." After him our -sources fail, and the story ends in darkness. We know, however, that the -days of the power of this dynasty were over. Egyptian sources tell us that -tribes from western Asia Minor and from beyond the sea swept over Cilicia -and northern Syria soon after the year 1200 B. C., and there was then no -Hittite power there to restrain them. - -(5) _Carchemish._--Of the other Hittite kingdoms far less is known. -Carchemish, which, as we have just seen, played an important part in the -federation of the great Hittite power, continued its existence for several -centuries. In the time of Ashurnasirpal II and Shalmeneser III the kingdom -of Carchemish entered into alliance with these kings and preserved its -existence by becoming their vassal. Judging from the meager reports -hitherto published of the British excavation at Carchemish, this was a -flourishing period in the history of the city. A hundred years later, in -the reign of Sargon, Pisiris, who was then king of Carchemish, defied the -Assyrian, who brought the kingdom to an end in 717 B. C. (Cf. Isa. 10:9.) - -(6) _Samal and Yadi._--When the Aramaeans swept westward about 1300 B. C. -they apparently dislodged the Hittites from a number of their sites and -occupied their country. Among the places so occupied was the site of -Sendjirli mentioned above. All the carvings found among its architectural -remains reveal the influence of Hittite art, but the inscriptions found -there are in Aramaic. These inscriptions show that there were in that -region two petty kingdoms named, respectively, Samal and Yadi. The names -of several kings of these monarchies who ruled between 850 and 730 B. C. -have been recovered. They are all Aramaean. - -(7) _Hamath._--Farther to the south, at Hamath on the Orontes, a Hittite -kingdom existed in the time of David. Its king was then called Toi or Tou, -who made an alliance with David (2 Sam. 8:9, f; 1 Chron. 18:9, f.). This -kingdom was probably the outgrowth of the earlier occupation of the -Orontes valley, three hundred years before, by the Hittites of the great -empire. It continued until the time of Ahab. Its king was then Irhulina, -who along with Ahab, Ben-Hadad of Damascus, and several other kings made -an alliance to resist the encroachments of Shalmaneser III of Assyria in -854 B. C. (See Part II, p. 360, ff.) Irhulina caused several inscriptions -to be made on stone, which survived at Hamath until our time. According to -Mr. Thompson's interpretation of them they are all records of his various -alliances. By the next century, however, the Aramaeans had captured Hamath, -for in the reigns of Tiglath-pileser IV (745-727) and of Sargon (722-705 -B. C.) the names of its kings were Semitic. These names were, -respectively, Enu-ilu and Yau-bidi, or Ilu-bidi. - -We gain glimpses also of a number of other Hittite states. There was, for -example, the state of Kummukh, which lay to the west of the Euphrates, and -another in western Cilicia, that had its center at Tyana, the modern Bor. -These states appear to have reached their zenith after the fall of the -great Hittite dynasty which had its capital at Boghaz Koi. Doubtless as -time goes on we shall learn of the existence of many other small Hittite -kingdoms which flourished at one time or another. At some time, either -when the Hyksos were making their way into Egypt or when Subbiluliuma was -pushing southward into Syria, the Hittites mentioned in the Old Testament -must have made some small settlements in Palestine. Here the Hebrews came -into contact with them. They were really an unimportant outlying fringe of -the great Hittite people, but they had the good fortune to have their -names preserved in the most immortal literature in the world, the Bible, -and so their memory was ever kept alive, while that of their more -illustrious kinsmen was utterly forgotten. It is only archaeological -research that has restored something of the original perspective. - - - - -CHAPTER IV - -PALESTINE AND ITS EXPLORATION - - THE LAND: Rainfall. EARLY EXPLORATION: Place names. EARLY AMERICAN - EXPLORATIONS: Robinson and Smith. Lynch. American exploration - societies. PALESTINE EXPLORATION FUND: Warren's excavations at - Jerusalem. The survey of Palestine. Exploration of Lachish. Bliss's - excavation at Jerusalem. Excavation at Azekah. At Tell es-Safi - (Gath?). Tell el-Judeideh. At Marash (Moresheth-Gath). Gezer. - Beth-shemesh. Exploring the Wilderness of Zin. THE GERMAN PALESTINE - SOCIETY: Guthe's excavation at Jerusalem. Megiddo. Taanach. Capernaum. - Jericho. THE AMERICAN SCHOOL AT JERUSALEM. SAMARIA. PARKER'S - EXCAVATIONS AT JERUSALEM. LATEST EXCAVATIONS. - - -=1. The Land.=--Palestine is a very different land from either Egypt or -Mesopotamia. They are made by the irrigation of rivers. Palestine is -fertilized by rain from heaven. In them the scenery is monotonous; they -are river valleys each of which was once in part an arm of the sea, but -now filled up by the gradual deposit of mud. Palestine was formed in one -of the greatest geological upheavals the earth ever experienced. This was -nothing less than a great rift in the earth's crust extending from the -Lebanon mountains to the Indian Ocean. The strata on the west side of this -rift slipped downward past those on its east side for a mile or more. -Those on the west were bent at different points in this long course in -different ways, but the result of the rift itself was to form the Jordan -valley and the bed of the Dead Sea, the valley which runs from the Dead -Sea to the Gulf of Akaba, and that deep rift between Asia and Africa which -forms the Red Sea itself. - -In Palestine the strata on the west of this rift bent up into two parallel -ridges, to the west of which a narrow plain of varying width, ancient -Philistia, rises from the sea. To the east of this rift the land remained -at approximately its old level. The various ridges of the country are, on -account of the birth-pangs of their origin, intersected with valleys -innumerable, so that in no country of the world can such variety of -scenery and climate be found within such narrow limits. - -_Rainfall._--This land, with all its variety of form, is redeemed from the -desert by the moisture which the west winds drive in from the -Mediterranean Sea. These winds in the winter months bring clouds, which, -when they come into contact with the colder air over the elevated hills, -deposit their moisture in rain. The Jordan valley is so warm that little -rain falls upon it, but it drains the water from the rainfall on both -sides of it. Just so far back as the clouds reach before their moisture is -exhausted, just so far the fertile land extends; beyond that is the -Arabian Desert. When the rainfall during a winter is good, bountiful crops -are raised the following season; when it is scant, the harvest fails and -famine follows. In Egypt and Babylonia a man could water his garden by -kicking a hole in a dyke; they were lands which were watered "with thy -foot" (Deut. 11:10); Palestine was dependent on heaven for its life, and -we cannot doubt that this fact was one of the instruments for the training -of the Israelites for their great religious mission. In a land of such -variety--a land in which for nine months in the year snow-capped Hermon -may be seen from many an elevated point and from the whole stretch of the -tropical Jordan valley, where oleanders are blooming and mustard seeds are -growing into trees--it was possible to think of God in a way that was at -least more difficult in Egypt or in Mesopotamia. - -Here in this marvelous land, which formed a bridge between the two oldest -civilizations of the world, the men lived to whom God committed the task -of writing most of the Bible. This was the earthly home of the Son of God. - -Even before the Hebrews came into it, many had crossed this bridge and -some had paused long upon it. Living here they had left the remains of -their homes, their cities, and their civilizations. Archaeology is now -recovering these. After the time of Christ various races and civilizations -continued to pass over the bridge. Their remains buried those left by -earlier men. The story of the recovery of these earlier remains is, -accordingly, not only of great interest, but often of great value to the -reader of the Bible. - -=2. Early Exploration.=--The misfortunes which overtook Judaea in the years -70 and 132-135 A. D., in consequence of the Jewish rebellions against -Rome, led to the paganizing of Jerusalem and the expulsion of the Jews -from Judaea. At this period Christianity was a struggling and a persecuted -religion, too busy working its way to take an active interest in the land -of its birth. When Constantine early in the fourth century made -Christianity the religion of the Roman Empire, all this was changed. Both -Constantine and his mother, Helena, took the deepest interest in -identifying the holy places in Jerusalem, and a stream of pilgrims began -at once to visit the land. The earliest of these to leave us an account of -his travels was a pilgrim from Bordeaux who visited Palestine in 333 A. D. -As he was anxious to see the principal places hallowed by the bodily -presence of Christ and the heroes of Scripture, he visited places in -different parts of the country. He was followed by many others. The stream -has been almost continuous down to the present time. As the aim of these -travelers was devotional and they possessed little scholarly training or -critical faculty, their works are of secondary value to the modern -student. They did, however, prevent that loss of knowledge of the country -to which Babylonia was subjected for so many centuries. - -_Place Names._--At the very beginning of this period Eusebius of Caesarea, -a contemporary of Constantine, compiled a list of the place names of -Palestine which are mentioned in the Bible. The names were arranged in -alphabetical order, the events for which the places are celebrated were -given, in many instances identifications with places existing in the -fourth century were proposed, and the distances from other well-known -places mentioned. In the next century this work was translated into Latin -by Jerome, who lived many years at Bethlehem and traveled extensively in -Palestine, and who died in 420 A. D. It is called the _Onomasticon_. - -=3. Early American Explorations.=--As the reader approaches modern times -he finds the works of some of the pilgrims assuming a more scientific -character. To some extent, too, these works were supplemented by those of -travelers like Chateaubriand,[28] Burckhardt,[29] and Lamartine.[30] - -(1) _Robinson and Smith._--The scientific study of the localities and -antiquities of Palestine was, however, begun by an American, the late -Prof. Edward Robinson, of Union Seminary, New York. Robinson was fully -equipped with Biblical knowledge, and was thoroughly familiar with -Josephus and other works bearing on his subject. He possessed the critical -faculty in a high degree, and combined with it a keen constructive -faculty. In 1838 and again in 1852 he traveled through Palestine with Eli -Smith, a missionary. They were equipped with compass, telescope, -thermometer, and measuring tape. His knowledge of history enabled -Robinson to look beneath many traditions. With keen penetration he -discerned under the guise of many a modern Arabic name the form of a -Biblical original, and accomplished more for the scientific study of -Biblical Palestine than any of his predecessors. As he traveled he also -noted and briefly described such remains of antiquity as could be seen -above ground. The results of Robinson's first journey were embodied in his -_Biblical Researches_, New York, 1841. In the second edition, London, -1856, the results of the second journey were embodied, and the number of -volumes increased to three. The impetus given to the exploration of -Palestine by the labors of Robinson was continued by Tobler, Guerin, -Renan, and many others.[31] - -(2) _Lynch._--Meantime, another American, Lieut. W. F. Lynch, of the -United States Navy, rendered an important service by the exploration in -1848 of the Dead Sea. In April and May of that year about three weeks were -spent in exploring that body of water. Lieut. Lynch was accompanied by Dr. -Anderson, a geologist. The party traversed the sea back and forth in two -metal boats that had been launched on the Sea of Galilee and floated down -the Jordan. The fact that the Jordan valley is lower than the level of the -sea had never been recognized until 1837, and, until the visit of Lynch -and Anderson, the depth of the depression was only a matter of conjecture. -By this expedition it was scientifically determined that the surface of -the Dead Sea is 1,300 feet lower than that of the Mediterranean.[32] - -(3) _American Exploration Societies._--The work of American exploration -was later continued by the American Exploration Society, founded in 1870. -Under its auspices, Rev. John A. Paine, of Tarrytown, New York, visited -the Holy Land. One of the results of his visit was the identification of -Pisgah.[33] - -Later an American Palestine Exploration Society was organized. This -Society employed Mr. Rudolph Meyer, an engineer, to make a map of -Palestine, and from 1875 to 1877 also employed Rev. Selah Merrill, who -afterward was for many years the U. S. Consul at Jerusalem, as explorer. -Dr. Merrill gathered much archaeological information, especially in the -country east of the Jordan.[34] - -=4. Palestine Exploration Fund.=--As a result of the interest engendered -by the work of Robinson, Lynch, and others, the Palestine Exploration Fund -was organized in London in 1865. By this act a permanent body was created -to foster continuously the exploration of the Holy Land, and to rescue the -work from the fitful activities of individual enterprise. Such enterprise -could supplement the work of the Fund, but could no longer hope to compete -with it. - -Within six months from the organization of the Palestine Exploration Fund -its first expedition was sent out. This was led by Capt., now Gen. Sir -Charles Warren, who had just completed a survey of Jerusalem as part of a -plan for bringing water into the city. The chief object of this -expedition, which was in the field from December, 1865, to May, 1866, was -to indicate spots for future excavation. It made a series of sketch maps -of the country on the scale of one inch to the mile, studied some -synagogues in Galilee noted by Robinson, but not fully described by him, -and laid bare on Mount Gerizim the remains of a church built on a rough -platform which may once have supported the Samaritan temple. - -(1) _Warren's Excavations at Jerusalem._--A second expedition under -Lieut.-Col., now Sir Charles Warren, made considerable excavations on the -temple-hill at Jerusalem. He sank a remarkable series of shafts to the -bottom of the walls enclosing the temple area, and proved that in places -these walls rest on foundations from 80 to 125 feet below the present -surface. He laid bare solid masonry, which bore what are apparently -Phoenician quarry-marks and which he believed to go back to the time of -Solomon. On the west side of the temple enclosure he found 80 feet below -the present surface the ruins of a bridge, which Robinson had conjectured -crossed the Tyropoeon Valley from the temple enclosure at this point from -an arch, the base of which is still visible outside of the temple -wall.[35] Among many other discoveries made by Warren were a part of the -ancient city wall south of the temple area and an underground passage -leading up from the ancient spring of Gihon, which was probably the -"gutter" (R. V., "watercourse") of 2 Sam. 5:8. - -(2) _The Survey of Palestine._--After this the Palestine Exploration Fund -undertook a survey of Palestine, the object of which was to make a -complete and authoritative map of the country on the scale of one inch to -a mile, and also a description of all archaeological remains of antiquity -which were above ground. The work was undertaken in 1871 and the survey of -western Palestine was completed in 1878. Owing to an outbreak of cholera, -the work was interrupted from 1874 to 1877. Among those who took part in -it were Capt. C. R. Conder (now Lieut.-Col.), who was in charge of the -work from 1872 to 1874, and Capt. Kitchener (now Lord Kitchener). The -great map was published in 1880, and covers an area of 6,000 square miles, -from the Mediterranean to the Jordan and from the Egyptian desert to a -point near Tyre. The completion of this map was a monumental -accomplishment, and must form the basis for all similar work. The -archaeological remains noted on the map are described in three volumes of -_Memoirs_, also published by the Exploration Fund. - -In 1881 Capt. Conder was sent out to make a similar survey of the country -east of the Jordan. He endeavored to work under the old permit from the -Turkish government, but to this the Turks objected. After working for ten -weeks, during which he surveyed about 500 square miles of territory, he -was compelled to desist. The results of his work, however, fill a stout -volume entitled _The Survey of Eastern Palestine_, London, 1889. The work -undertaken by Conder has since been carried on by other agencies. Dr. -Gottlieb Schumacher, an engineer residing at Haifa, who was employed in -surveying the railway to Mecca, has published authoritative volumes on the -region to the east of the Sea of Galilee.[36] On a larger scale is the -work of Bruennow and Domaszewsky on the Roman province of Arabia,[37] a -work which includes ancient Edom as far as Petra. The last-mentioned -remarkable city has been described also in two excellent volumes by Gustaf -H. Dalman, Director of the German Evangelical Institute in Jerusalem.[38] - -In 1873-1874 the Palestine Exploration Fund entrusted an archaeological -mission of a general nature to the French scholar, Clermont-Ganneau, who -several years before had been French Consul at Jerusalem. Clermont-Ganneau -was embarrassed by the failure of the Turkish government to grant him a -firman, but made numerous archaeological discoveries in the country between -Jaffa and Jerusalem. These were published by the Fund in two large -volumes,[39] although they did not appear until 1896 and 1899, -respectively. - -In the winter of 1883-1884, a complete geological survey was made of the -valley of the Dead Sea and the region to the south (Wady el-Arabah) by -Prof. Edward Hull, who afterward published a volume on the subject.[40] -Hull was accompanied by Major Kitchener, who made a complete triangulation -of the district lying between Mount Sinai and the Wady el-Arabah. - -(3) _Exploration of Lachish._--In 1890 the Exploration Fund entered upon a -new phase of work or, rather, resumed one that had been interrupted for -twenty years,--that of excavation. The services of Prof. Petrie, the -Egyptian explorer, were secured and the attempt to wrest from the soil of -Palestine some of the buried secrets of the past was renewed. The site -chosen was Tell el-Hesy, where stood in ancient times the city of Lachish -(Josh. 10:3; 2 Kings 14:19; 18:14, etc.). This mound rose about 120 feet -above the bed of an intermittent stream. About 60 feet of this height -consisted of accumulated debris of the ancient city. The water in the -course of centuries had so exposed some of the potsherds that Petrie was -confident before he began digging that rich discoveries awaited him. He -worked here only about six weeks, running trenches into different parts of -the mound, but he found and classified such a variety of pottery that he -felt confident that he had unearthed a city which had been occupied from a -time anterior to the Hebrew conquest of Canaan down to about 350 B. C.[41] - -In 1892 the work was continued under the direction of Dr. Frederick J. -Bliss, who cut away a considerable section from the northeast corner of -the mound, and found the stratified remains of eight different cities, one -above the other.[42] In the third of these cities from the bottom a -cuneiform tablet was found, which mentions one of the men who figure in -the letters found at Tell el-Amarna in Egypt. This tablet would indicate -that this third city was flourishing during the period 1400-1350 B. C. -The two cities below this must, accordingly, belong to an earlier period. -Bliss supposed that the first city was built about 1700 B. C. Above the -remains of the third city was a bed of ashes of some thickness, which -shows, in Petrie's opinion, that after the destruction of this city the -mound was used for a period of perhaps fifty years as a place for burning -alkali. Near the top of the debris of the fourth city a glazed seal was -found similar to those made in Egypt in the time of the twenty-second -dynasty (945-745 B. C.). This city, then, belonged to the early part of -the kingdom of Judah. In the seventh and eighth cities pottery of polished -red and black types was found. This class of pottery is of Greek origin, -dating from 550-350 B. C. These occupations of the mound must, then, be of -that period. The fifth and sixth cities would, accordingly, fall between -750 and 550 B. C. This excavation thus shows how the stratification of the -mounds of Palestine reveals the march of the peoples across the country; -(see Fig. 28). - -(4) _Bliss's Excavation at Jerusalem._--From 1894 to 1897 Dr. Bliss was -engaged in excavations at Jerusalem.[43] Here he devoted his attention to -an endeavor to recover the line of the ancient wall on the south side of -the city. This he did, following it from "Maudsley's Scarp"[44] at the -northwest corner of the westernmost of the two hills on which Jerusalem is -situated across the slope to the eastward and then across the Tyropoeon -Valley. This was the wall rebuilt by Nehemiah on lines then already old -(Neh. 3-6). It was destroyed by Titus in the year 70 A. D., and afterward -rebuilt by the Empress Eudoxia in the fifth century A. D. - -(5) _Excavation at Azekah._--From 1898 to 1900 Dr. Bliss excavated for the -Fund at several sites in the Biblical Shephelah,[45] the low hills which -formed the border-land between ancient Judaea and Philistia. The work began -at Tell Zakariya, the Biblical Azekah, situated above the lower part of -the Vale of Elah. Azekah was fortified by King Rehoboam (2 Chron. -11:5-10). Here an important citadel or fortress was uncovered. While the -masonry of the top part was similar to that of Herodian buildings at -Jerusalem, the pottery found about the foundations indicated that the -beginnings of the structure go back to early Israelitish times. It may -well be one of Jeroboam's fortresses. Underneath it were remains from -late pre-Israelitish times. It appears that the hill was occupied as the -site of a city only shortly before the Hebrew conquest. The fortress was -not, however, built at the time of this earliest occupation. - -(6) _At Tell es-Safi (Gath?)._--Next the excavation was transferred to -Tell es-Safi, which was situated on the south side of the ancient Vale of -Elah at the point where it sweeps into the Philistine plain, and which was -thought to be the site of the Biblical Gath (Josh. 11:22; 1 Sam. 5:8; -17:4; 2 Kings 12:17). Here in 1144 A. D. the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem -established by the Crusaders built a fortress, which they called -Blanche-Garde, as an outpost against Ashkelon. It was hoped that the -excavation of Dr. Bliss would determine whether or not this was really the -site of Gath, but owing to the occupation of the tell by a Mohammedan -cemetery and a wely, or sacred building, this was not possible. The -outline of the city walls was, however, traced, the foundations of -Blanche-Garde examined, and here and there trenches were sunk to the rock. -These trenches revealed in the various strata pottery and objects, first, -of the period of the Crusaders; secondly, of the Seleucid period (312-65 -B. C.); thirdly, of the Jewish period, 700-350 B. C., and two -pre-Israelite strata. The mound had, then, been occupied from about 1700 -B. C. to the Seleucid times, and again in the period of the Latin Kingdom -of Jerusalem. - -The most interesting discovery at Tell es-Safi was that of an old -pre-Israelitish high place, which contained three pillars such as are -denounced in Deuteronomy. (See Deut. 7:5; 12:3, etc.) At the time of this -discovery no similar discovery had been made. The foundations of this high -place were near the bottom of the last pre-Israelite stratum, so that it -was clearly constructed by the Amorites, or Canaanites, or whoever -occupied this city before the Hebrews arrived. - -(7) _Tell el-Judeideh._--The excavations next moved to Tell el-Judeideh, a -mound some distance to the south of Tell Zakariya. Here they traced the -outlines of the city wall, found the remains of a Roman villa, and sunk a -number of shafts to the rock. From the pottery found in these shafts they -inferred that the mound had been occupied in the earliest period, but -deserted for a considerable time before the Hebrew conquest. It was then -reoccupied in the latter part of the Judaean monarchy, and was finally -fortified in the Seleucid or Roman period. It seems to have been deserted -soon after the Roman period. It is not known what was the ancient name of -the city that stood there. - -(8) _At Marash (Moresheth-Gath)._--The last mound excavated in this region -was Tell Sandahanna, situated a mile to the south of Beit Jibrin. The -mound takes its name from a church of St. Anne, the ruins of which may -still be seen near by. It occupies the site of the city of Marissa of the -Seleucid period, and of the older Jewish Marash. It is probably the site -of Moresheth-Gath, the home of the prophet Micah. (See Micah 1:14.) Here -considerable portions of the Seleucid stratum of the mound were excavated, -and a smaller portion of the Jewish stratum. The Jewish stratum rested -directly on the rock; the site seems, therefore, not to have been -inhabited in pre-Israelite times. - -(9) _Gezer._--The next undertaking of the Palestine Exploration Fund was -the excavation of Gezer. This work was entrusted to the direction of R. A. -Stewart Macalister, who had been Dr. Bliss's assistant from 1898 to 1900 -and who is now Professor of Celtic in the University of Dublin. Work was -begun on Tell el-Jazar, about six miles southeast of the town of Ramleh, -which Clermont Ganneau[46] had, in June, 1902, identified as the site of -Gezer. (Josh. 10:33; Judges 1:27; 2 Sam. 5:25.) It continued, with such -interruptions as winter weather and an outbreak of cholera made necessary, -until August, 1905. It was renewed in the spring of 1907 and carried on -until early in 1909. During this time more than half of the mound was -excavated. No other mound in Palestine has been so fully explored. -Naturally, therefore, Gezer has furnished us with more archaeological -information than any other excavation; (see Fig. 30). - -The results of this excavation convinced Mr. Macalister that the -classification of the strata adopted by the excavators of Lachish and the -mounds of the Shephelah was capable of improvement. He found that Gezer -had been occupied at first by a non-Semitic people, remains of whose bones -indicate that they were about 5 feet 6 inches high, who lived in caves, -and whose implements were wholly of stone. He estimated that these people -probably occupied the site from about 3000 to 2500 B. C. About 2500 B. C. -a Semitic race, probably Amorite, took possession of the city and occupied -it to the end of the Hebrew monarchy. - -Four periods could be traced in the Semitic occupation, each represented -by differences in walls, implements, and objects used. The first Semitic -period ended with the fall of the twelfth Egyptian dynasty, about 1800 B. -C. In this stratum scarabs of the period of the Egyptian "middle kingdom" -were found. The second Semitic stratum continued until about the end of -the eighteenth Egyptian dynasty, about 1350 B. C. The third Semitic -stratum lasted till the establishment of the Hebrew monarchy, about 1000 -B. C.; the fourth was contemporaneous with the Hebrew kingdoms, 1000-586 -B. C. The mound was again occupied in the Hellenistic or Maccabaean -period.[47] After the Maccabaean turmoils the inhabitants seem to have -deserted the tell. Under the modern village of Abu Shusheh, on the -southwest slope of the mound, a Roman mosaic has been found, but nothing -from Roman times was discovered on the mound itself. There were likewise -no remains from the period of the Crusaders. - -In the course of this excavation many important discoveries were made. -Many of these will be mentioned in subsequent chapters. We need only -mention here an old Semitic high place, which had its beginnings in the -first Semitic stratum before 1800 B. C., and was used down to the end of -the fourth Semitic or Hebrew stratum, about 600 B. C. It began with two -"pillars," but others were added as time passed until there were ten in -all.[48] In the third Semitic stratum (_i. e._, the one preceding the -Hebrew occupation) a building was found which Mr. Macalister thought might -have been a temple. In the middle of its largest hall were some stones -which looked as though they might have supported wooden pillars, which, in -turn, probably supported the roof. Mr. Macalister thought this was a -structure similar to that which Samson pulled down at Gaza[49] (Judges -16:23-30). - -One of the most important discoveries was a rock-cut tunnel leading down -through the heart of the rock to a spring in a cave 94 feet below the -surface of the rock and 120 feet below the level of the present surface of -the ground.[50] This was to enable the people of the city to obtain water -in time of siege. It was used for some 500 years and was apparently closed -up about 1300-1200 B. C. Its beginnings go back accordingly to the first -Semitic period. A palace of the Maccabaean time, apparently built by Simon -the Maccabee, 143-135 B. C., was also discovered.[51] (Cf. 1 Macc. 14:34.) - -Various walls were discovered, which at different times encircled the -city. The most massive of these was apparently constructed during the -eighteenth Egyptian dynasty, and continued to be the city wall down to the -Babylonian Exile. At some time after its construction towers had been -inserted in the wall. These towers were shown to be a later insertion by -the fact that their stones touched the stones of the wall on each side, -but were not interlocked with them. Mr. Macalister thinks that these -towers may have been inserted by Solomon when he fortified the city (1 -Kings 9:15-19). At some later time the weakness of such a tower had become -apparent, and a bastion had been built around it.[52] The excavation at -Gezer was fruitful in many directions. Other aspects of it will be taken -up in future chapters in connection with other topics. - -(10) _Beth-shemesh._--The next task undertaken by the Palestine -Exploration Fund was the exploration of Ain Shems, the Biblical -Beth-shemesh. (See Josh. 15:10; 2 Kings 14:8-14, etc.) Ain Shems, like -Gezer, is situated in what was in Biblical times the Shephelah. It is near -the station of Der Aban on the railway from Jaffa to Jerusalem. -Excavations were carried on at this point in 1911 and 1912 under the -direction of Dr. Duncan Mackenzie, who had had ten years' experience on -the staff of Sir Arthur Evans, the explorer of Crete. At the bottom of the -mound the remains of a very early settlement were discovered.[53] Above -this the ruins of a once prosperous city, which was for that time large, -were found. It was surrounded by strong walls and one of its rugged gates -was discovered on the south. In the upper strata of this city imitations -of Cretan pottery were found. As it is probable that the Philistines came -from Crete, or were intimately associated with people who were under -Cretan influence, this pottery is doubtless Philistine. The city which was -encircled by this wall had passed through two periods of history. The -original wall was built before the domination of Palestine by Egypt. As -this domination began about 1500 B. C., the earlier fortress of -Beth-shemesh belongs to that period. The second period belongs in its -earlier strata to the age of the El-Amarna letters, in which the city is -called Beth-Ninib. The upper period of it belongs, as has been noted, to -the Philistine period. - -This city was destroyed by a siege which resulted in the burning of the -city--a burning which left quite a bed of ashes. Dr. Mackenzie thought -that this was the siege by which the Israelites gained possession of -Beth-shemesh. The city was occupied by the Hebrews apparently until the -invasion of Palestine by Sennacherib, King of Assyria, in 701 B. C. At all -events, it was in the possession of Judah in the days of King Amaziah (2 -Kings 14:8-14). Corresponding to this, Israelitish pottery was found in -the stratum above the ashes. Dr. Mackenzie is of the opinion that during -this Hebrew period the city was without a wall. Apparently after the time -of Sennacherib the site was abandoned for several centuries, for next -above the Israelitish stratum the remains of a monastery of the Byzantine -period (325-636 A. D.) were found. This monastery apparently was not begun -until just at the close of the Byzantine period, for it appears that it -was not finished at the time of the Mohammedan conquest. - -(11) _Exploring the Wilderness of Zin._--The most recent service of the -Palestine Exploration Fund was the sending of two explorers, C. Leonard -Woolley and T. E. Lawrence, in the winter of 1913-14, to explore the -wilderness to the south of Palestine. The results of their work have been -published in the Fund's _Annual_, Vol. III, under the title _The -Wilderness of Zin_. The explorers identified a considerable part of the -"Darb es-Shur," or the "way of Shur" (Gen. 16:7, etc.). It was the caravan -road from Palestine to Egypt. They also adduce strong evidence against the -identification of Ain Kades with Kadesh-Barnea (Num. 32:8, etc.), and -think that Kossima, which lies nearer to the Egyptian road and is -surrounded by much more verdure, may have been Kadesh-Barnea. The -identification of Ain Kades with Kadesh-Barnea was made by the late Dr. -Henry Clay Trumbull, after a very brief visit to the spot, and it has been -accepted by many others. - -Between 325 and 636 A. D. extensive settlements and cities of considerable -size existed in this wilderness. This was one of the facts that led -Ellsworth Huntington to believe that the rainfall in Palestine was much -greater at that time. With this view Woolley and Lawrence take issue. They -say that where the old wells have been kept open, the water still rises as -high as ever it did. They hold that the cities mentioned were possible -because of the great energy and skill of the people of that time in -sinking wells. - -=5. The German Palestine Society.=--While the work of the Palestine -Exploration Fund, which has been outlined in detail, was going on, other -countries were aroused to similar activities. In 1877 a similar Society, -the Deutscher Palaestina-Verein, was organized to foster the collection of -information about the land of the Bible. Accurate scientific research in -all branches of knowledge relating to Palestine was contemplated, and the -co-operation of travelers and of the German colonies in Palestine was -invited. In 1878 this Society began the publication of a journal[54] which -has become a repository of information about the Holy Land. - -(1) _Guthe's Excavation at Jerusalem._--In 1880 Prof. Guthe excavated at -various points on Ophel at Jerusalem, and followed the line of the ancient -wall along the east side of the city of David.[55] - -(2) _Megiddo._--In 1903 this German Society undertook the excavation of -Tell el-Mutesellim, the site of the Biblical Megiddo[56] (Josh. 12:21; 2 -Kings 23:29, etc.). This work was entrusted to the direction of Dr. -Gottlieb Schumacher, of Haifa. Work was begun on the 7th of February, -1903, and continued at intervals until the 30th of November, 1905. In the -lowest stratum of the mound Dr. Schumacher found traces of a settlement -the houses of which were constructed of mud-bricks. Over the ruins of -these a second series of houses had been built of stone. In the same -stratum some tombs were found containing skeletons, some pottery of early -forms, a bronze knife, and some scarabs set in gold. The walls of the city -were in part built of brick. The settlements represented by this stratum -antedated 2000 B. C. - -In the next stratum a large structure, probably a palace, was found, which -had been occupied through the periods represented by the stratum in which -its foundations were laid and the stratum next above it. The building was -of stone and was large. In one part of it was a "pillar" apparently used -for worship. Various types of pottery, knives of flint and bronze, many -stone household utensils, an Astarte figure, and some scarabs of the -period of the twelfth Egyptian dynasty were found. This stratum, then, -belonged to the period 2000-1800 B. C. - -Next above this stratum was one in which types of painted pottery similar -to that of the Philistines came to light. In the fifth stratum from the -bottom a palace of the Hebrew period was discovered. In this palace a seal -was found bearing a lion and the inscription "belonging to Shema, the -servant of Jeroboam." It is impossible to tell whether the Jeroboam who -was Shema's master was Jeroboam I or Jeroboam II. In this same stratum a -temple was found containing three "pillars"; (see Fig. 27). - -In another part of the mound in a sixth stratum, which seemed to be late -Hebrew, three "pillars" were found in an open space near the south gate, a -stone religious emblem, and a decorated incense-burner. Elsewhere this -sixth stratum yielded a blacksmith's shop. In a seventh stratum, just -under the soil, remains of the Greek period were found, among which was an -Athenian coin. This was the last occupation of the tell, and was -pre-Christian. At the beginning of the Roman period the town was moved -from the high land of the mound down nearer the water supply. On the slope -of the hill a native-rock altar was found which had been used in -prehistoric times. - -(3) _Taanach._--In 1899 Prof. Ernst Sellin, of Vienna, visited Palestine -and became so deeply interested in its exploration that he induced several -Austrian scientific bodies and individuals to contribute a fund for the -purpose. The result was an excavation of Tell Taanek, the Biblical Taanach -(Josh. 12:21; Judges 5:19), conducted by Sellin in 1902 and 1903. Sellin -did not excavate the mound in a systematic way and his results are not -very clearly presented in his book.[57] He traced in several places four -strata in the tell. An early stratum had its beginnings, he thought, as -early as 2500 B. C. This stratum represented probably an occupation of -more than a thousand years. In its later parts the remains of a large -palace were found, and in a cave underneath it four cuneiform tablets, -written in the script of the El-Amarna period. Originally there were more -tablets in the archive, but it had been rifled in ancient times. Above -this was a stratum in which pottery of the Cypriote and Philistine type -was found. Next above this was a Hebrew stratum, which seems to have -lasted, judging by objects found in it, down to the time of Psammetik I of -Egypt, 663-609 B. C. In this stratum the remains of a high place with its -"pillars" were found, as well as a terra-cotta incense-altar of wonderful -construction. Above this there were in places a few remains from the -Seleucid period, including some pottery, and at the top of the mound some -remains of an Arabic settlement. This last seems to have been established -here about the time of the Crusaders. Sellin thinks Taanach was destroyed -by the Scythian invasion, about 625 B. C., that in the Seleucid period the -main settlement here was not on the mound, and that it was then unoccupied -until the time of the Crusaders. - -(4) _Capernaum._--The Deutsche Orient-Gesellschaft, which was carrying on -excavations in Egypt, Babylonia, and Assyria, undertook the investigation -of the remains of ancient synagogues in Galilee and the Jaulan. Among -these they excavated the ruins of the synagogue at Tell Hum on the Sea of -Galilee,[58] the probable site of Capernaum. Here they found the remains -of a once beautiful synagogue which was probably built in the fourth -century A. D. Beneath it is the floor of a still older building. This last -is probably the synagogue in which so many of the incidents of the -ministry of Christ in Capernaum took place, the one built by a Roman -centurion. (See Luke 7:5 and Fig. 32.) - -(5) _Jericho._--This same Society undertook, in the years 1907-1909, the -excavation of Jericho; (see Fig. 29). The work was entrusted to the -direction of Prof. Sellin, of Vienna. The digging occupied about three -weeks in the spring of 1907, and about three months of the early part of -each of the years 1908 and 1909.[59] At the bottom of the mound traces of -a prehistoric occupation of the site were uncovered, but as these were -under the foundations of a Canaanitish fortress, which were not -demolished, nothing further was ascertained about them. Above this -prehistoric city were the remains of an Amorite or Canaanite city. A jar -handle found in the lower half of this Canaanite stratum was stamped with -a scarab of the time of the twelfth Egyptian dynasty, which indicates that -this occupation goes back to about 2000 B. C. The walls of this early city -were traced on all sides of the tell except the east. On this side, where -the Ain es-Sultan is (otherwise called Elisha's Fountain, from the -incident of 2 Kings 2:19-22), the wall had entirely disappeared. This -early city was small. The whole of it could have been put into the -Colosseum at Rome. All early Palestinian cities were, however, small. In -the city was a citadel with a double wall. Each wall represented a -different period of history. Both were built of brick, as were the houses -of the time. The outer wall was between four and five feet thick and -appeared to be the older; the inner one was about ten feet thick. They -were joined here and there by transverse walls; (see Fig. 37). The city -had been burned apparently about 1300-1200 B. C., perhaps at the time of -the Hebrew conquest. - -Above the ruins of this pre-Israelitish city were the remains of the -Hebrew town. The earliest of these remains seems to date from the ninth -century B. C.; (see 1 Kings 16:34), as it was rebuilt in the days of Ahab; -(see Fig. 34). The Israelites, in Sellin's judgment, made the city -considerably larger than it had been in the earlier time. A wall, which he -believed to be the wall of the Hebrew period, was found on all sides -except the east, considerably outside the older wall. Pere Vincent, of the -French _Ecole Biblique_ at Jerusalem, believes this wall to have been -built in the Canaanite period also, but his reasons do not seem -convincing. On the eastern edge of the Israelitish stratum the remains of -a large stone building were found. Sellin thinks this may be the palace -and fortress built by Hiel in the time of Ahab (1 Kings 16:34). This -Israelitish city seems to have flourished only about two hundred years. It -was probably destroyed in the time of Sennacherib, about 700 B. C. Sellin -thought he found traces of another rebuilding which must soon have -followed the destruction, but this Jericho was also destroyed by -Nebuchadrezzar in 586 B. C. At some time after the Babylonian Exile the -city was rebuilt and flourished until destroyed by Vespasian in 70 A. D. -It was rebuilt after 325 A. D. and continued until destroyed by the -invasion of the Persian King Chosroes II, in 614 A. D. Some slight -settlements have existed on the mound in Moslem times, but the Jericho of -today is more than a mile distant. - -=6. The American School at Jerusalem.=--In the year 1900 the American -School of Oriental Research in Palestine was opened at Jerusalem under the -aegis of the Archaeological Institute of America. It is one of the purposes -of this school, when its funds will permit, to carry on excavations as -well as explorations. Hitherto it has not had money sufficient to enable -it to undertake extensive excavations. In addition to the investigation of -many matters not strictly archaeological, the School has conducted a number -of minor explorations. When the present writer was Director, 1902-1903, he -cleared the so-called Tomb of the Judges and found the ruins of a -caravansary of the Crusading period near the Damascus Gate. Under L. B. -Paton, 1903-1904, an excavation was made on the supposed line of the -"Third Wall" of Jerusalem. Under Nathaniel Schmidt, 1904-1905, the Dead -Sea was explored and some discoveries made in the Valley of the Arnon and -the Wady Suweil.[60] Under D. G. Lyon, 1906-1907, some pre-Israelitish -pottery was recovered from tombs of Samieh east of Et-Taiyibeh.[61] Under -W. J. Moulton, 1912-1913, some painted tombs of the Seleucid time were -explored at Beit Jibrin. - -=7. Samaria.=--Although the American School at Jerusalem has not yet been -able to undertake extensive excavations, through the generosity of Mr. -Jacob Schiff, of New York, Harvard University was able to excavate at -Sebastiyeh, the site of ancient Samaria, during parts of three -seasons--1908, 1909, and 1910. During the first season the work was under -the direction of Prof. D. G. Lyon; during 1909 and 1910, under the -direction of Prof. G. A. Reisner, who has had large experience in such -work in Egypt, and who, in addition to many archaeological triumphs there, -has solved the riddle of the Sphinx. At Samaria[62] a large palace was -found built upon the native rock. This is believed to be the remains of -the palace of Omri (1 Kings 16:24). Above this were the ruins of a larger -palace, the wall of which was faced with white marble. This is believed to -have been the palace of Ahab, who is said to have built an "ivory house" -(1 Kings 22:39). In a building on a level with this palace a considerable -number of inscribed potsherds were found. They were receipts for wine and -oil stored there. At the western edge of the hill the old city gate was -uncovered. It had been rebuilt at different times. The foundations were -clearly laid in the Israelitish period. On these now rests a -superstructure of Herodian workmanship. Above the ruins of the Hebrew city -were the remains of a city built by the Assyrians. (See 2 Kings 17:24-34.) -This was inferred by the character of the building materials employed, and -by the fragment of a clay tablet found there. Still above this were -remains of a city of the Seleucid time--the city destroyed by John -Hyrcanus[63] in 109 B. C. Still above this were remains of the temple -built by Herod the Great, when he rebuilt Samaria and named it Sebaste, -the Greek for Augusta, in honor of the Emperor Augustus. This temple had -been repaired in the third century A. D. - -=8. Parker's Excavations at Jerusalem.=--In the years 1909, 1910, and 1911 -an English expedition under Capt., the Hon. Montague Parker, a retired -officer of the British army, made extensive explorations upon Ophel, the -slope of the eastern hill south of the present city walls at Jerusalem. -Parker was not an archaeologist and the motive for the exploration is not -yet disclosed. The party is said to have been abundantly supplied with -money, and to have come to Palestine in a private yacht, which was -anchored off Jaffa while they were at work. In 1911 the hostility of the -Moslems became so excited by the rumor that they had attempted to excavate -under the Mosque of Omar that the expedition came to an abrupt close, and -the explorers escaped on their yacht. Through the descriptions of two -residents of Jerusalem, Prof. Hughes Vincent[64] and Dr. E. W. G. -Masterman,[65] we have some knowledge of the value of Parker's work. He -cleared the silt out of the Siloam tunnel so as to reveal its real depth, -which seems to have been between five and six feet. It had been so silted -up that it appeared to be only about half that depth. He also explored -more fully the caves about Ain Sitti Miriam (the Biblical Gihon, 1 Kings -1:33), which had been partially explored by Sir Charles Warren, so that -the nature and probable use of these are now known much better. More will -be said of this in a future chapter. - -=9. Latest Excavations.=--Within the last few years the Assumptionist -Fathers have been excavating on a tract of land purchased by them on the -eastern slope of the western hill to the south of the present city wall. -They believe that they have discovered the house of Caiaphas, to which -Christ was led in the course of his trial (Matt. 26:57; John 18:24). -Possibly they have found the house which, after the time of Constantine, -was pointed out to Christian pilgrims as that of Caiaphas. However this -may be, they have unearthed several streets of Roman and Jewish Jerusalem, -and are keeping them uncovered. These streets, like the ruins of Pompeii, -disclose pavements and house-foundations that may go back to the time of -Christ. Here, possibly, one may look upon pavements which his feet -actually trod.[66] - -In 1914 some excavations were made on Ophel at Jerusalem under the -direction of Capt. Weil for a Jewish organization, and at the mound -Balata, near Nablous, the Biblical Shechem, by the Germans. The work at -Balata was under the direction of Prof. Sellin. Both are said to have made -discoveries. At Balata it is said that the city gate of ancient Shechem -was uncovered. Nothing has, however, been published concerning these, and -the great war of 1914 brought all such work to a stop. The preparation of -foundations of a new Jewish hospital near the Dung Gate has laid bare the -aqueducts which conveyed the water from "Solomon's Pools" into the -city.[67] - -In this account only the principal explorations have been mentioned. In -all parts of Palestine, and especially at Jerusalem, important -archaeological discoveries are frequently made when people are digging to -lay the foundations of buildings, to construct a cistern, or for other -purposes. Other important discoveries, as, for instance, the rock-cut high -place at Petra,[68] and the painted tombs at Beit Jibrin,[69] have been -made by people traveling through the land. Many discoveries made in this -way are recorded in the Quarterly Statement of the Palestine Exploration -Fund, the _Zeitschrift des deutschen Palaestina-Vereins_, and the _Revue -biblique_. Lack of space forbids the attempt to chronicle these.[70] - - - - -CHAPTER V - -OUTLINE OF PALESTINE'S ARCHAEOLOGICAL HISTORY - - THE EARLY STONE AGE. THE LATE STONE AGE. THE AMORITES. THE CANAANITES. - EGYPTIAN DOMINATION: Thothmes III. Palestine in the El-Amarna Letters. - Seti I. Ramses II. Merneptah. Ramses III. THE PHILISTINES. THE - HEBREWS. PHILISTINE CIVILIZATION. THE HEBREW KINGDOMS. THE EXILE AND - AFTER: The Samaritans. Alexander the Great and his successors. The - Maccabees. The Asmonaeans. THE COMING OF ROME: The Herods. The - destruction of Jerusalem in 70 A. D. LATER HISTORY. - - -=1. The Early Stone Age.=--Palestine appears to have been inhabited at a -very remote period. Scholars divide the races of prehistoric men, who used -stone implements, into two classes--Palaeolithic and Neolithic. Palaeolithic -men did not shape their stone implements. If they chanced to find a stone -shaped like an axe, they used it as such; if they found a long, thin one -with a sharp edge, they used it for a knife. Neolithic man had learned to -shape his stone tools. He could make knives for himself out of flint and -form other tools from stone. The earliest inhabitants of Palestine -belonged to the palaeolithic period. Unshaped stone implements have been -found in many parts of the country. They have been picked up in the -maritime plain, in still larger numbers on the elevated land south of -Jerusalem, and again to the south of Amman, the Biblical Rabbah Ammon, on -the east of the Jordan. The Assumptionist Fathers of Notre Dame de France -at Jerusalem have a fine collection of flint implements in their Museum. - -These palaeolithic men lived in caves in which they left traces of their -occupation. Several of these caves in Phoenicia have been explored by Pere -Zumoffen, of the Catholic University of St. Joseph, Beirut.[71] It has -been estimated that these cave-dwellers may have been in Palestine as -early as 10,000 B. C. - -=2. The Late Stone Age.=--Of neolithic men in Palestine much more is -known. This knowledge comes in part from the numerous cromlechs, menhirs, -dolmens, and "gilgals" which are scattered over eastern Palestine. A -cromlech is a heap of stones roughly resembling a pyramid;[72] a menhir is -a group of unhewn stones so set in the earth as to stand upright like -columns;[73] a dolmen consists of a large unhewn stone which rests on two -others which separate it from the earth;[74] and a "gilgal" is a group of -menhirs set in a circle.[73] These monuments are the remains of men of the -stone age who dwelt here before the dawn of history. They were probably -erected by some of those peoples whom the Hebrews called Rephaim[75] or -"shades"--people who, having lived long before, were dead at the time of -the Hebrew occupation. - -Similar monuments of the stone age have been found in Japan, India, -Persia, the Caucasus, the Crimea, Bulgaria; also in Tripoli,[76] Tunis, -Algeria, Morocco, Malta, southern Italy, Sardinia, Corsica, the Belearic -Isles, Spain, Portugal, France, the British Isles, Scandinavia, and the -German shores of the Baltic. Some scholars hold that all these monuments -were made by one race of men, who migrated from country to country. As the -monuments are not found at very great distances from the sea, the -migrations are supposed to have followed the sea coasts.[77] Others scout -the idea of a migration over such long distances at such an early epoch of -the world's history, and believe that the fashion of making such monuments -was adopted from people to people by imitation. Be this as it may, these -monuments seem to have been in Egypt and Palestine before the Semites and -Hamites developed into the Egyptians, Amorites, and Hebrews, for they were -adopted by them as the "pillars" which are so often denounced in the Old -Testament, and in Egypt were gradually shaped and prolonged into the -obelisks. - -[Illustration: MAP OF PALESTINE] - -Of the men of this stone age the excavations have furnished us with some -further information. At Gezer the native rock below all the cities was -found to contain caves,[78] some natural and some artificial, which had -formed the dwellings of men of the stone age. They, like men today, were -lazy. If one found a cave that would protect him from heat, cold, and -rain, he would occupy it and save himself the trouble of making one. -But there were not enough caves to go around, so some of the men of -ancient Gezer cut caves for themselves out of the soft limestone rock. It -must have been a difficult task with the stone implements at their -disposal, but they accomplished it, sometimes cutting stairs by which to -descend into them. One such cave seems to have been used by them as a -temple. In it were found a quantity of pig bones, which were apparently -the remains of their sacrifices. If they offered the pig in sacrifice, -they were certainly not Semitic, for Semites abhorred swine. These early -men sometimes adorned the sides of their dwellings by scratching pictures -on the walls. Several pictures of cattle were found. One cow seemed to -have knobs on her horns to keep her from goring! One drawing represented a -stag that was being killed with a bow and arrow.[79] These early men -burned their dead, and one of the caves in the eastern end of the hill was -used as their crematory. Steps in the rock led down to its entrance. The -cave itself was 31 feet long, 24 feet 6 inches wide, and the height varied -from 2 to 5 feet. Near one end a hole had been cut to the upper air to act -as a flue. Below this the fires that burned their dead had been kindled; -cinders and charred bones of these far-off men were found as grim tokens -of their funeral rites. Shortly after these bones were found the -anatomist, Prof. Alexander Macalister, of Cambridge University, father of -the excavator, visited the camp at Gezer and made a study of the bones. He -found that they represented a non-Semitic race. The peculiar modifications -of the bones caused by the squatting so universally practised by Semites -were absent. The men whose bones these were could not have been more than -5 feet 6 inches in height, and many of the women must have been as short -as 5 feet 3 inches. A pottery head found in one of the caves, which may be -a rude portrait of the type of face seen in Gezer in this period, has a -sloping forehead, which afforded little brain-space, and a prominent lower -jaw. These people used flint knives, crushed their grain in hollow stones -with rounded stones, employed a variety of stone implements, and made -pottery of a rude type, which will be described in a later chapter. - -The city of Gezer in this cave-dwelling period was surrounded by a unique -wall or rampart.[80] This consisted of a stone wall about 6 feet high and -2 feet thick, on the outer side of which was a rampart of packed earth -about 6 feet 6 inches at the base and sloping toward the top. This bank of -earth was protected by a covering of small stones about 8 inches in depth. -This rampart never could have been of much value in warfare, and was, -perhaps, meant as a protection against incursions of wild animals. - -In the hillsides around Gezer there are many caves which were probably -human habitations during this period, but as they have been open during -many centuries, traces of their early occupation have long since been -destroyed. At Beit Jibrin, six or eight hours to the south of Gezer, there -are also many caves in the rock, numbers of which are artificial. At -various periods these have been employed as residences. It is altogether -probable that the use of some of them goes back to the time of the -cave-dwellers of Gezer. - -Mr. Macalister has suggested a connection between these cave-dwellers of -Gezer and the Biblical Horites,[81] since Horite means "cave-dweller." In -the Bible the Horites are said to have dwelt to the east of the Jordan, -and more especially in Edom (Gen. 14:6; 36:20, 21, 29; Deut. 2:12, 22). It -seems probable that the reason why the Bible places them all beyond Jordan -is that the cave-dwellers had disappeared from western Palestine centuries -before the Hebrews came, while to the east of the Jordan they lingered on -until displaced by those who were more nearly contemporary with the -Hebrews. On the west of the Jordan megalithic monuments were probably once -numerous, since traces of them still survive in Galilee and Judaea,[82] but -later divergent civilizations have removed most of them. In the time of -Amos one of these "gilgals" was used by the Hebrews as a place of worship, -of which the prophet did not approve.[83] - -It seems probable that there was a settlement of these cave-dwellers at -Jerusalem. The excavations of Capt. Parker brought to light an extensive -system of caves around the Virgin's Fountain, Ain Sitti Miriam, as the -Arabs call it, which is the Biblical Gihon.[84] These caves are far below -the present surface of the ground. It was found, too, that there would be -no spring at this point at all, if some early men had not walled up the -natural channel in the rock down which the water originally ran. These -men, judging by the fragments of pottery and the depth of the debris, -belonged to about the same period as the cave-dwellers of Gezer. They -apparently settled at this point because of the water, and one of the -caves may have been a sanctuary to their god. A new vista is thus added to -the history of that city, which was later the scene of so much Biblical -life. - -From various archaeological considerations Mr. Macalister estimated that -the diminutive cave-dwelling men lived at Gezer for about 500 years, from -3000 to 2500 B. C., when they were displaced by a Semitic people. - -=3. The Amorites.=--We are accustomed to call this Semitic people -Amorites, and it is probable that this is right. About 2800 B. C., under a -great king named Sargon,[85] a city of Babylonia called Uru, or -Amurru,[86] and Agade conquered all of Babylonia. The dynasty founded by -Sargon was Semitic and ruled Babylonia for 197 years.[87] Even before -Sargon conquered Babylonia, Lugalzaggisi, King of Erech, had penetrated to -the Mediterranean coast. Sargon and two of his successors, Naram-Sin and -Shargali-sharri, carried their conquests to the Mediterranean lands. A -seal of the last-mentioned king was found in Cyprus. It is probable that -the coming of the Amorites began in the north with the conquests of these -kings. To the east of the Lebanon the Princeton expedition found stone -structures similar to Babylonian _Ziggurats_, which they attribute to the -Amorites, and hold to indicate the prevalence of Babylonian influence in -this region. It is probable that the Amorites slowly worked southward, -occupying different cities as they went. Mr. Macalister's estimate that -they reached Gezer about 2500 B. C. is not, therefore, unreasonable, -though they may have arrived there a century earlier than that. This was -the beginning of that long intercourse with Babylonia which resulted in -the employment of the Babylonian language and script for the purpose of -expressing written thought in Palestine long after the Egyptians had -conquered the country. This intercourse was the more natural because the -Semites who came to Palestine were of the same race as those who were -dominant in Babylonia. - -Meantime, the Egyptians had begun to take notice of Palestine. Uni, an -officer of Pepi I of the sixth Egyptian dynasty, relates that he crossed -the sea in ships to the back of the height of the ridge north of the -"sand-dwellers" and punished the inhabitants.[88] This refers to the coast -of Palestine in the neighborhood of the Philistine cities or Gezer. The -time was between 2600 and 2570 B. C. Egypt was at this time only anxious -to make her own borders secure; she had no desire to occupy this Asiatic -land. - -Again, between 2300 and 2200 B. C., a fresh migration of Semites, -apparently also of the Amorite branch, invaded Babylonia and in time made -the city of Babylon the head of a great empire. This race furnished the -first dynasty of Babylon, which ruled from 2210 to 1924 B. C. Its greatest -king, Hammurapi,[89] who gave to Babylonia a code of laws in the -vernacular language,[90] conquered the "west land," which means the -Mediterranean coast. It was probably under his successor, Shamsu-iluna, -but certainly under one of the kings of this period, that a man in Sippar, -in leasing a wagon for a year, stipulated that it should not be driven to -the Mediterranean coast, because, apparently, travel between that coast -and northern Babylonia was so frequent.[91] In this same period there -lived in Babylonia an Abraham, the records of some of whose business -documents have come down to us.[92] We also find there men who bore the -names Yagubilu (Jacobel) and Yashubilu (Josephel), and one who was called -simply Yagub, or Jacob. Palestinian evidence from a later time leads us to -believe that men bearing all these names migrated during this period to -Palestine and gave their names to cities which they either built or -occupied.[93] - -Egyptians also came to Palestine during this period. The tale of -Sinuhe[94] relates the adventures of a man who fled to Palestine in the -year 1970 B. C., and who reached the land of Kedem, or the East, which -apparently lay to the east of the Jordan.[95] It is referred to several -times in the old Testament. (See Gen. 29:1; Judges 6:3, 33; 7:12; 8:10; -Job 1:3, etc.) Sinuhe there entered the service of an Amorite chieftain, -Ammienshi, married his eldest daughter, became ruler of a portion of his -land, and lived there for many years. He finally returned to Egypt and -wrote an account of his adventures. This region was also called by Sinuhe -and other Egyptians Upper Retenu, a name which they also applied to all -the higher parts of Syria and Palestine. Retenu is philologically -equivalent to Lotan (Gen. 36:20, 22, 29; 1 Chron. 1:38, 39) and Lot (Gen. -11:27; 12:4, etc.). When Sinuhe arrived in Kedem he found other Egyptians -already there. Ammienshi was well acquainted with Egyptians. There was -apparently considerable trade with Egypt at this time. Men from Palestine -often went there for this purpose. Such traders are pictured on an -Egyptian tomb of this period. Trade with Egypt is also shown to have -existed by the discovery of Egyptian scarabs of the time of the Middle -Kingdom in the excavation of Gezer, Jericho, Taanach, and Megiddo. As -Egypt was nearer and commerce with it easier, its art affected the art of -Palestine during this period more than did the art of Babylon, although -the people were akin to the Babylonians. In the reign of Sesostris III, -1887-1849 B. C., the Egyptian king sent an expedition into Palestine, and -captured a place, called in Egyptian Sekmem, which is thought by some to -be a misspelling of Shechem.[96] This expedition probably stimulated -Egyptian influence in the country, though the Egyptians established no -permanent control over the land at this time. - -When the Amorites occupied Palestinian cities they at once erected -fortifications. The inmost of the three walls of Gezer is their work. It -was a wall about 13 feet in thickness, in which were towers 41 feet long -and 24 feet thick and about 90 feet apart. It contained at least two -gates.[97] At Megiddo the city was surrounded by a wall, parts of which -were made of brick,[98] while at Jericho the older of the walls of the -central citadel dates from this time.[99] - -=4. The Canaanites.=--Between 1800 and 1750 B. C. a migration occurred -which greatly disturbed all western Asia. There moved into Babylonia from -the east a people called Kassites. They conquered Babylonia and -established a dynasty which reigned for 576 years.[100] Coincident with -this movement into Babylonia there was a migration across the whole of -Asia to the westward, which caused an invasion of Egypt and the -establishment of the Hyksos dynasties there.[101] As pointed out -previously,[102] it is possible that this movement, in so far as the -leadership of the invasion of Egypt was concerned, was Hittite. In any -event, however, many Semites were involved in it, as the Semitic names in -the Egyptian Delta at this time prove. It is customary to assume that it -was in connection with this migration that the Canaanites came into -Palestine. This cannot, in the present state of our knowledge, be clearly -proved, but such evidence as we have points in this direction. There began -at this time a new period of culture at Gezer, which is quite -distinguishable from that which had preceded. This indicates the coming of -new influences. Moreover, there was apparently an augmentation of the -population of Palestine at this time. New cities were founded at Tell -el-Hesy and Tell es-Safi,[103] and elsewhere. We thus feel sure that there -was an increase of population and, when next our written sources reveal to -us the location of the nations, the Canaanites were dwelling in Phoenicia. -The Egyptian scribes of a later time called the entire western part of -Syria and Palestine "The Canaan."[104] Probably, therefore, the Canaanites -settled along the sea coast. We, therefore, infer that they came into this -region at this time. With the coming of an increased population, the -Amorites appear to have been in part subjugated and absorbed, and in part -forced into narrower limits. A powerful group of them maintained their -integrity in the region afterward occupied by the tribe of Asher and in -the valley between the Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon mountains, where they -afterward formed a kingdom. Another group of them survived to the east of -the Jordan, where they maintained a kingdom until overthrown by the -Hebrews. (See Num. 21 and Deut. 1-3.) - -After the coming of the Canaanites our information concerning the history -of Palestine fails us for nearly three hundred years. All that we know of -the history of the country is what can be inferred from the accumulated -debris of the "second Semitic" strata of the different mounds that have -been excavated. During these centuries Egypt was invaded by the Hyksos, -whose course was run, and under the great eighteenth dynasty the Hyksos -were expelled, chased into Asia, and the conquest of Asia undertaken. - -=5. Egyptian Domination.=--Ahmose I, 1580-1557 B. C., besieged Sharuhen -(Josh. 19:6) in southern Palestine for six years and captured it, while -both Amenophis I and Thothmes I between 1557 and 1501 B. C. made raids -through Palestine and Syria to the Euphrates. Of their deeds in Palestine -no records have survived. - -(1) _Thothmes III._--It is not until the reign of Thothmes III that -detailed information begins. Between 1478 and 1447 B. C. this king made no -less than seventeen expeditions into Palestine, Phoenicia, and Syria. At -the beginning of his reign this country was dotted with petty kingdoms; -before its close he had so thoroughly amalgamated it with Egypt that it -remained an integral part of the Egyptian dominion for 100 years. Before -his death Thothmes inscribed on the walls of the temple of Amon at Thebes -a list of the places in Asia which he had conquered. Many of these were in -Palestine and in Syria, and we learn in this way what towns were already -places of importance a century or two before the Hebrew conquest. Among -places that are mentioned in the Old Testament he names[105] Kedesh (Josh. -19:37), Megiddo, Lebonah (Judges 21:19), Addar (Josh. 15:3), two different -cities named Abel; see Judges 7:22 (which mentions one situated in the -Jordan valley), and 2 Sam. 20:14 (which refers to one near Dan), Damascus, -Hammath[106] (Josh. 19:35), situated on the Sea of Galilee (where there -are still hot springs), Beeroth (Josh. 9:17), Sharon, Tob (Judges 11:3, -5), Kanah (Josh. 19:28), Ashtaroth (Deut. 1:4; Josh. 9:20), Makkedah -(Josh. 15:41), Laish (Judges 18:7, 18), Hazor (Josh. 11:1; Judges 4:2), -Chinneroth (Josh. 11:2), Shunem (Josh. 19:18; 1 Sam. 28:41; 2 Kings 4:8), -Achshaph (Josh. 11:1), Taanach, Ibleam (Josh. 17:11; Judges 1:27), Ijon (1 -Kings 15:20), Accho, Anaharath (Josh. 19:19), Ophra (Judges 6:11), Joppa, -Gath, Lod (Neh. 7:37) or Lydda (Acts 9:32), Ono (1 Chron. 8:12), Aphik (1 -Sam. 4:1), Migdol, Ephes-dammim (1 Sam. 17:1), Rakkath (Josh. 19:35), -Gerar (Gen. 20:1, etc.), Rabbith (Josh. 19:20), Namaah (Josh. 15:41), -Rehob (Josh. 19:28), Edrei (Deut. 1:4; Josh. 12:4), Daiban (Neh. 11:25), -Bethshean (Josh. 17:11), Beth-anoth (Josh. 15:59), Helkath (Josh. 19:25), -Geba (Josh. 18:24), Zererah (Judges 7:22), and Zephath (Judges 1:17). In -addition to these towns which are mentioned in the Bible, the list of -Thothmes III contains many other names which we cannot yet identify. Among -these are the names of two cities, Josephel and Jacobel, which are -discussed in Part II, p. 300. These names, as already noted, are the same -as the names of two Babylonian Amorites of the time of the first dynasty. -It seems probable that two important Amorites had migrated to Palestine -and had either founded new cities, or had been men of such consequence -that their names were attached to cities previously in existence. A -parallel to this is found in the name of Abu Gosh. He was a sheik of the -nineteenth century, but his name displaced the name of the village -previously called Karyet el-Ineb, between Jaffa and Jerusalem, and it is -now called Abu Gosh. Conjectures differ as to the part of Palestine in -which the cities Jacobel and Josephel were situated. We have in reality no -certain clue as to this. - -It is probable also that something similar had occurred in the case of -Abraham. It has been pointed out previously that Abraham is known to have -been a Babylonian name at the time of the first Babylonian dynasty. The -Biblical records tell of the coming of Abraham from Mesopotamia (Gen. -11:31-12:5), and the inscriptions of Sheshonk, the Biblical Shishak, tell -us some centuries later of the existence of a place, apparently in -southern Judah, called "The Field of Abram." See Part II, p. 360. - -(2) _Palestine in the El-Amarna Letters._--During the 100 years of -Egyptian supremacy in Palestine which Thothmes III inaugurated, the -fortifications of certain strategic cities were greatly strengthened. At -Gezer, for example, an entirely new wall was built. This was the "outer" -wall of Mr. Macalister's classification, a substantial structure fourteen -feet wide, which completely encircled the city. This massive wall remained -the city's defence down to the Babylonian Exile. - -From the El-Amarna letters we gain another glimpse of Palestine about a -hundred years after the death of Thothmes III. The Biblical cities which -are mentioned in these letters are Accho (Judges 1:31), Ashkelon, Arvad -(Ezek. 27:8), Aroer (Num. 32:34), Ashtaroth (Deut. 1:4, etc.), Gebal -(Ezek. 27:9), Gezer (Josh. 10:33, 1 Kings 9:15, etc.), Gath, Gaza, -Jerusalem, Joppa, Keilah (1 Sam. 23:1), Lachish (Josh. 10:3, etc.), -Megiddo, Sidon, Tyre, Shechem, Sharon, Taanach, and Zorah (Judges 13:2). -One city, called in these letters Beth-Ninib, is, in all probability, -Bethshemesh (Josh. 15:10, etc.). Many other towns are mentioned in the -letters, but as they are not mentioned in the Bible they are not -enumerated here. These letters were written just as the Egyptian dominion -in Asia was breaking up, owing to the fact that King Amenophis IV was much -more deeply interested in religious reform than in politics.[107] The -disintegration of the empire produced great disorder. The power which -Egypt had exerted in the past made the Asiatics still fear to come out -openly against her, but the correspondence shows that several petty states -were plotting against one another, frequently encroaching upon one -another, and yet all the time professing to be loyal to Egypt. The largest -number of these states were in the north in Phoenicia. The principal -states were the city kingdoms of Gebal, Beirut, Tyre, Jerusalem, and the -Amorites.[108] Jerusalem at this time ruled a considerable territory,[109] -but its history will be discussed connectedly in a future chapter.[110] -The kings of the Amorites during this period were Ebed-Ashera and Aziru. -While these small kingdoms of Palestine and Phoenicia were contending with -one another, and the king of Egypt was giving no attention to them, the -land was invaded from the north by the Hittites under the great King -Subbiluliuma,[111] who gradually conquered the Amorites and the Orontes -Valley. It was at the same time invaded from the east by the Habiri, who -were probably the Hebrews.[112] - -With this movement of peoples there came into the west a third wave of -Semitic migration, the Aramaean. We hear nothing of the Aramaic-speaking -peoples in earlier time, but about 1300 B. C. they are mentioned by both -Shalmaneser I, of Assyria, and Ramses II, of Egypt, as though they were in -Syria and Palestine. In later time they formed the basis of the population -from the east of the Euphrates to the Mediterranean coast and southward to -Damascus. In Deut. 26:5 Israelites are told to say "A wandering Aramaean -was my father" (R. V., margin). The reference seems to be to Jacob, though -possibly Abraham is intended. In either case, it shows that the Hebrews -recognized that there was an Aramaean strain in their ancestry. Perhaps the -Habiri were Aramaeans, or were allied with Aramaeans. - -At all events, in the struggles that ensued, little by little all -allegiance to Egypt was thrown off by the Palestinians. Letters to Egypt -ceased to be written, our sources fail us, and for more than forty years -we can only conjecture what was happening in Palestine. - -(3) _Seti I._--With the accession of Seti I of the nineteenth Egyptian -dynasty, who ruled from 1313 to 1292 B. C., some knowledge of events in -Palestine begins once more to come to us. Seti in his first year entered -Asia, captured an unnamed walled town on the border of the desert, pushed -northward and took the towns in the Plain of Jezreel, crossed the Jordan -and conquered cities in the Hauran, where he set up a pillar, discovered -there a few years since by Principal George Adam Smith; he then turned -west and conquered a city on the slopes of the Lebanon mountains.[113] -This campaign regained for Egypt all of Palestine and southern Phoenicia. -In his third year Seti was again in Asia. On this campaign he overthrew -the kingdom of the Amorites in northern Galilee. They occupied the city of -Kedesh in Naphtali (Josh. 19:37). This city Seti besieged and took. - -(4) _Ramses II._--Thus at the beginning of the reign of Ramses II, who -ruled from 1292-1225 B. C., all Palestine was subject to Egypt. The -practical defeat of Ramses by the Hittites at Kadesh on the Orontes in his -fifth year, however, caused all Palestine to revolt, and Ramses was -compelled to undertake the reconquest of the land. This he accomplished -between his fifth and eighth years, beginning with the Philistine cities -and overrunning the whole country to the Hauran, where he set up a pillar, -as his father had previously done.[114] So far as we know, Palestine -remained quietly under the rule of Ramses during the remainder of his long -reign. - -Ramses II, like Thothmes III, left on record a long list of cities -conquered by him in Asia. Of these the following are Palestinian towns -mentioned in the Bible:[115] Hammath (Josh. 19:35), Beth-shean (Josh. -17:11), Beth-anath (Josh. 19:38), and Hadasha (Josh. 15:37). Pella, a town -in the Jordan valley not mentioned in the Bible, also occurs in his list, -and there is also a possible mention of Jacobel in a corrupted form. - -(5) _Merneptah._--After the accession of Merneptah, the successor of -Ramses II, a rebellion broke out. This was about 1223 B. C. Merneptah put -down the rebellion, but in the struggle caused by it, he was compelled to -reduce Gezer by siege. It was on this campaign that he came into contact -with Israel and defeated her.[116] Some think the Israelites whom he -mentioned were those who more than a century and a quarter before had been -battling against Jerusalem; others, that they were those who had just -escaped from Egypt. - -The reign of Merneptah was followed by some years of unstable government -in Egypt, but this does not appear to have been a sufficiently long period -for great changes to occur in Palestine. Order was restored in Egypt by -Setnakht about 1200 B. C., and his son and successor, Ramses III, -1198-1167 B. C., reasserted his sovereignty over Palestine and Phoenicia. - -(6) _Ramses III._--Ramses III found himself confronted with a peculiar -situation. The Egyptian Delta and the coasts of Palestine were invaded by -hordes of people from over the sea. As early as the reign of Ramses II the -Egyptians had employed men from the island of Sardinia as mercenaries; -there must then have been intercourse with distant islands across the sea. - -=6. The Philistines.=--Now, however, hordes of Sicilians, Danaoi, Peleset -(Philistines), Thekel, and many other tribes came from over the sea. These -tribes came in part from islands, such as Sicily and Crete, and in part -from the coasts of Asia Minor. Ramses III was compelled to fight with -them, both in the Delta and in Phoenicia. On the walls of his temple at -Medinet Habu he has left us pictures of the Philistines. A remarkable -inscribed disc was found a few years since at Phaestos in Crete. It is -printed with a sort of movable type, and each character is a pictograph or -hieroglyph. Prof. Macalister has shown that it is, in all probability, a -contract tablet.[117] When the tablet was first published Eduard Meyer -pointed out[118] that a frequently recurring sign, which is apparently the -determinative for "man" or "person," has the same sort of upstanding hair -as the Philistines pictured by Ramses III on the walls of Medinet Habu. -This tablet, accordingly, was written by Philistines or their near -kindred. In this view there is general agreement among scholars. Amos -declared that the Lord brought the Philistines from Caphtor (Amos 9:7). -If this disc was written in Crete, it would follow that Caphtor was Crete. -It is thought possible by some that the disc was written in Asia Minor, -whence it was carried to Crete; in that case Caphtor would be a name for -Asia Minor.[119] At all events, this inscription makes it clear that the -Philistines came from over the sea, and that their point of departure was -either Crete or Asia Minor. Ramses III reveals to us through his -inscriptions the Philistines in the act of migrating into Palestine. With -them were the Thekel, who afterward were absorbed by the Philistines; (see -Figs. 36 and 38). - -In his struggle with these tribes Ramses III was compelled to carry the -war into Asia, where he overcame and defeated them. In commemoration of -this event he has left a list of places which he conquered in Asia. Most -of them, so far as they can be identified, were further north than -Palestine, but the following are names of places mentioned in the -Bible:[120] Seir (Gen. 14:6, etc.), Caineh (Amos 6:2), or Calno (Isa. -10:9), Tyre, Carchemish, Beth-Dagon (Josh. 15:41), Kir-Bezek, probably the -same as Bezek (Judges 1:5), Hadashah (Josh. 15:37), Ardon (1 Chron. 2:18), -Beer (cf. Num. 21:16), Senir (Deut. 3:9), Zobebah (1 Chron. 4:8), Gether -(Gen. 10:23), and Ar (Num. 21:15; Isa. 15:1, etc.). - -After Ramses III the Egyptian empire became too weak to interfere in -Palestinian affairs. In the chronology followed by many scholars today it -was about this time that the Hebrews completed their conquest of the -country and the age of the Judges began. - -=7. The Hebrews.=--On their way into Palestine the Hebrews, as already -noted, invaded and conquered a kingdom of the Amorites which lay to the -east of the Jordan and had its capital at Heshbon. (See Num. 21:21 and -Deut. 1:4, etc.). This kingdom was a survival of the ancient Amorite -occupation of the land. The Amorites composing it had not been absorbed or -displaced by more recent pre-Hebrew invaders. - -It is stated in Judges 1:27-36 that there were a number of cities from -which the Israelites did not, at the time of their conquest, drive out the -inhabitants. The principal excavations in Palestine have had to do with -cities which were not conquered by Hebrews at this time--Taanach, Megiddo, -and Gezer. We are told in Josh. 10:33 that when Horam, King of Gezer, -came to the aid of the king of Lachish, Joshua "smote him and his people -till he left none remaining." As nothing is said of the capture of Gezer, -this must refer only to the force which went to the aid of Lachish. This -view is confirmed by the fact that in the time of David, Gezer was in the -hands of the Philistines. (See 1 Chron. 20:4.) Gezer did not come into the -hands of the Hebrews until the time of Solomon, when Solomon's Egyptian -father-in-law conquered it and gave it to him. Mr. Macalister found -evidence that at about this time there was a considerable increase of the -population of Gezer, which seems to confirm the statement of Judges 1:29 -that Canaanites and Israelites dwelt together there. This evidence -consisted in the crowding together of houses, so that, as many new ones -were built, they became smaller. New houses also encroached upon the land -of the "high place."[121] There was evidently an increase of the -population such as an influx of Hebrews would account for. Evidence of -Hebrew conquest seems also to have come to light in the capture and -burning of Jericho[122] and Bethshemesh,[123] which the excavations have -revealed. - -=8. Philistine Civilization.=--The next source of information which -archaeology furnishes us concerning Palestine is the report of Wenamon, -translated in Part II, p. 352, ff. Wenamon visited Dor and Gebal about -1100 B. C. He found a king of the Thekel established in Dor, so that the -Philistines were probably by this time established in the whole maritime -plain. - -With the coming of the Philistines into Palestine, new influences were -introduced into the country. These are most apparent in the pottery that -has come down to us. (See Chapter VIII.) The Philistines, whether they -came from Crete or from the coasts of the AEgean Sea, had been influenced -by those higher forms of art which were in later times developed into the -superb Greek forms. Just at the time when history tells us the Philistines -came into Palestine, we begin to find in its mounds the remains of a more -ornate pottery. - -=9. The Hebrew Kingdoms.=--As the Philistines filled the maritime plain, -and began to push into the hill country, the Israelites formed a kingdom -by which to oppose them. The kingdom of Saul accomplished little, but that -of David, which began about 1000 B. C., overcame the Philistines and all -other peoples adjacent to the Hebrews and established an Israelitish -empire.[124] This was possible because just at that time both Egypt and -Assyria were weak. Before the end of the reign of Solomon this empire -began to disintegrate (1 Kings 11:14-25), and at his death, about 937 B. -C., it faded entirely away and the kingdom was divided into the kingdoms -of Israel and Judah. The history of these kingdoms is given in outline in -the Bible and is probably familiar to every reader of this book. - -These kingdoms, frequently at war with each other, were first invaded by -Sheshonk (Shishak) of Egypt (1 Kings 14:25), who made them his vassals -(see Part II, p. 359, f.), and in later centuries were made subject to -Assyria. Israel suffered this fate first in 842 B. C., and Judah in 732. -On account of her rebellions, the kingdom of Israel was overthrown by -Assyria in the year 722 B. C. After Assyria became weak, Judah was made -subject to Egypt in 608 B. C., but passed under the sway of Babylon in the -year 604. Because she repeatedly rebelled against Babylon, the prominent -Judaeans were carried captive partly in 597 B. C. and partly in 586, and in -the year last mentioned Jerusalem was overthrown and its temple destroyed. - -Excavations have brought to light much evidence as to the houses, high -places, and the mode of life of this time,[125] as well as evidence of how -Shishak fought against Rehoboam, Shalmaneser III against Ahab and Jehu, -Tiglath-pileser IV against Menahem and Pekah, Shalmaneser V and Sargon -against Hoshea, and Sennacherib against Judah. It has also told us much -about Nebuchadrezzar.[126] - -=10. The Exile and After.=--The Babylonian Exile was brought by Cyrus to a -possible end in 538 B. C. This is also illuminated by that which -exploration has brought to light.[127] The temple was rebuilt through the -efforts of Haggai and Zechariah during the years 520-517 B. C. In 444 B. -C. Nehemiah rebuilt the walls of Jerusalem, as related in Neh. 1-7. Thus -under the Persian empire Judah was re-established. It consisted of a -little country around Jerusalem; it was poor and weak, but was aided by -money sent from Babylonia by Jews who were still resident there. - -(1) _The Samaritans._--In the neighborhood of Samaria was a people who -were descended in part from Hebrews whom Sargon did not carry away and in -part from the Gentiles whom he brought in. These people worshiped Jehovah. -(See 2 Kings 17:24-34.) When the little Jewish state had been -re-established at Jerusalem, they wished to participate in Jewish worship -and to be recognized as good Jews. Since they were not of pure Hebrew -descent, the Jews would not permit this, so they at last desisted, built a -temple to Jehovah on Mount Gerizim (see John 4:20), and became a large and -flourishing sect.[128] They based their worship on the Pentateuch, and -were so much like the Jews that there was constant friction between them. -This friction is reflected in Luke 9:51-54, John 4:9, and in many passages -of the Talmud. It was this sect that occupied Samaria in the time of -Christ and made it in his day a distinct division of the country. - -(2) _Alexander the Great and His Successors._--In 332 B. C. Palestine -passed from Persian rule to that of Alexander the Great. After his death -in 323 it came under the rule of his general, Ptolemy Lagi, who ultimately -became king of Egypt. Later, 220-198 B. C., there was a struggle for the -possession of Palestine between the descendants of Ptolemy and the house -of Seleucus, another general of Alexander, who had established a kingdom -with its capital at Antioch. During these wars the Jews suffered greatly. -Finally the Seleucid king won, and Palestine passed definitely under the -control of Syria. With the coming of Alexander new cultural influences had -entered Palestine from the Hellenic world, and down to 168 B. C. such -influences were eagerly welcomed by a portion of the Jews. - -(3) _The Maccabees._--In that year, however, Antiochus IV undertook to -forcibly Hellenize the Jews and to blot out their religion. This the more -faithful Jews resented, and a great revolt ensued. This revolt had as its -first successful general Judas, son of Mattathias, who, because of his -victories, was surnamed _makkab_, or the Hammer; it is, therefore, known -as the Maccabaean revolt. With varying fortunes the struggle dragged on for -25 years.[129] It finally succeeded because of civil wars in Syria. On -account of these each faction favored the Jews, and Syria became -continually weaker. In 143 B. C. the Jews once more achieved their -independence under Simon, brother of Judas, whom they ordained should be -Prince and High Priest forever.[130] - -(4) _The Asmonaeans._--The attaining of independence was accompanied by a -great wave of racial and religious enthusiasm. Not since the days of Ahaz, -in 733 B. C., had Judah been free of foreign domination. At the beginning -of the reign of Simon, it was still but a small territory around -Jerusalem. Hebron and all to the south of it was in the hands of the -Edomites, who three centuries before had been driven out of Edom by the -Nabathaeans Simon began to enlarge their territory. He won Gezer and Joppa. -John Hyrcanus, his son and successor, 135-105 B. C., conquered the -Edomites, and compelled them to become Jews; he also conquered and -destroyed Samaria in 109 B. C. He began the conquest of Galilee. His son, -Aristobulus I 105-104 B. C., assumed the title of king. A regal dynasty -was thus founded, which is known as the Asmonaean or Hasmonaean dynasty, _i. -e._, the "Simonites" or descendants of Simon. - -Alexander Jannaeus, 104-79 B. C., completed the conquest of Galilee and the -region to the east of the Jordan, and extended the bounds of the kingdom -of the Asmonaeans to practically the same limits as those of the kingdom of -David. The Galileans were also Judaized, as the Edomites had been. This -period of Jewish prosperity continued to 69 B. C. Through it all, in spite -of the religious zeal of the Jews, Hellenic influences made themselves -felt in many aspects of the country's life. - -=11. The Coming of Rome.=--On the death of Queen Alexandra in 69 B. C., -her sons, John Hyrcanus II and Aristobulus II, both aspired to the supreme -power, and till 63 B. C. civil war ensued. In 65 B. C. the Romans had -terminated the independence of Syria and made it a Roman province. In 63 -B. C. both the Jewish brothers appealed to Pompey, who had come to -Damascus. Aristobulus, however, acted treacherously, and Pompey marched -upon Jerusalem and took it by siege. Jewish independence was thus forever -lost, and Palestine passed under the yoke of Rome. Down to 37 B. C. the -country experienced many vicissitudes, as the struggles of the Roman -triumvirs were reflected in it. These vicissitudes culminated in the year -40 B. C., when Orodes I, King of Parthia, captured Jerusalem and placed -Antigonus, a son of Aristobulus II, on the throne. Antigonus was king and -a vassal of Parthia for three years. - -(1) _The Herods._--In 37 B. C. Herod the Great, whose father had served -under the Romans, by the aid of a Roman army furnished him by Mark -Antony, drove Antigonous out and began his notable reign. Herod was a man -of great energy, an Edomite by descent, whose ancestors had become Jews by -compulsion. While professedly a Jew, he was deeply enamored of the -Graeco-Roman culture. He wrung taxes from the people in order to beautify -Palestine with cities and temples built on Hellenic models. He rebuilt, -among other undertakings, the Jewish temple at Jerusalem and the city of -Samaria. This last he named Sebaste, the Greek for Augusta, naming it in -honor of the Emperor Augustus. He built a heathen temple there, surrounded -the city with a colonnaded street, many of the columns of which are still -standing, and otherwise adorned it. He built for himself a palace at -Jericho, and another on the top of a hill to the southeast of Bethlehem, -today called Gebel Fureidis; (see Figs. 31 and 39). - -Upon his death, in 4 B. C., his kingdom was divided, Archelaus receiving -Judah and Samaria; Antipas, Galilee and Peraea, and Philip, Iturea and -Trachonitis. None of his sons was permitted by the Romans to be called -king, but all bore the title of "tetrarch." The rule of Archelaus proved -so unbearable that in 6 A. D. Augustus banished him to Gaul and placed -Judaea and Samaria under Procurators, who were responsible to the -Proconsuls of the province of Syria. Pontius Pilate was the fifth of these -Procurators. After the death of Herod Antipas in 39 A. D., the Emperor -Caligula made Herod Agrippa I, a grandson of Herod the Great, king of the -dominions over which that monarch had ruled. Agrippa assumed control in 41 -and ruled till his death in 44 A. D. His death is described in Acts 12:23. -After his death the whole country was governed by Procurators. - -(2) _The Destruction of Jerusalem in 70 A. D._--Roman rule was always -distasteful to the Jews, and as the years passed they became more and more -restive. These smouldering fires broke into the flame of open rebellion in -the year 66 A. D., and after four years of terrible warfare Jerusalem was -captured and destroyed in 70 A. D. The temple, also razed to the ground, -has never been rebuilt. The country about Jerusalem was peopled by some of -the poorer of the peasantry, and the tenth Roman legion remained in the -city for a long time to keep order in that region. - -=12. Later History.=--In 132 A. D., in the reign of Hadrian, a man called -Bar Chocaba, or the "Son of the Star," came forward, claiming to be the -Messiah, and headed a Jewish revolt. So fiercely did the Jews fight that -the insurrection was not quelled by Rome until 135 A. D. When it was -finally put down, Hadrian determined to blot the name of Jerusalem from -the map. He rebuilt Jerusalem, making it a Roman colony, named it AElia -Capitolina, and built a temple to Jupiter on the spot where the temple of -Jehovah had formerly stood. No Jew was permitted to come near the city. -Jerusalem as built by Hadrian continued until the time of Constantine, and -the form thus imposed upon it lasted much longer. - -When Constantine made Christianity the religion of the empire, both he and -his mother began to take an interest in the Holy City and the Holy Land. -Other Christians followed them. The Church of the Holy Sepulcher was -built, and the temple of Jupiter built by Hadrian was turned into a -Christian church. Pilgrimages to the Holy Land began, and monasteries, -churches, and bishoprics in time sprang up over all the country. Thus for -three hundred years the influences which were felt in Palestine emanated -from Byzantium or Constantinople. In 615 A. D. the land was overrun by -Chosroes II of Persia, who captured Jerusalem and destroyed many of its -churches. The Persians held it until 628, when the Byzantine kings -regained it. The control of Jerusalem by the Christians was, however, of -short duration, for in 636 Palestine was captured by the Mohammedans, and -with the exception of 89 years has ever since been under Mohammedan -control.[131] During these long centuries the country was ruled by the -Caliphs of Medina, Damascus, and Bagdad; by the Buvide Sultans, the -Fatimite Caliphs of Egypt, and the Seljuk Turks. The cruelties inflicted -by these last rulers upon Christians led to the Crusades, the first of -which established the Latin kingdom of Jerusalem,[132] which continued -from 1099 to 1188 A. D. This kingdom, organized on the feudal basis then -existing in western Europe, extended over all of Palestine and Syria, -including Antioch, and for nearly half the time, Edessa beyond the -Euphrates. Its existence marks an epoch in the archaeology of the country. - -Since the fall of this Latin kingdom, Palestine has remained under Moslem -control. First the Eyyubide Sultans of Egypt, then the Mamelukes of that -same land held sway. In 1517 the Ottoman Turks captured it, and have since -inflicted their misrule upon it. What fortunes the great war now raging -may bring to this land of sacred associations, we await with intense -interest. - - - - -CHAPTER VI - -THE CITIES OF PALESTINE - - THEIR SITES. THE WALLS. THE STONE WORK. HOUSES. PALACES: At Taanach. - At Samaria. At Jericho. At Megiddo. FOUNDATION SACRIFICES. CITY GATES. - WATER SUPPLY: Springs. Underground tunnels. Reservoirs. - - -=1. Their Sites.=--The cities of Palestine were usually built on hills. -These elevations, surmounted as they were by walls, created a natural -means of defence from attack; (see Fig. 33). Even more important than an -elevated situation was a water supply, hence all Palestinian cities of -importance are near springs. The necessity of being near a spring led, in -some cases, to the erection of a city on a level plain. This was the case -with Jericho; the only mound at its site is that created by the city -itself. - -The hills on which the cities were erected varied in height. That at -Megiddo rose to a height of but 45 to 90 feet above the surrounding land, -but even this elevation was a great protection from the simple methods of -attack known to ancient warfare. The hill Ophel, the site of Jebusite -Jerusalem, rises today from 60 to 150 feet above the valley of the Kidron, -and in ancient times that valley was from 20 to 50 feet deeper than it is -now. The same hill was separated from the land on the west by a valley the -bed of which in ancient times was from 50 to 100 feet below the top of the -hill. The hill on which Samaria was situated rose some 300 feet above the -surrounding valley on all sides except the east, and when fortified -presented such an impregnable front that it took even an Assyrian army -three years to capture it. (2 Kings 17:5.) In the Seleucid and Roman -periods, when some cities expanded in size, the hilltops were sometimes -abandoned and they spread out over the plain. This was the case with -Gerasa and Philadelphia (Rabbah Ammon).[133] But "a city set on a hill" -(Matt. 5:14) was a common feature of the Palestinian landscape. - -=2. The Walls.=--The walls by which the cities were surrounded varied -according to the advancement of the different periods, and according to -the importance of the place. As has already been pointed out in Chapter V, -the first wall at Gezer was but 6 feet high and 2 feet thick, and had a -sloping bank of earth packed against it on the outside. This bank was 6 -feet 6 inches thick at the base and was covered with a facing of stone. In -the Amorite period a wall 13 feet thick was erected at Gezer, in which -towers were constructed about every 90 feet. These towers were 24 x 41 -feet. Their height is, of course, unknown. This wall was probably built -about 2500 B. C. and formed the defense of the city for a thousand years. -By that time the tops of the houses probably protruded above the wall, and -the population had increased so that more space was needed. This wall was, -accordingly, replaced by another built outside of it. Much of the material -of which the old wall was constructed went into the new wall, which was -approximately 14 feet thick and contained occasional towers. At some time -a part of this wall had been destroyed, and then rebuilt. Probably at the -time of this rebuilding, additional towers had been inserted at different -points. The stones of these towers touched those of the wall without being -articulated with them. It has been conjectured[134] that these towers were -a part of the repairs made by King Solomon after the town had been -captured by his Egyptian father-in-law and presented to Solomon. (See 1 -Kings 9:16, 17.) Still later an attempt was made to strengthen the -weakness caused by the unclosed seam between the towers and the wall by -constructing around the towers rude bastions. (See Figs. 40, 46.) Mr. -Macalister conjectures that this was done by the Syrian General Bacchides -when he hastily fortified Gezer and occupied it in 160 B. C.[135] (1 Macc. -9:52.) - -At Lachish, Petrie found massive city walls, though he did not describe -them in detail.[136] At Taanach, Sellin found a strong city wall, but did -not attempt to trace it about the tell.[137] Schumacher devoted -considerable attention to the city walls of Megiddo, a part of which were -built of bricks.[138] At Tell es-Safi (Gath?) the outlines of the city -walls were traced, as they were at Tell el-Judeideh.[139] At Samaria a -part of the Roman wall of the time of Herod was found; lower down in the -mound remains of a Babylonian wall (see 2 Kings 17:24), beneath which the -excavators recognized the Hebrew wall.[140] City walls were found, too, at -Bethshemesh,[141] but of especial interest to the student of the Bible are -the walls of Jericho. Here, as at Megiddo, the walls were constructed in -part of brick. They had an average thickness of 13 feet. The Canaanitish -wall was traced around three sides of the mound. It was strengthened by -occasional towers.[142] On the east, next to the spring, they had entirely -disappeared. This must not be pressed into a confirmation of Josh. 6:20, -that the walls fell down flat, for the later Israelitish wall has -disappeared on that side of the mound also. Later, when in the days of -Ahab the Israelites rebuilt the city (1 Kings 16:34), they did not place -the wall on the old line, but enclosed a considerably larger space. This -wall was constructed partly of bricks, but mostly of stone.[143] The walls -of Jerusalem will be treated in Chapter XIII. At the northwest corner of -the Canaanitish wall was a tower enclosed by two brick walls; the outer -wall was a little more than 4 feet thick; the inner, about 10 feet. - -=3. The Stone Work.=--The kind of stones used in city walls varied with -the circumstances and the degree of civilization. The walls of the stone -age were naturally made of small undressed stones. The Amorites began the -use of cut stone. Their blocks are often fairly smooth and regular. The -Amorite wall of Gezer was made of more regular stones than the wall of the -Egyptian period.[144] In the Israelitish and Jewish periods a stone with -an embossed edge was often used. It is found in the wall of Nehemiah, -excavated by Bliss,--a wall made of stones that some pre-exilic king had -used before,--and appears also in the structures of Herod the Great. In -the structures of Constantine and later Byzantine builders, this type of -stone is replaced by a stone with a perfectly smooth surface--much more -smooth than anything found in the early walls. This type of stone work -continued through the crusading period; (see Figs. 253, 254.) While these -types can be traced, their use was not altogether regular.[145] - -The areas of Palestinian cities in the early time were very small. All of -Canaanite Jericho could be put in the Colosseum at Rome! Megiddo, one of -the largest of these early cities, was built on a mound that contained -only about eleven acres, and Jebusite Jerusalem was built on a ridge that -in ancient times contained not less than nine or more than thirteen acres. - -=4. Houses.=--Within these small areas the houses were crowded together, -as in the modern native villages of Palestine, separated only by narrow, -crooked lanes. One may see in Hebron or in some parts of Jerusalem similar -conditions to this day. There was no drainage; refuse was thrown into the -streets. The cities were ill-smelling places. The wonder is that the -mortality was not greater. The houses in the central, elevated portion of -Palestine were usually of stone, though at Gezer, Jericho, and places in -the lower-lying portions of the country they were sometimes of brick. The -walls of the stone houses were constructed of rough stones of a great -variety of sizes, from small pebbles to large boulders. Mortar and cement -were never used. The stones were set in mud. They were not dressed except -with a hammer in the roughest way. The joints between them were wide and -irregular. Into the crevices serpents and scorpions might crawl. It was of -such a house that Amos says, "a man ... leaned his hand on the wall and a -serpent bit him"; (5:19). The bricks were rarely burned; they were simply -sun-dried, and had no more cohesion than the earth in which they were -embedded. The houses generally had no floor except the earth, which was -smoothed off and packed hard. Sometimes this was varied by mixing lime -with the mud and letting it harden, and sometimes floors of cobblestones -or stone chippings mixed with lime were found. In the Roman period mosaic -floors, made by embedding small smoothly cut squares of stone in the -earth, were introduced. By employing stones of different colors the -mosaics were often worked into beautiful patterns; (see Figs. 35, 42, 43, -44, 47, and 48). Sometimes pictures of birds and animals were formed in -the floors. - -The doorways were usually simply an opening made by the vertical sides -left in the masonry. In the later time they were sometimes lined with -standing stones. The doors themselves have long since disappeared, but -there is evidence that, like many houses still to be seen in Palestine, -they were made fast to a post, the lower end of which was set in a hollow -or perforated stone. When the door swung the whole post turned in this -stone. Some of these stones were found. In a few houses at Gezer -enclosures of stones on end were sometimes found in the middle or the -corners of dwelling houses. Perhaps these were hearths.[146] Some houses -built after the time of Alexander the Great had a kind of piazza running -along the side. The remains of the pillars which supported the roofs of -these were discovered. Beginning with the Hellenistic period, some of the -better houses had baths. (On doors, see Figs. 49, 50.) - -=5. Palaces.=--In the excavation of different sites the outlines of -several larger buildings or palaces were uncovered. A few of these are of -interest to the student of the Bible. - -(1) _At Taanach._--In the northeast of the mound at Taanach[147] the -remains of a building about 75 x 77 feet were found. It was in existence -in the fourteenth century before Christ. This building contained several -rooms, as the plan will make clear; (see Fig. 45). The remains of the wall -still showed one layer of hewn stones, some of which were very large. In a -vault underneath the building four cuneiform tablets were found. They had -been placed there for safety in time of siege, and these four tablets had -been overlooked when the rest of the archive was rifled. These tablets -proved to be letters written at the same time as those found at -El-Amarna.[148] The building was the palace of a Canaanite king. - -(2) _At Samaria._--Of especial interest to the student of the Bible are -the palaces of the Hebrew period. At Samaria Reisner discovered massive -walls, which were probably the remains of the palaces of Omri and Ahab. -That of Omri was built of large stones and rested on the native rock. As -Omri was the founder of the city (1 Kings 16:24), there can be little -doubt that this was his palace. An enlargement of this consisted of walls -the construction of which was finer. They were faced with white marble. In -this palace an alabaster vase was found, inscribed with the name of -Osorkon II, King of Egypt, who was a contemporary of King Ahab. This is, -therefore, believed to be the palace of Ahab--perhaps the "house of ivory" -which Ahab built (1 Kings 22:39). As the volume on the excavation at -Samaria is not yet published, it is impossible to give detailed plans of -these buildings. The accompanying picture (Fig. 52) shows some of their -walls. - -(3) _At Jericho._--Another building of this period, which the excavators -believed might have been built by Hiel, the rebuilder of Jericho, in the -days of Ahab (1 Kings 16:34), was uncovered by Sellin. It is the most -pretentious building of the Hebrew time at Jericho and may well have been -the residence of the governor of the place. It consisted of a number of -large rooms, and was throughout constructed of fairly large but irregular -stones; (see Fig. 51). - -(4) _At Megiddo._--Another residence of an Israelitish governor was found -at Megiddo. This was a large, irregular building, constructed around a -courtyard. Some of the work was of dressed stones of considerable size, in -every way superior to the stone-work of the earlier buildings of that -city. In this palace a seal of a man named Shema was found, which bore the -inscription, "Belonging to Shema, the servant of Jeroboam." We do not know -whether this man served under Jeroboam I or Jeroboam II. The fine -character of the stone-work leads one to think the reign of Jeroboam II -the more probable date; (see Figs. 53 and 27). - -One more palace should be noticed, that of Simon the Maccabee (143-135 B. -C.), at Gezer. This palace is clearly of the Hellenistic type, and was -identified as the dwelling-place that Simon built for himself (1 Macc. -13:48), by the discovery of an ancient curse against Simon's palace -scrawled in Greek on a block of stone. This building was constructed of -rather finely cut stone, was of irregular shape (see Figs. 54, 55), had an -imposing gate which admitted into a courtyard, and was supplied with a -good system of drainage. - -=6. Foundation Sacrifices.=--When a house was built it was customary to -consecrate it by a sacrifice. In early times in Palestine this was often a -human sacrifice. In Gezer the skeleton of a woman was found built into the -walls of a house. Numerous skeletons of children were also found under the -corners of houses. Such sacrificial offerings were more often made under -the corners of buildings, since the corners were considered sacred. In -Babylonia and Egypt the sacrifice was accompanied with the burial under -the corner-stone of inscriptions and other deposits, though in Egypt, as -in Palestine, the deposit was not always under the corners.[149] Similar -sacrifices were found at Taanach[150] and Megiddo.[151] These sacrifices -illustrate, some think, 1 Kings 16:34, where Hiel laid the foundation of -Jericho with the loss of his first-born, and set up its gates with the -loss of his youngest son; (see Fig. 56). - -=7. City Gates.=--The city gate was in Palestine an important part of the -town. Gateways were constructed in different ways at different times. At -Gezer the northern gate consisted of a protruding tower, into which one -entered at the side, then turned a right angle to gain entrance to the -city; (see Fig. 58). Gates of this type are still common in the East. The -passageway in this gate at Gezer was 40 feet wide.[152] The southern gate -of Gezer consisted simply of a straight passageway, 42 feet long and 9 -feet wide, between two brick towers; (see Fig. 61). Often, as in the case -of the gate found at Bethshemesh (Fig. 59), there were rooms on each side -of the passageway through the tower. One with still more space within its -tower was uncovered at Megiddo; (Fig. 57). - -The city gates usually remained at the same points in the wall through the -successive reconstructions of the city. Thus at Samaria the remains of -round Herodian towers which flanked the gateway were found resting on -larger square bases of the Seleucid period, beneath which the outline of -the earlier Israelitish towers was still visible; (see Figs. 65, 66). - -The form of these gates illuminates many Biblical passages. Lot sat in the -gate of Sodom (Gen. 19:1). Joab took Abner aside in the gate to speak to -him (2 Sam. 3:27). The gate was the place of conference for the elders of -a city (Gen. 34:20). To be praised in the "gates," where the city's -affairs were settled (Prov. 31:31), was to have desired fame. - -=8. Water Supply.= - -(1) _Springs._--The water supply of Palestinian cities came in part from -the never-failing springs near which they were built. This supply was, -however, seldom sufficient, so that from the early days cisterns were -built to catch the water of the rainy season and conserve it for use -during the summer months. These cisterns were often excavated in the solid -rock, but sometimes were simple pits in the earth, over the bottom of -which a coating of lime or cement had been spread. - -(2) _Underground Tunnels._--In time of war, when a city might be shut up -for years, cities were often compelled to yield for want of water. This -was especially the case if the spring lay outside the city walls. In -several Palestinian cities means were taken to secure access to a spring -without exposing oneself to the enemy outside the wall. One of the -greatest of these undertakings was discovered at Gezer. This was a tunnel -cut in the solid rock, which was entered by a long flight of rock-cut -steps. At the entrance the rock formed an imposing archway 23 feet high -and 13 feet 10 inches broad. These dimensions were maintained throughout -about two-thirds of the length of the tunnel. The whole passage was about -130 feet long. The last third of it had to be cut through a much harder -rock, where the work was much more difficult, and its workmanship was here -not so good as above. The tunnel also became appreciably smaller. The -passage terminated in a large cave, in the bottom of which was a spring, -and was evidently constructed to enable the inhabitants to reach a water -supply in time of siege. The floor of the cave is 94 feet 6 inches below -the level of the rock surface under the ancient city. The whole tunnel is -a remarkable piece of engineering for an early people; (see Figs. 60 and -62). - -The earth with which the mouth of the tunnel was closed contained objects -which belonged to the time 1450-1250 B. C. The steps in the passageway had -been before this deeply worn by many feet--so deeply worn that Mr. -Macalister estimated that they must have been in use for 500 years. For -these reasons he supposes that this water-passage was excavated about 2000 -B. C. or soon after that date. It had ceased to be used before the -Israelites conquered the place. - -A similar underground tunnel leading to a spring has been found at El-Gib, -Gibeon, (Fig. 63), and one made in Jebusite times also existed at -Jerusalem. It is mentioned in 2 Sam. 5:8, and will be described in -connection with Jerusalem (p. 188). At Rabbah Ammon an underground passage -connected the old city situated on the hill with a large cistern which was -roofed over so as to be concealed. To this cistern in time of siege the -inhabitants could go through the passage and obtain water. It was this -cistern[153] which Joab had captured (2 Sam. 12:27) when he sent to David -to come and take the city. Antiochus III of Syria in the same way -compelled the city to surrender in the year 218 B. C.,[154] and Herod the -Great did the same thing before 30 B. C.[155] - -(3) _Reservoirs._--Among the sources of water supply for the cities of -Palestine the so-called Pools of Solomon to the south of Bethlehem are -unique. They consist of three reservoirs, partly rock-cut and in part -constructed of walls of masonry, in the Wady Artas, about a mile and a -half to the southwest of Bethlehem. The highest of these pools is 127 -yards long and 76 yards wide, and 25 feet deep at its lower end. The -central pool is 141 yards long, from 53 to 83 yards wide, and 38 feet -deep. The lowest and finest of the three is 194 yards long, 49 to 69 yards -wide, and 48 feet at its deepest part. In these reservoirs water from -neighboring springs was collected and stored. Two aqueducts at different -times conveyed it to Jerusalem as it was needed. These aqueducts are now -known respectively as the Low Level Aqueduct and the High Level Aqueduct. -The High Level Aqueduct appears to be the older. In recent years the Low -Level Aqueduct has been repaired, so that these "pools" still contribute -to the water supply of Jerusalem. - -There is no evidence that Solomon built these. His name has been attached -to them solely on account of Eccl. 2:6: "I made me pools of water." The -whole structure of these and their aqueducts seems rather to be Greek or -Roman work; (see Fig. 64). - -Evidence for the dates is not conclusive,[156] but there is some -probability that the pools were constructed by John Hyrcanus I, 135-105 B. -C., who made the High Level Aqueduct, and that the Low Level Aqueduct was -constructed by Herod the Great. This is much longer than the High Level -Aqueduct, as it makes a detour toward Gebel Fureidis, where Herod -constructed a palace, to which he conveyed water. This Low Level Aqueduct -is probably the one afterward repaired by Pontius Pilate.[157] - - - - -CHAPTER VII - -ROADS AND AGRICULTURE - - ROADS: Early paths. Roman roads. AGRICULTURE: Granaries. Hoes and - plows. Sickles. Threshing. Winnowing. Grinding. Mortars. Fruits. - Vineyards and wine-vats. Olive-presses. The agricultural calendar. - Domestic animals. Bees. Birds. Hens. - - -=1. Roads.=--From the time cities were established in Palestine there was -more or less communication between them. Probably in a small way commerce -was carried on among some of them, but no effort was made to construct -roads, in the modern sense of the term, until the Roman period. - -(1) _Early Paths._--Before that time all traveling was done on foot or on -the backs of donkeys and camels, and for such travel a simple foot-path, -made by continuous use, was all that was considered necessary. The roads -constructed by the Romans have long since fallen into a state of utter -disrepair, so that, with the exception of two or three roads that have -been built in recent years, the simple, rough foot-paths that have existed -from time immemorial still suffice for Palestinian travel. These paths are -often exceedingly rough. They were never surveyed and never repaired. They -were simply devoted to public use by immemorial custom. If a landowner -wished to raise grain in a field through which one of these paths ran, he -plowed up to the very edge of the narrow path and put in his seed. There -were neither fences nor ditches to separate the road from the field. -Fields traversed by such roads are still very common in Palestine. It was -along such a road that Jesus and the disciples were traveling when they -plucked the ears of wheat on the Sabbath (Matt. 12:1; Mark 2:23; Luke -6:1). It was such a road to which Jesus alluded in the Parable of the -Sower: "Some seed fell by the wayside" (Matt. 13:4; Mark 4:4; Luke 8:5). A -rough path is shown in Fig. 67. - -(2) _Roman Roads._--After Palestine passed under the sway of Rome in 63 B. -C. a system of roads was built to connect the most important places. We -have no definite information about these from a source earlier than the -_Onomasticon_ of Eusebius,[158] which was compiled before 340 A. D., but -in all probability those on the west of the Jordan were constructed before -the time of Christ. There were three main roads in this part of -Palestine.[159] One ran down the sea-coast. Starting at Sidon, it passed -southward through Tyre, Sarepta (Zarephath, 1 Kings 17:10; Luke 4:26), -Ptolemais (Accho), Dor, Caesarea, Joppa, Lydda, Azotus (Ashdod), and -Askelon to Gaza. A branch road ran eastward from Tyre over the hills of -Galilee through Kedesh in Naphtali (Josh. 12:22; 20:7; Judges 4:6), to -Caesarea Philippi (Matt. 16:13; Mark 8:27), which was near the ancient Dan -(Judges 18:29). - -From Caesarea, on the sea-coast south of Dor, another branch road ran -southeastward through the valley of Aijalon up to the site of Gibeah of -Saul (1 Sam. 10:26; 11:4, etc.), where it joined the road along the -central ridge of the country; (see Fig. 68). - -Starting from Damascus another road ran southward to Hyppos, one of the -cities of the Decapolis, which lay southeast of the Sea of Galilee,[160] -crossed the Jordan on a bridge below the Sea of Galilee (shown in Fig. -289), passed through Scythopolis, the Beth-shean of the Old Testament -(Josh. 17:11; 1 Sam. 31:10), through Sychar (John 4:5), then southward -along the central ridge of the country, through Bethel and Ramah to -Jerusalem. South of Jerusalem it was continued to Bethlehem and Hebron. -Four miles north of Jerusalem it was joined by the road from Caesarea, so -that travelers from the coast and from the north entered Jerusalem over -the same road. One can in many places still trace the lines of Roman -paving-stones which mark their courses. Thus the juncture of the two roads -just mentioned is still visible, and one may stand on the hillside and -feel sure that he is looking at the very way over which Paul was taken to -Caesarea by the Roman soldiers the night after his arrest in Jerusalem -(Acts 23:23, 24). - -From Scythopolis (Beth-shean) another road ran southward through the -Jordan valley to Jericho. This was probably continued to Jerusalem. From -Sebaste (Samaria) another road ran northwestward through Dothan (Gen. -37:17; 2 Kings 6:13), to Taanach, Megiddo, and the coast. - -After Trajan overthrew the kingdom of the Nabathaeans, in 106 A. D., he -built a road on the east of the Jordan, southward from Damascus to the Red -Sea. The Roman government kept these roads in good order. They marked the -distances by milestones, some of which have survived to modern times; -(Figs. 69, 71). - -=2. Agriculture= was the chief occupation of the inhabitants of Palestine. -The cities were throughout its history simply the walled residences of -farmers. Such trade as developed at different periods was always -subordinate to agricultural pursuits. We cannot expect exploration to -furnish us with a complete view of ancient Palestinian agriculture, but -such glimpses as it does afford us are most illuminating. - -(1) _Granaries._--In the excavation of Gezer[161] it was found that -granaries formed an important class of buildings. Some of these were -connected with private houses and evidently belonged to individuals, but -some of them were so large and so much grain was found in them that it was -rightly held that they must have been public granaries. Some of these -buildings had been destroyed by fire, and the charred grain, retaining its -original shape, was easily recognized. Most of the granaries were circular -structures, such as are seen today dotting the fields of the maritime -plain of Palestine. They varied greatly in size. One was but 2 feet 8 -inches in diameter; another was 4 feet 9 inches across and 6 feet 9 inches -deep. One granary from the second Semitic stratum (1700-1350 B. C.) was -connected with a house, and contained several kinds of grain, each stored -in a separate chamber; (Figs. 70, 72). - -From such receptacles wheat, barley, oats, and beans were recovered, as -well as three varieties of vetch, one of which was probably the "lentils" -of Gen. 25:34; 2 Sam. 17:28; 23:11; and Ezek. 4:9. Barley is often -mentioned in the Bible; the wheat is usually there called "corn." Piles of -straw and chaff, such as the modern Palestinians call _tibn_, were also -found. - -(2). _Hoes and Plows._--Naturally, the implements with which the grain was -cultivated have nearly all perished. In the first place the ground had to -be broken and prepared to receive the seed. Remains of two different kinds -of hoes were found at Gezer, though the preparation of a sufficiently -large area of ground to bear grain to support cities cannot have been made -with such instruments; (see Fig. 73). From an early time the plow, which -is frequently mentioned in the Bible (see, for example, 1 Kings 19:19), -was in use in Palestine. A number of plowshares were found at Megiddo in -the ruins of a blacksmith's shop, and a diamond-shaped iron ring, from -Gezer, may have been used to attach oxen to a plow, and the points of -several ox-goads were found. The ox-goad consisted, as it does today, of a -long stick into the end of which a sharp iron point was fixed. It is -alluded to in Acts 26:14. As this goad was used in driving the oxen in -plowing, it indicates that plows were used. These plows were probably -similar to those used at the time in Egypt; (see Figs. 76, 77). - -(3) _Sickles._--When the grain was ripe it was reaped with a sickle (Deut. -16:9; Jer. 50:16; Joel 3:13). In the earlier periods these were of flint; -later they were made of bronze, and iron. Sickles of metal are, however, -rarely found. They were expensive, while flint was abundant and cheap. -Flint sickle-teeth were numerous, therefore, in all periods. The earliest -sickles were flints set in an animal's jaw-bone, or in a curved piece of -wood similar to the Egyptian sickle shown in Figs. 74, 75. - -(4) _Threshing._--After the grain was cut it was taken to the -threshing-floor to be threshed. These floors were often a comparatively -level portion of rock which formed a part of a high place or sanctuary. -Such was the threshing-floor of Araunah, the Jebusite, in 2 Sam. 24:18. It -took several days to complete a threshing, and as no one would think of -stealing from a sacred place, the whole community was protected by doing -the threshing in its precincts. Sometimes the cattle were driven about -over the grain, as in ancient Egypt (see Fig. 79), and as is done in -modern Palestine still; (see Fig. 78). This is the kind of threshing -contemplated in Deut. 25:4. At other times a kind of sledge drawn by -cattle was driven about over the grain. Ornan (Araunah) was threshing with -such an instrument (1 Chron. 21:23; 2 Sam. 24:22), and allusion is made to -one in Isa. 41:15; (see Fig. 80). - -(5) _Winnowing._--The grain was winnowed or cleansed of chaff by being -thrown up, as in Fig. 79. As it fell the wind blew the chaff away. It is -this process that John the Baptist used as an illustration of the purging -work of Christ (Matt. 3:12; Luke 3:17). - -(6) _Grinding._--When the grain was cut, threshed, and winnowed, there -were no mills to which it could be taken for grinding. This process had to -be done in each home, and the labor of doing it fell to the women of the -household. (See Exod. 11:5; Matt. 24:41.) Grain was reduced to flour -either by rubbing or by pounding. The process of rubbing or grinding was -accomplished either by a flat saddle-shaped stone over which another was -rubbed (see Figs. 81, 84), or by crushing between two stones, the top one -of which was revolved somewhat as a modern millstone (Fig. 82). It -required two women, as Jesus said, to grind at such a mill--one to feed -it, while the other manipulated the rubbing stone. Such stones were made -of hard igneous rock procured from the region east of the Sea of Galilee, -and are called "querns." In the different periods of the history of -Palestine they varied in size and shape, becoming round in the Seleucid -period (323-63 B. C.). The upper stone was apparently rotated by twisting -the wrist. It could be thus turned half-way round and then back again. No -round millstones, with the topmost of the pair perforated, as in the -modern millstone, were found before the Arabic period, 637 A. D. Pictures -of modern Syrian women turning this perforated type of millstone do not, -therefore, really illustrate, as is often assumed, the women of the Bible -as they ground at the mill. - -Probably the millstone which crushed the head of Abimelech at Thebez -(Judges 9:53) was the upper stone of a "saddle quern." The importance of -these millstones is recognized in Deut. 24:6, which prohibits the taking -of a mill or the upper millstone of a poor man as security, on the ground -that that was the same as taking a man's life as security. The lower -millstone was always made of the harder stone. Because of this and of the -grinding and pounding to which it was subjected it became a symbol of -firmness (Job 41:24). - -(7) _Mortars._--Apparently the grain was also frequently crushed by -pounding it with a pestle in a mortar. So many of these made of stone were -found at Gezer that it is thought that these may have been used more often -than the millstones; (see Fig. 83). - -(8) _Fruits._--In the course of the excavation of Gezer dried figs, -grapes, pomegranates, and olives were found. All of these are mentioned in -the Bible, as, for example, in Cant. 2:13; Rev. 6:13; Gen. 40:11; Num. -13:23; Micah 6:15. In one trench what appeared to be a pile of charred -pistachio nuts was found. Acorns, terebinth, and apricot seeds were also -discovered.[162] Of these fruits, those which left the most archaeological -evidence of their existence are just those that are most frequently -mentioned in the Bible,--the grape and the olive. - -(9) _Vineyards and Wine-vats._--The grape is often alluded to in the -Bible, and directions are given as to how one may conduct himself in a -vineyard (Deut. 23:24) and as to how thoroughly one might glean his vines -(Lev. 25:5). The most complete description of a vineyard is in Isa. 5:1-8. -The one feature of that description that would survive for an archaeologist -to discover is the wine-vat. These vats were often cut in the solid rock, -and many of them have been found, both in excavating and in traveling over -the country. The vats for pressing grapes and other fruits may be -distinguished from olive-presses because they lack all arrangements for -mechanical pressing. The grapes were trodden with the feet, and as the -juice was pressed out it ran down into a deeper portion of the vat. Some -of these vats are surrounded by "cup-marks" or hollow places cut in the -stone in order to hold pointed-bottomed jars upright. Sometimes the -cup-marks are connected with the main vat by tiny channels, through which -any of the grape-juice that might drain from the outside of the jar, after -the jar had been dipped in the vat, might run back; (see Fig. 87). - -(10) _Olive-presses._--Similarly, olive-presses are very numerous in -Palestine. Presses were found in the stratum of the cave-dwellers of -Gezer. The olive industry is, accordingly, very old. Olive-presses -comprised, in addition to the vat, an upright stone with a large hole in -it. In this hole a beam was inserted. This beam rested on the olives which -were to be pressed, extending far beyond the receptacle containing the -olives, and weights were hung on the end farthest from the stone; (see -Fig. 88). Palestine in ancient times, as now, was covered with olive -orchards, many of which had oil-presses. Such an orchard was called a -"garden." The Garden of Gethsemane, the scene of one of the most sacred -incidents of the life of Christ (Matt. 26:36; Mark 14:32), was an olive -orchard and took its name from the oil-press. Gethsemane means -"oil-press." Wine-vats and oil-presses were of various types, but into -their forms there is not space to enter here[163]; (see Figs. 85, 86). - -The prominent place held by wine and oil among the agricultural products -of the country is indicated by the receipts for the storage of various -quantities of these articles which were found at Samaria. - -(11) _The Agricultural Calendar._--In the books of the old Testament the -names applied to the months are, for the most part, names derived from -Babylonia, but it appears that at Gezer they had a series of names for the -months based on their agricultural year. In the stratum which contained -remains from the time of the Hebrew monarchy, 1000-550 B. C., an -inscription was found which, though the end was broken away, contained the -following names for the months: - - 1. Month of ingathering. (See Exod. 23:16; 34:22.) - - 2. Month of sowing. - - 3. Month of the late [sowing?]. - - 4. Month of the flax-harvest. - - 5. Month of the barley-harvest. (See Ruth 2:23; 2 Sam. 21:9.) - - 6. Month of the harvest of all [other grains?]. - - 7. Month of pruning [vines]. - - 8. Month of summer-fruit [figs]. - -This calendar, beginning in October, still conforms to the agricultural -pursuits of the year. It also gives us archaeological evidence of the -culture of flax by the ancient Israelites. (See Josh. 2:6; Prov. 31:13; -Hosea 2:5, 9.) - -(12) _Domestic Animals._--The domestic animals of ancient Palestine may be -traced in part by their bones found in various excavations, and in part by -the pictures of them drawn in caves and tombs. The domestic animals most -often mentioned in the Bible are asses, cattle, sheep, goats, and camels. -Bones, pictures, or models of these were found in all the strata of -Gezer.[164] There seem to have been a variety of cows; the breeds varied -in the different periods. No horse bones were found until the third -Semitic period (1350-1000 B. C.). It was, perhaps, during that period that -the horse was introduced by the Hittites, who appear to have brought it -from Turkestan, where its bones have been found in much earlier -strata.[165] The ass was, however, the common beast of burden in -Palestine, and bones of horses are rare until the Greek period. A number -of figures of horses' heads with their bridles were found, as well as a -horse's bit, and the picture of a horse and his rider. The pig was a -domesticated animal of the primitive cave-dwellers of Gezer, who appear to -have offered swine in sacrifice, but pig-bones are rarely found in the -Semitic strata. As swine were unclean to all Semites, this is not strange. -The dog appears to have been half-domesticated, as the Bible implies, as -his bones were employed for making prickers and similar tools, but no -pictures or models of dogs are known to the writer. Probably they were of -the half-wild pariah type. Certainly they were not held in high esteem. -(See 1 Sam. 17:43; 2 Sam. 16:9.) For illustrations, see Figs. 89-92. - -(13) _Bees._--A number of inverted jars, each pierced with a number of -circular holes, were found. It seems probable that these were rude -beehives. Before the Israelites settled in Palestine they knew it as "a -land flowing with milk and honey" (Exod. 3:8, 17; Num. 14:8; 16:13, 14; -Deut. 6:3), and their view was, we are told, shared by others (2 Kings -18:32). It is not surprising, therefore, to find evidences of bee culture; -(see Fig. 95). - -(14) _Birds._--As to birds, it is doubtful whether they had any -domesticated ones before the Babylonian Exile. A rude picture of an -ostrich painted on a potsherd was found at Gezer, as well as some painted -fragments of ostrich-egg shell. The ostrich is mentioned in the Old -Testament (Job 39:13; Lam. 4:3), but as a wild bird. The Palestinians knew -it as a bird that might be hunted. They sometimes gathered the eggs of -wild birds to eat (Deut. 22:6; Isa. 10:14). These were, perhaps, sometimes -ostrich-eggs. The modern Arabs make a kind of omelette of ostrich-eggs. -The ostrich was certainly not a domestic bird. - -At Gezer, too, a clay bird was found, or, rather, a small jar made in the -form of a bird. The object was so realistic that holes were left in the -clay wings for the insertion of feathers; (Fig. 93). The bird bears some -resemblance to a duck, figures of which were found at Megiddo,[166] but -the duck may have been wild. One clay head of a goose or swan was also -found, but had the bird been domesticated there would probably have been -more traces of it. - -(15) _Hens._--The one domestic bird that can be traced in Palestine is the -hen, and hens were not introduced until after the Exile. Hens seem to have -been first domesticated in India. They are not mentioned in the Rig Veda, -but the Aryans seem to have come into contact with them when they settled -in the valley of the Ganges about 1000 B. C. The Yajur and Atharva Vedas -mention the cock. The hen is a domesticated Bankiva fowl, which also -exists in a wild state in India. From India the hen was domesticated -eastward to China, and westward to Persia. There is a possible picture of -a cock on a sculpture of Sennacherib, which would indicate that the bird -was known in Assyria at the beginning of the seventh century before -Christ. Another is pictured on some Babylonian gems from the time of -Nabuna'id, about 550 B. C. Pictures of cocks, three of them somewhat -doubtful, are found on Babylonian seals of the Persian period.[167] The -domesticated hen, traveling by way of the Black Sea, reached Asia Minor as -early as the eighth century B. C.[168] - -There is, however, no evidence of the presence of the hen in Palestine -before the Greek period. Neither hen nor cock is mentioned in the Old -Testament. In a tomb discovered by Peters and Thiersch in 1902, near Tell -Sandahanna, the Marissa of the Seleucid period and the Moresheth-gath of -Micah 1:14, a number of cocks are pictured; (Fig. 94). The tomb, -constructed about 200 B. C., contains a number of Greek inscriptions.[169] -In agreement with this evidence is also the fact that at Taanach there was -found in a late pre-Arabic stratum the skeleton of a hen with an egg.[170] -Before New Testament times, then, the hen had become a domestic fowl in -Palestine. Every one would accordingly understand the lament of Christ, -"How often would I have gathered thy children together, even as a hen -gathereth her chickens under her wings, and ye would not!" (Matt. 23:37). -The cock was so universally kept at this time that one of the divisions of -the night was called the "cock-crowing" (Mark 13:35). It was the mark of -the progress of the night afforded by the habits of the cock that was used -by Jesus in predicting Peter's denial (Matt. 26:34; Mark 14:30; Luke -22:34; John 13:38), and it was the recalling of this prediction by the -crowing of the cock that brought Peter to repentant tears (Matt. 26:74; -Mark 14:68, 72; Luke 22:60; John 18:27). - - - - -CHAPTER VIII - -POTTERY - - IMPORTANCE OF POTTERY. PRE-SEMITIC POTTERY. FIRST SEMITIC POTTERY TO - 1800 B. C. POTTERY OF SECOND SEMITIC PERIOD. THIRD SEMITIC PERIOD. - ISRAELITISH OR FOURTH SEMITIC PERIOD. HELLENISTIC PERIOD. - - -=1. Importance of Pottery.=--In all parts of the world the making of clay -jars and receptacles is one of the earliest arts to be discovered, and -Palestine was no exception to the rule. In Palestine such jars were -particularly useful, as the water for each family had to be carried from -the nearest spring to the house. It was natural that, in a country which -had so long a history as Palestine, and over which the influences of so -many diverse civilizations swept, there should be a considerable variety -in the types of pottery in different periods. Indeed, it is now recognized -that the differences in these types are so marked that in the absence of -other criteria it is possible approximately to date a stratum of the -remains of any ancient city by the type of pottery found in it. Since this -is so, a brief outline of the different types is not out of place here, -although these differences have little or no bearing upon the -interpretation of the Bible. Only a brief statement is here attempted. -Those who wish to study the subject more fully are referred to more -extended works.[171] The classifications of pottery made by the leading -experts differ, as they have been written at different times and as the -excavations have continually enlarged the material. The classification -presented in the following pages is mainly that of Macalister, based on -the work at Gezer and on previous excavations. - -=2. Pre-Semitic Pottery.=--There is first, then, the pottery of the -pre-Semitic cave-dwellers. This pottery is made out of clay that was in no -way cleansed or refined. It was made by hand, the larger jars having been -built up little by little. The vessel, after receiving such ornament as -the potter desired, was usually fired, though sometimes simply sun-dried. -In firing the heat was often distributed very irregularly, so that the -surface was not all of the same color. The jars were of moderate size, -flat on the bottom, globular, conical, or cylindrical in shape. They had -concave necks and handles. The handles were of two kinds--"ledge" handles -and "loop" handles. A "ledge" handle consists of a piece of clay pinched -into a flat projecting ledge and then baked hard. A "loop" handle is one -fastened to the jar at both ends, similar to the handle of a pitcher. -Bowls or saucers were also sometimes made with "ledge" handles; (see Fig. -97). - -The most common ornamentation of the pottery of this period was made by -combing the clay with wooden combs notched with teeth of greater or less -fineness. Sometimes the marks left by the comb were perpendicular, -sometimes horizontal, and sometimes diagonal. One other type of ornament -was exhibited in the pottery of the cave-dwellers. That was either an -incised representation of a rope or cord, or a moulded imitation of one of -these. This ornamentation was probably suggested by the ropes or cords -which were bound about the vessel before it was fired, to prevent its -falling apart. At first the only coloring was a line of brick-red around -the rims of jugs and saucers. The most advanced stage is reached in Fig. -96, where a network of red lines cross each other diagonally. The tint of -the red varies a good deal, but this may be due to the unequal firing -already mentioned. - -A few specimens of burnished pottery were found in the caves. This -burnishing consisted in rubbing the surface of the vessel with strokes of -a smooth bone or stone. In some cases the vessel was dipped in a whitish -wash after it was fired. This adhered to it everywhere except on the -bottom. - -=3. First Semitic Pottery to 1800 B. C.=--The pottery of the first Semitic -period, which terminated about 1800 B. C., is of a finer type. The larger -pieces were made on a wheel, as were many of the smaller ones. The wheel -was rotated with the left hand, while the potter moulded the vessel with -the right. The result was a much more shapely type of work than in the -previous period. In the pre-Semitic period limestone clays were employed; -in this period, sandstone clays. Many of the objects, like those of the -preceding period, were of a drab color, though the tints of some of them -ranged from a rich brownish red to orange. The patches of color in these -vessels were probably due to unequal heat in firing. - -In size and shape the vessels presented a great variety. There were large -jars with flat bottoms, inverted conical bodies, and more or less abruptly -rounded shoulders; (see Fig. 100). The mouth was wide and circular and -surrounded by a flat, widely expanding rim. These jars averaged about two -feet in height. There were many pitchers made in this period. They were -large and small and of a great variety of shapes. Such pitchers present -similar characteristics, whether found at Gezer or Megiddo; (see Figs. 98, -99). Ledge and loop handles were common on the pitchers of this period, -but "pillar" and "button"[172] handles were also sometimes found; (see -Figs. 105, 106). The ornamentation of pottery showed some advance over the -preceding period. In addition to the rope motifs, decoration formed by -combinations of lines was also found. One particularly fine type of -pottery belonging to this period was found at Gezer. It was never found in -the caves or in the higher strata. Vessels of this ware were usually found -in groups, indicating that they were the possessions of the rich. The clay -was well cleaned, the shapes distinctive (see Fig. 104), and the ware was -always covered with a cream-like coating. Saucers and bowls were common in -this period. The comb was still used in ornamenting pottery, though -sometimes it produced only a series of dots. All surfaces were usually -burnished, though naturally this was much more thoroughly done in the -expensive than in the cheaper wares. - -=4. Pottery of Second Semitic Period.=--During the second Semitic period, -1800-1400 B. C., trade was carried on with countries beyond the sea, -especially with Cyprus. There was probably also some trade with Egypt and -Crete, but the influence of Cyprus was most potent in the pottery. In this -period, probably owing to foreign influence, the potters' wheel worked by -foot was introduced. This left both hands of the workman free and resulted -in a great improvement of the ware. There was in this period a great -variety in the material used. The cheaper vessels were made of a rough -clay, full of grits of black colored sand or flints, which burned black in -the middle of the clay and a reddish or yellowish drab on the surface. At -least seven other finer types of ware were found at Gezer.[173] One of -these was a ware made of a brilliant saffron-yellow clay, which was -enriched with painted decoration in bold black lines. This was probably of -foreign origin. In this period the jar with pointed bottom, long conical -body, well rounded shoulders, short concave neck, continuous circular -mouth, with an expanded rim, though much narrower than in the preceding -period, is the most common type. Jugs with pointed bottoms also became -common, though there was a great variety in the shapes of jugs. Ledge -handles had almost entirely disappeared in this period. Jars generally had -two loop handles, and sometimes four, though occasionally they had none at -all. "Button" handles are comparatively uncommon; the loop handle is the -style most generally used. "Ear" handles, both vertical and transverse, -are also common; (see Figs. 101-103, and 105). - -The most striking feature of the pottery of this period is the increase in -the variety of ornamentation and the introduction of the pictures of -animals and birds as ornamental motifs. This was due, no doubt, to foreign -influence. The best specimens of this type of ornamentation so far -published are from Gezer, though it is found elsewhere. - -All kinds of vessels were made of clay during this period: jars, jugs, -pitchers, bowls, saucers, drinking-cups, etc., etc. Many of the potters -signed their work with a peculiar mark. This mark was sometimes an -impression of the potter's finger, sometimes linear devices of various -kinds scratched on the handle, and sometimes the impression of an -inscribed Egyptian scarab, usually of the period of the Middle Kingdom or -the Hyksos time. Jar handles marked with scarabs were also found at -Jericho; (Figs. 118, 119). - -=5. Third Semitic Period.=--The third Semitic period, 1400 to 1000 B. C., -while its wares sometimes differed in form from those of the preceding -period, is mainly marked off from the second period by a general -degeneration in style. No great differences are noticeable in the kinds of -clay employed. The jars have, as a rule, a less pointed bottom than in the -preceding period; (Fig. 110). The combed decoration is rare, and the -burnishing of the jars is both less frequent and less skilful than in the -preceding period. There is an increase in the tendency to use painted -ornamentation, which frequently consists of zigzag lines. Rough, -conventionalized representations of palm trees are also common. In the -last part of the period Cretan influences are traceable. This was probably -due to the coming of the Philistines.[174] Potters' marks continue, but -scarabs are less often used in making them than in the preceding period. -The various kinds of vessels made seem to have been as great as in the -preceding period. A clay funnel or bottle-filler was also found in this -period; (see Fig. 114). - -=6. Israelitish or Fourth Semitic Period.=--In the fourth Semitic, or the -Israelitish period, 1000-600 B. C., the method of manufacture remained the -same as before, and but little difference can be discerned in the clays -employed. There seems, however, to have been a steady decline in -excellence. The large jar with pointed bottom is still found, but there is -a tendency to broaden the bottom, while retaining the convex form. Thus -toward the close of the period a type of jar, conical in form, but with -the apex of the cone at the top instead of at the bottom, is found. The -types of pottery of this time may be seen by examining the forms found in -the Hebrew stratum at Jericho (Figs. 107, 112, 113), and from a temple at -Megiddo of the same period. (Fig. 111.) The forms and kinds of vessels -found in this period are numerous. Painted ornamentation consists, as a -rule, merely of rings around the vessel, though sometimes zigzags made -very carelessly are also found. Bird ornamentation, so frequent in the -third period, entirely disappears in this. The potters still employed -marks. These are of the same general character as in the earlier period, -though the scarab stamp entirely disappeared from Gezer and the use of -other seals became common. These were most often a simple device of stars, -or names written in the old Hebrew script. At Jericho the scarab stamp was -still employed; (see Figs. 115, 117). - -Some jar handles inscribed with Hebrew letters were found at Gezer in a -stratum that was pre-exilic. A series of them was also found at the tells -excavated by Bliss and Macalister in the Shephelah in the years -1898-1900--Es-Safi, Judeideh, and Zakariyeh. These handles, in addition to -the impression of a seal, contained the words, "to the king," in Hebrew -letters, and the names of the cities, Hebron, Socho, Ziph, and Mamsheth. -The first three of these are well-known Judaean towns; the last is -unidentified. Sir Charles Warren found some similar stamps near the temple -area at Jerusalem. There has been much discussion as to the date of the -handles bearing these stamps. Since nothing of the kind was found at -Megiddo and Taanach, it has been inferred that this kind of jar handle -came into existence after the overthrow of the kingdom of Israel in the -year 722 B. C. It may be that the "king" referred to is the king of Judah, -and that these stamps come from the last days of the kingdom of Judah. -Scholarly opinion is, however, divided, some authorities contending that -they come from the time after the Exile. The date is not entirely certain; -(see Fig. 116).[175] - -=7. Hellenistic Period.=--In the time after the Exile there is not much -change in the character of the pottery until after the conquest of -Alexander the Great. The influx of influences from the Graeco-Macedonian -world affected the whole life of the land, and was reflected also in its -pottery. As in the second and third Semitic periods, there were -importations of pottery from abroad, though at this time the importations -were from regions affected by Greek art. The Palestinian potters of this -period had, therefore, the best models. The use of the potters' wheel was -all but universal, and the wares were burned hard. A pile of these -potsherds, when struck with a stick, emits a distinct musical "clink," -which is not the case with potsherds from the earlier periods. The clay -employed was the finest and most homogeneous of any used in Palestinian -pottery, and there is a general tendency, especially in the cities near -the coast, to follow classical models; (see Figs. 122, 125). - -Jars have rounded or bluntly pointed bases, vertical sides, flattened or -oblique shoulders, and round mouths. There are two loop handles just under -the shoulders. Another form, probably suggested by Rhodian amphorae, has a -long, tapering base; (see Fig. 120). - -It is impossible in the space that can be devoted to this topic to -enumerate all the kinds of vessels that were made in this period or the -variety of their forms. Only a few characteristic features can be noted. -The cooking pots of this time have a very distinctive form. They have a -globular base, globular body, short, wide neck, and a rounded continuous -mouth; (see Fig. 122{5a}). The body of the vessel is often ribbed with -horizontal flutings. Small jugs and vases were very common; some of them -had very characteristic forms. Jugs of this period found at Jericho had a -funnel at the side through which liquid could be poured into them. - -As in the preceding period, jar handles were frequently stamped with the -mark of the potter. These were now often Greek letters, though those so -stamped were apparently imported from foreign countries. At Jericho ten -jar handles were found stamped with the name "Jah" and three stamped with -the name "Jahu."[176] Both Jah (see Psa. 68:4) and Jahu are abbreviations -of the name Jehovah, and probably are so to be understood here. They often -formed part of a personal name--thus Elijah, "My God is Jah." - -From the second Semitic period onward, filters were made by piercing the -bottom of a jug with holes. These became more common in the third Semitic -period, but this sort of device reached its full development in the -Hellenistic period, which we are now considering. Various forms of -strainers were found, as shown in Fig. 123, and one very elaborate filter; -(see Fig. 121). - -With the coming of the Romans in 63 B. C., new influences were introduced -into the civilization of Palestine. In time these influences modified the -pottery, but it is doubtful whether they had an appreciable effect until -after the New Testament times. Pots from the Roman period found at Gezer -(see Fig. 124) differ from those of the Hellenistic period chiefly in -having bottoms that are more nearly flat. By the time of the Emperor -Constantine a change can be noted, so that pottery of the Byzantine period -(325-637 A. D.) has characteristics of its own. That period, however, lies -beyond the range of Biblical history. - -In the study of pottery one of the most interesting topics is the -evolution of the lamp. The earliest lamps were simply wicks stuck into a -saucer of oil and ignited. Of course, the wick would easily fall down into -the oil and the light would be extinguished. The earliest device to -prevent this was to make the saucer of irregular shape, with a slight -notch in one side in which the wick could lie. (See the right-hand lamp in -Fig. 127.) As time went on this resting-place for the wick developed more -and more into a spout. (See Fig. 126 and the left-hand lamp in Fig. 127.) - -This form of lamp was known as early as the first Semitic period, and -persisted with slight development down through the Israelitish time; (see -Fig. 128). Its development was not, however, uniform in all parts of the -country. Israelitish lamps found at Jericho appear to be simply saucers -with two or more indentations in the rim; (see Fig. 132). Perhaps in these -more than one wick was used. In the Hellenistic period two improvements in -the making of lamps occurred. The first consisted in a still further -development of the spout until its sides almost met and formed nearly a -closed vessel. The second improvement was, perhaps, due to outside -influences. It consisted in making the saucer small and covered. In the -middle of the cover was a small round hole into which the oil was poured; -at one side a spout protruded and the wick came out through this; (see -Fig. 131). The top of such lamps was ornamented with various designs. - -In the Byzantine and Arabic periods the same general style of lamp was -used, but the shape and ornamentation of each period were different, so -that they can easily be distinguished; (see Fig. 129). After the country -became Christian the ornamentation on the lamps was often made with Greek -letters. These were made in ornamental forms and usually expressed some -Christian sentiment. One of the most popular legends for these Christian -lamps was: "The light of Christ shines for all"; (see Fig. 130). - -It was lamps such as these, probably of the Hellenistic type, to which -Christ alluded in the parable of the wise and foolish virgins (Matt. -25:1-12). Such a lamp would not contain oil enough to burn all night, so -that to carry it to a prolonged wedding-feast without a supply of oil was -a powerful example of improvidence. - - - - -CHAPTER IX - -UTENSILS AND PERSONAL ORNAMENTS - - UTENSILS: Ovens. Baking-trays. Bowls, etc. Feeding-bottles. Glassware. - Spoons. Forks or Flesh-hooks. Needles. Spinning "Whorls." Lamp-stands. - Keys. Knives. Saws. Chisels. Awls. Axes. Adzes. Whetstones. Files. - Hammers. Nails. Baskets. Arrows. Spears. Swords. Fish-hooks. Styli. - Seals. The "Pipe." Harps. The Dulcimer. Lyres. Children's toys. - PERSONAL ORNAMENTS: Combs. Perfume-boxes. Spatulae for eye-paint, etc. - Fibulae. Beads. Necklaces. Bracelets. Anklets. Rings. - - -=1. Utensils.=--The term "utensil" is of wide application. The utensils of -agriculture and the hand-mills for grinding grain have been described in -Chapter VII. Among the devices used in connection with Palestinian houses -one of the most important was the oven. - -(1) _Ovens._--The ovens of ancient Palestine were of the same kind as -those used by the peasantry of that country today. Each consists of a -cylinder of baked earth about 2 feet in diameter and 1-1/2 inches thick. -It is closed by a cover of the same material, in which a stone or lump of -clay has been embedded as a handle. There is rarely any bottom except the -bare earth. The loaves, which were flat discs, were usually placed inside, -either on the ground covered with clean pebbles or on a baking-tray. -Sometimes the loaves were plastered over the outside of the oven. In this -case the fire was built inside and might consist of grass (Matt. 6:30; -Luke 12:28). The fire was usually heaped about the outside of the oven, -and often consisted of dried manure. It is this use of manure as fuel that -is alluded to in Ezek. 4:12-15--a passage that has sometimes been greatly -misunderstood. Such ovens were frequently found in all the strata. In Fig. -133 two varieties of ovens are shown. The one at the left hand is made of -plain tile; the other is covered over with potsherds, to make it retain -the heat longer. Sometimes in large houses groups of several ovens were -found together. - -Ovens are frequently referred to in the Bible, sometimes as symbols of -things that are hot. (See Lev. 11:35; 26:26; Psa. 21:9; Hosea 7:4, 6, 7.) -Once a much-used oven is a symbol of blackness (Lam. 5:10). - -(2) _Baking-trays_, consisting of discs of baked clay about 10 inches in -diameter, were also found. These were usually turned up at the edges, and -frequently perforated in order better to admit the heat to the under side -of the loaf. One specimen was found burnt through with constant use. These -trays were most numerous at Gezer in the second and third Semitic periods. -They were found at Jericho in the Jewish stratum; (see Fig. 134). - -(3) _Bowls, etc._--In Chapter VIII, under the head of Pottery, the jars, -pitchers, clay bowls, saucers, and cups which were used about Palestinian -homes have already been described. Bowls and saucers of stone were also -employed from the earliest times. They were far less fragile, though more -expensive. Probably the dishes used by the common people were in all -periods made of clay. After the introduction of metal, however, the -wealthy often had dishes of bronze (see Fig. 135), and sometimes of -silver. A Philistine grave at Gezer yielded some silver dishes of -beautiful workmanship; (see Figs. 137, 141). - -(4) _Feeding-bottles._--A number of curiously shaped jars with spouts were -found at Gezer; (see Fig. 139). Mr. Macalister was at a loss to explain -their use unless they were feeding-bottles. The only other suggestion that -he makes is that they were lamps, but they are so different from the lamps -of the time, that that possibility seems to be excluded. Sellin thought -similar objects found by him were vessels for pouring oil. This may have -been their purpose. - -(5) _Glassware._--Vessels of glass are very rare in Palestine until Roman -times. In the remains of the third Semitic period at Gezer fragments of -ornamented glass vessels, which had been imported from Egypt, were found. -The ornamentation consisted of zigzag lines. Clear glass first appears in -the Israelitish period, but it was rare and inartistic. After the coming -of the Romans it became more common. For examples of its use, see the -ointment vessels in Fig. 138. - -(6) _Spoons._--The spoons of the poor were in all periods apparently -adapted from shells, as shown in Fig. 136, but the more wealthy, -especially when under the influence of more artistic foreigners, had -ladles of metal that seem very modern; (see Fig. 141). These objects are -from a Philistine tomb. - -(7) _Forks or Flesh-hooks._--Forks were in existence, as shown in Fig. -140, but were used not to eat with, but to handle meat when it was -cooking. The one with three prongs in Fig. 143 reminds one of the -"flesh-hook of three teeth" that the servant of Hophni and Phinehas, sons -of Eli, thrust into the caldron of seething sacrificial flesh, in order to -obtain the priest's portion (1 Sam. 2:13, 14). - -(8) _Needles_, both of bone and bronze, were found. They were employed -from the earliest times in such sewing as was necessary. The way the eyes -were made may be seen in Fig. 142. These give vivid reality to the saying -of Christ "It is easier for a camel to go through a needle's eye than for -a rich man to enter into the kingdom of God" (Matt. 19:24; Mark 10:25; -Luke 18:25). - -(9) _Spinning "Whorls."_--Spinning in ancient Palestine, as now, was done -in the simplest possible manner. A tapering spindle was made of wood. To -this was attached a "whorl"--either a stone or a lump of baked clay--in -order to give the spindle momentum when whirled. The wool was held in the -hand, a bit of it twisted into a thread with the fingers and attached to -the spindle. Then more of the wool was pulled out and held in the hand -while the spindle and whorl were given a twist with the other hand and -allowed to twist the wool into thread. The process was repeated again and -again. The writer has seen women in the East spinning while on a journey. -Many of the spindle whorls, made both of stone and of clay, have been -found by excavators; (see Figs. 144, 145). - -(10) _Lamp-stands._--In one of the palaces at Megiddo a number of bronze -tripods of various sorts were found; (see Fig. 148). The tallest of these -were 13-1/4 and 14 inches in height. They were intended to support either -bowls or lamps. They are the kind of "stand" mentioned in Matt. 5:15 (R. -V.--the King James Version called it a "candlestick"), on which men, when -they lighted a lamp, placed it so that it might "give light to all that -are in the house." Probably the poor had some less expensive form of -lamp-stand. - -(11) _Keys_ in Palestine were often large, clumsy affairs. They were -probably most often made of wood, and were much better fitted to be -carried on the shoulder, as a wood-chopper often carries his axe, than to -be carried in a pocket. This is why Isaiah (22:22) speaks of laying the -key of the house of David on the shoulder of Eliakim. Of course, all -wooden keys of the Biblical time have decayed. Iron keys from the -Hellenistic time were found at Gezer, two of which are shown in Figs. 146, -147. - -(12) _Knives._--One of the first implements made by man as he emerges from -savagery is the knife. The earliest knives of Palestine were of flint, -which is in that country very abundant. Flint knives are made by taking a -cone of flint that will easily flake, and skilfully striking the top of it -such a blow that a ribbon having a sharp edge is split off. At Gezer one -of these cones, left by an ancient flint knife-maker, was found; (see Fig. -154). After the introduction of bronze in the first Semitic period, -2500-1800 B. C., knives were often made of that; (see Fig. 151). When, -about 1000 B. C., iron came in, it, too, was employed for knife-making; -(see Fig. 150). Flint knives were always cheaper than those of metal and -were probably always employed by the common people. Knives are referred to -in the Bible as the implements for slaying sacrifices (Gen. 22:6, 10), and -in various other connections. (See, for example, Ezek. 5:1, 2.) Flint -knives were preferred for the rite of circumcision (Exod. 4:25 and Josh. -5:2, 3); (see Fig. 149). - -(13) _Saws._--Ribbon-flint knives easily pass into saws when the edge is -irregular. A number of these came to light in the course of the excavation -of Gezer. Saws are referred to in 2 Sam. 12:31 and in 1 Kings 7:9. Saws -made of thin, flexible strips of metal existed. These were set in wooden -frames. Very meager fragments of these have been found. - -(14) _Chisels_ were fairly common at Gezer in all strata after the -introduction of bronze. They were made usually of bronze, even after the -introduction of iron, although iron chisels were found. As the chisel is -one of the most necessary tools of a carpenter, our Lord must often have -used one in the days before his ministry; (see Fig. 152). - -(15) _Awls._--The awl is also a very useful tool. In ancient Gezer they -were often set in bone handles. Modern Palestinian carpenters employ a -heated awl to make a hole in timber without splitting it. As ancient -carpenters probably had the same custom, the awl was also one of the -implements often used by Christ; (Fig. 157). - -(16) _Axes_ were found from the second Semitic stratum onward. Those from -the earlier time were made, of course, of bronze; the later ones of iron. -In a few the butt of the axe-head was perforated to receive a thong to -lash it to the helve. How necessary this was is shown by such passages as -Deut. 19:5 and 2 Kings 6:5. A bronze double-edged axe was also found in -the second Semitic stratum; (see Fig. 160). - -(17) _Adzes._--A few specimens of the adze were also found; (see Fig. -161). One of these was of bone. - -(18) _Whetstones._--Tools, of course, needed sharpening, and various -specimens of whetstones were found; (see Fig. 158). It is difficult to -distinguish these from "rubbing-stones," which were used when bathing to -rub hardened skin from the body. The same stone may at times have served -both purposes. - -(19) _Files._--A bronze file was made by perforating a tube of bronze with -holes and leaving the rough edges made in the perforation protruding; (see -Fig. 153). These were probably used, however, for crumbing bread, and not -for sharpening tools. - -(20) _Hammers._--Many stone hammers from every period of Palestinian -history have been found. The stone hammer seems to have persisted even -after the introduction of metal. Bronze hammers are rare. Probably the -hammer with which Jael killed Sisera (Judges 4:21; 5:26) was of stone; -also the one referred to in Jer. 23:29; (see Fig. 155). - -(21) _Nails_ have been found in profusion, made both of bronze and of -iron; (see Fig. 159). As soon as iron was introduced into the country it -was generally employed in making nails. Christ, as a carpenter, must have -employed a hammer, and often have driven nails. - -(22) _Baskets_ are used in Palestine, as in other countries, for all sorts -of purposes. They are frequently referred to in the Bible. (See Deut. -26:2, 4; 28:5, 17; Judges 6:19; Amos 8:1, 2.) The basket of the modern -Palestinian peasant is usually made by sewing together a coil of rope made -of straw or reeds. After the mat thus formed has become large enough for -the bottom of the basket, it is given an upward turn to form the sides. In -excavating the water-passage at Gezer interesting evidence came to light -of the existence of such baskets in ancient times. One of them had been -left on some soft earth in the tunnel, and, although the basket itself had -long ago decayed, the form of it was still visible on the hardened clod on -which it had rested; (see Fig. 163). - -(23) _Arrows._--Of implements of warfare some portions have survived. One -of these was the arrow, which is mentioned more than fifty times in the -Bible, and is employed in many metaphors. Arrows were made of a light -perishable shaft to which an arrowhead of flint or bronze was attached. -This head terminated in a point, which inflicted the wound. Arrow-heads -were found in the Palestinian strata later than the cave-dwellers; (Figs. -164, 165, 166). - -(24) _Spears._--The spear consisted of a long shaft with a metal head, -that could be thrown at an enemy. It is often called a javelin. Such -weapons are alluded to in the Bible almost as often as arrows. The -excavations have yielded a good variety of bronze spear-heads; (see Fig. -167). - -(25) _Swords._--The swords of ancient Palestine were used for thrusting -rather than for cutting. (See 1 Sam. 31:5; 2 Sam. 2:16.) The blades are, -therefore, short and pointed; (see Fig. 166). Sometimes the edges are -actually thickened. A fine scimitar, found in a tomb in which other -objects revealed Mycenean influence, is a great exception to the ordinary -form of sword found in Palestine; (see Fig. 162). - -(26) _Fish-hooks._--Spears and arrows could, of course, be used in hunting -as well as in war, but a fish-hook found at Gezer (see Fig. 156) is of -especial interest to the student of the Bible, since some of the most -prominent apostles, Peter, Andrew, James, and John, were fishermen. The -fishing on the Sea of Galilee seems to have been done usually with nets. -Nevertheless, perhaps even there a hook was sometimes employed. - -(27) _Styli._--The implements of the scribe which have survived are all -specimens of a stylus for writing on clay or wax; (see Fig. 178). The -usual length of these styli was 3-1/2 to 4-1/2 inches. In the Hellenistic -stratum at Gezer, however, one was found as short as 2-1/2 inches; also -one as long as 12 inches. It was a stylus of the average kind found at -Gezer that Isaiah was directed to use as recorded in Isa. 8:1. - -(28) _Seals._--Closely connected with the work of the scribe are the seals -which are found wherever a mound is thoroughly excavated. These were -sometimes Egyptian scarabs, but more often, especially in the later -periods, various figures and devices carved on a stone; (see Fig. 175). -They might or might not contain the name of the owner. The famous seal of -Shema, mentioned on p. 97, contained his name, but often they appear -simply to have been a kind of mark of their owners. They might be -impressed on clay or wax, and, as we have seen (p. 144), potters used them -to identify their work. If the writing was on a clay tablet the seals were -rolled over its edge (see Job 38:14), or over any unwritten portion of -its surface. This took the place of the signature of the writer. On the -use of seals in Bible times, see 1 Kings 21:8. - -(29) _The "Pipe."_--The people of Palestine have always been fond of -music, though in modern times their music is of a rude and primitive sort. -Probably in ancient times it did not rise to anything like modern -standards. At least one musical instrument has been brought to light by -the excavations. It is a part of a stone whistle or "pipe" found in the -third Semitic stratum--the period just before the coming of Israel. It is -conical in shape, and about 4 inches long, 1-1/8 inches wide at one end, -and about 1/2 inch wide at the mouthpiece. It was perforated at the side -by two holes; (see Fig. 168). Probably a mouthpiece of reed was fitted -into it. It was possible to make several notes on it. This is probably a -rude example of the "pipe," said to have been invented by Jubal (Gen. -4:21), and often mentioned in the Bible. (See 1 Sam. 10:5; 1 Kings 1:40; -Isa. 5:12; 1 Cor. 14:7.) The Hebrew word for pipe means "a pierced" or -"perforated thing," and this stone whistle answers the description well. - -(30) _Harps._--Other musical instruments were not made of material that -could survive; nevertheless from the Babylonian, Assyrian, and Egyptian -sculptures we have some idea of their form. Of these, the harp is -mentioned more than forty times in the Bible. For the forms of ancient -harps, see Figs. 169-172. - -(31) _The Dulcimer._--This musical instrument is mentioned in Dan. 3:5, -15. An Assyrian dulcimer is shown in Fig. 174. - -(32) _Lyres._--A kind of lyre is pictured on certain Jewish coins; (see -Fig. 173). - -(33) _Children's Toys._--A touch of nature that links the ancient world -with ours is found in the toys of children. Both from Babylonia and -Palestine clay rattles have been recovered. A series found at Gezer is -shown in Fig. 179. In addition to these rattles many grotesque animal -figures came to light through the various excavations; these figures were -probably made for children to play with. One or two had a hole drilled -through a leg, apparently for the insertion of a string by which a child -could drag it. The workmen who removed the earth sometimes begged for -permission to take them home for their own children to play with[177]; -(see Fig. 177). - -=2. Personal Ornaments.= - -(1) _Combs._--Of toilet articles the most universal is the comb. These -were made of bone or ivory. They were both straight and curved, ornamented -and unornamented. A fragment of one from Gezer is shown in Fig. 176. - -(2) _Perfume-boxes._--The ancients were fond of perfume. "Perfumed with -myrrh and frankincense, with all powders of the merchant" is a Hebrew -poet's description of an elegantly dressed man. (See Cant. 3:6.) -Perfume-boxes, in which the various kinds of perfume were kept, frequently -are found in excavating; (see, for example, Fig. 180). Women's -perfume-boxes are denounced in Isa. 3:20. - -(3) _Spatulae for Eye-paint, etc._--Little spatulae, or tools for lifting -small quantities of cosmetics, were also found; (see Fig. 183). These were -probably most often used to apply _kohl_ to the eyelids--a practice that -was thought to enhance the beauty of women (see Ezek. 23:40) and which is -still followed in the East. - -(4) _Fibulae._--Another article of the toilet which is found in abundance -in all ancient excavations was the fibula--a rude kind of safety-pin. The -garments were held together by these. They consisted of a kind of -perforated bow through which a pin could be thrust. In the earlier periods -the bow and the pin were not fastened together. - -The dress of the ancient Palestinians was much like that of the modern -peasants of the country. It was not, however, made of materials that would -last when buried in a mound. All that has survived of it are some articles -of personal adornment. - -(5) _Beads_ were highly valued from the earliest times and are found in -all strata. In the earlier periods they were made of various colored -stones; it is only in the later strata that some glass beads are found. - -(6) _Necklaces._--Beads, cylinders, and irregularly shaped pendants were -strung so as to form necklaces. One found at Jericho is shown in Fig. 181. -They are called "chains" in Isa. 3:19; Prov. 1:9, and "strings of jewels" -in Cant. 1:10. - -(7) _Bracelets_ and armlets have been found in abundance from nearly all -periods. They were made of bronze, iron, ivory, glass, silver, and gold. -For some of their forms, see Fig. 182. They are frequently mentioned in -the Bible. (See, for example, Gen. 24:30; Exod. 35:22; 2 Sam. 1:10; Ezek. -16:11.) - -(8) _Anklets_ of bronze and silver have also been found in various places. -They are like bracelets, only larger. In a country where the ankles were -usually left bare, it was as natural to wear ornaments on them as on the -arms. These, too, are denounced along with the other ornaments of women in -Isa. 3:18. - -(9) _Rings_, too, of various kinds have been found in profusion. Most of -the finger rings were simple circles of metal; usually they were of -bronze; sometimes of iron. Silver and gold rings were comparatively few in -number and of small size. Several signet rings were found at Gezer. Finger -rings are not often mentioned in the Bible. (See, however, Num. 31:50.) -They evidently were highly regarded by well-to-do people, for in the -Parable of the Prodigal Son Jesus tells us that the father "put a ring on -his hand" (Luke 15:22). Signet rings were the possessions of the great and -of kings. (See Gen. 41:42 and Esther 3:10, 12, and Fig. 184.) - - - - -CHAPTER X - -MEASURES, WEIGHTS, AND MONEY - - MEASURES. WEIGHTS. INSCRIBED WEIGHTS. MONEY: Who invented coinage? - Darics. Maccabaean coins. Asmonaean coins. Herodian coins. Roman coins. - The Widow's Mite. The Piece of Silver. Coinage of the Revolt of 66-70 - A. D. - - -=1. Measures.=--The Hebrew units of dry measure were: 1. The Homer (or -Cor), which contained 10 Ephahs (Ezek. 45:11, 14). 2. The Ephah, which -contained 3 Seahs (Isa. 40:12) or 10 Omers (Exod. 16:36) or 18 Cabs (2 -Kings 6:25, and Josephus, _Antiquities_, IX, iv, 4). - -Corresponding to these were the units of liquid measure: 1. The Homer (or -Cor), which contained 10 Baths (Ezek. 45:11, 14). 2. The Bath, which, -according to Josephus and Jerome, contained 6 Hins (see Exod. 29:40). 3. -The Hin, which contained 3 Cabs, or, according to the Talmud, 12 Logs. - -These two systems have the Homer as their major unit. The Homer had the -same capacity in each system. The Ephah of dry measure equalled the Bath -of liquid measure, and the Cab was the same in each. If, then, the -capacity of one unit in either measure could be determined, we should know -the capacity of all the others. - -It has been the custom of archaeologists to strike a kind of average of the -confused statements of Josephus and Epiphanius[178] and correct these by -estimates based on Babylonian measures. - -Calculations based on this method will be found in recent works on Hebrew -archaeology and dictionaries of the Bible. It has been impossible, however, -to reach certainty. Three systems will be found in the books referred to: -one based on the supposition that the Log = 9/10 of a pint; one based on -the supposition that the Log = 91/100 of a pint; the third on the -supposition that the Log = 1 pint. The estimates of the Homer vary -accordingly from 80 gallons to 81.25 gallons, and 89.28 gallons.[179] - -Under these circumstances some discoveries of the Augustinians of the -Assumption, in the grounds of their monastery in Jerusalem, appear to be -of importance.[180] They found at various times in excavating for building -purposes four vessels, which seem to have been a series of measures. -Taking the larger one as the unit, the capacity of the one next smaller is -three-quarters of the capacity of the first; the third was just half the -first; the fourth, a quarter of it. These vessels all appear to have been -in a building which had a Hebrew inscription over its door. Although the -inscription was broken, the word "Corban"[181] was still legible. Pere -Germer-Durand assumes, accordingly, that the building was used as a place -where temple tithes were paid, and that this series of vessels were -standard measures employed in collecting tithes. The quantities of -material contained by these vessels are as follows: - - Largest, 21.25 litres or 19.6 quarts. - Second, 15.937 litres or 14.7 quarts. - Third, 10.625 litres or 9.8 quarts. - Fourth, 5.312 litres or 4.9 quarts. - -Pere Germer-Durand thinks from a study of Josephus and Epiphanius that the -largest of his vessels represents the Ephah of dry measure or the Bath of -liquid measure. If this assumption is right, it gives a series of measures -which are each about 7/12 smaller than the smallest of the series referred -to above. - -On this basis Hebrew dry measures become: - - Homer or Cor = 196 quarts or 6 bushels and 1/2 peck. - Ephah = 19.6 quarts or 2 pecks, 3.6 quarts. - Seah = 6.533+ quarts. - Omer = 1.96 quarts. - Cab = 1.888+ quarts. - -Liquid measure becomes: - - Homer or Cor = 196 quarts or 49 gallons. - Bath = 19.6 quarts or 4.9 gallons. - Seah = 6.533+ quarts. - Hin = 3.266+ quarts. - Cab = 1.888+ quarts. - Log = .272 quarts or approximately 1/2 pint. - -It is not certain that the vessels found by the Augustinians represent the -measures that Germer-Durand supposes, but it is as likely that they do as -that the confused statements of Josephus and Epiphanius afford an accurate -basis for calculations. - -It is probable that in actual business there was in ancient times a great -deal of variation allowed from the ordinary standard of measures. We know -of no rigid regulation of the matter by a central authority. - -=2. Weights.=--The two weights most often mentioned in the Bible are the -talent and the shekel. The Bible nowhere tells us of how many shekels a -talent was composed. In Babylonia the talent consisted of 60 manas,[182] -and each mana of 60 shekels, so that the talent consisted of 3600 shekels. -The Phoenicians divided the mana into 50 shekels, and it is thought by -scholars that the Hebrews did the same, though we have no positive -evidence on the point. Manas are not mentioned in the Bible, unless in -Dan. 5:25.[183] - -In the course of the excavations by Bliss in the Shephelah a number of -weights were found, some of which were inscribed. Macalister also found a -large number of weights at Gezer, a few of which bore inscriptions. Some -others have been found by natives and purchased by travelers. The writer -had the pleasure of discovering two weights in this way. - -=3. Inscribed Weights.=--These inscribed weights are of the greatest -interest to the students of the Bible. Five weights are known that are -inscribed in old Hebrew characters with the word _neseph_, "half"; see -Fig. 186. These are undoubtedly half-shekels. Two of the three are broken, -and one is perforated. The other two weigh, respectively, 157.56 grains -and 153.6 grains. The average of these is 155.5 grains, which would make -the shekel 311 grains. - -Another weight, said to have come from Samaria, was described some years -ago by Dr. Chaplin. It bears the inscription _roba neseph_, "the quarter -of a half," and weighs 39.2 grains. Another weight from Samaria is in the -possession of Mr. Herbert Clark, of Jerusalem. It is made in the form of a -turtle and bears the inscription _homesh_, "a fifth," and weighs 38.58 -grains. Probably it was intended as the fifth part of a shekel. - -Another series of inscribed weights, of which three examples are known, -bears the inscription _beqa_. The word comes from a root that means -"cleave" or "split." This word occurs twice in the Old Testament, in Gen. -24:22 and Exod. 38:26. In the passage last mentioned it is defined as half -a shekel; (see Fig. 188). - -A third variety of weight bears the inscription _payim_. The first of -these to be discovered was found by the writer in the hands of a dealer in -Jerusalem. On one side it bore the word _payim_ and on the other -_lezekaryahu yaer_, "belonging to Zechariah son of Jaer." This weight is -cubic in form (see Fig. 187) and weighs 117.431 grains.[184] Macalister -found another of similar shape, which bore only the inscription _payim_. -It weighed 114.81 grains. The word _payim_ is very puzzling. It has been -interpreted by Clermont-Ganneau as meaning "two-thirds," and as -designating two-thirds of a shekel. Possibly this is right. This weight is -mentioned in 1 Sam. 13:20, 21, and its discovery has explained a Hebrew -phrase which has puzzled all translators. We now know that these verses -should be rendered: "But all the Israelites went down to the Philistines, -to sharpen every man his plowshare, and his axe, and his adze, and his -hoe, and the price was a _pim_ (or _payim_) for the plowshares, and for -the axes, and for the three-tined forks, and for the adzes, and for the -setting of the goads." The name of the weight here expresses the price, -just as shekel, the name of another weight, does elsewhere.[185] One -bronze weight found at Gezer bore words meaning "belonging to the king," -but it is not clear to what king it referred. - -A glance at the weights here described makes it evident that the standards -of the ancient Hebrews were not exact. If these are representative -weights, the shekel must have varied from 200 to more than 300 grains -Troy. This is what one acquainted with the Palestine of today would -expect. The peasants still use field-stone as weights, selecting one that -is approximately of the weight they desire. Even among the merchants of -modern Jerusalem, where one would expect more exact standards than among -the peasantry, odd scraps of old iron are used for weights.[186] - -A large number of uninscribed weights of the same general size and shape -of those described[187] were found at Gezer. Whether larger weights or -multiples of a shekel were discovered is uncertain. A number of stones -might have been used for weights, but they were not inscribed and may have -been used for other purposes. A large bronze weight found at Tell -Sandahanna is just sixty times the weight of a 311-grain shekel, and may -be a mana.[188] - -Where weights and measures differed so, the words of Amos (8:5), "making -the ephah small and the shekel great," gain an added significance, and we -understand why the wise man denounced "false balances" (Prov. 11:1; -20:23). Indeed, of the weights found at Gezer so many were under the -average standard, and so many above it, that the inference lay close at -hand that many men had one set of weights by which to purchase and another -set by which to sell.[189] - -=4. Money.=--Down to the seventh century before Christ money was not -coined. Whenever it was employed as a medium of exchange, it was weighed. -In western Asia and Egypt our sources show that in the period from 1500 to -1300 B. C. gold and silver were prepared for commercial use by being -formed into rings.[190] These rings were of no standard weight; they were -weighed in the mass by scales. Probably the rings were small, so that the -weight could, at the will of the merchant, be increased by very slight -amounts. The ring-form was probably selected because this shape would -present no corners that would rapidly wear away. This type of commercial -ring can be traced in the inscriptions of Ashurnasirpal II of -Assyria,[191] 884-860 B. C. It was used, then, in Egypt, Syria, Phoenicia, -by the Hittites, the Aramaeans, and the Assyrians. - -(1) _Who Invented Coinage?_--The oldest coins yet found were made by the -Lydians, and on this account it is usually said that the Lydians were the -first to coin money. The date of these coins is uncertain. They bear the -name of no king, but are usually assigned to the seventh century B. C. Mr. -Head, of the British Museum, dated them tentatively at 700 B. C. They -probably were made under the Lydian dynasty founded by Gyges in 697 B. C., -the last king of which, the famous Croesus, was overthrown by Cyrus the -Great, in 546 B. C. It is improbable that these coins were invented -earlier than the reign of Gyges, and they may not have been put into -circulation until he had been some years on the throne. It is recognized -that the weight of these coins conforms to a Babylonian standard. - -There seems to be evidence that coined money was employed by the Assyrians -in the reign of Esarhaddon. None of the coins have been found, but a -series of loans and payments, dated in the years 676-671 B. C., designate -the amounts of money in "shekels of silver-heads of Ishtar."[192] As has -been noted by Menant and Johns, this can hardly mean anything else than -silver made into coins of the value of a shekel and stamped with the head -of Ishtar. As Gyges was a contemporary of Esarhaddon, it seems probable -that Lydia borrowed the idea of coinage from the Mesopotamian Valley. - -Be this as it may, the coinage of money was a great step forward. To have -the value of a piece of metal determined beforehand and guaranteed by an -official stamp greatly facilitated the transaction of business. It -eliminated the delays incident to weighing the metal, and the disputes -that were sure to ensue as to the correctness of the weights which were -put into the balances. - -(2) _Darics._--The invention of coined money first affected Palestine -during the Persian period. Darius I of Persia, 521-486 B. C., organized -the coinage of that realm. The gold coins issued by him were of the weight -of a Babylonian shekel. They weighed from 125 to 130 grains Troy. One in -the British Museum weighs 129 grains. They bore on the face a picture of -Darius with a bow to the left; (see Fig. 189). Because of this picture -they were called "darics," just as the French 20-franc piece is called a -"napoleon." The daric is mentioned in several Biblical books that were -written after the beginning of the Persian period. (See 1 Chron. 29:7; -Ezra 2:69; 8:27; Neh. 7:70-72.) It is wrongly translated "dram" in the -Authorized Version. - -After the Persian period the coinage of all the nations to whom the Jews -became subject circulated in turn in Palestine. Foreign coins also found -their way into the country. Many of these ultimately were lost and buried -in the soil, so that many, many coins have been brought to light by -archaeological research. We have space here to mention only those that are -of the greatest interest to students of the Bible. - -Palestine passed under the sway of Alexander the Great in 332 B. C., and -after his death in 323 it was attached to the territory of Ptolemy Lagi of -Egypt and his successors. In 199 B. C. Antiochus III wrested it from the -Ptolemies and the Jews passed under the sway of the Syrians. During this -time the coins of these rulers circulated in the country and are still -frequently dug up there, although they are not mentioned in the Bible. -Samples of these coins are shown in Figs. 190, 195. Not until the Jews had -gained their independence under Simon the Maccabee, in the year 143 B. C., -did they issue any coinage of their own. Indeed, it now seems clear that -no coins were issued by Simon until after the year 139-138 B. C., when the -Syrian king by an especial grant accorded him that liberty. The coins then -issued appear to have been made of bronze only.[193] A silver coinage -formerly attributed to Simon the Maccabee is now regarded as belonging to -the time of the Jewish revolt of 66-70 A. D. - -(3) _Maccabaean Coins._--The coins of Simon consist of bronze half-shekels -and quarter-shekels all dated in the year four. Antiochus VII of Syria -apparently prevented the issue of others during the reign of Simon. His -coins bear on their face the picture of a citron between two bundles of -twigs. Around the border runs the inscription in old Hebrew characters, -"year four; one-half." On the other side is a palm-tree with two bunches -of fruit between two baskets filled with fruits, and around the border -runs the inscription, "belonging to the redemption of Zion;" (see Fig. -192). The weights of these coins vary from 232.6 to 237 grains. The -lighter ones are considerably worn. - -The quarter-shekels have on one side two bundles of twigs, around which -run the words, "year four; one-fourth." On the other side is pictured a -citron with the stalk upward, around which runs the inscription, -"belonging to the redemption of Zion." The weights of the known coins of -this denomination vary from 113.7 to 192.3 grains. The form of the letters -on these coins shows that they are older than other Jewish coins. - -(4) _Asmonaean Coins._--There are many coins from the reign of John -Hyrcanus, the son and successor of Simon, but they are all of copper; (see -Fig. 193). They bear on their face the inscription: "Johanan, the high -priest and the congregation of the Jews"; on the reverse is a poppy head -between two cornucopias. Similar coins were issued by the other Asmonaean -princes. - -(5) _Herodian Coins._--As Herod the Great was a vassal of Rome, he was -permitted to issue copper coins only. These exist in considerable variety. -Figure 198 shows one, the face of which is stamped with the image of a -vessel with a bell-shaped cover, above which are two palm-branches; on the -reverse the words meaning "of King Herod" run around the edge, while a -tripod occupies the center. At the left of the tripod is an abbreviation -for "year 3"; at the right is a monogram. Several other patterns are -known. - -Coins of Archaelaus, Antipas, Herod Philip (Matt. 14:3; Mark 6:17; Luke -3:19), and of Herod Agrippa I are known. One is shown in Fig. 200. - -(6) _Roman Coins._--The most common silver Roman coin was the denarius, -rendered in the Authorized Version "penny" and in the Revised Version -"shilling." Its weight varied at different times. In the time of Christ it -weighed about 61.3 grains Troy, and was worth 16-2/3 cents of American -money. As the ministry of Christ occurred in the reign of Tiberius, the -tribute money shown to Christ (Matt. 22:19; Mark 12:15-17) was probably a -denarius of Tiberius, such as is shown in Fig. 196. The denarius was so -named because it originally was equivalent to ten _asses_ or small copper -coins, but the _as_ was afterward reduced to 1/16 of the denarius. The -_as_ is mentioned in Matt. 10:29; Luke 12:6, where A. V. renders it -"farthing" and R. V. "penny." It was worth about a cent. The Roman coin -_quadrans_, or the fourth part of an _as_, worth about 1/4 of a cent, is -mentioned in Matt. 5:26; Mark 12:42. It is translated "farthing"; (see -Fig. 199). - -(7) _The Widow's Mite._--Another coin, translated "mite," is in Greek -_lepton_, "the small one" or the "bit." It was two of these that the widow -cast into the treasury, Mark 12:42,[194] where it is said that two of them -equaled a _quadrans_. The "mite" was, then, of the value of 1/8 of a cent. -It was doubtless the smallest coin in circulation, but it has not yet been -identified with certainty with any coin that archaeology has discovered. - -(8) _The Piece of Silver._--In Luke 15:8 the Greek _drachma_ is -mentioned. It is translated "piece of silver." The _drachma_ corresponded -roughly in value to the denarius. Drachmas had been issued by many -different cities and many different kings, and were still in circulation -in Palestine in the time of Christ. One still sees in that country today -coins of the first Napoleon, and of many other sovereigns who have been -long dead, passing from hand to hand as media of value; (see Fig. 194). - -(9) _Coinage of the Revolt of 66-70 A. D._--Two silver coins, a shekel and -a half-shekel (see Fig. 201), were formerly attributed to Simon the -Maccabee. The shekels weigh 212.3 to 217.9 grains and bear on their face -above a cup or chalice the legend "shekel of Israel" and a numeral. The -numeral stands for the first year. Examples are known which carry the -enumeration up to the year "five." On the reverse a triple lily is -pictured, and in similar Hebrew characters the words "Jerusalem, the holy" -are inscribed. The half-shekel is smaller and has the same markings except -that the legend on its face is simply "half-shekel." On the coins issued -after the first year a Hebrew _sh_ precedes the number of the year. The -_sh_ is an abbreviation of the Hebrew word _shana_, year. For various -reasons the consensus of expert opinion now is that these coins were -issued during the Jewish war of 66-70 A. D., which, according to Jewish -reckoning, extended into the fifth year. - -Coins of the Roman Emperors, Augustus and Claudius, are shown in Figs. -195, 197. - - - - -CHAPTER XI - -HIGH PLACES AND TEMPLES[195] - - A SANCTUARY OF THE PRE-SEMITIC CAVE-DWELLERS. A ROCK-ALTAR AT MEGIDDO. - A ROCK-ALTAR AT JERUSALEM. HIGH PLACE AT TELL ES-SAFI. HIGH PLACE AT - GEZER: Choice of site. Child-sacrifice. Corrupt worship. AT TAANACH: - Pillars. An altar of incense. HIGH PLACES AT PETRA. A SUPPOSED - PHILISTINE TEMPLE. AT MEGIDDO: A Hebrew temple. A palace chapel. - Another chapel. THE TEMPLE TO AUGUSTUS AT SAMARIA. - - -=1. A Sanctuary of the Pre-Semitic Cave-dwellers.=--The oldest sanctuary -which we can trace in Palestine appears to have been one of the caves at -Gezer. This cave was 32 feet long, 20 feet broad, and 7 feet 11 inches at -its maximum height. There were two entrances: one on the east, a tall, -narrow doorway, was approached by a passage sloping downward; the other, -on the west, was a low, narrow passage, just wide enough to admit a -person. At the northern end there was a projection in the form of an apse, -the floor of which was about 2 feet higher than that of the rest of the -cave. In the roof of this apse there was an opening, about 1 foot wide at -the bottom, leading to the upper air. The rock of the roof here was 3 feet -5-1/2 inches thick. This opening was 2 feet 8 inches in diameter at the -top, and a channel 4 feet 6 inches long cut in the surface of the rock was -connected with it. On the surface of the rock above the cave and about -this channel there were a number of "cup-marks" similar to those found -near ancient sacred places. Some of these were, perhaps, intended for -places to set jars, but some of them were connected with the channel which -emptied into the opening in the roof of the cave[196]; (see Fig. 202). - -The suggestion which the excavator, Prof. Macalister, makes is that this -was a sanctuary of the cave-dwellers, that they killed their victims on -the surface of the rock above, and let the blood run through the channel -and the opening into the cave underneath, where their deity was supposed -to dwell. They lived in caves themselves, and it was natural for them to -think their deity did the same. This suggestion received some -confirmation from the fact that on the floor of the apse under this -opening there were found, upon removing a layer of earth, a number of pig -bones. The presence of these might be accounted for on the supposition -that they were offered in sacrifice by the cave-dwellers to their deity. -Swine were unclean to all Semites, and, no doubt, the later Semitic -inhabitants would have thrown the bones away, if they had ever cleaned out -the cave sufficiently to discover them. - -=2. A Rock-altar at Megiddo.=--Another rock-altar of high antiquity was -discovered on the slope of the mound of Tell el-Mutesellim, the ancient -Megiddo.[197] It was situated on the slope of the tell, about half-way -down. Its surface was covered with "cup-marks," like those on the altar at -Gezer, and an opening about 2-1/2 feet wide at the top and 1-1/2 feet wide -at the bottom made it possible for blood to trickle down through 3 feet of -rock into a cave below. This cave contained several rooms, the largest of -which was about 18 feet 6 inches long, 7 feet 8 inches wide, and 8 feet 6 -inches high. In the most northerly of the rooms were found various -implements of black flint, potsherds, coals of a wood-fire, the bones of -sheep and goats, olive-stones, and ashes. In the midst of the central room -there lay a heap of human bones, the skulls of which were badly destroyed. -These human bones show that after the cave had been used as a sanctuary it -was employed as a sepulcher. The same thing happened at Gezer and -elsewhere; (see Fig. 205). - -=3. A Rock-altar at Jerusalem.=--We are told in Gen. 22:2 that Abraham -went to the land of Moriah to offer up Isaac, and in 2 Chron. 3:1, ff. -that Solomon built the temple on Mount Moriah on the threshing floor which -David acquired from Ornan (Araunah) the Jebusite. Just to the east of the -site of Solomon's temple in the open court where the altar of -burnt-offering stood, there was a rock surface similar to the two -rock-altars described above. It is still visible in Jerusalem and is now -enclosed in the Mosque of Omar. The Mohammedans regard it as a sacred -rock. One can still trace on it the channels which conducted the blood to -an opening which in turn conducted it to a cave underneath. This cave is -still regarded by the Mohammedans as sacred. There is little doubt that -the sacrificial victims offered in the temples of Solomon and Herod were -slain on this stone, and that that part of the blood not used in -sprinkling drained into the cave underneath. This rock-altar is on the -hill to which we are told Abraham came for the sacrifice of Isaac[198]; -(see Fig. 208). - -=4. High Place of Tell es-Safi.=--In the Old Testament the "high place" is -frequently mentioned as a place of worship. (See 1 Sam. 9:12, f.; 1 Kings -3:2; 2 Kings 23:5, 8, etc.) It follows from 2 Kings 23:14 that these high -places contained "pillars" and "asherim." The pillars were made of stone, -and the asherim of wood. - -Recent exploration has brought to light a number of these high places, and -the revelations made by these discoveries greatly illuminate the Old -Testament narrative. The first of these was discovered by Bliss and -Macalister at Tell es-Safi.[199] The high place was enclosed by walls, -but, as the upper courses of these had been destroyed, the original height -of the walls could not be determined. Within the largest enclosure stood -three monoliths or "pillars." These rested on bases of stone. The pillars -themselves were, respectively, 5 feet 10 inches, 6 feet 5 inches, and 7 -feet 1 inch high. One of them was pointed, and one of them almost flat on -the top. No tool-mark was discernible on any of them. All showed signs of -having been rubbed. The fat and the blood of sacrifices were smeared over -such stones, and the rubbing was probably produced by this. The walls -enclosing these pillars formed an approximate square 30 feet from east to -west and 32 feet from north to south. On the north a fairly large room was -walled in, as shown in Fig. 212, and on the south three smaller rooms. In -the wall to the north of the three pillars was a semicircular apse. Facing -this apse was a low semicircle of stones 3 feet 7 inches in diameter, -which is situated much nearer the "pillars." The purpose of this -semicircle is unknown. In the east wall of the court of the high place -there was a "skewed" opening, or an opening which ran diagonally through -the wall. The purpose of this is obscure. It has been suggested by Prof. -Macalister that it was made to permit the rising sun to shine on a certain -spot of the interior on a certain day of the year, but of this there is no -proof. - -=5. High Place of Gezer.=--The foundations of this high place were in the -second stratum below that which contained Israelitish pottery. It was one -of the high places of the Canaanites, therefore, or of one of the tribes -that were in Palestine before the coming of Israel. This is the most -interesting of the high places which have been discovered in -Palestine.[200] It contained ten monoliths or upright "pillars," the -tallest of which was 10 feet 9 inches in height, and the shortest 5 feet 5 -inches. These pillars ran in a curved line the general direction of which -was from north to south. This was in striking contrast to the high place -of Tell es-Safi, where the line of pillars ran from east to west. The -center of the curved line of the pillars of Gezer was toward the east. All -of these pillars except one were of the kind of stone abundant about -Gezer. They had been found near by. None of them bore the mark of a tool. -They had not been shaped by working. One of them (the one that was _the_ -sacred stone, as the smooth spots on it showed) was a different kind of -stone--the kind found at Jerusalem and elsewhere, but not near Gezer. -There were on it traces of an indentation, as though a rope for dragging -it might have been fitted around it; (Fig. 206). As Mesha, King of Moab, -tells us twice in his inscription that he dragged altar-hearths of other -deities away from their original locations into the presence of his god -Chemosh,[201] it seems likely that this stone was dragged to Gezer from -some other sanctuary--possibly from Jerusalem. Perhaps it was its capture -that first suggested to the inhabitants of Gezer the establishment of this -high place. The other stones of the series were erected to keep this one -company and to do it honor. These were probably not all set up at once. -They were added from time to time by different rulers of Gezer, and we -have no means of knowing when the latest of the pillars was erected; (see -Fig. 204). - -(1) _Choice of Site._--Judging from the scarabs found about the -foundations of the high place, its beginnings date from 2000 B. C. or -earlier, and it continued in use down to the Babylonian Exile. Curiously -enough, this high place is not situated on the highest part of the hill. -The land is higher both to the east and to the west of it. It is situated -in a sort of saddle to the east of the middle of the mound. Why was this -spot chosen for it? Two considerations, perhaps, led to the choice of the -site. A great ramifying cave on a higher part of the hill had already been -appropriated by Semites as a sepulcher, and was, therefore, unclean. The -cave which the earlier inhabitants had used as a crematorium was for the -same reason unacceptable. Why the high place was not built near the cave -that the cave-dwellers had used as a temple, we cannot now conjecture. -Perhaps in some way the memory that that had been a sacred spot had faded -from men's minds. Macalister thinks that the choice of the site was -determined by the presence at this point of the two caves shown in Fig. -203. These caves had been dwellings of cave-men in the pre-Semitic time. -They were now connected by a narrow, crooked passage, so that they could -be utilized for the giving of oracles. Macalister conjectures that a -priest or priestess would go into one, while the devotee who wished to -inquire of the god was sent into the other, and that the inquirer would -hear his oracle through this passage. This theory is plausible, though -incapable of full proof. - -Just back of one of the pillars a square stone was found with a deep hole -cut in its upper side; (see Fig. 209). Several theories as to the use of -this have been put forward; the most probable one is that it was a laver. - -The area of the high place seems to have been approximately 150 feet from -north to south and 120 feet from east to west. Some few walls were found -of the same date as the high place, but it was impossible to tell their -purpose. There seem to have been no buildings that could be regarded as a -part of the sanctuary. It seems to have been entirely open to the air. Two -circular structures, one at the north and the other to the south of the -sacred stones, were found. The one at the south was badly ruined; that to -the north was in a good state of preservation. This structure had a -pavement of stones on a level with the bottom of the sacred pillars. It -was entirely surrounded by a wall 2 feet thick at the bottom and 1 foot 6 -inches thick at the top and 6 feet high. There was no doorway. The wall -leaned outward. The diameter of the structure was 13 feet 8 inches at the -bottom and 16 feet 6 inches at the top; (see Fig. 207). On the pavement in -this enclosure were the fragments of many clay bowls, of a type found in -Cyprus, but common at Gezer from 1400-800 B. C., and among these fragments -a brazen serpent, evidently the model of a cobra. This discovery suggests -the possibility that the structure may have been a pen in which sacred -serpents were kept. The practice of venerating serpents as sacred is found -in many parts of the world.[202] This brazen serpent reminds one of -Nehushtan, the brazen serpent worshiped by the Judaeans until it was -destroyed by King Hezekiah. (See 2 Kings 18:4, and Fig. 219_a_.) - -(2) _Child-sacrifice._--The whole area of the high place was found to be a -cemetery of new-born infants. These were in all probability first-born -children who had been sacrificed to the deity of the high place. Two of -them displayed marks of fire, but most of them had been simply enclosed in -large jars. The body was usually put in head first. Two or three smaller -vessels were put in with them. These generally included a bowl and a jug. -They were usually inside the jar between the body and the jar's mouth; -sometimes they were outside near the mouth of the jar. That these were -sacrifices is shown by the fact that they were children. It was not, -therefore, a general place of burial. Indeed, had these children not been -sacrificial, they could not have been buried in the sanctuary, as dead -bodies were unclean. - -The Semites generally believed that the first-born were sacred to deity -and must be sacrificed to it. This sort of human sacrifice persisted for a -long time among the Phoenicians. It was said that God called Abraham to -sacrifice Isaac, and that he then permitted him to offer a ram instead -(Gen. 22). The law provided for the redemption of Hebrew first-born by the -sacrifice of a lamb (Exod. 34:20), but in the time of King Manasseh the -old custom was revived and men "made their children pass through the -fire." (See 2 Kings 21:6; 23:10; Jer. 7:31; 32:35.) The gruesome -discoveries of this high place have made very real these horrible -practices and the inhuman fate from which Isaac and other Hebrew children -were delivered. - -With the exception of a little unhewn stone about 18 inches square, found -in one of the caves connected with the high place, and which might -possibly have served as an altar, no altar was found. Possibly none was -needed in the rites practised there, but it is more likely that the altar -was simply a mound of earth such as is prescribed in Exod. 20:24--a mound -which could not be distinguished, in excavating, from the common earth. - -(3) _Corrupt Worship._--Of the nature of some of the services that went on -in this high place in the name of Ashtoreth eloquent testimony was borne -by unnumbered Ashtoreth-plaques that had been presented as votive -offerings by the worshipers. These varied in form and in artistic merit, -but were all designed to foster in the worshiper that type of debasing -service described in Isa. 57:3, ff., as Fig. 214 shows. Symbols of this -nature were abundant during all the period while the high place was in -use. No one who was not, like the writer, at Gezer during the excavation, -can realize how demoralizing the whole atmosphere of such worship must -have been. Archaeology has here revealed to us in a most vivid way the -tremendous power of those corrupting religious influences which the Hebrew -prophets so vigorously denounced. These practices were deeply rooted in -the customs of the Canaanites; they were sanctified by a supposed divine -sanction of immemorial antiquity, and they made an all-powerful appeal to -the animal instincts in human nature. We can realize now as never before -the social and religious task which confronted the prophets. That Israel -was by prophetic teaching purged of this cult is due to the power of God! - -=6. At Taanach.= - -(1) _Pillars._--Sellin[203] discovered two monoliths which he believed to -be the pillars of a high place. These stones had, however, been hewn, -which does not accord with the general Semitic requirement that no tool -should be lifted up upon such stones; (see Fig. 211). However, the -indentation in one of the sacred stones of Gezer, apparently made to keep -a rope from slipping, shows that exceptions to the rule against cutting a -sacred stone were allowed. The two pillars at Taanach were situated over a -cave and figures of Ashtoreth were found in connection with them, so that -they probably constituted another high place. The stratum in which this -was found proves that it belongs to the same period as the high place at -Gezer. In connection with this high place an interesting libation bowl was -found which is shown in Fig. 213. - -(2) _An Altar of Incense._--In another part of the mound at Taanach Sellin -discovered a remarkable incense altar of terra-cotta, 3 feet in height, -and 18 inches in diameter at the base, adorned with protruding animal -heads, which remind one of shortened gargoyles. On one side of it was the -figure of a palm-tree, with two ibexes descending a mountain. Part of an -Ashtoreth figure and fragments of another altar were found near. Sellin -thought that the building that contained these was a private house, and, -if so, we have in these objects some of the implements of private worship -employed by Israelites; (see Fig. 210). - -=7. High Places at Petra.=--One of the most interesting high places is cut -out of the solid rock at Petra. Petra may possibly be the Sela of 2 Kings -14:7, since Sela means "crag" or "rock" in Hebrew, and Petra has the same -meaning in Greek. The identity of Petra with Sela is not, however, -certain. Petra lies in the southeastern part of ancient Edom, and was, -before the end of the fourth century B. C., occupied by the Nabathaeans, a -Semitic tribe. These Nabathaeans established a kingdom which continued -until 106 A. D. One of its kings, Haretat IV, is called Aretas in 2 Cor. -11:32.[204] When the Roman Emperor Trajan overthrew this kingdom he -organized its territory into the Province of Arabia, and the beautiful -buildings, the remains of which make Petra such an interesting ruin today, -date mostly from the Roman period of its history. During the Nabathaean -period of Petra they constructed three high places, which are high places -indeed, since they are perched on ledges of rock above the ancient town. -The largest of these high places is still in an excellent state of -preservation. It is a little to the north of the citadel on a ledge which -rises about 700 feet above the town. The ledge is 520 feet long by 90 feet -wide; it runs nearly north and south with a slight inclination to the -east.[205] The principal features of this ancient place of worship are an -altar on the west side of the ledge, a platform immediately south of this, -a large sunken area directly in front of the altar, and a little to the -south of this area a vat or laver. - -This high place is approached by a flight of steps cut in the solid rock; -(see Fig. 215). The main area, which corresponds to the enclosure of the -high place at Tell es-Safi, is 47 feet 4 inches long, 24 feet 4 inches -wide, and 15 to 18 inches deep, though this depth is not uniform. In some -parts it falls to 10 inches. About midway of the length of this area and 5 -feet from its west side, there is a rock platform 5 feet in length, 2 feet -7-1/2 inches wide, and 4 inches high. It has been suggested that this -platform was intended for the offerer of a victim to stand upon, in order -that he might be distinguished from other worshipers who were crowding the -area. Another possible view is that the sacred "pillars" stood upon this -platform. No pillars were found in connection with it. Probably such -pillars were not cut out of the solid rock, but were, like the sacred -stone of Gezer, brought from elsewhere. The arrangement of other high -places would indicate that they stood on or near this platform. As this -high place was not buried, but exposed on the mountain top, such pillars -have in the course of the ages disappeared. The altar is separated from -the adjoining rock by a passageway which was cut on its north, south, and -west sides. It is of the same height as the adjoining rock. On the east -the ledge has been cut down to the level of the foot of the altar. The -altar is 9 feet 1 inch in length from north to south and 6 feet 2 inches -wide. It is 3 feet high at its highest point. On the top of the altar is a -hollow pan, perhaps to receive the fire. This is 3 feet 8 inches long, 1 -foot 2 inches wide, and 3-1/2 inches deep. Ascent to the altar was made by -a flight of steps leading up to its top on the east side. The top step is -wider than the others and forms a platform on which the officiating priest -might stand; (see Fig. 217). - -Just south of the altar and separated from it by the passageway was the -place where the victims were slain. This has been called the round altar; -(see Fig. 218). This consists of a platform 16 feet 6 inches long from -east to west, 11 feet 9 inches wide. It is approached by a flight of -steps. Near its center are two circular and concentric pans, the larger 3 -feet 8 inches in diameter with a depth of 3 inches, the smaller 1 foot 5 -inches in diameter with a depth of 2 inches. From this inner basin a -conduit 3 feet 2 inches long, 2 inches wide, and 3 inches deep conducted -the blood to the edge of the platform. This platform was undoubtedly -intended for the place of slaughter. The Samaritans, when they assemble on -Mount Gerizim for the celebration of the Passover, still dig a round hole -in the turf, over which to slay the victim. This hole is about 18 inches -in diameter and 10 inches deep. From it a conduit is dug, through which -the blood flows off to be absorbed by the earth.[206] - -The supposed laver at Petra is to the south of the area of the high place. -It is 9 feet 9 inches in length and 8 feet 6 inches in width. It is now -partially filled with earth, and has above the earth an average depth of 3 -feet. - -The remains of three other supposed high places have been found at Petra, -but lack of space forbids their description here.[207] The pillars -supposed to have been connected with one of them are shown in Fig. 219. - -=8. A Supposed Philistine Temple.=--Turning now to Palestinian temples: -Macalister discovered the remains of a building at Gezer which he thinks -may have been a temple.[208] This building belonged to the third Semitic -stratum; in other words, to the period just before the coming of the -Israelites. A general plan of its walls is shown in Fig. 220. In a court -in one part of the structure were five pillars which may have had the same -religious significance as the pillars of the high place. The two circular -structures _f f_ remind one of the circular structures of the high place -of Gezer. These were filled with the fragments of the bones of sheep and -goats. As these bore no marks of cooking, they could not have been mere -domestic ash-pits, and it is plausible to think of them as receptacles for -the bodies of slaughtered victims. In a forecourt of the structure a line -of bases, apparently intended for the support of columns, was found. -Macalister conjectured that these supported a roof over a part of the -portico, and it reminded him of the story of Samson in the temple of -Dagon. (See Judges 16:23-30.) It is quite possible that the feast of Dagon -described in Judges 16 may have been held in a structure similar to this, -that the lords of the Philistines may have been gathered in such a porch, -and that Samson may have pulled such pillars as rested upon these bases -from under the roof that sheltered them, and caused their destruction and -his own death. It is all possible, but conjectural. - -=9. At Megiddo.= - -(1) _A Hebrew Temple._--In the course of the excavation at Megiddo a -temple was found concerning the sacred nature of which there can be no -such doubts as in the case of the building just mentioned[209]; (Fig. -222). This temple was in the Israelitish stratum, and so is of especial -interest to the students of the Bible. It was situated in the highest part -of the city. The whole space was not excavated, but the portion uncovered -was 131 feet long and 115 wide. It was of the same period as the palace in -which the seal of Shema the servant of Jeroboam was found, and contained -more drafted stones than the walls of that palace. In one of the rooms of -the temple stood two stones that were certainly "pillars" such as are -denounced in Deuteronomy. One of these was 7 feet 8 inches high; the -other, 7 feet high. The room in which these pillars stood was 30 feet long -and 10 feet 7 inches wide. In building the wall of this temple a stone was -used that had once formed the voluted capital of a column; (Fig. 224). -Probably this stone was taken from an earlier Philistine building. - -In the grounds of the temple, which were once regarded as holy, several -jars containing the skeletons of children were unearthed. These had -apparently been offered in sacrifice and buried like those found in the -high place of Gezer. - -While the walls of this temple were built of larger and more carefully cut -stones than most of the other walls in the city, no effort seems to have -been made to give the temple a definite architectural plan. Large towers -were found near it, but, as the temple was at the east end of the city, -these formed part of fortifications. The fortifications and other -buildings crowded upon the temple, so that, had an effort been made to -make it architecturally imposing, the effect would have been lost. - -(2) _A Palace Chapel._--The people of Megiddo seem to have been -particularly fond of the type of worship represented by this temple, for -in a room to the east of the palace of the Hebrew governor was a room -containing three "pillars," in which the remains of a number of -terra-cotta goddesses were found.[210] This was apparently the private -chapel of the palace. This room was almost 40 feet long and 32 feet 10 -inches wide; (Fig. 223). Its beginnings antedate the Israelitish period, -since they come from the stratum before the conquest. - -(3) _Another Chapel._--What seems to have been still another place of -worship equipped with the necessary "pillars" was found in the Hebrew -stratum between the governor's palace and the southern gate of the -city.[211] It would appear from the connecting walls that this sacred -place may also have been intended for the special use of the occupants of -the palace. This room was not quite 30 feet long and a little less than 20 -feet wide. It contained six stones which Dr. Schumacher took to be -"pillars." Like those at Petra and Taanach, they had evidently been shaped -with tools. They did not stand in a row or in any regular relation to one -another. This might throw some doubt upon the religious significance of -the stones. Could they not have been columns used in supporting the roof -of the building? Since a small stone object that had religious -significance in the high places was found in this room, together with a -most remarkable incense burner, it is probable that these were religious -"pillars" and that the room was a little chapel. The object was of -limestone and about 7 inches long. It was lying at the foot of one of the -"pillars." The incense burner was made of a greyish soft limestone. It was -a little over 9 inches in height. The diameter of the bowl was 6-3/8 -inches. The stone was cut so that the bowl rested on a pedestal, which was -divided by rings into two portions, each of which was cut so as to -represent a circle of overhanging leaves; (see Fig. 225). The whole was -decorated with reddish-brown and cobalt-blue paints. The decoration of the -rim of the bowl is a geometrical design, that on the bowl itself -represents a sort of conventionalized lily blossom, while the leaves -suggest those of the palm. - -These discoveries make it plain that the Canaanite temples of Palestine, -which the Hebrews took over, were simply high places in miniature, -enclosed in walls and probably roofed over, though the roofs have -disappeared. The feeling that led to the change from the open air high -place was the same as that underlying the saying of David: "I dwell in a -house of cedar, but the ark of God dwelleth within curtains" (2 Sam. 7:2). - -=10. The Temple to Augustus at Samaria.=--The excavations at Samaria[212] -have brought to light the foundation of the temple erected by Herod the -Great in honor of Augustus.[213] This was a temple of a very different -type. It was patterned on Graeco-Roman models and everything was done to -make it architecturally impressive. Unfortunately, the results of the -Harvard expedition have not yet been given to the public in detail, but -from the imposing stairway, discovered during the first season of the -excavation, together with the partial plan of the building as then -uncovered, and the outlines of its walls as a later season's work -disclosed them, one can form some idea of the imposing appearance of this -structure. A massive stairway led up to a large platform surrounded by -large pillars. This formed the portico. Back of this stretched the walls -of the temple. The general form of the building seems to have been similar -to that of the large temple at Jerash, which will be described in Chapter -XIV.[214] At the foot of the stairway leading up to the temple was found a -large altar, and near this a fallen statue of Augustus. For outlines of -the temple, see Figs. 216 and 221. - -These ancient places of worship which archaeology has brought to light are -eloquent witnesses of the pathetic way the men of Palestine "felt after -God, if haply they might find him" (Acts 17:27), and the pathos is not -lessened by the fact that they thus continued to grope, even after the -clearer light was shining about them. - - - - -CHAPTER XII - -THE TOMBS OF PALESTINE - - BURNING THE DEAD. CAVE BURIALS. CISTERN BURIAL. BURIAL UNDER MENHIRS. - EARTH-GRAVES. ROCK-HEWN SHAFT TOMBS. DOORWAY TOMBS. TOMBS WITH A - ROLLING-STONE. - - -=1. Burning the Dead.=--As noted in a previous chapter,[215] the -cave-dwellers of Gezer burned their dead. The Semitic inhabitants of -Palestine did not follow this custom, but buried theirs. At Gezer the -caves that had formed the dwellings of the first inhabitants were put by -the Semites to various uses. Sometimes they, too, lived in them; sometimes -they made cisterns of them; and sometimes they utilized them as places of -burial for their dead. - -=2. Cave Burials.=--A cave that became a tomb after the Semitic occupation -was the one that had been the crematorium of the pre-Semitic -inhabitants.[216] All over the floor of the cave above the burned bones -was another stratum of bones that had never been burned. These were -scattered over the floor of the cave, and, although they had been much -disturbed by rats, it appeared that they belonged to that early type of -burial in which the body is placed on its side with the knees drawn up -toward the chin. These bodies had apparently been deposited in all parts -of the cave. Ranged around the sides of the cave was a series of -enclosures marked off from the floor by lines of stones. In these, -portions of various skeletons were found. These enclosures seem to have -been reservations made for persons of distinction. For a time, therefore, -the cave seems to have been used as a general place of burial. In some of -the other caves of Gezer evidence was found that they had been used as -tombs.[217] Beautiful pottery and alabaster vessels were found with the -bones. Wine and possibly food for the dead had been placed in these. -Underneath the pottery in one cave a considerable number of scarabs were -found, some of them mounted in gold. This must have been, accordingly, -the burial place of persons of comparative wealth. Similar cave burials -were found by Mackenzie at Beth-shemesh.[218] - -Such cave burials as these at once recall Abraham's purchase of the cave -of Machpelah as recorded in Gen. 23. The kind of burial presupposed in -that chapter is just that found at Gezer. The mouth of the cave could be -closed up and opened at will for later burials. (See Gen. 50:13.) - -The custom of placing food or drink or both in the sepulcher was all but -universal in Palestine. It is silent testimony to a faith in a kind of -after-life. That that life as they conceived it was of a shadowy and an -unsatisfactory nature is shown by the references to it in Isa. 14:9-11 and -Ezek. 32:22-32.[219] Nevertheless, these evidences that the mourners who -stood by every ancient tomb provided food for their loved ones to eat in -the after-life is eloquent testimony to the fact that even in that age the -loving heart found it impossible to believe that the life of its dear ones -had been altogether terminated. - -=3. Cistern Burial.=--Another burial at Gezer that must have been -connected with some unusual circumstance led to the deposit of fifteen -bodies in a cistern,[220] and a number of spear heads were found with -them. The skeletons were all males except one, which was that of a girl -about sixteen years old, whose spine had been severed and only the upper -part of the skeleton deposited in the cistern; (see Fig. 229). The cistern -is too deep to favor the supposition that the bodies had been deposited at -successive times. Macalister hazards the conjecture that the men died of -plague and that the girl was offered as a sacrifice to propitiate the -deity. A plague, however, would have attacked women as well as men. -Perhaps the men were slain in defending Gezer from the attack of an enemy -that had succeeded in severing the body of the girl. The real cause of the -tragedy is, however, unknown to us. - -=4. Burial under Menhirs.=--A very old form of burial, still practised by -the half-nomadic tribes east of the Jordan, is to place the dead in the -earth within one of the prehistoric _gilgals_ or menhirs. How old this -form of burial is, it is impossible to tell. It is assumed by some -writers that it was practised by the neolithic people who erected these -monuments, and who are believed by such writers to have been ancestor -worshipers. If, however, these neolithic men were akin to the neolithic -cave-dwellers of Gezer, they burned their dead. Another explanation is, -accordingly, more probable. All through the history of Palestine the -sanctity of certain spots has persisted. A place once considered as holy, -if not so regarded by the next wave of conquerors, nevertheless often has -enough sanctity clinging to it to make it taboo. No thief will disturb -objects left within its precincts, lest the spirit of the place bring -disaster upon him. It seems probable that the wandering tribes on the -border of the Arabian Desert have utilized the sacred places of these -prehistoric men for the burial of their dead, in order that the fear of -violating the taboo pertaining to these places may secure the bodies from -disturbance. Whatever the reason may be, they still bury their dead in -such precincts and place their tribal _wasms_ or marks on such -stones.[221] - -=5. Earth-graves.=--The simplest form of burial was to place the body in -the ground without accessory of any kind. In the course of the excavation -of Gezer a few burials of this sort came to light.[222] The skeleton was -in these cases stretched out; sometimes it was lying on its back; -sometimes on its side. As these bodies were buried without accessories, so -contrary to the custom of the Palestinians who placed food or drink by the -dead, the excavator thought that they were probably the graves of murdered -persons, who had been hastily concealed in the earth. - -Another form of burial, when the interment occurred within a city, is -illustrated by the five "Philistine" graves found at Gezer.[223] These -graves were excavations in the earth, lined with cement, and, after the -interment, covered with four or five massive stones and earth; (Fig. 226). -In these graves the usual deposits of food and drink had been made in -beautiful bronze and silver vessels, which show kinship to the art of -Cyprus; (see Fig. 137). They are probably, therefore, Philistine. - -=6. Rock-hewn Shaft Tombs.=--A form of tomb of which many examples are to -be found in all parts of Palestine is the rock-hewn tomb. The limestone of -the country is easily cut, and lends itself readily to the construction -of this kind of burial-place. Such tombs are of two kinds--"shaft" tombs -and "doorway" tombs. - -The structure of a shaft tomb is as follows:[224] The tomb chamber or -chambers are cut in the rock and are approached by a perpendicular -rock-hewn shaft, which is usually rectangular. This shaft is closed at the -bottom with slabs and then the shaft is filled with earth. Such tombs are -usually constructed in ledges covered over with soil, so that, when the -hole leading to the rock-cut shaft is filled, the tomb is effectually -concealed. Such tombs are very numerous all the way from pre-Israelitish -times to the Greek period. For a plan of one, see Fig. 228. - -=7. Doorway Tombs.=--The "doorway" tombs are sometimes cut in a ledge that -is altogether under ground. In that case a flight of steps is excavated -leading down to the door; (Fig. 232). Often the tomb is cut in a ledge on -the slope of a hill, so that the doorway is approached from the level of -the ground; (see Fig. 227). Doors were, no doubt, fitted into the -doorways. The places cut in the rock for the latches or bars of such doors -are sometimes still visible. These tombs consisted sometimes of one room, -sometimes of several. Sometimes the bodies were laid on the floor of the -tomb; sometimes elevated benches or shelves were cut in the rock on which -bodies might be placed. Quite as often shafts or niches were cut into the -rock, into which a body or a sarcophagus could be shoved endwise. Such a -shaft is called technically a _kok_, in the plural, _kokim_. For examples -of them, see Figs. 233, 237. The date at which this kind of tomb was -introduced has not been satisfactorily determined. - -Sometimes numerous small tombs, each one resembling somewhat a _kok_, were -cut in a hillside. Archaeologists call such a group of tombs a -"columbarium"; (see Fig. 230). - -In the Hellenistic and Roman periods efforts were made to give adornment -to such tombs. The so-called "Tombs of the Judges"[225] near Jerusalem, of -which the writer was the first to make a scientific examination, is a good -example of this kind of tomb[226]; (see Fig. 231). This tomb consisted of -three rooms in its upper level and three in its lower level; (see Fig. -235). The ledges and _kokim_ in it made provision for seventy bodies, and -a rough chamber opening out of room D was evidently used for the deposit -of the bones of those who had been long dead, when a niche or _kok_ was -needed for the reception of another body. Sometimes the pillars of a porch -were carved out of the solid rock. A number of such tombs are to be found -near Jerusalem. There is one in the Kidron Valley near Gethsemane, cut -wholly out of the rock and finished to a spire at the top. This is the -so-called "Absalom's pillar." - -In the time of Christ the tombs of Israel's heroes were adorned and -venerated. Jesus alludes to this in Luke 11:47, 48. Elisha must have been -buried in a doorway tomb, into which by opening the door the body of a man -could be easily thrown. (See 2 Kings 13:20, 21.) It was, no doubt, the -memory of such narratives as this that led to the reverence paid to the -tombs of the prophets in the time of Christ. - -Another tomb at Jerusalem, called the "Tombs of the Kings," has a large -open court cut down into the rock, from the different sides of which -entrances lead to the other tomb chambers. This tomb was built for Queen -Helena of Adiabene, the ancient Assyria, who, in the days of Herod the -Great, was converted to Judaism and removed to Jerusalem. She died and was -buried there.[227] - -Sometimes in the Seleucid period the interior of the tombs was also made -very ornate. Such were the tombs, discovered in 1902,[228] of some wealthy -Greek-speaking citizens of Marissa. A plan of one of them is shown in Fig. -234, and examples of its inner ornamentation in Fig. 236. These tombs were -also adorned with pictures of vases, trees, animals, etc.; (see Fig. 239). -The figures, as well as the interior generally, were decorated with red, -yellow, and brown paints. One of them was that of Apollophanes, chief of -the Sidonians at Marissa. Over the different niches in the tombs the names -of the persons buried were inscribed in Greek letters. - -Rock-cut tombs, whether large or small, were regarded as important -possessions, and the people who might be buried in them were frequently -carefully specified by their builders. An example of this may be found in -Part II of the present work, p. 442. - -=8. Tombs with a Rolling-stone.=--One other type of tomb must be noticed -even in this hasty sketch. To close a "doorway" tomb securely must always -have been a matter of difficulty in Palestine. It was not easy with the -kind of locks they had to keep intruders out of tombs. This led to the -cutting of a large groove by the side of the doorway into which a -rolling-stone was fitted. When it was desired to open the tomb, the stone -could be rolled back. The stones were too heavy to be easily disturbed. It -was in a new tomb of this type that the body of Jesus was laid, and it was -such a stone that the women found rolled away on the resurrection morning. -(See Matt. 28:2; Mark 16:3, 4; Luke 24:2; John 20:1, and Fig. 238.) - - - - -CHAPTER XIII - -JERUSALEM[229] - - SITUATION. GIHON. CAVE-DWELLERS. THE EL-AMARNA PERIOD. JEBUSITE - JERUSALEM. THE CITY OF DAVID: Millo. David's reign. SOLOMON'S - JERUSALEM: Site of Solomon's buildings. Solomon's temple. Solomon's - palace. FROM SOLOMON TO HEZEKIAH. HEZEKIAH. FROM HEZEKIAH TO THE - EXILE. THE DESTRUCTION OF 586 B. C. THE SECOND TEMPLE. NEHEMIAH AND - THE WALLS. LATE PERSIAN AND EARLY GREEK PERIODS. IN THE TIME OF THE - MACCABEES. ASMONAEAN JERUSALEM. HEROD THE GREAT: Herod's palace. - Herod's theater. Herod's temple. THE POOL OF BETHESDA. GETHSEMANE. - CALVARY. AGRIPPA I AND THE THIRD WALL. - - -=1. Situation.=--Since 1867 excavations have been made at Jerusalem from -time to time. The most important of these were mentioned in Chapter IV. An -attempt will be made here to set before the reader the growth and -development of Jerusalem from period to period, as that growth is now -understood by foremost scholars. Our knowledge of the situation and form -of the city in the different periods is based partly on formal -excavations, partly on remains that have been accidentally found, and -partly on a study of the references to Jerusalem in the Bible and other -ancient writings. These references are interpreted in the light of the -topography and of the archaeological remains. - -Jerusalem is situated on the central ridge of Palestine, where the ridge -broadens out to a small plateau. The plateau at this point is -approximately 2,500 feet above the level of the Mediterranean Sea. In a -narrower sense the site of the city is two rocky promontories which run -south from the plateau with the valley El-Wad (in Roman times the -Tyropoeon) between them. On the north these promontories merge into the -plateau, but on the east, south, and west the valleys of Hinnom and the -Kidron sharply separate them from the surrounding land. The steep sides of -these valleys made fortification easy in ancient times. The highest point -of the western hill is about 400 feet higher than the bottom of the Kidron -valley, which in ancient times was 20 to 40 feet deeper than now; (see -Fig. 240). Indeed, the position was almost impregnable. Only on the north -was the city vulnerable. - -West of the city hills gently rise to a slight elevation and shut out the -view. The easternmost of the two promontories is lower than the western, -which in its turn slopes to the east. Just south of the Mount of Olives, -to the east of Jerusalem, there is a rift in the hills through which the -distant mountains of Moab can be seen. From elevated buildings in the city -the Dead Sea is also visible. The slope of the hills of Jerusalem and her -broader outlook to the eastward are significant of the influences that -moulded her earlier history. During the centuries that Israel was an -independent nation the Philistine plain was nearly always in the hands of -a hostile people. Jerusalem was thus cut off from influences that might -otherwise have reached her from across the Mediterranean, and was shut up -to influences that reached her through kindred tribes and nations to the -east. Thus in intellectual kinship, as well as in physical outlook, the -gaze of Jerusalem was directed toward the Orient. - -All Palestinian cities of importance were situated near perpetual springs. -There are at Jerusalem but two unfailing sources of water--the Ain Sitti -Miriam (the ancient Gihon) and the Bir Eyyub (Biblical En-rogel). These -are both in the Kidron valley, the former just under the brow of the -eastern hill some 400 yards from the southern point of the hill, the -latter at the point where the valley of Hinnom and the Kidron unite. Of -these two sources of supply, the Gihon is pre-eminently fitted to attract -an early settlement. It is almost under the hill, whereas the other is out -in the midst of the open valley. Gihon, too, is at the base of a hill that -can be defended easily on three sides, whereas a town built on a hillside -above En-rogel, as the modern Silwan is, could be easily attacked from -above. These conditions determined the situation of the earliest -settlement, which was near Gihon. - -=2. Gihon.=--The Parker expedition of 1909-1911 revealed by its -excavations the fact that the source of the spring of Gihon is a great -crack in the rock in the bottom of the valley far below the present -apparent source.[230] This crack is about 16 feet long, is of great depth, -and runs east and west. The western end of it just enters the mouth of the -cave where the apparent source is today, but the eastern end passes out -into the bed of the valley. All the water would discharge into the valley -but for a wall at the eastern end of the rift, built in very ancient -times, which confines the water and compels it to flow into the cave. This -wall was constructed by some of the earliest inhabitants of the place. The -spring thus produced is intermittent. Its flow is not ceaseless. The water -breaks from the hole in the rainy season, three to five times a day; in -the summer but twice a day; and after the failure of the spring rains, -less than once a day. This fact indicates that the waters collect in some -underground cavern from which they are drained by a siphon-like tunnel. -The "troubling" of the Pool of Bethesda (John 5:4) is thought by some -scholars to have been due to the action of such a siphon-like spring. - -=3. Cave-dwellers.=--About this spring the Parker expedition found large -caves and rooms excavated in the rock, and indications that these had once -been inhabited. A great deal of pre-Israelite pottery was also found -around the spring. These indications seem to show that the site was -inhabited for at least a thousand years before David, and perhaps for two -thousand, and that its first inhabitants were cave-dwellers. One naturally -thinks in this connection of the cave-dwellers of Gezer. It is possible -that the first Jerusalemites belonged to the same period and were of the -same race. One thinks, too, of the sacred cave and the stone altar on the -next peak of the eastern ridge to the north, where the temple afterward -stood, and wonders whether it may not have been the sanctuary of this -early cave-dwelling race. A definite answer cannot be given to this -question. One can only recognize that it may possibly be true. - -=4. The El-Amarna Period.=--The next knowledge we have of Jerusalem comes -from the letters of Ebed-Hepa, which were written to Amenophis IV of Egypt -between 1375 and 1357 B. C. At that time it was already a walled city, for -Ebed-Hepa speaks of "throwing it open."[231] - -The fortified city of Ebed-Hepa was, no doubt, identical with the later -Jebusite city. It was situated on the eastern hill just above the spring -of Gihon. Probably in the period just before this time it had, like Gezer, -been surrounded by a massive wall. In connection with this fortification -the rock near Gihon had been scarped (cut to a perpendicular surface) in -order to increase the difficulty of scaling the wall.[232] As the wall of -Gezer lasted for a thousand years, so this Egyptian wall continued to the -reign of David. - -It is privately reported that Weil in his excavation in 1913-14 found on -the eastern hill remains of a wall with a sloping glacis similar to that -belonging to the earliest period of Megiddo. This would not only confirm -our inference that Jerusalem was a walled city in the time of Ebed-Hepa, -but indicate that its wall had been built at a much earlier time. It was -also in the fourteenth century B. C. the capital of a considerable kingdom -which Ebed-Hepa ruled as a vassal of the king of Egypt. This kingdom -extended as far west as Beth-shemesh and Keilah (1 Sam. 23:1), including, -perhaps, Gezer. Aijalon seems to have been included in it on the north, -and Carmel in Judah (1 Sam. 25:2) on the south. - -When the letters of Ebed-Hepa were written, his kingdom was being attacked -and apparently overcome by the Habiri, a people who may have been the -first wave of the Hebrew conquest.[233] The letters of Ebed-Hepa cease -without telling us whether or not the Habiri captured his city. If they -did and they were really Hebrews, they did not hold it long, for, when the -Biblical records lift the veil that hides so much of the past, Jerusalem -was in the hands of the Jebusites. (See Josh. 15:63; Judges 1:21.) - -=5. Jebusite Jerusalem.=--The Jebusites held it all through the period of -the Judges (Judges 19:10, 11). Israel did not capture it until the reign -of David. (See 2 Sam. 5:6-8.) At some earlier period of the history of -Jerusalem an underground rock-cut passage similar to the one at Gezer[234] -had been made, so as to permit the inhabitants in case of siege to descend -to the spring for water without going outside the walls; (see Fig. 241). -The natural slope of the hill had been reinforced at this point by the -escarpment of the rock, and the Jebusites felt so secure that they taunted -the Hebrews from the top of the walls. Joab, however, discovered the way -to this underground passage through the cave back of the spring, Gihon, -and, leading a band of men up through it, appeared suddenly within the -city, taking the Jebusites by surprise, and captured it. - -=6. The City of David.=--David then took up his residence at Jerusalem, -thus making it the capital of the kingdom of Israel. Thus the city of the -Jebusites, situated on the eastern hill, which was called Zion, became the -"city of David." - -A few modern writers still insist that the "city of David" was on the -western hill, which since 333 A. D. has been called Zion. This, as most -scholars have seen, is an impossible view. Solomon built a palace for -Pharaoh's daughter near his own on the temple hill, and, when she moved -into it, she went _up_ out of the city of David (1 Kings 9:24). As the -western hill is higher than the eastern, she must have gone from a point -on the eastern hill lower than the temple. When the temple was completed, -Solomon brought the ark _up_ from the city of David to the holy of holies -in the new temple (2 Chron. 5:2). Scripture thus confirms the inferences -from the pottery and the water supply, that the "city of David" was on the -eastern hill, and that that hill was Zion. It was a small town, since the -space it could occupy was not more than thirteen acres, and may have been -less. - -(1) _Millo._--After occupying his new capital David "built round about -from Millo and inward" (2 Sam. 5:9). What was Millo? This is a great -puzzle, and there are many varying opinions about it. The word literally -means a "filling," and is employed in Assyrian for the building up of a -terrace on which a building may be erected. It may have been a "filling" -on the line of the valley that separated the hill of the citadel of David -from Moriah or the temple hill. It would seem to have been on the edge of -the city, since David built from there "inward." Some have supposed it to -be a fortress, and the Septuagint translated it by "akra," which means -"citadel." Some have thought of it as a fort, others as a solid tower. If -on the line of the valley mentioned, it may have been at the northeast -corner, or at the northwest corner of the town. Some have supposed that it -was at the southern end of the eastern hill in order to protect a pool -there. Just below the southern end of the eastern hill in the valley of -the Kidron lay the "King's Gardens," and just across the valley, the -village of Siloah. In 2 Kings 12:20 it is said that Joash was killed in -Millo, leading down to Silla. We know of no Silla. Is it a corruption of -the Hebrew word for "shade" or is it a corruption of Siloah? In the former -case the reference might be to the King's Gardens, in the latter to the -village of Siloah. Either of these suppositions would favor a site for -Millo at the south end of the hill, but the words "leading down to Silla" -may have had quite a different origin and meaning.[235] We must, -therefore, confess that the location of Millo cannot at present be -determined. - -(2) _David's Reign._--As David's reign advanced and his success in war -compelled neighboring nations to pay tribute, probably the population of -Jerusalem increased. Such an increase would naturally lead to the erection -of houses outside the walls, as it has in recent times. It is altogether -probable that a settlement on the western hill was thus begun in the reign -of David. There is no hint, however, that he took any steps to enclose -such a settlement within a wall. The phrase "the way of the gate" in 2 -Sam. 15:2 implies that there was still but one gate in the walls. This is -in striking contrast to the number of gates in later times. The only -record that we have of further action on David's part that affected the -future growth of Jerusalem refers to the way in which he took over the -rock on Mount Moriah and the sacred cave under it and made a sanctuary to -Jehovah. (See 2 Sam. 24.) This action, at a later time, determined the -site of the temple. - -=7. Solomon's Jerusalem.=--David left Jerusalem a military fortress; -Solomon transformed it into a city with imposing buildings. This creation -of a more imposing city was in accord with the general character of -Solomon's reign. He established a large harem, made marriage alliances -with many neighboring kings, maintained such an establishment that it was -necessary to make a regular levy on a different portion of the country -each month for supplies, and endeavored to make his capital as splendid as -the capital of a rich commercial Phoenician monarch. Such a policy -necessitated, probably, the enlargement of Jerusalem. David, who began -life as a shepherd-boy, was content to live the simple life to the end; -Solomon, born to the purple, desired to surround himself with a pomp -befitting his rank. The Biblical writers were more interested in the -construction of the temple and of Solomon's palace than in any other phase -of his work, but they have left us some hints of his activities in other -directions. - -They tell us that he "built Millo and the wall of Jerusalem" (1 Kings -9:15), that he "built the wall of Jerusalem round about" (1 Kings 3:1), -and that he "built Millo and repaired the breach in the city of David, his -father" (1 Kings 11:27). Evidently Millo had fallen into disrepair since -David rebuilt it, and the walls of the city of David on the eastern hill -were also in need of repairs. These repairs he made, but did he go -further? It is intrinsically probable that he did. The king who fortified -Hazor in Naphtali, Megiddo, Gezer, Beth-horon, Baalath, and Tamar would -hardly leave a large suburb of his capital on the western hill -unfortified. The statement that he "built the wall of Jerusalem round -about," while it does not clearly state that he did more than fortify the -"city of David" on Zion, seems to imply that he did. This view is -strengthened by Bliss's discovery on the western hill of some walls that -connected once with a great fortress at the southwest corner of the -western hill, which he believed to be the work of Solomon. - -The site of this fortress is now occupied by "Bishop Gobat's School," an -English foundation for the education of native boys. When the school was -rebuilt in 1874 Mr. Henry Maudsley examined the surface of the rock, which -is escarped, or cut perpendicularly, for about 100 feet to the southeast -of the school and 43 feet north of it. The scarp is about 40 feet high at -the highest point; (Fig. 242). The school is built on a large projection -of the scarp 45 feet square and 20 feet high. The surface of the rock -under the school bears unmistakable signs that there was once an ancient -tower there. To the eastward of this Bliss discovered the foundations of -an ancient tower. Beyond this to the east there was a deep rock-cut ditch. -The tower on its northeast corner fitted into another rock-scarp which ran -northward into land on which they could not excavate.[236] The deep -rock-cut ditch or moat at the east of the scarp suggests that at the -period of the Latin kingdom of Jerusalem, 1099-1188 A. D., this fortress -formed the fortification of the southwest corner of the city, from which -the wall ran off sharply in a direction a little east of north. This view -is confirmed by the discovery which Bliss made of a wall, apparently built -by the Crusaders, that ran in a north-easterly direction by an irregular -course along the high part of the western hill toward the temple area. As -this wall rested on remains of the Roman time it cannot well have belonged -to a time earlier than the crusading period. May not, then, Maudsley's -scarp itself have been cut by the Crusaders who were most energetic and -masterly builders? This seems hardly probable, for Josephus, in describing -the course of the wall on the west side of the western hill, says that -beginning at Herod's palace (the modern Turkish fortress) the wall ran -southward through a place called "Bethso."[237] Bethso is a corruption of -Beth-zur, which means rock-fortress--an apt description of the tower on -Maudsley's scarp. As Josephus makes no mention of the construction of a -fortress at this point by Herod, it was probably built at an earlier -period. The writer holds with Bliss that it is probable that the original -fortress on the site of Bishop Gobat's School was constructed by Solomon -and that he enclosed the top of the western hill with a wall. Whether that -wall simply enclosed the top of the hill and followed something of the -same course as the wall of the Crusaders mentioned above (so Bliss -thinks), or whether it ran down the eastern slope of the western hill to -the southern point of the "City of David," it is impossible now to -determine. - -The view that Solomon extended the city to the western hill cannot be -proved, since there is no definite reference in the Bible to the western -hill in the time of Solomon, and there is no inscription on the masonry -found definitely to connect it with him. In consideration of all the -conditions it seems probable that Solomon enclosed a part of the western -hill. If so, the wall built by Solomon on the north side of the western -hill was probably on the line of what Josephus called the "first wall." -This wall, was rebuilt from time to time. The debris of a part of it seems -still to be in place at the east end of "David Street" in modern -Jerusalem. A short street, high above the surrounding levels, now runs on -the top of this debris.[238] - -(1) _Site of Solomon's Buildings._--Concerning the building of Solomon's -palace and the temple there can be no doubt, for the Bible contains -accounts of the construction of these. Their general location is also well -known. They were across the little valley which separated the part of Zion -called Ophel (where the city of David was situated) from the part -sometimes called Moriah.[239] This hill-top included the threshing-floor -of Araunah, the Jebusite (2 Sam. 24), and Solomon now enclosed this with a -wall. Sir Charles Warren believed that he found portions of this wall at -the southeast angle of the ancient temple area, 80 feet below the present -surface of the ground. During his excavations in the years 1867-1870 he -sunk at this point a shaft to the native rock, from the bottom of which a -tunnel was carried inward to the base of the wall. He found twenty-one -courses of drafted stones below the surface at this point, and the stones -in the lower courses bore quarry marks which resemble old Hebrew or -Phoenician characters.[240] The lower courses of stones were from 3 feet 6 -inches to 4 feet 3-1/2 inches in height. Some of the characters were cut -in the stones; some painted on them. It is most probable that these were -remains of the work of Solomon; (see Figs. 244, 245, and 246). - -The enclosure of this hill-top with a wall set it apart from the rest of -Jerusalem. It was a kind of separate fortress. At the time it emphasized -the majesty of Solomon--his apartness from his people. This separate -enclosure of the temple hill was perpetuated through the whole history of -Jerusalem and is maintained today. In all periods the temple hill has been -a fortress that could be defended apart from the city. - -(2) _Solomon's Temple._--Of the form and situation of the buildings of -Solomon on the hill that was enclosed by this new wall, there is a wide -diversity of opinion. This diversity arises in part from the fact that -some scholars take at their face value statements of Josephus, the Talmud, -and other late sources concerning Solomon's temple, while others attribute -less weight to the statements of those sources which were written long -after this temple was destroyed, and base their views rather on the -earlier documents. The last is the only sound method of study, and is the -course followed here. We shall take as evidence of the plan and situation -of the buildings the Biblical writers who had seen them. - -We are at the start confronted, however, with a difficulty, since no -Biblical writer has given us an exact statement as to what part of the -hill Solomon's temple occupied. Most modern scholars hold, nevertheless, -that it was built at the highest point of the hill just west of the sacred -cave, which has already been mentioned,[241] and the old rock-altar above -it. This view is confirmed by Josephus[242] and is undoubtedly correct, -although three or four modern scholars have doubted it. The temple would -naturally be built near the spot where the angel is said to have appeared -to David (2 Sam. 24:16), and as angels are frequently represented in the -Old Testament as appearing upon rocks (see Judges 6:11, f.; 13:19)[243] it -is altogether probable that the appearance to David was on the rock-altar -at the top of the hill. On this rock the animals for sacrifice were slain, -as the conduits for blood still visible on its top indicate. Near it, -then, or on it the altar of burnt-offerings stood. We learn from Ezekiel, -who had served as a priest in the temple of Solomon, that the temple faced -the east, that it stood to the west of the altar, and that there was room -between the temple and the altar for twenty-five men. (See Ezek. 8:16.) -The temple was a rectangular building with its greatest length running -east and west. Its measurements were 124 feet for the length, 50 for the -breadth, and 55 for the height. It was constructed of stones and cedar -beams. The outer temple, afterward called the holy place, was 70 feet -long, 34-1/2 feet wide, and 52 feet high. Back of it was the holy of -holies, where the ark was placed. It was a cube 34-1/2 feet each way. -Apparently there was a chamber above it.[244] This room was adorned with -carvings of cherubim, palms, and open flowers (1 Kings 6:29, 32, 35). It -had no window. According to 2 Chron. 3:14, it was separated from the holy -place by a veil. The holy place contained the table of show-bread and ten -golden lamp-stands (1 Kings 7:49).[245] The lattice work high up in the -walls of this room (1 Kings 6:4) can have admitted only an uncertain -light. The building was richly adorned with cedar and gold. It consisted -of three stories, and the walls were of varying thickness, since ledges -were built in them to receive the beams of the different stories. Each -story contained a series of chambers for storage or the use of the -priests. Those of the first story were five cubits wide, those of the -second six, and those of the third seven; (see Figs. 247-249). - -In front of the temple was a porch of unknown height, and before this were -two bronze pillars with ornamented tops, named Jachin and Boaz. A little -to the southeast of the temple in the open air was a brazen laver -supported by twelve brazen oxen (1 Kings 7:23-26, 39). Before the temple -Solomon also placed a brazen altar (2 Chron. 1:5, 6; 2 Kings 16:14). -Another article of temple furniture is described as a "base." It was -apparently a portable holder for a laver. It was made of bronze, provided -with wheels, and ornamented with figures of lions, cherubim, and -palm-trees (1 Kings 7:27-37); (see Figs. 251, 252). - -It is clear that the temple was not, like a modern church, intended for -the accommodation of the people. It was simply Jehovah's dwelling. Hither -the priests might come to bring the offerings of the people, and to -propitiate him. Solomon surrounded the temple with a court enclosed by a -wall of three courses of hewn stones and cedar beams (1 Kings 6:36). This -court became in later time the auditorium of the nation. Outside of this -was a larger court with walls of similar construction (1 Kings 7:12); (see -Fig. 243). - -(3) _Solomon's Palace._--Just to the south of the temple court, separated -from it only by a wall, was a middle court in which was Solomon's own -palace and the palace of Pharaoh's daughter (1 Kings 7:8). These palaces -were a little lower down the hill than the temple, and Solomon had a -private "ascent" by which he could go up into the temple (1 Kings 10:5). -The royal palaces were so near that a shout in the court around the altar -could be heard in the palace (2 Kings 11:12, 13). These palaces were built -of hewn stone and cedar. South of this court was still another, separated -from it by a wall. In this most southerly and lowest of the courts stood -the hall of state, in which was the throne room, where Solomon sat in -judgment. This hall was paneled with cedar from floor to roof. The throne -was of ivory, was approached by six steps, and flanked on each side by -lions (1 Kings 10:18-20). South of this and probably intended as its -vestibule was the "porch of pillars," 86 by 52 feet (1 Kings 7:6). Still -south of this stood the "house of the forest of Lebanon" (1 Kings 7:2), so -called because its four rows of cedar pillars were poetically suggestive -of a Lebanon forest. This was the largest of all the buildings, being 172 -feet long, 86 feet wide, and 52 feet high. There seem to have been two -stories, the uppermost of which was supported by 45 pillars in three rows. -Josephus says that the upper room of this hall was designed to "contain a -great body of men, who would come together to have their causes -determined."[246] He may have been influenced, however, in making the -statement by the customs of his own time. - -As one went northward, then, up the hill from the "city of David," he -passed through a gateway into the large court. In this court he came first -to the "house of the forest of Lebanon." Beyond this he would enter -through the "porch of pillars" into the splendid hall of judgment with its -imposing throne. If he were a favored servant or an honored guest of the -king, he might be admitted to the inner court, in which case he would -behold the imposing palaces of Solomon and his principal queen. A -passageway to the eastward of this more private court led the person not -so favored to the sacred court about the temple. - -In the construction of these buildings Solomon employed Phoenician -architects and workmen. His buildings were, therefore, more imposing than -those ordinarily erected in Palestine. The Phoenicians were the -intermediaries of the ancient world, and were the recipients of influences -from Babylonia, Egypt, the Hittites, Cyprus, and the Mycenean world. -Through them something of the world's architectural culture touched the -buildings of Solomon. - -=8. From Solomon to Hezekiah.=--Between the time of Solomon and Hezekiah, -the Bible furnishes us with but little information about Jerusalem. One -topographical fact is given us in the narrative of the war between Amaziah -of Judah and Jehoash of Israel, before 782 B. C. After Jehoash had been -victorious in the battle at Beth-shemesh, he came up to Jerusalem and -"brake down the wall of Jerusalem from the gate of Ephraim unto the corner -gate, four hundred cubits" (2 Kings 14:13); (see Fig. 304). This wall was -afterward repaired by Uzziah, who strengthened it with towers. - -Indeed, it seems probable that Uzziah's work was more extensive and that, -in order to render the city more impregnable, he added a second wall on -the north. Certainly a wall existed here before the Exile, for when -Nehemiah rebuilt the walls, this wall joined the temple area at its -northwest corner, and we know of no king after Uzziah who would be likely -to construct such a defence unless it was Hezekiah. As the city easily -withstood the attack of Pekah and Rezin in 735 (Isa. 7:1, ff.), it seems -probable that Uzziah was the builder. - -This wall by whomsoever it was built was in all probability on the line of -the so-called "second wall" of Josephus. As to just what its course was we -cannot now tell, further than that it started from near the Corner Gate, -near where the modern Turkish fortress now stands, and terminated at the -temple area. Some have supposed that after leaving the Corner Gate it ran -as far northward as the line on which the northern wall of the modern city -runs, then eastward from there to a point near the present Damascus Gate, -and then turned southward to the temple area. This seems improbable, -however, since in the time of Zechariah the tower of Hananel, which stood -near the northwest corner of the present area of the Mosque of Omar, was -the most northerly point of the city. It is thus possible that this second -wall may have run south of the site of the Church of the Holy Sepulcher. -Its whole course accordingly lies underneath the present city. None of -this has been excavated except a short part of the course near the ancient -Corner Gate. In 1885, when digging was in progress for the foundations of -the Grand New Hotel, just inside the Jaffa Gate and north of the Turkish -fortress, a course of large Jewish stones was laid bare which the late Dr. -Merrill and others believed to be a part of this second wall. The nature -of the digging did not, however, disclose its course for any great -distance; the part revealed ran nearly north and south. - -Unless Solomon built the wall which ran from Maudsley's scarp at the -northwest corner of the western hill eastward down the slope of that hill -to the southern point of the eastern hill, it must have been built by some -king of this period. No hint is given us as to who built this wall. It may -have been done in the reign of Jehoshaphat, which was a period of -prosperity and expansion (2 Kings 3:4-12), or in the reign of Uzziah, -which was also a very prosperous time. The need of stronger defenses -created by the advance of the Assyrians into western Asia in the ninth -and eighth centuries B. C. makes it probable that Uzziah was the builder. -At all events it was accomplished by the time of Hezekiah. - -In the reign of Ahaz there was a conduit (Isa. 7:3) leading from the -"upper pool," or Gihon, to a lower pool, which probably lay somewhere near -the mouth of the Tyropoeon valley. This conduit has been discovered. It -was designed partly to conduct water from Gihon out into the valley of the -Kidron for the irrigation of the king's gardens, and partly to fill the -lower pool so that cattle could come and drink. Isaiah refers to the -waters of this conduit as "the waters of Shiloah that go softly" (Isa. -8:6). Of course, this conduit was in Isaiah's time an old one. It is -impossible to tell when it was first constructed. It may have been made as -early as the time of Solomon or David, or even in Jebusite times. - -In the reign of Ahaz a change was made in the nature of the altar of -burnt-offerings in the temple. When Ahaz went to Damascus to do homage to -Tiglath-pileser IV of Assyria, he saw an altar that pleased him, and sent -a pattern of it home to the high priest, Urijah, with directions to have -one made like it for the temple. This Urijah did. This altar was -apparently constructed of stone. It displaced the brazen altar of Solomon, -which was henceforth kept for the king's private use (2 Kings 16:10-16). -It is thought by some that the measurements of this stone altar are -reproduced in Ezekiel 43:13-17. The brazen altar had always been out of -accord with the Hebrew law. (See Exod. 20:24-26.) - -=9. Hezekiah.=--Apart from his reform (2 Kings 18:1-6) and the invasions -of Sennacherib (2 Kings 18:9, ff.), the event of especial interest -mentioned in connection with Hezekiah is that "he made the pool and the -conduit and brought the water into the city" (2 Kings 20:20). Scholars are -agreed that this refers to the rock-cut aqueduct in which the Siloam -inscription was found.[247] This was for the time of its construction a -notable engineering achievement, though recent exploration of the tunnel -shows that the workers frequently went astray and cut in directions that -they did not intend. Indeed, it is probable that the great bends in the -tunnel were made on account of such mistakes and not as Clermont-Ganneau -formerly thought in order to avoid the tombs of the kings. Up to the -present, search for these tombs has been vain. They must have been -somewhere on the eastern hill, but there is no reason to believe that they -were at the great depth at which this tunnel was cut through the rock. - -If the supposition made above as to the walls of Uzziah is correct, it was -Hezekiah who built the first wall across the mouth of the Tyropoeon valley -so as to enclose within the city his new pool. This wall was found by -Bliss. It formed the dam of the pool. It was strongly buttressed and had -been rebuilt from time to time. Bliss detected five periods in its -history.[248] - -=10. From Hezekiah to the Exile.=--After Hezekiah, the general features of -Jerusalem remained the same down to the time of the Babylonian Exile in -586 B. C. We hear of a Fish Gate, probably where it was at a later time, -at the north of the city in the wall built by Uzziah. Zephaniah mentions -in connection with it "the second quarter" of the city (Zeph. 1:10), which -was probably the part of the town between the north wall of Uzziah and the -older north wall of Solomon on the western hill. The prophetess Huldah -lived there in the time of Josiah (2 Kings 22:14). Zephaniah also mentions -a part of the city called _Maktesh_ or the Mortar (Zeph. 1:11). This was a -part of Jerusalem occupied by Phoenician traders and craftsmen. It was -probably in the hollow between the two hills, _i. e._, in the Tyropoeon -valley. - -In the reign of Manasseh we hear of the sacrifice of children. For this -purpose a pit was excavated on the floor of the valley of Hinnom, to the -south of the city, and arrangements were made to burn the victims. This -was called Topheth (Jer. 7:31). Later it was defiled (2 Kings 23:10), and -to perpetuate the defilement refuse from the city seems to have been -burned there. The valley of Hinnom is in Hebrew _gai hinnom_. Later -generations conceived that the heavenly Jerusalem had also its valley of -Hinnom for the consumption of its refuse, hence _gai hinnom_ is used in -the New Testament in the form Gehenna as a name of hell. (See Matt. 5:29; -10:28.) - -=11. The Destruction of 586 B. C.=--Toward the end of the siege of -Jerusalem by Nebuchadrezzar in the year 586 it is said that the men of war -fled by the way of the gate between the two walls which was by the king's -garden (2 Kings 25:4). This was evidently a gate by the Pool of Siloam, -where the two walls of the eastern hill and the wall which came down the -western hill and crossed the mouth of the Tyropoeon valley all came -together.[249] - -In August of the year 586 B. C. Jerusalem was destroyed by Nebuchadrezzar. -The temple, the royal palace, and the residences of the principal men were -burned and the walls of the city were broken down (2 Kings 25:9, 10). All -that was combustible was burned, including the city gates (Neh. 1:3). All -portable things of value were carried away. Jerusalem now entered on a -period of desolation. The city was probably not entirely deserted. Some of -the poor who still managed to extract a subsistence from the desolate -hills still found shelter in her ruins. All the well-to-do inhabitants -were transported to Babylonia. - -It is often assumed that the site of the temple was unused during the -Exile and that no offerings were made there, but Jer. 41:4, 5 shows that -this was not the case. Probably an altar was repaired very soon, and the -poor people still went through their most indispensable religious -ceremonies amid the desolation, for men came from Samaria two months after -the destruction of the city to celebrate there the Feast of Tabernacles. - -This destruction of the city and the deportation of its population made a -very deep impression on the Jews. How their affections clung to the -desolate and defaced city is touchingly depicted in the book of -Lamentations and in the 137th Psalm. Indeed, the destruction of the real -Jerusalem was the beginning of that ideal Jerusalem which has been so -influential in the religious history of the world.[250] - -=12. The Second Temple.=--Beyond the erection of an altar, already -mentioned, the first steps toward the rebuilding of the temple were taken, -so many scholars think, in the second year of King Darius of Persia, _i. -e._, in 520 B. C. Eighteen years earlier Cyrus had made it possible for -this to be done,[251] but for various reasons it had not been -undertaken.[252] The man whose preaching moved the people to begin the -rebuilding was Haggai, and the circumstances under which he did it are -recounted in his book. Haggai's persuasion was later seconded by the -efforts of Zechariah. Through four years the house slowly rose, and was -finally completed in March of the sixth year of Darius (516 B. C.), five -months less than 70 years after it was destroyed. - -There is no doubt that the second temple was built on the lines of the -first, which were probably still traceable in the debris. It was also -constructed of stone which still lay about the top of the hill--stone that -had been used in the work of Solomon. It was not because it was smaller -than the first temple that old men who had seen that wept as they looked -on the new one (Ezra 3:12), but because it was less ornate. It was -probably without ornament. Josephus (_Contra Apion_, i, 22) says that the -temple court was enclosed by a wall a plethra in length and 100 Greek -cubits in breadth, _i. e._, 485-1/2 by 145-1/2 feet. It was not, then, -very large. It is uncertain whether there was at this time more than one -court; 1 Macc. 4:48 speaks of "courts," but Josephus tells[253] how the -people pelted Alexander Jannaeus with citrons while he was officiating at -the altar during the Feast of Tabernacles, so that it is probable that the -courts were not separated by a wall, but by a difference of elevation. The -inner court was probably higher than the other, as it is around the Mosque -of Omar today. - -Within this court was an altar of unhewn stones. The temple itself -consisted as before of the holy place and the holy of holies. Before the -holy place was a porch, and around the building there were many small -chambers as formerly. The holy of holies was separated from the holy place -by a veil (1 Macc. 1:22), but now it contained no ark of the covenant, as -that had been lost in 586 B. C. The holy of holies in the second temple -was empty except for the "stone of foundation" on which the high priest -placed his censer on the day of atonement.[254] In the holy place the -table of show-bread stood in front of the veil. Instead of the ten golden -lamp-stands of Solomon's temple there now stood there the lamp with seven -branches (see Zech. 4). A golden altar of incense replaced it (1 Macc. -1:21) in the time of the Maccabees, though it may not have been placed -there before the time of Ezra. - -Such was the temple as reconstructed after the Exile. In one important -respect its perspective was changed. The royal palace and the -administrative buildings, which before the Exile had shared the crest of -the northern spur of Zion with the temple, were not rebuilt. The temple -stood there alone. Little by little the part of the hill to the south of -the temple was cleared of the debris and the ground became a temple court. -This was significant of the religious condition of the post-exilic time. -Kings had vanished; the worship of Jehovah held the supreme place in the -thought of the people. - -=13. Nehemiah and the Walls.=--For seventy-two years after the temple was -rebuilt, the walls of the city still lay in ruins. That they were at last -restored was due to the patriotism and energy of a noble young Jew, -Nehemiah, who had been a cup-bearer to Artaxerxes I of Persia. The story -of how he obtained the royal permission to return to Jerusalem as -governor, with authority to rebuild the walls, how upon his arrival he -traced by their ruins the lines of the old walls, with what energy and -amid what difficulties he pushed their rebuilding to completion in the -course of three months in the year 444 B. C., is told in detail in -Nehemiah 1-7 and need not be repeated here. - -At the northwest corner of the western hill there was placed in the wall -at this time a gate called the Valley Gate (Neh. 3:13). This was the gate -discovered by Bliss[255] a little to the east of the old fortress on -Maudsley's scarp. When the wall was completed, a ceremony of dedication -was held. At this festival two processions started from this Valley Gate; -one of these went around the south side of the city, the other around the -north side (Neh. 12:31-40). They met at the temple. The procession that -went around the south side of the city passed by the Dung Gate, which was -situated in the southern wall well down the hill, then by the Fountain -Gate, near the Pool of Siloam, then up the "ascent of the wall" by the -stairs of the "City of David," and passed the Water Gate somewhere above -the spring of Gihon. Still above this, probably just to the east of the -temple area, was the Horse Gate (Neh. 3:28). The other company, starting -from the Valley Gate at the southwest corner of the city, passed northward -by the "Tower of the Furnaces" unto the broad wall, above the Gate of -Ephraim, by the Old Gate, and by the Fish Gate, past the Tower of Hananel -and the Tower of Hammeah, unto the Sheep Gate. This description, together -with the line of the previous wall, enables us approximately to determine -the outline of post-exilic Jerusalem; (see Fig. 305). The one point of -doubt has to do with the line of the second wall on the north of the city, -laid out probably by Uzziah. As that line is directly under the present -city it has never been possible to follow it by excavations. We can only -conjecture what its course may have been. The towers of Hananel and -Hammeah were clearly north of the temple area. They probably fortified the -wall along the edge of a shallow valley which separated Moriah from the -hill north of it. This hill was later called Bezetha. - -=14. Late Persian and Early Greek Periods.=--After the time of Ezra and -Nehemiah, we have no clear topographical references to Jerusalem until the -second century B. C. It seems probable that Jerusalem and Judah rebelled -against one of the later Persian kings and that the city suffered.[256] We -hear that Ptolemy I of Egypt also captured Jerusalem,[257] but whether -these experiences led to any modification in the form of the city, we do -not know. The _Wisdom of Jesus, the Son of Sirach_, often called -_Ecclesiasticus_, which was written about 180 B. C., indicates that -Jerusalem was a carefully organized city. Many professions and much -commerce were represented in it, as well as many human sins and -foibles.[258] The author declares[259] that a high priest, Simon, the son -of Onias (probably Simon II, 218-198 B. C.), repaired the temple and -fortified the city. What the nature of either work was, we do not know. So -far as can be ascertained, he confined himself to the strengthening of old -defenses, and did not change the topography. - -In the early part of the reign of Antiochus IV, while many Jews were -kindly inclined to Greek culture and to Greek ways, an outdoor gymnasium -was established in Jerusalem.[260] This was in a hollow just above the -Tyropoeon valley to the west of the south end of the temple -enclosure.[261] Josephus calls it the Xystus, a Greek name that reveals -its character. Some reminder that it was once a gymnasium perhaps lingers -in _Maidan_, the modern Arabic name for the locality, which means -hippodrome, or place of combat. - -=15. In the Time of the Maccabees.=--In the Maccabaean period the city was -divided into three parts--the city proper, the temple, and the Akra or -citadel. As to the situation of the Akra, there is a wide difference of -opinion. Into the different theories it is impossible to go.[262] The -writer agrees with George Adam Smith, that in all probability the Akra -was the "City of David" of the earlier time, as 1 Maccabees states (1:33; -7:32, 33; 14:36). We first hear of this Akra in 198 B. C., when an -Egyptian garrison held out in it against Antiochus III.[263] It was so -shut off from the rest of Jerusalem that, though, after the onslaught of -Antiochus IV on the Jews in 168 B. C., Judas Maccabaeus recovered the city -and temple as early as 165 B. C., the Syrians kept possession of the Akra -for twenty-three years more, until they were finally dislodged by Simon -the Maccabee in 142 B. C.[264] - -=16. Asmonaean Jerusalem.=--During the Asmonaean dynasty which grew out of -the Maccabaean struggle,[265] three new features were added to Jerusalem. -One was a castle, to the northward of the temple area built by John -Hyrcanus I, 135-105 B. C.[266] This was known to Greek-speaking Jews as -Baris, which is a corruption of the Hebrew _Birah_, a fortress. Its walls -are massive and high. It commanded the approach to the temple area from -the north, and greatly strengthened the effectiveness of the temple -fortification. - -One of the Asmonaeans, probably John Hyrcanus I, built a palace in -Jerusalem.[267] This palace apparently stood on the site now occupied by -the Synagogue of the German Jews in Jerusalem.[268] It was connected with -the temple area by a bridge,[269] of which a remnant of the easternmost -span, now called "Robinson's Arch,"[270] is still visible on the western -wall of the temple enclosure. This bridge was destroyed by Pompey when he -captured Jerusalem in 63 B. C.,[271] and its remains were found by Warren -in the bottom of the Tyropoeon valley, 80 feet below the present surface -of the ground.[272] As the Asmonaeans were high priests as well as kings, -this bridge gave them easy access to the temple from their palace. The -palace itself, situated on a part of the western hill that overtopped the -temple hill, was so placed that the royal priest could sit in his palace -and watch what was transpiring in the temple courts and in the valley -below. - -The third accomplishment of the Asmonaeans was probably the construction of -Solomon's Pools and the High Level Aqueduct by which the water was brought -into Jerusalem.[273] This work appears also to have been accomplished by -John Hyrcanus I, for Timarchus, the biographer of Antiochus VII, who was a -contemporary of Hyrcanus I, says of Jerusalem that "the whole city runs -down with waters, so that even the gardens are irrigated by the water -which flows off from it."[274] Such a description would be quite -unfitting, if all the water had been supplied by Gihon, En-rogel, and the -cisterns about Jerusalem. It implies that a perpetual stream of water, -such as came through one of the aqueducts, flowed into the city. - -One other structure is attributed to an Asmonaean. Alexander Jannaeus was -very unpopular with the Pharisees, and once, as already noted, he was -pelted by the people with citrons. He thereupon erected a wooden barrier -around the temple and the altar, thus excluding the laity from a close -approach to the temple,[275] and creating a court for the priests alone. - -Jerusalem suffered from four sieges in the troublous days when the -Asmonaean power was waning and that of Rome was being established. The -first was by Haretat, King of the Nabathaeans, in 65 B. C., but was lifted -without result.[276] The second was that of Pompey in 63 B. C. It resulted -in the capture of the city and in considerable damage. The bridge across -the Tyropoeon to the royal palace was broken down.[277] The third was that -of the Partisans in 40 B. C., when they captured the city and placed -Antigonus, son of Aristobulus II, on the throne.[278] The fourth was that -by which Herod the Great became master of Jerusalem in 37 B. C. At this -time a part of the two northern walls were broken down.[279] The -topography of the city was in no way changed until after the conquest by -Herod, who changed the face of Jerusalem in many ways. - -=17. Herod the Great.=--The first work of Herod was to rebuild and -strengthen the fortress to the north of the temple. This he did at the -beginning of his reign while Mark Antony was still in power in the East. -He accordingly renamed the castle Antonia.[280] Herod also rebuilt and -strengthened the walls which he had battered down in taking Jerusalem, -adding towers to make them more impregnable. At the southwest corner of -the city he erected three new towers,--Hippacus, Phasael, and -Mariamne.[281] These all probably stood in or near the space now covered -by the Turkish fortress at the Jaffa Gate. Hippacus was apparently the -northwest tower of the present citadel, Phasael the easternmost of the -towers in the same structure, which still bears the name "Tower of David"; -Mariamne lay to the east of these. Hippacus was 80 cubits high, Phasael -90, and Mariamne 50. On the north of these, perhaps near the point where -the northwest corner of the present city wall is, stood Psephinus, an -octagonal tower 70 cubits high. - -(1) _Herod's Palace._--In connection with the towers Hippacus and Phasael -and on the site of the present Turkish citadel, Herod built a new and -splendid royal palace.[282] Its walls on the west and north were the same -as the old city walls; on the east and south, walls of the same -massiveness were erected. It contained two halls, each the size of the -sanctuary, with couches within for a hundred guests. There were many other -richly furnished chambers. The towers and the palace were faced with -marble. Stretching to the southward, of the palace were colonnades which -bordered on open courts, in which shrubberies, fountains, and long walks -abounded. These fountains were fed by the High Level Aqueduct. - -This palace commanded the highest point of the southwestern hill. Its -construction finally transferred the controlling power to the western -hill, or as Josephus calls it, the "Upper City." Ever after this the -western hill was the seat of political power. When Procurators ruled Judaea -this palace became the praetorium.[283] It was to this castle that our -Saviour was brought to be tried by Pontius Pilate. It was to its entrance, -probably on the east, that Pilate brought Jesus and offered to release -him, when the people cried: "Away with this man ... crucify him" (Luke 23: -18, 21). This palace, built by one of the ablest and most unscrupulous of -men, is thus associated with one of the most sacred and tragic moments of -history. From that day to this it has remained the seat of political -authority in Jerusalem. Its presence on the western hill has gradually -drawn the name Zion from the original city of David to the western hill, -and so distorted the Old Testament traditions that even several modern -scholars[284] still refuse to give credence to the clear voice of the Old -Testament as to the site of the original Zion. The palace, battered down -and rebuilt again and again, still retains in its walls many of the -massive stones of Herod. This palace was completed about 23 B. C. - -(2) _Herod's Theater._--About 25 B. C. Herod founded an athletic gathering -to be celebrated every five years in honor of Augustus.[285] Josephus, in -speaking of this fact, says that Herod built a theater in Jerusalem, and -also a very great amphitheater in the plain. If he actually built a -theater in the city, all traces of it have disappeared. To the south of -the city on a hill considerably beyond the Valley of Hinnom, the remains -of a great theater were discovered some years ago by the late Dr. -Schick.[286] This theater faced the north, its diameter was more than 130 -feet, and spectators seated in it could see Jerusalem in the distance. It -is thought by some scholars that this is the theater to which Josephus -alludes, as Herod would hardly have ventured to outrage Jewish feeling by -placing such a structure in the sacred city. If the discovery of Dr. -Schick represents Herod's theater, it is quite unknown where the -"amphitheater in the plain," to which Josephus makes reference, was -situated. - -(3) _Herod's Temple._--When the palace of Herod was completed, the -splendid structures of Antonia and the palace quite overshadowed the old -dingy temple. The temple had frequently been repaired by the high priests, -and perhaps during the Maccabaean time had been somewhat embellished, but -it nevertheless remained essentially as it had been rebuilt after the -Exile. Herod had built Sebaste on the site of ancient Samaria in 27 B. C., -and began about 22 B. C. to build Caesarea. In these and other cities he -had erected splendid temples to heathen deities; naturally he desired to -make the temple of his capital city worthy to stand beside them. He had -difficulty in persuading the Jews to let him touch the sacred house, but -yielding in many things to their scruples, work was finally begun in the -year 20-19 B. C. Some of the priests became carpenters and stone-cutters, -so that no profane hands need touch the sacred shrine.[287] The old temple -was taken down and the new one erected in the space of eighteen months. -But much remained to be done and the work dragged along until after -Herod's death. In the time of Christ "forty and six years was this temple -in building" (John 2:20), and it was not then completed. It was finished -only in 64 A. D., six years before it was finally destroyed.[288] The -temple itself occupied the site of its predecessor, and was of the same -plan and dimensions. These Herod did not dare to change. They were -consecrated by nearly a thousand years of sacred associations. If he could -not enlarge it, however, he could make it higher, and he made its -elevation a hundred cubits or 172 feet. He also enlarged the porch, making -it 120 feet broad. The whole was built of huge blocks of white stone, with -plates of gold upon the front.[289] The holy of holies consisted, as -before, of a dark, empty room, 35 feet in each dimension. It was separated -from the holy place by curtains, an outer and an inner, which were a foot -apart. The holy place was still 40 by 20 cubits, but was now made 40 -instead of 30 cubits high.[290] Its furniture was the same as in the -second temple: the table of show-bread, the altar of incense, and the lamp -with seven branches; (Fig. 250). The entrance to the holy place, 15 cubits -wide and 70 cubits high, was not closed by doors. Josephus declares that -it was left open to set forth the "unobstructed openness of heaven."[291] - -On the top of the temple, spikes with sharp points were arranged to -prevent birds from lighting upon it and defiling it. Twelve broad steps -led down from the temple to the court of the priests.[292] These steps -occupied nearly all the 22 cubits of space between the porch and the -altar. Not far from the steps at the south stood the great laver, which -had replaced the brazen sea of Solomon's temple. The altar of unhewn -stones rose upon the sacred rock--sacred since the days of the Jebusites -(and possibly since the stone age), to which it was fitted by masonry. The -base of the altar was 32 cubits square and 1 high. On this rose a -structure 30 cubits square and 5 cubits high. On this was a ledge 1 cubit -broad, to which the horns of the altar were attached. Not far above was -another ledge, also a cubit broad, on which the officiating priests might -stand. Above this was the altar hearth itself, which was 24 cubits square. -South of the altar was a structure of masonry on which priests could -stand; north of it, the place for the slaughter of the victims. Here the -victims to be slain were tied to rings in the pavement. There were tables -of marble on which they could be washed and flayed. Beams supported by -pillars also contained hooks on which they could be hung for quartering. -Herod, as noted above,[293] probably constructed the Low Level Aqueduct. -By means of this he brought a larger supply of water into the temple area, -so that there was an abundance of water with which to flush the holy -place, and wash away the blood and refuse with which the place must often -have reeked, especially on festal days. - -A low wall a cubit in height marked off the court of the priests from the -court of Israel. Accounts differ as to whether this wall was on the east -only or whether it ran around the whole temple. The court of Israel lay to -the east of the court of the priests. Again our sources of information -differ as to its exact size. Here the "congregation of Israel" could -assemble to witness the sacred sacrifices. To the east of the court of -Israel lay the court of the women. These were separated by a wall, but, -owing to the downward slope of the hill, the court of the women was -fifteen steps lower than that of Israel. Indeed, the level of the court of -Israel was only maintained by a series of arches which supported a -pavement. Perhaps the idea of a court for the women had been a gradual -development of the post-exilic time, in which they had been permitted to -watch the sacrifices from a definitely defined position in the rear of the -men. At all events, this court became a prominent feature in the temple of -Herod, and from elevated seats on its eastern side women could still watch -the sacred ceremonies of the temple. With the exception of this gallery, -the court of the women was open to men. It was 135 cubits square and so -was relatively large. Apparently the temple treasury was situated in this -court, together with the money boxes, for women had access to these. Here -probably Christ was sitting when he saw the poor widow cast into the -treasury her two mites (Mark 12:41, f.; Luke 21:1, f). Around these courts -ran a wall 43 feet high. This wall was pierced by nine gates, four on the -north, four on the south, and one on the east. A gate also separated the -court of the women from the court of Israel. Either the gate that opened -out of the court of the women to the eastward, or the one between the -court of the women and the court of Israel (it is uncertain which one) -had been given by one Nicanor and was of fine Corinthian bronze. It was -sometimes called "the gate beautiful" and sometimes "Nicanor's gate." It -was by this gate, and so near the treasury where people were devoting -their money to religion, that Peter and John found the lame man begging -(Acts 3:2, f.). - -Outside all these courts lay the court of the Gentiles. This was separated -from the courts described above by a _Soreg_ or ritual wall, which no -Gentile might pass. Herod placed inscriptions in Greek at the various -gates in this ritual wall, which warned Gentiles on pain of death not to -enter. The court of the Gentiles surrounded the other courts on the north, -east, and south; it was, however, most extensive on the east and south; -(Fig. 257). To obtain a greater area for this court on the south, Herod -extended the level of the hill by erecting great arches which supported a -pavement. This structure still remains; it is now called "Solomon's -stables"; (Fig. 258). In the Crusading period horses were stabled there. -Around the court thus enlarged ran a beautiful colonnade. The pillars for -this and for Herod's palace were quarried from the rock around Jerusalem. -One pillar which had a defect and was accordingly never moved from the -quarry was found a few years since in front of the Russian cathedral north -of the city. - -Although the temple has passed away and other sacred buildings have since -the second century been erected in succession near its site, the expanse -of the court of the Gentiles remains, and as the devout Christian visits -it he seems almost to hear the footfalls of Christ and of Paul! - -=18. The Pool of Bethesda.=--Another spot connected with the life of -Christ lay not far from the temple on the north; it was the Pool of -Bethesda. It was situated near the Sheep Gate, which was just northeast of -the temple. Since the thirteenth century the _Birket Israin_[294] which -lies between the temple area and the modern St. Stephen's Gate has been -identified by some with Bethesda. Since 1889 it has been thought by many -that two pools discovered in that year, now far under ground, in the land -of the Church of St. Anne, just north of St. Stephen's Gate, constituted -the Pool of Bethesda; (see Fig. 259). It is really impossible to decide -between the two possibilities on the evidence we have. Both are in the -region where we should look for the Pool of Bethesda. - -=19. Gethsemane.=--Two other spots near Jerusalem are of the deepest -interest to the Christian student--the Garden of Gethsemane and Golgotha. -The fact is certain that the Garden of Gethsemane lay on the western slope -of the Mount of Olives. (See Luke 22:39; John 18:1; Mark 14:26, 32.) Since -the sixteenth century the Roman Catholics have shown a little garden, -which lies just above the Kidron, as the Garden of Gethsemane. More -recently the Russian Church has walled in the space next above it as the -real garden. There is no certainty that the garden was on either site. To -the Jews of the first century a garden was not a place for flower-beds, -but an olive orchard, and such an orchard may have extended widely over -the hillside. We cannot now identify the spot made sacred by the Master's -agony, but we know as we look at this hillside that it was somewhere on -it. - -=20. Calvary.=--The site of Calvary or Golgotha is not so easily -discerned. Since the year 326 A. D., when Helena, the mother of the -Emperor Constantine, visited Jerusalem, there has been a continuous -tradition in favor of the site on which the Church of the Holy Sepulcher -stands. We know from Hebrews 13:12 that the crucifixion took place outside -the city walls. Unfortunately, we cannot tell whether the second wall of -this period ran north or south of the spot on which the Church of the Holy -Sepulcher stands, for the whole region lies under the modern city, where -excavation has been impossible. If the second wall turned eastward before -it had gone as far north as this spot, it may well be that the crucifixion -occurred where the church now stands. Pilate condemned Jesus at the palace -of Herod near the gate Gennath at the northwest corner of the city of that -day. Doubtless the mob swept along with Jesus through the gate Gennath to -the spot called Golgotha. If the Church of the Holy Sepulcher was on that -spot, the walk was not a long one; (see Fig. 260). - -In 1849 Otto Thenius suggested that the hill north of the modern Damascus -Gate above "Jeremiah's Grotto" was the real Golgotha; (Figs. 261, 262). -This was also suggested by Fisher Howe in 1871, and advocated by Gen. C. -E. Gordon in 1881. Near it is a garden in which is a rock-hewn tomb; -(Figs. 263, 264). Since the days of Gordon a kind of Protestant tradition -and cult has grown up about this spot that in certain quarters evokes some -of the devotion called forth among Catholics and Oriental Christians by -the Church of the Holy Sepulcher. It must be said that the tomb in the -garden is, like many similar tombs in the neighborhood, probably not -earlier than the third or fourth century A. D., and there is really no -more reason for regarding this spot as Golgotha than any other hill-top -near the city. The exact spot where our Lord suffered is not certainly -known. - -Ecclesiastical tradition has fixed upon many other spots in Jerusalem as -the places where certain events in the life of Christ occurred, but none -of these has a sufficient degree of probability in its favor to merit a -mention in an archaeological work. - -=21. Agrippa I and the Third Wall.=--In the reign of Herod Agrippa I -(41-44 A. D.), Jerusalem was again enlarged. Agrippa built a third wall on -the north. Its course is described by Josephus,[295] but as most of the -landmarks mentioned by him are unknown, opinions differ as to its course. -It is certain that it started at the tower Hippacus and went northward to -the tower Psephinus, that it enclosed the hill Bezetha, and that it ran -along the edge of the Kidron valley to join the old wall. Some scholars -suppose that it ran about on the line of the present northern Turkish wall -of the city; others, as Robinson and Merrill, thought it ran much further -north so that its northeastern corner was near the "Tombs of the Kings." -While there is not decisive evidence in the matter, the first view, that -the third wall ran near the line of the modern wall, seems the more -probable. This wall was begun by Agrippa, who did not dare to finish it -lest Claudius should suspect him of an intention to rebel. It was, -however, completed by the Jews before the last tragic struggle of the -years 66-70, and formed one of the features of Jerusalem when Paul made -his later visits to the city. - -We have not space to follow the fortunes of Jerusalem further. The history -of the "Virgin Daughter of Zion" since 70 A. D., when the walls were -broken down and the temple destroyed never to be rebuilt, has been no less -checkered and tragic than in the centuries that preceded,[296] but the -hearts of all Christians as well as of Jews and Mohammedans turn to her -with sympathy and affection, because of their debt to the holy men who at -various times, from David to Paul, lived in her and walked her streets, -and because of her tragic associations with the life and death of One who -was more than man. - - - - -CHAPTER XIV - -THE DECAPOLIS - - ORIGIN. DAMASCUS. SCYTHOPOLIS. CITIES EAST OF THE SEA OF GALILEE. - GADARA. PELLA AND DION. GERASA. PHILADELPHIA. JESUS IN THE DECAPOLIS. - - -=1. Origin.=--Three times in the Gospels the Decapolis is mentioned: Matt. -4:25; Mark 5:20 and 7:31. Decapolis is a Greek name and means "the ten -city" (region). The ancient writers who mention it agree that it -originally consisted of ten cities in which Greek population was dominant -and which were federated together. Pliny[297] gives the ten cities as -Damascus, Philadelphia, Raphana, Scythopolis, Gadara, Hippos, Dion, Pella, -Gerasa, and Kanatha. Ptolemy, the astronomer and geographer, in the second -century A. D. enumerated eighteen cities as belonging to it. In the time -of Christ it probably consisted of but ten. The Decapolis apparently was -created by the Roman General Pompey, when he conquered this region for -Rome in 65-63 B. C. These cities with Greek populations appear to have -appealed to him and he granted them certain privileges, including a degree -of autonomy. They were, however, subject to the Legate of Syria. Hippos, -Scythopolis, and Pella were released by him at this time from the Jewish -yoke.[298] Josephus, at the end of the first century A. D., does not -reckon Damascus in the Decapolis, but before the time of Paul, Damascus -had been captured by the Nabathaeans or Arabians, and may not, when retaken -by Rome, have been again accorded the privileges of the cities of the -Decapolis. - -=2. Damascus=, which is mentioned in the annals of Thothmes III before -1447 B. C., and in the accounts of Abraham (Gen. 14:15; 15:2), has been -continuously in existence as a city ever since, and is one of the most -flourishing cities of Syria at the present time. It was occupied in the -thirteenth or fourteenth century B. C. by Aramaeans who held it all through -the Old Testament period. Kings of Damascus frequently fought with Israel. -From the time of Alexander the Great it came under Hellenic influences. -After his death it was first possessed by the Ptolemies of Egypt, but was -taken by the Seleucid kings of Antioch before 261 B. C. It is situated in -one of the most fertile oases of the world--an oasis that Arabian poets -delighted to compare to Paradise. Probably Alexander's successors, who, as -we shall see, built many Hellenic cities, beautified this oasis with one -of them, but as the site has been occupied continuously, no buildings from -this time remain. One feature at Damascus that still recalls Biblical -times is the street called Straight, which runs westward from the eastern -gate into the heart of the city. It was in a house on the ancient -forerunner of this street that Paul first lodged at the time of his -conversion (Acts 9:11); (see Fig. 265). - -One other part of Damascus recalls a Biblical narrative. This is the river -Barada which still runs through the heart of the city. It is the river -called Abana in 2 Kings 5:12, and was said by Naaman to be "better than -all the waters of Israel"; (see Fig. 266). - -=3. Scythopolis= was the only one of the cities of the Decapolis west of -the Jordan. It was on the site of the Beth-shean of the Old Testament -(Josh. 17:11; 1 Sam. 31:10, 12; 2 Sam. 21:12; 1 Kings 4:12). Beth-shean -was already a city at the time Palestine was conquered by Thothmes -III[299] and there has apparently been a town near this spot ever since. -It seems to have been called Scythopolis by the successors of Alexander -the Great, probably because a group of Scythians had taken the city and -settled there. When it came into the possession of Scythians we can only -conjecture, but it was probably at the time of the great Scythian invasion -of Palestine, about 625-615 B. C. This invasion called forth the dark -prophecies of the book of Zephaniah. Scythopolis appears from certain -coins[300] to have become a Hellenic city in the time of Alexander the -Great. In the time of Ptolemy Euergetes I, 247-222 B. C., it was subject -to Egypt,[301] but it passed to the dominions of the Seleucidae of Antioch -in 198 B. C. Upon the break-up of the Syrian empire in 65-63 B. C., Pompey -made it one of the cities of the Decapolis. - -The remains of the Hellenic city have now entirely disappeared with the -exception of the great stone amphitheater. This may still be seen[302] in -the valley on the south side of the mound which covers the ruins of the -ancient Beth-shean, where it is overgrown with briers. The name -Scythopolis has long since disappeared, and the old Hebrew name for the -place still survives in the name of the modern town Beisan. This modern -town is situated on the south side of the valley mentioned above, a little -distance from the mound which covers the ancient city. Scythopolis was -situated at the point where the plain of Jezreel or Esdraelon joins the -Jordan valley. In the time of Christ the Jews from Nazareth and its -vicinity, when going to the three annual festivals at Jerusalem, came down -the plain and then followed the Jordan valley down to Jericho (see Luke -19:1), in order to avoid going through Samaria. From the time that Jesus -was twelve years old he must, therefore, have often passed by Scythopolis -on his way to Jerusalem. As it was a Gentile town, however, neither he nor -his companions would enter it on such occasions, as they would thereby be -rendered unclean. - -=4. Cities East of the Sea of Galilee.=--To the east of the Sea of Galilee -lay three of the cities of the Decapolis. Hippos was comparatively near -the sea, where Susiye now lies. The Jews of the Talmudic period called the -place Susitha.[303] Hippos is the Greek for horse. Susitha is a Hebrew -translation of this and Susiye is an Arabic corruption of the Hebrew. All -traces of the ancient Hippos except the name have disappeared. - -Where Raphana was situated has not yet been definitely determined. It is -probably the same as Raphon mentioned in 1 Macc. 5:37, which was near to -Ashteroth-karnaim[304] (Gen. 14:5). Ashteroth-karnaim was situated either -at Tell Ashtara or at Tell Ashary, both of which are between twenty and -twenty-five miles east of the Sea of Galilee. Raphana, then, probably lay -about twenty miles due east from Hippos. - -Still eastward of this lay the city of Kanatha, though scholars are -divided in opinion as to whether its site is to be identified with -El-Kerak or with Kanawat. If its site was at El-Kerak it was about forty -miles east of the Sea of Galilee; if at Kanawat it was about fifty-five -miles distant from the sea. As there are at Kanawat abundant ruins of a -beautiful Hellenic city,[305] Kanatha was probably situated here rather -than at El-Kerak. This was the Kenath of Num. 32:42. - -=5. Gadara.=--A little to the south of the southern end of the Sea of -Galilee on the east of the Jordan and south of the Yarmuk lay the city of -Gadara, another member of the Decapolis. Its site is now marked by the -ruins of Umm Keis or Mukes. Here ruins of the Hellenic city are still to -be seen, including a great theater cut out of the black basaltic rock. -Gadara was a strong fortress as early as the time of Antiochus the Great -in 218 B. C.,[306] and was afterward besieged by Alexander Jannaeus,[307] -104-79 B. C. - -=6. Pella and Dion.=--On the east of the Jordan, a little further south -than Scythopolis or Beth-shean, but in the deep depression of the river -valley, Pella, another city of the Decapolis, was situated. The site now -bears the name Fahl. The city is mentioned in the list of Thothmes III, -1503-1447 B. C., as Pahul. Pella is a Greek form of this name. The Greek -city of Pella is said by Stephen of Byzantium[308] to have been founded by -Alexander the Great. In the Talmud it is called Pahal,[309] and the modern -name Fahl is an Arabian form of this. Extensive ruins of the Hellenic city -are still visible at Fahl.[310] - -Dion is also said to have been founded by Alexander the Great and was -apparently not far from Pella. It is thought by Merrill[311] and G. A. -Smith to have been situated on the site of the modern Eidun, about twenty -miles east of Pella, though this is doubted by others.[312] If Dion was at -this point few, if any, antiquities remain to bear witness to the fact. - -=7. Gerasa=, the modern Jerash, lay on one of the tributaries of the -Jabbok about fifty miles southeast of Pella. We do not know what the name -of the place was in Old Testament times. It is first mentioned in the time -of Alexander Jannaeus (104-79 B. C.).[313] It was then called Gerasa and -was probably already at that time a Hellenic city. By whom it was built, -we do not know, but it was probably one of the early Ptolemies of Egypt. -From 100 B. C. till the Mohammedan conquest in 637 A. D., it flourished as -a beautiful city, and later it was a city of some importance. It probably -was overtaken by some calamity and the site of the Hellenic city -abandoned soon after the year 637, as there are no Arabic remains above -the Graeco-Roman material. In the year 1121 Baldwin II, of the Latin -kingdom of Jerusalem, made a campaign against Gerasa, where the ruler of -Damascus had caused a castle to be built. In the next century the Arabian -geographer, Yakut, describes it as deserted. It appears to have been -ruined by an earthquake. - -Apparently the Hellenic city at Gerasa lasted longer than any of the other -cities of the Decapolis unless it be Kanatha. One can, accordingly, gain -from the ruins of Gerasa an excellent idea of the general appearance of -one of these cities.[314] The writer has never seen more beautiful ruins -than those at Jerash except the ruins at Athens. As one approached the -site from the south he faced a beautiful arched gateway. After passing -this gateway one looked northward down a long colonnaded street, which at -a little distance from the gate broadened out into a circular forum. At -distances approximately equal from one another this main street was -crossed by other colonnaded streets. A number of these columns are -standing in different parts of the town. The remains of two imposing -temples, of two theaters, of a large Christian basilica, and of various -other buildings, impress one with the former glory of the city. A number -of the buildings at Gerasa were built in the second century A. D. in the -reign of the Antonines; (see Figs. 268, 269). - -=8. Philadelphia=, the most southerly of the cities of the Decapolis, was -on the site of Rabbah Ammon (Deut. 3:11; Josh. 13:25; 2 Sam. 11:1, etc.). -This was situated on the upper Jabbok about twenty miles east of the -Jordan valley, where Amman now lies. The Hellenic city here was built by -Ptolemy Philadelphus of Egypt, who reigned from 283-247 B. C. It was named -Philadelphia from him. In 218 B. C. the city was taken by Antiochus III, -who captured the cistern to which in time of siege the Philadelphians went -for water by an underground passage,[315] after which thirst compelled -them to surrender. Joab centuries before had captured the city for David -by the same method,[316] and in 30 B. C. Herod the Great again took it in -the same way.[317] The remains of the Hellenic temple, of the theater, -and of other buildings, including a Christian basilica, are still to be -seen at Amman.[318] In the fourth century A. D. Philadelphia was one of -the prominent cities of the Roman province of Arabia; (see Figs. 270, -271). - -These cities of the Decapolis appear to have been built on a similar plan. -Each had a colonnaded street through the center of the town, each had at -least one temple and one theater, and some of them more. All were -architecturally beautiful. They all possessed a similar government also, -and each appears to have controlled the villages in its district. - -=9. Jesus in the Decapolis.=--The prevailing influences in the Decapolis -were pagan, and yet there were Jews living in it, for multitudes of them -from the Decapolis followed Jesus (Matt. 4:25). On at least two occasions -our Lord himself went into the territory of the Decapolis. We read in Mark -5:1 that Jesus and his disciples "came to the other side of the sea to the -country of the Gerasenes." The Authorized Version reads "to the country of -the Gadarenes." The country to which Jesus came at this time cannot have -been that of the Decapolitan city Gerasa, for, as we have seen, that lay -far to the south. It was in a direct line nearly fifty miles from the Sea -of Galilee. Neither can it have been to the region of Gadara that he came, -for Gadara lay at least five miles to the south across the deep valley of -the Yarmuk. There was, however, on the east shore of the Sea of Galilee a -town called Gergesa, the modern Kursi. This place was near the city of -Hippos, and possibly one of the towns subordinate to Hippos. As Jesus and -the disciples walked back from the sea they met the demoniac, whom Jesus -healed. It was in connection with this healing that the herd of swine was -destroyed--an incident that could happen in no part of Palestine except -Decapolis or Philistia, for swine were unclean to Jews and they never kept -them. The demoniac, when cured, went and preached Jesus in the Decapolis -(Mark 5:20). - -Again, toward the end of the ministry of Jesus, after he had withdrawn for -a time to Phoenicia, he returned by crossing the high lands of northern -Galilee and coming down east of the Jordan "through the midst of the -borders of Decapolis" (Mark 7:31). - - - - -CHAPTER XV - -ATHENS, CORINTH, AND THE CHURCHES OF ASIA - - ATHENS. CORINTH. THE CHURCHES OF ASIA: Ephesus. Pergamum. Thyatira. - Sardis. Philadelphia. Smyrna. Laodicea. - - -The greater part of Biblical history was enacted in Palestine and the -great valleys of Mesopotamia and the Nile. The Apostle Paul, however, -broke the Jewish bonds of primitive Christianity and carried the Gospel to -the coasts of the AEgean Sea. In cities of this region he spent years of -his active missionary life; to churches of this region most of his -epistles were sent, and to churches of this part of the world the seven -messages to the churches were addressed. We cannot, therefore, conclude -this sketch of what archaeology has done to throw light upon the Bible -without saying a few words concerning exploration and excavations in -certain parts of Greece and Asia Minor. It will be impossible for lack of -space to go thoroughly into the history of this region, but as these lands -were not, like Egypt, Babylonia, Assyria, and Palestine, closely connected -with Biblical history for a long period, detailed history of them before -the Apostolic age will not be missed by the student of the Bible. - -The results of scattered discoveries at Thessalonica and elsewhere will be -presented in Part II, Chapter XXVII. At this point attention will be -directed to a few important cities. - -=1. Athens=, the chief city of Attica, one of the least productive parts -of Greece, is the far-famed mistress of the world's culture and art. -Emerging from obscurity in the seventh century before Christ, gaining a -position of leadership in the Persian wars after 500 B. C., Athens -established a considerable empire. In this period fell the age of -Pericles, 460-429 B. C., when the artistic and literary genius of Athens -reached a height never equaled in human history. Socrates was born here in -469 and lived till 399 B. C. Here Plato, who was born about 428, became a -pupil of Socrates and afterward taught. Hither came Aristotle, after the -year 367, to sit at Plato's feet. Here from the age of Pericles the -acropolis was crowned with those architectural creations that are at once -the admiration and the despair of the world; (see Fig. 277). It stirs the -imagination to think of Paul in such a city. - -In the time of Paul, Athens was a Roman city, though still one of the -great artistic and philosophical centers of the world. At a little -distance from the acropolis on its northern side, a forum of the Roman -period was laid bare in 1891; (see Fig. 272). Possibly this is the -market-place in which Paul, during his stay there, reasoned every day with -them that met him (Acts 17:17), though of this we cannot be certain, for, -while this was a market-place in the Roman period, the older market of the -Athenian people lay to the westward of it. - -To the west of the acropolis lies the old Areopagus, or Mars' Hill (Fig. -273), from which it was long supposed that Paul made the address recorded -in Acts 17:22-31. Ramsay,[319] following Curtius, has made it probable -that the address was delivered to the city-fathers of Athens, not because -they were putting Paul to a judicial trial, but because they wished to see -whether he was to be allowed to teach Christianity, which they took for a -new philosophy, in the university of Athens--for Athens itself was a kind -of university. It seems probable that the meetings of the city-fathers, -who were collectively called the Areopagus (Acts 17:22), were held not on -the top of the rock, but in the market-place. The Athenian altar "to an -unknown god" is treated in Part II, Chapter XXVII, Sec. 2. - -=2. Corinth.=--From Athens, Paul went to Corinth, where he spent a year -and a half (Acts 18:1, 11). Corinth was one of the old cities of Greece. -In Homeric and earlier times it appears to have been subject to Argos. -Situated on the isthmus between northern Greece and the Peloponnesus, the -sea-trade of Corinth made it an important city. It rose to prominence in -the seventh century before Christ. At some early time foreigners from the -east, probably Phoenicians, had settled in Corinth and established the -worship of the Semitic goddess Astarte on Acro-Corinthus, a hill that -rises some five hundred feet above the city. The goddess was here known as -Aphrodite,[320] and the debasing character of her worship tended to foster -that lack of sensitiveness in matters of social morality with which Paul -deals in his First Epistle to the Corinthians. The trade of Corinth made -it rich and its riches excited the enmity of Rome. It was accordingly -destroyed by the Romans in 146 B. C., but a century later was rebuilt by -Julius Caesar. Ancient Corinth has now entirely vanished. - -Excavations were begun at Corinth by the American School of Classical -Studies at Athens in 1896 under the direction of the late Prof. Rufus B. -Richardson. The work has been carried forward season by season ever -since.[321] Although there were no topographical indications to help the -excavators at the start, the theater, the Agora or market-place, a Roman -street, the road to Lechaeum, and the temple of Apollo have been -discovered; (Figs. 274, 276). - -Of greatest interest to the student of the Bible is a stone discovered in -1898 on the Lechaeum road near the propylaea, or gateway leading to the -market-place. This stone once formed the lintel of a door and bore an -inscription in Greek letters. Although the beginning and the end of the -two words written on it are broken away, it is clear that the inscription -was "Synagogue of the Hebrews."[322] The cutting of the letters was poorly -done, and the block was a second-hand one, adapted from some other use. It -seems probable, therefore, that the Jewish community at Corinth was not -wealthy. The block was of considerable size and so was probably found not -far from where the synagogue stood. If so, this synagogue, which is -probably identical with the one in which Paul preached (Acts 18:4), stood -on the Lechaeum road not far from the market-place. Other discoveries in -the neighborhood indicate that this was a residence quarter of the city, -and we learn from Acts 18:7 that the house of Titus Justus, where -apparently Paul organized the first church in Corinth, "joined hard to the -synagogue." The house of Justus must, then, have been here, and the -Lechaeum road often echoed to the footsteps of Paul. Probably the -judgment-seat to which the Jews dragged Paul for the hearing before Gallio -(Acts 18:12) was in the market-place, so that the excavations have -revealed to us the parts of Corinth of special interest to a reader of the -Bible. - -=3. The Churches of Asia.= - -(1) _Ephesus_ was situated on the Cayster river in western Asia Minor, -about three miles from the sea, but in ancient times the sea was navigable -up as far as the city. Cities which form the point of contact between -land and sea traffic become in most countries populous and wealthy. In -western Asia Minor four cities, situated at the mouths of the four river -valleys through which caravans could proceed into the interior, became -populous and important. These were Miletus (see Acts 20:15, 17, f.) at the -mouth of the Maeander, Ephesus at the mouth of the Cayster, Smyrna at the -mouth of the Hermus, and Pergamum on the Caicus. In the earliest times -known to us Ephesus was eclipsed in importance by Miletus, but before the -beginning of the Christian era Ephesus had outstripped her rival. This was -due to several causes, one of which was the partial silting up of the -harbor of Miletus. In Roman times Ephesus lay on the great line of -communication between Rome and the East in general.[323] In later -centuries the harbor of Ephesus was in its turn silted up, and the site is -now deserted except for a neighboring wretched Turkish village. - -In Homer's _Iliad_[324] the Carians are called the "barbarous-speaking -Carians." This would indicate that they were not Greek, and it is thought -by some that they may at this time have been of Hittite stock. Miletus was -in Caria, and at that time Ephesus also. It is certain that the earliest -inhabitants of Ephesus were not Greek, but of Asiatic origin. They -established here, either on a mountain top about five miles from the sea, -just above the modern railway station of Ayassuluk, or on a mountain a -little to the south, the worship of an Asiatic goddess, probably Hittite. -Later, in the seventh century before Christ, the Ionian Greeks came and -settled among the Asiatics. They identified the goddess with their own -Artemis (Authorized Version, Diana), and moved her temple down into the -plain,[325] where it continued to stand far into Christian times. In the -sixth century B. C. Ephesus was conquered by the Lydians, and then by the -Persians. In later centuries it passed under the control of Alexander the -Great, of the Seleucidae of Syria, and of the kings of Pergamum. In 133 B. -C. it passed with the rest of the kingdom of Pergamum into the hands of -Rome and became a part of the Roman Province of Asia. Because of its -situation it quickly became the most important city of the province. It -was noted for its wealth and its commerce. Rome became the patron of -Hellenic culture in the East, so Ephesus was, of course, made an -architecturally beautiful city. - -At first Pergamum was the capital of the Province of Asia. In the second -and third centuries of the Christian era Ephesus had become the capital. -Buchner[326] thinks that this transfer was made in the reign of Claudius, -41-54 A. D. If this were true, Ephesus was the capital of the province at -the time of Paul's residence there, but there is considerable doubt about -the facts, and in the beginning of the second century A. D. Pergamum still -ranked as the official capital.[327] - -The temple of Artemis lay about two miles to the northeast of the ancient -city. Its site was determined in 1869 by the English explorer, J. T. Wood, -who partially excavated it (1869-1874).[328] Wood brought to light various -marble fragments which are preserved in the British Museum, but he was -more interested in making conjectural restorations of the temple than in -telling what he found. As he was not an expert in ancient architecture his -work is, accordingly, unsatisfactory. In 1904-1905, the British Museum -employed Mr. Hogarth to complete the excavation of the site. Hogarth -carried the excavation down to the virgin soil, and, being a skilled -archaeologist, he was able to reconstruct the history of the building.[329] - -There seems to have been a small tree shrine on the site of the temple -before the Ionians came. Between the seventh century and the fifth, three -different structures were erected on the spot. The last of these was -called the temple of Croesus, because this king of Lydia presented some -beautiful columns to it, though the structure was not completed till a -century after his time, or 430 B. C. This structure was burned in 356 B. -C. on the night that Alexander the Great was born. Later a larger temple, -425 by 220 feet, was built on the site, with the help of contributions -from the whole of Asia. This was standing until long after Paul's time. It -was very beautiful. Some of the porphyry columns now in Santa Sophia at -Constantinople are said to have been taken from it. It has been thought by -some that this beautiful temple suggested to Paul his figure in 1 Cor. -3:10-17, since the words were written from Ephesus. - -This temple was venerated over all of western Asia Minor. To it came many -pilgrims every year, to whom Ephesian silversmiths sold little replicas of -the temple. It was because Christianity became so popular through the -preaching of Paul that the profitable sale of these shrines was -interfered with, that the riot in Ephesus occurred as described in Acts -19:23-41. - -Before Mr. Wood had discovered the site of the temple he had discovered -the theater within the limits of the ancient city. This has been examined -more thoroughly by the Austrian, Dr. Wiberg, who, beginning in 1894, -conducted excavations at Ephesus for many years. All the lower parts of -this theater still remain (see Figs. 280, 281) and bring vividly to the -imagination the assembly held in it on the occasion of the riot just -referred to. (See Acts 19:29-41.) The Austrians have also laid bare a -considerable part of the central street of the Ephesus of Roman times; -(see Fig. 278). - -A little to the north of the theater is the ancient stadium. Some scholars -think that when Paul says in 1 Cor. 15:32, "If after the manner of men I -fought with beasts at Ephesus," he is speaking of an incident that -literally occurred, and suppose that he was actually condemned to be -thrown to the beasts in the stadium, to make a spectacle for the Ephesian -populace, and that in some way he escaped alive. It is possible that this -may be true. If so, this stadium (see Fig. 282) presents to the eye a spot -which is of great interest to every Christian. - -Ephesus, as the mother-church of the churches of Asia, is the first one to -which in the book of Revelation a letter is addressed. By the time -Revelation was written the first glow of Christian enthusiasm had worn -off, gnostic heresy had found a place in the Church, and its "first love" -was gone. - -(2) _Pergamum_, the modern Bergama, lay in the valley of the Caicus in -Mysia, about fifteen miles from the sea. The city was built on a hill -about three miles north of the river. It was apparently a place of some -importance at a comparatively early date, but its chief importance began -with the reign of Philetaerus, who made it an independent kingdom and ruled -it from 284-263 B. C. Philetaerus had been a trusted servant of Lysimachus, -King of Thrace, one of the trusted generals of Alexander the Great. Under -the dynasty founded by Philetaerus, Pergamum became one of the chief seats -of Hellenic culture. Eumenes I (263-241 B. C.) endeavored to make Pergamum -a rival of Alexandria as a literary center, and when the king of Egypt -forbade the exportation of papyrus in order to check the literary -aspirations of Pergamum, the servants of Eumenes invented a prepared kind -of skin on which to write. It was called _pergamena_, but time has -corrupted it to "parchment." - -In the course of the second century before Christ the kingdom of Pergamum -included all of western Asia Minor north of the Taurus. When in 133 B. C. -Attalus III, the last of the kings of Pergamum, died, he left his kingdom -by will to the Roman republic, with which Pergamum had long been in -alliance. Rome thus came into possession of her Province of Asia, the -first of her Oriental provinces. Pergamum was its capital, certainly until -the reign of Claudius, and probably until the second century A. D. The -Romans regarded themselves as the patrons of Hellenic culture in the East -and for centuries kept Pergamum the beautiful city which the Pergamene -kings had made it. Bergama, the squalid modern Turkish city, lies apart -from the splendid ruins of the ancient town; (see Fig. 283). - -More than thirty years ago the Germans began to explore and to excavate at -Pergamum,[330] and the Museum at Berlin is enriched with many beautiful -objects found there. The visitor to Pergamum may still see, however, the -great gymnasium with many graceful columns still standing. Above it, on a -higher slope, are the sites of theaters and temples, and the great altar -of Zeus. Farther up the hill stood the temple of Athenae Polias, which was -also a library, and above this the temple of Rome and of Augustus. - -In Rev. 2:13 the church at Pergamum is said to dwell where "Satan's throne -is." Interpreters have been divided in opinion as to whether this is a -reference to the worship of AEsculapius, or to the presence of the great -throne-like altar of Zeus, or to the fact that Pergamum was the seat of -the worship of the Roman emperor.[331] On the whole, it seems probable -that "Satan's throne" is a reference to the fact that Pergamum was the -seat of the government and of the worship of the emperor of Rome. When -Augustus inaugurated emperor-worship in order to give the empire a bond of -common sentiment, the first temple of the cult was erected at Pergamum. -This was in 29 B. C. Under Vespasian and his successors it became a test -of one's Christianity whether he would or would not[332] offer incense to -the statue of the emperor, and Christians were often persecuted because -they would not. It is probable that in the remains of the temple to the -emperor archaeologists have brought to light Satan's throne. If, however, -that throne were the altar of Zeus, it has nevertheless been brought to -light. - -(3) _Thyatira_, the modern Ak-Hissar, lay in a valley which joined the -valley of the Hermus to the valley of the Caicus. The general direction of -this valley was north and south. It was made an important city by Seleucus -I of Syria (312-282 B. C.) in the latter part of his reign. Before this it -had been an obscure village. Josephus declares[333] that Seleucus made -Jews citizens of the cities which he founded in Asia, and apparently -Thyatira was one of these, for there appears to have been a flourishing -Jewish colony there. A little later than Seleucus, Thyatira became a city -of Pergamum, and passed in 133 B. C. with the territories of that realm -under the dominion of Rome. Thyatira was noted for its dyeing. Madder -root, with which they dyed a Turkey-red, grows abundantly in the -neighborhood.[334] As the ancients employed the names of colors with great -laxity, this was often termed purple. Lydia, an enterprising seller of -this purple, a Jewess from Thyatira, was present at Philippi when Paul and -Silas preached there (Acts 16:14). Lydia was converted, and perhaps it was -she who carried the Gospel back to Thyatira. Nothing has been discovered -at Thyatira that throws light on the message to its church in Rev. -2:18-29. - -(4) _Sardis_ was one of the oldest cities of western Asia. It is situated -on the south side of the great valley of the Hermus, just at the point -where the river Pactolus issues from the Tmolus mountains. Pottery found -in the course of excavations there carries its history back to -sub-Mycenaean, if not to Mycenaean, times.[335] It was the seat of the -worship of Atys or Cybele, a goddess that seems to have been kindred to -the mother-goddess of the Hittites. It is probable that, could we -penetrate back far enough, we should find that the place was once occupied -by Hittites. Herodotus traces the descent of the first dynasty that ruled -over the country to the goddess just mentioned.[336] Following this -dynasty was, he says, another of twenty-one kings who ruled before the -dynasty founded by Gyges. The Lydian kingdom of which we know began with -Gyges in 697 B. C. and ended with Croesus in 546 B. C. Lydian inscriptions -found at Sardis are written in the same alphabet as Etruscan inscriptions -found in Italy. This indicates that the Lydians and Etruscans were closely -akin, but, as the inscriptions have not yet been deciphered, they do not -throw much light on either people.[337] It is possible that both peoples -were related to the Hittites, but that is at present only a hypothesis. - -The mountains to the south of Sardis are composed largely of gravel -deposits left there by the melting of the glaciers at the end of the last -glacial period. From these gravels the Pactolus brought down gold in -ancient times. This was one of the sources of the wealth of the Lydian -kings, and contributed to those riches which are still celebrated in the -saying: "As rich as Croesus." - -The Lydian kingdom fell when Cyrus captured Sardis in 546 B. C. With the -fall of the Persian empire the city passed into the hands of Alexander the -Great, and subsequently into the hands of his general, Antigonous, then to -the Seleucidae of Syria, then to the kings of Pergamum, and so to the -dominion of Rome. - -In 17 A. D. Sardis was shaken by a great earthquake which nearly destroyed -the city. A mass of gravel and conglomerate rock was then hurled from the -hill of the Acropolis of Sardis down into the city toward the temple, -where the work of the excavator shows that it still lies.[338] A part of -the city must have been buried under it. The city recovered from this -disaster and by the end of the first century a Christian church existed -there (Rev. 3:1-6). Sardis continued to be a city of importance until -1400-1403 A. D., when the Tartar conqueror, Timur or Tamerlane, swept over -the country destroying everything before him. From this destruction Sardis -never recovered. Two or three tiny wretched Turkish villages are now all -that occupy the spot.[339] - -The Acropolis of Sardis was composed of gravel and a comparatively soft -conglomerate rock. It looks imposing and in ancient times looked far more -imposing than now. It has been gradually crumbling away through the -centuries. Ramsay thinks that this instability on the part of the city -itself is alluded to in the words, "thou hast a name that thou livest, and -thou art dead" and in the exhortation to be watchful and to strengthen the -things that remain, which follows it (Rev. 3:1, 2); (see Fig. 284). - -Excavations were begun at Sardis by Princeton University under the -direction of Prof. Howard Crosby Butler in 1909, and the digging continued -for five seasons until interrupted by the great war.[340] The work began -at the point where two columns of the ancient temple of Cybele were still -protruding from the soil. The temple has been cleared and a considerable -area around it has been examined. It appears that the temple was built in -the fourth century B. C., that it suffered greatly in the earthquake of 17 -A. D., and never was as splendid afterwards, though it was still in use in -the second century A. D.[341] Many objects have been discovered which -throw light upon the history and art of Lydia, and two bi-lingual -inscriptions, one Lydian and Aramaic, the other Lydian and Greek, were -found. These may afford the key to the decipherment of both Lydian and -Etruscan. Jewelry resembling Etruscan jewelry found in Italy was also -discovered.[342] - -To the student of the Bible the most interesting discovery at Sardis was a -little Christian church built at the southeast corner of the temple.[343] -The entrance to this church was from the temple platform itself. The -structure was entirely of brick and was in a remarkably good state of -preservation. The building had apparently lost only its wooden roof. The -apse of the church was toward the east, and still contained its primitive -altar. It is uncertain at what date altars became a part of Christian -worship. Origen in the third century A. D. admits the charge of Celsus -that the Christians had no visible altar,[344] but Eusebius[345] in the -next century speaks as though altars existed throughout the Christian -world. This church at Sardis was built after the temple of Cybele had -fallen into disuse, and even if not earlier than the fourth century of our -era, this little structure is evidence that the name of the church had not -been blotted out of the book of life (Rev. 3:5), but that it had rather -appropriated to itself the once splendid precincts of the ancient heathen -goddess. - -(5) _Philadelphia_ was situated twenty-eight miles east of Sardis, and lay -in the valley of the Cogamis, a tributary of the Hermus. It is still a -flourishing city of about 15,000 inhabitants. It is now called -Ala-Sheher.[346] It is not to be confounded with the Philadelphia of the -Decapolis in Palestine.[347] - -Philadelphia was founded by Attalus II, King of Pergamum, 159-138 B. C., -who was called Philadelphus because of his devotion to his predecessor and -brother, Eumenes II. Hence the city was named Philadelphia. It was founded -for the purpose of spreading Hellenism in the eastern part of Lydia, and -so was a missionary city from the first. With the other Pergamene -territories it became a dependency of Rome in 133 B. C. In 17 A. D. it -suffered severely from the same earthquake that destroyed Sardis. Indeed, -at Philadelphia the quakings were even more severe. The trembling of the -earth lasted for a long time. When Strabo wrote in 20 A. D. earthquake -shocks at Philadelphia were an every-day occurrence. Few people lived in -the city; most of the inhabitants spent their time outside.[348] Allusion -to this is, perhaps, made in Rev. 3:12: "he shall go out thence no more." - -After the earthquake the city appealed to Rome for help. Tiberius granted -it and also permitted the city to change its name to Neocaesarea, or the -city of the young Caesar.[349] This, too, seems to be alluded to in Rev. -3:12, where another new name is to be conferred. - -At Ala-Sheher a part of the city wall of Philadelphia may still be traced, -and the sites of the acropolis, the theater, and the stadium may also be -seen, as well as the ruins of an old Christian church.[350] - -(6) _Smyrna_, at the mouth of the Hermus, is one of the very old cities of -Asia Minor. A colony of AEolian Greeks founded a city here more than a -thousand years before Christ. A little later the place was captured by -Ionian Greeks, who held it till about 600 B. C., when it was conquered by -the kings of Lydia and destroyed.[351] For three hundred years the name -designated a district rather than a city. Lysimachus, the general of -Alexander the Great who became king of Thrace (301-282 B. C.), refounded -Smyrna as a Greek city about three miles southwest of the old site, and it -has continued ever since to be an important seaport of Asia Minor. It -passed with the other cities of the region successively under the sway of -the kings of Syria, the kings of Pergamum, and of Rome. Smyrna is today -one of the largest cities of the East with a population of between two and -three hundred thousand. - -Smyrna claimed to be the birthplace of Homer. AElius Aristides (born 117 A. -D.), who lived at Smyrna, several times likens the city to a crown, and -apparently the crown was in some way associated with Smyrna; (see Fig. -287). The goddess of the place, who was a kind of Cybele, is pictured as -wearing a crown.[352] This is, no doubt, the reason why in Rev. 2:10 a -crown of life is promised to the church of Smyrna if she is faithful. No -excavations have been made at Smyrna, but above the city the tomb of -Polycarp,[353] said in tradition to have been a disciple of the Apostle -John, is shown. Polycarp was martyred in 155 A. D. in one of those times -of tribulation predicted in Rev. 2:10. - -(7) _Laodicea_ is situated a hundred miles east of Ephesus, in the valley -of the Lycus, where the Lycus empties into the Maeander. It was founded by -Antiochus II of Syria, 261-246 B. C.,[354] and named for his wife. Like -Philadelphia, it was designed to be a missionary of Hellenism to the -country of the region. Like the other Hellenic cities it was beautified -with temples, theaters, and colonnaded streets. Later Laodicea passed -under the control of Pergamum, and with that kingdom fell to Rome in 133 -B. C. An influential element in its population was Jewish, and before -Paul's imprisonment in Rome a Christian church had been founded there -(Col. 4:13). The city of Laodicea appears to have been devoted to commerce -and to material things. In Rev. 3:15 its church is said to have been -lukewarm. Except that its lukewarmness may have come from its commercial -spirit, there is nothing in the history or archaeology of the city that -illustrates the letter[355] to it in Rev. 3:14-22. - -The site of Laodicea is now almost deserted. Only the wretched Turkish -village of Eski Hissar represents habitation, but hundreds of acres are -covered with the ruins of the once splendid city. For hundreds of years -the villagers of neighboring hamlets have used the place as a quarry, but -nevertheless its ruins are impressive. Two theaters are in a fairly good -state of preservation; the seats are still in place.[356] The stadium is -in a similar condition of preservation. Its aqueduct and its gates are -still imposing in their dilapidation, but the desolation of Laodicea -recalls the words: "I will spew thee out of my mouth" (Rev. 3:16); (see -Fig. 288). - - - - -PART II - -TRANSLATIONS OF ANCIENT DOCUMENTS WHICH CONFIRM OR ILLUMINATE THE BIBLE - - - - -FOREWORD - - -As noted in the Preface, the inferences drawn by different scholars, when -they compare the Bible with the records brought to light by exploration, -diverge according as their critical and theological views differ. In the -comments made throughout Part II, as in Part I, the writer has endeavored -to maintain a neutral attitude and impartially to report in each case the -principal inferences drawn by the most important groups of scholars, that -the reader may know something of the latitude of opinion that prevails. To -have recorded every opinion would have expanded the work far beyond the -limits prescribed, and would have burdened the reader with many views that -are mere vagaries. The temptation is always strong to declare that the -interpretation of an ancient record which accords with one's own views -must be right, but unfortunately problems in ancient history that are thus -dogmatically settled do not remain settled. A deeper faith, confident in -the ultimate triumph of truth, patiently awaits further light. - - - - -CHAPTER I - -AN EPIC OF THE CREATION WHICH CIRCULATED IN BABYLON AND ASSYRIA IN THE -SEVENTH CENTURY BEFORE CHRIST[357] - - TEXT OF THE EPIC. COMPARISON OF THE EPIC WITH THE FIRST CHAPTER OF - GENESIS. THE EPIC AND OTHER PARTS OF THE BIBLE. - - -=I. Text of the Epic.= - -Tablet I - - 1. Time was when above heaven was not named - - 2. Below to the earth no name was given. - - 3. Then the primeval Abyss their begetter, - - 4. The roaring Sea who bore them,-- - - 5. Their waters together were mingled; - - 6. No field had been formed, no marshland seen. - - 7. Time was when gods had not been made, - - 8. No name was named, no destiny [determined]; - - 9. Then were created the gods in the midst [of heaven]. - - 10. Lakhmu and Lakhamu were formed [together]. - - 11. Ages multiplied, ....................... - - 12. Anshar and Kishar were created, and over them ...... - - 13. Days were prolonged, there came forth ...... - - 14. Anu, their son ................................... - - 15. Anshar and Anu ................................... - - 16. And the god Anu .................................. - - 17. Nudimmud whose fathers, his begetters .................... - - 18. Abounding in wisdom, understanding ............... - - 19. He was strong exceedingly ................................ - - 20. And he had no rival ...................................... - - 21. They were established and ................................ - - 22. In confusion were T[iamat and Apsu][358] ................... - - 23. They were troubled ................................. - - 24. In sin (?) ......................................... - - 25. Apsu was not diminished ............................ - - 26. Tiamat roared ...................................... - - 27. She smote and their deeds .......................... - - 28. Their way was not good; they themselves prospered. - - 29. Then Apsu, the begetter of the great gods, - - 30. Cried to Mummu, his minister, and said, - - 31. O Mummu, my minister, who delightest my heart, - - 32. Come, unto Tiamat [let us go]. - - 33. They went, before Tiamat they lay down, - - 34. A plan they formed against the gods [their offspring]. - - 35. [Apsu] opened his mouth, [he said to her], - - 36. Unto Tiamat, the brilliant, a word he spoke: - - 37. "[Intolerable to me] is their advancement, - - 38. By day I have no rest, at night, no peace. - - 39. But I will destroy their way, an end will I make. - - 40. Let there be a cry, then we may be at peace!" - - 41. When Tiamat heard these words, - - 42. She was angry and spoke against them [a curse]; - - 43. [She was] grievously [pained] she raged .................... - - 44. A curse she let fall, unto [Apsu she spoke]: - - 45. "What are we that we [should perish]! - - 46. Let their way become difficult." ........................... - - 47. Mummu answered, Apsu [he counseled] - - 48. .... not favorable was the counsel of the Roarer: - - 49. "Their way is strong, but do thou confound [it], - - 50. By day thou shalt be calm, by night thou shalt lie down." - - 51. Apsu heard and his face brightened, - - 52. [Since] he planned evil against the gods, his sons, - - 53. ............... [clasped his neck], - - 54. [He took him on] his knees and kissed him. - - 55. [They undertook the evil which] together they had planned. - - 56. .................................. they .................... - - 57. ............................................................ - - 58. A cry; a cry ........ in stillness they sat - - 59. ............................................................ - - 60. Ea the wise went up, he saw their horrors (?), - - (More than thirty lines here are too broken for connected - translation.) - - 93. ....................... thy ......... they subjugated, - - 94. ....................... weeps (?) and sits wailing. - - 95. .................................. of fear, - - 96. ..................... not shall we ourselves rest. - - 97. ......................... Apsu laid waste, - - 98. He and Mummu who were bound in ............ - - 99. .................. quickly thou shalt go - - 100. ....................... we ourselves may rest. - - 101. .......................................................... - - 102. ..................... we ourselves may rest. - - 103. ..................... their mercy avenge! - - 104. ................................ to the storm ............. - - 105. ..................... the word of the bright god, - - 106. .................. what thou givest, we will indeed do! - - 107. ..................... the gods in ......................... - - 108. ............................... the gods [she] created. - - 109. They separated themselves, to the side of Tiamat they came; - - 110. They raged, they planned, they rested not night or day. - - 111. They prepared for battle, fuming, raging; - - 112. Their assemblage was formed and they began war. - - 113. Mother Khubur, who formed all things, - - 114. Made unrivaled weapons, spawned great serpents, - - 115. Sharp of tooth, unsparing of fang; - - 116. With poison instead of blood their bodies she filled. - - 117. Fierce dragons with terror she clothed, - - 118. Luster she made abundant, to loftiness made them equal. - - 119. Whoever beheld them, terror (?) overcame him; - - 120. Their bodies they reared up without turning their breast. - - 121. She established vipers, serpents, and Lakhami,[359] - - 122. Hurricanes, raging hounds, scorpion-men, - - 123. Mighty storms, fish-men, and rams (?); - - 124. They bore merciless weapons, fearless of battle. - - 125. Her behests were mighty; without rival were they. - - 126. Moreover eleven such as these she created. - - 127. Among the gods, her firstborn, who at her side gathered, - - 128. She exalted Kingu, made him great in their midst, - - 129. To march before the forces, to lead the host, - - 130. To raise the conquering weapon, to lead the attack, - - 131. To direct the battle, as commander-in-chief; - - 132. To him she entrusted it, made him sit in purple (?): - - 133. "Thy spell I have uttered; in the assembly of gods I have made - thee great. - - 134. The sovereignty of all the gods, I have placed in thy hand - - 135. Surely thou art exalted, my only spouse! - - 136. May they magnify thy name over all the Anunnaki." - - 137. She gave him the tablets of destiny, on his breast she laid them: - - 138. "Thy command shall be unalterable, established, thy word." - - 139. Now Kingu was exalted, he received the highest rank, - - 140. Among the gods, his sons, he fixed fate: - - 141. "The opening of your mouth shall quench the fire-god; - - 142. Who so is exalted in excellence, let him increase in might." - -Tablet II - - 1. Tiamat made mighty her work - - 2. [Evil] she cherished against the gods, her offspring. - - 3. [To avenge] Apsu, Tiamat planned evil. - - 4. Her [forces] how she joined, to Ea was divulged. - - 5. Ea [hearkened] to this thing, - - 6. He was thrown into [great] straits, he sat in silence. - - 7. [The days] went by; his anger was appeased, - - 8. [To the place] of Anshar, his father, he proceeded. - - 9. [He went] before the father who begat him, Anshar, - - 10. [All that] Tiamat had planned he repeated unto him. - - 11. "Tiamat, our mother, has come to hate us; - - 12. Her assembly is set; with rage she is hot; - - 13. Turned unto her are the gods, all of them, - - 14. With those ye created, they walk at her side. - - 15. They have separated themselves; at the side of Tiamat they go; - - 16. They rage, they plan; they rest not day or night." - -(Lines 17-48 continue the literal repetition of lines 109-142 of the first -tablet which was begun in lines 15, 16. After this the narrative -continues:) - - 49. [When Anshar heard how Tiamat] was greatly in disorder, - - 50. [He smote his breast], he bit his lip, - - 51. [His mind was disturbed], his heart was not at rest, - - 52. ................................ his cry was wrung from him. - - 53. [Away Ea, my son, go forth to] battle! - - 54. ............................ my work (?) thou shalt establish! - - 55. [Mummu and] Apsu thou hast already struck down. - - 56. [Kill also Kin]gu who comes up before her - - 57. ................................ deliberation. - - 58. ............................ gods Nudimmud. - -(A break of ten or twelve lines occurs at this point in the tablet.) - - 72. [Anshar] spoke to his son [a word]: - - 73. "Thou, this [son of mine], my warrior, - - 74. [Whose strength is mighty], whose attack irresistible, - - 75. [Go], stand before Tiamat, - - 76. [That] her wrath [may be appeased], her heart softened, - - 77. [But if] she will not hearken to thy word, - - 78. Our [word] shalt thou speak to her, that she may be appeased." - - 79. [He heard] the utterance of his father Anshar, - - 80. He took the straight path to her, he entered the way. - - 81. Anu [drew near], he beheld the terror (?) of Tiamat, - - 82. [He did not ascend to her presence], but turned back, - - 83. [Then turned he to Ea and called] him, he, Anshar, - - 84. [Opened his mouth] and spoke to him, - - 85. ["Hateful are the ways of Tiamat] to me." - -(Some twenty lines here are too fragmentary for translation.) - - 108. [Ea opened his mouth (?)] and spoke to him: - - 109. ["Marduk, my son, hear the word of] thy father. - - 110. Thou art he, my son, who canst enlarge his heart. - - 111. ................................ to the battle draw nigh, - - 112. ............................ [to] Emarukka[360] give peace." - - 113. Then the lord rejoiced at the words of his father; - - 114. He drew near and stood before Anshar. - - 115. Anshar beheld him and his heart was filled with joy, - - 116. He kissed his lips and his fear departed from him. - - 117. ............ is not hidden; open thy lips. - - 118. Verily I will go, I will attain the wish of thy heart. - - 119. .......... is not concealed; open thy lips. - - 120. Verily I will go, I will attain the wish of thy heart. - - 121. Who is the man, who would bring thee out to his battle? - - 122. [And now] shall Tiamat, a woman, come against thee with weapons? - - 123. ................................ rejoice and exult; - - 124. On the neck of Tiamat thou shalt shortly tread. - - 125. ................................ rejoice and exult; - - 126. On the neck of Tiamat thou shalt shortly tread." - - 127. "My son, who knows all wisdom, - - 128. Tiamat pacify with thy pure incantation. - - 129. Thy way speedily take; - - 130. .......... thou shalt not fear, thou shalt use a spell - afterward." - - 131. Then the lord rejoiced at the word of his father, - - 132. His heart exulted and to his father he spoke: - - 133. "O Lord of the gods, fate of the great gods, - - 134. If I accomplish your preservation, - - 135. Take Tiamat captive and save your lives, - - 136. Appoint an assembly, make my fate strong, let it come in. - - 137. In Upshukkunnaku seat yourselves joyfully together, - - 138. The word of my mouth shall determine fate instead of you. - - 139. Let there not be changed whatever I create, - - 140. May the command of my lips not be altered or opposed." - -Tablet III - - 1. Anshar opened his mouth and said, - - 2. [To Gaga] his [messenger] a word he spoke: - - 3. "[O Gaga, thou messen]ger, thou rejoicest my heart. - - 4. [To Lakhmu and Lakh]amu will I send thee; - - 5. [The desire of my heart] mayest thou attain. - - 6. ................................ bring (?) before me. - - 7. [May there come] the gods, all of them, - - 8. [Let them prepare for converse], at banquets let them sit, - - 9. [Bread may they eat], wine may they prepare, - - 10. [For Marduk], their [avenger], let them decree the fate. - - 11. [Go, Ga]ga, before them stand, - - 12. [And all that] I tell thee repeat unto them - - 13. [Anshar], your son, hath sent me, - - 14. [The purpose of his heart he] hath disclosed to me, - - 15. [Saying]: Tiamat, who bore us, hates us, - - 16. An assemblage is appointed, angrily she rages, - - 17. Turned to her are the gods, all of them, - - 18. With those whom ye created, they march at her side, - - 19. They are rebellious, at Tiamat's side they come, - - 20. They rage, they plot, they rest not day nor night, - - 21. They prepare for battle, fuming and raging, - - 22. An assembly is made, they start a revolt. - - 23. Mother Khubur, who formed all things, - - 24. Has made weapons without rival, has spawned monster-serpents, - - 25. Sharp of tooth, unsparing of fang, - - 26. With poison like blood their bodies she has filled; - - 27. Fierce dragons with terror she has clothed, - - 28. Luster has made abundant, to loftiness made equal. - - 29. Whoever beholds them, terror (?) overcomes him. - - 30. Their bodies they raise up without turning their breasts. - - 31. She has established vipers, serpents, Lakhami, - - 32. Hurricanes, raging hounds, scorpion-men, - - 33. Mighty storms, fish-men, and rams; - - 34. They bear merciless weapons, fearless of battle. - - 35. Her behests are mighty, without rival are they. - - 36. Moreover eleven such as these she has created. - - 37. Among the gods, her firstborn, who are gathered at her side, - - 38. She has exalted Kingu, made him great in their midst, - - 39. To march before the forces, to lead the host, - - 40. To raise the conquering weapon, to lead the attack, - - 41. To direct the battle as commander-in-chief; - - 42. To him she has entrusted it, made him sit in purple, [saying,] - - 43. 'Thy spell I have uttered, in the assembly of gods I have made - thee great, - - 44. The sovereignty of all the gods I have placed in thy hand, - - 45. Surely thou art exalted, O my spouse! - - 46. May they magnify thy name over all the Anunnaki.' - - 47. She has given him the tablets of destiny, on his breast has laid - them, [saying,] - - 48. 'Thy command shall be unalterable, established be thy word.' - - 49. Now Kingu has been exalted, has received highest rank, - - 50. Among the gods, her sons, he fixes fate, [saying]: - - 51. 'The opening of your mouth shall quench the fire-god, - - 52. Whoso is exalted in excellence, let him increase in might.' - - 53. I sent Anu; he had no power before her, - - 54. Nudimmud feared and turned back, - - 55. Marduk has set forth, the leader of the gods, your son, - - 56. As a foe of Tiamat his heart prompts him to go. - - 57. He opened his mouth and spake to me, [saying]: - - 58. 'If I accomplish your preservation, - - 59. Take Tiamat captive, and save your lives, - - 60. Appoint an assembly, make my fate strong, let it come in. - - 61. In Upshukkunaku seat yourselves joyfully together, - - 62. The word of my mouth shall determine fate instead of you. - - 63. Let there not be changed whatever I create, - - 64. May there not be altered or opposed the command of my lips.' - - 65. Hasten, therefore, and quickly decree your fate, - - 66. That he may go and fight your strong enemy." - - 67. Then Gaga went, his way he pursued, - - 68. To the place of Lakhmu and Lakhamu, the gods, his fathers; - - 69. He kissed the ground at their feet, - - 70. He bowed himself; he stood up, he addressed them, [saying]: - - 71. "Anshar, your son, hath sent me, - - 72. The purpose of his heart he has disclosed to me - - 73. Saying: Tiamat, who bore us, hates us; - - 74. An assemblage is appointed, angrily she rages, - - 75. Turned to her are the gods, all of them, - - 76. With those whom you created, they march at her side, - - 77. They are rebellious, at Tiamat's side they come. - - 78. They rage, they plot, they rest not day nor night, - - 79. They prepare for battle, fuming and raging, - - 80. An assembly is made, they start a revolt. - - 81. Mother Khubur, who formed all things, - - 82. Has made weapons without rival, has spawned monster-serpents, - - 83. Sharp of tooth, unsparing of fang, - - 84. With poison like blood their bodies she has filled; - - 85. Fierce dragons with terror she has clothed; - - 86. Luster has been made abundant, to loftiness made equal. - - 87. Whoever beholds them, terror (?) overcomes him. - - 88. Their bodies they raise up without turning their breasts. - - 89. She has established vipers, serpents, Lakhami, - - 90. Hurricanes, raging hounds, scorpion-men, - - 91. Mighty storms, fish-men, rams; - - 92. They bear merciless weapons, fearless of battle. - - 93. Her behests are mighty, without rival are they. - - 94. Moreover eleven such as these she has created. - - 95. Among the gods, her firstborn, who are gathered at her side, - - 96. She has exalted Kingu, made him great in their midst, - - 97. To march before the forces, to lead the host, - - 98. To raise the conquering weapon, to lead the attack, - - 99. To direct the battle as commander-in-chief; - - 100. To him she has entrusted it, made him sit in purple, [saying]: - - 101. 'Thy spell I have uttered, in the assembly of the gods I have - made thee great; - - 102. The sovereignty of all the gods I have placed in thy hand - - 103. Surely thou art exalted, O my spouse! - - 104. May they magnify thy name over all the Anunnaki.' - - 105. She has given him the tablets of destiny, on his breast has laid - them, [saying]: - - 106. 'Thy command shall be unalterable, established be thy word.' - - 107. Now Kingu has been exalted, has received highest rank, - - 108. Among the gods, her sons, he fixes fate, [saying:] - - 109. 'The opening of your mouth shall quench the fire-god, - - 110. Whoso is exalted in excellence, let him increase in might.' - - 111. I sent Anu, he had no power before her, - - 112. Nudimmud feared and turned back, - - 113. Marduk has set forth, the leader of the gods, your son, - - 114. As a foe of Tiamat his heart prompts him to go. - - 115. He opened his mouth and spake to me, [saying:] - - 116. 'If I accomplish your preservation, - - 117. Take Tiamat captive and save your lives, - - 118. Appoint an assembly, make my fate strong, let it come in. - - 119. In Upshukkunaku seat yourselves joyfully together, - - 120. The word of my mouth shall determine fate instead of you, - - 121. Let there not be changed whatever I create, - - 122. May there not be altered or opposed the command of my lips.' - - 123. Hasten, therefore, and quickly decree your fate, - - 124. That he may go and fight your strong enemy." - - 125. Lakhmu and Lakhamu heard, they cried aloud; - - 126. The Igigi, all of them, wailed bitterly, [saying:] - - 127. "What has changed that they should desire to take us (?) - - 128. We do not understand what Tiamat has done." - - 129. Then they massed themselves together, they went, - - 130. The great gods, all of them, who decree fate. - - 131. They entered in before Anshar, they filled, [Upshukkunaku]. - - 132. Brother kissed brother in the assembly ................. - - 133. They prepared for converse, sat down to the banquet, - - 134. Bread they ate; wine they prepared. - - 135. The sweet drink confused their minds (?), - - 136. Drunk were they with drink, their bodies were filled (?), - - 137. They became very unsteady, their hearts were exalted, - - 138. For Marduk, their deliverer, they decreed the fate. - -Tablet IV - - 1. They prepared for him a princely chamber: - - 2. In the presence of his fathers for sovereignty he became mighty. - [They said:] - - 3. "Thou art most honored among the great gods, - - 4. Thy destiny is without rival, thy command is Anu's! - - 5. O Marduk, thou art most honored among the great gods, - - 6. Thy destiny is without rival, thy command is Anu's! - - 7. From today without opposition shall be thy command; - - 8. To exalt and to abase is verily in thy power; - - 9. Established is thy utterance, irresistible thy command. - - 10. None among the gods shall invade thy province. - - 11. Sustenance, the desire of shrines of the gods, - - 12. While they are in need, shall be certain in thy sanctuary! - - 13. O Marduk, thou art the preserver of our lives! - - 14. We give thee sovereignty over the totality of all the world. - - 15. Sit thou in the assembly, thy word shall be exalted! - - 16. Thy weapon shall never be o'ercome, may it destroy (?) thy foe! - - 17. O lord, he who trusts thee--his life save! - - 18. But the god that is wed to evil, its life pour out!" - - 19. Then they placed in the midst a garment, - - 20. And unto Marduk, their firstborn, they spoke, - - 21. "Thy fate, O Lord, let it be first among the gods! - - 22. To destroy and to create--speak, let it be established! - - 23. At thy command let a garment perish! - - 24. Again at thy command let the garment re-appear!" - - 25. Then he spake with his mouth, the garment perished; - - 26. Again he commanded and the garment was recreated. - - 27. As the utterance of his mouth the gods, his fathers, saw, - - 28. They rejoiced, they uttered blessing: "Marduk is king!" - - 29. They bestowed upon him the scepter, the throne, and the - battle-axe; - - 30. They gave him an unrivaled weapon, which turns back (?) the foe. - - 31. "Go, Tiamat's life cut off; - - 32. May the winds bear her blood to secret places!" - - 33. When the gods, his fathers had fixed Bel's fate, - - 34. The way of prosperity and success they caused him to take. - - 35. His bow he prepared, his weapon he chose, - - 36. A spear he bound on him at his waist, - - 37. He raised the heavenly weapon, with his right hand grasped it, - - 38. His bow and quiver at his side he hung, - - 39. He placed the lightning before his face, - - 40. With quivering flame his body he filled. - - 41. He made a net to enclose Tiamat's body, - - 42. He caused the four winds to seize so that nothing of her could - escape; - - 43. The south wind, the north wind, the east wind, the west wind, - - 44. He brought to the side of the net, the gift of his father Anu, - - 45. He made the evil wind, the bad wind, the tempest and the - hurricane, - - 46. The four winds, the seven winds, the whirlwind (?), the unhealthy - wind; - - 47. He brought forth the winds which he had made, the seven of them, - - 48. To trouble the inward parts of Tiamat, they came after him. - - 49. The lord raised up the tornado, his mighty weapon, - - 50. As a chariot, a storm unrivaled for terror he mounted, - - 51. He harnessed for himself and attached to it four steeds, - - 52. "Destroyer," "Unmerciful," "Overwhelmer," "Fleet-footed." - - 53. [Foam-covered (?)] were their teeth, filled with poison, - - 54. Skilled were they [to run down], taught to destroy. - - 55. ................................... mighty in battle, - - 56. Left and right they opened (?) ............... - - 57. His garment was [rage], with terror was he clad, - - 58. With his overpowering brightness his head was crowned. - - 59. He made straight the way, he took his path, - - 60. To the place of Tiamat, the raging (?), his face he set. - - 61. With his lip .............................. he cursed (?), - - 62. A plant of magical power (?)--he seized with his hand. - - 63. On that day they exalted (?) him, the gods exalted (?) him; - - 64. The gods, his fathers, exalted (?) him, the gods exalted (?) him. - - 65. The lord approached, the waist of Tiamat he scanned, - - 66. Of Kingu, her spouse--he beheld his terrifying-glance (?). - - 67. As Marduk gazed, Kingu's progress was impeded, - - 68. Destroyed was his purpose, frustrated his deed, - - 69. And the gods his helpers, who marched at his side, - - 70. Saw the warrior and leader; their look (?) was troubled. - - 71. Tiamat perceived it (?); she did not turn her neck. - - 72. With proud (?) lips she uttered words of defiance: - - 73. "Who decreed (?) that thou shouldst come as lord of the gods? - - 74. Have they assembled from their places, are they to serve thee?" - - 75. The lord raised the tornado, his mighty weapon, - - 76. [Against] Tiamat who was raging, thus he spoke: - - 77. "[Why hast thou] made thyself great? Exalted thyself on high? - - 78. [Why does thy heart] prompt thee to battle (?) - - 79. [How can thy helpers] defy (?) the gods, their fathers? - - 80. [Why] dost thou hate their [command], their ru[le despise]? - - 81. [Why hast thou exalted Kingu] to be thy spouse? - - 82. [Hast given] him the functions of deity? - - 83. [How] canst thou seek after evil? - - 84. [And against] the gods, my fathers, thy evil plan devise? - - 85. [Let] thy forces be joined, girded on thy weapons! - - 86. Stand! I and thou--come let us fight!" - - 87. Tiamat, when she heard this, - - 88. Was like one possessed; she lost her reason. - - 89. Tiamat cried out vehemently with high voice, - - 90. Like roots divided in twain her legs trembled. - - 91. She uttered an incantation, she cast a charm, - - 92. And the gods of battle demanded their weapons. - - 93. Then took their stand Tiamat and the leader of the gods, Marduk; - - 94. For the fight they approached, for the battle they drew near. - - 95. The lord spread out his net and enclosed her, - - 96. The evil wind from behind he thrust into her face. - - 97. As Tiamat opened her mouth to its full extent, - - 98. The evil wind he drove in, so that her lips could not close. - - 99. With the mighty winds he filled her belly; - - 100. Her courage was taken away, and she opened her mouth. - - 101. He let fall the spear, he burst open her belly, - - 102. He cut through her inward parts, he pierced her heart, - - 103. He bound her and her life destroyed; - - 104. Her body he cast down, upon it he stood. - - 105. After Tiamat, the leader, he had slain, - - 106. Her army he broke, her host was scattered, - - 107. And the gods, her helpers, who marched by her side, - - 108. Trembled, feared, they turned their backs; - - 109. They sought an exit, to save their lives; - - 110. With a cordon they were encompassed; escape was not possible. - - 111. He caught them, their weapons he broke, - - 112. Into the net they fell, in the snare they remained. - - 113. All quarters of the world they filled with lamentation. - - 114. His wrath they endured; they were held in bondage. - - 115. And the eleven creatures, whom she had filled with terribleness, - - 116. The troop of demons who marched as her helpers (?), - - 117. He threw into fetters, their power he [broke]; - - 118. Along with their opposition he trampled them under his feet. - - 119. And Kingu who had been exalted over them, - - 120. He took captive, as the god Dugga he counted him. - - 121. He took from him the tablets of destiny, not rightly his, - - 122. He sealed them with a seal, in his own breast he laid them. - - 123. After his enemies he had seized and destroyed, - - 124. His arrogant foe had completely humiliated (?), - - 125. The triumph of Anshar over the foe had fully established, - - 126. The wish of Nudimmud had accomplished, Marduk, the warrior - - 127. Over the bound gods strengthened his hold, - - 128. Unto Tiamat, whom he had bound, he turned back. - - 129. The lord trod upon Tiamat's feet - - 130. And with his unsparing weapon crushed her head. - - 131. He cut through the veins of her blood, - - 132. He caused the north wind to bear it to secret places. - - 133. His fathers saw it; they rejoiced, they exulted, - - 134. Gifts and presents they brought unto him. - - 135. Then the lord rested; he gazed upon her body, - - 136. The flesh of the monster he divided; he formed a cunning plan. - - 137. He split her open like a flat fish into two halves, - - 138. One half of her he established and made a covering of the - heavens, - - 139. He drew a bolt, he established a guard, - - 140. And not to let her waters come out, he commanded. - - 141. He passed through the heavens, he surveyed the regions, - - 142. Over against the deep he set the dwelling of Nudimmud. - - 143. The structures of the deep the lord measured, - - 144. As a palace like unto it he founded Esharra. - - 145. In the palace Esharra which he built in the heavens, - - 146. He caused Anu, Ellil, and Ea at their stations to dwell. - -Tablet V - - 1. He [Marduk] ordained the stations of the great gods; - - 2. As stars their likenesses as constellations of the zodiac he - placed. - - 3. He ordained the year, into parts he divided it, - - 4. For the twelve months he established three stars. - - 5. After the days of the year he had fashioned as images, - - 6. He founded the station of Jupiter, to determine their bounds; - - 7. That none might go wrong or err, - - 8. The station of Bel he established, and Ea by his side. - - 9. He opened gates on both sides. - - 10. A lock he made strong on the left and the right, - - 11. In the midst thereof he placed the zenith; - - 12. The moon-god he caused to shine; the night he entrusted to him. - - 13. He appointed him a being of the night, to determine the days; - - 14. Monthly, without ceasing, into a crown he made him, [saying:] - - 15. "At the beginning of the month shine upon the lands, - - 16. Horns exhibit, to determine six days; - - 17. On the seventh day let the tiara disappear; - - 18. On the fourteenth day thou shalt stand over against the [two] - halves. - - 19. When the sun-god on the horizon ........... thee, - - 20. Thou ......... to be resplendent, and thou shalt turn (?) backward - (?) - - 21. [Fourteen days] unto the path of the sun-god thou shalt approach, - - 22. [On the 28th day] thou shalt approach the sun-god ........... - - 23. .............................. signs (?), seek (?) her way! - - 24. ................ approach ye and judge justice! - - 25. .................................... to destroy, - - 26. ........................................................ me." - -(Some lines are lost at this point. It is estimated that forty of them are -lacking.) - - 67. After ................................. - - 68. In Esagila[361] ................................. - - 69. To establish ................................ - - 70. The station of ............................. - - 71. The great gods ................................ - - 72. The gods ........................... - - 73. He received ......................... - - 74. The net which he had made the [great] gods saw, - - 75. Saw the bow, how skillful [its workmanship]; - - 76. The work which he had done, they [loudly] praised. - - 77. Then arose Anu in the assembly of the [great] gods, - - 78. The bow he kissed it ............................. - - 79. "Long-wood shall be one name, and a second ................. - - 80. Its third name shall be Bow-star in the heavens." - - 81. He fixed its position [unto distant days]. - - 82. After the destiny of .............................. - - 83. [He set] a throne ...................................... - - 84. ......................... in the heavens ................... - -(Practically all the remainder of Tablet V is as yet undiscovered. From a -very broken fragment, preserved in the British Museum, it appears that -when the gods saw the work of Marduk in adorning the heavens with -constellations, they broke into rapturous praise of him. It is these words -to which reference is made at the beginning of Tablet VI.) - -Tablet VI - - 1. Marduk, the word of the gods, when he heard it, - - 2. His heart was stirred, he formed a brilliant plan. - - 3. He opened his mouth, to Ea he spoke, - - 4. What in his heart he had conceived he made known to him: - - 5. "My blood will I divide, bone will I [fashion], - - 6. I will make man, yes, man ................... - - 7. I will create man who shall dwell on the [earth]; - - 8. Truly shall the service of the gods be established--of them and - their shrines. - - 9. I will alter the ways of the gods, and will change [their paths], - - 10. Together shall they be honored, and unto evil shall [they]" ...... - - 11. Then Ea answered him and said: - - 12. ........ the ......... of the gods have I changed, - - 13. ................... one ..................... - - 14. ........ shall be destroyed, and people will I ............. - - 15. ............. and the gods ................ - - 16. ........... give and they .............. - - 17. ......... shall assemble (?) and the gods ............. - - 18. ............................................................ - - 19. .............. the gods ................................ - - 20. .................. the Anunnaki .................. - -(The rest of Tablet VI is still unrecovered, except a few lines at the -end.) - - 140. When ...................................... - - 141. They rejoiced .................................... - - 142. In Upshukkunnaku they set [their assembly]. - - 143. Of their heroic son, their savior they [cried]: - - 144. "We whom he succored." .................. - - 145. They seated themselves, in the assembly they named him ........ - - 146. They all cried aloud (?), they exalted him .......... - -Tablet VII - - 1. "O Asharu, bestower of harvests, founder of agriculture, - - 2. Creator of grain and plants, who made green herbs to grow, - - 3. O honored Asharu, revered in the house of counsel, rich in counsel, - - 4. Whom the gods honor, fearing [laid hold upon them] - - 5. O honored Asharu, powerful prince, the light [of the fathers who - begat him], - - 6. Who directs the decrees of Anu, Bel, [and Ea]. - - 7. He was their preserver, who ordained .......... - - 8. He whose provision is abundance, he goeth forth .......... - - 9. Tutu, the creator of their renewal is he. - - 10. If their want be pure, then are [they satisfied]; - - 11. If he make an incantation, then are the gods [appeased]; - - 12. Should they attack him in anger, he will repulse their array; - - 13. Let him therefore be exalted in the assembly of the gods. - - 14. None among the gods is like unto him! - - 15. Tutu-Ziukinna is the life of the host of the gods. - - 16. Who established for the gods the bright heavens. - - 17. Their way he received, [their path] ordained. - - 18. Never forgotten among men shall be his [mighty] deeds. - - 19. Tutu as Zi-azag thirdly they named, bringer of purification, - - 20. God of the favoring breeze, the lord who hears and is merciful, - - 21. Who creates fulness and plenty, who establishes abundance, - - 22. Who turns whatever is small into something great. - - 23. "In sore distress we caught his favoring breeze," - - 24. Let them honor him, praise him, bow humbly before him. - - 25. Tutu as Aga-azag may the mighty ones praise, - - 26. The lord of the pure incantation, who makes the dead to live, - - 27. Who to the captive gods showed abundant compassion, - - 28. The oppressive yoke he laid upon the gods, his enemies, - - 29. For their[362] release he created mankind, - - 30. The merciful one, with whom is life! - - 31. Established and never forgotten be his word - - 32. In the mouth of the black-headed race,[363] whom his hand created. - - 33. Tutu as Mu-azag, fifthly, his pure incantation may their mouth - proclaim, - - 34. Who through his pure incantation destroys all evil ones, - - 35. Shagzu, who knows the hearts of the gods, who sees through the - innermost parts. - - 36. The evil doer he permits not to go out with him (?). - - 37. Founder of the assembly of the gods [who gladdens] their heart. - - 38. Who subdues the disobedient .......... - - 39. Director of righteousness ...... - -(The tablet is too broken for connected translation, until nearly the end, -where it continues:) - - 107. Truly he holds their beginning and ending .......... - - 108. Saying, "He who passed through the midst of Tiamat [without - resting], - - 109. Let his name be Neberu, who seizes the midst, - - 110. Who the stars of heaven--their ways he upholds; - - 111. As a flock verily the gods pasture, all of them." - - 112. He bound Tiamat, her life he apportioned, he ended. - - 113. In the future, people, old in years, - - 114. Shall renew unceasingly, "let him be lord forever!" - - 115. Because he created the places and fashioned the fastnesses - - 116. "Lord of countries" Bel, his father, named him. - - 117. The names the Igigi named, all of them, - - 118. Ea heard, and his heart rejoiced: - - 119. "He whose name his fathers have magnified - - 120. He, even like me, shall be named Ea. - - 121. The binding of all my commands shall he control, - - 122. All my decrees shall he proclaim!" - - 123. By the name "Fifty" did the great gods - - 124. His fifty names make known, they made his path pre-eminent. - - 125. May they be held fast and the first men reveal them, - - 126. The wise, the understanding shall consider them together; - - 127. May the father repeat them and the son lay hold upon them, - - 128. So that shepherd and herdsman may open their ears, - - 129. And may rejoice in Marduk, the lord of the gods, - - 130. That his land may be fertile, that he may have prosperity. - - 131. His word is established, his command unfailing, - - 132. The word of his mouth, no god hath annulled. - - 133. He casts his glance without turning his neck, - - 134. When he roars, no god can face his anger. - - 135. Wide is his heart, great his goodness; - - 136. The sinner and transgressor in his presence .......... - - 137. They received instruction, they spake before him. - -(The concluding lines are too broken for connected translation.) - -=2. The First Chapter of Genesis and the Foregoing Creation Epic.= - -The Babylonian Creation Epic, in the form in which we know it, took shape -in the city of Babylon. Naturally, therefore, the god Marduk is made the -central figure. It is he only who was sufficiently powerful to overcome -the primeval dragon, it was he who created the heavens and the earth, it -was he whom at the end gods and men adored. - -A Babylonian priest, Berossos, in a work composed after the time of -Alexander the Great, gives an account of Babylonian ideas of the creation -of the world, which is but the tradition of the epic in a slightly -different form. A neoplatonic philosopher, Damascius, who lived about 560 -A. D., has also preserved a part of the tradition in a form almost -identical with that of the epic. - -Scholars of all shades of opinion agree that there is some connection -between this Babylonian tradition and the first chapter of Genesis, though -they differ as to whether the Biblical writer was acquainted with the -Babylonian tradition as we have it in the epic, or whether he knew an -earlier form of the story. - -The points of similarity which have been urged between Genesis and the -Babylonian epic are the following: 1. They begin somewhat similarly, -Genesis with the words "In the beginning," the epic with the words: - - "Time was when above heaven was not named; - Below to the earth no name was given." - -2. Both accounts assume that primeval chaos consisted of a mass of waters, -and to this mass of waters they give the same name. The Hebrews called it -_t{e}hom_, "deep"; the Babylonians, _Tiamat_. These are really the same -word in the two closely related languages, just as _day_ and _Tag_ are the -same word in an English and a German form. In Genesis we are told that -"The Spirit of God moved (R. V. margin, was brooding) upon the face of the -waters"; in the Babylonian epic, the waters, which were thought to be of -two genders, were embosomed. In both the result is the beginning of the -creative process. - -The two accounts agree that the heavens and the earth were created by the -division of the primeval ocean by a firmament (the Babylonian calls it a -covering), which held up a part of the waters, so that the earth could be -formed beneath. They accordingly agree in the conception that there is a -super-celestial ocean, _i. e._, "the waters which are above the firmament" -(Gen. 1:7). - -Another striking similarity is found in the arrangement by sevens: the -Babylonian epic is arranged in seven tablets, or cantos, the Hebrew -account, in seven days. The Babylonian series culminates in the praise of -Marduk by all the gods; the Hebrew, in the institution of the sabbath. The -two series agree in connecting the heavens with the fourth epoch of -creation, and the creation of man with the sixth. - -In other respects the order differs. In the Babylonian account the moon -and stars are created on the fifth day, instead of on the fourth. As -Marduk is identified with the sun, that orb is assumed; its creation is -not described. The creation of animals is not described in any text which -we can attach to a definite tablet of the Babylonian series. It is, -however, given in a fragment which reads as follows: - - 1. When the gods in their assembly had made [the heavens], - - 2. The firmament had established and bound [fast], - - 3. Living things of all kinds had created, - - 4. Cattle of the field, beasts of the field, and moving things of the - city. - - 5. After .......... unto all kinds of living things .......... - - 6. [Between beasts] of the field and moving things of the city had - divided... - - 7. .......... all creatures, the whole creation .......... - - 8. ............ that which in the whole of my family .......... - - 9. [Then arose] Nin-igi-azag, two small creatures [he created], - - 10. In the assembly of the beasts he made [their form] brilliant, - - 11. .......... the goddess Gula .......... - - 12. ................ one white and one black .......... - - 13. ............ one white and one black .......... - -The Babylonian account, then, contained somewhere the story of the -creation of the animals, though, like the other parts of the Babylonian -account, its order and atmosphere differ widely from the Biblical -narrative. - -Some of these resemblances are of no great significance. The fact that the -two accounts are arranged by sevens may be due simply to the fact that -that number was sacred among both peoples. It is thought by some scholars -that its use in Genesis was consciously adopted in order to lead up to the -sabbath and glorify it. This might be true, even if the writer of the -chapter knew of the Babylonian arrangement by sevens. - -The features of the two narratives, which have convinced some scholars of -all shades of opinion that there is a real kinship between the two -accounts, are their agreement as to the nature of primeval chaos, and the -division of the primeval ocean by a firmament for the creation of the -heavens and the earth. Both writers had, so to speak, the same raw -material of objective conceptions. - -The differences between the accounts are, however, most marked. To speak -first of that which is least important, the Hebrew order is in many -respects different from the Babylonian. In the Babylonian the gods are -generated in the first tablet, the world is not created till the fourth, -and the creation of all other things is told in tablets four, five, and -six. In other words, creation is divided into two parts, each of which is -told in three tablets. The first three tablets deal with gods, the second -three with the world and living things. - -This twofold division is found in the first chapter of Genesis. Here the -creative process is divided into two stages, each embracing four works, -and occupying three days. The distribution of these works is strikingly -different from the Babylonian. On the first day, light and darkness were -created; on the second, the firmament; on the third, the earth and -vegetation; on the fourth, the heavenly bodies; on the fifth, fishes and -birds; on the sixth, animals and men. The first series of three days -prepared the heavens and the earth; the second series studded the sky with -orbs and the earth with living beings. There is a striking parallelism -between the two series. The first begins with the creation of light; the -second, with light-giving bodies. To the third and sixth days two creative -acts each are assigned. On the second day the seas are isolated; on the -fifth they are stocked with fishes. On the third day dry land emerges, on -the sixth terrestrial animals are made. On the third also herbs began to -grow; on the sixth they are assigned to animals and men for food. The -classification of the acts of creation in Genesis is clear and consistent, -and thoroughly independent of that in the Babylonian account. - -A more important difference lies in the religious conceptions of the two. -The Babylonian poem is mythological and polytheistic. Its conception of -deity is by no means exalted. Its gods love and hate, they scheme and -plot, fight and destroy. Marduk, the champion, conquers only after a -fierce struggle, which taxes his powers to the utmost. Genesis, on the -other hand, reflects the most exalted monotheism. God is so thoroughly the -master of all the elements of the universe, that they obey his slightest -word. He controls all without effort. He speaks and it is done. Granting, -as most scholars do, that there is a connection between the two -narratives, there is no better measure of the inspiration of the Biblical -account than to put it side by side with the Babylonian. As we read the -chapter in Genesis today, it still reveals to us the majesty and power of -the one God, and creates in the modern man, as it did in the ancient -Hebrew, a worshipful attitude toward the Creator. - -=3. The Babylonian Creation Epic and Other Parts of the Bible.= - -The Babylonian poem, crude though it seems to us, had a powerful -fascination for the imagination. With more or less distinctness parts of -it seem to have been known to various Hebrew writers, who, attributing to -their own God, Jehovah, the role ascribed in the epic to Marduk, used -these stories as poetic illustrations. At least this is the view of a -considerable group of scholars. Some object that, if this were true, it -would degrade Jehovah to the level of Marduk, but the objection does not -seem well founded. The Hebrews might well have been such ardent -monotheists as to believe that each and every mighty manifestation of -power had been the work of Jehovah, without in any way lowering Jehovah to -the level of a heathen god. The most important parallels which have been -cited are here given, so that the reader may judge for himself as to which -view is the more probable. - -In Job 9:13, 14 we read: - - God will not withdraw his anger; - The helpers of Rahab do stoop under him. - How much less shall I answer him, - And choose out my words to reason with him? - -Rahab is believed by many to be here an epithet of Tiamat. It means "the -one who acts boisterously" or "proudly." Those who thus think believe the -lines in Job to refer to the overcoming of Tiamat's helpers in Tablet IV, -lines 105-118, of the Babylonian creation epic, which read as follows: - - After Tiamat the leader he had slain, - Her army he broke, her host was scattered, - And the gods, her helpers, who marched at her side, - Trembled, feared, they turned their backs; - They sought an exit, to save their lives; - With a cordon they were encompassed, escape was not possible. - He caught them, their weapons he broke, - Into the net they fell, in the snare they remained. - All the quarters of the world they filled with their lamentation. - His wrath they endured, they were held in bondage. - And the eleven creatures, whom she had filled with terribleness, - The troop of demons who marched as her helpers, - He threw into fetters, their power he broke; - Along with their opposition he trampled them under his feet. - -This would seem to suit the reference in Job, and to give point to Job's -words. As our Saviour used stories in his parables, so this poet may have -used this well-known story to illustrate his point. - -Again Job 26:12, 13 reads: - - He stirreth up the sea with his power, - And by his understanding he smiteth through Rahab. - By his Spirit the heavens are garnished; - His hand hath pierced the swift serpent. - -Four of the ancient versions of the Old Testament, with a very slight -change in the Hebrew letters, read Job 26:13: - - The bars of heaven fear him; - His hand hath pierced the swift serpent. - -Into comparison with v. 12 and the last line of 13, scholars have brought -Tablet IV, line 93, ff., which runs: - - Then took their stand, Tiamat and the leader of the gods, Marduk; - For the fight they approached, for the battle drew near. - The lord spread out his net and enclosed her, - The evil wind from behind he thrust into her face. - As Tiamat opened her mouth to its full extent, - The evil wind he drove in, so that her lips could not close. - With the mighty winds he filled her belly. - Her courage was taken away, and she opened her mouth. - He let fall the spear, he burst open her belly, - He cut through her inward parts, he pierced her heart, - He bound her and her life destroyed; - Her body he cast down and stood upon it. - -Into comparison with the first line of v. 13, as the versions give it, -scholars have brought line 135, and ff., of the same tablet: - - Then the lord rested, he gazed upon her body, - The flesh of the monster he divided; he formed a cunning plan. - He split her open like a flat fish into two halves; - One half of her he established and made a covering of the heavens. - He drew a bolt, he established a guard, - And not to let her waters come out, he commanded. - -With the passages quoted above Psa. 74:13, 14 has also been compared: - - Thou didst divide the sea by thy strength: - Thou brakest the heads of the sea-monsters in the waters. - Thou brakest the heads of leviathan in pieces; - Thou gavest him to be food to the people inhabiting the wilderness. - -Verses 16, 17 of the same Psalm continue the theme with the words: - - The day is thine, the night also is thine: - Thou hast prepared the light and the sun. - Thou hast set all the borders of the earth: - Thou hast made summer and winter. - -The theme is the same as that of the epic, viz.: the creation of the -world. It would appear from v. 14 that as the Hebrews called Tiamat -Rahab, so they called Kingu leviathan. Those who so think find another -reference to the Babylonian creation epic in Job 3:8: - - Let them curse it that curse the day, - Who are ready to rouse up leviathan. - -Apparently there were magicians who professed to be able to arouse such a -monster. - -Other references to leviathan are thought to employ the same illustrative -material. Thus in Isa. 27:1 we read: - - In that day Jehovah with his hard and great and strong sword will - punish leviathan the swift serpent, and leviathan the crooked serpent; - and he will slay the monster that is in the sea. - -In Job 41 there is a long description of the crocodile under the name -leviathan. In verses 19-21 some things are said of him that do not suit a -real crocodile, and some scholars have thought that the language was -influenced by the Babylonian material. These verses are: - - Out of his mouth go burning torches, - And sparks of fire leap forth. - Out of his nostrils a smoke goeth, - As of a boiling pot and burning rushes. - His breath kindleth coals, - And a flame goeth forth from his mouth. - -Other references to Rahab, which have been thought to use the same -illustration, are Psalm 89:10: - - Thou hast broken Rahab in pieces as one that is slain; - Thou hast scattered thine enemies with the arm of thy strength. - -Also, Isaiah 51:9: - - Is it not thou that didst cut Rahab in pieces, - That didst pierce the monster? - -As to whether these sacred writers really employed the material of the -Babylonian epic to give force to their illustrations, the judgments of men -will differ in accordance with their views of what is possible for an -inspired writer. - -In the following passages Rahab is used to denote Egypt as a proud and -imperious country. These uses are clearly figurative and metaphorical. - -Isa. 30:7: - - For Egypt helpeth in vain and to no purpose: - Therefore have I called her Rahab that sitteth still. - -Psa. 87:4: - - Rahab and Babylon I proclaim my votaries. - -A fragmentary account of an Assyrian version of the creation epic has been -found. It agrees with the Babylonian account in beginning with Tiamat, -though the course of creation appears to have been different. The tablets -known to us present it, however, in a form too fragmentary for us to -follow the course of the narrative. - - - - -CHAPTER II - -ANOTHER ACCOUNT OF THE CREATION FOUND AT BABYLON.[364] - - TEXT OF THE ACCOUNT. COMPARISON OF IT WITH GENESIS 2. - - -=1. Text of the Account.= - - 1. A holy house, a house of the gods, in a holy place had not been - made; - - 2. No reed had sprung up, no tree had been created. - - 3. No brick had been made, no foundation had been built, - - 4. No house had been constructed, no city had been built; - - 5. No city had been built, thrones had not been established; - - 6. Nippur had not been constructed, Ekur had not been built; - - 7. Erech had not been constructed, Eanna had not been built; - - 8. The deep had not been formed, Eridu had not been built; - - 9. The holy house, the house of the gods, the dwelling had not been - made,-- - - 10. All lands were sea,-- - - 11. Then in the midst of the sea was a water-course; - - 12. In those days Eridu was constructed, Esagila was built, - - 13. Esagila where, in the midst of the deep, the god Lugal-dul-azaga - abode, - - 14. (Babylon was made, Esagila was completed). - - 15. The gods and the Anunaki he made at one time. - - 16. (The holy city, the dwelling of their hearts' desire, they named - as first), - - 17. Marduk bound a structure of reeds upon the face of the waters, - - 18. He formed dust, he poured it out beside the reed-structure. - - 19. To cause the gods to dwell in the habitation of their hearts' - desire, - - 20. He formed mankind. - - 21. The goddess Aruru with him created mankind, - - 22. Cattle of the field, in whom is breath of life, he created. - - 23. He formed the Tigris and Euphrates and set them in their places, - - 24. Their names he did well declare. - - 25. The grass, marsh-grass, the reed and brushwood (?) he created, - - 26. The green grass of the field he created, - - 27. The land, the marshes, and the swamps; - - 28. The wild cow and her young, the wild calf; the ewe and her young, - the lamb of the fold; - - 29. Gardens and forests; - - 30. The wild goat, the mountain goat, (who) cares for himself (?). - - 31. The lord Marduk filled a terrace by the seaside, - - 32. ............ a marsh, reeds he set, - - 33. .................. he caused to exist. - - 34. [Reeds he creat]ed; trees he created; - - 35. In their ........... in their place he made; - - 36. [Bricks he laid, a founda]tion he constructed; - - 37. [Houses he made], a city he built; - - 38. [A city he built, a throne] he established; - - 39. [Nuppur he constructed], Ekur he built; - - 40. [Erech he constructed], Eanna he built. - -(At this point the tablet is broken. When it again becomes legible, it is -in the midst of an incantation.) - -=2. Comparison with Genesis 2.= - -This account of the creation has sometimes been compared with Genesis 2:4, -ff., which describes a time when there was no grass or vegetation on the -earth, and then goes on to describe the creation of man and animals, -speaking of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. - -In this account of the creation it is stated (line 21) that the goddess -Aruru with Marduk created mankind. - -In another Babylonian poem, the Gilgamesh epic, which contains the -Babylonian story of the flood, there is an account of the creation of man -which accords much more closely with Gen. 2:7 than that which we are -considering. It runs: - - The goddess Aruru, when she heard this, - A man like Anu she formed in her heart. - Aruru washed her hands; - Clay she pinched off and spat upon it; - Eabani, a hero she created, - An exalted offspring, with the might of Ninib. - -Here is clearly a tradition, similar to Genesis, that God formed man from -the dust of the ground. The allusion to Aruru indicates that this formed a -part of the early Babylonian tradition. There is considerable evidence -that in an earlier form of the Babylonian account Marduk had no place. He -was introduced into it later by the priests of Babylon. Aruru was in that -earlier form the creator of man, and probably was said to have formed him -from clay, as in the Gilgamesh epic. - -While these points of likeness are evident, there are great differences -between the two narratives. The Babylonian account speaks not only of -grass and reeds as non-existent, but of cities and temples also, which, it -tells us, were created later. It has no picture of Eden; its thought -centers in well-known Babylonian cities. While Marduk appears as supreme -in the Babylonian poem, the gods and Anunaki, or spirits of earth, are -recognized, so that the polytheistic view is not entirely absent. In the -Biblical picture, on the other hand, Jehovah is supreme. Opinions of -scholars differ as to whether there was any real connection between the -two narratives. Whatever opinion one may hold on this point, there can be -no question but that the second chapter of Genesis is dominated by those -religious conceptions which were so uniquely manifested in Israel, while -they are absent from the Babylonian narrative. - -(_For a new Babylonian account of the creation of man, see Appendix._) - - - - -CHAPTER III - -THE BABYLONIAN SABBATH - - FEAST OF MARDUK AND ZARPANIT. A DAY CALLED SHABATUM. A DAY IN SOME - TABLETS AT YALE. - - -=1. Feast of Marduk and Zarpanit.= - - The seventh day is the feast of Marduk and Zarpanit. It is an evil - day. The shepherd of the great people shall not eat flesh cooked on - the coals which is smoked. The garment of his body he shall not - change; a clean one he shall not put on. A sacrifice he shall not - offer. The king in a chariot shall not ride. In triumph he shall not - speak. In the secret place a seer shall not give an oracle. The - physician shall not lay his hand on the sick. It is not fitting to - utter a malediction. At night before Marduk and Ishtar the king shall - bring his offering; a libation he shall pour out. The lifting up of - his hands shall then be pleasing to the gods.[365] - -This passage occurs in a tablet which describes the nature of all the days -of a month. The same prohibitions are recorded for the fourteenth, -nineteenth, twenty-first, and twenty-eighth days. The tablet has often -been brought into comparison with the Hebrew sabbath, partly because the -seventh, fourteenth, twenty-first, and twenty-eighth days are involved, -partly because the prohibitions remind the reader of Exodus 20:8-11 and -Deut. 5:12-15. - - Exod. 20:8-11. Remember the sabbath day, to keep it holy. Six days - shalt thou labor, and do all thy work: but the seventh day is a - sabbath unto the Lord thy God: _in it_ thou shalt not do any work, - thou, nor thy son, nor thy daughter, thy manservant, nor thy - maidservant, nor thy cattle, nor thy stranger that is within thy - gates: for in six days the Lord made heaven and earth, the sea, and - all that in them is, and rested the seventh day: wherefore the Lord - blessed the sabbath day, and hallowed it. - - Deut. 5:12-15. Observe the sabbath day, to keep it holy, as the Lord - thy God commanded thee. Six days shalt thou labor, and do all thy - work: but the seventh day is a sabbath unto the Lord thy God: _in it_ - thou shalt not do any work, thou, nor thy son, nor thy daughter, nor - thy manservant, nor thy maidservant, nor thine ox, nor thine ass, nor - any of thy cattle, nor thy stranger that is within thy gates; that thy - manservant and thy maidservant may rest as well as thou. And thou - shalt remember that thou wast a servant in the land of Egypt, and the - Lord thy God brought thee out thence by a mighty hand and by a - stretched out arm: therefore the Lord thy God commanded thee to keep - the sabbath day. - -In reality the Babylonian prohibitions apply to certain classes of people -only, and not to the whole population. A study of the contract literature -shows that there was no cessation of business upon these days of the -month, so that resemblance to the Hebrew sabbath is really quite slight. - -=2. A Day Called Shabatum.= - -These days were not, so far as we know, called _shabatum_, but another -tablet[366] tells us that the fifteenth day of each month was so called. -_Shabatum_ is etymologically the same as the Hebrew sabbath. As the -Babylonian months were lunar, the fifteenth was the time of the full moon, -so that in Babylonian the day denoted the completion of the moon's growth. -In the Old Testament "sabbath" is sometimes coupled with "new moon," as -though it may also have designated a similar day. (See 2 Kings 4:23; Amos -8:5; Hosea 2:11; Isa. 1:13; 66:23, and Ezek. 46:3.) This Babylonian -_shabatum_ can, in any event, have no direct relationship to the Hebrew -sabbath as a day of rest once a week. - -=3. A Day in Some Tablets at Yale.= - -A series of tablets in the Yale Babylonian Collection, a portion of which -has been published by Prof. Clay,[367] shows that special sacrifices were -offered on the seventh, fourteenth, twenty-first, and twenty-eighth of -each month. These sacrifices show that these days were thought to have -some peculiar significance, but, whatever that significance may have been, -the evidence cited shows that it was not the same as that of the Hebrew -sabbath. - - - - -CHAPTER IV - -THE LEGEND OF ADAPA AND THE FALL OF MAN - - COMPARISON WITH GENESIS 3. THE ADAPA MYTH. - - -Four fragments of the Adapa myth have been found. They really present but -three parts of the story, as two of them cover the same ground. These -three parts of the story are translated in this chapter. It will be noted -that the fragments do not present the entire story. Between fragments I -and II, as well as between fragments II and III, some lines have fallen -out, and the last fragment is broken away before the end of the account is -reached. Nevertheless, from the parts which we have it is clear that the -Babylonians shared with the Hebrews some of the traditions recorded in the -third chapter of Genesis. - -=1. Comparison with Genesis 3.= - -In the first place, Adapa, like Adam, had gained knowledge. This knowledge -carried with it a power hitherto regarded as an attribute of divinity. It -enabled Adapa to break the wing of the south wind; it tempted Adam and Eve -"to become like God, knowing good and evil" (Gen. 3:5). As in Genesis, -knowledge did not carry with it immortality. Ea, the god who had permitted -Adapa to become wise, feared that he might gain immortality, as Jehovah -thought that Adam might "put forth his hand and take of the tree of life -and eat and live forever" (Gen. 3:22). (For Babylonian and Assyrian -conceptions of the tree of life, see Figs. 291, 293.) - -Ea accordingly told Adapa a falsehood when he was about to go into the -presence of the supreme god, Anu, in order to prevent him from eating the -food that would make him immortal; Jehovah drove man from the garden where -the tree of life grew. The two accounts agree in the thought that -immortality could be obtained by eating a certain kind of food. The lines -at the end of the Adapa story are much broken, but they make it clear that -as a punishment for what he had done, Adapa was subjected to sickness, -disease, and restlessness. This corresponds to the toil inflicted upon man -(Gen. 3:17-19), and the pangs of childbirth imposed upon woman (Gen. -3:16). It appears also that as Adam and Eve were clothed with skins in -consequence of their deed (Gen. 3:21), so Adapa was clothed by Anu in a -special clothing. - -These similarities indicate that the Babylonians possessed the same -general ideas of the connection of increasing knowledge, with the -attributes of divinity on the one hand, and with suffering and clothing on -the other, which are presented in Genesis. An increasing number of modern -scholars regard the Babylonian story as an earlier form of a narrative -which the Hebrew writer took and purified. Others hold that it is a -somewhat degenerate form of the Biblical narrative. In any event, the -Babylonian story proves the Biblical conceptions to be very ancient, and, -by its contrasts to that of Genesis, it exhibits the dignity and religious -value of the Biblical narrative. In the Babylonian myth, the gods, Ea and -Anu, are divided and work at cross purposes; Ea tells a falsehood to -accomplish his end. Genesis, while it represents Jehovah as feeling and -acting in a much more human way than some parts of the Bible do, still -portrays him as a consistently righteous, omnipotent God, who demands -obedience, and whose punishments are the reasonable recompense for -transgressions. The superiority of the Old Testament stands out in -striking contrast. - -=2. The Adapa Myth.=[368] - -I - - 1. He possessed intelligence .......... - - 2. His command like the command of Anu .......... - - 3. Wide intelligence he (Ea) made perfect for him, the destiny of the - country to reveal. - - 4. Unto him wisdom he gave; eternal life he did not grant him. - - 5. In those days, in those years the wise man of Eridu,-- - - 6. Ea as a chief (?) among men had created him,-- - - 7. A wise man whose command no one could restrain, - - 8. The prudent, the most wise among the Anunnaki was he, - - 9. Blameless, clean of hands, anointed, the observer of divine - commands, - - 10. With the bakers he made bread, - - 11. With the bakers of Eridu he made bread, - - 12. The food and water of Eridu he prepared daily, - - 13. With his clean hands he prepared the table, - - 14. And without him the table was not cleared. - - 15. The ship he steered; fishing and hunting for Eridu he did. - - 16. Then Adapa of Eridu, - - 17. While Ea lay upon a bed in a chamber (?), - - 18. Daily the closing of Eridu he made right. - - 19. At the pure quay, the quay of the new-moon, he embarked upon the - ship, - - 20. The wind blew, his ship sailed, - - 21. With the rudder he steered the ship - - 22. Upon the broad sea. - - ........................................................ - -II - - 1. .................................... - - 2. The south wind [blew and capsized him], - - 3. To the house [of the fishes] it made him sink, - - 4. "O south wind [increase] thy rage as much as [thou art able], - - 5. Thy wing I will break." As he spoke with his mouth, - - 6. The wing of the south wind was broken, seven days - - 7. The south wind blew not on the land. Anu - - 8. To his messenger, Ilabrat, said: - - 9. "Why has the south wind not blown upon the land for seven days?" - - 10. His messenger Ilabrat answered him, "My lord - - 11. Adapa, the son of Ea, the wing of the south wind - - 12. Has broken." Anu, when he heard this, - - 13. Cried "Help!" He ascended his throne: "Let some one bring him to - me. - - 14. Likewise Ea, who knows the heavens, summon him, - - 14a. To King Ea to come."[369] - - 14b. To him he caused word to be borne, - - 14c. .......... To him, to King Ea, - - 14d. He sent a messenger. - - 14e. He is of great understanding, he knows the hearts of the great - gods, - - 14f. .......... of the heavens, he establishes it. - - 15. [A soiled garment he made] him wear; with a mourning garment clad - him, - - 16. He clothed him and gave him counsel, - - 17. Saying: "Adapa, into the presence of Anu, the king, thou art - going, - - 18. Fail not the order, my word keep, - - 19. When thou goest up to heaven and approachest the gate of Anu, - - 20. At the gate of Anu, Tammuz and Gishzida - - 21. Stand, they will see thee, they will ask: 'Lord, - - 22. For whose sake art thou thus, Adapa? For whom - - 23. Art thou clad in a mourning garment?' 'In our country two gods - have vanished, therefore - - 24. Am I thus.' 'Who are the two gods who in the land - - 25. Have vanished?' 'Tammuz and Gishzida.' They will look at one - another and - - 26. Be astonished. Favorable words - - 27. To Anu they will speak. A joyful countenance of Anu - - 28. They will reveal to thee. When thou standest in the presence of - Anu, - - 29. Food of death they will offer thee to eat; - - 30. Thou shalt not eat. Water of death they will offer thee to drink; - - 31. Thou shalt not drink. A garment will they show thee; - - 32. Put it on. Oil they will set before thee; anoint thyself. - - 33. The command which I give thee, forget not. The word - - 34. Which I have spoken hold fast." The messenger - - 35. Of Anu came: "Adapa of the south wind - - 36. The wing has broken. Into my presence bring him." - - 37. The road to heaven he made him take and to heaven he ascended. - - 38. When to heaven he ascended, when he approached the gate of Anu, - - 39. At the gate of Anu, Tammuz and Gishzida were standing. - - 40. When they saw him they cried: "Adapa, help! - - 41. Lord, for whose sake art thou thus? - - 42. For whom art thou clad in a mourning garment? - - 43. In the country two gods have vanished; therefore in a mourning - garment - - 44. Am I clad. Who are the two gods who from the land have vanished?" - - 45. "Tammuz and Gishzida." They looked at one another and - - 46. Were astonished. When Adapa before Anu the king, - - 47. Approached, Anu saw him and cried: - - 48. "Come, Adapa, why of the south wind the wing - - 49. Hast thou broken?" Adapa answered: "Anu, my lord, - - 50. For the house of my lord in the midst of the sea - - 51. I was catching fish. As I was midway of the voyage - - 52. The south wind blew and capsized me; - - 53. To the house of the fishes it made me sink. In the anger of my - heart - - 54. [The south wind] I cursed. At my side answered Tammuz - - 55. And Gishzida: 'The heart should be toward Anu.' - - 56. They spoke, he was appeased, his heart was won (?). - - 57. "Why has Ea, to impure man, of the heavens - - 58. And the earth revealed the heart? - - 59. Strong (?) has he made him (Adapa); a name he has given him. - - 60. We--what can we do to him? Food of life - - 61. Bring him, that he may eat." Food of life - - 62. They brought him; he ate it not. Water of life - - 63. They brought him; he drank it not. A garment - - 64. They brought him; he clothed himself. Oil - - 65. They brought him; he anointed himself. - - 66. Anu looked at him; he wondered (?) at him. - - 67. "Come, Adapa, why dost thou not eat nor drink? - - 68. Now thou shalt not live; men are mortal (?)." "Ea my lord - - 69. Said: Thou shalt not eat, thou shalt not drink." - - 70. Take him and bring him back to earth. - - 71. ............ looked upon him. - -III - - 1. ........................ - - 2. He commanded him and he ........... - - 3. The garment, he commanded him and he clothed himself. - - 4. ...... Anu wondered greatly at the deed of Ea. - - 5. The gods of heaven and earth, as many as there are: "Who is thus - mighty (?)? - - 6. His command is the command of Anu. Who can surpass [him]?" - - 7. As now Adapa from the horizon to the zenith of the heavens - - 8. ...... looked, he saw his terror ...... (_i. e._, the terror he - inspired) - - 9. [Which] Anu concerning Adapa upon him ...... had placed. - - 10. [The service (?)] of Ea he made his satisfaction. - - 11. Anu fixed as his lot his lordship in brilliance to the distant - future. - - 12. .......... Adapa, the seed of mankind, - - 13. [Who] victoriously broke the wing of the south wind, - - 14. And to heaven he ascended. "Thus let it be!" - - 15. ...... that which he in evil ways imposed on the people, - - 16. .......... sickness which he placed in the bodies of people. - - 17. ........ Ninkarrak appeased. - - 18. Sickness [shall co]me, his disease be violent, - - 19. .......... destruction shall fall upon him, - - 20. [In] good sleep he shall not rest, - - 21. .... shall overturn (?) the joy of people's hearts. - -(The remainder is broken away.) - - - - -CHAPTER V - -THE PATRIARCHS BEFORE THE FLOOD - - BABYLONIAN LONG-LIVED KINGS. COMPARISON WITH GENESIS 5. COMPARISON - WITH GENESIS 4. COMPARISON WITH THE LIST OF BEROSSOS. - - -A Biblical narrative that challenges attention is that in Genesis 5, which -contains the list of long-lived patriarchs who flourished before the -flood. This narrative finds a striking parallel in the following tablet -which tells of long-lived kings who are said to have ruled in ancient -Babylonia. The beginnings of all the columns of the tablet are broken -away.[370] - - -=1. Babylonian Long-lived Kings= - -_Column I_ - - 2. ...... ruled 900 (?) years; - - ...................... - - 7. Galumum - - 8. ruled 900 (?) years; - - 9. Zugagib - - 10. ruled 840 (?) years; - - 11. A-ri-pi, son of Mashgag, - - 12. ruled 720 years; - - 13. Etana, the shepherd, - - 14. who ascended to heaven, - - 15. who subdued all lands, - - 16. ruled 635 years; - - 17. Pilikam, - - 18. son of Etana, - - 19. ruled 350 years; - - 20. Enmenunna - - 21. reigned 611 years; - - 22. Melam-Kish, - - 23. son of Enmenunna, - - 24. ruled 900 years; - - 25. Barsalnunna, - - 26. son of Enmenunna, - - 27. ruled 1200 years; - - 28. Mes (?) zamu, son of Barsalnunna, - - 29. ruled ...... years; - - 30. ...... son of Barsalnunna; - -_Column II_ - - ......................... - - 1. from Kish - - 2. the kingdom - - 3. passed to Eanna. - - 4. In Eanna - - 5. Meskingashir, - - 6. son of Shamash,[371] - - 7. as lord, - - 8. as king, - - 9. ruled 325 years. - - 10. Meskingashir - - 11. entered into - - 12. and went out from ...... - - 13. Enmeirgan, - - 14, 15. son of Meskingashir, - - 16. king of Erech, - - 17. the people of Erech - - 18. strengthened, - - 19. as king - - 20. ruled 420 years. - - 21. Lugalbanda, the shepherd, - - 22. ruled 1200 years. - - 23. Dumuzi, the hunter[372] (?), - - 24. Whose city is among fishes, - - 25. ruled 100 years. - - 26. Gilgamesh, - - 27. whose father - - 28. was lord of Kullab, - - 29. ruled 126 years. - -_Column III_ - - (The kingdom) - - 1. of Erech - - 2. passed to Ur. - - 3. In Ur - - 4. Mesannipada - - 5. was king; - - 6. he ruled 80 years. - - 7. Meskiagnunna, - - 8. son of Mesannipada, - - 9. ruled 30 years. - - 10. Elu ........ - - 11. ruled 25 years. - - 12. Balu ....... - - 13. 36 years. - - 14. 4 kings - - 15. ruled 171 years. - - 16. As to Ur - - 17. the kingdom - - 18. passed to Awan.[373] - -_Column IV_[374] - - 1. ruled 21 years. - - 2. Ishme-Dagan, - - 3. son of Idin-Dagan, - - 4. ruled 21 years. - - 5. Libit-Ishtar, - - 6. son of Idin-Dagan, - - 7. ruled 11 years. - - 8. Ur-Ninib, - - 9. son of Im ......., - - .................... - -_Column V_ - - 1. Total 51 kings-- - - 2. their years were 18000 ...+ - - 3. 9 years ....... months ....... - - 4. Four times - - 5. in Kish: - - 6. total 22 kings-- - - 7. their years were 2610+ - - 8. 6 months, 15 days. - - 9. Five times - - 10. in Erech: - - 11. total 13 kings-- - - 12. their years were 396-- - - 13. ruled. - - 14. Three times - - 15. in Ur: - - 16. total 3 kings-- - - 17. their years were 356-- - - 18. ruled. - - 19. Once - - 20. in Awan: - - 21. total 1 king-- - - 22. his rule was 7 years. - - 23. Once - - 24. in[375] ....... - -_Column VI_ - - 1. (total .......) kings-- - - 2. (their years) were 196-- - - 3. ruled. - - 4. Twice in Agade: - - 5. total 21 kings-- - - 6. their years were 125 years - - 7. 40 days--ruled. - - 8. Once - - 9. in the people - - 10. of Gutium: - - 11. total 11 kings-- - - 12. their years were 159 years-- - - 13. ruled - - 14. in Isin (?). - - 15. Eleven - - 16. royal cities - - 17. ruled. - - 18. Total 134 kings. - - 19. Grand total 28876+ - - 20. years, - - 21. ...... months.[375] - -This interesting document does not stand alone. Three other tablets -published in the same volume[376] contain similar material, though all -that would have a bearing on our present topic is too broken for -connected translation. It is clear from the translation here given that -the Babylonians ascribed to some early kings reigns as long, and even -longer in some cases, than those ascribed to the antediluvian patriarchs -in Genesis 5. - -The peculiar spelling of Galumum and Zugagib in the Babylonian characters, -together with the meaning of the words, shows that they are animal names. -Zugagib means "scorpion" and Galumum, "lamb." In the lines which preceded, -probably similar animal names were recorded. Perhaps this expresses the -idea that animals were made before men, as is stated in Gen. 1:24-26. - -=2. Comparison with Genesis 5.=--The next name, Aripi,[377] may also have -been read Adime, and perhaps was so read by the Sumerians themselves. If -it came to the Hebrews in this form they would naturally equate it with -the Hebrew Adam, which means "man." - -Etana, the shepherd, is said in this list to have gone to heaven. This at -once suggests the fate of Enoch, who "was not; for God took him" (Gen. -5:24). In the Sumerian the words "to heaven" are AN-SU, which may also be -read AN-KU. If these words were not fully understood by the Hebrews, to -whom Sumerian was not only a foreign language but a dead language, they -might easily be mistaken for a proper name, and would in Hebrew give us -Enoch.[378] Another suggestion as to the method of borrowing is also -possible. Later traditions cherished the name of a king, Enmeduranki, whom -they called a king of Sippar or Agade.[379] Enmeduranki means "the hero -who binds together heaven and earth." Etana is in our list of kings called -a king of Kish, but in later times kings of Kish were also called kings of -Agade. It is altogether probable, therefore, that the "hero who binds -together heaven and earth" is simply another designation of Etana who went -to heaven. The last two syllables of Enmeduranki, _i. e._, AN-KI, "heaven -and earth," would, if taken over into Hebrew, also give Enoch. If we -assume that Etana and Enoch are the same, we may at a later point be able -to determine by which of these processes the name is most likely to have -come into Hebrew. In an old poem, fragments of which have been found on -some broken tablets from Nineveh, the fortunes of Etana were given in -detail. He is said to have been carried to heaven on the back of an eagle. -If he be really the prototype of Enoch, this lends a touch of realism to -the narrative. - -The Sumerian name Enmenunna means "exalted hero" or "exalted man." A -natural translation of this into Semitic Babylonian about 2000 B. C. would -be _Mutu-elu_,[380] or, in one word, _amelu_, and an equally natural -translation of this into Hebrew would give us Enosh. - -Pilikam,[381] the next name, means in Sumerian "with intelligence to -build." In Babylonian Semitic it would be literally _Ina-uzni-eresu_, or, -rendered in one word, _ummanu_, "artificer." The Hebrew translation of -this is Kenan, which means "artificer." Melamkish gives us the Hebrew -Lamech by the simple elision of the first and last consonants. All people -are lazy and words sometimes wear away both at the beginning and at the -end.[382] - -Barsalnunna, translated into Semitic Babylonian, becomes -_Shithu-elu_.[383] Seth may well be a transfer of a part of this name to -Hebrew. The final radical of the first part of the name may have worn away -or have been accidentally omitted. - -Meskingashir is resolvable into four elements, MES-KI-INGA[384]-SHIR,[385] -"the hero" or "man who is great" or "exalted." Translate this into Semitic -Babylonian and it becomes _Mutu-sa-elu_, which is almost exactly -Methuselah. - -Enmeirgan becomes when translated into Semitic Mutu-salal-eqla,[386] and -Mahalalel is a much closer transfer of the first two elements of this to -Hebrew than are Sennacherib, Esar-haddon, Merodach-baladan, and -Evil-merodach of the names Sin-akhi-irba, Ashur-akhi-iddina, -Marduk-apal-iddin, and Amel-Marduk. Finally Dumuzi means "son of life," or -"living son," and Jared[387] means "descendant." - -The equivalent of Noah does not appear in this list, but there is no doubt -that he was Ziugiddu, otherwise called Ut-napishtim, of the Babylonian -accounts of the flood. - -We have then the following equivalents, four of which are Hebrew -translations of Sumerian names; three, transfers into Hebrew of the whole -or of parts of Semitic Babylonian equivalents of these Sumerian names, two -of which are transfers to Hebrew of portions of a Sumerian original, and -one of which, Noah, is still unexplained. - - Sumerian Semitic Babylonian Hebrew - - Adime Adam - Barsalnunna Shithu-elu Seth - Enmenunna Mutu-elu (or amelu) Enosh - Pelikam Ina-uzni-ereshu (or ummanu) Kenan - Enmeirgan Mutu-salal-gan Mahalalel - Dumuzi Apal-napisti Jared - Etana Enoch - Meskingashir Mutu-sa-elu Methuselah - Melamkish Lamech - Ziugiddu Noah - -Of course, it may be objected that our list of kings did not furnish the -originals of these patriarchs, since there are more kings than patriarchs, -even though some of the names of kings have been lost by the breaking of -the tablet. In this connection, however, one should remember that in 1 -Chron. 1-9, many names which appear in the earlier books of the Bible are -omitted, and that in Matt. 1:8, three kings--Ahaziah, Joash, and -Amaziah--are omitted from the genealogy of Christ. (Compare 2 Kings -11-15.) It appears, then, that Biblical writers did not always copy a full -list. - -It thus seems that the tablet translated above may be related to the text -of Genesis 5 in the names of the patriarchs as well as in the matter of -their ages. When we recall that the tablet was apparently written in the -year 2170 B. C., it seems probable that it may be a source from which the -Biblical names came. - -=3. Comparison with Genesis 4.= - -But our examination of the matter cannot stop here. In Gen. 4:16-23 there -is a list of the descendants of Cain strikingly similar to the list of the -descendants of Seth in Genesis 5. If the names of Adam and Abel be -supplied from Gen. 4:1,2, the two lists appear as follows: - - Genesis 4 Genesis 5 - - Adam Adam - | - +----+------+ - | | | - | Abel Seth Seth - | | - | | - | Enosh Enosh - Cain (Hebrew [Hebrew]) Kenan (Hebrew [Hebrew]) - Enoch Mahalalel - Irad (Hebrew [Hebrew]) Jared (Hebrew [Hebrew]) - Mehujael Enoch - Methushael Methuselah - Lamech Lamech - Noah - -The close parallelism of these two lists of names is really greater than -it appears to the English reader to be. Cain, which means "artificer," is -in Hebrew the same word as Kenan, lacking only one formative letter at the -end. Irad and Jared differ in Hebrew only by the wearing away of one -consonant. Mehujael is as much like Mahalalel, and Methushael as much like -Methuselah as the Assyrian name of Tiglath-pileser, Tukultu-apal-esharra, -is like Tiglath-pileser, while Enoch and Lamech are the same. - -The importance of this likeness arises from the fact that the so-called -critical scholars claim that these two lists of names are in reality the -same original list as it came through two lines of tradition and was -worked up differently by two writers. This view has been vigorously -opposed by some conservative scholars, notably by the late Professor -Green, of Princeton.[388] - -Between rival critical hypotheses it is not the function of archaeology to -decide. It must be admitted, however, that the names of the descendants of -Genesis 4 can be equated with those of our Babylonian kings, as well as -those of Gen. 5. Adam, Seth, Enosh, Cain, Enoch, Mehujael, and Methushael -would be derived exactly as it has been explained that the corresponding -names of Genesis 5 could be derived. It only remains to explain the names -Abel and Irad. It will be noticed that Abel occupies in the list a -position next to Adam and Cain; Abel is also said to have been a -shepherd. In the list of Babylonian kings Etana the shepherd comes in -between Adime (Aripi) and Pilikam, the equivalent of Cain. It is probable, -therefore, that Etana is the king that corresponds to Abel. Etana is -described in the Sumerian as "the shepherd who went to heaven," SIBA LU -AN-SU NI-IB-E-DA. If the two words SIBA LU became detached and -misunderstood as a proper name, the _s_ at the beginning, according to a -well known phonetic law, could become _h_ and give us the Hebrew Abel. -Irad may also be _ir-tu_, a corruption of ZI-IR-TU, a name of the mother -of Dumuzi, who may at times have been referred to as the son of -ZI-IR-TU.[389] These possibilities are not proof that the names arose as -suggested, but are not without weight. - -If Abel arose from the traditions of Etana and Enoch did also, and if the -names of Genesis 4 are derived from the list of Babylonian kings, then -Etana figures twice in the fourth chapter of Genesis. If Enoch is a -fragment of the name Enmeduranki, a possibility already recognized, it is -not difficult to understand how Etana came into the tradition twice. - -=4. Comparison with the List of Berossos.= - -Another list of names awaits comparison. Berossos, a Babylonian priest who -died about 260 B. C., compiled a list of kings who lived before the flood, -and attributed to them incredibly long reigns. His work has not survived, -but his list is quoted by two early Christian writers, Eusebius and -Syncellus, and Hommel[390] and Sayce[391] have claimed that his names are, -many of them, identical with the patriarchs of Genesis 5. - -The list of Berossos is as follows: - - Kings Length of reign - - Alorus 36,000 years - Alaparos 10,800 " - Amelon 46,800 " - Ammenon 43,200 " - Megalaros 64,800 " - Daonos or Daos 36,000 " - Euedorachos 64,800 " - Amempsinos 36,000 " - Otiartes 28,800 " - Xisouthros 64,800 " - -------------- - Total 432,000 years. - -It has long been recognized that Amelon is the Semitic Babylonian word -_amelu_, "man." It is a Babylonian synonym of Mutu-elu, the equivalent of -Enosh, and is also a translation of Enmenunna. Ammenon has also been -recognized as the Semitic Babylonian _ummanu_, "artisan." It is a -translation in one word of the Sumerian Pilikam. - -Daonos or Daos has, too, been seen to be the phonetic transliteration into -Greek letters of the Sumerian Dumu, the first part of the name Dumuzi. - -Euedorachos has also been thought to be the Sumerian Enmeduranki, whom we -have recognized as another name for Etana. Four of the names of Berossos -are thus easily connected with names in the new list of kings. - -The fifth one, Megalaros, might be a corruption either of Mutu-shalal or -of Mutu-sa-elu, and so go back ultimately either to Enmeirgan or to -Meskingashir. Xisouthros is clearly the same person as Ziugiddu. He had no -connection with this list of kings, but is, like Noah in Genesis 5, -attached to it on account of the flood. Hommel long ago saw that Otiartes -is the same as Ubara-tutu, who is said in the account of the deluge which -was found at Nineveh to have been the father of Utnapishtim, the hero of -the deluge.[392] Berossos has, accordingly, not only added the hero of the -deluge, but has displaced one of the names from the king list in order to -find a place for the father of Xisouthros. - -The other names are puzzling. Poebel has suggested[393] that Alorus may be -a Greek corruption of the Sumerian name Laluralim, who is said to have -been a king of Nippur. An old text which contains this name[394] is -accompanied by a gloss _zugagib_, "scorpion,"[395] and the first king in -the list translated above is Zugagib. If, therefore, this suggestion is -true, the name may go back to the same source as the others, after all. - -Amempsinos has been thought by some to be a corruption of the well known -Babylonian name Amil-Sin. There was an Amil-Sin in the first dynasty of -Babylon, but why the name should be inserted here cannot at present be -explained; nor has a satisfactory explanation been suggested for -Alaparos. - -The above discussion may be summed up in a few words. The Babylonian list -of kings with which this chapter begins makes no reference to the flood, -neither does the fourth chapter of Genesis. All the names in Genesis 4 may -be found in the Babylonian list, though Etana seems to have been inserted -twice under different names. As Genesis 5 omits Abel, it has Etana only -once. All the other names of Genesis 5, except Noah, are found in the -Babylonian list. Noah has been added to connect the list with the flood. -The ages of the patriarchs in Genesis 5 correspond approximately to the -general lengths of the reigns assigned to the kings in the tablet. -Berossos seems to have exercised much greater freedom, inserting several -names, the origin of some of which cannot now be made out. He also greatly -exaggerated the lengths of the kings' reigns. - -These correspondences are simply noted. It is but a few months since the -writer discovered them, and he was the first to do so. It is too early to -correctly estimate their ultimate significance. It should, however, be -observed that the Biblical numbers (Gen. 5) lack the gross exaggerations -of Berossos, and that, if the correspondences here pointed out are real, -the tradition embodied in Genesis is carried back to a time from 800 to -1000 years earlier than Moses. - - - - -CHAPTER VI - -A BABYLONIAN ACCOUNT OF THE FLOOD, FROM A TABLET WRITTEN AT NINEVEH IN THE -SEVENTH CENTURY B. C.[396] - - TRANSLATION OF THE TEXT. COMPARISON WITH GENESIS 6-9. ANOTHER - BABYLONIAN VERSION. - - -=1. Translation of the Text.= - - 1. Gilgamesh said to him, to Utnapishtim, the far-away: - - 2. "I look upon thee, O Utnapishtim, - - 3. Thy appearance is unchanged; thou are like me; - - 4. Thou art not at all different, thou art like me. - - 5. Thy courage is unbroken, to make combat, - - 6. On thy side thou liest down--on thy back. - - 7. [Tell me] how hast thou advanced and in the assembly of the gods - hast found life?" - - 8. Utnapishtim spoke to him, to Gilgamesh: - - 9. I will reveal to thee, O Gilgamesh, the secret story, - - 10. And the decision of the gods to thee will I relate. - - 11. Shurippak, a city which thou knowest, - - 12. Is situated on the bank of the Euphrates. - - 13. That city was old and the gods in it-- - - 14. Their hearts prompted them--the great gods--to make a deluge. - - 15. [There drew near] their father Anu, - - 16. Their councillor, the warrior Ellil, - - 17. Their herald, Enmashtu, - - 18. Their hero, Ennugi. - - 19. The lord of wisdom, Ea, counselled with them; - - 20. Their words he repeated to the reed-hut: - - 21. "O reed-hut, reed-hut, O wall, wall, - - 22. O reed-hut, hearken; O wall, give heed! - - 23. O man of Shurippak, son of Ubaratutu, - - 24. Pull down thy house, build a ship, - - 25. Leave thy possessions, take thought for thy life, - - 26. Leave thy gods, thy life save! - - 27. Embark seed of life of all kinds on a ship! - - 28. The ship which thou shalt build, - - 29. Measure well its dimensions, - - 30. Make to correspond its breadth and its length; - - 31. Upon the ocean thou shalt launch it." - - 32. I understood and spoke to Ea, my lord: - - 33. "[I understand], my lord; what thou hast thus commanded - - 34. I will honor and will do. - - 35. [But] what shall I say to the city, the people, and the elders?" - - 36. Ea opened his mouth and spake, - - 37. He said unto me, his servant: - - 38. "Thus shalt thou say unto them: - - 39. Know that me--Ellil hates me. - - 40. I may not dwell in your city, - - 41. On Ellil's soil I may not lift my face. - - 42. I must go down to the ocean with Ea, my lord, to dwell. - - 43. Upon you will he (Ellil) then rain abundance-- - - 44. [A catch] of birds, a catch of fishes, - - 45. ................ a rich (?) harvest. - - 46. [A time Shamash[397] appointed, at evening] the senders of rain - - 47. [Shall rain upon] you a mighty rainstorm. - - 48. When the grey of dawn brightens, - -(Lines 49-55 are broken away.) - - 56. The strong ...... brought what was needed. - - 57. On the fifth day I raised its frame. - - 58. According to its plan (?) its walls were 120 cubits high; - - 59. 120 cubits correspondingly was the extent of its roof. - - 60. I laid down its hull; I enclosed it. - - 61. I constructed it in storys, up to six; - - 62. I divided it [without (?)] into seven parts. - - 63. Its interior I divided into nine parts. - - 64. .......... I fastened in its midst. - - 65. I looked out a rudder, and prepared what was necessary. - - 66. 6 _sars_ of bitumen I poured over its outside (?); - - 67. 3 _sars_ of bitumen I poured over its interior. - - 68. 3 _sars_ of oil the people who carry jars brought. - - 69. Besides a _sar_ of oil which was used as a libation, - - 70. 2 _sars_ of oil the ship's captain stowed away. - - 71. For the people I slaughtered bullocks. - - 72. I slaughtered lambs daily. - - 73. Must, beer, oil, and wine, - - 74. I gave the people to drink like river-water. - - 75. I made a feast, like a new year's festival. - - 76. I opened (?) [a box of ointment]; I put ointment in my hand. - - 77. [By the setting] of great Shamash, the ship was finished. - - 78. [To move it from the stocks] was difficult. - - 79. The men cleared the ship's ways above and below. - - 80. .............................. two-thirds of it. - - 81. With all that I had I laded it (the ship); - - 82. With all the silver I had I laded it. - - 83. With all the gold I had I laded it. - - 84. With all the living things I had I laded it. - - 85. I embarked on the ship all my family and kindred. - - 86. Cattle of the field, beasts of the field, craftsmen, all, I - embarked. - - 87. A fixed time Shamash had appointed, [saying]: - - 88. "When the senders of rain shall rain upon you a mighty rainstorm - at evening, - - 89. Embark upon the ship and close thy door." - - 90. The appointed time approached, - - 91. The senders of rain sent at evening a heavy rainstorm. - - 92. I observed the appearance of the day, - - 93. The day was terrible to look upon. - - 94. I embarked upon the ship, I closed my door. - - 95. To the master of the ship, to Puzur-Amurru, the sailor, - - 96. I entrusted the structure together with its contents. - - 97. When dew-dawn began to brighten, - - 98. There arose from the horizon a black cloud; - - 99. The god Adad thundered in its midst, - - 100. While Nebo and Sharru marched before; - - 101. They went as heralds over mountain and country. - - 102. Nergal tore away the anchor, - - 103. Enmashtu advanced, the floods he poured down; - - 104. The Anunnaki raised their torches, - - 105. At their brightness the land trembled. - - 106. The raging of Adad reached to heaven; - - 107. All light was turned to darkness - - 108. .......... the land like ............... - - 109. One day [raged the storm (?)] - - 110. Swiftly it raged [and the waters covered] the mountains, - - 111. Like a battle array over the people it swept. - - 112. No one could see his fellow; - - 113. No more were people recognized in heaven; - - 114. The gods were frightened at the deluge, - - 115. They fled, they climbed to the highest heaven; - - 116. The gods crouched like dogs, they lay down by the walls. - - 117. Ishtar cried like a woman in travail, - - 118. Wailed the queen of the gods with her beautiful voice: - - 119. "Those creatures are turned to clay, - - 120. Since I commanded evil in the assembly of the gods; - - 121. Because I commanded evil in the assembly of the gods, - - 122. For the destruction of my people I commanded battle. - - 123. I alone bore my people; - - 124. Like spawn of fishes they fill the sea." - - 125. The gods along with the Anunnaki wept with her, - - 126. The gods bowed, sat as they wept; - - 127. Closed were their lips; [silent their] assembly. - - 128. Six days and seven nights - - 129. Blew the wind, the deluge the flood overpowered. - - 130. When the seventh day approached, the deluge was prolonging the - battle - - 131. Which, like an army, it had waged. - - 132. The sea calmed, the destruction abated, the flood ceased. - - 133. I looked upon the sea, the roaring was stilled - - 134. And all mankind was turned to clay; - - 135. Like logs all were floating about. - - 136. I opened the window, the light fell on my cheek; - - 137. I was overcome, I sat down, I wept; - - 138. Over my cheek streamed the tears. - - 139. I looked in all directions--a fearful sea! - - 140. After twelve days an island appeared; - - 141. Toward mount Nizir the ship stood off; - - 142. Mount Nizir held it fast, that it moved not. - - 143. One day, two days, mount Nizir held it that it moved not, - - 144. Three days, four days, mount Nizir held it that it moved not, - - 145. Five days, six days, mount Nizir held it that it moved not, - - 146. When the seventh day approached, - - 147. I brought out a dove and let her go; - - 148. The dove went out and returned; - - 149. There was no resting-place and she came back. - - 150. I brought out a swallow and let it go; - - 151. The swallow went out and returned. - - 152. There was no resting-place and it came back. - - 153. I brought out a raven and let it go; - - 154. The raven went out, the diminution of the waters it saw; - - 155. It alighted, it waded about, it croaked, it did not come back. - - 156. I disembarked [all]; to the four winds I poured a libation. - - 157. I appointed a sacrifice on the top of the mountain peak; - - 158. Seven by seven I arranged the sacrificial vessels; - - 159. Beneath them I piled reeds, cedar wood, and myrtle. - - 160. The gods smelled the savor, - - 161. The gods smelled the sweet savor, - - 162. The gods above the sacrificer collected like flies. - - 163. When at length the queen of the gods drew near, - - 164. She raised the great bows (?) which Anu at her wish had made. - - 165. "O ye gods, as I shall not forget the jewel of my neck - - 166. These days I shall not forget--to eternity I shall remember! - - 167. Let the gods come to the sacrifice, - - 168. But let Ellil not come to the sacrifice, - - 169. For he was not wise; he sent the deluge, - - 170. And numbered my people for destruction." - - 171. When at last Ellil drew near, - - 172. He saw the ship, Ellil was angry, - - 173. His heart was filled against the gods and the Igigi.[398] - - 174. "Who then has come out alive? - - 175. No man must escape from destruction." - - 176. Then Enmashtu opened his mouth and spake, - - 177. He said to the warrior Ellil: - - 178. "Who but Ea accomplished the thing? - - 179. Even Ea knows every undertaking." - - 180. Ea opened his mouth and spake, - - 181. He said to the warrior Ellil: - - 182. "O thou, leader of the gods, warrior, - - 183. How, how couldst thou without thought send a deluge? - - 184. On the sinner let his sin rest, - - 185. On the wrongdoer rest his misdeed. - - 186. Forbear, let it not be done, have mercy, [that men perish not]. - - 187. Instead of thy sending a deluge - - 188. Had the lion come and diminished the people! - - 189. Instead of thy sending a deluge - - 190. Had a wolf come and diminished the people! - - 191. Instead of thy sending a deluge - - 192. Had a famine come and the land [depopulated!] - - 193. Instead of thy sending a deluge - - 194. Had a pestilence come and the land [depopulated!] - - 195. I have not divulged the decisions of the great gods. - - 196. I caused Adrakhasis to see a dream and the decisions of the gods - he heard. - - 197. Now take counsel concerning him." - - 198. Then went Ea on board the ship, - - 199. He took my hand and brought me forth, - - 200. He brought forth my wife and made her kneel at my side; - - 201. He turned us toward each other and stood between us; he blessed - us: - - 202. "In former time Utnapishtim was a man; - - 203. Now let Utnapishtim and his wife be like gods--even like us; - - 204. Let Utnapishtim dwell afar off at the mouth of the rivers!" - - 205. He took me and caused me to dwell afar off at the mouth of the - rivers. - -=2. Comparison with Genesis 6-9.= - -The above account of the deluge so closely resembles that in the Bible -(Gen. 6:9-9:19), that nearly all scholars recognize that they are two -versions of the same narrative.[399] In each case there is a divine -revelation to the hero of the deluge that a catastrophe is coming of which -every one else is ignorant. They both relate the building of the vessel, -the "pitching it within and without with pitch," the embarkation, the -flood in which other men are destroyed, the resting of the ship on a -mountain, the sending out of the birds, the disembarkation, the sacrifice, -and the intimation that in future a deluge shall not be. - -When the Babylonian account is compared with the Biblical, there are two -striking differences. 1. The Babylonian story makes the flood local; the -Biblical, general. 2. The Babylonian story, fascinating poetry though it -is, has a conception of deity in strong contrast with the dignity of the -Biblical monotheism. The Babylonian gods disagree; they blame each other; -they crouch with fear like dogs; they come swarming about the sacrifice -like hungry flies! Nothing could more strikingly illustrate the -inspiration of the Biblical story than to measure it against the -background of this Babylonian poem, which is clearly a variant version of -it. - -=3. Another Babylonian Version.= - -From the library of Ashurbanipal there has come another version of the -deluge, which represents the purpose of its coming as different. According -to this version, men had sinned and had been afflicted with famine, after -which they reformed for a time. The famine was removed, but soon, -apparently, they sinned again. Pestilence was then sent upon them. An -appeal brought mitigation of their sufferings, but soon they plunged into -sin again. This time they were punished with unfruitfulness of the land -and of their race, but soon sinned as before. When all other punishments -had failed, as a last resort the flood was sent. - -As this account does not so closely resemble that in Genesis, it is not -translated here. Those who wish to read it are referred to Rogers, -_Cuneiform Parallels to the Old Testament_, New York, 1912, p. 114, ff. - - - - -CHAPTER VII - -AN ACCOUNT OF THE CREATION AND FLOOD, FROM A TABLET WRITTEN AT NIPPUR -BEFORE 2000 B. C. - - TRANSLATION. COMPARISON WITH THE OTHER VERSION. - - -=1. Translation.= - -This tablet was published by Dr. Arno Poebel, of Breslau. It was -apparently written in the time of the dynasty of Nisin, but at any rate -not later than the period of the first dynasty of Babylon. Only a part of -the tablet has been found, so that the narrative is incomplete both at the -beginning and at the end. Possibly the remaining portion may some time be -found in the museum at Constantinople. The tablet is inscribed on both -sides, and there are three columns to the side. The portions that are -still extant read as follows:[400] - -_Column I (about three-fourths of the column missing)_ - - .......................................... - .......................................... - "My human-kind from its destruction I will [raise up]; - With the aid of Nintu my creation .......... I will raise up; - The people in their settlements I will establish; - The city, wherever man creates one--indeed its protection--therein I - will give him rest. - Our house--its brick may he cast in a clean spot! - Our places in a clean place may he establish!" - Its brilliant splendor, the temple platform, he made straight, - The exalted regulations he completed for it; - The land he divided; a favorable plan he established. - After Anu, Enlil,[401] Enki,[402] and Ninkharsag - The black-headed[403] race had created, - All that is from the earth, from the earth they caused to spring, - Cattle and beasts of the field suitably they brought into being. - -Here the first column ends. The passage opens in the midst of the speech -of some deity--perhaps Ninkharsag (a Sumerian name of Ishtar) or possibly -Enlil, the god of Nippur. First the deity tells how mankind, which has -been overthrown, shall be raised up again. Then we are told how he -perfected plans for the accomplishment of this purpose, and lastly how -four deities called into being men and animals. - -_Column II (about three-fifths of the text is missing)_ - - ...................................................... - ................. I will ............................... - ............. I will turn my eye upon him ............. - The ......... creator of the land ............................... - ................ of royalty ...................... - ................ of royalty by him was determined; - The exalted palace of the royal throne was by him set apart, - The exalted precepts .......... he made perfect, - In clean places .......... cities .......... he founded, - Their names were named, they were allotted to guardian-spirits (?) - Of these cities Eridu--the chief command to Nudimmud he gave, - Unto the second the _nisag_-priests of Umma (?) he gave, - Thirdly, Larak to Pabilkharsag he gave, - Fourthly, Sippar as the dwelling of Shamash he gave, - Fifthly, Shurippak unto _Lamkurru_ he gave. - Their names were assigned; to guardian-spirits (?) they were allotted; - Its rampart (?), a wall (?) he raised up, he established; - Small rivers, canals (?), and water-courses (?) he established. - -The last part of this column relates how five cities were established by -some deity. Of what the first part treated we cannot make out from the few -fragments of lines that are still legible. - -_Column III_ - - .......................................... - .......................................... - The land the sway of Anu .................. - The people .................... - A deluge ........................ - ......................................... - Their land (?) it entered .................... - Then Nintu [cried out] like [a woman in travail] .......... - The brilliant Ishtar [uttered] a groan on account of her people. - Enki with himself held communion in his wisdom; - Anu, Enlil, Enki, and Ninkharsag, - The gods of heaven and earth, invoked the names of Anu and Enlil, - At that time Ziugiddu was king, the priest of .......... - The chief deity he made of wood .......... - In humility prostrating himself, in reverence .......... - Daily at all times was he present in person .......... - Increasing dreams which had not come [before], - Conjuring by the name of heaven and earth .......... - -In this column the narrative has passed to the story of the deluge. The -gods have determined to send a deluge; Ziugiddu in consequence constructed -an idol from wood (compare Isa. 40:20), and earnestly worshiped it, -seeking oracles for his guidance. - -_Column IV_ - - For the settlement (?) the gods a wall (?) .......... - Ziugiddu stood by its side, he heard .......... - "At the wall at my left side stand .......... - At the wall I will speak a word to thee - O my brilliant one, let there enter thy ear .......... - By our hand a deluge .......... will be sent. - The seed of mankind to destroy .......... - Is the momentous decision of the assembly (of the gods); - The words of Anu and Enlil .......... - Their kingdom, their rule .......... - To them ...................." - -It is clear from these fragmentary lines that Ziugiddu is being informed -of the approaching deluge. It is also clear that some of the elements of -the narrative are identical with some of the elements of the one discussed -in Chapter VI. Ziugiddu is commanded to stand by a wall, where some deity -will speak to him. This appears in the other version in the form: - - "O reed-hut, reed-hut, O wall, wall,[404] - O reed-hut, hearken; O wall, give heed! - O man of Shurippak, son of Ubartutu, - Pull down thy house, build a ship," etc. - -In that account, too, the assembly of the gods is also referred to in line -120, ff. These are examples of the way the same theme, differently -treated, turns up in different forms. - -_Column V_ - - The evil winds, the wind that is hostile, came; all of them descended, - The deluge .......... came on with them - Seven days and seven nights - The deluge swept over the land, - The evil wind made the huge boat tremble. - Shamash[405] came forth, on heaven and earth he shone; - Ziugiddu the ship at the top uncovered, - The peace of Shamash, his light, entered into the boat. - Ziugiddu, the king - Before Shamash bowed his face to the earth. - The king--an ox he sacrificed, a sheep offered as oblation. - ......................................... - -In this column we have a fragment which relates some details similar to -those told in lines 128, 129, and 136-138 of the account given in Chapter -VI. - -_Column VI_ - - By the life of heaven and the life of earth ye shall conjure him, - That he may raise up from you; - Anu and Enlil by the soul of heaven and the soul of earth ye shall - conjure, - That they may raise up from you - The curse that has come upon the land, that they may remove it. - Ziugiddu the king - Before Anu and Enlil bowed his face to the earth. - Life like a god's he gave to him, - An immortal spirit like a god's he brought to him. - Then Ziugiddu the king, - Of the seed that was cursed, lord of mankind he made; - In the fruitful land, the land of Dilmun .......... they made him dwell - ......................................... - -At this point the last column is hopelessly broken. It is clear, however, -from the part which remains that Ziugiddu is in this narrative translated -to the Isle of the Blest as was Utnapishtim in the account translated in -Chapter VI, lines 202-205.[406] Indeed there is reason to believe that the -two accounts of the flood are divergent versions of the same story. In -addition to the likenesses already mentioned, the names of the two heroes, -though they appear so different, are the same in meaning. Utnapishtim (or -Unapishtim) means "day of life," or "day-life," while Ziugiddu means -"Life-day prolonged." - -=2. Comparison with the Other Version.= - -Although this tablet is much broken, so that we have not the whole of the -story, it is clear from the parts that we have that in this version -preserved at Nippur the story was much shorter than in the form translated -in Chapter VI, which was preserved in the library of Ashurbanipal. It was -also combined with a briefer account of the creation than that translated -in Chapter I from Ashurbanipal's library. - -Of this Nippurian version of the creation story we have in this tablet -only the small fragments preserved in Columns I and II. It is, however, -probable that the Nippurian version of the creation was in its main -features similar to that preserved in the library at Nineveh, only more -brief. - -If this be so, the conquest of the dragon Tiamat is here attributed to -Enlil of Nippur, as in the other version it is attributed to Marduk of -Babylon, and as in Psa. 74:13, 14, it is attributed to Jehovah. This -older account from Nippur agrees in one respect more nearly with the -Biblical account than the one from the library at Nineveh does, for it -represents Ziugiddu as a very pious man, who was apparently saved from -destruction on account of his piety, and in blessing him God removed the -curse as Jehovah did in Gen. 8:21. - - - - -CHAPTER VIII - -AN ACCOUNT OF THE ORIGIN OF A CITY AND THE BEGINNING OF AGRICULTURE, FROM -A TABLET WRITTEN AT NIPPUR BEFORE 2000 B. C. - - TRANSLATION. COMPARISON WITH BIBLICAL MATERIAL. - - -This tablet begins with a description of a place the name of which is not -identified; it is, accordingly, indicated in the translation by X. -Possibly it was Eridu; possibly Dilmun. - -=1. Translation.= - -_Column I_[407] - - 1. They that are lofty, they that are lofty are ye, - - 2. O X, pure; - - 3. They that are holy, they that are lofty are ye. - - 4. O X, pure, - - 5. X is pure, X is bright, - - 6. X is splendid, X is resplendent. - - 7. Alone were they in X; they lay down. - - 8. Where Enki and his consort lay, - - 9. That place is splendid, that place is pure. - - 10. Alone [in X they lay down]. - - 11. Where Enki with Ninella lay down, - - 12. That place is splendid, [that place is pure]. - - 13. In X the raven cried not, - - 14. The kite gave not his kite-call, - - 15. The deadly lion destroyed not, - - 16. The wolf a lamb seized not, - - 17. The dog the weak kid worried not, - - 18. The ewes the food-grain destroyed not, - - 19. Offspring increased not .......... - - 20. The birds of heaven their offspring ..... not; - - 21. The doves were not put to flight (?). - - 22. Of eye-disease, "it is eye-disease," one said not; - - 23. Of headache, "it is headache," one said not. - - 24. To a mother, "mother," one said not, - - 25. To a father, "father," one said not. - - 26. In the holy place a libation was poured not; in the city one drank - not; - - 27. The river-man "cross it?" said not; - - 28. Fear one's couch troubled not; - - 29. The musician "sing," said not; - - 30. The prince of the city spoke not. - - 31. Ninella to her father Enki said: - - 32. "A city thou hast founded, a city thou hast founded, its destiny - thou hast fixed; - - 33. In X a city thou hast founded, - - 34. .......... thou hast founded a city, - - 35. ............ a canal there is not - - 36. .............. thou hast founded a city." - -The rest of the first column is broken away; probably about nine lines are -missing. - -All the first column is descriptive of a place inhabited only by a god and -goddess. Many activities are absent, because there is no one there to -carry them on. Lines 16-21 remind one a little of Isa. 11:6-9. - -After the break the text continues: - -_Column II_ - - 1. "From the bright covering of thy great heaven may the waters flow, - - 2. May thy city be refreshed with water, may it drink, - - 3. May X be refreshed with water, may it drink, - - 4. May thy well of bitter water flow as a well of sweet water. - - 5. May thy city be a resting, an abode of the people, - - 6. May X be a resting, an abode of the people. - - 7. Now, O sun-god, shine forth, - - 8. O sun-god, stand in heaven; - - 9. Bring the festal-grain from its place - - 10. [And] fish, O moon-god, from the water. - - 11. Along the face of the earth on the road with earth's sweet water - come." - - 12. From the bright covering of the great heavens the waters flowed, - - 13. His city was refreshed with water, it drank; - - 14. X was refreshed with water, it drank, - - 15. His well of bitter water became a well of sweet water. - - 16. The fields and meadows with moisture caused grain to sprout (?); - - 17. His city was a resting, an abode of the people; - - 18. X was a resting, an abode of the people. - - 19. Then the sun-god shone forth; this verily was so, - - 20. The brilliant one, creator of intelligence. - - 21. To Nintu, the mother of the people - -(Lines 22-30 describe with a frankness common among primitive people a -marital union of the god and goddess. In many parts of the world it has -been thought that acts of creation proceed from such unions.) - - 31. Enki, the father of Damgalnunna, his word spoke. - - 32. Ninkharsag flooded the fields, - - 33. The fields received the waters of Enki. - - 34. It was the first day whose month is first; - - 35. It was the second day whose month is second; - - 36. It was the third day whose month is third; - - 37. It was the fourth day whose month is fourth; - - 38. It was the fifth day whose month is fifth; - - 39. It was the sixth day whose month is sixth; - - 40. It was the seventh day whose month is seventh; - - 41. It was the eighth day [whose month is eighth]; - - 42. It was the ninth day whose month is ninth, the month of fertility. - - 43. Like fat, like fat, like abundant sweet oil, - - 44. [Nintu], mother of the land, - - 45. .......... had brought them forth. - -In the first part of the above column the description of the city is -continued. As a consequence of the union of the gods, water flowed to -irrigate the land. Lines 34-42 tell in a quaint way how the waters -continued to come for nine months and nine days. - -_Column III_ - - 1. Ninshar on the bank of the river cried (?): - - 2. "O Enki, for me are they filled! they are filled!" - - 3. His messenger, Usmu himself the word repeated. - - 4. The sons of men his favor did not understand, - - 5. Ninshar his favor did not understand. - - 6. His messenger, Usmu himself, answered; - - 7. The sons of men his favor did not understand, - - 8. Ninshar his favor did not understand. - - 9. "My king, a storm-cloud! A storm-cloud!" - - 10. With his foot on the boat he stepped, - - 11. Two strong men as watchers he stationed, - - 12. The command they received, they took. - - 13. Enki flooded the fields, - - 14. The fields received the waters of Enki. - - 15. It was the first day whose month is first; - - 16. It was the second day whose month is second; - - 17. It was the ninth day whose month is ninth, the month of the height - of the waters. - - 18. Like fat, like fat, like abundant sweet oil, - - 19. [Ninshar] like fat, - - 20. Ninshar had brought them forth. - - 21. Ninkurra[408] [on the bank of the river] c[ried (?)] - - 22. "O Enki, for me they are filled! they are filled!" - - 23. His messenger, Usmu, the word repeated. - - 24. The sons of men his favor did not understand, - - 25. Ninkurra his favor did not understand. - - 26. His messenger, Usmu himself answered; - - 27. The sons of men did not understand, - - 28. Ninkurra did not understand. - - 29. "My king, a storm-cloud! A storm-cloud!" - - 30. With his foot on the boat he stepped, - - 31. Two strong men as watchers he stationed; - - 32. The command they received, they took. - - 33. Enki flooded the fields - - 34. The fields received the waters of Enki. - - 35. It was the first day whose month is first; - - 36. It was the ninth day whose month is ninth, the month of the height - of the waters. - - 37. Like fat, like fat, like abundant sweet oil, - - 38. Ninkurra like fat had brought them forth. - - 39. The god Tagtug and his wife she received; - - 40. Ninkurra to Tagtug [and his wife] spoke: - - 41. "Verily I will help (?) thee, my upright one, .......... - - 42. With favorable words I speak .......... - - 43. One man for me shall be counted .......... - - 44. Enki for me shall .......... - -The rest of the column, consisting of two or three lines, is missing. The -repetition in this column is characteristic of early poetry. Primitive -peoples are fond of iteration, and in the description of the way the -waters came it was to them very effective. - -_Column IV (about twelve lines are broken from the tablet at the -beginning)_ - - 13. [To Tagtug and] his wife spoke .......... - - 14. ........................................ - - 15. ...................................... - - 16. ................ in the garden .................... - - 17. ........................................ - - 18. [Eba]raguldu let him found, - - 19. Erabgaran let him found, - - 20. At the temple let my fettered oxen stand, - - 21. For Enki let my fettered oxen be sacrificed, - - 22. Let two strong men pour out water, - - 23. Abundant water let them pour out, - - 24. Reservoir-water let them pour out, - - 25. The barren land let them irrigate, - - 26. As gardeners for the little plants let them go forth, - - 27. On the bank, along the bank let them (_i. e._, the plants) extend. - - 28. Who art thou? The garden .................... - - 29. For Enki the gardener ............................ - -(Five lines are here broken away.) - - 35. Ebaraguldu he founded, - - 36. Erabgaran he founded, on its foundation he set it. - - 37. Enki turned his eyes unto him; his scepter he lifted up; - - 38. Enki to Tagtug directed the way. - - 39. At the temple he cried: "Open the door, open the door;" - - 40. "Who is it that thou art?" - - 41. "I am a gardener, with gladness .......... - - 42. With .......... the price (?) of milk will I present thee." - - 43. Tagtug with joyful heart at the temple opened the door, - - 44. Enki spoke to Tagtug and his wife, - - 45. With joy his possessions he gave to him; - - 46. That Ebaraguldu he gave him; - - 47. That Erabgaran he gave him. - - 48. Tagtug and his wife bowed down; with the left hand they covered - the mouth; with the right they did obeisance. - -From the parts of Column IV, which are still legible, it appears that the -messenger was revealing to Tagtug the secrets of agriculture. This -corresponds to the statement in Gen. 9:20, that "Noah began to be a -husbandman." - -At the beginning of Column V some seven lines have crumbled away, and the -beginnings of eight more have also become illegible. - -_Column V_ - - ........................................... - - ........................................... - - 8. [The .......... plant] was green, - - 9. [The .......... plant] was green, - - 10. [The .......... plant] was green, - - 11. [The .......... plant] was green, - - 12. [The .......... plant] was green, - - 13. [The .......... plant] was green, - - 14. [The .......... plant] was green. - - 15. "O Enki, for me they are counted," - - 16. His messenger, Usmu himself, the word repeated; - - 17. "Plants I have called forth, their abundance ordained, - - 18. The water shall make them bright, the water shall make them - bright;" - - 19. His messenger, Usmu himself, answered: - - 20. "My king, as to the woody plants," he said, - - 21. "He shall prune, he shall [eat]." - - 22. "As to the tall plants," he said, - - 23. "He shall pluck, he shall eat." - - 24. "My king, as to the .......... plants," he said, - - 25. "He shall prune, he shall eat." - - 26. "As to the plants of the watered garden (?)," he said, - - 27. "He shall pluck, he shall eat." - - 28. "[My king], as to the .......... plants," he said, - - 29. "[He shall prune], he shall eat." - - 30. "[My king, as to the .......... plants]," he said, - - 31. "[He shall pluck, he shall eat]." - - 32. ["My king, as to the .......... plants"], he said, - - 33. "[He shall prune, he shall] eat." - - 34. ["My king, as] to the cassia plant," he said, - - 35. "He [shall pluck] ........ he shall eat." - - 36. ["Enki] for [me] the plant of his wisdom has plucked, his heart - has spoken." - - 37. Of Ninkharsag the name Enki uttered in curse: - - 38. "The face of life when he dies he shall not see." - - 39. Then Anunnaki in the dust sat down. - - 40. The rebellious one to Enlil said: - - 41. "I, Ninkharsag, brought forth for thee people; what is my reward?" - - 42. Enlil, the begetter, answered the rebellious one: - - 43. "Thou, Ninkharsag, hast brought forth people," - - 44. "'In my city let two creatures be made,' shall thy name be - called." - - 45. As a dignitary his head alone he exalted, - - 46. His heart (?) alone he made impetuous, - - 47. His eye alone he filled with fire (?). - -Langdon takes the portion of the narrative which we find in this column to -be an account of the fall of man, since line 36, as he rendered it, speaks -of Tagtug's plucking and eating, and the next line speaks of the uttering -of a curse. This view the writer does not share. If the above translation -is correct, there is no allusion to anything of the kind. - -_Column VI (perhaps five lines are broken away)_ - - 6. .......... the lord Enlil .......... - - 7. ........ the lord of life .......... - - 8. To .......... they went, .......... - - 9. To .......... they went, the lord of the gods .......... - - 10. Spoke to him, the water of life .......... - - 11. .............................. - - 12. Ninkharsag .................... - - 13. .............................. - - 14. .................................. - - 15. .............................. - - 16. .......................... - - 17. ............................ - - 18. Ninkharsag .................... - - 19. Enlil ...... his .......... they founded, - - 20. Priests (?) they ordained, - - 21. Fate they determined, - - 22. With power established it. - - 23. Ninkharsag in her temple granted his life to him: - - 24. "My brother, what of thee is ill?" - - 25. "My herd (?) is ill." - - 26. "The god Absham have I brought forth for thee." - - 27. "My brother, what of thee is ill?" - - 28. "My herd is ill." - - 29. "The goddess 'Queen of the herd'[409] have I brought forth for - thee." - - 30. "My brother, what of thee is ill?" "My face is ill." - - 31. "The goddess Ninkautu have I brought forth for thee." - - 32. "My brother, what of thee is ill?" "My mouth is ill." - - 33. "The goddess 'Queen who fills the mouth'[410] have I brought forth - for thee." - - 34. "My brother, what of thee is ill?" ["My ...... is ill"]. - - 35. "The goddess Nazi have I brought forth for thee." - - 36. "My brother, what of thee is ill?" "My hand [is ill."] - - 37. "My goddess 'Living hand'[411] have I brought forth for thee." - - 38. "My brother, what of thee is ill?" "My health is ill." - - 39. "The goddess 'Queen of health'[412] have I brought forth for - thee." - - 40. "My brother, what of thee is ill?" "My intelligence is ill." - - 41. "The god who makes the intelligence clear[413] have I brought - forth for thee." - - 42. "Grandly are they brought forth, they are created. - - 43. Let Absham be lord of vegetation, - - 44. Let Nintulla be lord of Magan, - - 45. Let Ninkautu choose Ninazu as a spouse, - - 46. May Ninkasi be the full heart's possession, - - 47. May Nazi become mistress of weaving (?), - - 48. May Dazima the house of strong life take, - - 49. May Nintil become mistress of the month, - - 50. May Enshagme become lord of X. - - 51. Glory!" - -=2. Comparison with the Bible.= - -Here the tablet concludes. This last column, which tells how the goddess -Ninkharsag came to favor the hero and to create a number of divine helpers -for him, has no parallel in the Biblical account. As Tagtug received the -especial protection of Ninkharsag who created for him all these divine -helpers, it seems certain that this tablet had no reference to the fall of -man, as Langdon supposes. It appears rather to be a mythical account of -the beginnings of agriculture and the medicinal use of plants in -Babylonia. Agriculture implies irrigation. "From the first day whose month -is first" to the ninth month, is the period when Babylonia is watered. The -Tigris begins to rise in March, the first month, the overflow of the -Euphrates does not subside till the sixth month, and the winter rains are -at their height in the ninth month. - -As Adam was driven from Eden to eat of the fruits of the earth (Gen. 3:18, -24; compare Gen. 1:29), and Noah became a husbandman (Gen. 9:20), the -story of Tagtug presents a remote similarity to both of them. Langdon[414] -compares the list of divine beings with which the tablet ends with the -antediluvian patriarchs of Gen. 4 and 5, and suggests the possibility that -here we have the original names of those patriarchs. Beyond the fact that -Absham somewhat resembles the name Abel and was, like Abel, an -agriculturist, there is no apparent connection. The names in no way -correspond. It is more probable that we have the names of those patriarchs -in the list of kings translated in Chapter V. - - - - -CHAPTER IX - -ABRAHAM AND ARCHAEOLOGY - - ABRAHAM HIRED AN OX. ABRAHAM LEASED A FARM. ABRAHAM PAID HIS RENT. WHO - WAS THIS ABRAHAM? TRAVEL BETWEEN BABYLONIA AND PALESTINE. HAMMURAPI, - KING OF THE WESTLAND. KUDUR-MABUG. KINGS SUPPOSED BY SOME TO BE THOSE - OF GENESIS 14. - - -Archaeological investigation has brought to light a number of texts -believed by scholars to illumine the Biblical accounts of Abraham. It is -the purpose of this chapter to translate and discuss these. - -The documents which naturally attract us first are some contracts from -Babylonia in which an Abraham was one of the contracting parties. They are -as follows: - -=1. Abraham Hired an Ox.=[415] - - 1. One ox broken to the yoke, - - 2. an ox from Ibni-Sin, son of Sin-imgurani, - - 3. from Ibni-Sin - - 4. through the agency of Kishti-Nabium, - - 5. son of Eteru, - - 6. Abarama, son of Awel-Ishtar, - - 7. for one month has hired. - - 8. For one month - - 9. one shekel of silver - - 10. he will pay. - - 11. Of it 1/2 shekel of silver - - 12. from the hand of - - 13. Abarama - - 14. Kishti-Nabium - - 15. has received. - - 16. In the presence of Idin-Urash, son of Idin-Labibaal, - - 17. in the presence of Awele, son of Urri-bani, - - 18. in the presence of Beliyatum, scribe. - - 19. Month of the mission of Ishtar (_i. e._, Ulul), day 20th, - - 20. The year Ammizadugga, the king (built) - - 21. the wall of Ammizadugga, (_i. e._, Ammizadugga's 11th year). - - 22. Tablet of Kishti-Nabium. - -This tablet shows how Abarama (Abraham), a farmer, hired an ox for a -month. The tablet, as the last line shows, is the copy made for -Kishti-Nabium, the agent. In such business transactions three copies were -often made, one for each of the contracting parties and one for the -scribe. The date of this tablet is 1965 B. C. Ammizadugga was the tenth -king of that first dynasty of Babylon, of which Hammurapi was the sixth. - -=2. Abraham Leased a Farm.=[416] - - 1. To the patrician - - 2. speak, - - 3. saying, Gimil-Marduk (wishes that) - - 4. Shamash and Marduk may give thee health! - - 5. Mayest thou have peace, mayest thou have health! - - 6. May the god who protects thee thy head in luck - - 7. hold! - - 8. (To enquire) concerning thy health I am sending. - - 9. May thy welfare before Shamash and Marduk - - 10. be eternal! - - 11. Concerning the 400 _shars_ of land, the field of Sin-idinam, - - 12. which to Abamrama - - 13. to lease, thou hast sent; - - 14. the land-steward (?) and scribe - - 15. appeared and - - 16. on behalf of Sin-idinam - - 17. I took that up. - - 18. The 400 _shars_ of land to Abamrama - - 19. as thou hast directed - - 20. I have leased. - - 21. Concerning thy dispatches I shall not be negligent. - -It appears from this document that Abamrama, who is none other than a -Babylonian Abraham, was a small farmer, who leased a small tract of land. - -=3. Abraham Paid His Rent.=[417] - - 1. 1 shekel of silver - - 2. of the rent (?) of his field, - - 3. for the year Ammizadugga, the king, - - 4. a lordly, splendid statue (set up), - - 5. brought - - 6. Abamrama, - - 7. received - - 8. Sin-idinam - - 9. and Iddatum. - - 10. Month Siman, 28th day, - - 11. The year Ammizadugga, the king, - - 12. a lordly, splendid statue (set up). - - (This was Ammizadugga's 13th year.) - -This document, dated two years after that in which the ox was hired, shows -how Abamrama (Abraham) paid a part of his rent. - -The name Abamrama (Abraham) occurs in two other documents published in the -same volume (no. 101, and no. 102), where, in defining the boundaries of -other fields of Sin-idinam, they are said to be bounded on one side by the -field of Abamrama. As these documents mention the name of Abamrama only -incidentally, they are not translated here. - -=4. Who Was This Abraham?= - -These documents, which relate to the business of a Babylonian Abraham, -come from Dilbat, about eight miles south of Borsippa, which was just -across the Euphrates from Babylon. It is clear that this Abraham was a -small farmer, who hired a tract of land from a larger land-owner. He also -hired an ox wherewith to work his land, and paid the rent of the land and -the hire of the ox as a good citizen should. This Abraham was not the -Biblical patriarch. The patriarch's father was Terah and his brother -Nahor; the father of this Babylonian Abraham was Awel-Ishtar, and his -brother Iddatum (_ibid._, no. 101, 9). The Abraham of the Bible was a -monotheist according to Genesis; the ancestors of the Babylonian Abraham -worshiped the goddess Ishtar, who corresponded to the Canaanitish -Ashtoreth. The Bible connects the patriarch with Ur and Haran; this -Abraham lived about half-way between these two cities. - -Up to the present time this Babylonian Abraham is the only person known to -us other than the Biblical patriarch, who, in that period of history, bore -the name. He is the only one known to us outside the Biblical record.[418] -The only other occurrence of the name outside the Bible is in the name of -a place in Palestine, probably near Hebron, which Sheshonk I, the Biblical -Shishak, calls "The Field of Abram."[419] As Shishak lived much later -(945-924 B. C.), being a contemporary of Rehoboam the son of Solomon, this -Egyptian place name is not so significant. The Babylonian Abraham -mentioned in the documents just translated is welcome proof that Abraham -was a personal name in Babylonia near the time in which the Bible places -the patriarch. With these documents Gen. 11:27-25:10 should be compared. - -Another Babylonian contract is of interest in connection with the -migration of Abraham. - -=5. Travel between Babylonia and Palestine.= - - 1. A wagon[420] - - 2. from Mannum-balum-Shamash, - - 3. son of Shelibia, - - 4. Khabilkinum, - - 5. son of Appani[bi], - - 6. on a lease - - 7. for 1 year - - 8. has hired. - - 9. As a yearly rental - - 10. 2/3 of a shekel of silver - - 11. he will pay. - - 12. As the first of the rent - - 13. 1/6 of a shekel of silver - - 14. he has received. - - 15. Unto the land of Kittim - - 16. he shall not drive it. - - 17. In the presence of Ibku-Adad, - - 18. son of Abiatum; - - 19. in the presence of Ilukasha, - - 20. son of Arad-ilishu; - - 21. in the presence of Ilishu .......... - - 22. Month Ululu, day 25, - - 23. the year the king Erech from the flood - - 24. of the river as a friend protected. - -The date of the above interesting document has not been identified with -certainty. It is thought by some to belong to the reign of Shamsu-iluna, -the successor of Hammurapi. The writing clearly shows that at any rate it -comes from the period of this dynasty. That is, it comes from the period -to which Gen. 14 assigns the migration of Abraham. _Kittim_ in the -contract is the word used in the Hebrew of Jer. 2:10 and Ezek. 27:6 for -the coast lands of the Mediterranean. It undoubtedly has that meaning -here. This contract was written in Sippar, the Agade of earlier times, a -town on the Euphrates a little to the north of Babylon. It reveals the -fact that at the time the document was written there was so much travel -between Babylonia and the Mediterranean coast that a man could not lease a -wagon for a year without danger that it might be driven over the long -route to Syria or Palestine. Against such wear upon his vehicle the -particular wagon-owner of our document protected himself. - -When, therefore, Abraham went out from his land and his kindred, he was -going to no unknown land. The tide of commerce and of emigration had -opened the way. Apparently it was no more remarkable for him to do it -than for an Irishman to come to America half a century ago, or for a south -European to come today. - -=6. Hammurapi, King of the Westland.= - -It is thought by many scholars that Hammurapi was the Amraphel of Genesis -14. The following inscription[421] relates to this king: - - 1. To [Shar]ratum, - - 2. the bride of Anu - - 3. who has come to lordship, - - 4. lady of strength and abundance, - - 5. of the mountain-temple, - - 6. faithful lady, of exalted counsel, - - 7. lady who binds the heart, - - 8. who for her spouse - - 9. makes favorable her open oracle; - - 10. to his lady, - - 11. for the life of Hammurapi, - - 12. king of the Westland (MAR-TU), - - 13. Ibirum .......... - - 14. governor of the river-[district] .......... - - 15. son of Shuban ..........., - - 16. a guardian-deity appropriate to her divinity, - - 17. in the land which she loves, - - 18. for her service (?) - - 19. before her beloved temple has set up. - -This inscription is quoted here for two reasons: 1. It was erected "for -the life of Hammurapi," who is supposed by many to be the Amraphel of Gen. -14:1. Amraphel is supposed to be a corruption of Hammurapi, thus Amrapi. -The final _l_ of Amraphel is a difficulty. While many Assyriologists, from -Schrader onward, have recognized the equivalence, it is now seriously -questioned by Jensen and Eduard Meyer, and absolutely rejected by Bezold. -It must be said that, if Amraphel is intended for Hammurapi, the name had -undergone corruption before it was placed in the Biblical record.[422] 2. -In this inscription Hammurapi is called "king of MAR-TU," or the Westland, -a name by which the Babylonians often designated Syria and Palestine. -MAR-TU simply means "sunset," but was used like the Arabic _magrib_ as the -designation of a region. There is no reason to doubt that here it -designates Syria and Palestine, so that, if Amraphel is Hammurapi, this -is confirmatory of his connection with the West. - -=7. Kudur-Mabug.= - -The following inscription[423] has also often been brought into the -discussion of Genesis 14: - - 1. To Nannar, - - 2. his king, - - 3. Kudur-Mabug, - - 4. "Father" of the Westland (MAR-TU), - - 5. son of Simti-shilkhak, - - 6. when Nannar - - 7. his prayer - - 8. had heard, - - 9. Enunmakh, - - 10. belonging to Nannar, - - 11. for his life - - 12. and the life - - 13. of Arad-Sin, his son, - - 14. king of Larsa, - - 15. he built. - -This inscription has often been brought into connection with Abraham, -partly because some have seen in Kudur-Mabug the Chedorlaomer of Gen. -14:1, and partly because Kudur-Mabug in it calls himself "Father" or -governor of the Westland. If, however, Kudur-Mabug was intended by the -name Chedorlaomer, the name had been corrupted beyond all recognition in -the Biblical tradition before Gen. 14 was written. In reality there is no -reason to suppose that Kudur-Mabug and Chedorlaomer are the same. As to -the term "Westland," it probably does not here designate Palestine, but -either the western part of Elam or the southern part of Babylonia. -Babylonia lay to the west of Elam, and Kudur-Mabug placed on the throne of -Larsa, a city of South Babylonia, first his son, Arad-Sin, and then his -son, Rim-Sin, and apparently maintained an over-lordship over both of -them. "Westland" accordingly means in his inscription, not Palestine, but -Babylonia. One of Kudur-Mabug's sons calls his father "Father" (or -governor) of Emutbal, a region of Elam. It is a mistake, therefore, to -bring Kudur-Mabug into connection with Abraham and Gen. 14.[424] - -=8. Kings Supposed by Some to be Those Mentioned in Gen. 14.= - -Some fragmentary tablets from the Persian period, not earlier than the -fourth century B. C., contain references which have been brought by some -scholars into connection with Abraham and the fourteenth of Genesis. The -texts read as follows: - -I[425] - - 1. .................... - - 2. .............................. - - 3. .................... his work not .......... - - 4. .................. _su-ha-am-mu_ .......... - - 5. ................ before the gods the creation of .......... - - 6. ............ day .......... Shamash, who illumines .......... - - 7. .......... the lord of the gods, Marduk, in the satisfaction of his - heart, - - 8. .......... his servant, the region, all of it, a counsel not - fulfilled, - - 9. .......... by force of arms he overthrew. Dursirilani, son of - Arad-Malaku (Eri?-..aku) - - 10. ............ goods (?) he carried off, took as spoil, waters over - Babylon and Esagil - - 11. ........ his with the weapon of his hand like a lamb he killed - him, - - 12. .......... spoke to her, father, and son; with the weapon - - 13. [Great] and small he cut off, Tudkhula, son of Gazza .......... - - 14. ...... goods he took as spoil, waters over Babylon and Esagil - - 15. ...... his son with the weapon of his hands upon him fell. - - 16. ........ of his dominion before the temple of Annunit .......... - - 17. ........ Elam, the city Akhkhi to (?) the city Rabbatu he spoiled. - - 18. ...... like a deluge, he made the cities of Akkad, all of Borsippa - (?) - - 19. ...... ended.[426] Kukukumal, his son pierced his heart with a - girdle-dagger of iron. - - 20. ........ the enemy took and the destruction of these kings, - participators in wrong (?), - - 21. .......... bondage for which the king of the gods, Marduk, was - angry with them - - 22. .......... with sickness their breast was oppressed ........ - - 23. ........ unto ruins were reduced (?). All of them to the king, our - lord - - 24. ...... knowing (?) the hearts of the gods, the gracious Marduk, - for the commemoration of his name - - 25. ........ and named Esagil--to his place may he return. - - 26. .......... thy ...... may he make. This, O king, my lord we ...... - - 27. .......... his evil his heart the gods, his fathers .......... - - 28. ............ a participator in sin shall not be (?). - -II - - 1. ..................... gods (?) .......... - - 2. .......... in the city feared day (?) [and night (?)] - - 3. .......... Larsa (?), the bond of heaven which unto the four winds - .... - - 4. he decreed them the park (?) which is in Babylon, the city of [his] - majesty (?); - - 5. he decreed them the possessions of Babylon, small and great. - - 6. In their faithful counsel unto Kukukumal, King of Elam, - - 7. they established the fixed advance which to them [seemed] good. - - 8. In Babylon, the city of Karduniash, kingship he assumed .......... - - 9. In Babylon, the city of the gods, Marduk set his throne (?), - - 10. All, even the Sodomites of the plundered temples, obeyed [him]. - - 11. Ravens build nests; birds dwell [therein]; - - 12. The ravens croak (?), shrieking they hatch their young [in it]. - - 13. To the dog crunching the bone the lady .......... is favorable. - - 14. The snake hisses (?), the evil one who spits [poison]. - - 15. Who is the king of Elam who the great building of Esagil - de[stroyed], - - 16. which the Babylonians made, and their work was ..........? - - 17. This is what thou hast written, saying: "I am a king, the son of a - king" .... - - 18. Who is the son of a daughter of a king, who on the royal throne - will sit? ... - - 19. He is Dursil-ilani, son of Arad-Malkua, who the throne .......... - - 20. on the royal throne he sat and before his warriors [he marched]. - - 21. Now let the king march who from ancient days ......... - - 22. has been proclaimed lord of Babylon; the work of ........ shall - not endure. - - 23. In the month Siman and the month Tammuz in Babylon there was done - .......... - - 24. the work of the son of the magician. The bull (_i. e._, warrior) - who devastates the land .......... - - 25. The elders in their faithful counsel .......... - - 26. [gave] the son of the magician the place instead of his father - - 27. ................. 1 maid .................... - -Two other similar fragmentary texts belonging to the series are published -as noted above, but it is unnecessary to quote them here. The two -fragments which we have translated contain the most important references, -and are sufficient to enable the reader to make up his mind as to the -bearing of these texts upon the fourteenth of Genesis. - -Pinches and Sayce read the name of the Elamite king, Kukukumal, -Kudurlakhmal, and identify it with Chedorlaomer. Pinches so reads it, -hesitatingly; Sayce, confidently. There is no reason for so reading it, -except the desire to discover Chedorlaomer. The first three syllables are -represented in the cuneiform by the same sign--a sign the most frequent -value of which is _ku_. It does sometimes have the value _dur_, but never -_lakh_. King reads it Kukukumal, and there is really no reason for reading -it otherwise. - -Another name which occurs twice is written in the two places with a slight -difference of spelling. It is according to the most natural reading of the -signs, Arad-Malkua, or Arad-Malaku. Sayce and Pinches read Eri-eaku and -identified him with "Arioch, king of Elassar," (Gen. 14:1). While this is -a possible reading, it is only secured by giving to the signs their -Sumerian, instead of their Semitic values, and, as the documents are in -Semitic, this is probably wrong. The name is to be read Arad-Malkua. -Another name, Tudkhula, which occurs in the first document, has been -identified by the same scholars with "Tidal, king of the nations" (Gen. -14:1), but in this text there is no evidence that Tudkhula was a king at -all, and the identification is purely fanciful. It should be noted also -that Arad-Malkua, the supposed Eri-eaku, does not himself take any part in -the wars here recorded; it is his son, Dursil-ilani, who is represented as -a contemporary of Kukukumal, the supposed Chedorlaomer. - -It should be further noted that these documents represent a complete -conquest of Babylon by Elam--a conquest in which Babylon itself is laid -desolate. It is not certain just what part Dursil-ilani played in the -story. He may have been a vassal king under Kukukumal, or the Babylonian -upon whom the hopes of the people centered, to free them from the yoke of -Elam. It is clear, however, that the events mentioned in these documents -are not in harmony with the supposition that these monarchs acted as -allies of Hammurapi in the invasion of Palestine. Hammurapi is excluded -from the account. Kukukumal conquered and desolated the very city in which -Hammurapi had his throne. Kukukumal must, accordingly, have lived at some -other period of the history, and the supposed confirmation of the account -of the fourteenth chapter of Genesis has not yet been found. - -As already stated, these tablets are not earlier than the fourth century -B. C. The events which they record were probably much later than the time -of Abraham. Babylon is called by its Cassite name, Kar-duniash, a name -which it did not bear until some hundreds of years after the time of -Hammurapi. Many times in the course of Babylonian history was the country -overrun by Elam, and there is no real reason to suppose that the war here -referred to belongs to the age of Hammurapi. - - - - -CHAPTER X - -JACOB AND JOSEPH - - APPEARANCES OF THESE NAMES IN BABYLONIAN AND EGYPTIAN RECORDS. "THE - TALE OF THE TWO BROTHERS"; ITS BEARING ON THE STORY OF JOSEPH IN - GENESIS. LETTERS TO A RULER LIKE JOSEPH. THE SEVEN YEARS OF FAMINE. - INSCRIPTION SHOWING PREPARATION FOR FAMINE. - - -=1. Jacob.= - -Three different men in Babylonia at the time of the Hammurapi dynasty bore -the name Jacob-el. Thus, in the reign of Apil-Sin, the fourth king of the -dynasty (2161 to 2144 B. C.), two witnesses, Shubna-ilu and Yadakh-ilu -gave their father's name as _Yakub-ilu_, or Jacob-el.[427] In the same -reign a witness to another document, one Lamaz, had a Jacob-el as his -father.[428] In the reign of Sin-muballit, the next king, a witness named -Nur-Shamash was also the son of a Jacob-el.[429] In the reign of the great -Hammurapi, the next king, a witness named Sin-erbiam gave his father's -name simply as _Yakub_,[430] or Jacob. This last is clearly a shortening -of Jacob-el. These men all lived from 75 to 190 years before the -Babylonian Abraham, whose documents are discussed in Chapter IX. - -In connection with these names it should be noted that Thothmes III of -Egypt, who made extensive conquests in Asia between 1478 and 1446 B. C., -records the name of a city which he captured in Palestine as -_Ya-'-k-b'-ra_, the Egyptian equivalent of Jacob-el.[431] It does not seem -a rash guess to suppose that in the period when intercourse between -Babylonia and Palestine was frequent and immigration from the former -country to the latter was in progress, some Babylonian bearing this name -migrated to Palestine, settled there and that a city was named after him. -Many parallels to this may be found in the names of places in the United -States and Canada. That this place name in Canaan had some connection with -the name of the Patriarch Jacob is probable, though just what that -connection was it is impossible in the present state of our knowledge to -say. - -=2. Joseph.= - -A Babylonian business document of the time of the first dynasty of Babylon -has among its witnesses a man named _Yashub-ilu_, or Joseph-el.[432] - -In the list of places which Thothmes III of Egypt conquered in Palestine -there is one _Ya-sha-p'-ra_, which many scholars have taken to be -Joseph-el, though Prof. W. Max Mueller[433] thinks it rather is equivalent -to Yesheb-el, meaning "where God dwells." In view of the clear Babylonian -equivalence, however, it seems probable that it is Joseph-el. If so, it -probably became a place-name in Palestine because some important -Babylonian who bore the name settled there, just as we have supposed -Jacob-el did. Some scholars hold that it is connected with the name of the -Patriarch Joseph in some way, but what that connection was, we cannot now -say. - -=3. The Tale of the Two Brothers.=[434] - - Once there were two brethren, of one mother and one father; Anpu was - the name of the elder, and Bata was the name of the younger. Now, as - for Anpu, he had a house, and he had a wife. But his little brother - was to him, as it were, a son; he it was who made for him his clothes; - he it was who followed behind his oxen to the fields; he it was who - did the plowing; he it was who harvested the corn; he it was who did - for him all the matters which were in the field. Behold his younger - brother grew to be an excellent worker; there was not his equal in the - whole land; behold the spirit of a god was in him. - - Now after this the younger brother followed his oxen in the daily - manner; and every evening he turned again to the house, laden with all - the herbs of the field, with milk and with wood, and with all things - of the field. And he put them down before his elder brother who was - sitting with his wife; and he drank and ate, and he lay down in his - stable with the cattle. And at the dawn of day he took bread which he - had baked, and laid it before his elder brother; and he took with him - his bread to the field, and he drave his cattle to pasture in the - fields. And as he walked behind his cattle, they said to him, "Good is - the herbage which is in that place"; and he listened to all that they - said, and he took them to the good place which they desired. And the - cattle which were before him were exceeding excellent, and they - multiplied greatly. - - Now at the time of plowing his elder brother said unto him, "Let us - make ready for ourselves a goodly yoke of oxen for plowing, for the - land has come out from the water; it is fit for plowing. Moreover, do - thou come to the field with corn, for we will begin the plowing in the - morrow morning." Thus said he to him; and his younger brother did all - things as his elder brother had spoken unto him to do them. - - And when the morn was come, they went to the fields with their things; - and their hearts were pleased exceedingly with their task in the - beginning of their work. And it came to pass after this that as they - were in the field they stopped for corn, and he sent his younger - brother, saying, "Haste thou, bring to us corn from the farm." And the - younger brother found the wife of his elder brother, as she was - sitting tiring her hair. He said to her, "Get up, and give to me corn, - that I may run to the field, for my elder brother hastened me; do not - delay." She said to him, "Go open the bin, and thou shalt take to - thyself according to thy will, that I may not drop my locks of hair - while I dress them." - - The youth went to the stable; he took a large measure, for he desired - to take much corn; he loaded it with wheat and barley; and he went out - carrying it. She said to him, "How much of the corn that is wanted, is - that which is on thy shoulder?" He said to her, "Three bushels of - barley, and two of wheat, in all five; these are what are upon my - shoulder:" thus said he to her. And she conversed with him, saying, - "There is great strength in thee, for I see thy might every day." And - her heart knew him with the knowledge of youth. And she arose and came - to him, and conversed with him, saying, "Come stay with me, and it - shall be well for thee, and I will make for thee beautiful garments." - Then the youth became like a panther of the south with fury at the - evil speech which she had made to him; and she feared greatly. And he - spake unto her, saying, "Behold thou art to me as a mother, thy - husband is to me as a father, for he who is elder than I brought me - up. What is this wickedness that thou hast said to me? Say it not to - me again. For I will not tell it to any man, for I will not let it be - uttered by the mouth of any man." He lifted up his burden, and he went - to the field and came to his elder brother; and they took up their - work, to labor at their task. - - Now afterward, at eventime, his elder brother was returning to his - house; and the younger brother was following after his oxen, and he - loaded himself with all the things of the field; and he brought his - oxen before him, to make them lie down in their stable which was in - the farm. And behold the wife of the elder brother was afraid for the - words which she had said. She took a parcel of fat, she became like - one who is evilly beaten, desiring to say to her husband, "It is thy - younger brother who has done this wrong." Her husband returned in the - even as was his wont of every day: he came unto his house; he found - his wife ill of violence; she did not give him water upon his hands as - he used to have, she did not make a light before him, his house was in - darkness, and she was lying very sick. Her husband said to her, "Who - has spoken with thee?" Behold she said, "No one has spoken with me - except thy younger brother. When he came to take for thee corn he - found me sitting alone; he said to me, 'Come, let us stay together, - tie up thy hair': thus spoke he to me. I did not listen to him, but - thus spake I to him: 'Behold, am I not thy mother, is not thy elder - brother to thee as a father?' And he feared, and he beat me to stop me - from making report to thee, and if thou lettest him live I shall die. - Now behold he is coming in the evening; and I complain of these wicked - words, for he would have done this even in daylight." - - And the elder brother became as a panther of the south; he sharpened - his knife; he took it in his hand; he stood behind the door of the - stable to slay his younger brother as he came in the evening to bring - his cattle into the stable. - - Now the sun went down, and he loaded himself with herbs in his daily - manner. He came, and his foremost cow entered the stable, and she said - to her keeper, "Behold thy elder brother standing before thee with his - knife to slay thee; flee from before him." He heard what his first cow - had said; and the next entering, she also said likewise. He looked - beneath the door of the stable; he saw the feet of his elder brother; - he was standing behind the door, and his knife was in his hand. He - cast down his load to the ground, and betook himself to flee swiftly; - and his elder brother pursued after him with his knife. Then the - younger brother cried out unto Ra Harakhti,[435] saying, "My good - lord! thou art he who divides the evil from the good." And Ra stood - and heard his cry; and Ra made a wide water between him and his elder - brother, and it was full of crocodiles; and the one brother was on one - bank, and the other on the other bank; and the elder brother smote - twice on his hands at not slaying him. Thus did he. And the younger - brother called to the elder brother on the bank, saying, "Stand still - until the dawn of the day; and when Ra ariseth, I shall judge with - thee before him, and he discerneth between the good and the evil. For - I shall not be with thee any more forever; I shall not be in the place - in which thou art; I shall go to the valley of the acacia." - -We need not follow the story further. Those who wish to do so are referred -to Petrie's _Egyptian Tales_. From this point onward, it contains many -mythological features. - -This story, in the form in which we have it, was written for Seti II -(1209-1205 B. C.) of the nineteenth Egyptian dynasty, while that monarch -was still crown prince. Scholars of all shades of opinion have recognized -in it a striking parallel to the story of Joseph in the house of Potiphar, -in Genesis 39:1-20. Joseph, like the younger brother of this tale, was -trusted with everything about his master's place; Potiphar's wife, like -the sister-in-law of the tale, tempted Joseph; Joseph, like the younger -brother, resisted temptation; and Potiphar's wife, like the sister-in-law, -charged him with the crime which he had been unwilling to commit. - -Scholars of the critical school regard this as the original of the story -in Genesis. While they recognize that it is a theme which is not confined -to Egyptians and Hebrews (compare for other parallels Lang, _Myth, Ritual, -and Religion_, II, 303, ff.), the fact that the theme of the Biblical -story is laid in Egypt leads them to think it extremely probable that -there is a connection between the two. - -Conservative scholars on the other hand hold that in all probability there -was more than one such scandal in Egypt, and account for the likeness by -the similarity which would naturally present itself in such cases, holding -that the Egyptian tale has no bearing on the credibility of that in -Genesis. - -=4. Letters to a Ruler Like Joseph.= - -Among the letters in the Babylonian language and script found at El-Amarna -in Egypt in the winter of 1887-1888,[436] many of which were written to -Amenophis III and Amenophis IV, Kings of Egypt, 1411-1357 B. C., by -Egyptian vassals in Palestine and Syria, there are two which were written -to a Semite named Dudu (David), which show that this Semite held at the -Egyptian court a position analogous to that which Joseph, as ruler of -Egypt, is said to have held (Gen. 41:39, f.; 50:26). These letters are as -follows: - -I[437] - - 1. To Dudu, my lord, my father, - - 2. speaks Aziru, thy son, thy servant: - - 3. at the feet of my father I fall. - - 4. Unto my father may there be health! - - 5. O Dudu, truly I have given (_i. e._, done) - - 6. the wish of the king, my lord, - - 7. and whatever is the wish - - 8. of the king, my lord, let him send - - 9. and I will give (do) it. - - 10. Further: see, thou art there, - - 11. my father, and whatever is the wish - - 12. of Dudu, my father, send it - - 13. and I will indeed give (do) it. - - 14. Behold, thou art my father and my lord - - 15. and I am thy son. The lands of the Amorites - - 16. are thy lands, and my house is thy house, - - 17. and whatever thy wish is, - - 18. send, and I - - 19. shall behold, and verily will give (do) it. - - 20. And see, thou in the presence of - - 21. the king, my lord, sittest. - - 22. ............ enemies - - 23. words of slander - - 24. before my father, before - - 25. the king, my lord, have spoken, - - 26. but do thou not count them just! - - 27. And behold thou in the presence - - 28. of the king, my lord, as a dignitary (?) - - 29. sittest .................... - - 30. and the words of slander - - 31. against me do not count true. - - 32. Also I am a servant of the king, my lord, - - 33. and from the words of the king, my lord, - - 34. and from the words of Dudu, my father, - - 35. I shall not depart forever. - - 36. But when the king, my lord, does not love me, - - 37. but hates me, - - 38. then I--what shall I say? - -II[438] - - 1. To Dudu, my lord, my father, - - 2. speaks Aziru, thy servant: - - 3. at the feet of my lord I fall. - - 4. Khatib has come - - 5. and has brought the words - - 6. of the king, my lord, important and good, - - 7. and I am very, very glad, - - 8. and my land and my brethren, - - 9. the servants of the king, my lord, - - 10. and the servants of Dudu, my lord, - - 11. are very, very glad, - - 12. when there comes - - 13. the breath of the king, my lord, - - 14. unto me. From the words - - 15. of my lord, my god, my sun-god, - - 16. and from the words of Dudu, - - 17. my lord, I shall not depart. - - 18. My lord, truly Khatib - - 19. stands with me. - - 20. I and he will come. - - 21. My lord, the king of the Hittites - - 22. has come into Nukhashshi, - - 23. so that I cannot come. - - 24. Would that the king of the Hittites would depart! - - 25. Then truly I would come, - - 26. I and Khatib. - - 27. May the king, my lord, my words - - 28. hear! My lord, I fear - - 29. on account of the face of the king, my lord, - - 30. and on account of the face of Dudu. - - 31. And now by my gods - - 32. and my angels verily I have sworn, - - 33. O Dudu and nobles - - 34. of the king, my lord, that truly I will come. - - 35. And so, Dudu - - 36. and the king, my lord, and the nobles, - - 37. "Truly we will not conceive anything - - 38. against Aziru that is unfavorable,"-- - - 39. even thus may ye swear - - 40. by my gods and the god A! - - 41. And truly I - - 42. and Khatib are faithful servants of the king. - - 43. O Dudu, thou shalt truly know - - 44. that I will come to thee. - -The Aziru of these letters was the chieftain or petty king of the -Amorites, who were living at the time to the eastward of Phoenicia, -between the Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon mountains. The way in which he -addresses Dudu is significant. Dudu is classed continually with the king. -Aziru fears to offend Dudu as he fears to offend the king; the words of -Dudu are of equal importance with those of the king. Dudu clearly occupied -a position of power with the king of Egypt similar to that ascribed to -Joseph in Genesis 41. Moreover, Dudu is a Semitic name; vocalized a little -differently, it becomes David. - -The king to whom this letter was written was Amenophis III or Amenophis -IV, in whose reigns Semitic influence was especially strong in Egypt. -Amenophis III took as his favorite wife a woman named Tiy, daughter of -Yuaa and Tuau, whose mummies, discovered a few years ago, show, some -think, that they were Semitic. Queen Tiy was very influential during the -reign of her son, Amenophis IV, and was in part the cause of the -remarkable religious reform which he undertook (Part I, Chapter I, Sec. 6 -(vii)). It is not, accordingly, strange to find that the chief minister of -one of these kings was a Semite. Of course, Dudu cannot be identified with -Joseph, but his career shows that such careers as that of Joseph were not -impossible at this period of Egyptian history. - -=5. The Seven Years of Famine.= - -The following inscription was found cut on a rock between the island of -Elephantine and the First Cataract, and was first published by Brugsch in -1891. It is written in hieroglyphic characters, and was apparently -inscribed in the reign of Ptolemy X, 117-89 B. C. It relates how King -Zoser, of the third dynasty, who began to reign about 2980 B. C., nearly -2,800 years before the inscription was written, appealed to Khnum, the god -of Elephantine, because of a famine. The part of the text which interests -us is as follows:[439] - - "I am very anxious on account of those who are in the palace. My heart - is in great anxiety on account of misfortune, for in my time the Nile - has not overflowed for a period of seven years. There is scarcely any - produce of the field; herbage fails; eatables are wanting. Every man - robs his neighbor. Men move (?) with nowhere to go. The children cry, - the young people creep along (?). The aged heart is bowed down; their - limbs are crippled; they sit (?) on the earth. Their arms are ........ - The people of the court are at their wits' end. The store-houses (?) - were built, but .......... and all that was in them has been - consumed." - -As Brugsch[440] saw, this inscription gives a graphic account of the -suffering caused by seven such years of famine as are said to have -occurred in the time of Joseph (Gen. 41:30, 54, ff.). It cannot be the -same seven-year famine as that referred to in Genesis, as it is placed -several centuries too early to coincide with the time of Joseph. As the -inscription is about 2,800 years later than the event it describes, its -historical accuracy might be questioned, but it is probable that it was a -renewal of an earlier inscription. But even if its historical accuracy be -impugned, it witnesses to a native Egyptian tradition that such famines -were possible. - -=6. Inscription Showing Preparation for Famine.= - -Inscription of Baba of El-Kab[441] - - "The chief at the table of the sovereign, Baba, the risen again, - speaks thus: I loved my father; I honored my mother; my brothers and - sisters loved me. I went out of the door of my house with a benevolent - heart; I stood there with refreshing hand; splendid were my - preparations of what I collected for the festal day. Mild was (my) - heart, free from violent anger. The gods bestowed upon me abundant - prosperity upon earth. The city wished me health and a life of full - enjoyment. I punished the evil-doers. The children who stood before me - in the town during the days which I fulfilled were--great and - small--60; just as many beds were provided for them, just as many - chairs (?), just as many tables (?). They all consumed 120 ephahs of - durra, the milk of 3 cows, 52 goats, and 9 she-asses, a hin of balsam, - and 2 jars of oil. - - "My words may seem a jest to the gainsayer, but I call the god Mut to - witness that what I say is true. I had all this prepared in my house; - in addition I put cream in the store-chamber and beer in the cellar in - a more than sufficient number of hin-measures. - - "I collected corn as a friend of the harvest-god. I was watchful in - time of sowing. And when a famine arose, lasting many years, I - distributed corn to the city each year of famine." - -The Baba who wrote this inscription lived under the eighteenth Egyptian -dynasty, about 1500 B. C., or a little before. Brugsch pointed out many -years ago that Baba's concluding statement forms an interesting parallel -to the conduct of Joseph as told in Gen. 41:47-57. Baba claims to have -done for his city, El-Kab, what Joseph is said to have done for all Egypt. -His statement affords striking evidence of the historical reality of -famines in Egypt, and of such economic preparation for them. - - - - -CHAPTER XI - -PALESTINE IN THE PATRIARCHAL AGE - - THE TALE OF SINUHE. COMMUNICATION BETWEEN EGYPT AND PALESTINE. - - -=1. The Tale of Sinuhe.= - -In the year 1970 B. C., when Amenemhet I died and was succeeded by -Sesostris I, an Egyptian of high rank, named Sinuhe, for some reason now -unknown to us, fled from Egypt to Asia. The details of his escape from -Egypt are not of interest to the Biblical student, but his description of -the hardships encountered in the desert and of his experiences in eastern -Palestine are of great value, as they afford us our earliest description -of that country outside the Bible. The following extract begins just after -Sinuhe had told how he escaped the guards in the fort which stood at the -eastern frontier of Egypt.[442] - - I went on at the time of evening, - As the earth brightened, I arrived at Peten. - When I had reached the lake of Kemwer,[443] - I fell down for thirst, fast came my breath, - My throat was hot, - I said: "This is the taste of death." - I upheld my heart, I drew my limbs together, - As I heard the sound of lowing cattle, - I beheld the Bedawin. - That chief among them, who had been in Egypt, recognized me. - He gave me water, he cooked for me milk. - I went with him to his tribe, - Good was that which they did (for me). - One land sent me on to another, - I loosed for Suan,[444] - I arrived at Kedem;[445] - I spent a year and a half there. - Emuienshe,[446] that sheik of Upper [Ru]tenu,[447] brought me forth - saying to me: "Happy art thou with me, - (for) thou hearest the speech of Egypt." - He said this (for) he knew my character, - He had heard of my wisdom; - The Egyptians, who were there with him, bare witness of me. - -The Amorite chieftain then questioned Sinuhe concerning his flight. He -gave evasive answers, merging with his reply a long hymn in praise of the -king. After this Emuienshe said to him: - - "Behold, thou shalt now abide with me; - Good is that which I shall do for thee." - He put me at the head of his children, - He married me to his eldest daughter, - He made me select for myself of his land, - Of the choicest of that which he had, - On his boundary with another land. - It was a goodly land, named Yaa;[448] - There were figs in it and vines, - More plentiful than water was its wine, - Copious was its honey, plenteous its oil; - All fruits were upon its trees. - Barley was there and spelt, - Without end all cattle. - Moreover, great was that which came to me, - Which came for love of me, - When he appointed me sheik of the tribe, - From the choicest of his land. - I portioned the daily bread, - And wine for every day, - Cooked flesh and fowl in roast; - Besides the mid goats of the hills, - Which were trapped for me, and brought to me; - Besides that which my dogs captured for me. - There was much--made for me, - And milk in every sort of cooked dish. - I spent many years, - My children became strong, - Each the mighty man of his tribe. - The messenger going north, - Or passing southward to the court, - He turned in to me. - For I had all men turn in (to me). - -The tale goes on concerning the personal prowess of Sinuhe, who, in his -old age, returned to Egypt and made his peace with the king. - -=2. Communication between Egypt and Palestine.= - -This document from the early patriarchal age reveals a close relationship -between Egypt and Palestine. There was frequent communication between -Kedem and Egypt; messengers went to and fro. The Egyptian language was -understood at the court of the Amorite chieftain. These conditions throw -light on the narratives of the descent of Abraham and Jacob to Egypt. -Sinuhe's description of his life necessarily reminds one of the -description of Palestine so often met with in the Pentateuch, Joshua, and -the prophets, "a land flowing with milk and honey." (See, for example, -Exod. 3:8, 17.) - -(_For an addition to this chapter, see Appendix._) - - - - -CHAPTER XII - -MOSES AND THE EXODUS - - THE LEGEND OF SARGON OF AGADE; ITS RESEMBLANCE TO THE STORY OF MOSES. - THE PILLAR OF MERNEPTAH; THE ONLY APPEARANCE OF THE NAME "ISRAEL" - OUTSIDE OF THE BIBLE. - - -=1. The Legend of Sargon of Agade.= - -The following legend[449] contains a story of the exposure of an infant on -a river, strikingly like that told of Moses. - - 1. Sargon, the mighty king, king of Agade am I, - - 2. My mother was lowly; my father I did not know;[450] - - 3. The brother of my father dwelt in the mountain. - - 4. My city is Azupiranu, which is situated on the bank of the - Euphrates. - - 5. My lowly mother conceived me, in secret she brought me forth. - - 6. She placed me in a basket of reeds, she closed my entrance with - bitumen, - - 7. She cast me upon the river, which did not overflow me. - - 8. The river carried me, it brought me to Akki, the irrigator. - - 9. Akki, the irrigator, in the goodness of his heart lifted me out, - - 10. Akki, the irrigator, as his own son ...... brought me up; - - 11. Akki, the irrigator, as his gardener appointed me. - - 12. When I was a gardener the goddess Ishtar loved me, - - 13. And for four years I ruled the kingdom. - - 14. The black-headed[451] peoples I ruled, I governed; - - 15. Mighty mountains with axes of bronze I destroyed (?). - - 16. I ascended the upper mountains; - - 17. I burst through the lower mountains. - - 18. The country of the sea I besieged three times; - - 19. Dilmun[452] I captured (?). - - 20. Unto the great Dur-ilu I went up, I .......... - - 21. .......... I altered .......... - - 22. Whatsoever king shall be exalted after me, - - 23. .............................. - - 24. Let him rule, let him govern the black-headed peoples; - - 25. Mighty mountains with axes of bronze let him destroy; - - 26. Let him ascend the upper mountains, - - 27. Let him break through the lower mountains; - - 28. The country of the sea let him besiege three times; - - 29. Dilmun let him capture; - - 30. To great Dur-ilu let him go up. - -The rest is too broken for connected translation. - -It is thought by some scholars of the critical school that the parallelism -between the secret birth, the exposure, the rescue and adoption of Sargon, -and the account of the secret birth, exposure, rescue, and adoption of -Moses in Exod. 2:1-10 is too close to be accidental. Conservative -scholars, on the other hand, hold that, if the legend of Sargon is -historical, it merely affords an example of a striking coincidence of -events in two independent lives. - -=2. The Pillar of Merneptah.= - -In the fifth year of King Merneptah, who ruled from 1225-1215 B. C., and -who is thought to be the Pharaoh of the exodus, he inscribed on a pillar -an account of his wars and victories. The inscription concludes with the -following poetic strophe:[453] - - The kings are overthrown, saying: "salaam!" - Not one holds up his head among the nine bows.[454] - Wasted is Tehenu,[455] - Kheta[456] is pacified, - Plundered is the Canaan[457] with every evil, - Carried off is Askelon, - Seized upon is Gezer, - Yenoam[458] is made as a thing not existing. - Israel is desolated, his seed is not; - Palestine has become a widow for Egypt. - All lands are united, they are pacified; - Every one that is turbulent is bound by King Merneptah, who gives life - like Ra every day. - -This inscription contains the only mention of Israel in a document of this -age outside the Bible. It is, for that reason, of great importance. It -should be noted that Israel is mentioned along with peoples and places in -Palestine and Phoenicia. The Israel here referred to was not, accordingly, -in Egypt. Israel, on the other hand, may not have been more than a nomadic -people. The Egyptians used a certain "determinative" in connection with -the names of settled peoples. That sign is here used with Tehenu, Kheta, -Askelon, Gezer, and Yenoam, but not with Israel. - -As Merneptah has been supposed by many to be the Pharaoh in whose reign -the exodus occurred, the mention of Israel here has somewhat puzzled -scholars, and different explanations of the fact have arisen. At least one -scholar holds that the exodus occurred in Merneptah's third year, and that -he afterward attacked the Hebrews. Others have supposed that not all the -Hebrews had been in Egypt, but only the Joseph tribes. Still others have -thought that the Leah tribes had made their exodus during the eighteenth -dynasty, and that it was these with whom Merneptah fought, while the -Rachel tribes made their exodus under the nineteenth dynasty. Opinions -vary according to the critical views of different writers. All scholars -would welcome more information on these problems. - - - - -CHAPTER XIII - -THE CODE OF HAMMURAPI AND THE PENTATEUCH - - THE TEXT OF THE CODE; RESEMBLANCE TO AND CONTRAST WITH THE MOSAIC - CODE. THE MOSAIC CODE NOT BORROWED FROM THE BABYLONIAN; DIFFERENT - UNDERLYING CONCEPTIONS. - - -=1. The Text of the Code; Comparison with the Mosaic Code.= - -The following code of laws was inscribed by order of Hammurapi, of the -first dynasty of Babylon (2104-2061 B. C.), on a block of black diorite -nearly eight feet in height and set up in Esagila, the temple of Marduk, -in Babylon, so that the people might have the laws in the mother-tongue. -As this last statement implies, the laws are written in Semitic -Babylonian; before the time of Hammurapi the laws had been written in -Sumerian. At some later time an Elamite conqueror, who was overrunning -Babylonia, took this pillar away to Susa as a trophy. In course of time -the pillar was broken into three parts, which were found by the French -expedition under de Morgan in December, 1901, and January, 1902, while -excavating at Susa. As the code is the oldest known code of laws in the -world, being a thousand years older than Moses, and as it affords some -interesting peculiarities as well as some striking parallels to the laws -in Exodus 21-23 and in Deuteronomy, a translation of it, with some -comparison of Exodus and Deuteronomy, is here given: - -Against Witches - - Sec. 1. If a man brings an accusation against a man, that he has laid a - death-spell upon him, and has not proved it, the accuser shall be put - to death.[459] - - Sec. 2. If a man accuses another of practising sorcery upon him, but has - not proved it, he against whom the charge of sorcery is made shall go - to the sacred river; into the sacred river he shall plunge, and if the - sacred river overpowers him, his accuser shall take possession of his - house. If the sacred river shows that man to be innocent, and he is - unharmed, he who charged him with sorcery shall be killed. He who - plunged into the sacred river shall take the house of his accuser. - -With these laws we should compare Exod. 22:18, which imposes the death -penalty upon witches, and Deut. 18:10, ff., which declares that there -shall be no sorcerer, diviner, magician, or charmer in Israel and promises -a line of prophets to render these unnecessary. Magic is banished from -Israel; its presence in Babylonia is taken for granted, and only some of -its exercises, which were supposed to be especially deadly, were -forbidden. In Sec. 2 the man accused of sorcery is to be tried by ordeal. He -is to plunge into the river and if he can swim in its current, he is -innocent. Trial by ordeal is found but once in the Hebrew laws (Num. -5:11-28). There both the crime and the ordeal are very different from -this. - -Note that in these sections the false accuser suffers in just the way he -has tried to bring suffering to the other. This is the law of retaliation, -which appears in Deut. 19:16-21, where it is applied to false witnesses in -the same way as here. It will be found underlying many of the penalties of -this code. - -Laws Concerning False Witness - - Sec. 3. If in a case a man has borne false witness, or accused a man - without proving it, if that case is a capital case, that man shall be - put to death. - - Sec. 4. If he has borne witness in a case of grain or money, the penalty - of that case he shall himself bear. - -Hebrew law was similar; a false witness was to be visited with the penalty -which he had purposed to bring upon his brother (Deut. 19:18, 19). - -Against Reversing a Judicial Decision - - Sec. 5. If a judge has pronounced a judgment, made a decision, caused it - to be sealed, and afterward has altered his judgment, that judge they - shall convict on account of the case which he decided and altered; the - penalty which in that case he imposed he shall pay twelvefold, and in - the assembly from the seat of his judgment they shall expel him; he - shall not return; with the judges in a case he shall not sit. - -Hebrew law presents no parallel to this. - -Against Theft - - Sec. 6. If a man steals the goods of a god (temple) or of a palace, that - man shall be put to death, and he by whose hand the stolen goods were - received shall be put to death. - - Sec. 7. If a man purchases or receives on deposit either silver, gold, - man-servant, maid-servant, ox, sheep, ass, or anything whatever from - the hand of a minor or a slave without witnesses or contracts, that - man is a thief; he shall be put to death. - - Sec. 8. If a man has stolen ox, or sheep, or ass, or pig, or a boat, - either from a god (temple) or a palace, he shall pay thirtyfold. If he - is a poor man, he shall restore tenfold. If the thief has nothing to - pay, he shall be put to death. - - Sec. 9. If a man, who has lost anything, finds that which was lost in a - man's hand, (and) the man in whose hand the lost thing was found says: - "A seller sold it; I bought it before witnesses"; and the owner of the - lost thing says: "I will bring witnesses who know that the lost thing - is mine"; if the purchaser brings the seller who sold it to him and - the witnesses in whose presence it was bought, and the owner of the - lost thing brings the witnesses who know that the lost thing is his, - the judges shall examine their testimony. The witnesses before whom - the purchaser purchased it, and the witnesses who know the lost thing, - shall give their testimony in the presence of a god. The seller is a - thief; he shall be put to death. The owner of the lost thing shall - take that which was lost. The purchaser shall take from the house of - the seller the money which he had paid. - - Sec. 10. If the purchaser does not produce the seller who sold it to him - and the witnesses before whom he bought it, and the owner of the lost - thing produces the witnesses who know that the lost thing is his, the - purchaser is the thief; he shall be put to death. The owner of the - lost thing shall take that which he lost. - - Sec. 11. If the owner of the lost thing does not bring the witnesses who - know that the lost thing is his, he is one who has attempted fraud; he - shall be put to death. - - Sec. 12. If the seller has died, the purchaser shall recover from the - house of the seller the damages of that case fivefold. - - Sec. 13. If that man has not his witnesses near, the judges shall set an - appointed time within six months; and if, within six months, his - witnesses he does not produce, that man is a liar; the penalty of that - case he shall himself bear. - -The Hebrew laws comparable to these are found in Exod. 22:1-4, 9, and Lev. -6:3-5. Exodus directs (v. 1) that, if a man steals an ox or a sheep and -kills it or sells it, he shall restore live oxen for an ox and four sheep -for a sheep. In case it is not sold he shall restore double (v. 9). No -highly organized courts appear in the Biblical codes. The thief was -brought before God and his guilt determined by some religious test. The -law of Leviticus required a man guilty of theft to restore the lost -property, adding to it a fifth more, and to offer a ram in sacrifice. (See -Exod. 18:13-26. Cf. 2 Chron. 19:5-7 with 1 Chron. 23:4 and Deut. -16:18-20.) - -The Babylonian laws presuppose a much more highly organized social -community than the Hebrew. - -Against Stealing Children and Slaves - - Sec. 14. If a man steals the son of a man who is a minor, he shall be put - to death. - - Sec. 15. If a man causes a male or female slave of a palace, or the male - or female slave of a workingman to escape from the city gate, he shall - be put to death. - - Sec. 16. If a man harbors in his house either a male or a female slave - who has escaped from a palace or from a workingman, and does not bring - him out at the summons of the officer, the owner of that house shall - be put to death. - - Sec. 17. If a man finds in a field a male or a female slave who has - escaped and restores him to his owner, the owner of the slave shall - pay him 2 shekels of silver. - - Sec. 18. If that slave will not name his owner, he shall bring him unto - the palace and they shall investigate his record and restore him unto - his owner. - - Sec. 19. If he shall detain that slave in his house and afterward the - slave is found, that man shall be put to death. - - Sec. 20. If the slave escapes from the hand of his captor, that man shall - declare it on oath to the owner of the slave and shall be innocent. - -These laws are analogous to Exod. 21:16 and Deut. 23:15. The former -inflicts the death penalty for stealing a man and selling him, and the -latter prohibits one in whose house a fugitive slave has taken refuge from -returning the slave to his master. Slavery was not in Israel such a firmly -established institution as in Babylonia. (See Exod. 21:2-6; Deut. -15:12-18; Lev. 25:25-46.) - -Housebreaking and Brigandage - - Sec. 21. If a man breaks into a house, before that breach he shall be put - to death and thrown into it. - - Sec. 22. If a man practices brigandage and is caught, that man shall be - put to death. - - Sec. 23. If the robber is not caught, the man who is robbed shall declare - his loss, whatever it is, in the presence of a god, and the city and - governor in whose territory and jurisdiction the robbery was committed - shall compensate him for whatever was lost. - - Sec. 24. If it is a life, that city and governor shall pay to his - relatives 1 mana of silver.[460] - -Hebrew law presents an analogy to the last of these sections in Deut. -21:1-9, though in Israel no compensation was offered to the heirs of the -man who was slain, but a sacrifice was performed by the elders of the -nearest city, to purge it of innocent blood. - -Stealing at a Fire - - Sec. 25. If a fire breaks out in a man's house, and a man who has come to - extinguish it shall cast his eye upon the furniture of the owner of - the house, and the furniture of the owner of the house shall take, - that man shall be thrown into that fire. - -The Duties and Privileges of Soldiers, Constables, and Tax-collectors - - Sec. 26. If a soldier or a constable[461] who is ordered to go on a - journey for the king does not go, but hires a substitute and - dispatches him instead, that soldier or constable shall be put to - death; his hired substitute shall appropriate his house. - - Sec. 27. If a soldier or a constable is detained in a royal fortress and - after him they give his field or garden to another and he takes it - and carries it on, if the first one returns and reaches his city, they - shall restore to him his field and garden, and he shall take it and - carry it on. - - Sec. 28. If a soldier or a constable who is detained in a royal fortress - has a son who is able to carry on his business, they shall give to him - his field and garden and he shall carry on the business of his father. - - Sec. 29. If his son is small and not able to carry on the business of his - father, they shall give one-third of his field and garden to his - mother and she shall rear him. - - Sec. 30. If a soldier or a constable from the beginning of his - appointment neglects his field, garden, and house and leaves them - uncared for, another after him shall take his field, garden, and - house, and carry on his business for three years. If he returns and - desires his field, garden, and house, they shall not give them to him. - He who has taken them and carried on the business shall carry it on. - - Sec. 31. If he leaves it uncared for but one year and returns, they shall - give him his field, garden, and house, and he shall carry on his own - business. - - Sec. 32. If a merchant ransoms a soldier (?) or a constable who, on a - journey of the king, was detained, and brings him back, to his city, - if in his house there is sufficient ransom, he shall ransom himself. - If in his house there is not sufficient to ransom him, by the temple - of his city he shall be ransomed. If in the temple of his city there - is not a sufficient ransom, he shall be ransomed by the palace. His - field, garden, and house shall not be given for ransom. - - Sec. 33. If a governor or a magistrate harbors a deserting soldier or - accepts and sends a hired substitute on an errand of the king, that - governor or magistrate shall be put to death. - - Sec. 34. If a governor or a magistrate takes the property of a soldier, - plunders a soldier, or hires out a soldier, has defrauded a soldier in - a suit before a sheik, or takes the present which the king has given - to a soldier, that governor or magistrate shall be put to death. - - Sec. 35. If a man buys the cattle or sheep which the king has given to a - soldier, he shall forfeit his money. - - Sec. 36. One shall not sell the field, garden, or house of a soldier, - constable, or tax-collector. - - Sec. 37. If a man has bought the field, garden, or house of a soldier, - constable, or tax-collector, his tablet shall be broken, he shall - forfeit his money; the field, house, or garden shall return to its - owner. - - Sec. 38. A soldier, constable, or tax-collector shall not deed to his - wife or daughter the field, house, or garden, which is his perquisite, - nor shall he assign them for debt. - - Sec. 39. A field, garden, or house which he has purchased and possesses - he may deed to his wife or daughter, or may assign for debt. - - Sec. 40. A priestess, merchant, or other creditor may purchase his field, - garden, or house. The purchaser shall conduct the business of the - field, garden, or house which he has purchased. - - Sec. 41. If a man has bargained for the field, garden, or house of a - soldier, constable, or tax-collector and has given sureties, the - soldier, constable, or tax-collector shall return to the field, house, - or garden, and the sureties which were given him he shall keep. - -No such officers as these are mentioned in the laws of the Old Testament, -though some of them appear in earlier times in the records of Babylonia. -The tax-collectors mentioned here remind us of Solomon's tax-collectors -mentioned in 1 Kings 4:7, ff. - -Laws of Agriculture - - Sec. 42. If a man rents a field for cultivation and produces no grain in - that field, they shall call him to account for doing no work in that - field, and he shall give to the owner of the field grain similar to - that of adjacent fields. - - Sec. 43. If he does not cultivate that field and neglects it, he shall - give the owner of the field grain similar to that of adjacent fields, - and the field which he neglected he shall break up with mattocks, he - shall harrow, and return it to the owner of the field. - - Sec. 44. If a man rents an uncultivated field for three years for - improvement and neglects its surface and does not develop the field, - in the fourth year he shall break up the field with mattocks, he shall - hoe and harrow it, and return it unto the owner of the field, and for - every _Gan_ of land he shall measure out 10 _Gur_ of grain. - - Sec. 45. If a man lets his field for pay on shares to a farmer and - receives his rent, and afterward the storm-god inundates the field and - carries off the produce, the loss is the farmer's. - - Sec. 46. If the rent of his field he has not received, and he has let the - field for one-half or one-third (of the crop), the farmer and the - owner of the field shall divide the grain which is in the field - according to agreement. - - Sec. 47. If the farmer, because he has not in a former year received a - maintenance, entrusts the field to another farmer, the owner of the - field shall not interfere. He would cultivate it, and his field has - been cultivated. At the time of harvest he shall take grain according - to his contracts. - - Sec. 48. If a man has a debt against him and the storm-god inundates his - field and carries away the produce, or if through lack of water grain - has not grown in the field, in that year he shall not make a return of - grain to his creditor; his contract he shall change, and the interest - of that year he shall not pay. - - Sec. 49. If a man borrows money from a merchant, and has given to the - merchant a field planted with grain or sesame, and says to him: - "Cultivate the field and harvest and take the grain or sesame which it - produces"; if the tenant produces grain or sesame in the field, at the - time of harvest the owner of the field shall take the grain or sesame - which was produced by the field, and shall give to the merchant grain - for the money which he borrowed from the merchant with its interest, - and for the maintenance of the farmer. - - Sec. 50. If the field was already planted [with grain or] sesame, the - owner of the field shall receive the grain or the sesame which is - produced in the field, and the money and its interest he shall return - to the merchant. - - Sec. 51. If there is not money to return, he shall give to the merchant - [the grain or] sesame for the money and its interest which he had - received from the merchant, according to the scale of prices fixed by - the king. - - Sec. 52. If the farmer does not produce grain or sesame in his field, he - shall not alter his contract. - - Sec. 53. If a man the side of his strong dyke has neglected and has not - strengthened it, and in his dyke a break occurs, and the water - destroys the farm-land, the man in whose dyke the break occurred shall - restore the grain which was destroyed. - - Sec. 54. If he is not able to restore the grain, they shall sell him and - his possessions for money, and the owners of the fields whose grain - was destroyed shall share it. - - Sec. 55. If a man has opened his sluice for watering and has left it open - and the water destroys the field of his neighbor, he shall measure out - grain to him on the basis of that produced by neighboring fields. - - Sec. 56. If a man opens the water and the water destroys the work[462] of - a neighboring field, he shall measure out 10 _Gur_ of grain for each - _Bur_ of land. - - Sec. 57. If a shepherd causes his sheep to eat vegetation and has not - made an agreement with the owner of the field, and without the consent - of the owner of the field has pastured his sheep, the owner of the - field shall harvest that field, and the shepherd who without the - consent of the owner of the field caused his sheep to eat the field, - shall pay the owner of the field in addition 20 _Gur_ of grain for - each _Bur_ of land. - - Sec. 58. If, after the sheep have come up out of the fields and are - turned loose on the public common by the city gate, a shepherd turns - his sheep into a field and causes the sheep to eat the field, the - shepherd shall oversee the field which he caused to be eaten, and at - harvest-time he shall measure to the owner of the field 60 _Gur_ of - grain for each _Bur_ of land. - -The Hebrew land laws are found in Exod. 22:5, 6; 23:10, 11; Lev. 19:9, and -Deut. 24:19-22; 23:24, 25. An examination of these passages reveals a wide -difference between Babylonia and Israel. In Babylonia it seems to have -often been the rule that a landlord let out the fields to tenants to work; -among the Hebrews the law presupposes that each man shall work his own -land. Many of the Babylonian laws are designed to secure the respective -rights of landlord and tenant. Naturally, there is nothing in the Old -Testament to correspond to these. Hebrew law (Exod. 22:5), like the -Babylonian, provides that one who causes a neighbor's crop to be eaten -shall make restitution, but the regulations are of the most general -character. In Babylonia a larger social experience had made much more -specific regulations necessary. - -The characters of the respective countries are reflected in the dangers -from which crops might be threatened. In waterless Palestine a fire -started by a careless man might burn his neighbor's crop (Exod. 22:6); in -Babylonia, where irrigation from canals was conducted to fields lower than -the surface of the water, one might flood his neighbor's field and destroy -his crop by carelessly leaving his sluice open. - -The Hebrew legislation presupposes a poorer community. It provides that -the land shall lie fallow, and whatever it produces shall belong to the -poor (Exod. 23:10, 11). At harvest-time, too, one must not reap the -corners of his field; that was left to the poor (Lev. 19:9). If one forgot -a sheaf in his field, he must not return to take it; that should be left -to the poor (Deut. 24:19). Rich Babylonia made no such provision for the -poor; it felt no such social sympathy. - -Again, even these agricultural laws show that commerce was highly -developed in Babylonia, with its necessary concomitant, the right to -charge interest for money. The uncommercial Hebrews regarded interest as -unlawful (Exod. 22:25), and it was Hillel, the contemporary of Herod the -Great, who invented an interpretation known as the Prosbul, which -practically did away with this law and permitted Jews to take interest. - -Horticultural Laws - - Sec. 59. If a man shall cut down a tree in a man's orchard without the - consent of the owner, he shall pay 1/2 mana of silver. - - Sec. 60. If a man gives a field to a gardener to plant as an orchard, the - gardener shall plant the orchard and cultivate it for 4 years. In the - fifth year the owner of the orchard and the gardener shall share it - together. The owner of the orchard shall mark off his share and take - it. - - Sec. 61. If the gardener in planting does not complete it, but leaves a - part of it waste, unto his portion they shall count it. - - Sec. 62. If the field which is given to a gardener he does not plant, if - vegetation is the produce of the field for the years during which it - is neglected, the gardener shall measure out to the owner of the field - on the basis of the adjacent fields, and shall perform the work on the - field and restore it to the owner of the field. - - Sec. 63. If the field is [left] waste land, he shall perform the work on - the field and shall restore it to its owner, and 10 _Gur_ of grain for - each _Bur_ of land he shall measure out. - - Sec. 64. If a man lets his orchard to a gardener to manage, as long as - the gardener is in possession of the garden he shall give to the owner - of the garden two-thirds of the produce; one-third he shall take - himself. - - Sec. 65. If the gardener does not manage the garden and diminishes its - produce, the gardener shall measure out the produce of the orchard on - the basis of adjacent orchards.[463] - - Sec. 66. If a man has received money from a merchant, and his merchant - puts him under bonds and he has nothing to give, and he gives his - orchard for management unto the merchant and says: "The dates as many - as are in my orchard take for thy money," that merchant shall not - consent; the owner of the orchard shall take the dates that are in the - orchard and the money and its interest according to the tenor of his - agreement he shall bring to the merchant. The remaining dates from the - orchard shall belong to the owner of the orchard. - -As in Palestine, there was no system of rental; the Bible contains almost -no horticultural laws. "Orchards" in Babylonia were, as the last section -shows, date orchards. The corresponding fruit in Palestine was the grape. -Hebrew laws deal with vineyards as with fields. If a man destroys the crop -in another's vineyard, he is to give the best of his own (Exod. 22:5). He -is to leave his crop unpicked every seventh year for the poor (Exod. -23:11). He is not, when he gathers it, to glean it carefully, but leave -some for the poor (Lev. 19:10). When one goes into his neighbor's -vineyard, he may pick what he wishes to eat, but must carry nothing away. -Horticulture among the Hebrews was not so highly developed as in -Babylonia. - -Five columns of writing have been erased after Sec. 65 from the column on -which the laws are written. This erasure was probably made by the Elamite -conqueror, who carried the column as a trophy to Susa, in order to -inscribe his own name on it, but unfortunately, if that was the intention, -it was never carried out. We are accordingly in ignorance of his name. It -is estimated that 35 sections of laws were thus lost. As already noted, -one can be supplied from a fragment found at Susa, and from other tablets -fragments of two or three other sections can be made out. One of these -incomplete fragments refers to the rights of tenants of houses. It reads: - - [If] a man rents a house for money, and pays the whole rent for a year - to the owner of the house, and the owner of the house orders that man - to vacate before the expiration of his lease, the owner of the house - from the money that he received shall ............ - -Unfortunately, the tablet is broken and the penalty for breaking the lease -is unknown. It is interesting to know that Babylonian tenants were -protected from avaricious landlords, even though no parallel law exists in -the Old Testament. - -Two other sections of laws that once stood in this lacuna can now be -supplied from a considerably defaced tablet from Nippur in the University -Museum in Philadelphia, which once contained a part or all of the code of -Hammurapi. These sections are as follows: - -A Bankrupt Law[464] - - If a man borrows grain or money from a merchant and for the payment - has no grain or money, whatever is in his hand he shall in the - presence of the elders give to the merchant in place of the debt; the - merchant shall not refuse it; he shall receive it. - -A Partnership Law[465] - - If a man gives money to a man for a partnership, the gain and profit - that accrue are before the gods; together they shall do business. - -The phrase "before the gods" means that the division shall be made on -oath. Commercial life was not sufficiently developed among the Hebrews so -that they needed such a law, consequently the Pentateuch contains no -parallel to this. - -After the erasure of five columns the laws have to do with agents or -traveling salesmen. - -Agents and Merchants - - Sec. 100. [If an agent has received money from a merchant, he shall write - down the amount and the amount of] the interest on the money, and, - when the time has expired, he shall repay the merchant as much as he - has received. - - Sec. 101. If where he goes he does not meet with success, the agent shall - double the amount of the money he received and return it to the - merchant. - - Sec. 102. If a merchant gives money to an agent as a favor, and where he - goes he meets with misfortune, he shall restore the principal unto the - merchant. - - Sec. 103. If on the road as he travels an enemy robs him of anything he - carries, the agent shall give an account of it under oath and shall be - innocent. - - Sec. 104. If a merchant has given to an agent grain, wool, or oil, or - anything whatever to sell, the agent shall write down the price and - shall return the money to the merchant. The agent shall take a receipt - for the money which he gives to the merchant. - - Sec. 105. If the agent is careless and does not take a receipt for the - money he gave the merchant, money not receipted for shall not be - placed to his account. - - Sec. 106. If an agent receives money from a merchant and has a dispute - with his merchant about it, that merchant shall put the agent on trial - on oath before the elders concerning the money he received and the - agent shall pay the merchant three times as much as he received. - - Sec. 107. If a merchant lends to an agent and the agent returns to the - merchant whatever the merchant had given him, if the merchant has a - dispute with him about it, that agent shall put the merchant on trial - on oath in the presence of the elders, and the merchant, because he - had a dispute with his agent, whatever he received he shall give to - the agent six times as much. - -The Hebrews of the Old Testament time were not a commercial people and had -no such laws. Men today are inclined to think that the drummer, or -traveling salesman, is a modern invention, but these laws show that he was -an old institution in Babylonia four thousand years ago. - -Wine Merchants - - Sec. 108. If a woman who keeps a wine-shop does not receive grain as the - price of drink, but takes money of greater value, or makes the measure - of drink smaller than the measure of grain, that mistress of a - wine-shop they shall put on trial and into the water shall throw her. - - Sec. 109. If the mistress of a wine-shop collects criminals in her house, - and does not seize these criminals and conduct them to the palace, - that mistress of a wine-shop shall be put to death. - - Sec. 110. If the wife of a god (_i. e._, a consecrated temple-woman), who - is not living in the house appointed, opens a wine-shop or enters a - wine-shop for a drink, they shall burn that woman. - - Sec. 111. If the mistress of a wine-shop gives 60 _Qa_ of _sakani_-plant - drink on credit at the time of harvest, she shall receive 50 _Qa_ of - grain. - -The Old Testament affords no parallel. There were no wine-shops in Israel -so far as we know, and such consecrated women were prohibited by Deut. -23:17. - -Deposits and Distraints - - Sec. 112. If a man continually traveling has given silver, gold, precious - stones, or property to a man and has brought them to him for - transportation, and that man does not deliver that which was for - transportation at the place to which it was to be transported, but has - appropriated it, the owner of the transported goods shall put that man - on trial concerning that which was to be transported and was not - delivered, and that man shall deliver unto the owner of the - transported goods five times as much as was entrusted to him. - - Sec. 113. If a man has grain or money deposited with a man and without - the consent of the owner he takes grain from the heap or the granary, - they shall prosecute that man because he took grain from the heap or - the granary without the consent of the owner, and the grain as much as - he took he shall return, and whatever it was he shall forfeit an equal - amount. - - Sec. 114. If a man does not have against a man [a claim] for grain or - money and secures a warrant against him for debt, for each warrant he - shall pay 1/3 of a mana of money. - - Sec. 115. If a man holds against a man [a claim] for grain or money and - secures a warrant against him for debt and the debtor dies through his - fate in the house of the creditor, that case has no penalty. - - Sec. 116. If the debtor dies through violence or lack of care, the owner - of the debtor shall prosecute the merchant; if it was the son of a - man, his son shall be put to death; if the slave of a man, he shall - pay 1/3 of a mana of money, and whatever [the debt] was, he shall - forfeit as much. - -Among the Hebrews, as among other ancient peoples, the poor at times -deposited their valuables with the more powerful for safekeeping. This was -natural before the invention of banks and safe deposit vaults. - -The Hebrew law in Exod. 22:7-10 provides that if goods are given to -another man to keep and are stolen out of his house, the thief should, if -found, restore double the amount taken. If the thief was not found, the -owner of the house should be brought to God (so American R. V.)[466], _i. -e._, to the temple, where in some way (probably by lot) it was determined -whether he was guilty. If guilty, the owner of the house had to restore -twofold. - -Somewhat parallel to the Babylonian laws which permit the imprisonment of -a debtor in one's house is the Hebrew law that a poor debtor might become -a slave for six years (Exod. 21:2-6; Deut. 15:7-18). The Old Testament -laws are not quite uniform. In reality it is only that of Deuteronomy -which contemplates slavery in consequence of indebtedness; Exodus speaks -as though the slave might not be bought in any way. The important point -is that in Babylonia a man might be imprisoned for debt; in Israel he -might become a temporary slave. - -As to the deposit of valuable property with a creditor for security, the -Hebrew law, while it shows that there were other kinds of pledges (Deut. -24:10, ff.), mentions but one kind. This was in the case of a man so poor -that he had to give his outer garment as security. The law provided that -this should be returned to him at night, since the poor peasants had no -other blankets than these garments. A hard-hearted creditor might, by -keeping the garment at night, risk the life of the debtor (Exod. 22:26, -27; Deut. 24:11-13). - -Debts - - Sec. 117. If a man is subjected to an attachment for debt and sells his - wife, son, or daughter, or they are given over to service, for three - years they shall work in the house of their purchaser or temporary - master; in the fourth year they shall be set free. - - Sec. 118. If he binds to service a male or a female slave, and the - merchant transfers or sells him, he can establish no claim. - - Sec. 119. If a man is subjected to an attachment for debt and sells a - maid-servant who has borne him children, the owner of the maid-servant - shall pay and shall release his maid-servant. - -These laws are quite similar to Exod. 21:2-11 and Deut. 15:12-18. - -The main differences are that the Hebrew law contemplates that a man may -enter slavery himself; the Babylonian only that he shall permit his wife, -son, or daughter to do it. The Hebrews released such slaves at the end of -six years;[467] the Babylonians at the end of three. Hebrew law -recognized, too, that a man might sell his daughter into slavery (Exod. -21:7-11), but it stipulated that her treatment should be different from -that of men. It recognizes that either her master or his son would be -likely to make her a real or a secondary wife. She was not to be released -at the end of seven years, but in case her master did not deal with her in -certain specified ways she regained her freedom regardless of her period -of service. - -Storage of Grain - - Sec. 120. If a man has stored his grain in heaps in the building of - another and an accident happens in the granary, or the owner of the - building has disturbed the heap and taken grain, or has disputed the - amount of grain that was stored in his building, the owner of the - grain shall give an account of his grain under oath, the owner of the - building shall double the amount of grain which he took and restore it - to the owner of the grain. - - Sec. 121. If a man stores grain in a man's building, he shall pay each - year 5 _Qa_ of grain for each _Gur_ of grain. - -These laws have no Biblical parallel. - -Deposits and Losses - - Sec. 122. If a man gives to another on deposit silver or gold or anything - whatever, anything as much as he deposits he shall recount to - witnesses and shall institute contracts and make the deposit. - - Sec. 123. If without witnesses and contracts he has placed anything on - deposit and at the place of deposit they dispute it, that case has no - penalty. - - Sec. 124. If a man gives to another on deposit silver or gold or anything - whatever in the presence of witnesses and he disputes it, he shall - prosecute that man and he shall double whatever he disputed and shall - repay it. - - Sec. 125. If a man places anything on deposit and at the place of deposit - either through burglary or pillage anything of his is lost, together - with anything belonging to the owner of the building, the owner of the - building who was negligent and lost what was given him on deposit - shall make it good and restore it to the owner of the goods. The owner - of the house shall institute a search for whatever was lost and take - it from the thief. - - Sec. 126. If a man has not lost anything, but says he has lost something, - or files a claim as though he had lost something, he shall give - account of his claim on oath, and whatever he brought suit for he - shall double and shall give for his claim. - -There is no mention in the laws of the Old Testament of this kind of -deposit, though, as already noted, it probably was sometimes practised. - -Against Slandering Women - - Sec. 127. If a man causes the finger to be pointed at the woman of a god - or the wife of a man and cannot prove it, they shall bring him before - the judges and they shall brand his forehead. - -The nearest parallel to this in the Old Testament is in Deut. 22:13-21, -which is really quite a different law, for it applies only to cases where -men, when just married, slander their wives by charging them with previous -impurity. The Hebrew law provides a method of trial, a punishment for the -man, if guilty, and a much severer one for the woman, if the charge is -true. The two codes belong to quite a different legal development, as is -shown by the fact that the Babylonian law refers to "a woman of a god," -_i. e._, one of the temple-women who, under certain religious rules, -represented in a concrete way the procreative power of the god. - -This code recognizes several classes of these, as will appear later, but -Hebrew law forbade the existence of such women in Israel (Deut. 23:17). - -Chastity, Marriage, and Divorce - - Sec. 128. If a man takes a wife and does not execute contracts for her, - that woman is no wife. - - Sec. 129. If the wife of a man is caught lying with another man, they - shall bind them and throw them into the water. If the husband of the - woman would let her live, or the king would let his subject live, he - may do so. - - Sec. 130. If a man forces the betrothed wife of another who is living in - her father's house and has not known a man, and lies in her loins and - they catch him, that man shall be put to death and that woman shall go - free. - - Sec. 131. If the wife of a man is accused by her husband, and she has not - been caught lying with another man, she shall swear her innocence and - return to her house. - - Sec. 132. If the finger has been pointed at the wife of a man because of - another man and she has not been caught lying with the other man, for - her husband's sake she shall plunge into the sacred river. - - Sec. 133. If a man is taken captive and there is food in his house, his - wife shall not go out from his house, her body she shall guard, into - the house of another she shall not enter. If that woman does not guard - her body and enters into the house of another, that woman they shall - prosecute and throw her into the water. - - Sec. 134. If a man is taken captive and in his house there is no food, - and his wife enters into the house of another, that woman is not to - blame. - - Sec. 135. If a man is taken captive and there is no food in his house and - his wife has openly entered into the house of another and borne - children, and afterwards her husband returns and reaches his city, - that woman shall return to her husband and the children shall follow - their father. - - Sec. 136. If a man deserts his city and flees and after it his wife - enters into the house of another, if that man returns and would take - his wife, because he deserted his city and fled, the wife of the - fugitive shall not return to the house of her husband. - - Sec. 137. If a man sets his face against a concubine who has borne him - children or a wife that has presented him with children, to put her - away, he shall return to that woman her marriage portion, and shall - give her the income of field, garden, and house, and she shall bring - up her children. From the time that her children are grown, from - whatever is given to her children, a portion like that of a son shall - be given to her, and the husband of her choice she may marry. - - Sec. 138. If a man would put away his spouse who has not borne him - children, he shall give her silver equal to her marriage gift, and the - dowry which she brought from her father's house he shall restore to - her and may put her away. - - Sec. 139. If she had no dowry, he shall give her one mana of silver for a - divorce. - - Sec. 140. If he belongs to the laboring class, he shall give her - one-third of a mana of silver. - - Sec. 141. If the wife of a man who is living in the house of her husband - sets her face to go out and act the fool, her house neglects and her - husband belittles, they shall prosecute that woman. If her husband - says: "I divorce her," he may divorce her. On her departure nothing - shall be given her for her divorce. If her husband does not say: "I - divorce her," her husband may take another wife; that woman shall - dwell as a slave in the house of her husband. - - Sec. 142. If a woman hates her husband and says: "Thou shalt not hold - me," they shall make investigation concerning her into her defects. If - she has been discreet and there is no fault, and her husband has gone - out and greatly belittled her, that woman has no blame; she may take - her marriage-portion and go to her father's house. - - Sec. 143. If she has not been discreet, and has gone out and neglected - her house and belittled her husband, they shall throw that woman into - the water. - - Sec. 144. If a man takes a priestess and that priestess gives a female - slave to her husband, and she has children; if that man sets his face - to take a concubine, they shall not favor that man. He may not take a - concubine. - - Sec. 145. If a man takes a priestess and she does not present him with - children and he sets his face to take a concubine, that man may take a - concubine and bring her into his house. That concubine shall not rank - with the wife. - - Sec. 146. If a man takes a priestess and she gives to her husband a - maid-servant and she bears children, and afterward that maid-servant - would take rank with her mistress; because she has borne children her - mistress may not sell her for money, but she may reduce her to bondage - and count her among the female slaves. - - Sec. 147. If she has not borne children, her mistress may sell her for - money. - - Sec. 148. If a man takes a wife and she is attacked by disease, and he - sets his face to take another, he may do it. His wife who was attacked - by disease he may not divorce. She shall live in the house he has - built and he shall support her as long as she lives. - - Sec. 149. If that woman does not choose to live in the house of her - husband, he shall make good to her the dowry which she brought from - her father's house and she may go away. - - Sec. 150. If a man presents his wife with field, garden, house, or goods, - and gives to her sealed deeds, after her husband's death her children - shall not press a claim against her. The mother after her death may - leave it to her child whom she loves, but to a brother she may not - leave it. - - Sec. 151. If a wife who is living in the house of a husband has persuaded - her husband and he has bound himself that she shall not be taken by a - creditor of her husband; if that man had a debt against him before he - took that woman, the creditor may not hold that woman, and if that - woman had a debt against her before she entered the house of her - husband, her creditor may not hold her husband. - - Sec. 152. If they become indebted after the woman enters the man's house, - both of them are liable to the merchant. - - Sec. 153. If a woman causes the death of her husband on account of - another man, that woman they shall impale. - - Sec. 154. If a man has known his daughter, the city shall drive out that - man. - - Sec. 155. If a man has betrothed a bride to his son and his son has known - her and he afterward lies in her loins and they catch him, they shall - bind that man and throw him into the water. - - Sec. 156. If a man has betrothed a bride to his son and his son has not - known her and he lies in her loins, he shall pay her half a mana of - silver and restore to her whatever she brought from the house of her - father, and the man of her choice may marry her. - - Sec. 157. If a man after his father's death lies in the loins of his - mother, they shall burn both of them. - - Sec. 158. If a man after his father's death is admitted to the loins of - his chief wife who has borne children, that man shall be expelled from - the house of his father. - - Sec. 159. If a man who has brought a present unto the house of his - father-in-law and has given a bride-price looks with longing upon - another woman, and says to his father-in-law: "Thy daughter I will not - take," the father of the daughter shall keep whatever was brought to - him. - - Sec. 160. If a man brings a present to the house of a father-in-law and - gives a bride-price, and the father of the daughter says: "I will not - give thee my daughter," whatever was brought him he shall double and - restore it. - - Sec. 161. If a man brings a present to the house of his father-in-law and - gives a bride-price, and his neighbor slanders him, and the father - says to the groom: "Thou shalt not take my daughter," whatever was - brought he shall double and restore to him. - -These Babylonian laws present numerous points of contact and of -divergence, when compared with the Biblical laws on the same subject. -There is no Biblical parallel to Sec. 128. The law (Sec. 129) which imposes the -death penalty upon a man who commits adultery with another man's wife and -upon the woman, finds an exact parallel in Lev. 20:10 and Deut. 22:22, -though the Biblical law, unlike the Babylonian, provides no way in which -clemency could be extended to the offenders. - -The laws in Secs. 130, 156, concerning the violation of betrothed virgins, -are in a general way paralleled by Lev. 19:20-22 and Deut. 22:23-26, -though there are such differences that, while the underlying principles -are the same, it is clear that there was entire independence of -development. A religious element enters into Leviticus that is entirely -absent from the Babylonian code. The Bible contains two laws on this -subject that are without parallel in the Babylonian code. These are found -in Exod. 22:16, 17 and Deut. 22:28, 29, and impose penalties for the -violation of virgins who were not betrothed. In both codes the principle -is manifest that the loss of a girl's honor was to be compensated by -money, though Deut. 22:28, 29 recognizes that it has a value that money -cannot buy. - -The laws relating to a wife whose fidelity is suspected (Secs. 131, 132) find -a general parallel in Num. 5:11-28. The provision at the end of Sec. 132 that -the wife should plunge into the sacred river is in the nature of trial by -ordeal. The law in Numbers imposes on such a woman trial by ordeal, though -it is of a different sort. She must drink water in which dust from the -floor of the sanctuary is mingled--dust surcharged with divine -potency--and if she does not swell up and die, she is counted innocent. - -The laws which provide that a wife may present her husband with a -slave-girl as a concubine (Secs. 137, 144-147) are without parallel in the -Biblical codes, but are strikingly illustrated by the patriarchal -narratives. Sarah gave Hagar to Abraham (Gen. 16); Rachel and Leah gave -Bilhah and Zilpah to Jacob (Gen. 30:1-13). The law (Sec. 146) which deals -with such a slave-girl who would rank with her mistress is closely -parallel to the story of the treatment of Hagar in Gen. 16:5-7 and 21:9, -10. - -The laws on divorce (Secs. 138-141) are really in advance of the one Biblical -law on the subject (Deut. 24:1-4). The law in Deuteronomy permits a -husband to put away a wife, who in any way does not please him, without -alimony, while to the wife no privilege of initiating divorce proceedings -is granted at all. The Babylonian laws secure to the divorced woman a -maintenance, and, while by no means according her equal rights with the -man, provide (Sec. 142) that she may herself initiate the proceedings for -divorce. The ordeal must have been an unpleasant one, but in Israel's law -a woman had no such rights.[468] - -The law concerning adultery with a daughter-in-law (Sec. 155) is identical in -purpose and severity with Lev. 20:12. The laws in Secs. 157, 158, which -prohibit immorality with one's mother or the chief wife of one's father, -just touch upon the great subject of incest and the prohibited degrees of -marriage which are treated at considerable length in Lev. 18:6-18; 20:11, -19-21, and Deut. 22:30. The Babylonian laws touch but two specific cases, -which may be said to be covered by Deut. 22:30, while the laws of -Leviticus treat the whole subject of the prohibited degrees of marriage in -a broad and comprehensive way. The main idea pervading Leviticus is -holiness. Israel is to be kept free from the pollution of incest in any -form. The religious motive exhibited here is foreign to the Babylonian -code. - -Inheritance - - Sec. 162. It a man takes a wife and she bears him children and that woman - dies, her father may not lay claim to her dowry. Her dowry belongs to - her children. - - Sec. 163. If a man takes a wife and she does not present him with - children and that woman dies; if his father-in-law returns unto him - the marriage-settlement, which that man brought to the house of the - father-in-law, unto the dowry of that woman her husband may not lay - claim. Her dowry belongs to the house of her father. - - Sec. 164. But if his father-in-law does not return the - marriage-settlement unto him, he shall deduct from her dowry the - amount of the marriage-settlement, and then return the dowry to the - house of her father. - - Sec. 165. If a man has presented to his son, the first in his eyes, - field, garden, or house, and written for him a sealed deed, and - afterward the father dies; when the brothers divide, he shall take the - present which his father gave him, and over and above they shall - divide the goods of the father's house equally. - - Sec. 166. If a man takes wives for the sons which he possesses, but has - not taken a wife for his youngest son, and afterward the father dies; - when the brothers divide, for their younger brother who does not have - a wife they shall present over and above his portion money for a - marriage-settlement, and shall enable him to take a wife. - - Sec. 167. If a man takes a wife and she bears him children and that woman - dies, and after her he takes a second and she bears him children, - after the father dies, the children shall not share according to their - mothers. They shall receive the dowries of their respective mothers, - and the goods of their father's house they shall share equally. - - Sec. 168. If a man has set his face to cut off his son, and says to the - judges: "I will cut off my son," the judges shall make investigation - concerning him; if the son has not committed a grave crime which cuts - off from sonship, the father may not cut off his son from sonship. - - Sec. 169. If he has committed against his father a grave crime which cuts - off from sonship, he shall pardon him for the first offense. If he - commits a grave crime the second time, the father may cut off his son - from sonship. - - Sec. 170. If a man's wife bears him children and a slave-girl bears him - children, and the father during his lifetime says to the children - which the slave-girl bore him: "My children," and counts them with the - children of the wife, after the father dies the children of the wife - and the children of the slave-girl shall divide equally the goods of - their father's house. The sons that are sons of the wife shall at the - sharing divide and take. - - Sec. 171. But if the father during his lifetime has not said unto the - children which the slave-girl bore him: "My children," after the - father dies the children of the slave-girl shall not share with the - children of the wife. The slave-girl and her children shall be given - their freedom; the children of the wife may not put a claim upon the - children of the slave-girl for service. The wife shall receive her - dowry and a gift which her husband gave her and wrote upon a tablet - and may dwell in the dwelling of her husband as long as she lives and - eat. She may not sell it. After her it belongs to her children. - - Sec. 172. If her husband has not given her a gift, they shall restore to - her her dowry and she shall receive from the goods of the house of her - husband the portion of one son. If the children abuse her in order to - drive her from the house, the judges shall investigate concerning her - and if they find the children in the wrong, that woman shall not go - from the house of her husband. If that woman sets her face to go out, - she shall leave with her children the gift which her husband gave her; - the dowry from the house of her father she shall receive and the - husband of her choice may take her. - - Sec. 173. If that woman, where she has entered, bears children to her - later husband, after that woman dies the children of her first and her - later husband shall share her dowry. - - Sec. 174. If she did not bear children to her later husband, the children - of her first husband shall receive her dowry. - - Sec. 175. If a slave of the palace or the slave of a workingman takes the - daughter of a patrician and she bears children, the owner of the slave - shall have no claim for service on the children of the daughter of a - patrician. - - Sec. 176. But if a slave of the palace or the slave of a workingman takes - the daughter of a patrician, and when he takes her she enters together - with the dowry from her father's house into the house of the slave of - the palace or the slave of the workingman; if after they are united - they build a house and acquire property and afterward the slave of the - palace or the slave of the workingman dies, the daughter of the - patrician shall receive her dowry and they shall divide into two parts - whatever her husband and herself had acquired after their union. Half - the owner of the slave shall take, and the daughter of the patrician - shall receive half for her children. If the daughter of the patrician - had no dowry, whatever her husband and herself had acquired after - their union they shall divide into two parts. The owner of the slave - shall take half and the daughter of the patrician shall receive half - for her children. - - Sec. 177. If a widow whose children are minors sets her face to enter the - house of a second husband, she shall not do it without the consent of - the judges. When she enters the house of a second husband, the judges - shall inquire into the estate of her former husband, and the estate of - the former husband they shall entrust to the second husband and to - that woman, and shall cause them to leave a tablet (receipt). The - estate they shall guard and rear the minors. The household goods they - may not sell. The purchaser of household goods belonging to the - children of a widow shall forfeit his money. The goods shall revert to - their owners. - - Sec. 178. If there is a wife of a god, priestess, or sacred harlot, whose - father has given her a dowry and written her a record of gift, and in - the record of gift he has not written, "after her she may give it to - whomsoever she pleases," and has not given her full discretion; after - her father dies her brothers shall take her field and garden, and - according to the value of her share they shall give her grain, oil, - and wool, and shall content her heart. If her brothers shall not give - her grain, oil, and wool, according to the value of her share, and - shall not content her heart, she may let her field and garden unto any - tenant she pleases and her tenant shall maintain her. Her field, - garden, or whatever her father gave her she may enjoy as long as she - lives. She may not sell it for money or transfer it to another. Her - heritage belongs to her brothers. - - Sec. 179. If there is a wife of a god, priestess, or sacred harlot, whose - father has given her a dowry and written a record of gift; and in the - record of gift he has written, "after her she may give it to - whomsoever she pleases," and has granted her full discretion; after - her father dies she may give it after her to whomsoever she pleases. - Her brothers have no claim upon her. - - Sec. 180. If a father does not give a dowry to his daughter, a priestess - living in the appointed house, or a sacred harlot, after the father - dies she shall receive from the goods of her father's house the same - share as one son, and as long as she lives she shall enjoy it. After - her it belongs to her brothers. - - Sec. 181. If the father of a priestess, sacred harlot, or temple maiden - gives her to a god and does not give her a dowry, after the father - dies she shall receive from the goods of her father's house a third of - the portion of a son and shall enjoy it as long as she lives. After - her it belongs to her brothers. - - Sec. 182. If a father does not give a dowry to his daughter, a priestess - of Marduk of Babylon, and does not write a record of gift for her; - after her father dies she shall receive from the goods of her father's - house one-third of the portion of a son, and shall pay no tax. A - priestess of Marduk after her death may leave it to whomsoever she - pleases. - - Sec. 183. If a father presents a dowry to his daughter who is a - concubine, and gives her to a husband and writes a record of gift; - after the father dies she shall not share in the goods of her father's - house. - - Sec. 184. If a father does not present a dowry to his daughter who is a - concubine and does not give her to a husband; after her father's death - her brothers shall give her a dowry according to the value of the - father's estate and shall give her to a husband. - -In comparison with these Babylonian laws of inheritance those in the Old -Testament are comparatively simple. We learn from Deut. 21:15-17, that a -man's firstborn son received a "double portion" of his father's estate, -_i. e._, twice as much as any other son. The inference is that the other -sons shared equally. This law also provides that, when a man has two -wives, the sons of the favorite wife shall have no advantage as to -inheritance over the sons of the less loved wife. In Num. 27:8-11 it is -provided that if a man has no son, his estate (_i. e._, real estate) may -go to his daughter; if he has no daughter, it may go to his brothers; if -no brothers, it goes to his father's brothers. If his father has no -brothers, the estate is to go to the next of kin. In Num. 36:2-12 the law -that a daughter may inherit her father's estate is supplemented by the -provision that such a daughter must marry within the tribe, so that the -landed property may not in the next generation pass out of the tribe. - -Such were the Hebrew laws of inheritance. They apply to a much less -complexly organized society than the Babylonian. - -Secs. 168, 169 of Hammurapi's code deal with the cutting off of a son. This -is paralleled in Deut. 21:18-21, though punishment inflicted by the law in -Deuteronomy is quite different from the Babylonian, since the Hebrew boy, -whose parents have proved him before the elders to be unworthy of sonship, -was not cast out and sent away, but stoned to death. Another form of this -law appears in Exod. 21:17. - -Adoption - - Sec. 185. If a man takes a young child in his name unto sonship and - brings him up, one may not bring a claim for that adopted son. - - Sec. 186. If a man takes a young child unto sonship, and when he has - taken him he rebels against his [adopted] father and mother, that - foster-child shall return to his father's house. - - Sec. 187. One may not bring claim for the son of a temple-servant, a - palace guard, or of a sacred harlot. - - Sec. 188. If an artisan takes a son to sonship and teaches him his - handicraft, one may not bring claim for him. - - Sec. 189. If he does not teach him his handicraft, that foster-son may - return to the house of his father. - - Sec. 190. If a man does not count among his sons a young child whom he - has taken to sonship and reared, that foster-child may return to his - father's house. - - Sec. 191. If a man who takes a young child to sonship and rears him and - establishes a house and acquires children, afterward sets his face to - cut off that foster-son, that son shall not go his way. The father who - reared him shall give him from his goods one-third the share of a son - and he shall go. From field, garden, or house, he shall not give him. - -In the codes of the Old Testament there are no laws of adoption. The story -of the adoption of Ephraim and Manasseh by Jacob in Gen. 48 shows that the -idea was not unknown to the Hebrews, among whom the ceremony of adoption -would seem to have consisted of the act of acknowledging the children as -one's own by placing one's hands on their heads and giving them a paternal -blessing. - -Renunciation of Sonship - - Sec. 192. If the son of a temple-servant or the son of a sacred harlot - says to the father that brought him up or to the mother that brought - him up, "Thou art not my father," or, "Thou art not my mother," they - shall cut out his tongue. - - Sec. 193. If the son of a temple-servant or the son of a sacred harlot - has identified his father's house and hated the father who brought him - up or the mother who brought him up and goes back to his father's - house, they shall pluck out his eye. - -The Old Testament has no laws with which to compare these. The two classes -of persons whose children are mentioned were banished from Israel by Deut. -23:17, 18. - -Wet-nurses or Foster-mothers - - Sec. 194. If a man gives his son unto a nurse and his son dies in the - hands of the nurse and the nurse substitutes another child without the - consent of the father or the mother, they shall prosecute her; because - she substituted another child without the consent of his father or his - mother they shall cut off her breast. - -This law also is without Biblical parallel. - -Assault and Battery - - Sec. 195. If a son strikes his father, they shall cut off his hand. - - Sec. 196. If a man destroys the eye of the son of a patrician, they shall - destroy his eye. - - Sec. 197. If he breaks a man's bone, they shall break his bone. - - Sec. 198. If one destroys the eye of a workingman or breaks the bone of a - workingman, he shall pay 1 mana of silver. - - Sec. 199. If one destroys the eye of a man's slave or breaks the bone of - a man's slave, he shall pay half his value. - - Sec. 200. If a man knocks out the tooth of a man of his own rank, they - shall knock his tooth out. - - Sec. 201. If one knocks out the tooth of a workingman, he shall pay 1/3 - of a mana of silver. - - Sec. 202. If a man shall strike the private-parts of a man who is of - higher rank than he, he shall receive sixty blows with an ox-hide - scourge in the assembly. - - Sec. 203. If a patrician strikes the private-parts of a patrician of his - own rank, he shall pay 1 mana of silver. - - Sec. 204. If a workingman strikes the private-parts of a workingman, he - shall pay 10 shekels of silver. - - Sec. 205. If the slave of a patrician strikes the private-parts of the - son of a patrician, they shall cut off his ear. - - Sec. 206. If a man strikes a man in a quarrel and wounds him, he shall - swear, "I did not strike with intent," and shall pay for the - physician. - - Sec. 207. If from the stroke he dies, he shall swear [as above], and if - it was a patrician, he shall pay 1/2 mana of silver. - - Sec. 208. If it was a workingman, he shall pay 1/3 of a mana of silver. - - Sec. 209. If a man strikes a man's daughter and causes a miscarriage, he - shall pay 10 shekels of silver for her miscarriage. - - Sec. 210. If that woman dies, they shall put his daughter to death. - - Sec. 211. If through a stroke one causes a miscarriage of the daughter of - a workingman, he shall pay 5 shekels of silver. - - Sec. 212. If that woman dies, he shall pay 1/2 mana of silver. - - Sec. 213. If one strikes the slave-girl of a man and causes a - miscarriage, he shall pay 2 shekels of silver. - - Sec. 214. If that slave-girl dies, he shall pay 1/3 of a mana of silver. - -These laws are strikingly parallel to Exod. 21:18-27, to which Exod. -21:12-14 should be prefixed. The Babylonian code, like the Hebrew, imposes -the death penalty for wilful murder. Both codes provide that one who is an -accidental homicide shall escape the penalty, but they do it in different -ways. Hammurapi provides that the killer may take an oath that he did it -without intent to kill. Exod. 21:13, 14 provides that the homicide may -find sanctuary at the altar of God. In place of this Deut. 19:4, ff., -provides that he may flee to a city of refuge. - -If a man injures another in a fight, the Bible (Exod. 21:18, 19) provides -that he shall pay for the lost time and, as does Hammurapi, the cost of -healing the injured man. Exod. 21:22 provides, as does Hammurapi, for the -payment of a fine for causing a woman to miscarry, but Exodus does not, -like the Babylonian code, fix the amount of the damage; that is left to -the judges. In the laws concerning the injury of slaves the two codes -differ. Exodus provides (21:20, 21, 26, 27) for cases in which owners -injure or kill their own slaves; Hammurapi, for cases in which the injury -is done by others. A mere reading of the penalties imposed by the parts of -the Babylonian code translated above impresses vividly upon the mind the -fact that underlying many of them is the principle so forcibly expressed -in Exod. 21:21-25: "life for life, eye for eye, tooth for tooth, hand for -hand, foot for foot, burning for burning, wound for wound, stripe for -stripe." The details of application are different, but the principle is -the same. Many of the differences were caused by the more complex nature -of Babylonian society, in which three classes, patricians, workingmen (or -semi-serfs), and slaves, existed. Hebrew law recognizes but two -classes--freemen and slaves. - -Physicians - - Sec. 215. If a physician operates upon a man for a severe wound with a - bronze lancet and saves the man's life, or if he operates for cataract - with a bronze lancet and saves the man's eye, he shall receive 10 - shekels of silver. - - Sec. 216. If it is a workingman, he shall receive 5 shekels of silver. - - Sec. 217. If it is a man's slave, the owner of the slave shall give the - physician 2 shekels of silver. - - Sec. 218. If a physician operates upon a man with a bronze lancet for a - severe wound, and the man dies; or operates upon a man with a bronze - lancet for cataract and the man's eye is destroyed, they shall cut off - his hand. - - Sec. 219. If a physician operates with a bronze lancet upon the slave of - a workingman and causes his death, he shall restore a slave of equal - value. - - Sec. 220. If he operates for cataract with a bronze lancet and destroys - his eye, he shall pay 1/2 his price. - - Sec. 221. If a physician sets a broken bone for a man or has cured of - sickness inflamed flesh, the patient shall pay 5 shekels of silver to - the physician. - - Sec. 222. If he is a workingman, he shall give 3 shekels of silver. - - Sec. 223. If he is the slave of a patrician, the owner of the slave shall - give 3 shekels of silver to the physician. - - Sec. 224. If an ox-doctor or an ass-doctor treats an ox or an ass for a - severe wound and saves its life, the owner of the ox or the ass shall - pay to the physician 1/6 of a shekel of silver as his fee. - - Sec. 225. If he operates upon an ox or an ass for a severe wound and it - dies, he shall give unto the owner of the ox or the ass 1/4 of its - value. - -These laws about physicians have no parallel in the Old Testament, the -laws of which did not take account of the existence of doctors. They are -of interest, since they show the antiquity of physicians in Babylonia, not -only for men, but for animals. They also reveal the fact that the practice -of medicine in Babylonia was attended by some risks! - -Herodotus (I, 197) declares that the Babylonians had no physicians, but -brought their sick out into the streets and asked of each passer-by -whether he had had a like sickness and what he had done for it. Possibly, -as among ourselves, there were many who did not wish to incur the expense -of a doctor, and who did as Herodotus reports, but these laws, and the -existence of physicians at Nineveh at the time of the later Assyrian -kings, make it probable that Herodotus was wrong as to their non-existence -at Babylon in his day. - -Laws of Branding - - Sec. 226. If a brander without the consent of the owner of a slave cuts a - mark on a slave, making him unsalable, they shall cut off the hands of - that brander. - - Sec. 227. If a man deceives a brander and he brands a slave with a mark, - making him unsalable, they shall put that man to death and cause him - to perish in the gate of his house. The brander shall swear: "I did - not brand him knowingly" and shall go free. - -These laws have no parallel in the Old Testament. Evidently the simpler -organization of Hebrew society made them unnecessary. - -Responsibility of House-builders - - Sec. 228. If a builder builds a house for a man and completes it, he - shall give him as his wages 2 shekels of silver for each _Shar_ of - house. - - Sec. 229. If a builder builds a house for a man and does not make its - work strong and the house which he made falls and causes the death of - the owner of the house, that builder shall be put to death. - - Sec. 230. If it causes the death of the son of the owner, the son of that - builder shall be put to death. - - Sec. 231. If it causes the death of a slave of the owner of the house, a - slave like the slave he shall give to the owner of the house. - - Sec. 232. If it destroys property, he shall restore whatever was - destroyed, and because he did not build the house strong and it fell, - he shall rebuild the house that fell from his own property. - - Sec. 233. If a builder builds a house for a man and does not make his - work strong and a wall falls, that builder shall strengthen that wall - at his own expense. - -These laws have no parallel in the Bible. Among the agricultural -population of Palestine builders were not a separate class. The penalties -inflicted by the Babylonian code were severe, and yet, if modern -legislators would put upon the house-builders of our time a similar -responsibility for good work, fewer lives would be sacrificed by falling -buildings. - -Responsibility of Boatmen - - Sec. 234. If a boatman builds a boat of 60 _Gur_ for a man, he shall give - him 2 shekels of silver as his wages. - - Sec. 235. If a boatman builds a boat for a man and does not make his work - sound and in that year the boat is sent on a voyage and meets with - disaster, that boatman shall repair that boat and from his own goods - shall make it strong and shall give the boat in sound condition to the - owner of the boat. - - Sec. 236. If a man gives his boat to a boatman for hire and the boatman - is careless and sinks or wrecks the boat, the boatman shall restore a - boat to the owner of the boat. - - Sec. 237. If a man hires a boatman and a boat and loads it with grain, - wool, oil, dates, or any other kind of freight, and that boatman is - careless and sinks the boat or destroys its freight, the boatman shall - replace the boat and whatever there was in it which he destroyed. - - Sec. 238. If a boatman sinks a man's boat and re-floats it, he shall give - money for 1/2 its value. - - Sec. 239. If a man hires a boatman, he shall give him 6 _Gur_ of grain a - year. - -The Hebrews were not a maritime people, and had no such laws as these or -the following. - -The Collision of Ships - - Sec. 240. If a boat that is floating downstream strikes a boat that is - being towed and sinks it, the owner of the boat that was sunk shall - declare in the presence of a god everything that was in that boat and - [the owner] of the boat floating downstream, which sunk the boat that - was being towed, shall replace the boat and whatever was lost. - -There is, naturally, nothing similar to this in the Old Testament. - -Laws Concerning Cattle - - Sec. 241. If a man levies a distraint upon an ox as security for debt, he - shall pay 1/3 of a mana of silver. - - Sec. 242. If a man hires for a year, the wages of a working ox is 4 _Gur_ - of grain. - - Sec. 243. The hire of a milch cow, 3 _Gur_ of grain for a year he shall - give. - - Sec. 244. If a man hires an ox or an ass and a lion kills it in the - field, the loss falls on the owner. - - Sec. 245. If a man hires an ox and causes its death through neglect or - blows, he shall restore to the owner an ox of equal value. - - Sec. 246. If a man hires an ox and crushes its foot or cuts the cord of - its neck, he shall restore to the owner an ox of like value. - - Sec. 247. If a man hires an ox and destroys its eye, he shall pay to the - owner of the ox money to 1/2 its value. - - Sec. 248. If a man hires an ox and breaks off its horn, or cuts off its - tail or injures the flesh which holds the ring, money to 1/4 of its - value he shall pay. - - Sec. 249. If a man hires an ox and a god strikes it and it dies, the man - who hires the ox shall take an oath in the presence of a god and shall - go free. - - Sec. 250. If an ox when passing along the street gores a man and causes - his death, there is no penalty in that case. - - Sec. 251. If the ox of a man has the habit of goring and they have - informed him of his fault and his horns he has not protected nor kept - his ox in, and that ox gores a man and causes his death, the owner of - the ox shall pay 1/2 mana of money. - - Sec. 252. If it is the slave of a man, he shall pay 1/3 of a mana of - money. - - Sec. 253. If a man hires a man and puts him over his field and furnishes - him with seed-grain and intrusts him with oxen and contracts with him - to cultivate the field, if that man steals the seed-grain or the crop - and it is found in his possession, they shall cut off his hands. - - Sec. 254. If he takes the seed-grain, but enfeebles the cattle, from the - grain which he has cultivated he shall make restoration. - - Sec. 255. If he shall let the cattle to a man for hire, or steal the - seed-grain so that there is no crop, they shall prosecute that man, - and he shall pay 60 _Gur_ of grain for each _Gan_. - - Sec. 256. If he is not able to meet his obligation, they shall tear him - in pieces in that field by means of the oxen. - -The Biblical legislation corresponding to this is found in Exod. 21:28-35, -but it covers only a portion of the cases of which the Babylonian law -treats. It provides that, if an ox gores a man or a woman to death, the ox -shall be stoned. If the ox was wont to gore and the owner had not kept it -in, but it had been permitted to kill a man or a woman, the owner as well -as the ox should be stoned. At the discretion of the tribunal a fine or -ransom might be laid on the owner. In case the ox gored a slave, the -owner of the ox was to pay 30 shekels of silver and the ox was to be -stoned. If a man opened a pit and a neighbor's ox or ass fell into it, the -digger of the pit must make good the loss to the owner of the animal, and -the dead beast became the property of the digger of the pit. If one man's -ox killed the ox of another man, the two men were to sell the live ox and -divide the price. If it were known that the ox was wont to gore in the -past, and its owner had not kept it in, he was to pay ox for ox, and the -dead animal should be his. - -It thus appears that the exigencies of Hebrew agricultural life were -different from those of Babylonia, and were naturally met in different -ways. - -Wages of Laborers - - Sec. 257. If a man hires a field-laborer, he shall pay him 8 _Gur_ of - grain per year. - - Sec. 258. If a man hires a herdsman, he shall pay him 6 _Gur_ of grain - per year. - -Hebrew law did not regulate wages. - -On Stealing Farming-tools - - Sec. 259. If a man steals a watering-machine from a field, he shall pay - to the owner of the watering-machine 5 shekels of silver. - - Sec. 260. If a man steals a watering-bucket or a plow, he shall pay 3 - shekels of silver. - -As the Hebrews did not systematically irrigate their land, the Old -Testament contains no similar laws. - -Laws Concerning Shepherds - - Sec. 261. If a man hires a herdsman to tend cattle or sheep, he shall pay - him 8 _Gur_ of grain per year. - - Sec. 262. If a man, oxen, or sheep .............. - - (The rest is broken away.) - - Sec. 263. If he loses an ox or a sheep that is intrusted to him, he shall - restore ox for ox and sheep for sheep. - - Sec. 264. If a herdsman who has had cattle or sheep intrusted to him - receives his full pay and is satisfied, and he causes the cattle or - the sheep to diminish in number or lessens the birth-rate, he shall - give increase and produce according to his contracts. - - Sec. 265. If a shepherd to whom cattle or sheep have been given to tend - is dishonest and alters the price or sells them, they shall prosecute - him, and he shall restore to their owner 10 times the oxen or sheep - which he stole. - - Sec. 266. If in a fold there is a pestilence of a god, or a lion has - slain, the shepherd shall before a god declare himself innocent, and - the owner of the fold shall bear the loss of the fold. - - Sec. 267. If the shepherd is careless and causes a loss in the fold, the - shepherd shall make good in cattle or sheep the loss which he caused - in the fold and shall give them to the owner. - -The nearest approach in the Old Testament to laws of this character is in -Exod. 22:10-13, which provides that, if a man deliver to his neighbor an -ox, or ass, or sheep, or any beast to keep, and it dies, or is injured or -is carried off when no one sees the deed, the oath of Jehovah shall be -between them that the keeper has not put his hand to his neighbor's goods. -The owner was to accept this, and no restitution was necessary. If the -animals were stolen from the keeper, he must make restitution. If they -were torn in pieces by beasts of prey, he must bring the pieces for -witness, and need not make restitution. - -The same general principles of the limits of responsibility underlay the -two codes in these cases, though they differ in details. In Israel the -shepherding of the flocks and herds of other people was not, as in -Babylonia, a distinct occupation. - -On Wages of Animals and Men - - Sec. 268. If a man hires an ox for threshing, 20 _Qa_ of grain is its - hire. - - Sec. 269. If he hires an ass for threshing, 10 _Qa_ of grain is its hire. - - Sec. 270. If he hires a kid for threshing, 1 _Qa_ of grain is its hire. - - Sec. 271. If he hires cattle, a wagon and a driver, he shall pay 180 _Qa_ - of grain per day. - - Sec. 272. If a man hires a wagon only, he shall pay 40 _Qa_ of grain per - day. - - Sec. 273. If a man hires a field-laborer from the beginning of the year - until the fifth month, he shall pay him 6 _She_ of silver per day; - from the sixth month to the end of the year, 5 _She_ of silver per day - he shall pay. - - Sec. 274. If a man hires an artisan, he shall give per day as the wages - of a ..... 5 _She_; as the wages of a brick-maker, 5 _She_ of money; - as the wages of a tailor, 5 _She_ of silver; as the wages of a - stone-cutter, ...... _She_ of silver; ............ _She_ of silver; - ............ _She_ of silver; ............ of a carpenter, 4 _She_ of - silver; as the wages of a ...... 4 _She_ of silver; as the wages of a - ...... _She_ of silver; the wages of a builder, ...... _She_ of - silver. - - Sec. 275. If a man hires a boat (?) to go upstream (?), its hire is 3 - _She_ of silver per day. - - Sec. 276. If he hires a boat to float downstream, he shall pay as its - hire 2-1/2 _She_ of silver per day. - - Sec. 277. If a man hires a boat of 60 _Gur_ burden, he shall pay 1/6 of a - shekel of money per day. - -There are no parallels to these laws in the Bible, as the Old Testament -does not attempt to regulate prices. When one considers the customs of -trade all over the Orient, and the time fruitlessly consumed in making -bargains, one does not wonder that the practical sovereign of a great -commercial people, such as the Babylonians were, should regulate prices by -law. As a rule, to this day, a purchaser begins by offering only a -fraction of what he is willing to give, and the seller by asking at least -twice as much as he is willing to take. A long psychological battle -follows, during which there are many victories and capitulations on each -side. This law was designed to put an end to this time-consuming custom. - -When the Sales of Slaves are Void - - Sec. 278. If a man buys a male or a female slave and before a month is - past he has an attack of rheumatism (?), he shall return to the - seller, and the purchaser shall receive back the money that was paid. - - Sec. 279. If a man buys a male or a female slave, and another has a legal - claim upon him, the seller shall be responsible for that claim. - - Sec. 280. If a man, while in a foreign country, purchases a male or a - female slave of a man, and, when he returns home, the former owner of - the male or the female slave recognizes his slave, if that male or - female slave is a native of the land, he shall give it its freedom - without recompense. - - Sec. 281. If they are natives of another country, the purchaser shall - declare in the presence of a god the price that he paid, and the - former owner of the male or female slave shall pay the price to the - merchant, and shall receive back his slave. - -No laws similar to these are found in the Old Testament. - -The Penalty for Renouncing a Master - - Sec. 282. If a slave shall say to his owner: "Thou art not my owner," - they shall make him submit as his slave, and shall cut off his ear. - -This penalty reminds one of the boring of a slave's ear (Exod. 21:6; Deut. -15:17) in token of perpetual slavery. - -=2. The Mosaic Code not Borrowed from the Babylonian; Different Underlying -Conceptions.= - -A comparison of the code of Hammurapi as a whole with the Pentateuchal -laws as a whole, while it reveals certain similarities, convinces the -student that the laws of the Old Testament are in no essential way -dependent upon the Babylonian laws. Such resemblances as there are arose, -it seems clear, from a similarity of antecedents and of general -intellectual outlook; the striking differences show that there was no -direct borrowing. The primitive Semitic custom of an eye for an eye and a -tooth for a tooth (Exod. 21:24; Lev. 24:20; Deut. 19:21) is made the basis -of many penalties in the Babylonian code. (See Secs. 196, 197, 200, 229, 230, -etc.) The principle underlying it is found also in many other sections. -These similarities only show that Babylonia had a large Semitic element in -its population. Again, Hammurapi pictured himself at the top of the pillar -on which these laws are written as receiving them from the sun-god (Fig. -292). The Bible tells us that Moses received the laws of the Pentateuch -from Jehovah. The whole attitude of the two documents is, however, -different. Hammurapi, in spite of the picture, takes credit, both in the -prologue and in the epilogue of his code, for the laws. He, not Shamash, -established justice in the land. Moses, on the other hand, was only the -instrument; the legislation stands as that of Jehovah himself. - -This difference appears also in the contents of the two codes. The -Pentateuch contains many ritual regulations and purely religious laws, -while the code of Hammurapi is purely civil. As has been already pointed -out, the code of Hammurapi is adapted to the land of the rivers, and to a -highly civilized commercial people, while the Biblical laws are intended -for a dry land like Palestine, and for an agricultural community that was -at a far less advanced stage of commercial and social development. - -Religion is, however, not a matter of social advancement only. In all that -pertains to religious insight the Pentateuch is far in advance of -Hammurapi's laws. - - - - -CHAPTER XIV - -AN ALLEGED PARALLEL TO LEVITICUS--A CARTHAGINIAN LAW CONCERNING -SACRIFICES[469] - - THE TEXT OF THE CARTHAGINIAN LAW. COMPARISON WITH THE LEVITICAL LAW. - - -=1. The Text of the Carthaginian Law.= - - Temple of Baal[zephon], Tar[iff of d]ues, which [the superintendents - of d]ues fixed in the time [of our rulers, Khalas]baal, the judge, son - of Bodtanith, son of Bod[eshmun, and of Khalasbaal], the judge, son of - Bodeshmun, son of Khalasbaal, and their colleagues. - - For an ox as a whole burnt-offering[470] or a prayer-offering, or a - whole peace-offering,[471] the priests shall have 10 (shekels) of - silver for each; and in case of a whole burnt-offering, they shall - have in addition to this fee [300 shekels of fle]sh; and, in case of a - prayer-offering, the trimmings, the joints; but the skin and the fit - of the inwards[472] and the feet and the rest of the flesh the owner - of the sacrifice shall have. - - For a calf whose horns are wanting, in case of one not castrated (?), - or in case of a ram as a whole burnt-offering, the priests shall have - 5 shekels of silver [for each; and in case of a whole burnt-offering - they shall have in addit]ion to this fee 150 shekels of flesh; and, in - case of a prayer-offering, the trimmings and the joints; but the skin - and the fat of the inwards and the fe[et and the rest of the flesh the - owner of the sacrifice shall have]. - - In case of a ram or a goat as a whole burnt-offering, or a - prayer-offering, or a whole peace-offering, the priests shall have 1 - shekel of silver and 2 _zars_ for each; and, in case of a - prayer-offering, they shall [have in addition to this fee the - trimmings] and the joints; but the skin and the fat of the inwards and - the feet and the rest of the flesh the owner of the sacrifice shall - have. - - For a lamb, or a kid, or the young (?) of a hart, as a whole - burnt-offering, or a prayer-offering, or a whole peace-offering, the - priests shall have 3/4 (of a shekel) and ...... _zars_ of silver [for - each; and, in case of a prayer-offering, they shall have in addition] - to this fee the trimmings and the joints; but the skin and the fat of - the inwards and the feet and the rest of the flesh the own[er of the - sacrifice] shall have. - - For a bird, domestic or wild, as a whole peace-offering, or a - sacrifice-to-avert-calamity (?) or an oracular (?) sacrifice, the - priests shall have 3/4 (of a shekel) of silver and 2 _zars_ for each; - but the f[lesh shall belong to the owner of the sacrifice]. - - For a bird, or sacred first-fruits, or a sacrifice of game, or a - sacrifice of oil, the priests shall have 10 _g_[_erahs_] for each; but - ...................... - - In case of every prayer-offering that is presented before the gods, - the priests shall have the trimmings and the joints; and in the case - of a prayer-offering .... - - For a cake, and for milk, and for every sacrifice which a man may - offer, for a meal-offering[473] .......... - - For every sacrifice which a man may offer who is poor in cattle, or - poor in birds, the priests shall not have anything .......... - - Every freeman and every slave and every dependent[474] of the gods and - all men who may sacrifice .........., these men [shall give] for the - sacrifice at the rate prescribed in the regulations .......... - - Every payment which is not prescribed in this table shall be made - according to the regulations which [the superintendents of the dues - fixed in the time of Khalasbaal, son of Bodtani]th, and Khalasbaal, - son of Bodeshmun, and their colleagues. - - Every priest who shall accept payment beyond what is prescribed in - this table shall be fi[ned] ............ - - Every person who sacrifices, who shall not give ............ for the - fee which .............. - -=2. Comparison with the Levitical Law.= - -This document is not earlier than the fourth or fifth century B. C. The -Carthaginians, from whom it comes, were an offshoot of the Phoenicians, -who were, in turn, descended from the Canaanites. They were accordingly of -kindred race to the Hebrews. One can, therefore, see from this document -something of how the Levitical institutions of Israel resembled and how -they differed from those of their kinsmen. It will be seen that the main -sacrifices bore the same names among both peoples. We find the "whole -burnt-offering," the "peace-offering," and the "meal-offering." The -Carthaginians had no "sin-offering," while among the Hebrews we find no -"prayer-offering." The ways of rewarding the priests also differed with -the two peoples. The Hebrews had no such regular tariff of priests' dues -as the Carthaginians, but parts of certain offerings and all of others -belonged to them. Leviticus assigns from the peace-offering the -"heave-thigh" and the "wave-breast" to the priests (Lev. 7:14, 34; Num. -5:9, 10; 31:29, 41). Meal- or flour-offerings belonged to the priests -(Lev. 5:13; 7:9, 10), as did the sin- and trespass-offerings (Lev. 6:18, -29; 7:9, 10). Of the burnt-offerings the priests had the skin (Lev. 7:8). - -The interesting thing is that in the ritual, as in the social laws, we -find that the heathen Semites had a considerable number of regulations -similar to those of the Hebrews. - - - - -CHAPTER XV - -SOME LETTERS FROM PALESTINE - - LETTERS OF RIB-ADDA OF GEBAL. OF EBED-HEPA OF JERUSALEM. THEIR LIGHT - ON CONDITIONS IN THE PERIOD OF THE EGYPTIAN DOMINATION OF PALESTINE. - - -Many of the El-Amarna[475] Letters were written from Palestine and -Phoenicia. Some scholars think these letters come from the Patriarchal -period; others hold that they are contemporary with the Hebrew conquest, -and give us additional information concerning it. Some of those who hold -this last view believe that the conquest of Palestine by the Hebrews was -not made all at once. They think that the tribes descended from Leah -entered the land before those descended from Rachel. Such scholars hold -that these letters give us contemporary evidence of the wars of the Leah -tribes. Whichever view one takes, the letters are most interesting, as -they open to us a previously unknown chapter in the history of Jerusalem. - -=1. Some Letters of Rib-Adda of Gebal.=[476] - -I[477] - - To the king, my lord, the king of the countries, speak, saying, - Rib-Adda, thy servant, the footstool of thy feet; at the feet of the - sun, my lord, eight times and seven times I prostrate myself. Again, - there is clear to the king, my lord, the deed of Ebed-Ashera, the dog, - when all the lands of the king, my lord, are made over unto him and - are subservient to his land. And now behold the city of Sumur has been - won over--a fold of my lord and a temple of his shrine--to him, and he - has encamped in the temple of my shrine and has opened the place of - the curse of my lord and won it. What is he, a man ......... and dog - that he should judge? Again, when men say in the presence of the king, - my lord: "Learn that Gebal is ..........," then know that he has not - taken Gebal ............... and it is difficult for the lands of the - king, my lord. Again, let the king, my lord, send his inspector who - may judge ................ and may protect the city of the king, my - lord. And I ........ and will serve my lord, the king of the lands. - And may my lord send people and let them bring whatever belongs to my - .............. into the presence of the king, my lord, and let not - that dog take anything that belongs to thy gods. And is it clear now - that he would take Gebal? See, Gebal is like Memphis, loyal to the - king. A second time, see Ebed-Ninib, the man whom I sent with Buhiya, - is a .......... So send unto thy servant. Again see, Ummahnu is a - maid-servant of the Baal-goddess of Gebal; her husband is Ishkur - .......... send! .......... - -(The tablet is broken off at this point.) - -II[478] - - To the king, my lord, my sun, say: Rib-Adda, thy servant; at the feet - of my lord, my sun-god, seven times and seven times I prostrate - myself. May the king, my lord, listen to the words of his faithful - servant! It is going very hard for me! The hostility has become - strong. The sons of Ebed-Ashera have become great in Amurru; theirs is - the whole land. The city of Sumur and the city of Irkata are left to - the princes. And behold in Sumur I am strong. When it was difficult - for the princes on account of the enmity, I left Gebal and ........ - Zimridda and .......... Yapa-Addi ........ with me. Behold, then wrote - the prince unto them; but they did not hearken unto him. And may the - king, my lord, hearken to the words of his faithful servant! Send aid - very quickly unto the city Sumur for its protection until the arrival - of the mercenaries of the king, the sun. And may the king, the sun, - drive out the enemy from his land. Again may the king, my lord, - hearken to the word of his servant and send men as guards to the city - of Sumur and to the city of Irkata, in case that all the guards flee - from Sumur. And may it seem good to my lord, the sun of the countries, - to give to me 20 pairs of horses. And may he send help very quickly to - the city of Sumur to guard it. All the guards who remain are in - straits and few are the men in the city. If mercenaries thou dost not - send, then there will be no city remaining to thee. If there are - mercenaries, we will take all the lands for the king. - -These letters mention a certain Ebed-Ashera and claim that his sons are -gaining possession of all the land of Amurru. If the "Ebed" were dropped -out of the phrase, "sons of Ebed-Ashera,"[479] there would remain "sons of -Ashera," or, "sons of Asher." The "land of Amurru," or, "land of the -Amorites," lay, at the time these letters were written, in the later home -of the tribe of Asher, and a little to the north of it, between the -Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon mountains. Some scholars hold that we have in -these letters references to the coming of the "sons of Asher," or the -tribe of Asher into this region, but it is a theory which in the present -state of our knowledge we can neither prove nor disprove. If it should -prove to be true, these tablets would reflect a part of the Hebrew -conquest of this region. - -=2. Letters of Ebed-Hepa of Jerusalem.= - -I[480] - - [To the king, my lord, speak, saying, E]bed-H[epa thy servant--at] the - feet [of the king, my lord,] seven times and seven times [I prostrate - myself]. Behold I am not a [prefect]; a vassal am I unto [the king, - my lord]. Why did not the king, [my lord], send a messenger [quickly]? - In similar circumstances sent Ienhamu .................. I. [May] the - king [hearken unto Ebed]-Hepa, his servant. [Behold] there are no - mercenaries. [May] the king, my lord, s[end a governor] and let him - take [the prefects] with him .......... lands of the king ......... - and people .......... who are .......... [and Addaya], the governor of - the king [has] their house .......... So may the king care for them - and send a messenger quickly. When .......... - -II[481] - - To the king, my lord, speak, saying, Ebed-Hepa, thy servant--at the - feet of my lord, the king, seven times and seven times I prostrate - myself. What have I done to the king, my lord? They slander and - misrepresent me before the king, my lord, [saying]: Ebed-Hepa is - disloyal to the king, his lord. Behold I--neither my father nor my - mother set me in this place; the arm of the mighty king caused me to - enter into the house of my father. Why should I commit rebellion - against the king, my lord? As long as the king, my lord, lives I will - say unto the governor of the king, my lord: "Why dost thou love the - Habiri and hate the prefects?" But thus he misrepresents me before the - king, my lord. Now I say, "Lost are the lands of the king, my lord." - So he misrepresents me to the king, my lord. But let the king, my - lord, know (that) after the king, my lord, set guards, Ienhamu took - them all .................... Egypt .......... of the king, my lord; - [there are no] guards there. Then may the king care for his land! May - the king care for his land! Separated are all the lands from the king. - Ilimilku has destroyed all the country of the king; so may the king, - my lord, care for his land! I say: "I will enter the presence of the - king, my lord, and I will behold the eye of the king, my lord," but - the enemy is more mighty than I, and I am not able to enter into the - presence of the king, my lord. So may it seem right to the king - .......... may he send guards, and I will enter in and will behold the - eyes of the king, my lord! And so long as the king, my lord, lives, so - long as the governors are withdrawn, I will say: "Perished are the - lands of the king." Thou dost not hearken to me! All the prefects have - perished; there is left no prefect to the king, my lord! May the king - turn his face toward mercenaries, so that there may come forth - mercenaries of the king, my lord. There are no lands left to the king, - my lord. The Habiri plunder all the countries of the king. If there - are mercenaries in this year, then there will be left countries of the - king, my lord. If there are no mercenaries, the countries of the king - will be lost. Unto the scribe of the king, my lord, saying: - "Ebed-Hepa, thy servant. Take beautiful words to the king, my lord! - Lost are all the lands of the king, my lord." - -III[482] - - [To the king, my lord, [speak,] saying, Eb]ed-Hepa, thy servant. [Unto - the feet] of my lord seven [times and seven times I prostrate myself]. - [I have heard all] the words [which the king, my lord,] has sent to me - .......... Behold the deed which .......... has done .......... Copper - .......... word ........ He has brought [into the city Keilah]. [Cf. - Josh. 15:44.] May the king know that all the lands are gone and there - is enmity against me. So may the king care for his land! Behold the - land of the city Gezer, the land of the city Askelon and the city of - Lakish have given them food, oil, and all kinds of herbs. So may the - king give attention to the mercenaries! May he send mercenaries - against the people who commit outrages against the king, my lord! If - there are in this year mercenaries, then there will remain lands and - prefects to the king, my lord. But if there are no mercenaries, there - will be no lands and prefects to the king. Behold this land of the - city of Jerusalem--neither my father nor my mother gave it to me; the - mighty hand, the arm of the king gave it to me. Behold this deed; it - is the deed of Malkiel and the deed of the sons of Labaya, who have - given the land of the king to the Habiri. Behold, O king, my lord, - right is on my side as regards the Kashi-people. Let the king ask the - governors whether that house is very mighty and they have committed a - grievous, a great sin; they have taken their weapons and have cut off - the horsemen (?) .......... And may he send into that land .......... - who .......... with .......... servants. May [the king] care for them - ................ the lands in their hands [and] may the king provide - for them much food, much oil, much clothing until Paru, the governor - of the king, comes up to the country of the city of Jerusalem. Gone is - Addaya, together with the guards of the vassals whom the king - appointed. Let the king know that Addaya said to me: "Behold, I am - going away; do not thou abandon it" (the city). This year send me men - as guards and a governor, O king! Send us .......... I have sent to - the king, my lord .........., people, five thousand .......... three - hundred and eighteen porters for the caravans of the king. They were - indeed captured in the fields near the city Aijalon. (Cf. Josh. - 10:12.) Let the king, my lord, know that I am not able to send a - caravan to the king, my lord. Indeed thou knowest it. Behold the king - has set his name in the country of the city of Jerusalem forever and - he ought not to abandon the lands of the city of Jerusalem. - - To the scribe of the king, my lord, has Ebed-Hepa, thy servant spoken, - saying: At the feet I, thy servant, prostrate myself. Take beautiful - words to the king, my lord! A vassal of the king am I, exceedingly - loyal (?) as regards thee. Also an evil deed has been done against me - by the men of Kashi. I was all but killed by the men of Kashi in my - house. May the king make investigation concerning them. Seven times - and seven times, O king, justice is on my side. - -IV[483] - - To the king, my lord, my sun-god, speak, saying, Ebed-Hepa, thy - servant. At the feet of the king, my lord, seven times and seven times - I prostrate myself. Behold the king, my lord, has set his name at the - rising of the sun and the setting of the sun. It is slander which they - have multiplied against me. Behold I am not a prefect; a vassal of the - king, my lord, am I. Behold I am a shepherd of the king and one who - brings tribute to the king, am I. Neither my father nor my mother, but - the arm of the mighty king set me in the house of my father ........ - There came unto me ....... I gave 10 slaves into his hand. Shuta, the - governor of the king, came unto me. Twenty-one female slaves and - eighty prisoners I gave into the hand of Shuta as a present to the - king, my lord. Let the king take counsel for his land! Lost is the - land of the king. All of it is taken from me. Enmity is against me. As - far as the lands of Seir and as far as Gath-Carmel there is peace - among all the prefects, but enmity against me is practised. When I - sent a man, then he said: "I do not see the eyes of the king, my lord, - for hostility is against me." I set once a ship on the sea when the - mighty arm of the king took Naharina and Kapasi, but, behold the - Habiri take the cities of the king. There is no prefect to the king, - my lord; all are lost. Behold Turbazu was killed in the city gate of - Zilu and the king is inactive! Behold Zimridda of Lakish; his servants - were enraged at him; he adhered to the Habiri. Yapti-Adda was killed - in the city gate of Zilu and there is no action! Concerning it the - king makes no inquiry! Let the king care for his land and let the king - turn his face to mercenaries for the land of tribute! For if there - are no mercenaries in this year, lost, perished are all the lands of - the king, my lord. Let not one say in the presence of the king, my - lord, that the land of the king, my lord, is lost and all the prefects - are lost. If there are no mercenaries in this year, then let the king - send a governor to bring me and my brothers unto thee and we will die - with the king, our lord. - - To the scribe of the king, my lord, saying, Ebed-Hepa, thy servant. At - thy feet I prostrate myself. Bring beautiful words to the king. - Emphatically thy servant and thy son am I. - -V[484] - - To the king, my lord, speak, saying, Ebed-Hepa, thy servant. At the - feet of my lord I prostrate myself seven times and seven times. Behold - Malkiel, he has not separated himself from the sons of Labaya and from - the sons of Arzaya that they may seek the hand of the king for - themselves. A prefect who has done this deed--why does not the king - call him to account? Behold Malkiel and Tagi--the deed which they have - done is this: formerly they took Rabuda and now they seek Jerusalem. - If this land belongs to the king, why is it oppressed? Gaza has sided - with the king. Behold the land of Gath-Carmel belongs to Tagi and the - people of Gath are on guard in Beth-shean, and verily it will happen - to us when Labaya and the land of Shechem have been given to the - Habiri. Malkiel has written to Tagi and his sons: "Let our two forces - grant all their desire to the people of Keilah." Shall we indeed throw - open Jerusalem? The guards, whom thou didst send by the hand of Haya, - son of Miare, Addaya took, stationing them in his house in Gaza and - twenty men has he sent to Egypt. Let the king know that there are no - royal guards with me! It is so as the king lives! Verily Puru is - beaten. He has gone from me and is in Gaza. May the king remember it - and may the king send fifty men as guards to protect the land! All the - lands of the king are in revolt. Send Yinhenhame and let him care for - the land of the king. To the scribe of the king, my lord, say: - Ebed-Hepa, thy servant. Beautiful words give to the king. Ever - emphatically am I thy servant. - -VI[485] - - To the king, my lord, speak, saying, Ebed-Hepa, thy servant. At the - feet of the king, my lord, seven times and seven times I prostrate - myself. Behold the deed which Malkiel and Shuardatu have done against - the country of the king, my lord! They have won over the soldiers of - Gezer, the soldiers of Gath, and the soldiers of Keilah; they have - seized the country of the city of Rubute. The country of the king is - fallen away to the Habiri. And now also a city of the country of - Jerusalem (its name is Beth-shemesh),[486] a city of the king, has - gone over to the men of Keilah. May the king hearken unto Ebed-Hepa, - thy servant, and send mercenaries that the land of the king may remain - unto the king. If there are no mercenaries, lost is the land of the - king to the Habiri. This is the deed which Malkiel and Shuardatu have - done .......... May the king care for his land! - -=3. Their Light upon Conditions in the Period of the Egyptian Domination -of Palestine.= - -These letters are among the most interesting of the many fascinating -documents which have come to us from ancient times. They give us our -first historical glimpse of Jerusalem, giving us a view of it 350 years -before its capture by David. At this time its ruler was one Ebed-Hepa, a -vassal of Amenophis IV, King of Egypt. Jerusalem was at the time the -capital of a considerable territory. If the places mentioned have been -rightly identified by scholars, its dominion extended to Mount Carmel on -the northwest and as far as Rabbith in Issachar on the north. At the time -these letters were written, Jerusalem was hard pressed by some invaders -called Habiri, and Ebed-Hepa again and again appeals to the Egyptian king -to send mercenaries in that year or all the territories of the king would -be lost. Already the Egyptian army was composed in part of hired soldiers. -We know from Egyptian sources that Amenophis was much more interested in -religious reform than in statecraft. The desired troops were not sent, and -apparently Ebed-Hepa was overcome, for his letters cease. - -The condition of Palestine, as revealed by these letters, is the same as -that of Phoenicia as revealed by the letters of Rib-Adda. Egyptian -authority was breaking up; each ruler was doing his best to look after his -own interests; while invaders were overrunning the country. - -Who was Ebed-Hepa? All that we know of him is told in these letters. Hepa -was, however, the name of a Hittite and Mitannian goddess. It has, -accordingly, been inferred that Ebed-Hepa belonged to that race. Ezekiel -long afterward in speaking to Jerusalem said: "The Amorite was thy father -and thy mother was a Hittite" (Ezek. 16:3, 45). If this first ruler of -Jerusalem known to us was a Hittite, as seems probable, it would be a -striking confirmation of Ezekiel's statement. Another interesting question -is: Who were the Habiri who were invading Palestine when these letters -were written? The answer to this question is not certain. Four different -views have been held: - -1. They have been thought to be the same as the clan Heber which was -afterward a part of the tribe of Asher, and which is also mentioned in -connection with Malkiel in Gen. 46:17; Num. 26:45, and 1 Chron. 7:31. The -objection to this view is that the Habiri seem far too powerful in these -letters to be simply the ancestors of such a clan. - -2. It has been held that the Habiri were a branch of the Hittites. This -view is based upon the fact that among the tablets found by Winckler at -Boghaz Koi a list of Hittite gods was headed "gods of the Habiri." This -is, however, not decisive, as the gods may have been Semitic gods, whom, -after the fashion of antiquity, the Hittite scribe had identified with the -deities of his own country. - -3. It has been held that the Habiri were Hebrews, and that we have here -contemporary records of their wars of conquest. - -4. Some scholars maintain that it is impossible to tell who the Habiri -were. - -The writer is inclined to hold that the Habiri were Hebrews, though this -view is not without difficulty. The indications of the book of Exodus -point to Ramses II as the Pharaoh of the oppression and to Merneptah as -the Pharaoh of the Exodus. These kings belonged to the nineteenth dynasty, -while Amenophis IV, to whom Ebed-Hepa wrote his letters, belonged to the -eighteenth. How then could Hebrews be already in Palestine struggling to -conquer it? The view has been held by a number of scholars that the Hebrew -conquest took place in two parts, one of which was under the eighteenth -and the other under the nineteenth dynasty. The view is not without its -difficulties, but it _may_ prove to be true. If the Habiri were Hebrews, -it seems necessary to suppose that it is true. Perhaps further discovery -will throw more light upon it. - -The following letter, found in 1892 at Tell el-Hesy (Lachish) in -Palestine, belongs to the same period as the preceding letters.[487] - - To the chief officer speak, saying: Pabi--at thy feet I prostrate - myself. Thou shouldst know that Shiptibaal and Zimrida are conspiring - together and Shiptibaal has said to Zimrida: "My father of the city - Yarami has written to me: 'Give me six bows and three daggers and - three swords. If I go out against the land of the king and thou wilt - be the breath of life to me, then I shall surely (?) be superior to it - and shall subdue it.' He who makes this plan is Pabu, so send him to - me." Now I have sent thee Raphiel. He will bring to the chief officer - news of this matter. - -Another letter from Taanach belongs to the same general period. It is one -of four found by Sellin in 1903. It is as follows:[488] - - To Ishtarwashur speak, saying, Ahijah[489]--may the lord of the gods - protect thy life! Thou art my brother and love is in thy bowels and in - my heart. When I was detained in Gurra a workman gave to me two knives - and a lance and two baskets (?) for nothing. As the lance was broken, - he will repair it and send it by the hand of Buritpi. Again: is there - lamentation over thy cities, or hast thou indeed put thyself in - possession of them? Over my head is one who is over the cities. Now - let us see whether he will do good to thee. If his countenance is - favorable there will be great destruction. Further: let Ilurabi enter - Rahab and either send my man to thy presence or give him protection. - -This letter is chiefly interesting for the name _Ahi-ya-mi_, which is -probably the Babylonian equivalent of Ahijah or Ahi-Yahweh. If this is so, -and, while not certain, there is considerable collateral evidence in its -favor,[490] the divine name, Yahweh (Jehovah), was already known in -Palestine. - -Another phrase in this letter which has recalled to some a Biblical phrase -is "the lord of the gods." This has been compared with Baal-berith (_i. -e._, lord of the covenant), Judges 9:4, who is later called El-berith (god -of the covenant), Judges 9:46. Such a comparison is, however, somewhat -fanciful. - - - - -CHAPTER XVI - -DOCUMENTS FROM THE TIME OF ISRAEL'S JUDGES - - REPORT OF WENAMON. ITS ILLUSTRATION OF CERTAIN POINTS OF BIBLICAL - HISTORY ABOUT THE TIME OF DEBORAH OR GIDEON. REFERENCE TO THE - PHILISTINES. - - -The following vivid story of adventure dates from about 1100 B. C. and -throws a vivid light on the condition of the coast-lands of Palestine and -Phoenicia about the middle of the period of the Judges. - -=1. Report of Wenamon.=[491] - - Year five, third month of the third season (eleventh month), day 16, - day of departure of the "eldest of the hall," of the house of Amon, - the lord of the lands, Wenamon, to bring the timber for the great and - august barge of Amon-Re, king of the gods, which is on the river - .......... called: "Userhet" of Amon. - - On the day of my arrival at Tanis at the palace of Nesubenebded and - Tentamon, I gave to them the writings of Amon-Re, king of the gods, - which they caused to be read in their presence; and they said: "I will - do it, I will do it according to that which Amon-Re, king of our gods, - our lord, saith." I abode until the fourth month of the third season, - being in Tanis. - - Nesubenebded and Tentamon sent me with the ship-captain, Mengebet, and - I descended into the great Syrian sea, in the fourth month of the - third season, on the first day. I arrived at Dor, a city of Thekel [a - people kindred to the Philistines], and Bedel, its king, caused to be - brought for me much bread, a jar of wine, and a joint of beef. - - Then a man of my ship fled, having stolen: - - .. [vessels] of gold, [amounting to] 5 deben - 4 vessels of silver, amounting to 20 deben - a sack of silver 11 deben - -- - [Total of what] he [stole] 5 deben of gold. - 31 deben of silver. - - In the morning then I rose and went to the abode of the prince, and - said to him: "I have been robbed in thy harbor. Since thou art the - king of this land, thou art therefore its investigator, who should - search for my money. For the money belongs to Amon-Re, king of the - gods, lord of the lands; it belongs to Nesubenebded, and it belongs to - Hrihor, my lord, and the other magnates of Egypt; it belongs also to - Weret, and to Mekmel, and to Zakar-Baal, the prince of Byblos" - [Gebal]. He said to me: "To thy honor and thy excellence! but, behold, - I know nothing of this complaint which thou hast lodged with me. If - the thief belonged to my land, he who went on board thy ship, that he - might steal thy treasure, I would repay it to thee from my treasury - till they find thy thief by name; but the thief who robbed thee - belongs to thy ship. Tarry a few days here with me, and I will seek - him." When I had spent nine days moored in his harbor, I went to him - and said to him: "Behold, thou hast not found my money, therefore let - me depart with the ship-captain, and with those who go .......... the - sea. He said to me: "Be silent .............." .......... the harbor - ................ [I arrived at] Tyre. I went forth from Tyre at early - dawn .......... Zakar-Baal, the prince of Byblos [Gebal]. - - .......... the .......... I found 30 deben of silver therein. I seized - it, [saying to them: "I will take] your money, and it shall remain - with me until ye find [my money. Was it not a man of Thekel] who stole - it, and no thief [of ours]? I will take it .......... They went away, - while I .................. [I] arrived .......... the harbor of Byblos - [Gebal]. [I made a place of concealment, I hid] "Amon-the-way," and I - placed his things in it. The prince of Byblos sent to me, saying: - "Betake thyself from my harbor." I sent to him, saying, - "................ if they sail, let them take me to Egypt." .......... - I spent nineteen days in his harbor and he continually sent to me - daily, saying: "Betake thyself from my harbor." - - Now, when he sacrificed to his gods ......., the god seized one of his - noble youths, making him frenzied, so that he said: "Bring [the god] - hither! Bring the messenger of Amon who hath him. Send him and let him - go." - - Now, while the frenzied youth continued in frenzy during this night, I - found a ship bound for Egypt, and I loaded all my belongings into it. - I waited for the darkness, saying: "When it descends, I will embark - the god also, in order that no other eye may see him." - - The harbor-master came to me, saying: "Remain until morning by the - prince." I said to him: "Art not thou he who continually came to me - daily, saying, 'Betake thyself away from my harbor'? Dost thou not - say, 'Remain in the [land'], in order to let depart the ship that I - have found? thou that mayest come and say again, 'Away'? He went and - told it to the prince, and the prince sent to the captain of the ship, - saying: 'Remain until morning by the king.'" - - When morning came he sent and had me brought up, when the divine - offering occurred in the fortress where he was, on the shore of the - sea. I found him sitting in his upper chamber, leaning his back - against a window, while the waves of the great Syrian sea beat against - the ........ behind him. I said to him: "Kindness of Amon!" He said to - me: "How long is it until this day since thou camest away from the - abode of Amon?" I said: "Five months and one day until now." - - He said to me: "Behold thou art true, where is the writing of Amon, - which is in thy hand? Where is the letter of the High Priest of Amon, - which is in thy hand?" I said to him: "I gave them to Nesubenebded and - Tentamon." Then he was very wroth, and he said to me: "Now, behold, - the writing and the letter are not in thy hand! Where is the ship of - cedar which Nesubenebded gave to thee? Where is its Syrian crew? He - would not deliver thy business to this ship-captain ........ to have - thee killed, that they might cast thee into the sea. From whom would - they have sought the god then? And thee, from whom would they have - sought thee then?" So he spake to me. I said to him: "There are indeed - Egyptian ships and Egyptian crews who sail under Nesubenebded, (but) - he hath no Syrian crews." He said to me: "There are surely twenty - ships here in my harbor, which are in connection with Nesubenebded; - and at Sidon, whither thou wouldst go, there are indeed 10,000 ships - also which are in connection with Berket-el and sail to his house." - - Then I was silent in this great hour. He answered and said to me: "On - what business hast thou come hither?" I said to him: "I have come - after the timber of the great and august barge of Amon-Re, king of - gods. Thy father did it, thy grandfather did it, and thou wilt also do - it." So spake I to him. - - He said to me: "They did it, truly. If thou give me (something) for - doing it, I will do it. Indeed my agents transacted the business; the - Pharaoh, ...... sent six ships, laden with the products of Egypt, and - they were unloaded in their storehouses. And thou also shalt bring - something for me." He had the journal of his fathers brought in, and - he had them read it before me. They found 1,000 deben of every (kind - of) silver, which was in his book. - - He said to me: "If the ruler of Egypt were the owner of my property, - and I were also his servant, he would not send silver and gold, - saying: 'Do the command of Amon.' It was not the payment of tribute - which they exacted of my father. As for me, I am myself neither thy - servant nor am I the servant of him that sent thee. If I cry out to - the Lebanon, the heavens open, and the logs lie here on the shore of - the sea." - -A long speech of Wenamon follows, in which he claims Egypt as the home of -civilization, and claims Lebanon for Amon. He then continues: - - "Let my scribe be brought to me, that I may send him to Nesubenebded - and Tentamon, the rulers whom Amon hath given to the north of his - land, and they will send all that of which I shall write unto them, - saying: 'Let it be brought,' until I return to the south and send thee - all thy trifles again." So spake I to him. - - He gave my letter into the hand of his messenger. He loaded in the - keel, the head of the bow and the head of the stern, with four other - hewn timbers, together seven; and he had them taken to Egypt. His - messenger went to Egypt, and returned to me, to Syria in the first - month of the second season. Nesubenebded and Tentamon sent: - - Gold: 4 _Tb_-vessels, 1 _K'k-mn_-vessel; - Silver: 5 _Tb_-vessels; - Royal linen: 10 garments, 10 _hm-hrd_; - Papyrus: 500 rolls; - Ox-hides: 500; - Rope: 500 (coils); - Lentils: 20 measures; - Fish: 30 measures; - She[492] sent me: - Linen 5 ......, 5 _hm-hrd_; - Lentils: 1 measure; - Fish: 5 measures. - - The prince rejoiced, and detailed 300 men and 300 oxen, placing - overseers over them, to have the trees felled. They spent the second - season therewith .... In the third month of the second season (seventh - month) they dragged them [to] the shore of the sea. The prince came - forth and stood by them. - - He sent to me, saying: "Come." Now, when I had presented myself before - him, the shadow of his sunshade fell upon me. Penamon, a butler, he - stepped between us, saying: "The shadow of Pharaoh ........, thy lord, - falls upon thee." He was angry with him, saying: "Let him alone!" I - presented myself before him, and he answered and said unto me: "Behold - the command which my fathers formerly executed, I have executed, - although thou for thy part hast not done for me that which thy fathers - did for me. Behold there has arrived the last of thy timber, and there - it lies. Do according to my desire and come to load it, for they will - indeed give it to thee." - - "Come not to contemplate the terror of the sea, (but) if thou dost - contemplate the terror of the sea, thou shalt (also) contemplate mine - own. Indeed I have not done to thee that which they did to the - messengers of Khamwese, when they spent seventeen years in this land. - They died in their place." He said to his butler; "Take him, and let - him see their tomb, wherein they sleep." - - I said to him: "Let me not see it! As for Khamwese, (mere) people were - the messengers whom he sent unto thee; but people ......... there was - no [god among] his messengers. And yet thou sayest, 'Go and see thy - companions.' Lo, art thou not glad? and dost thou not have made for - thee a tablet, whereon thou sayest: 'Amon-Re, king of gods, sent to me - "Amon-the-way," his [divine] messenger, and Wenamon, his human - messenger, after the timber for the great and august barge of Amon-Re, - king of gods? I felled it, I loaded it, I supplied him (with) my ships - and my crews, I brought them to Egypt, to beseech for me 10,000 years - of life from Amon, more than my ordained (life), and it came to pass.' - Then in future days when a messenger comes from the land of Egypt, who - is able to write, and reads thy name upon the stela, thou shalt - receive water in the west, like the gods who are there." He said to - me: "It is a great testimony which thou tellest me." - - I said to him: "As for the many things which thou hast said to me, - when I reach the place of the abode of the High Priest of Amon, and he - shall see thy command in thy command, [he] will have something - delivered to thee." - - I went to the shore of the sea, to the place where the timbers lay; I - spied eleven ships, coming from the sea, belonging to the Thekel, - saying: "Arrest him! Let not a ship of his pass to Egypt!" I sat down - and began to weep. The letter-scribe of the prince came out to me, and - said to me: "What is the matter with thee?" I said to him: "Surely - thou seest these birds which twice descend upon Egypt. Behold them! - They come to the pool, and how long shall I be here, forsaken? For - thou seest surely those who come to arrest me again." - - He went and told it to the prince. The prince began to weep at the - evil words which they spoke to him. He sent out his letter-scribe to - me and brought me two jars of wine and a ram. He sent to me Tento, an - Egyptian singer (feminine), who was with him, saying: "Sing for him; - let not his heart feel apprehension." He sent to me, saying: "Eat, - drink, and let not thy heart feel apprehension. Thou shalt hear all - that I have to say unto thee in the morning." - - Morning came, he had (the Thekel) called into his ......., he stood in - their midst and said to the Thekel: "Why have ye come?" They said to - him: "We have come after the stove-up ships which thou sendest to - Egypt with our ...... comrades." He said to them: "I cannot arrest the - messenger of Amon in my land. Let me send him away, and ye shall - pursue him, to arrest him." - - He loaded me on board, he sent me away ..... to the harbor of the sea. - The wind drove me to the land of Alasa [Cyprus]; those of the city - came forth to me to slay me. I was brought among them to the abode of - Heteb, the queen of the city. I found her as she was going forth from - her houses and entering into her other [house]. I saluted her, I asked - the people who stood about her: "There is surely one among you who - understands Egyptian?" One among them said: "I understand (it)." I - said to him: "Say to my mistress: 'I have heard as far as Thebes, the - abode of Amon, that in every city injustice is done, but that justice - is done in the land of Alasa; (but), lo, injustice is done every day - here.'" She said: "Indeed! what is this that thou sayest?" I said to - her: "If the sea raged and the wind drove me to land where I am, thou - wilt not let them take advantage of me to slay me, I being a messenger - of Amon. I am one whom they will seek unceasingly. As for the crew of - the prince of Byblos whom they sought to kill, their lord will surely - find ten crews of thine, and he will slay them on his part." She had - the people called and stationed (before her); she said to me: "Pass - the night .........." - -Here the papyrus, which contains this vivid personal narrative of travel, -is broken off and the rest of the story is lost. We may be sure that -Wenamon escaped from Cyprus and succeeded in reaching Egypt again, or the -story would never have been told. - -=2. Its Illustration of Certain Points of Biblical History.= - -The story illustrates well a number of points in Biblical history. This -adventure was approximately contemporary with the career of Deborah or of -Gideon. It shows that the city of Dor, which was situated on the coast -just south of Mount Carmel, was in the possession of a tribe kindred to -the Philistines, who soon afterward appear in Biblical history. We also -learn from it that Egyptian authority in Palestine and Phoenicia, which -was at the time of the El-Amarna letters so rapidly decaying, had entirely -disappeared. Zakar-Baal stoutly asserts his independence, while the king -of the Thekel is evidently quite independent of Egypt. The way in which -these petty kingdoms deal with one another is quite after the manner of -the international relations reflected in the book of Judges. The -expedition of Wenamon to the Lebanon for cedar wood illustrates the way -Solomon obtained cedar for the temple. - -Lastly, the way one of the noble youths became frenzied and prophesied, is -quite parallel to the way in which Saul "stripped off his clothes and -prophesied ...... and lay down naked all that day and all that night" (1 -Sam. 19:24). The heed which Zakar-Baal gave to this youth shows that at -Gebal, as in Israel, such ecstatic or frenzied utterances were thought to -be of divine origin. Later in Israel this sort of prophecy became a kind -of profession, or trade. The members of these prophetic guilds were called -"sons of the prophets." The great literary prophets of Israel had nothing -to do with them. Amos is careful to say that he is not a "son of a -prophet" (Amos 7:14). - -=3. Reference to the Philistines.= - -Ramses III in his inscriptions makes the following statements:[493] - - "The northern countries are unquiet in their limbs, even the Peleset - [Philistines], the Thekel, who devastate their land - ................... O my august father [_i. e._, the god Amon] come to - take them, being: the Peleset, the Denyen [Dardanians], and the - Shekelesh [Sicilians] ............ - - Utterance of the vanquished Peleset: "Give to us the breath for our - nostrils, O king, son of Amon." - -The Peleset are undoubtedly the same people who appear in the Bible as the -Philistines. Ramses III, of the twentieth dynasty, from whose inscriptions -the above quotations are taken, reigned from 1198-1167 B. C. In his reign -the Philistines were coming over the sea and invading northern Egypt along -with other wanderers from different parts of the Mediterranean, the -Thekel, the Danaoi, and the Sicilians. Upon being repelled from Egypt by -Ramses, they passed on and invaded Palestine. As the report of Wenamon -shows, the Thekel were in possession of Dor by the year 1100, and no doubt -the Philistines had gained a foothold also in the cities farther to the -south, where we find them in the Biblical records (Judges 13-16; 1 Sam. -4-7; 13, 14; 17, 18, etc.). - -Amos says the Philistines came from Caphtor (Amos 9:7). This has long been -supposed to be Crete. Eduard Meyer thinks that confirmation of this has -now been found. A disc inscribed in a peculiar writing, which has not yet -been deciphered, was found in July, 1908, at Phaestos in Crete in strata of -the third middle Minoan period, _i. e._, about 1600 B. C.[494] This -writing is pictographic, and although not yet translated, appears to be a -contract.[495] One of the frequently recurring signs represents a human -head surmounted by a shock of hair (see Fig. 38), almost exactly like the -hair of the Philistines as they are pictured by the artists of Ramses III -on the walls of his palace at Medinet Habu (see Fig. 36). This sign was -probably the determinative for man. This likeness would make the proof of -the Cretan origin of the Philistines complete, were it not that some -scholars think that the disc exhumed at Phaestos had been brought thither -from across the sea. This is possible, but does not seem very probable. -The doubt will, perhaps, be resolved when we learn to read the -inscription. - - - - -CHAPTER XVII - -ARCHAEOLOGICAL LIGHT ON THE BOOKS OF KINGS - - GUDEA AND CEDAR-WOOD FOR HIS PALACE. THE EPONYM CANON. THE SEAL OF - SHEMA. SHISHAK'S LIST OF CONQUERED ASIATIC CITIES. ASHURNASIRPAL'S - DESCRIPTION OF HIS EXPEDITION TO MEDITERRANEAN LANDS. SHALMANESER - III'S CLAIMS REGARDING TRIBUTE FROM THE KINGS OF ISRAEL. THE MOABITE - STONE. ADADNIRARI IV'S MENTION OF THE "LAND OF OMRI." INSCRIPTION - DESCRIBING TIGLATHPILESER IV'S CAMPAIGN. SARGON'S CONQUESTS. - SENNACHERIB'S WESTERN CAMPAIGNS. THE SILOAM INSCRIPTION. ESARHADDON'S - LIST OF CONQUERED KINGS. ASHURBANIPAL'S ASSYRIAN CAMPAIGN. NECHO OF - EGYPT. NEBUCHADREZZAR II. EVIL-MERODACH. DISCOVERIES IN SHEBA. - - -=1. Gudea and Cedar-Wood for His Palace.= - -Gudea, a ruler of Lagash in Babylonia (the modern Telloh; see p. 45), who -lived about 2450 B. C., rebuilt Eninnu, the temple of Ningirsu, at Lagash. -In his account of the work he makes the following statement:[496] - - From Amanus, the mountain of cedar, cedar wood, the length of which - was 60 cubits, cedar-wood, the length of which was 50 cubits, - _ukarinnu_-wood, the length of which was 25 cubits, for the dwelling - he made; (from) their mountain they were brought. - -The Amanus mountains lay along the Mediterranean to the north of the river -Orontes. They belong to the same general range as the Lebanons. Again, in -the same inscription, Gudea says:[497] - - From Umanu, the mountain of Menua, from Basalla, the mountain of the - Amorites, great cut stones he brought; into pillars he made them and - in the court of Eninnu he erected them. From Tidanu, the mountain of - the Amorites, marble in fragments (?) he brought. - -This passage shows that a ruler of Babylonia came to this region for -cedar-wood and stones for his temple, as Solomon is said to have done (1 -Kings 5, especially vs. 6 and 17; 2 Chron. 2:8, ff.). That Egyptian rulers -did the same is clearly shown by the report of Wenamon. (See p. 352, ff.) - -=2. The Eponym Canon.= - -The Assyrians kept chronological lists called by scholars "Eponym Canons," -which are of great importance in determining the chronology of Hebrew -history at a number of obscure points. A translation of them has not been -included in this work, since so few Biblical names occur in them that they -would be of little use except to experts. Any who wish to consult them -will find them translated in Rogers, _Cuneiform Parallels to the Old -Testament_, pp. 219-238. - -=3. Jeroboam.= - -During Schumacher's excavation at Megiddo (see p. 96), a seal was found in -the palace; it is shown in Fig. 27. Its inscription reads: - - Belonging to Shema, servant of Jeroboam. - -We have no means of knowing whether the Jeroboam referred to was Jeroboam -I (1 Kings 12:12, ff.), or Jeroboam II (2 Kings 14:23, ff.). - -=4. Shishak.= - -Sheshonk I (954-924 B. C.), the founder of the twenty-second Egyptian -dynasty, the Shishak of the Bible (1 Kings 14:25-28), has left on the -walls of a pylon which he erected at the temple of Karnak a relief -picturing his victory. The pictures are of the conventional type, but they -are accompanied by a list of conquered Asiatic cities. Of these the names -of about one-hundred and twenty are legible, though it is possible to -identify but a small proportion of these with known localities. As it -would be of no interest to the general reader to place before him the -Egyptian spelling of unidentified place names, only those are here given -which have been identified or have some Biblical interest. The numbers -before each name designate its distance from the beginning of Sheshonk's -list. Among his conquered towns, then, are the following:[498] - - 11. _Gimty_ = Gath. 13. _Rub'ty_ = Rabbith (Josh. 19:20). 14. _T''nqy_ - = Taanach (Josh. 12:21; Judges 5:19). 15. _Sh'nm'y_ = Shunem (Josh. - 19:18; 2 Kings 4:8). 16. _B'tysh'nry_ = Beth-shean (Josh. 17:11; 1 - Sam. 31:10; 1 Kings 4:12). 17. _Rwh'b'iy_ = Rehob (Judges 1:31). 18. - _H'pwrwmy_ = Haphraim (Josh. 19:19). 22. _Myh'nm'_ = Mahanaim (Gen. - 32:2; Josh. 13:26; 2 Sam. 2:8; 17:24). _Q-b'-''-n'_ = Gibeon (Josh. - 10:1, f.). 24. _B'tyhwr'rwn_ = Beth-horon (Josh. 10:10; 1 Sam. 13:18). - 26. _Iywrwn_ = Aijalon (Josh. 10:12; 19:42). 27. _Myqdyw_ = Megiddo - (Josh. 12:21; Judges 1:27). 28. _Idyrw'_ = Edrei (Num. 21:33; Deut. - 1:4; Josh. 12:4). 32. _''rin'_ = Elon (Josh. 19:43). 38. _Sh'wka_ = - Soco (2 Chron. 11:7; 28:18). 39. _B'tylpwh_ = Beth-tapuah (Josh. - 15:53). 57. _Dymrwm_ = Zemaraim (Josh. 18:22). 58. [_M_]_gdrw_ = - Madgala (Matt. 15:39 A. V.). 71, 72. _P'hwqrw' 'b'r'm_ = The field of - Abram. 100. _Iwdri'_ = Addar (?) (Josh. 15:3). 124. _B'ty'nt_ = - Beth-anoth (?) (Josh. 15:59). - -According to 1 Kings 14:25, ff., Sheshonk's campaign was directed against -Judah, and there is no hint that the northern kingdom suffered too. This -may be because the interest of the author of Kings in the house of David -and in Jerusalem was greater than his interest in the north. It is clear -from the list of places just quoted that Sheshonk conquered both kingdoms. -He either took or received tribute from Megiddo, Taanach, Shunem, and -Beth-shean, cities in the great plain of Jezreel, but crossed the Jordan -and captured Mahanaim and Edrei. - -=5. Ashurnasirpal.= - -Ashurnasirpal, King of Assyria, 884-860 B. C., in describing his -expedition to the Mediterranean lands, makes the following statement:[499] - - At that time I marched along Mount Lebanon, unto the great sea of the - land of the Amorites I went up. In the great sea I cleansed my - weapons. I made sacrifices to the gods. The tribute of the kings by - the side of the sea, from the land of the Tyrian, the land of the - Sidonian, the land of the Gebalite, the land of the Mahallatite, the - land of the Maisite, the land of the Kaisite, the land of the Amorite, - and the city Arvad, which is in the midst of the sea; silver, gold, - lead, copper, copper vessels, garments of bright colored stuffs, - cloth, a great _pagutu_, a small _pagutu_, _ushu_-wood, - _ukarinnu_-wood, teeth of a sperm-whale porpoise, a creature of the - sea, as their tribute I received; they embraced my feet. To Mount - Amanus I ascended; beams of cedar, cypress, juniper, pine, I cut. - Sacrifices to my gods I offered. A pillar recording my warlike deeds I - set up. - -This inscription records the first approach of an Assyrian king to Hebrew -territory. He did not actually come into contact with the Israelites, -though he took tribute from their neighbors, the Tyrians and Sidonians. -The expedition of Ashurnasirpal was, however, the precursor of many others -which progressed further. - -Ashurnasirpal, like Gudea and Hrihor, secured wood from this region for -his buildings, thus affording another parallel to Solomon's procedure. - -=6. Shalmaneser III.= - -Shalmaneser III, the son and successor of Ashurnasirpal, reigned from 859 -to 825 B. C. He not only approached more closely to Palestine, but claims -to have taken tribute from her kings. In the case of King Jehu the claim -is no doubt true. The following extracts give the accounts in -Shalmaneser's own words.[500] - - In the eponym year of Dan-Ashur (_i. e._, 854 B. C.), month Aru, 14th - day, I departed from the city of Nineveh; I crossed the river Tigris - ....... to the city Qarqar I approached. Qarqar, his royal city, I - destroyed, I devastated, I burned with fire. 1,200 chariots, 1,200 - horsemen, 20,000 men of Hadadidri (Benhadad) of Damascus; 700 - chariots, 700 horsemen, 10,000 men of Irhulina, the Hamathite; 2,000 - chariots, 10,000 men of Ahab, the Israelite; 500 men of the Quaean (_i. - e._, Que, in Cilicia); 1,000 men of the Musraean; 10,000 chariots, - 10,000 men of the Irqantaean; 200 men of Matinu-ba'li, the Arvadite; - 200 men of the Usantaean; 30 chariots, 10,000 men of Adunu-ba'li, the - Shianian; 1,000 camels of Gindibu, the Arabian; 1,000 (?) men of Basa, - son of Ruhubi, the Ammonite--these 12 kings he took as his helpers and - they came to make battle and war against me. With the exalted power - which Ashur, the lord, had given me, with powerful weapons, which - Nergal, who goes before me, had presented me, I fought with them; from - Qarqar to Gilzan I accomplished their defeat. 14,000 of their troops I - overthrew with arms, like Adad I poured out a flood upon them; I flung - afar their corpses, I filled the plain with their mighty troops. With - weapons I made their blood to flow .......... The field was too narrow - for smiting (?) them, the broad plain (?) was used (?) for burying - their bodies. With their corpses I dammed the Orontes as with a dam - (?). In that battle their chariots, their horsemen, their horses, - harnesses, and yokes I took. - -It is of especial interest that Ahab and Benhadad, two kings well known -from the Bible, formed a part of the coalition that attempted to repel -this first Assyrian invasion. Shalmaneser's claim of victory is probably -exaggerated, for he retired without further effort to subdue the country. -Had it been as sweeping a triumph as he would have us believe, he would -surely have pressed forward. - -Another of his inscriptions describes the battle of Qarqar as -follows:[501] - - In the 6th year of my reign from Nineveh I set out .......... unto - Qarqar I approached. Hadadidri of Damascus, Irhulina, the Hamathite, - together with twelve kings of the sea-coast, trusted in their own - power and came to make war and fight with me. With them I fought. - 25,000 of their fighting men I destroyed with arms. Their chariots, - their horses, their implements of war I took from them. They fled to - save their lives. I embarked on a ship and went out to sea. - -Four years later Shalmaneser records the subjugation of Carchemish, on the -Euphrates (cf. Isa. 10:9; Jer. 46:2). His account of it is brief and runs -thus:[502] - - In the 10th year of my reign (850 B. C.), the river Euphrates I - crossed for the eighth time. The cities of Sangar, the Carchemishite, - I devastated, I destroyed I burned with fire. From the cities of - Carchemish I departed and approached the cities of Arame. - -The next year Shalmaneser again tried conclusions with the kings of the -west. His longer account of this runs as follows:[503] - - In the 11th year of my reign (849 B. C.) I set out from Nineveh. I - crossed the river Euphrates at high water for the ninth time - .......... At that time Hadadidri of Damascus, Irhulina the Hamathite, - together with twelve kings of the sea-coast, trusted to their own - power and to make war and battle with me they came. I fought with - them, I accomplished their defeat. 10,000 of their fighting men I slew - with arms. Their chariots, horsemen, and implements of war I took from - them. - -Shalmaneser's third campaign against these kings is thus described:[504] - - In the 14th year of my reign I mustered the broad land without number. - I crossed the Euphrates at high water with 120,000 troops. At that - time Hadadidri of Damascus and Irhulina, the Hamathite, together with - twelve kings of the sea-coast, upper and lower, mustered their - numerous armies without number and into my presence came. I fought - with them, I accomplished their defeat. I brought away their chariots - and horses, their implements of war I took from them; they fled to - save their lives. - -A fourth campaign another inscription describes thus:[505] - - In the 18th year of my reign (842 B. C.), I crossed the river - Euphrates for the sixteenth time. Hazael of Damascus (cf. 1 Kings - 19:15, 17; 2 Kings 8) trusted to the great numbers of his forces and - mustered his troops in large numbers. Saniru (_i. e._, Hermon, see - Deut. 3:9), a mountain-peak at the side of Mount Lebanon, he made his - fortress. I fought with him, I accomplished his defeat. 16,000 of his - fighting men I slew with arms. 1,121 of his chariots, 470 of his - horses with his camp I took from him. He fled to save his life. I - pursued him and in Damascus, his capital city, shut him up. I cut down - his parks. I marched to the mountains of Hauran. Cities innumerable I - destroyed, devastated, I burned with fire; their untold spoil I took - as plunder. To the mountain of Bilirasi,[506] a mountain at the head - of the sea, I marched. My royal portrait in it I set up. At that time - the tribute of the Tyrian, the Sidonian, and of Jehu, son of Omri, I - received. - -The tribute of Jehu of Israel, mentioned in the last line of this -inscription, is pictured on Shalmaneser's black obelisk; (see Figs. 295, -296). Above its various panels is the following inscription:[507] - - Tribute of Jehu, son of Omri: silver, gold, a bowl (?) of gold, a - basin (?) of gold, cups of gold, pails (?) of gold, bars of lead, - scepters (?) for the hand of the king and balsam wood I received from - him. - -A fifth expedition is thus briefly described:[508] - - In the 21st year of my reign (839 B. C.), the river Euphrates I - crossed, against the cities of Hazael of Damascus I went. Four of his - cities I captured. The tribute of the Tyrian, of the Sidonian, and of - the Gebalite I received. - -In still another inscription, which gives a summary of his wars, -Shalmaneser compresses the account of his various wars in the west as -follows:[509] - - At that time Hadadidri of the land of Damascus, together with 12 - princes, his helpers,--their defeat I accomplished. 29,000 mighty - warriors I prostrated like a simoom (?). The rest of his soldiers I - cast into the river Orontes. They fled to save their lives. Hadadidri - forsook his land. Hazael, son of a nobody, seized the throne. He - summoned his numerous soldiers and came to make war and battle with - me. With him I fought, I accomplished his defeat. The wall of his camp - I seized. He fled to save his life. I pursued him to Damascus, his - capital city. - -=7. The Moabite Stone.= - -This stone, which bears an inscription of Mesha, King of Moab, a -contemporary of King Ahab, was erected at Dibon (the modern Diban) on the -north shore of the Arnon, where it was found in the last century. The -upper portion of it was first seen by a Prussian clergyman, Rev. F. A. -Klein, in the year 1868. Reports of its existence had previously reached -the French scholar, Clermont-Ganneau, who was then in Jerusalem, and a -squeeze of it was afterward taken by an Arab for this French scholar. Both -the French and Prussian governments were desirous of obtaining it, and the -Arabs, conceiving that they could obtain more money for it by selling it -in parts, broke it up, thus greatly mutilating the inscription. Afterward -the French obtained it, putting the pieces together again, and it may now -be seen in the Louvre at Paris; (see Fig. 300). The inscription is as -follows:[510] - - I am Mesha, son of Chemoshmelek, King of Moab, the Dibonite. My father - ruled over Moab thirty years, and I ruled after my father. And I made - this high place to Chemosh in Qarhah (?) because of the deliverance - of Mesha, because he saved me from all the kings and because he caused - me to see [my desire] upon all who hated me. Omri, king of Israel--he - oppressed Moab many days, because Chemosh was angry with his land. And - his son succeeded him, and he also said I will oppress Moab. In my day - he spoke according to [this] word, but I saw [my desire] upon him and - upon his house, and Israel utterly perished forever. Now Omri had - possessed all the land of Medeba and dwelt in it his days and half the - days of his son, forty years, but Chemosh restored it in my day. And I - built Baal-meon and I made in it the reservoir (?), and I built - Kiryathaim. And the men of Gad had dwelt in the land of Ataroth from - of old and the king of Israel had built for himself Ataroth. And I - fought against the city and took it, and I slew all the people of the - city, a sight [pleasing] to Chemosh and to Moab. And I brought back - from there the altar-hearth of Duda and I dragged it before Chemosh in - Kiryoth. And I caused to dwell in it the men of Sharon (?) and the men - of Meharoth (?). And Chemosh said to me: "Go take Nebo against - Israel"; and I went by night and fought against it from break of dawn - till noon, and I took it and slew all, seven thousand men, boys (?), - and women, and girls, for I had devoted it to Ashtar-Chemosh. And I - took from there the altar-hearths of Yahweh (Jehovah), and I dragged - them before Chemosh. And the king of Israel built Jahaz and dwelt in - it while he fought with me and Chemosh drove him out from before me. - And I took from Moab two hundred men, all its chiefs, and I led them - against Jahaz and took it to add unto Dibon. And I built Qarhah (?), - the wall of the forests and the wall of the hill; and I built its - gates and I built its towers, and I built the king's house, and I made - the sluices (?) for the reservoir of water in the midst of the city. - And there was no cistern in the midst of the city, in Qarhah (?); and - I said to all the people: "Make you each a cistern in his house;" and - I cut the cuttings for Qarhah (?) with the help of the prisoners of - Israel. I built Aroer and I made the highway by the Arnon. And I built - Beth-bamoth, for it had been destroyed. And I built Bezer, for it was - in ruins .......... [Chi]efs of Dibon were fifty, for all Dibon was - obedient. And I ruled a hundred .........., in the cities which I had - added to the land. And I built [Mede]ba and Beth-diblathan. And [as - for] Beth-baal-meon, there I placed sheep-raisers ........... sheep of - the land. And [as for] Horonaim there dwelt in it ...... and - .......... Chemosh said unto me: "Go down, fight against Horonaim," - and I went down and ........... Chemosh in my day, and from there - .................... and I .......... - -The author of this inscription is the Mesha mentioned in 2 Kings 3:4. He -is there said to have been a "sheep-master" (Hebrew, _noqedh_). Mesha -appears to say in line 30 (the word is broken) that he placed _noqedhim_, -"sheep-raisers," or, "sheep-masters," in Beth-baal-meon. The _noqedh_ was -a raiser of a peculiar breed of sheep. Moab is excellent grazing land and -raised a great many. - -In general the inscription supplements the Biblical narrative. It mentions -persons and places well known from the Bible, and gives us an account of a -series of events of which the Bible makes no mention. The Biblical account -says nothing of Mesha's revolt, while Mesha in his turn says nothing of -the campaign described in 2 Kings 3. Neither document implies that the -events described in the other did not occur; the two are written from two -different points of view and their authors selected the events which -suited the purpose of the respective writers. In spite of this -consideration there are some differences of statement which are -perplexing. - -Mesha says in substance that Omri conquered Medeba and occupied it during -his reign, half the reign of his son, a period of forty years, but Chemosh -restored it to Moab in his (Mesha's) day. It is said in 2 Kings 3:5, on -the other hand, that "when Ahab was dead, the king of Moab rebelled -against the king of Israel." According to 1 Kings 16:23-29, Omri reigned -twelve years and Ahab twenty-two years. All the reign of Omri, and half of -that of Ahab would, accordingly, be but twenty-three years. It is -possible, however, as has been suggested by several scholars, that Mesha -uses the word son to denote descendant, and that he refers to the war with -Israel in the reign of Jehoram, son of Ahab, described in 2 Kings 3:6-27. -Another suggestion, which seems more probable, is that the recapture of -Medeba, mentioned near the beginning of Mesha's inscription, occurred -about the middle of the reign of Ahab, while the capture of Ataroth may -have belonged to the period of Jehoram, the whole time from Omri to -Jehoram being forty years. Some scholars have supposed that the Biblical -chronology is in error and that Omri and Ahab together ruled some fifty -years. This supposition can hardly be correct, since the general accuracy -of the chronology of this part of Kings is confirmed by the Assyrian -inscriptions. - -Mesha's inscription mentions a number of places which the Bible also -names, the Arnon (Num. 21:13, etc.; Deut. 2:24; 3:16, etc.), Aroer (Josh. -13:16), Ataroth (Num. 32:34), Baal-meon or Beth-baal-meon (Josh. 13:17; -Num. 32:38), Beth-bamoth[511] (Josh. 13:17), Beth-diblathaim (Jer. 48:22), -Bezer (Josh. 20:8), Dibon (Num. 32:34; Josh. 13:17; Isa. 15:2), Horonaim -(Isa. 15:5), Jahaz (Josh. 13:18; Isa. 15:4), Kerioth (Jer. 48:24), -Kirathaim (Josh. 13:19; Jer. 48:23), Medeba (Josh. 13:16; Isa. 15:2), and -Nebo (Num. 32:38; Deut. 34:1; Isa. 15:2). - -=8. Adadnirari IV.= - -Adadnirari IV of Assyria (810-782 B. C.) has left an inscription which -mentions Syria and Palestine. It reads as follows:[512] - - Palace of Adadnirari, the great king, the mighty king, the king of the - world, the king of Assyria, who conquered from the Euphrates, the - Hittite country, the Amorite land in its entirety; Tyre, Sidon, the - land of Omri, Edom, Palastu, to the coast of the great sea, where the - sun sets, cast themselves at my feet; I imposed tribute and imposts - upon them. To the land of Damascus I marched. Mari, King of Damascus, - in Damascus his royal city I besieged. The fear of the luster of Ashur - my lord overwhelmed him and he seized my feet and became subject. - 2,300 talents of silver, 20 talents of gold, 3,000 talents of copper, - 5,000 talents of iron, variegated garments, linen (?), an ivory bed, - an ivory couch (?) with inlaid border, his goods without measure I - received in the palace in his royal city Damascus. - -"The land of Omri" was the kingdom of Israel. Omri had made such an -impression on the East that the Assyrians still so called it. "Palastu" is -Philistia. Edom is here mentioned for the first time as paying tribute to -an Assyrian king, but Judah is not mentioned; she was still free. -Adadnirari was a contemporary of Jehoahaz and Jehoash of Israel, and of -Joash and Amaziah of Judah. - -=9. Tiglathpileser IV.= - -Tiglathpileser IV, one of the greatest of Assyria's kings, made several -campaigns into the west and had a profound influence upon the fortunes of -the Hebrew people. Unfortunately, his inscriptions have been greatly -mutilated. Esarhaddon, a later king, determined to remodel -Tiglathpileser's palace for his own use. Apparently he intended to erase -Tiglathpileser's inscriptions from the wall-tablets which adorned the -palace, in order to inscribe these tablets with his own. Esarhaddon died -before the work had progressed very far, so that the inscriptions were not -entirely ruined. The beginnings and ends of many lines are, however, -entirely destroyed, and at some points deplorable gaps exist in the body -of an inscription. Much that is of interest to the Biblical student can -still be made out, as the following translation will show:[513] - - 1. .............................. - - 2. [In] the progress of my expedition the tribute of ki[ngs] - .......... - - 3. ...... Azariah, the Yaudaean, like .......... - - 4. ...... Azariah of Yaudi in .......... - - 5. ........ without number exalted to heaven .......... - - 6. ...... in the eyes, when that which from heaven .......... - - 7. ........ by the onset of infantry .......... - - 8. [the advance] of my powerful [troops] they heard and [their hearts] - feared .......... - - 9. .......... I destroyed, devastated, burned with fire .......... - - 10. ...... who had joined with Azariah and had strengthened him. - - 11. ........... like vines ........... - - .................................. - - 23. ........... Azariah, the Yaudaean .......... my royal palace - ........... - - 24. ............... tribute like the [Assyrian I laid upon them.] - - ............................................ - - 30. ..................... the city Bumame,[514] 19 districts - - 31. of the city of Hamath, together with the cities of their environs - on the shore of the western sea, which sinfully and wrongfully they - had seized for Azariah, - - 32. unto the territory of Assyria I added. I set my officers over them - as governors. 30,000 men [I carried away captive] - - 33. ....... from their cities, in the city of Ku ...... I settled - them. 1,223 people I settled in the province of Ullubu. - - ............................................ - - 50. ....... Tribute of Kushtashpi, the Kummukhite, Rezin, the - Damascene, Menahem, the Samaritan, - - 51. Hiram, the Tyrian, Sibitti-baal, the Gebalite, Urikke, the Queite, - Pisiris of Carchemish, Eniel - - 52. the Hamathite, Panammu, the Samalite, Tarhulara, the Gamgumalite, - Sulumal, the Melidite, Dadilu, - - 53. the Kaskite, Ussurmi, the Tabalite, Ushkitti, the Tunite, Urballa, - the Tuhanite, Tuhammi, the Ishtundite, - - 54. Urimme, the Hushimnite, Zabibe, Queen of Arabia, gold, silver, - lead, iron, elephant-hide, ivory, - - 55. variegated garments, linen cloths, purple and red wool, - _ushu_-wood, _ukarinu_-wood, costly things, a royal treasure, fat - sheep whose wool - - 56. was dyed red, winged birds of heaven whose wings were dyed purple, - horses, mules, oxen and sheep, camels, - - 57. she-camels, together with their foals, I received. - -This account relates to the campaign of 738 B. C. The Azariah referred to -has been thought to be King Uzziah of Judah, who is called Azariah in 2 -Kings 14:21 and 15:1-27. It is probable that he was an Azariah of Yadi, of -northern Syria, mentioned in an inscription of Panammu, to whom -Tiglathpileser refers above, since the kings mentioned with him ruled in -the north. Manahem of Israel (2 Kings 15:14-23) yielded to Tiglathpileser, -as did Rezin, of Damascus (2 Kings 15:37 and 16:5-9), but for some reason -Azariah and Judah escaped. - -This inscription, fragmentary though it is, tells us that Tiglathpileser -now practised upon others the system of deportation from which Israel -herself afterward suffered. He forcibly removed thousands from their homes -to distant parts of the empire. This was an administrative measure, to -prevent future rebellion. Persons who had been influential at home among -their own people would be powerless to foment trouble in the midst of -strange surroundings and neighbors of an unfriendly race. - -The following relates to the campaign of 733-732:[515] - - 1. ................... his warriors I captured .......... I overthrew - with my weapons. - - 2. ......................................... before him. - - 3. the charioteers and .................... their weapons I broke. - - 4. the[ir chariots and] horses I seized .......... his bowmen - .......... - - 5. ............. who carried shields and spears my hands overthrew, - their battle - - 6. ............ to save his life he fled alone and - - 7. .............. like a mouse (?) entered the gate of his city. His - captains alive - - 8. [my hands captured and on] stakes I hung them and exhibited them to - his land. 45 people (?) from his camp - - 9. ...... I brought together before his city, and I shut him in like a - bird in a cage. His parks - - 10. ........ his orchards, which were without number, I cut down and - did not leave one. - - 11. .......... Hadara, the home of the father of Rezin of Damascus, - - 12. [the place where] he was born, I besieged, I captured. 800 people, - together with their possessions, - - 13. ...... their cattle, and sheep I took as spoil. 750 prisoners of - the city Kurussa, - - 14. ...... prisoners of the city Irma, 550 prisoners of the city - Mituna, I captured. 591 cities .......... - - 15. ...... of 16 districts of Damascus like a deluge heap I destroyed. - - ............................................ - - 19. .................... Hanno of Gaza[516] - - 20. fled before my weapons and escaped to Egypt. The city, Gaza, - - 21. [I captured. His goods], his possessions, his gods [I took as - spoil] ...... my royal image - - 22. .................... in the palace of [Hanno I set up]. - - ............................................ - - 27. The country of the house of Omri .......... all its people, - - 28. [and their possessions] I carried away unto Assyria. Pekah, their - king, they had overthrown. Hoshea - - 29. [as king] over them I placed. 10 talents of gold ...... talents of - silver I received as tribute from them. - - ............................................ - - 57. Tribute[517] of Kushtashpi, the Kummuchite, Urikki, the Queite, - Sibittibaal, the Gebalite, Pisiris, the Carchemishite, - - 58. Eni-el, the Hamathite, Panammu, the Samalite, Tarhulara, the - Gurgumite, Sulu[mal, the Melidite, Dadilu, the Kaskite], - - 59. Ussurmi, the Tabalite, Urassurme, the Tabalite, Ushhitti, the - Tunite, Urballa, the Turhanite, Tuhamm[e, the Ishtundite, Urimme, the - Hushimnite], - - 60. Matanbaal, the Arvadite, Sanipu, the Beth-Ammonite, Salamanu, the - Moabite, ............. - - 61. Mitinti, the Askelonite, Jehoahaz [Ahaz], the Judaean, Kaushmalaka, - the Edomite, Mus ............ - - 62. Hanno, the Gazaite, gold, silver, lead, iron, tin, variegated - garments, linen, red cloths of their lands, - - 63. every costly thing, products of sea and dry land produced by their - countries, royal treasures, horses, mules, harnesses ........ [I - received.] - -The record of this campaign, fragmentary as it is, shows how completely -Tiglathpileser conquered the west. He accomplished the overthrow of -Damascus, which his predecessors had been trying in vain to do for more -than a hundred years. His invasion of northern Israel led to the overthrow -of Pekah, and the deportation as captives to other parts of the empire of -numerous Israelites. This confirms 2 Kings 15:29, 30. It was this conquest -of Damascus and Israel that fulfilled Isaiah's prophecy given in 735 B. C. -(Isa. 7:16). It was while Tiglathpileser was at Damascus, receiving the -tribute, that Ahaz, whose full name was Jehoahaz, went to Damascus to -carry his tribute,--an act which prevented the invasion of Judah by -Assyria at this time. While Ahaz was in Damascus, he saw the altar of -which a copy was made for the temple in Jerusalem (2 Kings 16:10, ff.). -The list of kings from whom Tiglathpileser received tribute contains many -Biblical names. Not only Israel and Judah, but the Philistine cities, -Edom, Moab, Ammon, Damascus, Hamath, the Phoenician cities of Gebal and -Arvad, Samal in the extreme north of Syria, Que in Cilicia, and Carchemish -on the Euphrates, were all drawn into his net. - -=10. Sargon, 722-705 B. C.= - -Tiglathpileser IV was succeeded by Shalmaneser V, who ruled, as the eponym -canon shows, from 727 to 722 B. C. On account of a rebellion of Hoshea, -King of Israel, Shalmaneser overran his kingdom and besieged Samaria for -three years, as recorded in 2 Kings 17:3-5. Before the city fell, however, -Shalmaneser had passed away and Sargon, the founder of a new dynasty, was -on the throne of Assyria. In Sargon's first year Samaria fell into the -hands of the Assyrian army; Sargon counted this as his own victory and -tells of it in the following words:[518] - - At the beginning of my reign, in my first year ...... Samaria I - besieged, I captured. 27,290 people from its midst I carried captive. - 50 chariots I took there as an addition to my royal force .......... I - returned and made more than formerly to dwell. People from lands which - my hands had captured I settled in the midst. My officers over them as - governors I appointed. Tribute and taxes I imposed upon them after the - Assyrian manner. - -In another inscription the following summary account occurs:[519] - - From the beginning of my reign to my 15th year, the defeat of - Humbanigash, the Elamite, in the environs of Durilu I accomplished. - Samaria I besieged, I captured; I carried captive 27,290 people who - dwelt in it; 50 chariots I took from them, and permitted the rest to - keep their possessions (?), and placed my governor over them and - imposed on them the tribute of the former king. - -These statements confirm 2 Kings 17:6 and 24, ff. In one respect they -throw an interesting light upon the captivity of Israel. Only 27,290 -people were transported at this time. True, Tiglath-pileser IV had -previously transported the inhabitants of several towns of Galilee. (See 2 -Kings 15:29, and his inscriptions translated above.) When we put together -all those who were deported, however, they were but a fraction of the -population. As Sargon distinctly says, the others remained there. They -intermarried with the settlers whom he brought in and became the ancestors -of the sect of Samaritans. The "ten lost tribes" were not "lost," as is -often popularly supposed to have been the case. - -The first of the inscriptions quoted above contains also the following -passage:[520] - - In the second year of my reign Ilubidi, the Hamathite ...... collected - his numerous troops at Qarqar. The oath [of Ashur he despised]. Arpad, - Simirra, Damascus, Samaria, he made rebellious against me - ..................... Sib'u, his Tartan, he summoned to his aid, and - to give fight and battle came into my presence. In the name of Ashur, - my lord, I accomplished his defeat. Sib'u fled like a shepherd whose - sheep are stolen and escaped. Hanno I caught in my hand and took him - bound unto my city Ashur. The city Raphia I devastated, destroyed, - burned with fire. I took captive 9,033 people, together with their - numerous possessions. - -The Sib'u of this inscription is probably the same as So, King of Egypt, -in 2 Kings 17:4. He cannot be identified with any known Egyptian king. He -was probably a prince of a nome of the Delta. The above is Sargon's -description of the battle of Raphia, which occurred in the year 720 B. C. -This campaign was an aftermath of the fall of Samaria. - -717 B. C. - - [Sargon],[521] the exalted prince, who came upon Hummanigash, the King - of Elam, in the environs of Durilu and accomplished his overthrow, who - reduced to submission Yaudi, the place of which was distant, who - destroyed Hamath, whose hands captured Yaubidi. - -This Yaudi has been taken by some scholars for Judah, but it was probably -the kingdom in northern Syria mentioned by Tiglathpileser IV and in the -inscription of Panammu, of Samal, the modern Zendjirli. We know of no -Assyrian invasion of Judah at this time. - - The tribute of Pharaoh, King of Egypt, of Samsi, the Queen of Arabia, - Ithamara, the Sabaean, gold, the ...... of the mountain, horses, and - camels, I received ............[522] - - Yaubidi, the Hamathite, a soldier (?), with no right to the throne, a - bad Hittite, had set his heart on the kingdom of Hamath; he caused - Arpad, Simirra, Damascus, and Samaria to rebel against me, made them - of one intent and collected for battle. The whole army of Ashur I - mustered and in Qarqar, his favorite city, I besieged him together - with his soldiers. I captured Qarqar, I burned it with fire. His skin - I flayed and the partakers of his sin I killed in their cities; I - established peace. 200 chariots and 200 horsemen I collected from the - people of Hamath, and added to my royal force. - -This passage records the overthrow of Hamath and Arpad (Isa. 10:9), and -mentions the tribute of a king of Sheba, the account of the coming of -whose queen to Solomon is found in I Kings 10:1, ff. - -711 B. C. - - Azuri, King of Ashdod, planned in his heart not to pay tribute, and - among the kings of his neighborhood disseminated hatred of Assyria. On - account of the evil he had done I cut off his lordship over the people - of his land. I appointed Ahimiti, his younger (?) brother to the - kingship over them. But the Hittites, planning evil, hated him and - exalted over them Yamani, who had no claim to the throne, and who, - like them, knew no fear of authority. In the anger of my heart the - mass of my army I did not muster, I did not assemble my camp. With my - usual bodyguard I marched against Ashdod. Yamani heard of the progress - of my expedition from afar and fled to the borders of Egypt, which - lies by the side of Melucha, and was seen no more. Ashdod, Gath, - Ashdudimmu, I besieged, I conquered. I took as spoil his gods, his - wife, his sons, his daughters, his possessions, the treasures of his - palace, together with the people of his land. I seized those cities - anew, and settled in them peoples of lands I had captured from among - [the lands] of the east .......... With the people of Assyria I - numbered them, and they bore my yoke. The king of Melucha, who among - ...... an inaccessible place, a road ...... whose fathers from ancient - days as far back as the moon-god, his father, had sent no messengers - to my fathers to pay their respects, heard from afar of the might of - Ashur, Nabu, and Marduk; the fear of the luster of my royalty covered - him and fright was poured over him. He cast him [Yamani] into bonds, - fetters of iron, and brought him before me into Assyria,--a long - journey.[523] - -Another fragmentary account runs thus:[524] - - In the 9th [error for 11th] year of my reign I marched .......... to - the coast of the great sea ...... Azuri, King of Ashdod, .......... - Ahimiti .......... his younger (?) brother .......... I exalted over - them .......... tribute and taxes of my lordship ...... like those of - ...... kings, I imposed upon them ...... The evil in .......... in - order not to pay tribute .......... their princes .......... they - drove him away .......... Yamani, a soldier, they appointed to - kingship over them. Their city .......... in its environs a moat - .......... cubits in depth they dug, they reached the water-level - .......... To [punish] Philistia, Judah, Edom, Moab, who inhabit the - sea-coast, payers of tribute, and taxes to Ashur, my lord. Planning - rebellion and untold evil against me, they bore their pledges to - Pharaoh, King of Egypt, a prince who could not help them, and sought - his aid. I, Sargon, the faithful prince, who honors the oath of Nabu - and Marduk, who guards the name of Ashur, caused my trusty troops to - cross the Tigris and Euphrates at high water. As for him, Yamani, - their king, who had trusted to his own power, and had not submitted to - my lordship, he heard of the advance of my army. The fear of Ashur, my - lord, cast him down, and to ...... which is on the bank of the river - ...... waters ...... his land ...... far away ...... he fled ...... - Ashdod ...... - -The two passages just translated are Sargon's accounts of the events -alluded to in Isa. 20:1. These events were the occasion of the prophecy -there recorded. Until the discovery of the palace of Sargon by Botta in -1845, this passage in Isaiah, was the only place in extant literature -where the name of Sargon had been preserved. - -In the last of the passages just quoted, Sargon speaks as though he had -also punished Judah on this expedition. There is no direct allusion to -this in the Bible unless it be the vivid description in Isa. 10:28-32, -where an approach of an Assyrian army to Jerusalem from the north is -described. It is difficult to date those verses unless they also refer to -this expedition of 711 B. C. (_See Appendix._) - -=11. Sennacherib, 705-681 B. C.= - -Campaign of 701[525] - - In my third expedition I went to the land of the Hittites. The fear of - my lordship overthrew Luli, King of Sidon, and he fled to a distance - in the midst of the sea. His land I subdued. Great Sidon, little - Sidon. Beth-zet, Zareptah, Mahalliba, Ushu, Achzib, Accho, his - strongholds, his fortresses, the places of his food and drink, the - forts in which he trusted, the might of the weapons of Ashur, my lord, - overthrew them and they submitted to my feet. I caused Tubal to sit on - the royal throne over them, and imposed upon him the yearly payment of - tribute as the tax of my lordship. Minhimmu, the Shamsimurunian, - Tubalu, the Sidonian, Abdiliti, the Arvadite, Urumilke, the Gebalite, - Mitinti, the Ashdodite, Puduilu, the Beth-Ammonite, Kammusunadbi, the - Moabite, Milkirammu, the Edomite, kings of the Westland, all of them, - an extensive district, brought their heavy tribute together with their - possessions into my presence and kissed my feet. - - And Sidqa, the King of Askelon, who had not submitted to my yoke, the - gods of the house of his father, himself, his wife, his sons, his - daughters, his brothers, the seed of the house of his father I took - away and brought him to Assyria. Sharruludari, the son of Rukibti, - their former king, I placed over the people of Askelon, and imposed - upon him the payment of tribute as an aid to my rule, and he bore my - yoke. In the progress of my expedition Beth-Dagon, Joppa, Banabarka, - Azuru, the cities of Sidqa, who had not with alacrity submitted to my - feet, I besieged, I captured, I took their spoil. The governors, - princes, and people of Ekron, who had cast into fetters of iron Padi, - their king, my ally, bound by Ashur's oath, and had delivered him to - Hezekiah, the Judaean, who as an enemy imprisoned him,--their hearts - feared. The kings of Egypt, the soldiers, bows, chariots, and horses - of the king of Meluhu, an unnumbered force, they summoned, and they - came to their aid. In the environs of Elteke the battle array was - drawn up before me; they asked for their weapons. In the might of - Ashur, my lord, I fought with them and accomplished their defeat. My - hands took alive in the midst of the battle the commander of the - chariots and the sons of the Egyptian king, together with the - commander of the chariots of the king of Meluhu. Elteke [and] Timnath - I besieged, captured and took their spoil. I approached Ekron. The - governors and princes who had committed sin I killed and on stakes - round about the city I hung their bodies. The citizens who had - committed wickedness and rebellion I counted as spoil. I declared the - righteousness of the rest of them, who had committed no sin and - rebellion and in whom was no wickedness. I brought Padi, their king, - out of the midst of Jerusalem, and on the throne of dominion over them - I placed, and imposed the tribute of my over-lordship upon him. - - And as to Hezekiah, the Judaean, who had not submitted to my yoke, 46 - of his strongholds, fortified cities, and smaller cities of their - environs without number, with the onset of battering rams and the - attack of engines, mines, breaches, and axes (?), I besieged, I - captured. 200,150 people, small and great, male and female, horses, - mules, asses, camels, oxen, and sheep without number I brought out of - their midst and counted as booty. He himself I shut up like a caged - bird in Jerusalem, his capital city; I erected beleaguering works - against him, and turned back by command every one who came out of his - city gate. The cities, which I had captured, from his country I cut - off and gave them to Mitinti, King of Ashdod, Padi, King of Ekron, and - Sillibaal, King of Gaza, and diminished his land. In addition to the - former tribute, their yearly tax, I added a tax as the impost of my - over-lordship and laid it upon them. As to Hezekiah himself, the fear - of the luster of my lordship overcame him and the Urbi and his - favorite soldiers, whom he had brought in to strengthen Jerusalem, his - capital city, deserted. With 30 talents of gold, 800 talents of - silver, precious stones, rouge, _dakkasi_, lapis lazuli, great - _angugmi_-stones, beds of ivory, stationary ivory thrones, elephants' - hide, ivory, _ushu_-wood, _ukarinnu_-wood, all sorts of objects, a - heavy treasure; also his daughters, the women of his palace, male and - female musicians he sent after me to Nineveh, my capital city, and - sent his messenger to present the gift and to do homage. - -Inscription under Lachish-picture, 701 B. C. - - Sennacherib, king of the world, King of Assyria, sat on his throne, - and the spoil of the city of Lachish passed before him;[526] (see Fig. - 298). - -Expedition against Merodachbaladan, 703 B. C. - - In my first expedition I accomplished the defeat of Merodachbaladan, - King of Babylon, together with the forces of Elam, his ally, in the - environs of the city of Kish. In the midst of that battle he left his - camp and fled alone; he saved his life. The chariots, horses, wagons, - and mules, which at the onset of battle he had left, my hands - captured. I entered joyfully into his palace which was in Babylon. I - opened his treasure-house; gold, silver, gold and silver utensils, - precious stones of all kinds, his untold treasured possessions, a - great booty; the women of his palace, princes, his body-guards, male - and female musicians, the rest of his troops as many as there were, - and the servants of his palace I brought out and counted as - spoil.[527] - -Campaign against Arabia (between 688 and 682) - - Telhunu, the Queen of Arabia, in the midst of the desert--from her I - took ... camels. The [luster of] my [lordship] overthrew her and - Hazael. They left their tents and fled to Adummatu, which is situated - in the desert, ...... a thirsty place, where there is neither food nor - drink.[528] - -The material contained in the first two passages just quoted from -Sennacherib is parallel in a general way to 2 Kings 18, 19 and Isa. 36, -37. All Biblical students recognize that these two chapters in Isaiah are -practically identical with the two in Kings. In discussing the -parallelism, therefore, we shall refer to 2 Kings 18, 19 only. With -reference to the bearing of this Assyrian material upon the Biblical -narrative there are three different views which have been entertained by -three groups of scholars. - -1. One view, which was first expressed by the late Prof. Schrader,[529] of -Berlin, is that the inscription of Sennacherib, while differing from the -Biblical account in some particulars, really confirms it at nearly every -point. Sennacherib, though he claims to have diminished Hezekiah's -territory, and to have received from him a heavy tribute, does not claim -to have taken Jerusalem. According to 2 Kings 18:14, ff., Hezekiah -submitted to Sennacherib, sending his messenger to Lachish for the -purpose, and paid him a heavy tribute; according to 2 Kings 19:35, ff., a -great disaster so weakened Sennacherib's army that he was obliged to -withdraw. Schrader called attention to the close correspondence between 2 -Kings 18:14 and Sennacherib. Both state that Hezekiah paid 30 talents of -gold, though they differ as to the amount of silver, Kings making it 300 -talents, while Sennacherib makes it 800. It was supposed that the numbers -in the case of the silver were really equivalent to one another, the -present divergence being due to textual corruption. Assyrian kings never -record their failures, but Sennacherib's admission that he did not take -the city was held to be confirmation of 2 Kings 19:35, ff., which -describes a great destruction of the Assyrian army and a signal -deliverance of Jerusalem. - -2. A second view, of which Prof. Meinhold,[530] of Bonn, may be taken as -the chief exponent, starts from the fact that there seem to be two -accounts in 2 Kings 18 and 19. In 18:13-16 there is a statement of how -Hezekiah sent to Sennacherib, while Sennacherib was besieging Lachish, and -admitted that he had done wrong and promised to bear whatever Sennacherib -might choose to put upon him. Sennacherib thereupon imposed a heavy -tribute upon him, which he paid. The whole transaction seems to be -concluded, when at v. 17 the Tartan, or Rabsaris (Rabshakeh), appears upon -the scene and taunts Hezekiah for his obstinacy and he submits again. -Possibly this might be considered the details of the transaction that was -described in mere outline in 18:13-16. When, however, it has all been -described again, and the Rabshakeh has returned to Sennacherib at Lachish, -Sennacherib again sends messengers (chapter 19:9), again demanding a -surrender. These messengers are said to have been sent when Sennacherib -heard that Tirhakah, King of Ethiopia, was marching against him. This -narrative goes on to tell how Hezekiah, acting under the advice of Isaiah, -delayed his surrender, and how the camp of the Assyrians was decimated by -the angel of the Lord, and Jerusalem escaped. - -Meinhold and his followers hold that there are here two inconsistent -accounts. According to the first, Hezekiah surrendered; according to the -second, he did not. According to the first, Hezekiah paid tribute; -according to the second, Sennacherib's army was destroyed. The first of -these accounts is confirmed by Sennacherib's inscription; the second is, -so Meinhold holds, shown by it to be unhistorical: first, by the fact that -Sennacherib gives no hint that his army was harmed, and, secondly, by the -mention of Tirhakah, who did not come to the throne until 688 B. C., and -could not, therefore, have been a factor in the war of 701 B. C. - -A third view was suggested by Winckler[531] and is held by Prasek,[532] -Fullerton,[533] and Rogers.[534] According to this view, Sennacherib made -two expeditions against Jerusalem, and 2 Kings 18:13-19:8 is an account of -the first of these (the expedition of 701), while 2 Kings 19:9-36 is the -account of the second,--an expedition which did not occur until after the -accession of Tirhakah, eight or ten years later. The inscription of -Sennacherib, already quoted, refers to the first of these expeditions -only. We have no inscription of Sennacherib referring to the later -disastrous campaign, but that is not surprising, for unless the account of -his expedition against the queen of Arabia, already quoted above, belongs -to this period, we have no inscriptions referring to the last eight years -of his reign. It is thought by the scholars who believe that there were -two expeditions, that Sennacherib would approach the queen of Arabia only -from the west, so that that inscription is regarded as an incidental -confirmation of this view. Of course, an Assyrian king would not record a -disaster. - -The account in 2 Kings 19:9-36 receives confirmation from an interesting -passage in Herodotus, the Greek "father of history." He says (Book II, -141): - - And after this the next king [of Egypt] was a priest of Hephaistos, - called Sethos. He held the warrior class of the Egyptians in contempt - as though he had no need of them. He did them dishonor and deprived - them of the arable lands which had been granted them by previous - kings, twelve acres to each soldier. And afterward Sennacherib, King - of the Arabians and Assyrians, marched a great army into Egypt. Then - the soldiers of Egypt would not help him; whereupon the priest went - into the inner sanctuary to the image of the god and bewailed the - things which he was in danger of suffering. As he wept he fell asleep, - and there appeared to him in a vision the god standing over him to - encourage him, saying that, when he went forth to meet the Arabian - army he would suffer no harm, for he himself would send him helpers. - Trusting to this dream he collected those Egyptians who were willing - to follow him and marched to Pelusium, where the entrance to his - country was. None of the warriors followed him, but traders, artisans, - and market men. There, as the two armies lay opposite to each other, - there came in the night a multitude of field mice, which ate up all - the quivers and bowstrings of the enemy, and the thongs of their - shields. In consequence, on the next day they fled, and, being - deprived of their arms, many of them fell. And there stands now in the - temple of Hephaistos a stone statue of this king holding a mouse in - his hand, bearing an inscription which says: "Let any who look on me - reverence the gods." - -George Adam Smith[535] pointed out several years ago that, when this -passage is compared with 2 Kings 19:36, it points clearly to the -conclusion that Sennacherib's army was attacked by bubonic plague. In -modern times this plague first attacks rats and mice, which in their -suffering swarm the dwellings of men and spread the disease. The Hebrews -regarded the attack of such a plague as a smiting by the angel of God. -This is shown by 2 Sam. 24:16, 17; Acts 12:23; 2 Kings 19:36. Such a -pestilence would render the Assyrian army helpless, and would be regarded -by the Hebrews as a divine intervention on their behalf. As it is -supported by both the book of Kings and Herodotus, it probably affords us -a clue to what really happened to Sennacherib's army. - -We hold, then, that the last of the three views concerning the campaigns -of Sennacherib to Palestine is probably correct. - -The Elteke mentioned in the inscription of Sennacherib is the city -referred to in Josh. 19:44 and 21:23. The Merodachbaladan referred to is -mentioned in Isa. 39:1, where it is said that he sent to congratulate -Hezekiah upon his recovery from sickness. It is clear from what the -Assyrian accounts tell us that his real motive in sending to Hezekiah was -to induce him to rebel against Assyria. - -=12. The Siloam Inscription.= - -The following inscription was discovered in 1880 on the right wall of the -tunnel which connects the Virgin's Well (Ain Sitti Maryam) at Jerusalem -with the Pool of Siloam (Birket Silwan). - - The boring through [is completed]. And this is the story of the boring - through: while yet [they plied] the drill, each toward his fellow, and - while yet there were three cubits to be bored through, there was heard - the voice of one calling unto another, for there was a crevice in the - rock on the right hand. And on the day of the boring through the - stone-cutters struck, each to meet his fellow, drill upon drill; and - the waters flowed from the source to the pool for a thousand and two - hundred cubits, and a hundred cubits was the height of the rock above - the heads of the stone-cutters;[536] (see Fig. 297). - -This inscription, though not dated, is believed to come from the time of -Hezekiah. Hezekiah is said in 2 Kings 20:20 to have built a conduit and to -have brought the water into the city. This inscription was found in a -remarkable conduit which still runs under the hill at Jerusalem, cut -through the solid rock. It is about 1,700 feet long. It was cleared of -silt by the Parker expedition of 1909-1911, and the tunnel is about 6 feet -in height throughout its entire length. When it was cut the wall of -Jerusalem crossed the Tyropoeon Valley just below it, so that, while the -Virgin's Spring (the Biblical Gihon) lay outside the walls, this aqueduct -brought the water to a pool within the walls, so that the inhabitants of -the city could, in case of siege, fill their water-jars without exposing -themselves to the enemy. - -The inscription is now in the Imperial Ottoman Museum at Constantinople. - -=13. Esarhaddon, 681-668 B. C.= - - I overthrew the kings of the Hittite country and those beyond the sea; - Baal, King of Tyre, Manassah, King of Judah, Kaushgabri, King of Edom, - Musuri, King of Moab, Silbaal, King of Gaza, Mitinti, King of Askelon, - Ikausu, King of Ekron, Milkiashapa, King of Gebal, Matanbaal, King of - Arvad, Abibaal, King of Shamsimuruna, Puduel, King of Beth-Ammon, - Ahi-milku, King of Ashdod, 12 kings of the sea-coast; Ekishtura, King - of Idalion, Pilagura, King of Kiti, Kisu, King of Sillua, Ituander, - King of Paphos, Erisu, King of Sillu, Damasu, King of Kuri, Atmizu, - King of Tamesu, Damusi, King of Kartihadasti, Unasagusu, King of - Lidir, Bususu, King of Nurenu; 10 kings of Cyprus in the midst of the - sea--altogether 22 kings of the Hittite land, of the sea-coast and the - midst of the sea--I sent to them and great cedar beams, etc. ......... - [they sent].[537] - -Esarhaddon, the author of the inscription from which this extract is -taken, is mentioned in 2 Kings 19:37 and Isa. 37:38 as Sennacherib's -successor, a statement which the inscriptions abundantly confirm. The -above quotation from his inscription shows that Manasseh, King of Judah, 2 -Kings 20:21 and chapter 21, was a vassal of Esarhaddon. Esarhaddon is also -alluded to in Ezra 4:2. - -=14. Ashurbanipal of Assyria, 668-626 B. C.= - - In my third campaign I marched against Baal, King of Tyre, who dwelt - in the midst of the sea. Because he had not kept the word of my - lordship nor heeded the utterance of my lips, I erected against him - siege-works and cut off his exit both by land and sea; their lives I - made narrow and straitened; I caused them to submit to my yoke. They - brought the daughters that came forth from his loins and the daughters - of his brothers into my presence to become concubines. Yahimilki, his - son, who had never crossed the sea, they brought at the same time to - do me service. His daughter and the daughters of his brothers with an - abundant dowry I received from him. I granted him favor and returned - to him the son that came forth from his loins.[538] - - Yakinlu, King of Arvad, who dwells in the midst of the sea, who had - not submitted to the kings, my fathers, I brought under my yoke. He - brought his daughter to Nineveh with an abundant dowry and kissed my - feet .......... - - On my return I captured Ushu, which is situated on the coast of the - sea. The inhabitants of Ushu, who had not been obedient to their - governors, who had not paid their tribute, I killed as the tribute of - their land. Among the rebellious peoples I set my staff. Their gods - and their peoples I carried as booty to Assyria. The people of Accho - who had not submitted I subdued. I hung their bodies on stakes around - the city. The rest I took to Assyria; I preserved them and added them - to the numerous army which Ashur had given unto me.[539] - -These extracts from the inscriptions of Ashurbanipal show that during the -reign of Manasseh he was active in reducing the rebellions of Phoenician -cities, some of which, as Tyre and Accho, were at the doors of Palestine. -No doubt Manasseh continued to pay him tribute and so was not molested. -The name of Ashurbanipal is preserved in Ezra 4:10 in the corrupt form of -Osnappar. - -=15. Necho of Egypt, 609-593 B. C.= - - Year 16, fourth month of the first season, day 16, under the majesty - of Horus: Wise-hearted; king of Upper and Lower Egypt; Favorite of the - two goddesses: Triumphant; Golden Horus: Beloved-of-the-Gods; - Uhemibre; Son of Ra, of his body, his beloved: Necho, living forever, - beloved of Apis, son of Osiris.[540] - -(An account of the interment of an Apis bull then follows.) - -The above is the beginning of an inscription of Pharaoh Necho, whose -defeat of King Josiah, of Judah, is recorded in 2 Kings 23:29, f. He -became over-lord of Judah for four years and placed Jehoiakim on the -Judaean throne (2 Kings 23:34). Necho was himself defeated at Carchemish on -the Euphrates by Nebuchadrezzar, of Babylon, in 604 B. C., and as he -retreated to Egypt Nebuchadrezzar pursued him through Palestine. The book -of Jeremiah speaks of this defeat and vividly describes the pursuit which -followed. (Cf. Jer. 46:2, f.) - -=16. Nebuchadrezzar II, 604-562 B. C.= - -Many inscriptions of Nebuchadrezzar are known, but most of them relate to -buildings. The following extracts are those which best illustrate the -Bible. - - In exalted trust in him (Marduk) distant countries, remote mountains - from the upper sea (Mediterranean) to the lower sea (Persian Gulf), - steep paths, blockaded roads, where the step is impeded, [where] was - no footing, difficult roads, desert paths, I traversed, and the - disobedient I destroyed; I captured the enemies, established justice - in the lands; the people I exalted; the bad and evil I separated from - the people.[541] - -Reference to the Lebanon - - From the upper sea to the lower sea, .......... [which] Marduk, my - lord, had entrusted to me, in [all] lands, the totality [of - dwelling-places] I [exalted] the city of Babylon to the first place. I - caused his name to be reverenced among the cities; the shrines of Nabu - and Marduk, my lords, I made them recognize, continually .......... At - that time the Lebanon mountain, the mountain [of cedar], the proud - forest of Marduk, the odor of whose cedars is good .......... of - another god ........... no other king had ........... my god, Marduk, - the king to the palace of the princes .......... of heaven and earth - shone as adornment .......... As a foreign enemy had taken possession - of (the mountain) and seized its riches, its people had fled and taken - refuge at a distance. In the power of Nabu and Marduk, my lords, I - drew up [my soldiers, for battle] in mount Lebanon. Its enemy I - dislodged above and below and made glad the heart of the land. I - collected its scattered people and returned them to their place. I did - what no former king had done; I cleft high mountains, stones of the - mountain I quarried, I opened passes. I made a straight road for the - cedars. Mighty cedars they were, tall and strong, of wonderful beauty, - whose dark appearance was remarkable,--the mighty products of mount - Lebanon .......... I made the people of mount Lebanon to lie down in - abundance; I permitted no adversary to possess it. That none might do - harm I set up my royal image forever.[542] - -A Building Inscription - - Nebuchadrezzar, King of Babylon, the restorer of Esagila and Ezida, - son of Nabopolassar am I. As a protection to Esagila, that no powerful - enemy and destroyer might take Babylon, that the line of battle might - not approach Imgur-Bel, the wall of Babylon, that which no former king - had done [I did]; at the enclosure of Babylon I made an enclosure of a - strong wall on the east side. I dug a moat, I reached the level of the - water. I then saw that the wall which my father had prepared was too - small in its construction. I built with bitumen and brick a mighty - wall which, like a mountain, could not be moved and connected it with - the wall of my father; I laid its foundations on the breast of the - under-world; its top I raised up like a mountain. Along this wall to - strengthen it I constructed a third and as the base of a protecting - wall I laid a foundation of bricks and built it on the breast of the - under-world and laid its foundation. The fortifications of Esagila and - Babylon I strengthened and established the name of my reign forever. - - O Marduk, lord of the gods, my divine creator, may my deeds find favor - before thee; may they endure forever! Eternal life, satisfied with - posterity, a secure throne, and a long reign grant as thy gift. Thou - art indeed my deliverer and my help, O Marduk, I by thy faithful word - which does not change--may my weapons advance, be sharp and be - stronger than the weapon of the foe![543] - -Nebuchadrezzar was the king who destroyed Jerusalem and carried the more -prominent of the people of Judah captive. (See 2 Kings 24 and 25.) His -inscriptions give no account of these events. In the first of the -quotations made above he covers all his conquests by one general -reference. In the second quotation he gives a more detailed account of his -conquest of the Lebanon, because that inscription was carved on the rocks -at the side of one of the deep valleys of the Lebanon. The third -inscription, relating to the building of Babylon, has been strikingly -confirmed by Koldewey's excavation of Babylon, by which the massive walls -and extensive temples were uncovered.[544] It also gives us a background -for Daniel 4:29, where Nebuchadrezzar is said to have walked upon[545] -the royal palace and said: "Is not this great Babylon which I have built?" - -=17. Evil-Merodach, 562-560 B. C.= - -Nebuchadrezzar was succeeded by his son, Amil-Marduk, whom the Bible (2 -Kings 25:27) calls Evil-Merodach. The only inscription of his that has -been found is the following, inscribed on an alabaster vase found at Susa, -whither the Elamites had at some time carried it as booty:[546] - - Palace of Amil-Marduk, King of Babylon, son of Nebuchadrezzar, King of - Babylon. - -This is the king who released Jehoiachin, King of Judah, from prison after -his thirty-six years in confinement and treated him kindly. - - * * * * * - -NOTE ON THE LAND OF THE QUEEN OF SHEBA.--This region, which lay in South -Arabia, was explored during the nineteenth century by a number of -travelers. Three of these, Thomas J. Arnaud in 1843, Joseph Halevy in -1869, and Eduard Glaser who made four expeditions between 1882 and 1894, -brought back from South Arabia many inscriptions, several of which were -made by rulers of Saba, the Biblical Sheba, whose queen is said to have -visited Solomon (1 Kings 10:1-13). As none of these relate to that queen, -it has not seemed fitting to include one of them. The inscriptions, -however, show that two important kingdoms existed there, Saba and Main. -Main is thought by some to be related to the Biblical Midianites. The -Greek version of Job makes Job's friend, Zophar, king of Main. The kingdom -of Saba lasted until 115 B. C. It established strong colonies in Africa. -In 115 B. C. one colony overthrew the mother-country and established the -kingdom of Saba and Raidhan, which lasted till about 300 A. D. After that -Saba became apparently unimportant, but various Semitic kingdoms succeeded -one another in Africa, including the present-day Abyssinian kingdom. The -Abyssinian king claims descent from Solomon and the Queen of Sheba. - - - - -CHAPTER XVIII - -THE END OF THE BABYLONIAN EXILE - - INSCRIPTIONS OF NABUNA'ID; THEIR BEARING ON BIBLICAL STATEMENTS - REGARDING BELSHAZZAR. ACCOUNT OF THE CAPTURE OF BABYLON BEARING ON THE - BOOK OF DANIEL. INSCRIPTION OF CYRUS BEARING ON THE CAPTURE OF - BABYLON. CYRUS' PERMISSION FOR THE RETURN TO JERUSALEM. - - -=1. Inscriptions of Nabuna'id.= - -Several inscriptions of this king, who ruled 555-538 B. C., are known, but -only a brief extract of one of them is given here, as the major part of -the material has no bearing on the Bible. - - Nabuna'id, King of Babylon, the restorer of Esagila and Ezida, the - worshiper of the great gods am I .......... O Sin, lord of the gods of - heaven and earth, god of the gods, .......... as for me, Nabuna'id, - King of Babylon, save me from sinning against thy great divinity. A - life of many days grant as thy gift. As for Belshazzar, the firstborn - son, proceeding from my loins, place in his heart fear of thy great - divinity; let him not turn to sinning; let him be satisfied with - fulness of life![547] - -Belshazzar is here said to be the son of Nabuna'id, whereas in Dan. 5:11, -18 Nebuchadrezzar is called his father. Nabuna'id, as the Babylonian -documents show, was not a descendant of Nebuchadrezzar, but a usurper of -another family. Some scholars hold that this shows the book of Daniel to -be in error, while others hold that "father" in Dan. 5:11, 18 is -equivalent to "ancestor," and think Belshazzar may have been descended -from Nebuchadrezzar on his mother's side. - -The Nabuna'id-Cyrus Chronicle - -This chronicle is known only from a tablet which is somewhat broken. The -following extract will show the nature of its contents: - - In the 9th year Nabuna'id was at Tema. The son of the king, the - princes, and soldiers were in Akkad. The king did not come to Babylon - in Nisan, Nebo did not go to Babylon. Bel did not go out. The festival - sacrifice was omitted. They offered sacrifices in Esagila and Ezida on - account of Babylon and Borsippa, that the land might prosper. On the - 5th of the month, Nisan the mother of the king, died in Dur-karashu - on the bank of the Euphrates above Sippar. The son of the king and the - soldiers mourned three days. In the month Sivan there was mourning for - the king's mother in Akkad. - - In the month Nisan Cyrus, King of Persia, mustered his soldiers, and - crossed the Tigris below Arbela and in the month Iyyar went to the - land of .......... its king he killed, he took his possessions. His - own governor (?) he placed in it ......... afterward his governor (?) - and a king (?) were there.[548] - -=2. Bearing on Biblical Statements Regarding Belshazzar.= - -Similar chronicles are given by the tablet for other years. It is stated -each time what Nabuna'id was doing; where the king's son (Belshazzar) was, -and what Cyrus was doing. Cyrus, who overthrew the Median king in 553 B. -C., was occupied for several years in subjugating other lands before he -attacked Babylon. He overthrew Croesus, King of Lydia, in 546. It would -seem that it was well known in Babylonia what he was doing each year. -Those scholars who believe that Isaiah 40-55 is the work of a prophet who -lived during the Babylonian Exile, claim that this chronicle explains how -that prophet could refer in Isa. 44:28; 45:1 to Cyrus as a well-known -figure. They see the exercise of the prophetic gift of the prophet in the -faith which he had that Cyrus would release Israel from captivity. Those -who believe that the whole of the book of Isaiah is the work of the son of -Amoz, see in these verses pure prediction of the rise of Cyrus as well as -of the release of the Jews. - -=3. Account of the Capture of Babylon.= - -From the chronicle just quoted we have the following statement for the -17th year of the reign of Nabuna'id: - - ...... Nebo to go forth from Borsippa .......... the king entered the - temple of Edurkalama. In the month .......... in the lower sea a - revolt ........ Bel came out; the feast of Akiti (Sept.-Oct.), - according to the custom .......... the gods of Marad, Zagaga, and the - gods of Kish, Beltis, and the gods of Harsagkalama entered Babylon. - Unto the end of Elul (Aug.-Sept.) the gods of Borsippa, Cutha, and - Sippar did not enter. In the month Tammuz (June-July) Cyrus, when he - made battle in Opis, on the banks of the river Zalzallat, with the - soldiers of Akkad, conquered the inhabitants of Akkad. When they - assembled the people were killed. On the 14th Sippar was taken without - a battle. Nabuna'id fled. On the 16th Gobryas, governor of the land of - Gutium, and the soldiers of Cyrus entered Babylon without a battle. - Later Nabuna'id was captured because he remained in Babylon. To the - end of the month the shield-bearers of the land of Gutium assembled at - the gates of Esagila. No weapon of any kind was taken into Esagila or - the temples; nor was the standard raised. On the third day of - Marcheswan (Oct.-Nov.) Cyrus entered Babylon. The walls (?) were - broken down before him. Cyrus proclaimed peace to all of Babylon. He - appointed Gobryas his satrap, and also prefects in Babylon. From - Kisleu (Nov.-Dec.) unto Adar (Feb.-March), the gods of Akkad, whom - Nabuna'id had brought to Babylon, returned to their cities. In the - month Marcheswan, on the night of the 11th, Gobryas unto .......... - the son of the king was killed. From the 27th of Adar to the 3rd of - Nisan there was lamentation in Akkad. All the people bowed their - heads. On the 4th day Cambyses, the son of Cyrus, went to - Eshapakalama.[549] - -=4. Bearing of This Account on the Book of Daniel.= - -This interesting text here becomes too broken for connected translation. -It is clear that the document means to state that Nabuna'id was king of -Babylon when it was captured, and not Belshazzar, as stated in Daniel -5:30. It states, also, that Cyrus captured Babylon and not Darius the -Mede, as in Dan. 5:31. It is true that Gobryas took Babylon first, and -occupied it about two weeks before Cyrus arrived. He was, however, Cyrus's -officer and was acting in his name. Critical scholars, who believe that -Daniel was written 168-165 B. C., find in these statements a confirmation -of their views. They think its author lived so far from the events that he -confused their exact order. Those who defend the traditional date of -Daniel think that Gobryas is meant by Darius the Mede, and see in the -exalted position which Belshazzar held, as crown prince and commander of -the army, sufficient ground for the Biblical statement that he was king. -By such interpretations they harmonize this chronicle with the Bible. - -Dr. Theophilus G. Pinches has recently published[550] some extracts from -two tablets from Erech which are in the possession of an Englishman, Mr. -Harding Smith, which throw some additional light on these points. It was -customary for Babylonians in confirming a contract to swear by the name of -the reigning king, and one of these tablets contains a contract, dated in -the 12th year of Nabuna'id, in which a man bound himself by the oath of -Nabuna'id, King of Babylon, and of Belshazzar, the king's son. As -Belshazzar is here associated with the king, he must have been but -slightly lower in rank and power than the king himself. - -This is confirmed by a tablet at Yale, recently published by Prof. -Clay.[551] The text contains the interpretation of a dream for the King -Nabuna'id and for his son Belshazzar. It is dated in the seventh year of -the reign of Nabuna'id. - -The other tablet quoted by Pinches shows that in the fourth year of -Cambyses (_i. e._, 524 B. C.), Gobryas was still governor of Babylon. If -he is the man who in Daniel is called Darius the Mede, he exercised the -powers of governor in Babylon for a considerable number of years. - -=5. Inscription of Cyrus.= - -The following is an inscription of Cyrus. The lines are much broken at the -beginning, but it reads as follows:[552] - - .......................... begat (?) him ..................... [the - four] regions of the world ............. great coward was established - as ruler over the land ............. a similar one he set over them; - like Esagila he made .......... to Ur and the rest of the cities a - rule not suitable for them ....... he planned daily and in enmity he - caused the established sacrifice to cease. He appointed .......... he - established within the city. The worship of Marduk, king of the gods - ........... he wrought hostility against his city daily ........... - his [people] all of them he destroyed through servitude, without rest. - On account of their lamentation the lord of the gods was exceedingly - angry and [left] their territory; the gods who dwelt among them left - their dwellings. In anger because he brought [them] into Babylon, - Marduk ........... to return to all the dwellings, their habitations, - which were overthrown. The people of Sumer and Akkad, who were like - corpses, he brought back and ............ granted them a return. - Through all lands he made his way, he looked, he sought a righteous - prince, a being whom he loved, whom he took by the hand. Cyrus, King - of Anshan, he called by name and designated him to rule over all the - lands. The land of Qutu, all the Scythian hordes, he made to submit to - his feet. The black-headed people (_i. e._, the Babylonians), whom he - caused his hand to capture, in faithfulness and righteousness he - sought. Marduk, the great lord, looked joyfully upon the return of his - people, his kindly deeds and upright heart. To his city, Babylon, he - commanded him to go; he caused him to take the road to Babylon, going - as a friend and companion at his side. His numerous army, the number - of which was, like the waters of a river, unknown, marched at his side - girded with their weapons. He caused him to enter Babylon without war - or battle. He preserved his city, Babylon, from tribulation; he filled - his (Cyrus's) hand with Nabuna'id, the king who did not fear him. All - the people of Babylon, all of Sumer and Akkad, the princes and - governors, prostrated themselves under him and kissed his feet. They - rejoiced in his sovereignty; their faces shone. The lord, who by his - power makes the dead to live, who from destruction and injustice had - saved them, altogether they blessed him in joy; they revered his name. - - I am Cyrus, king of the world, the great king, the mighty king, king - of Babylon, king of Sumer and Akkad, king of the four quarters of the - world, son of Cambyses, the great king, king of Anshan, grandson of - Cyrus, the great king, king of Anshan, great-grandson of Teispes, the - great king, king of Anshan; an everlasting seed of royalty, whose - government Bel and Nabu love, whose reign in the goodness of their - hearts they desire. When I entered in peace into Babylon, with joy and - rejoicing I took up my lordly dwelling in the royal palace, Marduk, - the great lord, moved the understanding heart of the people of Babylon - to me, while I daily sought his worship. My numerous troops dwelt - peacefully in Babylon; in all Sumer and Akkad no terrorizer did I - permit. In Babylon and all its cities in peace I looked about. The - people of Babylon [I released] from an unsuitable yoke. Their - dwellings--their decay I repaired; their ruins I cleared away. Marduk, - the great lord, rejoiced at these deeds and graciously blessed me, - Cyrus, the king who worships him, and Cambyses, my son, and all my - troops, while we in peace joyfully praised before him his exalted - divinity. All the kings who dwell in palaces, from all quarters of the - world, from the upper sea to the lower sea, who live [in palaces], all - the kings of the Westland who live in tents, brought me their heavy - tribute in Babylon and kissed my feet. From .......... to Ashur and - Susa, Agade, Eshnunak, Zamban, Meturnu, Deri, to the border of Gutium, - the cities [beyond] the Tigris, whose sites had been founded of - old,--the gods who dwelt in them I returned to their places, and - caused them to settle in their eternal shrines. All their people I - assembled and returned them to their dwellings. And the gods of Sumer - and Akkad, whom Nabuna'id, to the anger of the lord of the gods, had - brought into Babylon, at the command of Marduk, the great lord, I - caused in peace to dwell in their abodes, the dwellings in which their - hearts delighted. May all the gods, whom I have returned to their - cities, pray before Marduk and Nabu for the prolonging of my days, may - they speak a kind word for me and say to Marduk, lord of the gods, - "May Cyrus the king, who fears thee, and Cambyses, his son, their - .......... caused all to dwell in peace" - ........................................ - -=6. Bearing on the Capture of Babylon and the Return of the Jews.= - -This inscription confirms the statement of the chronicle already quoted -that Cyrus conquered the city of Babylon without a blow. The most -important feature of it for the student of the Bible is, however, its -revelation of the reversal of the Assyrian policy of transportation. That -policy had been inaugurated by Tiglathpileser IV more than two hundred -years before. In accordance with it the kingdom of Israel had first been -stripped of its more prominent inhabitants who had been carried captive to -distant lands, and then the kingdom of Judah. Cyrus determined to attach -his subjects to himself by gratitude instead of terror, so he permitted, -as he says here, those who had been transported to return to their several -countries and rebuild their temples. It was in consequence of this general -policy that the Jews were permitted to return from Babylonia and rebuild -the temple at Jerusalem. This is referred to in Ezra, chapter 1. It is -there implied that Cyrus made a special proclamation concerning the temple -at Jerusalem. Some scholars infer from the above inscription of Cyrus, -that the book of Ezra (chapter 1) has freely interpreted the general -policy of Cyrus as a special permission granted to the Jews. It may be, -however, as others have held, that a special edict was issued in favor of -each individual nation in order that this general policy might be carried -out without opposition. - -In any event, the inscription confirms the statement of Ezra that Cyrus -permitted the Jews to return. - - - - -CHAPTER XIX - -A JEWISH COLONY IN EGYPT DURING THE TIME OF NEHEMIAH - - PAPYRI WITNESS TO THE EXISTENCE OF A COLONY AT ELEPHANTINE. - TRANSLATION OF A PETITION RELATING TO THEIR TEMPLE. REPLY OF PERSIAN - GOVERNOR. HISTORICAL BEARINGS OF THESE DOCUMENTS. A LETTER RELATING TO - THE PASSOVER. A LETTER SHOWING THAT THE JEWS WERE UNPOPULAR AT - ELEPHANTINE. - - -Numerous papyri found since 1895 at Elephantine, an island at the First -Cataract of the Nile, reveal the existence of a Jewish community there. -The documents are dated from the year 494 B. C. to the year 400 B. C. They -show that this Jewish community had at Elephantine a temple to Jehovah, -that they were soldiers, and that some of them were engaged in trade. One -document declares that when Cambyses conquered Egypt (525 B. C.) he then -found the temple of Jehovah in existence there, and that it had been built -under native Egyptian kings. How came such a community of Jews to be -established there? It is thought that they were a garrison placed there by -Psammetik II, King of Egypt, 593-588 B. C. This Psammetik endeavored to -conquer Nubia,[553] and according to a confused statement in Josephus -(Contra Apion, I, 26, 27) Rhampses (perhaps a corruption of Psammetik), -employed some Jews in an expedition to that country.[554] However, these -Jews came to dwell at this point, and whensoever the settlement was made, -the documents[555] are most interesting, and open to us a hitherto wholly -unknown vista in the history of the Jews. - -=1. Temple Papyrus from Elephantine.= - - Unto our lord, Bagohi, governor of Judah, thy servants Jedoniah and - his associates, the priests who are in Yeb, the fortress, health! May - our Lord, the God of heaven, abundantly grant unto thee at all times, - and for favors may he appoint thee before Darius, the king, and the - princes of the palace more than at present a thousand times, and long - life may he grant to thee, and joy and strength, at all times! Now - thy servant, Jedoniah, and his associates thus speak: In the month - Tammuz, year 14 of Darius, the king, when Arsames departed and went - unto the king, the priests of the god Khnub, who were in Yeb, the - fortress, made an agreement with Waidrang who was acting governor - here; it was as follows: The temple of Yahu (Jehovah), the God, which - is in Yeb, the fortress they would remove from there. Afterward this - Waidrang wickedly sent a letter unto Nephayan, his son, who was - commander of the army at Syene, the fortress, saying: "The temple - which is in Yeb, the fortress they shall destroy." Afterward Nephayan, - mustering Egyptians with the other forces, came to the fortress Yeb - with their quivers (?); they entered into this temple, they destroyed - it to the ground, and the pillars of stone which were there they - brake. Also it came to pass (that) five gates of stone, constructed of - cut stone, which were in this temple, they destroyed, and their - swinging doors and the bronze hinges of these doors. And the roof - which was of cedar wood, all of it, together with the rest of the - furnishings and the other things which were there, the whole they - burned with fire. And the vessels of gold and silver and the things - which were in this temple, the whole was taken, and they made it their - own. - - Now from the days of the kings of Egypt, our fathers built this temple - in Yeb, the fortress, and when Cambyses came to Egypt, this temple was - found built, and the temples of the gods of Egypt were overthrown, but - not a thing in this temple was harmed. And after they (_i. e._, - Waidrang and the priests of Khnub) had done this, we and our wives and - sons were clothed in sackcloth and were fasting and praying to Yahu, - God of heaven, that he would show us this Waidrang, the cur, with the - anklets torn from his feet, that all the goods which he possesses - might perish, and all the men who desired the pollution of this - temple--all might be killed, and we might see (our desire) upon them. - Also formerly, at the time this shameful deed was done to us we sent a - letter to our lord, and unto Jehohanan, the high priest, and his - associates, the priests who are in Jerusalem, and unto Ostan, the - brother of Anani and the elders of Judah, but a letter they have not - sent unto us. Also from the month Tammuz of the 14th year of Darius - the king even unto this day we have worn sackcloth and fasted, our - wives have been made like widows, we have not anointed ourselves with - oil, wine we have not drunk; also from then unto the 17th year of - Darius the king a meal-offering and incense and a burnt-offering they - have not offered in this temple. Now thy servants Jedoniah and his - associates and the Jews, all who are citizens of Yeb, thus speak: If - unto our lord it seems good to think on this temple to rebuild it, - because they will not permit us to rebuild it, look upon those who - share thy favor and kindnesses who are here in Egypt--let a letter be - sent unto them concerning the temple of Yahu God, to build it in Yeb, - the fortress, in the way it was built formerly, and meal-offerings and - incense and burnt-offerings let them offer upon the altar of Yahu God - in thy name, and we will pray for thee at all times, we and our wives - and our sons and the Jews, all who are here. If thus they do until - this temple is built, then merit (righteousness) shall be thine before - Yahu, God of heaven, more than (that of) the man who offers to him - burnt-offerings and sacrifices of the value of a thousand pieces of - silver. And concerning gold for this we have sent information. Also - the whole is told in a letter we sent in our name to Dalajah and - Shelemjah, sons of Sanballat, governor of Samaria. Also concerning - this which is done to us, all of it Arsames does not know. - - On the 20th of Marcheswan, year 17 of Darius the king. - -To this letter Bagohi (Bagoas) sent the following reply: - - Memorandum of Bagohi and Dalajah. They spoke to me a memorandum for - them: It shall be thine to say among the Egyptians before Arsames - concerning the place of sacrifice of the god ...... of heaven, which - was built in Yeb the fortress formerly before Cambyses, which this - wicked Waidrang destroyed in the year fourteen of Darius the king, to - build it in its place like as it was before, and meal-offerings and - incense let them offer upon this altar in the manner it formerly was - done. - -The first of these documents is dated in the 17th year of Darius II, _i. -e._, the year 407 B. C. It states that the temple at Elephantine (Yeb) had -been destroyed by Waidrang and had lain in ruins for three years. The -community which worshiped in the temple had previously written to -Jehohanan, high priest at Jerusalem, probably to ask that he intercede -with the Persian governor Bagohi (Bagoses), but had written in vain. They -now write to Bagohi himself, and also to the two sons of Sanballat, -governor of Samaria (cf. Neh. 2:10, 19, etc.), with the result that the -request is granted, and authority is given to rebuild the temple. - -The fact that there was a temple at Elephantine at all is new and -startling. Its significance is differently interpreted by different -scholars. More conservative scholars claim that it is opposed to the date -which the critical school assign to the date of Deuteronomy, viz.: 621 B. -C., because, if the law against more altars than one had been introduced -then, Jews would not have so soon violated it by building this shrine. -Critics, on the other hand, hold that it fits well with their views, since -they believe that Deuteronomy was accepted by Jews as a whole only -gradually, and after considerable struggle. - -One thing is clear: at the time the temple at Elephantine was overthrown, -the Jews at Jerusalem looked upon it with disfavor.[556] They took no -steps to lay the matter before the Persian governor. It was not till the -aggrieved Egyptian Jews wrote to the heretical Samaritans, Dalajah and -Shelemjah, sons of Sanballat, who would naturally be glad to encourage -another rival to the temple at Jerusalem, that the matter was pushed and -permission given to rebuild the temple. - -This appeal to Sanballat's family throws interesting light on the progress -of the schism between the Jews and the Samaritans.[557] (Compare Nehemiah -4:1, ff; 6:1, ff.; and 13:28.) - -The existence of this temple has an interesting bearing upon the date of -Isa. 19. Some scholars have held that that prophecy, which refers to a -temple of Jehovah in the land of Egypt, is late and must refer to the -temple built by Onias III, about 170 B. C. (Cf. Josephus, _Antiquities_, -xiii, 3:1, 6.) It is now possible to suppose that the reference may well -have been to this hitherto unsuspected temple at Elephantine. - -=2. Hananiah's Passover Letter.= - - To my brethren, Jedoniah and his associates, the Jewish garrison, your - brother Hananiah. The peace of my brethren may God ...... And now this - year, the year 5 of Darius the king, there was sent from the king unto - Arsames .......... Now ye thus shall count fourteen .......... and - from the 15th day unto the 21st day [of Nisan] .......... be ye clean - and guard yourselves. Work ye shall not [do] .......... ye shall not - drink, and all which is leavened ye shall n[ot eat] .......... from - the going down of the sun unto the 21st day of Nisan .......... take - into your rooms and seal between the days of .......... - -This letter is from some Hananiah who seems to have stood high in -authority among Jewish communities. Several Hananiahs are mentioned in the -post-exilic literature. One of them was a military commander in Jerusalem -in the time of Nehemiah (Neh. 7:2), but as that was at least twenty-five -years before the date of our letter, it would be precarious to assert that -that Hananiah was the writer of this letter, though it is possible that he -was. - -From the letter it is clear that the writer is informing the Jewish -garrison at Elephantine concerning the details of the provisions for the -observance of the Jewish Passover, as they are laid down in Exod. 12 and -Lev. 23. It seems strange that these Jews at Elephantine who were faithful -enough to Jehovah to have a temple in his honor, should have needed to be -informed of such details, if they had copies of the Pentateuch. Adherents -of the modern school of criticism see in this fact a confirmation of their -view, that the Levitical law had been introduced into the Jewish community -at Jerusalem only in the time of Ezra and Nehemiah, for, they urge, this -letter shows that it was unknown to the garrison at Elephantine until the -reign of Darius II. To this, conservative scholars reply that it was -customary among the Jews to make yearly proclamation of the approach of -the festival, and that this may be simply such a proclamation. They also -urge that ignorance of the law on the part of some Jews is no proof that -it did not exist. - -=3. Letter Showing that the Jews of Egypt were Unpopular.= - - To my lords, Jedoniah, Uriah, and the priests of the God, Jehovah, - Mattan, son of Joshibiah and Neriah son of ...... thy servant - Mauziyah; the peace of my lords .......... and be favored before the - God of heaven. And now, when Waidrang, the chief of the garrison, came - to Abydos, he imprisoned me on account of a certain precious stone - which they found stolen in the hands of the traders. At last Seha and - Hor, who were known to Anani, exerted themselves with Waidrang and - Hornufi, under the protection of the God of heaven, until they secured - my release. Now behold they are coming thither to you. Do you attend - to them whatever they may desire. And whatever thing Seha and Hor may - desire of you, stand ye before them so that no cause of blame may they - find in you. With you is the chastisement which without cause has - rested upon us, from the time Hananiah was in Egypt until now. And - whatever you do for Hor you do for yourselves. Hor is known to Anani. - Do you sell cheaply from our houses any goods that are at hand; - whether we lose or do not lose, is one to you. This is why I am - sending to you: he said to me: "Send a letter before us." Even if we - should lose, credit will be established because of him in the house of - Anani. What you do for him will not be hidden from Anani. To my lords, - Jedoniah, Uriah, and the priests and the Jews. - -This is a letter sent by a member of the Jewish colony of Elephantine to -his Jewish brethren there, highly recommending to them two men. He was -especially anxious to make a good impression upon these because they were -acquaintances of a certain Anani. This Anani apparently was a man of -influence at the Persian court. His name may be the same as Hanani, -Nehemiah's brother (Neh. 7:2). It has been pointed out that the existence -of two men of the same name who could have influence at the Persian court -would be improbable. This letter shows that since Hananiah came to Egypt, -the Jews have been in affliction, and the writer of this letter is anxious -to make a good impression upon the friends of Anani, so that this -affliction may be removed. - -Scholars of the critical school see in this letter a confirmation of their -view that the Levitical law had but just been introduced into the Egyptian -community. The reference to the "chastisement" or "affliction" which had -rested on the community is thought by them to be, probably, the friction -between Jews and Egyptians caused by the less friendly relations toward -foreigners, which the Levitical law imposed on its devotees. It is, of -course, possible that the "chastisement" may have been due to something -quite different. It should be said, too, that the papyrus is torn somewhat -just where the word rendered chastisement occurs, so that the word itself -is not certain. - - - - -CHAPTER XX - -A BABYLONIAN JOB - - TRANSLATION OF A POEM RELATING TO THE AFFLICTIONS OF A GOOD MAN. - COMPARISON WITH THE BOOK OF JOB. A FRAGMENT OF ANOTHER SIMILAR POEM. - - -=1. Babylonian Poem Relating to Affliction.= - -The following Babylonian poem treats of a mysterious affliction which -overtook a righteous man of Babylonia, and has been compared with the book -of Job.[558] - - 1. I advanced in life, I attained to the allotted span; - Wherever I turned there was evil, evil-- - Oppression is increased, uprightness I see not. - I cried unto god, but he showed not his face. - 5. I prayed to my goddess, but she raised not her head. - The seer by his oracle did not discern the future; - Nor did the enchanter with a libation illuminate my case; - I consulted the necromancer, but he opened not my understanding. - The conjurer with his charms did not remove my ban. - 10. How deeds are reversed in the world! - I look behind, oppression encloses me - Like one who the sacrifice to god did not bring, - And at meal-time did not invoke the goddess, - Did not bow down his face, his offering was not seen; - 15. (Like one) in whose mouth prayers and supplications were locked, - (For whom) god's day had ceased, a feast day become rare, - (One who) has thrown down his fire-pan, gone away from their images, - God's fear and veneration has not taught his people, - Who invoked not his god, when he ate god's food; - 20. (Who) abandoned his goddess, and brought not what is prescribed, - (Who) oppresses the weak, forgets his god, - Who takes in vain the mighty name of his god; he says, I am like him. - But I myself thought of prayers and supplications; - Prayer was my wisdom, sacrifice, my dignity; - 25. The day of honoring the gods was the joy of my heart, - The day of following the goddess was my acquisition of wealth; - The prayer of the king,--that was my delight, - And his music,--for my pleasure was its sound. - I gave directions to my land to revere the names of god, - 30. To honor the name of the goddess I taught my people. - Reverence for the king I greatly exalted, - And respect for the palace I taught the people; - For I knew that with god these things are in favor. - What is innocent of itself, to god is evil! - 35. What in one's heart is contemptible, to one's god is good! - Who can understand the thoughts of the gods in heaven? - The counsel of god is full of destruction; who can understand? - Where may human beings learn the ways of god? - He who lives at evening is dead in the morning; - 40. Quickly he is troubled; all at once he is oppressed; - At one moment he sings and plays; - In the twinkling of an eye he howls like a funeral-mourner. - Like sunshine and cloud[559] their thoughts change; - They are hungry and like a corpse; - 45. They are filled and rival their god! - In prosperity they speak of climbing to Heaven; - Trouble overtakes them and they speak of going down to Sheol. - -(At this point the tablet is broken. We do not know how many lines are -wanting before the narrative is resumed on the back of the tablet.) - -Reverse - - Into my prison my house is turned. - Into the bonds of my flesh are my hands thrown; - Into the fetters of myself my feet have stumbled. - .................................... - 5. With a whip he has beaten me; there is no protection; - With a staff he has transfixed me; the stench was terrible! - All day long the pursuer pursues me, - In the night watches he lets me breathe not a moment; - Through torture my joints are torn asunder; - 10. My limbs are destroyed, loathing covers me; - On my couch I welter like an ox, - I am covered, like a sheep, with my excrement. - My sickness baffled the conjurers, - And the seer left dark my omens. - 15. The diviner has not improved the condition of my sickness; - The duration of my illness the seer could not state; - The god helped me not, my hand he took not; - The goddess pitied me not, she came not to my side; - The coffin yawned; they [the heirs] took my possessions; - 20. While I was not yet dead, the death wail was ready. - My whole land cried out: "How is he destroyed!" - My enemy heard; his face gladdened; - They brought as good news the glad tidings, his heart rejoiced. - But I knew the time of all my family, - 25. When among the protecting spirits their divinity is exalted. - -The above is from a tablet called the "Second" of the series _Ludlul bel -nimeqi_, _i. e._, "I will serve the lord of wisdom." The "Third" tablet of -the series has been published by R. Campbell Thompson in the _Proceedings -of the Society of Biblical Archaeology_, XXXII, p. 18, f. It is -considerably broken, but the parts which are legible are as follows: - - ............................................ - ............................................ - Let thy hand grasp the javelin - Tabu-utul-Bel, who lives at Nippur, - 5. Has sent me to consult thee, - Has laid his .......... upon me. - In life .......... has cast, he has found. [He says]: - "[I lay down] and a dream I beheld; - This is the dream which I saw by night:-- - 10. [He who made woman] and created man, - Marduk, has ordained (?) that he be encompassed with sickness (?)." - 15. And .......... in whatever .......... - He said: "How long will he be in such great affliction and distress? - What is it that he saw in his vision of the night?" - "In the dream Ur-Bau ap[peared], - A mighty hero wearing his crown, - 20. A conjurer, too, clad in strength, - Marduk indeed sent me; - Unto Shubshi-meshri-Nergal he brought abu[ndance]; - In his pure hands he brought abu[ndance]. - By my guardian-spirit (?) he st[opped] (?)," - 25. [By] the seer he sent a message: - "A favorable omen I show to my people." - .......................................... - ...... he quickly finished; the ...... was broken - ........ of my lord, his heart [was satisfied]; - 30. .......... his spirit was appeased - ............ my lamentation ................. - ................ good .... .......... - -Reverse - - .......................................... - .......................................... - ................ like ................ - He approached (?) and the spell which he had pronounced (?), - 5. He sent a storm wind to the horizon; - To the breast of the earth it bore [a blast], - Into the depth of his ocean the disembodied spirit vanished (?); - Unnumbered spirits he sent back to the under-world. - The ...... of the hag-demons he sent straight to the mountain. - 10. The sea-flood he spread with ice; - The roots of the disease he tore out like a plant. - The horrible slumber that settled on my rest - Like smoke filled the sky .......... - With the woe he had brought, unrepulsed and bitter, he filled the - earth like a storm. - 15. The unrelieved headache which had overwhelmed the heavens - He took away and sent down on me the evening dew. - My eyelids, which he had veiled with the veil of night. - He blew upon with a rushing wind and made clear their sight. - My ears, which were stopped, were deaf as a deaf man's-- - 20. He removed their deafness and restored their hearing. - My nose, whose nostril had been stopped from my mother's womb-- - He eased its deformity so that I could breathe. - My lips, which were closed--he had taken their strength-- - He removed their trembling and loosed their bond. - 25. My mouth, which was closed so that I could not be understood-- - He cleansed it like a dish, he healed its disease. - My eyes, which had been attacked so that they rolled together-- - He loosed their bond and their balls were set right. - The tongue, which had stiffened so that it could not be raised-- - 30. [He relieved] its thickness, so its words could be understood. - The gullet which was compressed, stopped as with a plug-- - He healed its contraction, it worked like a flute. - My spittle which was stopped so that it was not secreted-- - He removed its fetter, he opened its lock. - ............................................ - ............................................ - -=2. Comparison with the Book of Job.= - -A commentary on this text, which has been preserved on a tablet, informs -us that Tabu-utul-Bel was an official of Nippur in Babylonia.[560] This -story has some striking similarities to the book of Job. It presents also -some striking dissimilarities. - -Tabu-utul-Bel, like Job, had been a just man. He had been also a religious -man. (See lines 23, ff., p. 392.) The virtues which he claims are similar -to those of Job (see Job 29 and 31); there is, however, this difference: -Job's virtues are social; those of Tabu-utul-Bel consist of acts of -worship and loyalty. Tabu-utul-Bel is smitten, like Job, with a sore -disease. To him, as to Job, the providence is inexplicable. He, like Job, -charges his god with inscrutable injustice. The chasm which often yawns -between experience and moral deserts was as keenly felt by the Babylonian -as by the Hebrew. - -Here the parallelism with the book of Job ends. The two works belong to -widely different religious worlds. Job gains relief by a vision of God--an -experience which made him able to believe that, though he could not -understand the reason for the pain of life or its contradictions and -tragedy, God could, and Job now knew God. (See Job 42:4-6.) Tabu-utul-Bel, -on the other hand, is said to have gained his relief through a magician. -We are apparently told by the fragmentary text that at last he found a -conjurer who brought a messenger from the god Marduk, who drove away the -evil spirits which caused the disease, and so Tabu-utul-Bel was relieved. -This difference sets vividly before us the greater religious value and -inspiration of the book of Job. It treats the same problem that the -Babylonian poet took for his theme, but between the outlook of the poet -who composed Job and that of the Babylonian poet there is all the -difference between a real experience of God and faith in the black art. - -=3. Another Similar Lament.= - -Another fragment of a lament of a somewhat similar character, written in -the Sumerian language, comes to us on a tablet from Nippur, the very city -with which Tabu-utul-Bel is said to have been connected. It reads as -follows:[561] - -_Column I_ - - 1. .............................. - 2. .................................. - 3. .................... he carried away, - 4. .................... he destroyed, - 5. .................. spoke to .......... - 6. .................. was destroyed, - 7. .......... completely from on high was destroyed. - 8. I, even I, am a man of destruction. - 9. With might from below he destroyed, - 10. I, even I, am a man of destruction. - 11. Nippur (?)--its temple verily is destroyed, - 12. My city verily is destroyed. - 13. O Enlil, from the height descend, - 14. May Ububul destroy them! - -_Column II_ - - 1. .............................. - 2. .............................. - 3. .............. my food (?) is not, - 4. The ground grain is removed, with the hand he seized it; - 5. My eyes fail. - 6. The shrine of the mother which the silver-smith cast, - 7. To earth he has ground, - 8. Its contents on the earth verily he flung-- - 9. I am a man of destruction!-- - 10. Its contents on the earth verily he destroyed; - 11. I am a man of destruction! - 12. The man from above is wise; - 13. On earth he dwells. - 14. The man who went before, - 15. Hides in the rear. - 16. Namtar my maiden (he snatched away); - 17. Who shall bring the maiden back? - -_Column III_ - - 1. Namtar verily is smitten, yea verily, - 2. Who shall bring back strength? - 3. The smiter has smitten, - 4. Who shall strike him down? - 5. The hero bearing the dagger - 6. He has cast down, - 7. Who shall drag him off? - 8. At the gate of my palace no protector stands, - 9. A man of desolation am I! - 10. The land is completely overthrown, I have no defender, - 11. A man of desolation am I! - 12. The flood fills not the marsh land; - 13. My eye thereon I lift not. - 14. To man's plantations water reaches not, - 15. My hand stretches not out to it. - 16. To the marsh land which the flood filled - 17. Truly the foot walks upon it! - -From this point on the tablet is too broken for connected translation. Dr. -Langdon calls this the lament of a Sumerian Job, but his woes, in so far -as this fragment recounts them, are due to the conquest of his land by an -enemy, and to famine due to a failure of the rivers to overflow. The -parallelism to Tabu-utul-Bel and to Job might be closer, if we had the -whole tablet. As this tablet is in the script of the first dynasty of -Babylon, it is evident that this kind of lamentation was as early as 2000 -B. C. - - - - -CHAPTER XXI - -PSALMS FROM BABYLONIA AND EGYPT - - CHARACTER OF THEIR PSALMS. BABYLONIAN PRAYERS TO THE GODDESS ISHTAR. - COMPARISON WITH THE PSALTER. A BABYLONIAN HYMN TO THE MOON-GOD. A - BABYLONIAN HYMN TO BEL. AN EGYPTIAN HYMN TO THE SUN-GOD. IS THE HYMN - MONOTHEISTIC? AN EGYPTIAN HYMN IN PRAISE OF ATON. COMPARISON WITH THE - PSALTER. - - -Both from Babylonia and from Egypt a large number of hymns and prayers -have been recovered. Some of these are beautiful on account of their form -of expression, the poetical nature of their thoughts, and the sense of sin -which they reveal. Most of them are clearly polytheistic, and it is rare -that they rise in the expression of religious emotion to the simple -sublimity of the Old Testament Psalms. Such likenesses to the Psalms as -they possess only serve to set off in greater relief the rich religious -heritage which we have in our Psalter. - -A few examples only of the many known hymns are here given. - -=1. A Babylonian Prayer to the Goddess Ishtar.=[562] - - O fulfiller of the commands of Bel .......... - ............................................ - Mother of the gods, fulfiller of the commands of Bel, - Thou bringer-forth of verdure, thou lady of mankind,-- - 5. Begetress of all, who makest all offspring thrive, - Mother Ishtar, whose might no god approaches, - Majestic lady, whose commands are powerful, - A request I will proffer, which--may it bring good to me! - O lady, from my childhood I have been exceedingly hemmed in by - trouble! - 10. Food I did not eat, I was bathed in tears! - Water I did not quaff, tears were my drink! - My heart is not glad, my soul is not cheerful; - ....................... I do not walk like a man. - ............................................. - -Reverse - - ..................... painfully I wail! - My sighs are many, my sickness is great! - O my lady, teach me what to do, appoint me a resting-place! - My sin forgive, lift up my countenance! - 5. My god, who is lord of prayer,--may he present my prayer to thee! - My goddess, who is mistress of supplication,--may she present my - prayer to thee! - God of the deluge, lord of Harsaga,--may he present my prayer to - thee,-- - The god of pity, the lord of the fields,--may he present my prayer - to thee! - God of heaven and earth, the lord of Eridu,--may he present my - prayer to thee! - 10. The mother of the great water, the dwelling of Damkina,--may she - present my prayer to thee! - Marduk, lord of Babylon,--may he present my prayer to thee! - His spouse, the exalted offspring (?) of heaven and earth,--may she - present my prayer to thee! - The exalted servant, the god who announces the good name,--may he - present my prayer to thee! - 15. The bride, the firstborn of Ninib,--may she present my prayer to - thee! - The lady who checks hostile speech,--may she present my prayer to - thee! - The great, exalted one, my lady Nana,--may she present my prayer to - thee! - -=2. A Babylonian Prayer to Ishtar.=[563] - - ........................... He raises to thee a wail; - ........................... He raises to thee a wail; - [On account of his face which] for tears is not raised, he raises to - thee a wail; - On account of his feet on which fetters are laid, he raises to thee - a wail; - 5. On account of his hand, which is powerless through oppression, he - raises to thee a wail; - On account of his breast, which wheezes like a bellows, he raises to - thee a wail; - O lady, in sadness of heart I raise to thee my piteous cry, "How - long?" - O lady, to thy servant--speak pardon to him, let thy heart be - appeased! - To thy servant who suffers pain--favor grant him! - 10. Turn thy gaze upon him, receive his entreaty! - To thy servant with whom thou art angry--be favorable unto him! - O lady, my hands are bound, I turn to thee! - For the sake of the exalted warrior, Shamash, thy beloved husband, - take away my bonds! - 15. Through a long life let me walk before thee! - My god brings before thee a lamentation; let thy heart be appeased! - My goddess utters to thee a prayer, let thy anger be quieted! - The exalted warrior, Anu, thy beloved spouse,--may he present my - prayer to thee! - [Shamash], god of justice,--may he present my prayer to thee! - 20. .......... the exalted servant,--may he present my prayer to thee! - .......... the mighty one of Ebarbar,--may he present my tears to - thee! - ["Thine eye turn truly] to me," may he say to thee! - ["Thy face turn truly to] me," may he say to thee! - ["Let thy heart be at rest"], may he say to thee! - 25. ["Let thy anger be pacified"], may he say to thee! - [Thy heart like the heart of a mother who has brought forth], may it - rejoice! - [Like a father who has begotten a child], may it be glad! - -=3. Comparison of These Prayers with the Psalter.= - -The writers of these lamentations, like the Hebrew Psalmist (see Psa. -17:1; 18:6), cried unto a deity for help. They were both in great -distress, and naturally inferred that their deity was angry, as do Psalms -85:5; 90:7. There is, however, no great consciousness of sin in these -Babylonian complaints. They simply express distress. Unlike the Biblical -Psalms these are polytheistic and their authors call upon other deities to -intercede for them with the goddess, to whom the prayer is addressed and -whom, for the time being, they regard as supreme. The author of this last -penitential psalm asks "How long?" as does Psa. 6:3; 74:10; 90:13. The -idea seems to be that the suffering of the penitent will either atone for -sin or touch the heart of the deity so that the suffering shall be abated. - -=4. A Babylonian Hymn to Sin, the Moon-god.=[564] - - O brilliant barque of the heavens, ruler in thy own right, - Father Nannar, lord of Ur, - Father Nannar, lord of Ekishshirgal, - Father Nannar, lord of the brilliant rising, - 5. O lord, Nannar, firstborn son of Bel, - Thou standest, thou standest - Before thy father Bel. Thou art ruler, - Father Nannar; thou art ruler, thou art guide. - O barque, when standing in the midst of heaven, thou art ruler. - 10. Father Nannar, thou thyself ridest to the brilliant temple. - Father Nannar, when, like a ship, thou goest in the midst of the - deep, - Thou goest, thou goest, thou goest, - Thou goest, thou shinest anew, thou goest, - Thou shinest anew, thou livest again, thou goest. - 15. Father Nannar, the herd thou restorest. - When thy father looketh on thee with joy, he commandeth thy waxing, - Then with the glory of a king brilliantly thou risest. - Bel a scepter for distant days for thy hands has completed. - In Ur as the brilliant barque thou ridest, - 20. As the lord, Nudimmud, thou art established; - In Ur as the brilliant boat thou ridest. - ........................................... - -Reverse - - ............................................... - The river of Bel (?) [Nannar] fills with water. - The brilliant (?) river [Nannar] fills with water. - The river Tigris [Nannar] fills with water. - 5. The brilliance of the Euphrates [Nannar] fills with water. - The canal with its gate Lukhe, [Nannar] fills with water. - The great marsh and the little marsh Nannar fills with water. - -The preceding hymn is made up of a description of the movements and -changes of the moon, together with the expression of a superstition, which -is still widely prevalent, that the moon's changes control the rainfall. -It is a fair example of a Babylonian nature-psalm. It lacks the inspired -and inspiring power of such Hebrew nature-psalms as Psalms 8, 19, 146, -147, and 148. - -=5. A Babylonian Hymn to Bel.=[565] - - O lord of wisdom ................ ruler in thy own right, - O Bel, lord of wisdom .......... ruler in thy own right, - O father Bel, lord of the lands, - O father Bel, lord of truthful speech, - 5. O father Bel, shepherd of the black-headed ones,[566] - O father Bel, who thyself openest the eyes, - O father Bel, the warrior, prince among soldiers, - O father Bel, supreme power of the land, - Bull of the corral, warrior who leadest captive all the land. - 10. O Bel, proprietor of the broad land, - Lord of creation, thou art chief of the land, - The lord whose shining oil is food for an extensive offspring, - The lord whose edicts bind together the city, - The edict of whose dwelling place strikes down the great prince - 15. From the land of the rising to the land of the setting sun. - O mountain, lord of life, thou art indeed lord! - O Bel of the lands, lord of life, thou thyself art lord of life. - O mighty one, terrible one of heaven, thou art guardian indeed! - O Bel, thou art lord of the gods indeed! - 20. Thou art father, Bel, who causest the plants of the gardens to grow! - O Bel, thy great glory may they fear! - The birds of heaven and the fish of the deep are filled with fear - [of thee]. - O father Bel, in great strength thou goest, prince of life, shepherd - of the stars! - O lord, the secret of production thou openest, the feast of fatness - establishest, to work thou callest! - 25. Father Bel, faithful prince, mighty prince, thou createst the - strength of life! - -A line at the end states that the hymn consisted of 25 lines. - -It is a hymn to Bel of Nippur, whose Sumerian name was Enlil. It reveals -an exalted conception of Bel as supreme ruler, as a god who gives life, as -a god of justice whose rule holds society together, but it lacks both the -poetical sublimity and the religious depth and fire of the Hebrew psalms. - -=6. An Egyptian Hymn to the Sun-god (about 1400 B. C.).=[567] - - Hail to thee, beautiful god of every day! - Rising in the morning without ceasing, - [Not] wearied in labor. - When thy rays are visible, - 5. Gold is not considered, - It is not like thy brilliance. - Thou art a craftsman shaping thy own limbs; - Fashioner without being fashioned; - Unique in his qualities, traversing eternity; - 10. Over ways with millions under his guidance. - Thy brilliance is like the brilliance of the sky, - Thy colors gleam more than the hues of it. - When thou sailest across the sky all men behold thee, - (Though) thy going is hidden from their sight. - 15. When thou showest thyself at morning every day, - ...... under thy majesty, though the day be brief, - Thou traversest a journey of leagues, - Even millions and hundred-thousands of time. - Every day is under thee. - 20. When thy setting comes, - The hours of the night hearken to thee likewise. - When thou hast traversed it - There comes no ending to thy labors. - All men--they see by means of thee. - 25. Nor do they finish when thy majesty sets, - For thou wakest to rise in the morning, - And thy radiance, it opens the eyes (again). - When thou settest in Manu,[568] - Then they sleep like the dead. - 30. Hail to thee! O disc of day, - Creator of all and giver of their sustenance, - Great Falcon, brilliantly plumaged, - Brought forth to raise himself on high of himself, - Self-generator, without being born. - 35. Firstborn Falcon in the midst of the sky, - To whom jubilation is made at the rising and the setting likewise. - Fashioner of the produce of the soil, - ............................................... - Taking possession of the Two Lands (Egypt), from great to small-- - 40. A mother profitable to gods and men, - A craftsman of experience, .......... - Valiant herdsman who drives cattle, - Their refuge and the giver of their sustenance, - Who passes by, running the course of the sun-god, - 45. Who determines his own birth, - Exalting his beauty in the body of Nut, - Illuminating the Two Lands (Egypt) with his disc, - The primordial being, who himself made himself; - Who beholds that which he has made, - 50. Sole lord taking captive all lands every day, - As one beholding them that walk therein; - Shining in the sky a being as the sun. - He makes the seasons by the months, - Heat when he desires, - 55. Cold when he desires. - He makes the limbs to languish - When he enfolds them, - Every land is in rejoicing - At his rising every day, in order to praise him. - -This hymn is, so far as its expressions go, monotheistic. One would not -dream from it that there was any god but the sun-god. Nevertheless, other -gods were worshiped. The monotheism here expressed was not of the -intolerant kind which prevailed in Israel, and which ultimately put down -the worship of all rival deities. - -Such an intolerant monotheism was introduced into Egypt by Amenophis IV -(see Part I, p. 29), who took an old name for the sun disc, Aton, as the -name of the one god, and who tried to suppress the worship of all other -gods. The movement failed, but while it lasted it produced the following -beautiful hymn. - -=7. An Egyptian Hymn in Praise of Aton.=[569] - - Thy dawning is beautiful in the horizon of the sky, - O loving Aton, Beginning of life! - When thou risest in the eastern horizon, - Thou fillest every land with thy beauty. - 5. Thou art beautiful, great, glittering, high above every land, - Thy rays, they encompass the lands, even all that thou hast made, - Thou art Re,[570] and thou carriest them all away captive; - Thou bindest them by thy love. - Though thou art far away, thy rays are upon the earth; - 10. Though thou art on high, thy footprints are the day. - - When thou settest in the western horizon of the sky, - The earth is in darkness like the dead; - They sleep in their chambers, - Their heads are wrapped up, - 15. Their nostrils are stopped, - And none seeth the other, - While all their things are stolen - Which are under their heads, - And they know it not. - 20. Every lion cometh forth from his den, - All serpents, they sting. - Darkness ................ - The world is in silence; - He that made them resteth in his horizon. - 25. Bright is the earth when thou risest in the horizon. - When thou shinest as Aton by day - Thou drivest away the darkness. - When thou sendest forth thy rays, - The Two Lands (Egypt) are in daily festivity, - 30. Awake and standing upon their feet - When thou hast raised them up. - Their limbs bathed, they take their clothing, - Their arms uplifted in adoration to thy dawning. - (Then) in all the world they do their work. - - 35. All cattle rest upon their pasturage, - The trees and the plants flourish, - The birds flutter in their marshes, - Their wings uplifted in adoration to thee. - All the sheep dance upon their feet, - 40. All winged things fly, - They live when thou hast shone upon them. - - The barques sail upstream and downstream alike. - Every highway is open because thou dawnest. - 45. The fish in the river leap up before thee. - The rays are in the midst of the great green sea. - - Creator of the germ in woman, - Maker of seed in man, - Giving life to the son in the body of his mother, - 50. Soothing him that he may not weep, - Nurse (even) in the womb, - Giver of breath to animate every one that he maketh! - When he cometh forth from the body ...... on the day of his birth, - Thou openest his mouth in speech, - 55. Thou suppliest his necessities. - - When the fledgling in the egg chirps in the shell, - Thou givest him breath therein to preserve him alive. - When thou hast brought him together, - To (the point of) bursting it in the egg, - - 60. He cometh forth from the egg - To chirp with all his might. - He goeth about on his two feet - When he hath come forth therefrom. - - How manifold are thy works![571] - 65. They are hidden from before (us), - O sole God, whose powers no other possesseth. - Thou didst create the earth according to thy heart - While thou wast alone: - Men, all cattle large and small, - 70. All that are upon the earth, - That go about upon their feet; - [All] that are on high, - That fly with their wings. - The foreign countries, Syria and Kush, - 75. The land of Egypt; - Thou settest every man into his place, - Thou suppliest their necessities. - Every one has his possessions, - And his days are reckoned. - 80. The tongues are divers in speech, - Their forms likewise and their skins are distinguished. - (For) thou makest different the strangers. - - Thou makest the Nile in the Nether World, - Thou bringest it as thou desirest, - 85. To preserve alive the people. - For thou hast made them for thyself, - The lord of them all, resting among them; - Thou lord of every land, who risest for them, - Thou Sun of day, great in majesty. - 90. All the distant countries, - Thou makest (also) their life, - Thou hast set a Nile in the sky; - When it falleth for them, - 95. It maketh waves upon the mountains, - Like the great green sea, - Watering their fields in their towns. - - How excellent are thy designs, O lord of eternity! - There is a Nile in the sky for the strangers - 100. And for the cattle of every country that go upon their feet. - (But) the Nile, it cometh from the Nether World for Egypt. - - Thy rays nourish every garden; - When thou risest they live, - They grow by thee. - 105. Thou makest the seasons - In order to create all thy work: - Winter to bring them coolness, - And heat that they may taste thee. - Thou didst make the distant sky to rise therein, - 110. In order to behold all that thou hast made, - Thou alone, shining in thy form as living Aton, - Dawning, glittering, going afar and returning. - Thou makest millions of forms - Through thyself alone; - 115. Cities, towns, and tribes, highways and rivers. - All eyes see before them, - For thou art Aton of the day over the earth. - ............................................. - Thou art in my heart, - 120. There is no other that knoweth thee - Save thy son Ikhnaton.[572] - Thou hast made him wise - In thy designs and in thy might. - The world is in thy hand, - 125. Even as thou hast made them. - When thou hast risen they live, - When thou settest they die; - For thou art length of life of thyself, - Men live through thee, - 130. While (their) eyes are upon thy beauty - Until thou settest. - All labor is put away - When thou settest in the west. - ............................................... - 135. Thou didst establish the world, - And raise them, up for thy son, - Who came forth from thy limbs, - The king of Upper and Lower Egypt, - Living in Truth, Lord of the Two Lands, - 140. Nefer-khepru-Re, Wan-Re (Ikhnaton), - Son of Re, living in Truth, lord of diadems, - Ikhnaton, whose life is long; - And for the chief royal wife, his beloved, - Mistress of the Two Lands, Nefer-nefru-Aton, Nofretete, - 145. Living and flourishing for ever and ever. - -=8. Comparison with the Psalter.= - -This long hymn contains many beautiful passages, and, in addition to the -line "How manifold are thy works!" often reminds one of Psa. 104, though -in religious feeling it falls well below that psalm. Ikhnaton speaks of -himself toward the end of his hymn as the one "whose life is long," but -the poor fellow died before he was thirty years old.[573] His mummy was -found a few years ago, and it is that of a young man. Vain were his hopes, -unless his words refer to the immortal life. - -These Egyptian hymns, like the Babylonian, exhibit a high degree of poetic -and intellectual power, and much deep religious feeling, but the men who -wrote them somehow lacked that deep religious insight and simple power of -emotional expression that were given to the Hebrews. Their compositions -but set in clearer relief the beauty, depth, and inspirational power of -the Hebrew Psalms. - - - - -CHAPTER XXII - -PARALLELS TO PROVERBS AND ECCLESIASTES - - THE NATURE OF THE BOOK OF PROVERBS AND THE PARALLELS. BABYLONIAN - PROVERBS FROM THE LIBRARY OF ASHURBANIPAL. PRECEPTS FROM THE LIBRARY - OF ASHURBANIPAL. COMPARISON WITH THE BIBLE. EGYPTIAN PRECEPTS OF - PTAHHOTEP. COMPARISON WITH THE BIBLE. PARALLEL TO ECCLESIASTES FROM - THE GILGAMESH EPIC. - - -Both Egypt and Babylon furnish parallels to the book of Proverbs. The -Biblical book of Proverbs contains a long connected discourse of advice -(Prov. 1-9) and various collections of disconnected proverbs (Prov. -10-29). Parallels to both are found in Egypt and in Babylonia. The library -of Ashurbanipal contained a collection of proverbs in two languages, -arranged as reading lessons for students. A few examples are here given. - -=1. Some Babylonian Proverbs from the Library of Ashurbanipal.=[574] - - 1. A hostile act thou shalt not perform, that fear of vengeance (?) - shall not consume thee. - - 2. Thou shalt not do evil, that life (?) eternal thou mayest obtain. - - 3. Does a woman conceive when a virgin, or grow great without eating? - - 4. If I put anything down it is snatched away; if I do more than is - expected, who will repay me? - - 5. He has dug a well where no water is; he has raised a husk without - kernel. - - 6. Does a marsh receive the price of its reeds, or fields the price of - their vegetation? - - 7. The strong live by their own wages; the weak by the wages of their - children. - - 8. He is altogether good, but he is clothed with darkness. - - 9. The face of a toiling ox thou shalt not strike with a goad. - - 10. My knees go, my feet are unwearied; but a fool has cut into my - course. - - 11. His ass I am; I am harnessed to a mule; a wagon I draw; to seek - reeds and fodder I go forth. - - 12. The life of day before yesterday has departed today. - - 13. If the husk is not right, the kernel is not right; it will not - produce seed. - - 14. The tall grain thrives, but what do we understand of it? The - meager grain thrives, but what do we understand of it? - - 15. The city whose weapons are not strong--the enemy before its gates - shall not be thrust through. - - 16. If thou goest and takest the field of an enemy, the enemy will - come and take thy field. - - 17. Upon a glad heart oil is poured out of which no one knows. - - 18. Friendship is for the day of trouble; posterity for the future. - - 19. An ass in another city becomes its head. - -The idea is similar to Matt. 13:57: "A prophet is not without honor, save -in his own country, and in his own house." - - 20. Writing is the mother of eloquence and the father of artists. - - 21. Be gentle to thy enemy as to an old oven.[575] - - 22. The gift of the king is the nobility of the exalted; the gift of - the king is the favor of governors. - - 23. Friendship in days of prosperity is servitude forever. - - 24. There is strife where servants are; slander where anointers - anoint. - - 25. When thou seest the gain of the fear of god, exalt god and bless - the king.[576] - -=2. Precepts from the Library of Ashurbanipal.=[577] - - Thou shalt not slander, (but) speak kindly; - Thou shalt not speak evil, (but) show mercy. - Him who slanders (and) speaks evil, - With its recompense will Shamash[578] visit (?) his head. - - Thou shalt not make large thy mouth, but guard thy lip; - In the time of anger thou shalt not speak at once. - If thou speakest quickly, thou wilt repent (?) afterward, - And in silence wilt thou sadden thy mind. - - Daily present to thy god - Offering and prayer, appropriate to incense. - Before thy god mayest thou have a pure heart, - For that is appropriate to deity. - - Prayer, petition, and prostration - Early in the morning shalt thou render him; he will judge thy - burdens (?), - And with the help of God thou wilt be abundantly prosperous. - - In thy wisdom learn of the tablet; - The fear (of God) begets favor, - Offering enriches life, - And prayer brings forgiveness of sins. - -(The text of the rest is too broken for connected translation.) - -=3. Comparison with the Bible.= - -None of the sentiments expressed in these proverbs is identical with any -in the Bible. No. 21 is on the same subject as Prov. 24:17; No. 22 reminds -one slightly of the first clause of Prov. 14:35; No. 23 has the same -sentiment as Prov. 18:24: "He that maketh many friends doeth it to his own -destruction"; while No. 6 is somewhat similar to Prov. 24:21. - -Among the "precepts," that on guarding the lips recalls to one's mind -Prov. 10:19; 13:3; 14:3; 17:28. Reference is made to the "gain of the fear -of God" and it is declared to "beget favor." Job 28:28 declares "the fear -of the Lord, that is wisdom." - -=4. The Precepts of Ptahhotep.= - -These precepts are attributed to a man who lived in the time of the fifth -Egyptian dynasty, about 2650 B. C., and are at least as old as 2000 B. C. -The text is very difficult. The examples given below are taken from -Breasted's[579] condensation of the moral precepts which the treatise -contains. - - 1. If thou findest a wise man in his time, a leader of understanding - more excellent than thou, bend thy arms and bow thy back. - - 2. If thou findest a wise man in his time, thy equal, .......... be - not silent when he speaks evil. Great is the approval by those who - hear, and thy name will be good in the knowledge of the princes. - - 3. If thou findest a wise man in his time, a poor man and not thy - equal, be not overbearing against him when he is unfortunate. - - 4. If thou art a leader (or administrator) issuing ordinances for the - multitude, seek for thee very excellent matter, that thy ordinance may - endure without evil therein. Great is righteousness (truth, right, - justice), enduring ..........; it has not been disturbed since the - time of Osiris. - - 5. Put no fear (of thee?) among the people .......... What the god - commands is that which happens. Therefore live in the midst of quiet. - What they (the gods?) give comes of itself. - - 6. If thou art a man of those who sit by the seat of a man greater - than thou, take what (food) he gives, ...... look at what is before - thee, and bombard him not with many glances (don't stare at him) - ...... Speak not to him until he calls. One knows not what is - unpleasant to (his) heart. Speak thou when he greets thee, and what - thou sayest will be agreeable to (his) heart. - - 7. If thou art a man of those who enter, whom (one) prince sends to - (another) prince, ...... execute for him the commission according as - he saith. Beware of altering a word which (one) prince speaks to - (another) prince, by displaying the truth with the like of it. - - 8. If thou plowest and there is growth in the field, the god gives it - (as) increase in thy hand. Satisfy not thy own mouth beside thy kin. - - 9. If thou art insignificant, follow an able man and all thy - proceedings shall be good before the god. - - 10. Follow thy desire as long as thou livest. Do not more than is told - (thee). Shorten not the time of following desire. It is an abomination - to encroach upon the time thereof. Take no care daily beyond the - maintenance of thy house. When possessions come, follow desire, (for) - possessions are not complete when he (the owner) is harassed. - - [Compare with this precept Eccles. 11:9 and 7:15-17.] - - 11. If thou art an able man, (give attention to the conduct of thy - son). - - ............................................ - - 16. If thou art a leader (or administrator), hear quietly the speech - of the petitioner. He who is suffering wrong desires that his heart be - cheered to do that on account of which he hath come ....... It is an - ornament of the heart to hear kindly. - - 17. If thou desirest to establish friendship in a house, into which - thou enterest as lord, as brother, or as friend, wheresoever thou - enterest in, beware of approaching the women ...... A thousand men are - undone for the enjoyment of a brief moment like a dream. Men gain - (only) death for knowing them. - - [Compare Prov. 5:3, f.] - - 18. If thou desirest that thy procedure be good, withhold thee from - all evil, beware of occasion of avarice ...... He who enters therein - does not get on. It corrupts fathers, mothers, and mothers' brothers. - It divides wife and man; it is plunder (made up) of everything evil; - it is a bundle of everything base. Established is the man whose - standard is righteousness, who walks in its way. He is used to make - his fortune thereby, (but) the avaricious is houseless. - - 19. Be not avaricious in dividing ...... Be not avaricious towards thy - kin. Greater is the fame of the gentle than (that of) the harsh. - - 20. If thou art successful, establish thy house. Love thy wife in - husbandly embrace, fill her body, clothe her back. The recipe for her - limbs is ointment. Gladden her heart as long as thou livest. She is a - profitable field for her lord. - - [Compare Eccles. 9:9.] - - 21. Satisfy those who enter to thee (come into thy office) with that - which thou hast. - - 22. Repeat not a word of hearsay. - - 23. If thou art an able man who sits in the council of his lord, - summon thy understanding to excellent things. Be silent. - - 24. If thou art a strong man, establish the respect of thee by wisdom - and by quietness of speech. - - 25. Approach not a prince in his time. [Apparently an idiom for some - particular mood.] - - 26. Instruct a prince (or official) in that which is profitable for - him. - - 27. If thou art the son of a man of the council, commissioned to - content the multitude, ...... be not partial. Beware lest he (the man - of the multitude?) say, "His plan is that of the princes. He utters - the words in partiality." - - ............................................... - - 29. If thou becomest great after thou wert little, and gettest - possessions after thou wert formerly poor in the city, ...... be not - proud-hearted because of thy wealth. It has come to thee as a gift of - the god. - - 30. Bend thy back to thy superior, thy overseer of the king's house, - and thy house shall endure because of his (or its) possessions and thy - reward shall be in the place thereof. It is evil to show disobedience - to a superior. One lives as long as he is gentle. - - 31. Do not practise corruption of children. - - 32. If thou searchest the character of a friend, ...... transact the - matter with him when he is alone. - - 33. Let thy face be bright as long as thou livest. As for what goes - out of the storehouse, it comes not in again; and as for loaves - (already) distributed, he who is concerned therefor has still an empty - stomach. ["There is no use in crying over spilt milk."] - - 34. Know thy merchants when thy fortunes are evil. - - ......................................... - - 37. If thou hearkenest to these things which I have said to thee, all - thy plans will progress. As for the matter of the righteousness - thereof, it is their worth. The memory thereof shall circulate in the - mouths of men, because of the beauty of their utterances. Every word - will be carried on and not perish in this land forever ....... He who - understands discretion is profitable in establishing that through - which he succeeds on earth. A wise man is satisfied by reason of that - which he knows. As for a prince of good qualities, they are in his - heart and tongue. His lips are right when he speaks, his eyes see, and - his ears together hear what is profitable for his son. Do right - (righteousness, justice, truth), free from lying. - - 38. Profitable is hearkening for a son that hearkens ...... How good - is it when a son receives that which his father says. He shall reach - advanced age thereby. A hearkener is one whom the god loves. Who - hearkens not is one whom the god hates. It is the heart (= - understanding) which makes its possessor a hearkener or one not - hearkening. The life, health, and prosperity of a man is his heart. - The hearkener is one who hears and speaks. He who does what is said is - one who loves to hearken. How good it is when a son hearkens to his - father! How happy is he to whom these things are said! ...... His - memory is in the mouth of the living who are on the earth and those - who shall be. - - 39. If the son of a man receives what his father says, none of his - plans will miscarry. Instruct as thy son one who hearkens, who shall - be successful in the judgment of the princes, who directs his mouth - according to that which is said to him ...... How many mishaps befall - him who hearkens not! The wise man rises early to establish himself, - while the fool is scourged. - - [With the first of this section compare Exod. 20:12; Deut. 5:16. With - the end of it, Prov. 6:9-11; 10:26; 13:4.] - - 40. As for the fool who hearkens not, he accomplishes nothing. He - regards wisdom as ignorance, and what is profitable as diseased - ....... His life is death thereby, ....... he dies, living every day. - Men pass by (avoid?) his qualities, because of the multitude of evils - upon him every day. - - 41. A son who hearkens is a follower of Horus. He prospers after he - hearkens. He reaches old age, he attains reverence. He speaks likewise - to his (own) children, renewing the instruction of his father. Every - man who instructs is like his sire. He speaks with his children; then - they speak to their children. Attain character, ...... make - righteousness to flourish and thy children shall live. - - 42. .......... Let thy attention be steadfast as long as thou - speakest, whither thou directest thy speech. May the princes who shall - hear say, "How good is that which comes out of his mouth!" - - 43. So do that thy lord shall say to thee, "How good is the - instruction of his father from whose limbs he came forth! He has - spoken to him; it is in (his) body throughout. Greater is that which - he hath done than that which was said to him." Behold, a good son, - whom the god gives, renders more than his lord says to him. He does - right (righteousness, etc.), his heart acts according to his way. - According as thou attainest me ("what I have attained"), thy limbs - shall be healthy, the king shall be satisfied with all that occurs, - and thou shalt attain years of life not less than I have passed on the - earth. I have attained one hundred and ten years of life [compare Gen. - 50:26], while the king gave to me praise above (that of) the ancestors - (in the vizierial office) because I did righteousness for the king - even unto the place of reverence (the grave). - -=5. Comparison with the Bible.= - -These precepts, which were written before 1800 B. C., like most of those -in the book of Proverbs, embody much worldly wisdom. They are based on -experience, and while, like Proverbs, they sometimes urge a religious -motive as a reason for right conduct, they frankly advocate it, as -Proverbs often does, on the ground of expediency. The points where the -text is closely parallel to that of Proverbs are few, and these have been -sufficiently pointed out. Some of the passages, as already noted, are -closely parallel to parts of the book of Ecclesiastes. The religious -appeal of the precepts is to Egyptian polytheism, while that of Proverbs -is to Hebrew monotheism. - -=6. A Parallel to Ecclesiastes.= - -The following striking parallel to a passage in Ecclesiastes is taken from -a tablet of the _Gilgamesh Epic_,[580] written in the script of the time -of Hammurapi, about 2000 B. C. - - Since the gods created man,[581] - Death they ordained for man, - Life in their hands they hold. - Thou, O Gilgamesh, fill indeed thy belly, - Day and night be thou joyful, - Daily ordain gladness, - Day and night rage and make merry, - Let thy garments be bright, - Thy head purify, wash with water, - Desire thy children which thy hand possesses, - A wife enjoy in thy bosom, - Peaceably thy work (?) .......... - -This is not only in sentiment strikingly like Eccles. 9:6-9, but in part -closely approaches its language. - - - - -CHAPTER XXIII - -EGYPTIAN PARALLELS TO THE SONG OF SONGS - - NATURE OF THE SONG OF SONGS. TRANSLATION OF SOME EGYPTIAN LOVE-POEMS. - COMPARISON WITH BIBLICAL PASSAGES. - - -For many centuries the Song of Songs has been interpreted allegorically, -but even those who give it an allegorical meaning must admit that its -sentiments are couched in the terms of earthly love. Love poems, which -sometimes express sentiments that remind us of the Song of Songs, have -been discovered on some Egyptian papyri and ostraca. The documents in -which they are written range in their dates from 2000 B. C. to about 1100 -B. C. Selections from these follow:[582] - -I[583] - - Thy love has penetrated all within me - Like [honey?] plunged into water, - Like an odor which penetrates spices, - As when one mixes juice in .......... - - [Nevertheless] thou runnest to seek thy sister, - Like the steed upon the battlefield, - As [the warrior rolls along] on the spokes of his wheels. - - For heaven makes thy love - Like the advance of [flames in straw], - And its [longing] like the downward swoop of a hawk. - -II[584] - - Disturbed is the condition (?) of [my] pool. - [The mouth] of my sister is a rosebud. - Her breast is a perfume. - Her arm [is a ...... bough?] - [Which offers] a delusive seat. - Her forehead is a snare of _meryu_-wood. - - I am a wild goose, a hunted one (?), - My gaze is at thy hair, - At a bait under the trap - That is to catch (?) me. - -"Brother" and "sister" are terms frequently applied to lovers in these -poems. Perhaps it arose from an ancient custom of marriages between -brothers and sisters, which was perpetuated in the royal families of Egypt -down to Roman times. - -The description of the physical attractions of the loved one reminds one -of Cant. 4:1-7. - -III[585] - - Is my heart not softened by thy love-longing for me? - My dogfoot-(fruit) which excites thy passion,-- - Not will I allow it - To depart from me. - - Although cudgeled even to the "Guard of the overflow,"[586] - To Syria, with _shebod_-rods and clubs, - To Ethiopia, with palm-rods, - To the highlands, with switches, - To the lowlands, with twigs, - - Never will I listen to their counsel, - To abandon longing. - -IV[587] - - The voice of the wild goose cries, - (Where) she has seized their bait, - (But) thy love holds me back, - I am unable to liberate her. - - I must, then, take home my net! - What shall I say to my mother, - To whom formerly I came each day - Loaded down with fowls? - - I shall not set the snares today - For thy love has caught me. - -This is a vivid description of the power of the tender passion. - -V[588] - - The wild goose flies up and soars, - She sinks down upon the net. - - The birds cry in flocks, - But I hasten [homeward], - Since I care for thy love alone. - - My heart yearns for thy breast, - I cannot sunder myself from thy attractions. - -This is a continuation of the preceding. - -VI[589] - - Thou beautiful one! My heart's desire is - To procure for thee thy food as thy husband, - My arm resting upon thy arm.[590] - - Thou hast changed me by thy love. - Thus say I in my heart, - In my soul, at my prayers: - "I lack my commander tonight, - I am as one dwelling in a tomb." - - Be thou but in health and strength,[591] - Then the nearness of thy countenance - Sheds delight, by reason of thy well-being, - Over a heart, which seeks thee (with longing). - -This poem expresses on the part of the man a longing similar to that -expressed by the woman in Cant. 8:1-3. - -VII[592] - - The voice of the dove calls, - It says: "The earth is bright." - What have I to do outside? - Stop, thou birdling! Thou chidest me! - - I have found my brother in his bed, - My heart is glad beyond all measure. - We each say: - "I will not tear myself away." - - My hand is in his hand. - I wander together with him - To every beautiful place. - He makes me the first of maidens, - Nor does he grieve my heart. - -In this poem the loved woman speaks, as in Cant. 8:1-3. - -VIII[593] - - _Sa'am_-plants are in it, - In the presence of which one feels oneself uplifted! - - I am thy darling sister, - I am to thee like a bit of land, - With each shrub of grateful fragrance. - - Lovely is the water-conduit in it, - Which thy hand has dug. - While the north wind cooled us. - A beautiful place to wander, - - Thy hand in my hand, - My soul inspired, - My heart in bliss, - Because we go together. - - New wine it is, to hear thy voice; - I live for hearing it. - To see thee with each look, - Is better than eating and drinking. - -The figure of the garden, with which this poem begins, is also used in -Cant. 5:1 and 6:2, 3. - -IX[594] - - _Ta-'a-ti_-plants are in it! - I take thy garlands away, - When thou comest home drunken, - And when thou art lying in thy bed - When I touch thy feet, - (And) children are (?) in thy .......... - ........................ - [I rise up] rejoicing in the morning - Thy nearness [means to me] health and strength. - -In ancient as in modern times wives loved fondly, while husbands gave way -to drunkenness. - -The poems as a whole make it clear that in Egypt love, which lies at the -basis of all home life, and is in the New Testament made a figure of the -relation of Christ to the Church (see John 3:29; Rev. 21:2, 9), was as -warmly felt as in Israel, and was likewise poetically and passionately -expressed. - - - - -CHAPTER XXIV - -ILLUSTRATIONS OF PASSAGES IN THE PROPHETS - - UNIQUENESS OF THE PROPHETIC BOOKS. AN ASSYRIAN PROPHETIC VISION. - COMPARISON WITH THE BIBLE. THE EGYPTIAN SOCIAL CONSCIENCE. TALE OF THE - ELOQUENT PEASANT. COMPARISON WITH THE BIBLE. AN IDEAL KING; EXTRACT - FROM THE ADMONITIONS OF IPUWER. COMPARISON WITH MESSIANIC - EXPECTATIONS. SHEOL. ISHTAR'S DESCENT TO THE UNDER-WORLD. COMPARISON - WITH PROPHETIC PASSAGES. A LAMENTATION FOR TAMMUZ. - - -There is no other body of literature which closely corresponds to the -books of the Hebrew prophets. The depth of their social passion and the -power of their moral and religious insight form a unique combination. -Nevertheless, texts which have come from Babylonia and Egypt do show that -certain phases of prophetic thought were not without parallels elsewhere. -At times they also illustrate for us thoughts and practices which the -prophets abhorred. A few such texts are here translated. - -=1. A Prophetic Vision.= - -The following statement is taken from the annals of Ashurbanipal, King of -Assyria, 668-626 B. C. It is the conclusion of a passage in which the king -is relating his strenuous struggle with Tiuman, King of Elam. Ashurbanipal -tells how he poured out a libation to Ishtar of Arbela and offered to her -a long prayer against the Elamite king. The narrative then continues:[595] - - In an hour of that night when I prayed to her, a seer lay down; he saw - a prophetic dream. Ishtar caused him to see a vision of the night, and - he announced it to me, saying: "Ishtar who dwells at Arbela entered, - and on her right and left she was behung with quivers, she was holding - a bow in her left hand, she brandished a heavy sword to make war. Thou - wast sitting before her. She, like the mother who bore thee, was - speaking to thee and talking to thee. Ishtar, the exalted one of the - gods, was appointing thee a message: 'Thou shalt expect to accomplish - that[596] at the place which is situated before thee. I am coming.' - Thou wast answering her, saying: 'Where thou goest I will go with - thee, O lady of ladies.' She repeated to thee, saying: 'Thou ...... - indeed dwellest in the place of Nebo. Eat food, drink wine, appoint - rejoicing, exalt my divinity until I go and accomplish this - undertaking ...... I will cause thee to accomplish the wish of thy - heart. Thy face he shall not harm, thy feet he shall not resist; thy - cry shall not come to nought.' In the midst of battle she arms thee - with the desolation of her goodness. She will protect thy whole body. - Before her a fire is blown to capture thy foes." - -The night vision of this seer reminds one a little of Isaiah's vision of -Jehovah in the temple (Isa. 6) and of Zechariah's vision of Joshua and -Satan (Zech. 3:1). The Hebrew prophets as late as the time of Jeremiah -often received their divine messages in dreams. (See Jer. 23:27.) Assyria -had something of the same ideas as Israel as to the revelations of deity -to a prophet, but she lacked Israel's ethical deity. - -=2. The Egyptian Social Conscience.= - -A remarkable appreciation of the rights of the common people is revealed -in an Egyptian story called the "Tale of the Eloquent Peasant,"--a story -which has come down to us in copies made before 1800 B. C. It has been -claimed that this tale indicates the existence of a social conscience in -Egypt analogous to that of the Hebrew prophets. The principal part of the -story is, accordingly, given here. - -The Eloquent Peasant[597] - - There was a man, Hunanup by name, a peasant of Sechet-hemat, and he - had a wife, .......... by name. Then said this peasant to his wife: - "Behold, I am going down to Egypt to bring back bread for my children. - Go in and measure the corn that we still have in our storehouse, - ........ bushel." Then he measured for her 8 (?) bushels of corn. Then - this peasant said to his wife: "Behold, 2 bushels of corn shall be - left for bread for thee and the children. But make for me the 6 - bushels into bread and beer for each of the days [that I shall be on - the road]." Then this peasant went down to Egypt after he had loaded - his asses with all the good products[598] of Sechet-hemat. - - This peasant set out and journeyed southward to Ehnas. He came to a - point opposite Per-fefi, north of Medenit, and found there a man - standing on the bank, Dehuti-necht by name, who was the son of a man - named Iseri, who was one of the serfs of the chief steward, - Meruitensi. - - Then said this Dehuti-necht, when he saw the asses of this peasant - which appealed to his covetousness: "Oh that some good god would help - me to rob this peasant of his goods!" - - The house of Dehuti-necht stood close to the side of the path, which - was narrow, not wide. It was about the width of a ......-cloth, and - upon one side of it was the water and upon the other side was growing - grain. Then said Dehuti-necht to his servant: "Hasten and bring me a - shawl from the house!" And it was brought at once. Then he spread this - shawl upon the middle of the road, and it extended, one edge to the - water, and the other to the corn. - - The peasant came along the path which was the common highway. Then - said Dehuti-necht: "Look out, peasant, do not trample on my clothes!" - The peasant answered: "I will do as thou wishest; I will go in the - right way!" As he was turning to the upper side, Dehuti-necht said: - "Does my corn serve you as a road?" Then said the peasant: "I am going - in the right way. The bank is steep and the path lies near the corn - and you have stopped up the road ahead with your clothes. Will you, - then, not let me go by?" - - Upon that one of the asses took a mouthful of corn. Then said - Dehuti-necht: "See, I will take away thy ass because it has eaten my - corn .........." - - Then the peasant said: "I am going in the right way. As one side was - made impassable I have led my ass along the other, and will you seize - it because it has taken a mouthful of corn? But I know the lord of - this property; it belongs to the chief steward, Meruitensi. It is he - who punishes every robber in this whole land. Shall I, then, be robbed - in his domain?" - - Then said Dehuti-necht: "Is it not a proverb which the people employ: - 'The name of the poor is only known on account of his lord?' It is I - who speak to you, but the chief steward of whom you think."[599] Then - he took a rod from a green tamarisk and beat all his limbs with it, - and seized his asses and drove them into his compound. - - Thereupon the peasant wept loudly on account of the pain of what had - been done to him. Dehuti-necht said to him: "Don't cry so loud, - peasant, or thou shalt go to the city of the Silence-maker" (a name of - the god of the underworld). The peasant said: "Thou beatest me and - stealest my goods, and wilt thou also take the wail away from my - mouth? O Silence-maker! give me my goods again! May I never cease to - cry out, if thou fearest!" - - The peasant consumed four days, during which he besought Dehuti-necht, - but he did not grant him his rights. Then this peasant went to the - south, to Ehnas, to implore the chief steward, Meruitensi. He met him - as he was coming out of the canal-door of his compound to embark in - his boat. Thereupon the peasant said: "Oh let me lay before thee this - affair. Permit one of thy trusted servants to come to me, that I may - send him to thee concerning it." Then the steward, Meruitensi, sent - one of his servants to him, and he sent back by him an account of the - whole affair. Then the chief steward, Meruitensi, laid the case of - Dehuti-necht before his attendant officials, and they said to him: - "Lord, it is presumably a case of one of your peasants who has gone - against another peasant near him. Behold, it is customary with - peasants to so conduct themselves toward others who are near them. - Shall we beat Dehuti-necht for a little natron and a little salt? - Command him to restore it and he will restore it." - - The chief steward, Meruitensi, remained silent; he answered neither - the officials nor the peasant. The peasant then came to entreat the - chief steward, Meruitensi, for the first time, and said: - - "Chief steward, my lord, thou art greatest of the great, thou art - guide of all that which is not and which is. When thou embarkest on - the sea of truth, that thou mayest go sailing upon it, then shall not - the .......... strip away thy sail, then thy ship shall not remain - fast, then shall no misfortune happen to thy mast, then shall thy - spars (?) not be broken, then shalt thou not be stranded; if thou - runnest fast aground, the waves shall not break upon thee, then thou - shalt not taste the impurities of the river, then thou shalt not - behold the face of fear; the shyest (?) fish shall come to thee, and - thou shalt capture the fat birds. For thou art the father of the - orphan, the husband of the widow, the brother of the desolate, the - garment of the motherless. Let me place thy name in this land higher - than all good laws: thou guide without avarice, thou great one free - from meanness, who destroyest deceit, who createst truthfulness. Throw - the evil to the ground. I will speak; hear me. Do justice, O thou - praised one, whom the praised ones praise. Remove my oppression: - behold, I have a heavy ....... to carry; behold, I am troubled of - soul; examine me, I am in sorrow." - -The reference in this address to the orphan and the widow touches a chord -which runs through much of the Old Testament and is especially prominent -in the prophets, as the following references will indicate: Isa. 1:17, 23; -9:17; 10:2; 47:8; Jer. 7:6; 15:8; 18:21; 22:3; 49:11; Ezek. 22:7, 25; -Zech. 7:10; Mal. 3:5; Deut. 10:18; 14:29; Job 29:13, and Psa. 68:5. - -In the Egyptian story Meruitensi was so pleased with the eloquence of the -peasant that he passed him on to another officer and he to still another -until he came before the king. Altogether the peasant made nine addresses. -For lack of space we can reproduce but one more. For this purpose we -select his eighth address. - - This peasant came to implore him for the eighth time, and said: - - "Chief steward, my lord, man falls on account of ...... Greed is - absent from a good merchant. His good commerce is ........ - - "Thy heart is greedy; it does not become thee. Thou despoilest: this - is not praiseworthy for thee ...... Thy daily rations are in thy - house; thy body is well filled ...... The officers, who are set as a - protection against injustice,--a curse to the shameless are these - officers, who are set as a bulwark against lies. - - "Fear of thee has not deterred me from supplicating thee; (if thou - thinkest so), thou hast not known my heart. The silent one, who turns - to report to thee his difficulties, is not afraid to present them to - thee ....... Thy real estate is in the country; thy bread is on thy - estate; thy food is in the storehouse. Thy officials give to thee and - thou takest it. Art thou, then, not a robber? They drag for thee - ...... for thee to the plots of arable land. Do the truth for the sake - of the lord of truth ....... Thou reed of a scribe, thou roll of a - book, thou palette, thou god Thoth, thou oughtest to keep thyself far - removed from injustice. Thou virtuous one, thou shouldst be virtuous; - thou virtuous one, thou shouldst be really virtuous. Further, truth is - true to eternity. She goes with those who perform her to the region of - the dead. He will be laid in the coffin and committed to the earth; - his name will not perish from the earth, but men will remember him on - account of his property: so runs the right interpretation of the - divine word. - - "Does it then happen that the scales stand aslant? Or is it thinkable - that the scales incline to one side? - - "Behold, if I come not, if another comes, then thou hast opportunity - to speak as one who answers, as one who addresses the silent, as one - who responds to him who has not spoken to thee. Thou hast not been - ......; thou hast not been sick. Thou hast not fled; thou hast not - departed. But thou hast not yet granted me any reply to this beautiful - word which comes from the mouth of the sun-god himself: 'Speak the - truth; do the truth: for it is great, it is mighty, it is everlasting. - It will obtain for thee merit, and will lead thee to veneration.' - - "For does the scale stand aslant? It is their scale-pans that bear the - objects, and in just scales there is no ...... wanting." - -The beauty of the sentiments about truth is obvious. The references to -scales are to those that were supposed to weigh the deeds of the dead in -the under-world. - -After a ninth speech on the part of the peasant, the tale concludes as -follows: - - Then the chief steward, Meruitensi, sent two servants to bring him - back. Thereupon the peasant feared that he would suffer thirst, as a - punishment imposed upon him for what he had said. Then the peasant - said ...... (The Egyptian of this address contains difficulties which - have never been solved.) - - Then said the chief steward, Meruitensi: "Fear not, peasant! See, thou - shalt remain with me." Then said the peasant: "I live because I eat of - thy bread and drink thy beer forever." - - Then said the chief steward, Meruitensi: "Come out here ........" Then - he caused them to bring, written on a new roll, all the addresses of - these days. The chief steward sent them to his majesty, the king of - Upper and Lower Egypt, Neb-kau-re, the blessed, and they were more - agreeable to the heart of his majesty than all that was in his land. - His majesty said, "Pass sentence thyself, my beloved son!" Then the - chief steward, Meruitensi, caused two servants to go and bring a list - of the household (of Dehuti-necht) from the government office, and his - possessions were six persons, with a selection from his ......, from - his barley, from his spelt, from his asses, from his swine, from his - .......... - -From this point on only a few words of the tale can be made out, but it -appears from these that the goods selected from the estate of Dehuti-necht -were given to the peasant and he was sent home rejoicing. - -=3. An Ideal King.= - -In the wisdom literature of Egypt appear the admonitions of an Egyptian -sage called Ipuwer. In these admonitions a time of dire distress is -pictured, in view of which the sage longs for the presence of an ideal -king. Some scholars have compared the description of this ideal king with -the prophetic conception of the Messiah. - -It is unnecessary to quote the whole work, which is fragmentary and -difficult of translation. A few passages will answer our purpose. - -From the Admonitions of Ipuwer[600] - - .......... The door-keepers say: Let us go and plunder. The - confectioners .......... The washerman refuses to carry his load - .......... The bird-catchers have drawn up in line of battle - .......... The inhabitants of the Marshes carry shields. The brewers - .......... sad. A man looks upon his son as his enemy; - .................... - - .................................................................. - - Noble ladies suffer like slave girls. Musicians are in the chambers - within the halls. What they sing to the goddess Mert is dirges - ........... Forsooth, all female slaves are free with their tongues. - When the mistress speaks it is irksome to the servants. Forsooth, - princes are hungry and in distress. Servants are served .......... by - reason of mourning. Forsooth, the hot-headed (?) man says: "If I knew - where God is, then would I make offerings unto him." Forsooth, right - is throughout the land in this its name. What men do in appealing to - it is wrong. Forsooth, all animals, their hearts weep. Cattle moan - because of the state of the land .................... Forsooth, the - ways are .......... The roads are guarded. Men sit over the bushes - until the benighted traveler comes, in order to plunder his burden. - What is upon him is taken away. He is belabored with blows of the - stick and slain wrongfully. - - Forsooth, that has perished which yesterday was seen (?). The land is - left over to its weariness (?) like the cutting of flax. Poor men are - in affliction .......... Would that there might be an end of men, no - conception, no birth! O that the earth would cease from noise, and - tumult be no more! .......... Forsooth, grain has perished on every - side. People are stripped of clothes, spices (?) and oil. Everybody - says there is none. The storehouse is ruined. Its keeper is stretched - on the ground. It is no happy thing for my heart (?) .......... Would - that I had made my voice heard at that moment, that it might save me - from the pain in which I am (?) .......... Behold, the powerful of the - land, the condition of the people is not reported to them. All is - ruin! Behold, no craftsmen work. The enemies of the land have spoilt - its crafts. - -Similar descriptions of the disorganized state of society might be quoted -at much greater length. The passage in which Ipuwer mentions the ideal -king is as follows: - - .......... lack of people .................... Re; command (?) - .......... the West to diminish (?) .......... by the [gods?]. Behold - ye, wherefore does he [seek] to fashion [mankind], .......... without - distinguishing the timid man from him whose nature is violent. He - bringeth coolness upon that which is hot. It is said: he is the - herdsman of mankind. No evil is in his heart. When his herds are few, - he passes the day to gather them together, their hearts being on fire. - Would that he had perceived their nature in the first generation of - men; then would he have repressed evils, he would have stretched forth - his arm against it, he would have destroyed their seed and their - inheritance .......... Where is he today? Is he sleeping? Behold, his - might is not seen. - -Vogelsang held this to be a picture of a kind of ideal king, comparable in -some respects to the prophetic conception of the Messiah in such passages -as Isa. 9:1-6; 11:1-8. To this view Gardiner has objected that the -parallelism is not real, in that there seems to have been in the mind of -the Egyptian sage no expectation that such a king would actually rise, but -rather the belief that he once existed as the god Re and has now vanished -from earth. To this Breasted and Gressmann reply that the kingly figure is -a purely ideal one, and that Ipuwer feels strongly that, if he were on -earth all wrongs would be set right, and that in some degree the picture -is parallel to the conceptions of the Messiah. - -The description of disorganized society which is here reflected is -patterned on conditions which existed in Egypt before 2000 B. C., and the -conception of the ideal king is equally old. - -=4. Sheol.= - -In Isa. 14:9-11 and Ezek. 32:21-31 we find descriptions of Sheol or the -under-world. These descriptions are closely parallel to the following -Babylonian poem. - -Ishtar's Descent to the Under-world[601] - - Unto the land of No-return, the land of darkness, - Ishtar, the daughter of Sin, determined to go, - The daughter of Sin determined to go, - Unto the house of darkness, the dwelling of Irkalla, - 5. Unto the house whose enterer never comes out, - Along the way whose going has no return, - Unto the house whose enterer is deprived of light, - Where dust is their food, their sustenance, clay, - Light they do not see, in darkness they dwell; - 10. They are clothed, like birds, with a covering of wings. - Over door and bolt the dust is spread. - Ishtar, when she arrived at the gate of the land of No-return - To the keeper of the gate addressed a word: - "Keeper of the waters, open thy gate! - 15. Open thy gate! Let me enter! - If thou dost not open thy gate, that I may enter, - I will shatter the door, I will break the bolt, - I will shiver the threshold, break down the doors; - I will bring up the dead to devour the living!" - 20. The keeper opened his mouth and spake, - He said to Ishtar, the great: - "Stay, my lady, do not destroy it, - Let me go, let me announce thy name to Queen Allat." - The keeper went in, he spake [to Allat]: - 25. "This water thy sister, Ishtar, [has crossed] - As a servant of great powers [she comes]." - When Allat heard this, - Like the cutting of the tamarisk [was her laugh], - 30. Like the crackling of reeds. [She cried]: - "What has turned her mind to me? .......... - These waters I with .......... - For food I will eat clay, for drink I will drink .......... - I will weep for men who have abandoned their wives, - 35. I will weep for maidens torn from their husbands' bosoms, - I will weep for children snatched away before their time. - Go, keeper, open thy gate to her; - Do to her according to the ancient custom." - The keeper went and opened to her his gate: - 40. "Enter, my lady; the under-world is glad, - The palace of the land of No-return rejoices at thy coming." - He brought her through the first gate, made it wide, he took the - great crown from her head. - "Why, O keeper, hast thou taken the great crown from my head?" - "Enter, my lady, such are the commands of Allat." - 45. He brought her through the second gate, he made it wide, he took - the ornaments from her ears. - "Why, O keeper, hast thou taken the ornaments from my ears?" - "Enter, my lady, for such are the commands of Allat." - He brought her through the third gate, he made it wide, he took the - necklace from her neck. - "Why, O keeper, hast thou taken the necklace from my neck?" - 50. "Enter, O lady, for such are the commands of Allat." - He brought her through the fourth gate, he made it wide, he took - the ornaments from her breasts. - "Why, O keeper, hast thou taken the ornaments from my breast?" - "Enter, my lady, for such are the commands of Allat." - He brought her through the fifth gate, he made it wide, he took the - girdle with birth-stones from her waist. - 55. "Why, O keeper, hast thou taken the girdle with birth-stones from - my waist?" - "Enter, my lady, for such are the commands of Allat." - He brought her through the sixth gate, he made it wide, he took the - bracelets from her hands and feet. - "Why, O keeper, hast thou taken the bracelets from my hands and - feet?" - "Enter, my lady, for such are the commands of Allat." - 60. He brought her through the seventh gate, he made it wide, he took - the breech-cloth from her body. - "Why, O keeper, hast thou taken the breech-cloth from my body?" - "Enter, my lady, for such are the commands of Allat." - When Ishtar had gone down to the land of No-return, - Allat saw her and became enraged at her. - 65. Ishtar took no heed; she sat down above her. - Allat opened her mouth and spake, - To Namtar, her messenger, she addressed a word: - "Go, Namtar, lock [her in my palace], - Bring out against her sixty diseases .......... Ishtar, - 70. Disease of the eyes against her [eyes], - Disease of the side against her [sides], - Disease of the feet against her [feet], - Disease of the heart against [her heart], - Disease of the head against [her head], - 75. Against her altogether .........." - After Ishtar, the lady, [went down to the land of No-return] - The bull with the cow did not unite, nor the ass approach the - she-ass; - The man in the street no more approached the maid; - The man slept in his chamber, - 80. The maid slept by her oven. - Papsukal, messenger of the great gods, was sad of countenance - before [Shamash], - Clad in mourning, wearing foul garments. - Then went Shamash into the presence of Sin, his father; he wept, - Before Ea, the king, his tears flowed: - 85. "Ishtar has gone down into the earth; she has not come up. - Since Ishtar went down to the land of No-return, - The bull with the cow does not unite, nor the ass approach the - she-ass; - The man no more approaches the maid in the street; - The man sleeps in his chamber, - 90. The maid sleeps by her oven. - Then Ea in the wisdom of his heart created a man, - He created Asushunamir, the priest. - "Go, Asushunamir, to the gate of the land without return set thy - face, - The seven gates of the land without return shall be opened before - thee, - 95. Allat shall behold thee, and shall rejoice in thy presence. - When her heart has been appeased, and her soul revived, - Conjure her also by the name of the great gods. - Turn thy thoughts to the skin which pours forth life: - 'O lady, give me the skin which pours forth life, that I may drink - water from it.'" - 100. When Allat heard this, - She beat upon her thigh, she bit her finger: - "Thou hast uttered a wish not to be wished. - Go, Asushunamir; I curse thee with a great curse. - The sewage of the gutters of the city shall be thy food, - 105. The cesspools of the city shall be thy drink, - The shadow of the walls shall be thy dwelling, - The thresholds shall be thy habitation, - Confinement and privation shall shatter thy strength." - Allat opened her mouth and spoke, - 110. To Namtar, her messenger, she addressed the word: - "Go, Namtar, knock at the palace of justice, - Tap at the thresholds of gleaming (?) stones, - Bring out the Annunaki,[602] seat them on golden thrones, - Sprinkle Ishtar with the water of life and bring her before me." - 115. Namtar went, he knocked at the palace of justice, - He tapped at the thresholds of gleaming (?) stones, - He brought forth the Annunaki, he seated them on golden thrones, - He sprinkled Ishtar with the water of life, he brought her forth. - He brought her out of the first gate, he restored to her the - breech-cloth of her body; - 120. He brought her through the second gate, he restored to her the - bracelets of her hands and feet; - He brought her through the third gate, he restored to her the - girdle with birth-stones for her waist; - He brought her through the fourth gate, he restored to her the - ornaments of her breasts; - He brought her through the fifth gate, he restored to her the - necklace of her neck; - He brought her through the sixth gate, he restored to her the - ornaments of her ears; - 125. He brought her through the seventh gate, he restored to her the - crown of her head. - (End of legend. The priest begins:) - "If she does not grant to thee her release, turn to her again; - To Tammuz, the beloved of her youth, - Pour out water, offer good oil, - With red clothing clothe him, let him play a flute of lapis lazuli. - 130. Let the joyful maidens turn, ..................... - When Belili has established her ritual, - With precious stones her bosom is filled." - The wailing for her brother she heard; Belili interrupted the - ritual of .... - With precious stones she filled the front of .......... - (Voice from the dead.) - 135. "My only brother, harm me not; - On the day of Tammuz, play for me the lapis lazuli flute, play the - _Santu_-flute with it, - When the wailing men and women play with it, - Let the dead return, let them smell incense." - -The description of the darkness of the under-world and the sad conditions -of life with which this poem begins, shows that the Babylonians shared the -gloomy views of Sheol which Isa. 14:9-11 and Ezek. 32:21-31 express. - -The middle of the poem expresses the view of the ancient Semites, that the -goddess of love once went down to the under-world, and that as a result -all propagation of life ceased on the earth. The end of it alludes to the -later belief that the goddess went down every year for her beloved Tammuz -who had died, and the wailing alluded to is that spoken of by Ezekiel in -Ezek. 8:14, where the prophet says he saw women wailing for Tammuz. The -kind of sentiment uttered in this wailing the next extract will -illustrate. - -=5. A Lamentation for Tammuz.=[603] - - The lord of destiny (?) lives no more, the lord of destiny (?) - lives no more. - [Tammuz the ...... ] lives no more, ...... lives no more. - The bewailed one (?) lives no more, the lord of destiny (?) - lives no more. - I am queen, my husband lives no more. - 5. My son lives no more. - Dagalushumgalanna lives no more. - The lord of Arallu lives no more. - The lord of Durgurgurru lives no more. - The shepherd, the lord Tammuz lives no more. - 10. The lord, the shepherd of the folds lives no more. - The consort of the queen of heaven lives no more. - The lord of the folds lives no more. - The brother of the mother of wine lives no more. - [He who creates] the fruit of the land lives no more. - 15. The powerful lord of the land lives no more. - When he slumbers the sheep and lambs slumber also. - When he slumbers the goats and kids slumber also. - As for me, to the abode of the deep will I turn my thoughts, - To the abode of the great ones I turn my thoughts. - 20. "O hero, my lord, ah me," I will say, - "Food I eat not," I will say, - "Water I drink not," I will say, - "My good maiden," I will say, - "My good husbandman," I will say, - 25. "Thy lord, the exalted one, to the nether world has taken his way, - Thy lord, the exalted one, to the nether world has taken his way." - On account of the exalted one of the nether world, him of the - radiant face, yea, radiant, - On account of the exalted one of the nether world, him of the - dovelike voice, yea, dovelike, - On account of the exalted one, the lord, on account of the lord, - 30. Food I eat not on account of the lord, - Water I drink not, on account of the lord. - "My good maiden, because of the lord, - My good husbandman, on account of the lord, - The hero, your lord has been destroyed, - 35. The god of grain, the child, your lord, has been destroyed." - His kindly look gives peace no more, - His kindly voice imparts cheer (?) no more; - .......... in his place, like a dog he sleeps; - My lord in his .......... slumbers like a raven - 40. Alone is he, himself, - My lord, for whom the wail is raised. - - (Forty-one lines--a psalm on the flute to Tammuz.) - -This poem illustrates what Ezekiel may have heard in vision, when in -spirit he was brought to the northern gate of the temple, and heard women -wailing for Tammuz (Ezek. 8:14). - - - - -CHAPTER XXV - -REPUTED SAYINGS OF JESUS FOUND IN EGYPT - - EARLY COLLECTIONS OF THE WORDS OF JESUS. TRANSLATION OF SAYINGS FOUND - IN 1897. COMMENTS. TRANSLATION OF A LEAF FOUND IN 1904. COMMENTS. - OPINIONS AS TO THESE SAYINGS. - - -The Gospel of Luke begins with the words: "Forasmuch as many have taken in -hand to draw up a narrative concerning those matters which have been -fulfilled among us,"--words which imply that there were in the early -Church many attempts at Gospel writing. Some of these attempts apparently -took the form of collecting the sayings of Jesus. At Oxyrhynchus in Egypt -two different leaves of papyrus have been found on which such sayings are -written. The first of these was found by Grenfell and Hunt in 1897; (Fig. -301). It begins in the middle of a sentence, but it is a sentence the -beginning of which can be supplied from Matt. 7:5. When complete the -sentence runs thus:[604] - - =[Jesus saith, Cast out first the beam from thine own eye], and then - shalt thou see clearly to cast out the mote that is in thy brother's - eye.= - -On this saying compare Matt. 7:5; Luke 6:42. - -The second one runs: - - =Jesus saith, Except ye fast to the world, ye shall in no wise find - the kingdom of God; and except ye keep the sabbath, ye shall not see - the Father.= - -This saying does not occur in the Gospels, and has given rise to wide -discussion among scholars. - -The third is as follows: - - =Jesus saith, I stood in the midst of the world, and in the flesh was - I seen of them, and I found all men drunken, and none found I athirst - among them, and my soul grieveth over the sons of men, because they - are blind in their heart [and see not], poor, and know not their - poverty.= - -This saying also is not found in the Gospels. It is difficult to tell -whether it was thought to have been spoken by Jesus before or after the -resurrection. - -The fourth saying is difficult of translation and interpretation, since -the text is not at all clear. As emended by Harnack and Swete, it would -run: - - =Jesus saith, Wherever there are two they are not without God, and if - one is alone anywhere, I say I am with him. Raise the stone, there - thou shalt find me; cleave the wood, and there I am.= - -This saying has given rise to much discussion and to a large literature, -but reference can here be made only to Henry van Dyke's poem _Felix_. With -the last part of the saying Matt. 18:20 should be compared. - -The fifth saying is as follows: - - =Jesus saith, A prophet is not acceptable in his own country, neither - doth a physician work cures upon them that know him.= - -The first part of this is akin to Luke 4:24; Mark 6:4; Matt. 13:57, and -John 4:44. The last part of it is not in the Gospels. - -The sixth one reads: - - =Jesus saith, A city built on the top of a high hill and firmly - established can neither fall nor be hid.= - -In this saying the thought of Matt. 5:14 is combined with that of Matt. -7:24, 25, but there is no necessary literary dependence upon Matthew. - -The seventh and last saying on this leaf is: - - =[Jesus saith,] Thou hearest with one ear, but the other thou hast - closed.= - -This, too, is not found in our Gospels. - -In 1904 another leaf of sayings of Jesus was found at the same place. It -begins with a general introduction, thus:[605] - - =These are the [wonderful?][606] words which Jesus the living Lord - spake [to the disciples] and to Thomas, and he said to them: Every one - that hearkens to these words shall never taste of death.= - -These words formed the general introduction to a collection of sayings of -Jesus, similar to that from which the sayings already quoted were taken. -The leaf also contained a few of the sayings which stood in the -collection. They are as follows: - - =Jesus saith, Let not him who seeks ...... cease until he finds, and - when he finds he shall be astonished; astonished he shall reach the - kingdom, and having reached the kingdom he shall rest.= - -The Gospels contain parallels to parts of this saying. (See Matt. 6:33; -7:7; 13:44; Luke 5:9.) - -The second of these sayings is longer: - - =Jesus saith, [Ye ask (?) who are those] that draw us [to the kingdom, - if] the kingdom is in heaven? ...... the fowls of the air, and all the - beasts that are under the earth or upon the earth, and the fishes of - the sea, [these are they which draw] you, and the kingdom of heaven is - within you; and whosoever shall know himself shall find it. [Strive - therefore (?)] to know yourselves, and ye shall be aware that ye are - the sons of the [Almighty (?)] Father; [and (?)] ye shall know that ye - are in [the city of God (?)] and ye are [the city (?)].= - -The first part of this saying attributes to Christ a saying evidently -based on the thought of Job 12:7, 8. Other parts of the saying recall Luke -17:21 and Luke 20:36, though the phrases which remind us of these passages -form but a small part of the saying and appear here in quite a different -connection. - -The third saying runs: - - =Jesus saith, A man shall not hesitate ...... to ask ...... concerning - his place [in the kingdom. Ye shall know] that many that are first - shall be last and the last first and [they shall have eternal life - (?)].= - -A part of this saying follows Mark 10:31 and Matt. 19:30; cf. also Luke -13:30. The last clause is conjectural, but, if correct, is similar to John -3:16, 36; 5:24. - -The fourth: - - =Jesus saith, Everything that is not before thy face and that which is - hidden from thee shall be revealed to thee. For there is nothing - hidden which shall not be made manifest, nor buried which shall not be - raised.= - -The last part of this saying is parallel to Matt. 10:26; Luke 12:2; see -also Mark 4:22. - -The fifth: - - =His disciples question him and say, How shall we fast and how shall - we [pray (?)] ...... and what [commandment] shall we keep? ...... - Jesus saith, ...... do not ...... of truth ...... blessed is he - ........= - -The papyrus is so broken that we cannot hope to recover this saying in its -entirety, but it is clear that it differed from the others in having an -introductory clause which gave the occasion when it was uttered. - -Judgments have differed as to whether all these sayings are really sayings -of Jesus. That there were sayings of his known in ancient times that are -not recorded in our Gospels is shown by Acts 20:35. Some, at least, of -these sayings are so like those of Jesus that it is not difficult to -believe them his. But whether they are his or not, these papyri make clear -to us what Luke meant when he said "many have taken in hand to draw up a -narrative." - - - - -CHAPTER XXVI - -ARCHAEOLOGICAL LIGHT ON THE ENROLMENT OF QUIRINIUS - - TRANSLATION OF A PAPYRUS SHOWING THAT IN THE SECOND CENTURY ENROLMENT - WAS MADE EVERY FOURTEEN YEARS. COMMENTS. TRANSLATION REFERRING TO AN - ENROLMENT IN THE REIGN OF NERO. FRAGMENT FROM THE REIGN OF TIBERIUS. - ENROLMENTS PROBABLY INAUGURATED BY AUGUSTUS. DOCUMENT SHOWING THAT - PEOPLE WENT TO THEIR OWN TOWNS FOR ENROLMENT. INSCRIPTION SUPPOSED TO - REFER TO QUIRINIUS. INSCRIPTION FROM ASIA MINOR REFERRING TO - QUIRINIUS. DISCUSSION. CONCLUSIONS. - - -Archaeological research has recently thrown much light upon the census of -Quirinius mentioned in Luke 2:1-5. The evidence has come in part from -ancient records on papyri which have been dug up in Egypt, some of which -are herewith translated. - -The following extract from a large papyrus establishes the fact that a -census or an assessment-list was made in the Roman empire every fourteen -years. - -=1. Papyrus Showing Enrolment Every Fourteen Years.=[607] - - After the death of my wife Aphrodite, or, as she was called by some, - Aphroditoute, having departed from the district of Herakles and - Sabinos, I enrolled the other children who dwell with Mysthes who is - called Ninnos, who was 33 years old, and after the others, the wife of - my son Mysthes who is called Ninnos, viz.:--Zozime, freed-woman of - Ptolemaios Ammoniarios, daughter of Marion Geomytha, and was 22 years - old, (who was living with her mistress, in the enrolment of the 9th - year; at the time of the enrolment she [Zozime] was living in the - Greek quarter, but has now moved into the neighboring quarter of - Apolloneios Hierax) and the children of these two, Ammonios, aged 5, - and Didymos, aged 4, and Aut ........, were not otherwise enrolled in - the enrolment in the first year of the Emperor Caesar Marcus Aurelius - Antoninus Augustus and the Emperor Caesar Lucius Aurelius Verus - Augustus, on the thirtieth of Payni [_i. e._, June 24, 161 A. D.]. To - Potomon, governor of the Arsinoite district of Herakles, and - Asclepiades, the royal census-taker, and Agathos Daimon and Dioskoros, - census-takers of the metropolis, on behalf of Mysthes who is called - Ninnos, Mysthes, son of Philo, whose mother is Herais, daughter of - Ammoniosone, of the citizens of the metropolis, who are enrolled from - the quarter of Apolloneios Hierax: there belongs to me in the district - of Ammonios 1/12 part of the place called Nekpherotios, in which I - enroll myself and my household for the current enrolment of the 14th - year according to the household enrolment, as also I enrolled myself - according to the household enrolment in the 23rd year of Antoninus - (_i. e._, 160-161 A. D.); I am also Mysthes who is also called Ninnos; - the one enrolled is 59 years old, and his wife, Zozime, the - freed-woman of Ammoniarios, daughter of Marion, who was enrolled in - the household enrolment of the 23rd year in the same quarter, is 38 - years old, and the children of those two, ........ not enrolled in the - enrolments, 11 years old, and likewise Dioskoros 10 (?) years old, and - likewise ........, 9 years old, and a daughter, Isidora, 8 years old: - thus I make my deposition. 15th year of the Emperor Marcus Aurelius - Antoninus Caesar, the lord. Intercalary Mesore: (_i. e._, the end of - August, 175 A. D.). - -This papyrus, dated in the year 175 A. D., is very important as it proves -that the census came every fourteen years. The enrolment mentioned at the -end of it was made in connection with the census of 174-175 A. D., since -the document is dated in August of the year 175. The enrolment mentioned -about the middle of the document was the enrolment of 160-161 A. D. That -was dated in the summer of 161. The one mentioned near the beginning of -the quotation as having been made in the 9th year must refer to the census -of the year 146-147, and the 9th year of Antoninus Pius, which was the -year 147. The proof that the census was taken every fourteen years[608] is -of the greatest importance to our subject, as will appear below. - -This enrolment was made by one Mysthes Ninnos on behalf of his son, who -was also called Mysthes Ninnos, the wife of the son who was a freed-woman, -called Zozime, and their children, who were the grandchildren of the man -making the enrolment. Mysthes Ninnos, the grandfather, had been married -twice. His first wife was named Aphrodite; after her death he married -Herais, the mother of the son, Mysthes Ninnos. - -=2. Translation Referring to an Enrolment in the Reign of Nero.=[609] - - Copy of an enrolment of Ammonios and ...... ios, the gymnasiarch and - librarian of the public library in the city of Arsinoe, in the - presence of Pa ...... xineos ...... Paesios, son of Myo, priest of - those who are from Karanis of the district of Heracles. According to - the commands through the most excellent governor, Lucius Julius - Vestinus, I have enrolled today my goods which are free from debt and - mortgage and lien; in the neighboring village, a third part of my - father's house and courtyard, and places cleared of abodes, two lots - of a half acre each, which were bought from Mesoereus, son of - Nekpheros, in the fifth year of Nero Claudius Caesar Augustus - Germanicus, Emperor, and a house in the village, which was bought from - Onnophreus, son of Peteoraepeus, in the sixth year of Nero Claudius - Caesar Augustus Germanicus, Emperor. Whatever I make from these or buy - in addition I will first report as it shall occur. - -The date of this document, which is only a copy, is not given, but as it -refers to two transactions in real estate, which were dated respectively -in the 5th and 6th years of Nero, and as that monarch's reign began in -October of the year 54 A. D., it is probable that this is a copy of an -enrolment made in connection with the census of 62-63 A. D. This proves -that the system of taking the census once in fourteen years was in -operation as early as the reign of Nero. - -=3. Fragment from the Reign of Tiberius.=[610] - - To Eutychides and Theon, local census-takers and village - census-takers, from Horion and Petosiris, priest of Isis, the most - great goddess, of the temple called the Two Brothers in the city of - Oxyrhynchus on the street Myrobalanos, near the Serapeum. Those who - live in the house which belongs to me and my wife Tasis and to - Taurius, son of Harbichis, and to Papontos, son of Nechthesorios, and - to Thaechemere, in the house which is near the aforesaid temple of the - Two Brothers are as follows: - -The papyrus at this point becomes too mutilated for further translation. - -The importance of this document is revealed by an examination of the names -of the officers, Eutychides and Theon. Another papyrus from the same -place, which contains a notice of a removal, is dated in the 6th year of -the Emperor Tiberius.[611] As these officers were still in office when -this census was taken, this must be the census of the year 20-21 A. D. - -=4. Enrolments Probably Inaugurated by Augustus.= - -Another papyrus contains a list of people who were exempt from poll-tax in -the 41st year of the reign of Augustus.[612] As the poll-tax was -intimately connected with the census, it is altogether probable that the -census was inaugurated by Augustus. As he became emperor in 27 B. C. and -at once proceeded to organize his empire, the census may have begun early -in his reign. If there was one in 20 A. D. there would be one in 6 A. D., -9-8 B. C., and possibly in 23-22 B. C. If there was not one in 23-22, that -in 9-8 B. C. would be the first. This is the one to which reference is -made in Luke 2:2. If the birth of Jesus occurred at the time of this -census, it must have been earlier than we usually suppose. Ramsay thinks -that the taking of the census in Judah may have been delayed till 7 or 6 -B. C., on account of Jewish prejudices. - -=5. Document Showing that People Went to Their Own Towns for Enrolment.= - -In connection with the census of Quirinius it is stated in Luke 2:3: "All -went to enroll themselves, every one to his own city." This has been felt -by many scholars to be an improbable statement, and has been cited as an -evidence of the unhistorical character of the whole story of the census in -Luke. In this connection part of a papyrus discovered in Egypt, which is -dated in the 7th year of the Emperor Trajan, 103-104 A. D., is of great -interest. This document contains three letters. The third of the letters -is the one which relates to our subject. It is as follows:[613] - - Gaius Vibius, chief prefect of Egypt. Because of the approaching - census it is necessary that all those residing for any cause away from - their own homes, should at once prepare to return to their own - governments, in order that they may complete the family administration - of the enrolment, and that the tilled lands may retain those belonging - to them. Knowing that your city has need of provisions from the - country, I wish .......... (At this point the papyrus becomes too - fragmentary for connected translation.) - -It is perfectly clear that in Egypt the enrolment was done on the basis of -kinship. The word rendered "family" above [[Greek: synethe]] means -"kindred" in the larger sense. The phrase rendered "belonging to" [them, -_i. e._, the tilled lands] also means "kindred." It appears, then, that in -Egypt the enrolment of each district was intended to include all the -kinsmen belonging to that district, and that, lest those residing -elsewhere should forget to return home for the census, proclamations were -issued directing them to do so. It is well known that in many respects the -customs of administration in Syria and Egypt were similar. Luke's -statement, that Joseph went up from Nazareth to Bethlehem, because he was -of the house and lineage of David, to enroll himself with Mary (Luke 2:4, -5), turns out to be in exact accord with the governmental regulations as -we now know them from the papyri. - -=6. Inscription Supposed to Refer to Quirinius.= - -A fragmentary inscription found at Rome in 1828 is thought by Mommsen and -others to prove that Quirinius was governor of Syria twice, and that the -governorship to which Josephus refers (_Antiquities_, XVII, i, 1), which -was coincident with the deposition of Archelaus in 6 A. D., was his -second appointment. The inscription as filled out by Mommsen and others -reads:[614] - - [P. Sulpicius Quirinius, consul ..........; as proconsul obtained - Crete and Cyrene as a province ..........; as legate of the divine - Augustus, obtaining Syria and Phoenicia he waged war with the tribe of - Homonadenses who had killed Amyntas the k]ing; when he returned into - the domi[nion of the Emperor Caesar] Augustus and the Roman people, the - senate [decreed] thanksgivings [to the immortal gods] on account of - the two success[ful accomplishments] and triumphal ornaments to him; - as proconsul he ob[tained] Asia as a province; as the legate of the - divine Augustus he [obtained] again Syria and Phoenicia. - -If this inscription were intact its evidence would be decisive, but -unfortunately it is only a fragment, and the name of Quirinius is just -that which has to be supplied from other inscriptions. That so eminent a -scholar as Mommsen thought that this name was the one which once began the -inscription is of weight, but it does not compensate for the loss of the -name. - -=7. Inscription from Asia Minor Referring to Quirinius.=[615] - -The following inscription, discovered by Prof. Ramsay and Mr. J. G. C. -Anderson, of Oxford, is believed by Ramsay to prove that Quirinius was -governor of Syria between 10 and 7 B. C. - - To Gaius Caristanius - (son of Gaius of the Sergian tribe) Fronto - Caesianus Juli[us], - Chief of engineers, pontifex, - priest, prefect of P. Sulpicius Quirinius duumvir, - prefect of M. Servilius. - To him first of all men - at public expense by decree of the decuriones, - a statue was erected. - -This inscription was found at Antioch, a fortified colony in southeastern -Phrygia or southern Galatia, in the year 1912. The name Caristanius -connects its erection with the time of the Hamonadian war, 10-7 B. C. That -Quirinius received the honor of an election to the office of honorary -duumvir of the colony at this time, is held by Ramsay to prove that he had -been sent to Syria as governor, and had been military commander in the war -against the Hamonades. It was the benefits which accrued to the little -colony of Antioch from his victories in this war, which led to the -election and the erection of this statue. Ramsay, accordingly, holds that -this inscription proves Quirinius to have been governor of Syria about -11-7 B. C., and this confirms the statement of Luke 2:2, that the census -at the time when Jesus was born was the first enrolment, when Quirinius -was governor of Syria. - -One objection to this theory is that from other sources (Josephus, -_Antiquities_, XVI, x, 8; xi, 3), it appears that Sentius Saturninus was -governor of Syria at this time, _i. e._, from 9-7 B. C., just at the time -when, according to the papyri, the census should occur. This is supported -by a statement of Tertullian, that Jesus was born when Saturninus was -governor of Syria. To meet this objection, Ramsay supposes either that the -authority of Quirinius and of Saturninus overlapped, the former being -military commander and the latter civil governor, or that Quirinius ruled -until about July 1st of the year 8, the census year, and Saturninus then -took office. These are, however, mere possibilities. We have not yet clear -information concerning these points. - -Later, in 6 A. D., Quirinius was sent out to Syria again (see Tacitus, -_Annales_, III, 48), and took over as governor of Syria the kingdom of -Judah on the deposition of Archelaus, and conducted the census there of -6-7 A. D. (See Josephus, _Antiquities_, XVIII, i.) Many scholars have held -that Luke confused this governorship with earlier events and was -accordingly in error as to his chronology by at least ten years, but the -archaeological facts here collected tend to corroborate Luke's accuracy on -this point. It should be added that Luke knew that Quirinius had charge of -the census in Palestine in 6 A. D., as Josephus states, for he says: "This -was the first enrolment made when Quirinius was governor of Syria." - -=8. Conclusions.= - -It should in all candor be noted just what archaeology has proved -concerning this matter, and what points are still, from the archaeological -side, outstanding. It has proved that the census was a periodic occurrence -once in fourteen years, that this system was in operation as early as 20 -A. D., and that it was customary for people to go to their ancestral -abodes for enrolment. It has made it probable that the census system was -established by Augustus, and that Quirinius was governor of Syria twice, -though these last two points are not yet fully established by -archaeological evidence. So far as the new material goes, however, it -confirms the narrative of Luke. - - - - -CHAPTER XXVII - -ARCHAEOLOGICAL LIGHT ON THE ACTS AND EPISTLES - - THE POLITARCHS OF THESSALONICA. AN ALTAR TO UNKNOWN GODS. AN - INSCRIPTION FROM DELPHI AND THE DATE OF PAUL'S CONTACT WITH GALLIO. - SOME EPISTLES FROM EGYPT. INSCRIPTIONS MENTIONING ARETAS, KING OF - ARABIA. - - -=1. The Politarchs of Thessalonica.= - -In Acts 17:6 the rulers of Thessalonica are called in the Greek -"politarchs." It is a unique term, and its accuracy had been called in -question by some scholars. Within the past hundred years no less than -nineteen inscriptions have come to light which prove its accuracy, by -referring to the rulers of Thessalonica as "politarchs." One of the most -important of these is from an arch in Thessalonica. It runs in part as -follows, the beginning being illegible:[616] - - In the time of the Politarchs, Sosipatros, son of Cleopatra, and - Lucius Pontius Secundus Publius Flavius Sabinus, Demetrius, son of - Faustus, Demetrius of Nicopolis, Zoilos, son of Parmenio, and Meniscus - Gaius Agilleius Poteitus ...... - -Another fragmentary inscription shows that the rulers of the city bore -this title as early as the time of Augustus. It is in part:[617] - - Bosa, proconsul, made a stone-quarry for the temple of Caesar, in the - time of the priest and judge, the Emperor Caesar, the divine son - Augustus .........., the politarchs remaining faithful, - viz.:--Diogenes, the son of Kleon, the ...., etc. - -It is not clear from the inscriptions whether the number of politarchs was -five or six. - -=2. An Altar to Unknown Gods.= - -In Acts 17:23 it is stated that Paul saw in Athens an altar with this -inscription: TO AN UNKNOWN GOD. In the year 1909 an altar was discovered -in the sacred precinct and temple of Demeter at Pergamos in Asia Minor, -the home of one of the seven churches of the book of Revelation (Rev. -2:12, f.), which bore a mutilated inscription; (see Fig. 299). This -inscription in the judgment of several impartial epigraphists should be -restored as follows:[618] - - To unknown gods, - Capito, - torch-bearer. - -This is not only a confirmation of the statement of Acts 17:23, but of -Pausanias[619] (second century A. D.) and Philostratus[620] (third century -A. D.) that altars to unknown gods existed. - -=3. The Date of Paul's Contact with Gallio.= - -The chronology of the life of Paul cannot be fully determined from the -Bible itself. Such chronological data as the New Testament affords help us -only to a relative chronology. Could the year of one of the dates given by -the New Testament be determined by a date of the Roman empire, it would -enable scholars to fix with approximate certainty the other dates. -Hitherto the endeavor to do this has centered about the recall of Felix -from Palestine and the coming of Festus (Acts 24:27), but there has been -so much uncertainty about the date of this recall, that systems of -chronology, differing from one another by from four to five years, have -been constructed. A fragmentary inscription has come to light from Delphi, -which seems to give us the desired aid for our Pauline chronology in that -it fixes the date of the coming of Gallio to Corinth (Acts 18:12). This -inscription, as its lacunae are supplied by Deissmann, is as follows: - - Tiberius Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus, Pontifex Maximus, of - tribunican authority for the 12th time, imperator the 26th time, - father of the country, consul for the 5th time, honorable, greets the - city of the Delphians. Having long been well disposed to the city of - the Delphians .......... I have had success. I have observed the - religious ceremonies of the Pythian Apollo .................... now it - is said also of the citizens .................... as Lucius Junius - Gallio, my friend, and the proconsul of Achaia, wrote .......... on - this account I accede to you still to have the first[621] .......... - -At this point the inscription is too broken for translation, although the -beginnings of several lines can be made out. The importance of the -inscription lies (1) in the fact that it mentions Gallio as proconsul of -Achaia, and (2) in the reference to the 12th tribunican year and the 26th -imperatorship of Claudius. It can be deduced from these, in comparison -with other inscriptions of his, that this letter was written between -January and August of the year 52 A. D.[622] If Gallio was then in office, -and had been in office long enough to give information to Claudius of -material importance to the purpose of the emperor's letter to the -Delphians, Gallio must have arrived in Corinth not later than the year 51. -According to Dio Cassius, Claudius had decreed that new officials should -start for their provinces not later than the new moon of the month of -June.[623] Gallio must, therefore, have arrived in Corinth not later than -July. - -Paul's stay in Corinth extended over eighteen months (Acts 18:11), and the -narrative in Acts implies that a large part of it had passed before Gallio -went there. Paul must, then, have arrived in Corinth not later than the -end of the summer of the year 50. As the journey described in Acts 16 must -have occupied some months, the council at Jerusalem, described in Acts 15, -cannot have taken place later than the year 49 A. D. In Gal. 2:1 Paul says -that this visit occurred fourteen years after the visit which followed his -return from Damascus. As the Jews in counting time usually reckoned the -two extremes as a part of the number, even if a part of them only should -really have been included, the visit of Paul to Jerusalem, mentioned in -Gal. 1:18 must have occurred not later than 36 A. D., nor earlier than 35 -A. D. As this visit occurred "three" years after his conversion, we find, -if we make similar allowance for the possibilities of Jewish reckoning, -that his conversion occurred not later than 34 A. D., and possibly as -early as 31 A. D.[624] - -=4. The Epistles.= - -The Epistles of the New Testament, especially those of Paul, are cast in -the form of ancient letter-writing. This form in its more stately aspects -has long been known through the letters of Aristotle, Epicurus, Cicero, -Seneca, Pliny, etc., but the papyri discovered in Egypt afford us many -examples of the more familiar and affectionate style of informal -letter-writing, and frequently, at the beginning, afford parallels to -expressions which are found in the introductions of Paul's Epistles. The -following examples will illustrate this: - - Isias to her brother, greeting: If you are well and other things - happen as you wish, it would be in accordance with my constant prayer - to the gods. I too am in good health, and so is the boy; and all at - home make constant remembrance of you. When I got the letter through - Horus, in which you explain that you are in sanctuary at the Serapeum - in Memphis, I straightway gave thanks to the gods for your being in - good health, but as for your not coming to us when the evils that - threatened you there have passed away, I am disconsolate because such - a long time I have been keeping myself and the child, and am come to - the lowest point on account of the price of bread, and I did think - that now you were coming I should find a little relief, but you seem - to have no idea of coming to us, nor to have an eye to our - circumstances, as you would if you were still here. We are in need of - everything, not only because such a long time and so many seasons have - passed since you were here, but because you have not sent us anything. - And besides that, Horus, who brought your letter, tells me further - that you are released from sanctuary, and I am perfectly miserable. - No, indeed! and your mother, too, takes it very hard, and you will do - well to come for her sake as well as ours to the city, unless some - more pressing need draws you elsewhere. Farewell, then, and have a - care for your body so as to be in health. Good-bye. - - Epephi 30th, of the 9th year.[625] - -This letter was written in the year 172 B. C. "Brother" in it probably -means husband. The husband had gone on a religious mission and has left -the wife without support. He at last sent her a letter, and this is her -reply. She wishes to persuade him to return, and writes with great tact. -What she says about remembering her husband in her prayers, and her thanks -to the gods for his health, reminds one of the language of Paul in 1 -Thess. 1:2; 3:9; 2 Thess. 1:3, 11; 2:13; 1 Cor. 1:4; 2 Cor. 1:4-6; Phil. -1:3, 9; Col. 1:3; Philemon 4. - -Another letter which illustrates the same points is this: - - Ammonios to his sister Tachnumi, much greeting: Before all things I - pray that you may be in health, and each day I make the act of worship - for you. I salute heartily my goodest little boy Leo. I am jolly and - so is the horse and Melas. Don't neglect my son. I salute Senchris, - and I salute your mother. I likewise salute Pachnumi and Pachnumi - junior. I salute ...... and Amenothis. Hurry up about the boy until we - go to my place. If I come to the place and see the place, I will send - for you and you shall come to Pelusium, and I will come to you at - Pelusium. I salute Steches, the son of Pancrates. I salute Psemmouthis - and Plato. If your brothers dispute with you, come to my house and - stay there until we see what to do. Don't neglect it. Write me of your - own welfare and of my boy's. Hurry up over the matter of the farm. I - wrote this letter in Themuis on the fifth of the month Phamenoth. We - have two days more, and then we will arrive at Pelusium. Melas greets - you all by name. I salute Psenchnumi, the son of Psentermout. I pray - that you may be well and strong.[626] - -The sentence of this letter which follows the greeting is couched in -almost the same language as 3 John 2, and the number of people saluted in -it and the manner of their salutation reminds one strongly of Rom. -16:3-16. - -Clearly the New Testament Epistles conform in their affectionate -expressions to the forms that were often employed by other letter-writers -of that period of history. - -=5. Paul and Aretas, King of Arabia.= - -Paul says: "In Damascus the governor under Aretas the king guarded the -city of the Damascenes in order to take me."[627] Aretas is called by -Josephus king of Arabia. He was Haretat IV, King of the Nabathaean Arabs. -These Nabathaeans were found in Arabia by the Assyrian King Ashurbanipal -(668-626 B. C.); they conquered Edom about 400 B. C., driving the Edomites -over into southern Judah; they helped one of the successors of Alexander -the Great at the battle of Gaza in 312 B. C., and founded a dynasty of -kings that lasted until overthrown by the Roman Emperor Trajan in 106 A. -D. Haretat IV belonged to this line. The following Aramaic inscription, -dated in his reign, affords monumental confirmation of his existence: - - This is the tomb which Halafu, son of Kosnatan, made for himself and - for Shaidu, his son, and his brothers, whatever males are born from - this Halifu, both their sons and descendants by right of inheritance - forever. And those who may be buried in this sepulcher and in this - structure are this Shaidu and Manuath, Kenushath, and Ribamath, and - Umaiyath and Shalimath, daughters of this Halifu. Also no descendant - of Shaidu has authority, and no man after him of their sons or - descendants, to sell this sepulcher, or to inscribe an epitaph or an - emblem for anyone, except for the wife of one of them, or for his - daughters, or kinsman, or relative by marriage he may inscribe the - tomb. If any one shall do contrary to this, then the fine of Dushara, - the god, our lord, shall be imposed upon him to the extent of five - hundred silver shekels of Haretat, and in accordance with this - inscription shall be deposited in the temple of Kaisha. Month Nisan, - year fortieth of Haretat, King of the Nabathaeans, who loves his - people. Rauma and Abdobodat, stone-cutters.[628] - -As Haretat ruled from 9 B. C. to 40 A. D., this inscription was written in -31 A. D., just a few years before Paul escaped from the officers of -Haretat at Damascus. There are many other inscriptions dated in the reign -of this king. - -Another reads as follows: - - This is the sepulcher and two monuments over it, which Abdobodat, the - general, made for Aitebel, the general, his father, and for Aitebel, - the commander of the two camps which are in Luhitu and Abarta, the son - of Abdobodat. This is in the district of their command, which they - exercised in the two places for thirty-six years in the reign of - Haretat, King of the Nabathaeans, who loves his people. The - above-mentioned (monument) was constructed in the forty-sixth year of - his reign.[629] - -The forty-sixth year of Haretat was the year 37 A. D. The monument here -translated was found at Medeba east of the Jordan (see Num. 21:30; Josh. -13:9), and the two places mentioned in it are believed to be Nabathaean -names for Medeba and Rabbah Ammon (2 Sam. 11:1, etc.). It is evidence that -Haretat had held this territory for a long time. Paul's escape from -Damascus (2 Cor. 11:32) occurred between the date of the preceding -inscription and this one. - - - - -APPENDIX - -(Appearing first in Second Edition.) - - -I - -Addition to Part I, Chapter III, Sec.2, (3), p. 70. - -The discoveries at Carchemish included Hittite inscriptions, one of which -is said to be longer than any Hittite writing yet discovered. A number of -stone deities were also found, one of which is a bearded god of the eighth -century B. C. seated on a heavy base supported by two lions. Three large -gateways were found. On the inside of the court of one of these were -dadoes from five to six feet high, "with sculptured slabs of alternating -black diorite and white limestone adorned with carved figures of bulls, -horses, and chariots." The acropolis was surmounted by the ruins of a -palace of King Sargon of Assyria, who conquered Carchemish, and by the -ruins of a Roman palace. An avenue of broad steps, more than a hundred -feet long, led up to these. - - -II - -Addition to Part I, Chapter III, Sec.3, to be read after (7) on p. 74. - -(8) _Hrozny_, a Hungarian scholar, published in the _Mitteilungen der -deutschen Orient-Gesellschaft zu Berlin_, No. 56 (December, 1915), a new -study of the problem of Hittite decipherment. Owing to the war the -publication has not reached the writer. An excellent _resume_ of it has, -however, been published by Professor J. H. Moulton in the _Expository -Times_, xxviii, 106 ff. (December, 1916). - -It appears that in April, 1914, Professor Hrozny and Doctor Figulla went -to Constantinople and copied cuneiform inscriptions from Boghaz Koi until -the war recalled them. Hrozny's study is based on this cuneiform material. -He reaches the conclusion that Hittite is not only an Indo-European -language, but that it also belongs to the western half of the -Indo-European family. In other words, he finds it more closely related to -Greek, Latin, Keltic, and the Teutonic tongues than to the Slavonic, -Lithuanian, Armenian, and Persian languages, or to Sanscrit and its -daughters. According to Hrozny, then, the Hittites came from western -Europe, or the center from which the western European peoples radiated. He -thinks they crossed into Asia by way of the Bosphorus. He supports his -contention by some most interesting philological analogies. The Mitanni, -on the other hand, belonged, he thinks, to the eastern half of the -Indo-European family. They were closely related to the Slavs, Lithuanians, -Armenians, Persians, etc. The indications seem to be that they entered -Asia by way of the Caucasus. We await further evidence with great -interest. - - -III - -Addition to Part I, Chapter III, Sec.9, p. 102. - -Professor George L. Robinson, who was in Jerusalem in the spring of 1914 -as Director of the American School, has published in the _American Journal -of Archaeology_, Vol. XXI, p. 84 (January-March, 1917), a brief statement -of the discoveries on Ophel and at Balata. He mentions the finding on -Ophel of a tower with rock-cut foundations, certain cave-tombs with oval -roofs, a cistern with Roman baths, an inn, a Greek inscription (which -tells of a synagogue), and an underground, rock-cut aqueduct, running -parallel to and probably older than that of Hezekiah, which conducts the -water of Gihon to the Pool of Siloam. - -At Balata the foundations of old Hebrew houses were discovered, together -with a portion of the Amorite city-wall, which was thick and oblique. The -ruins of a palace were also found and a great triple gateway, the longest -yet excavated in Palestine. This gate was on the west of the city. Near -the tell an Egyptian sarcophagus was found, which some have thought might -be the coffin of Joseph. - - -IV - -A NEW BABYLONIAN ACCOUNT OF THE CREATION OF MAN - -To supplement Part II, Chapter II, p. 257. - -Since the first edition of this book went to press, the writer has had the -good fortune to discover among the tablets from Nippur in the University -Museum in Philadelphia a new Babylonian account of the creation of man. -The text is written in the Sumerian language, and the script is of the -mixed cursive variety that was employed during the time of the first -dynasty of Babylon and the Kassite dynasty. The text is accordingly older -than 1200 B. C., and may have been written before 2000 B. C. It reads as -follows: - - 1. The mountain of heaven and earth - - 2. The assembly of heaven, the great gods, entered. Afterwards, - - 3. Because Ashnan had not come forth, they conversed together. - - 4. The land Tikku had not created; - - 5. For Tikku a temple-platform had not been filled in; - - 6. A lofty dwelling had not been built; - - 7. The arable land was without any seed; - - 8. A well and a canal (?) had not been dug; - - 9. Horses and cattle had not been brought forth, - - 10. So that Ashnan could shepherd herd and corral. - - 11. The Anunna, the great gods, had made no plan; - - 12. There was no _ses_-grain of thirty-fold; - - 13. There was no _ses_-grain of fifty-fold; - - 14. Small grain, mountain-grain, and great _sal_-grain there were not; - - 15. A possession and houses there were not; - - 16. Tikku had neither entered a gate nor gone out; - - 17. Together with the lady Nintu the lord had not brought forth men. - - 18. The god Ug came; as leader he came to plan; - - 19. Mankind he planned; many men were brought forth. - - 20. Food and sleep he planned for them; - - 21. Clothing and dwellings he did not plan for them. - - 22. The people with rushes and rope came, - - 23. By making a dwelling a kindred was formed. - - 24. To the gardens ...... they gave drink. - - 25. On that day their [gardens] sprouted (?) .... - - 26. Their lands covered (?) ............ - - ..................................................... - - .......................................................... - - ............................................................. - - ............................................................... - -Reverse - - 1. ........................................ - - 2. Father Enlil (?) ............................. - - 3. ........ standing grain .................... - - 4. For mankind ............................ - - 5. .................. creation of Entu .................... - - 6. Father Enlil ................................ - - 7. Duazagga, the way of the gods ............ - - 8. Duazagga, the brilliant, for my god I guard (?). - - 9. Entu and Enlil to Duazagga ............ - - 10. A dwelling for Ashnan from out of Duazagga I will [make?] for - thee. - - 11. Two-thirds of the fold perished (?); - - 12. His plants for food he created for them; - - 13. Ashnan rained on the field for them; - - 14. The moist (?) wind and the fiery storm-cloud he created for them. - - 15. Two-thirds of the fold stood. - - 16. For the shepherd of the fold joy was overthrown; - - 17. The house of rushes did not stand; - - 18. From Duazagga joy departed. - - 19. From his dwelling, a lofty height, his boat - - 20. Descended; from heaven he came - - 21. To the dwelling of Ashnan; the scepter he brought forth to them; - - 22. His brilliant city he raised up, he appointed for them; - - 23. The reed-country he planted, he appointed for them; - - 24. The falling rain the hollows caught for them; - - 25. A dwelling-place was their land; food made men multiply; - - 26. Prosperity entered the land; it caused them to become a multitude. - - 27. He brought to the hand of man the scepter of command. - - 28. The lord caused them to be, and they came into existence. - - 29. Companions calling them, a man with his wife he made them dwell. - - 30. At night as fitting companions they are together. - -A colophon states that the tablet contained sixty lines. Only five lines -are entirely broken away. - -Ashnan was a god of vegetation. Tikku, who had not created the land, was a -personified river-bank. The story begins, therefore, before the beginning -of vegetation and before the creation of dykes in Babylonia. As in the -text translated in Chapter VIII, Part II, considerable space is occupied -with the things that were non-existent when the process of creation began. -The last sentence of this section asserts that the lord and Nintu had not -brought forth men. Nintu is the goddess who in the creation story -translated in Chapter VII, Part II, appears as the mother of mankind (see -p. 279). The new tablet then states that Ug, the lion god, identified by a -later text with Shamash, the sun god, first came forth to plan. "Mankind -he planned; many men were brought forth." The word rendered "planned" has -also the meaning "know," as in Gen. 4:1, where Adam is said to have known -Eve. It seems probable, therefore, that the text indicates that men were -born from a natural union of Ug and Nintu, just as it is said on p. 284, -in another text from Nippur, that irrigation resulted from a similar union -of the sun-god and Nintu. This shows that among the Sumerians there were -different conceptions of the way mankind was made. A Babylonian story of -the making of a man which is much more like the narrative of Gen. 2 than -that contained in this new tablet is given on p. 256. - -After telling how men were brought forth, and how they were left to -provide houses and clothing for themselves, the new tablet tells how reed -huts, similar to those still seen in the Babylonian marshes, were made. -Clans were formed and irrigation begun. Here the obverse becomes too -broken for connected translation. - -At the beginning of the reverse several lines are fragmentary. From what -can be made out, some god seems to be addressing Enlil. Reference is made -to Duazagga, the heavenly abyss, which is described as "the way of the -gods," probably an allusion to the Milky Way. It is implied that the gods -live along this way. It seems that all was not going well with men on the -earth, so this deity proposed to make a dwelling for Ashnan, the god of -agriculture, outside of Duazagga, presumably on the earth. Two-thirds of -the fold perished; Ashnan accordingly created plants as food for men. This -reminds us of how plants and fruits were given to man as food in Gen. -1:29. Ashnan also caused it to rain in order to promote the growth of -vegetation. This, however, created a new evil. The reed huts were washed -away, together with a third of the fold. Some god, probably Enlil, -accordingly came down from heaven, and built a city. This gave to human -society the required stability. In this stable society the god gave the -scepter of command into man's hand just as in Gen. 1:28 man is given -dominion over all the lower orders of life. In this connection we find the -statement: - -"The lord caused them to be and they came into existence," the form of -which reminds one of the statement in Gen. 1:3, "God said, Let there be -light: and there was light." - -The next line: "Companions calling them, a man with his wife he made them -dwell," recalls Gen. 2:18 and 24. The last line of the text is the -Babylonian equivalent of the last clause of Gen. 2:24. - -This text as a whole describes the creation of man, sketches the -vicissitudes of pastoral life, and ends with a statement of the greater -security and prosperity of urban life. It attributes the origin of -everything to the gods. - - * * * * * - -Addition to Part II, Chapter XI, p. 309. - -The entrance of Abraham and later of Jacob and his sons into Egypt in time -of famine (Gen. 12:10 and 47:5-12) is strikingly illuminated by the -following reports of officials stationed at fortresses on the Egyptian -border. - -The first of these texts was inscribed in the tomb of Harmhab, the -founder of the nineteenth dynasty, though there is reason to believe that -it was written during the reign of Amenophis IV of the eighteenth dynasty -(1375-1357 B. C.). Some of the lines are broken. It reads as follows: - - ....... Asiatics; others have been placed in their abodes ...... they - have been destroyed, and their town laid waste, and fire has been - thrown ......... [they have come to entreat] the Great in Strength to - send his mighty sword before ....... Their countries are starving, - they live like goats of the mountain, [their] children ....... saying: - "A few of the Asiatics, who knew not how they should live, have come - [begg]ing [a home in the domain] of Pharaoh ....., after the manner of - your fathers' fathers since the beginning under, ......... Now, the - Pharaoh .... gives them into your hand, to protect their - borders."[630] - -The second text comes from the reign of Merneptah (1225-1215 B. C.). It -reads as follows: - - Another matter for the satisfaction of my lord's heart [to wit]: We - have finished passing the tribes of the Shasu of Edom through the - fortress of Merneptah-Hotephirma ... in Theku, to the pools of Pithom, - of Merneptah-Hotephirma in Theku, in order to sustain them and their - herds in the domain of Pharaoh ..., the good sun of every land - ......... I have caused them to be brought ........ other names of - days when the fortress of Merneptah-Hotephirma may be passed, - ....[631] - -These texts make it evident that at different periods of Egyptian history -Asiatic tribes in time of famine and stress sought and found refuge in -Egypt as the Israelites are said to have done. - - -VI - -ALLEGED TRACES OF THE "TEN TRIBES" IN EXILE - -To supplement Part II, Chapter XVII, at the end of Sec. 10, p. 372. - -In 2 Kings 15:29 it is said that Tiglath-pileser [IV] captured certain -cities in Galilee, and carried their inhabitants captive to Assyria. In 2 -Kings 17:6 it is said that when Samaria was destroyed by the Assyrian king -[Sargon, in 722 B. C.], Israelites were carried captive to Halah and -Gozan, which were situated on the Khabur River in Mesopotamia. - -Two groups of cuneiform tablets, one in the museum at Berlin, the other in -the British Museum, are thought to confirm these statements by the -evidence they give that Hebrews who reverenced Jehovah were living in -that region.[632] The evidence consists chiefly of a divine name _A-u_, -employed as a component part of proper names just as _Jo-_ and _Jeho-_, -abbreviations of the name of Jehovah, are employed in Hebrew proper names -in the Old Testament. Indeed, _A-u_ is the form that _Jo-_ or _Jeho-_ -would take, if expressed in Assyrian characters. - -The names in question occur in a series of documents which record the -transfer of slaves. If the men in question were Hebrews they would seem to -have been interested in the business of buying and selling slaves. The -documents are much alike. It will suffice to translate one of them: - - 1. Seal of Atarkhasis, - - 2. son of Aushezib, - - 3. the Kannuean, - - 4. owner of the slave-girl. A transfer - - 5. of Kabili, his slave-girl he - - 6. has made, and Nabushallimshunu - - 7. for the price of 1-1/2 manas of silver - - 8. has taken her. The money in full - - 9. is paid. That slave - - 10. is purchased and delivered. Whoever in the future - - 11. at any time shall rise up and - - 12. lay claim, whether Atarkhasis - - 13. or his sons,--whoever against - - 14. Nabushallimshunu or his sons - - 15. legal process - - 16. shall begin, 10 manas of silver - - 17. shall pay. Against an attack of rheumatism for 100 days - - 18. and legal claim for all time (he is guaranteed). - - 19. Month Airu, 17th day, - - 20. eponym of Ashurrimani, rabshekeh. - - 21. In the presence of Padi, - - 22. In the presence of Khani, - - 23. In the presence of Ashurnadinakhi, - - 24. In the presence of Tubusu, - - 25. In the presence of Belbelshaduni, - - 26. In the presence of Ilumia. - - 27. In the presence of Ashurikhtamusur - - 28. In the presence of Bariku, - - 29. In the presence of Kennusharruni. - -The significant name here is Aushezib, meaning, "Au saves." If _Au_ is a -translation of _Jeho-_, the name, in its entirety, would be a translation -of one of the Hebrew forms of the name Joshua. Other names, into which -the name of the god _Au_ enters, appear sometimes in the body of a -contract and sometimes among the witnesses. They are _{il}A-u-salim_, "the -god Au gives peace"; _A-u-iddina_, "Au gives," equivalent to the Hebrew -Jonathan; _A-u-akhiddin_, "Au has increased the brothers"; _A-u-daninani_, -"Au is our mighty-one"; _A-u-e-ballitani_, "O Au, make us live"; -_{il}A-u-dan(?)-ilani_, "Au is judge of the gods"; _A-u-sabi_, "Au -satisfies."[633] - -The tablets were written at Kannu, the Canneh of Ezek. 27:23, which was -near Haran in Mesopotamia. One text states that if the seller of the slave -ever brings legal action, he shall pay ten silver manas and one gold mana -"at the sanctuary of the god _A-u_, who dwells in Kannu." If the god _A-u_ -be really the Hebrew Jehovah, the captives from Samaria and Galilee had -built for him a temple in Kannu, as the Jews at Elephantine afterward did -on the island in the Nile. (See p. 387, f.) - -The documents in which these names occur appear to be dated between 666 -and 606 B. C. They are dated according to the Assyrian method of dating, -which shows that they were written under the Assyrian monarchy, but the -eponyms in which they are dated are not found in the extant portions of -the Assyrian Eponymlist. They were therefore written after the year -666.[634] This fixes the dates of these documents in the seventh -century--the century after Tiglath-pileser IV and Sargon transported to -this region parts of the ten "lost tribes," and, if _A-u_ really is a form -of the name Jehovah, these tablets afford us a little glimpse of some of -these Hebrews in exile. - - - - -INDEX OF SCRIPTURE PASSAGES - - -GENESIS-- - - 1 247 - 1:7 248 - 1:24-26 266 - 2 256 - 3 260 - 3:18, 24 289 - 4:1, 2, 16-23 269 - 5 264 - 5:24 266 - 6, 7, 8, 9 277 - 9:20 287, 289 - 10:10 44, 47, 58 - 10:11 43, 47, 60 - 10:23 116 - 11:2 58 - 11:9 42 - 11:27 109 - 11:31 77 - 11:31, ff. 112 - 12:4 77, 109 - 14:1 58, 294, 295, 297, 298 - 14:5 215 - 14:6 106, 116 - 14:15 213 - 15:2 213 - 16:5-7 329 - 16:7 95 - 19:1 129 - 21 111 - 21:9, 10 329 - 22 172 - 22:2 168 - 22:6, 10 152 - 22:9 169 - 23 76 - 23:10 68 - 24:22 161 - 24:30 156 - 25:15 307 - 25:34 134 - 26:34 68 - 29:1 108 - 30:1-13 328 - 34:20 129 - 36:20 106, 308 - 36:20-22 109 - 36:21 106 - 36:24 308 - 36:29 106, 109 - 37:17 133 - 40:11 136 - 41:30 305 - 41:39 303 - 41:42 157 - 41:45 34 - 41:47-57 306 - 41:54 305 - 46:17 349 - 50:13 180 - 50:26 303, 411 - -EXODUS-- - - 1:11 35 - 2:1-10 311 - 3:8, 17 139, 309 - 4:25 152 - 5:7-18 36 - 11:5 135 - 12 390 - 12:37 36 - 13:20 36 - 14:23-28 37 - 16:36 158 - 18:13-26 315 - 20:8-11 258 - 20:12 411 - 20:24 172 - 20:24-26 198 - 21:2-6 316, 323 - 21:2-11 324 - 21:6 340 - 21:12-14, 18-27 334 - 21:16 316 - 21:17 332 - 21:24 340 - 21:28-35 337 - 22:1-4, 9 315 - 22:5 319, 320 - 22:5, 6 319 - 22:7-10 323 - 22:10-13 339 - 22:11, 25 320 - 22:16, 17 328 - 22:18 314 - 22:26, 27 324 - 23:10, 11 319 - 29:40 158 - 34:20 172 - 35:22 156 - 38:26 161 - -LEVITICUS-- - - 5:13 343 - 6:3-5 315 - 6:18, 29 343 - 7:8-10, 14, 34 343 - 11:35 149 - 18:6-18 329 - 19:9 319 - 19:20-22 328 - 20:10 328 - 20:11, 12, 19-21 329 - 22:30 329 - 23 390 - 24:20 340 - 25:5 137 - 25:25-46 316 - 26:26 149 - -NUMBERS-- - - 5:9, 10 343 - 5:11-28 314, 328 - 13:23 136 - 14:8 139 - 16:13, 14 139 - 21:13 365 - 21:15, 16 116 - 21:21 116, 308 - 21:30 443 - 26:45 349 - 27:8-11 332 - 31:29, 41 343 - 31:50 157 - 32:8 95 - 32:34 112, 365 - 32:38 365 - 32:42 215 - 33:5, 6 36 - 36:2-12 332 - -DEUTERONOMY-- - - 1:4 111, 112, 116, 308 - 2:12, 22 106 - 2:24 365 - 2:26 307 - 3:9 116 - 3:11 217 - 5:12-15 258 - 5:16 411 - 6:3 139 - 7:5 91 - 10:18 420 - 11:10 84 - 12:3 91 - 14:29 420 - 15, 16, 17 340 - 15:7-18 323 - 15:12-18 316, 324 - 16:9 135 - 16:18-20 315 - 18:10 314 - 19:4 334 - 19:5 152 - 19:16-21 314 - 19:21 340 - 21:1-9 316 - 21:15-21 332 - 22:6 139 - 22:13-21 325 - 22:22-29 328 - 22:30 329 - 23:15 316 - 23:17 323, 326 - 23:17, 18 333 - 23:24 137 - 23:24, 25 319 - 24:1-4 329 - 24:6 136 - 24:10-13 324 - 24:19-22 319 - 25:4 135 - 26:2, 4 153 - 28:5, 17 153 - 34:1 365 - -JOSHUA-- - - 2:6 138 - 5:2, 3 152 - 6:20 125 - 9:17, 20 111 - 10:3 89, 112 - 10:33 92, 112, 116, 117 - 11:1, 2 111 - 11:22 91 - 12:4 111 - 12:21 96, 97 - 12:22 133 - 13:9 443 - 13:16-19 365 - 13:25 217 - 15:10 94, 112 - 15:37 114, 116 - 15:41 111, 116 - 15:44 346 - 15:59 111 - 15:63 188 - 17:11 111, 114, 133, 214 - 18:24 111 - 19:6 110 - 19:18-20, 25, 28 111 - 19:35, 37 111, 114 - 19:44 377 - 20:7 133 - 20:8 365 - 21:19 111 - 21:23 377 - -JUDGES-- - - 1:5, 27-36 116 - 1:17 111 - 1:21 188 - 1:27 92, 111 - 1:29 117 - 4, 5, 6 133 - 4:2 111 - 4:21 153 - 5:19 97 - 5:26 153 - 6:3 108, 307 - 6:11 111, 193 - 6:19 153 - 6:33 108 - 7:12 108, 307 - 7:22 111 - 8:10 108, 307 - 9:4, 46 351 - 9:53 136 - 11:3, 5 111 - 13:2 112 - 13:19 193 - 16:23-30 93, 176 - 18:7, 18 111 - 18:29 133 - 19:10, 11 188 - -1 SAMUEL-- - - 2:13, 14 151 - 4:1 111 - 5:8 91 - 9:12 169 - 10:5 155 - 10:26 133 - 11:4 133 - 13:20, 21 161 - 17:1 111 - 17:4 91 - 17:43 139 - 19:24 356 - 23:1 112, 188 - 25:2 188 - 28:41 111 - 31:5 154 - 31:10 133 - 31:10, 12 214 - -2 SAMUEL-- - - 1:10 156 - 2:16 154 - 3:27 129 - 5:6-8 188 - 5:9 189 - 5:25 92 - 7:2 176 - 8:9, ff. 81 - 11:1 217, 443 - 12:27 130 - 12:31 152 - 15:2 190 - 16:9 139 - 17:28 134 - 20:14 111 - 21:12 214 - 23:11 134 - 24 190, 192 - 24:16 193 - 24:16, 17 377 - 24:18, 22 135 - -1 KINGS-- - - 1:33 101 - 1:40 155 - 3:1 190 - 3:1, ff. 30 - 3:2 169 - 4:7 317 - 4:12 214 - 5:6, 17 358 - 6:4 194, 195 - 6:29, 32, 35 194 - 6:36 195 - 7:2, 6 196 - 7:8, 12, 23-37, 39 195 - 7:9 152 - 7:49 194 - 9:15 112, 190 - 9:15-19 94 - 9:16 30 - 9:24 189 - 10:1 371 - 10:1-13 381 - 10:5, 18-20 193 - 11:14-25 118 - 11:27 190 - 11:40 30 - 12:12 359 - 14:25 37, 118, 360 - 14:25-28 30, 259 - 15:20 111 - 16:23-29 365 - 16:24 127 - 16:34 99, 100, 125, 128 - 16:36 128 - 17:10 133 - 19:16, 17 124 - 19:19 134, 135 - 21:8 155 - 22:39 100, 127 - -2 KINGS-- - - 2:19-22 98 - 3:4 364 - 3:4-12 197 - 3:5-27 365 - 4:8 111 - 4:23 259 - 5:12 214 - 6:5 152 - 6:13 133 - 6:25 158 - 11, 12, 13, 14, 15 268 - 11:12, 13 195 - 12:17 91 - 12:20 189 - 13:20, 21 183 - 14:7 173 - 14:8-14 94, 95 - 14:13 196 - 14:19 89 - 14:21 367 - 14:23 259 - 15:1-27 367 - 15:19 61, 62 - 15:29 370 - 15:29, 30 62, 369 - 15:37 367 - 16:5-9 367 - 16:10 369 - 16:10-16 198 - 16:14 195 - 17:3-5 369 - 17:4 370 - 17:5 62, 123 - 17:16 370 - 17:24 124, 125, 370 - 17:24-34 100, 118 - 18 374, 375 - 18:1-6, 9 198 - 18:4 171 - 18:13 44 - 18:13-16 375 - 18:13--19:8 376 - 18:14 89 - 18:14, ff. 374 - 18:17 375 - 18:32 139 - 19 374, 375 - 19:9 31, 375 - 19:9-36 376 - 19:35 374 - 19:36 377 - 19:37 44, 64, 378 - 20:12 63 - 20:20 198, 377 - 20:21 378 - 21 378 - 21:6 172 - 22:14 199 - 23:5, 8 169 - 23:10 172, 199 - 23:29 32, 96 - 23:29, ff. 379 - 23:34 32, 379 - 24, 25 44, 65, 380 - 25:9, 10 200 - 25:27. 381 - 25:27-30 66 - -1 CHRONICLES-- - - 1:30 307 - 1:38 109 - 1:40 308 - 2:18 116 - 4:8 116 - 7:31 349 - 8:12 111 - 18:9, ff. 82 - 21:23 135 - 23:4 315 - 24 117 - 29:7 163 - -2 CHRONICLES-- - - 1:5, 6 195 - 2:8 358 - 3:1 168 - 5:2 189 - 11:5-10 90 - 19:5-7 315 - 33 64 - -EZRA-- - - 1 386 - 2:69 163 - 3:12 201 - 4:2 378 - 4:10 379 - 5:16 200 - 8:27 163 - -NEHEMIAH-- - - 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 118 - 1:1 47 - 1:3 200 - 2:10, 19 389 - 3, 4, 5, 6 90 - 3:13, 28 202 - 4:1, ff. 389 - 6:1, ff. 389 - 7:2 390, 391 - 7:37 111 - 7:70-72 163 - 11:25 111 - 12:31-40 202 - 13:28 389 - -ESTHER-- - - 1:2 47 - 3:10, 12 157 - -JOB-- - - 1:3 108 - 3:8 253 - 9:13, 14 251 - 12:7, 8 430 - 26:12, 13 251, 252 - 28:28 409 - 29 395 - 29:13 420 - 31 395 - 38:14 154 - 39:13 139 - 41 253 - 41:24 136 - 42:4-6 395 - -PSALMS-- - - 6:3 400 - 8 401 - 17:1 400 - 18:6 400 - 19 401 - 21:9 149 - 68:4 147 - 68:5 420 - 74:10 400 - 74:13, 14 282 - 74:13, 14, 16, 17 252 - 85:5 400 - 87:4 254 - 89:10 253 - 90:7, 13 400 - 104 406 - 104:24 404 - 137 200 - 146, 147, 148 401 - -PROVERBS-- - - 1:9 156 - 5:3 410 - 6:9-11 411 - 10:19 409 - 10:26 411 - 11:1 162 - 13:3 409 - 13:4 411 - 14:3 409 - 14:35 408 - 17:28 409 - 18:24 409 - 20:23 162 - 24:17 408 - 24:21 409 - 31:13 138 - 31:31 129 - -ECCLESIASTES-- - - 7:15-17 409 - 9:6-9 412 - 9:9 410 - 11:9 409 - -CANTICLES-- - - 1:10 156 - 2:13 136 - 3:6 156 - 4:1-7 414 - 5:1 416 - 6:2, 3 416 - 8:1-3 415 - -ISAIAH-- - - 1:13 259 - 1:17, 23 420 - 3:18 157 - 3:19, 20 156 - 5:1-8 137 - 5:12 155 - 6 418 - 7:1 197 - 7:1, ff. 62 - 7:3 198 - 7:16 369 - 8:1 154 - 8:6 198 - 9:1-6 422 - 9:17 420 - 10:2 420 - 10:9 63, 81, 116, 361, 371 - 10:14 139 - 10:28-32 372 - 11:1-8 422 - 11:6-9 284 - 14:9-11 180, 422, 426 - 15:1 116 - 15:2, 4, 5 365 - 19 389 - 19:13 27 - 19:19-22 38 - 20:1 43, 372 - 22:22 151 - 27:1 253 - 30:7 254 - 31:5 64 - 36 44 - 36, 37 63, 374 - 37:9 31 - 37:38 378 - 39:1 377 - 40:12 158 - 41:15 135 - 44:28 383 - 45:1 383 - 47:8 420 - 51:9 253 - 57:3 172 - 66:23 259 - -JEREMIAH-- - - 2:10 293 - 2:16 27 - 7:6 420 - 7:31 172, 199 - 15:8 420 - 18:21 420 - 22:3 420 - 23:27 418 - 23:29 153 - 32:35 172 - 36 32 - 41:4, 5 200 - 43:7, 8 37 - 43:8 38 - 44:1 27, 37 - 46 32, 65 - 46:2 361 - 46:2, ff. 379 - 46:14, 19 27 - 48:22-24 365 - 49:11 420 - 50:16 135 - -LAMENTATIONS-- - - 4:3 139 - 5:10 150 - -EZEKIEL-- - - 1:1 65, 66 - 4:9 134 - 4:12-15 149 - 5:1, 2 152 - 8:14 426, 427 - 8:16 194 - 16:3 77, 349 - 16:11 156 - 16:45 349 - 22:7, 25 420 - 23:40 156 - 27:6 293 - 27:8, 9 112 - 30:13, 16 27 - 30:17 31 - 32:21-31 422, 426 - 32:22-32 180 - 43:13-17 198 - 45:11, 14 158 - 46:3 259 - -DANIEL-- - - 3:5, 15 155 - 4:29 380 - 5:11, 18 382 - 5:25 160 - 5:30, 31 384 - 8:2 47 - -HOSEA-- - - 2:5, 9 138 - 2:11 259 - 7:4, 6, 7 150 - 9:6 27 - -JOEL-- - - 3:13 135 - -AMOS-- - - 5:19 126 - 6:2 116 - 7:14 356 - 8:1, 2 153 - 8:5 162, 259 - 9:7 116, 357 - -MICAH-- - - 1:14 92, 140 - 6:15 136 - -NAHUM-- - - 3:8 31, 64 - -ZEPHANIAH-- - - 1:10, 11 199 - -ZECHARIAH-- - - 3:1 418 - 4 201 - 7:10 420 - -MALACHI-- - - 3:5 420 - -ECCLESIASTICUS-- - - 50:1-4 203 - -1 MACCABEES-- - - 1:21, 22 201 - 1:33 204 - 5:37 215 - 7:32, 33 204 - 9:52 124 - 13:48 128 - 14:34 94 - 14:36 204 - -MATTHEW-- - - 1:8 268 - 3:12 135 - 4:25 213, 218 - 5:14 123, 429 - 5:15 151 - 5:26 165 - 5:29 199 - 6:30 149 - 6:33 430 - 7:5 428 - 7:7 430 - 7:24, 25 429 - 10:26 431 - 10:28 199 - 10:29 165 - 11:27 405 - 12:1 132 - 13:4 132 - 13:57 408, 429 - 14:3 165 - 16:13 133 - 19:24 151 - 19:30 431 - 22:19 165 - 23:37 140 - 24:41 135, 136 - 25:1-12 148 - 26:34, 74 140 - 26:36 137 - 26:57 101 - 28:2 184 - -MARK-- - - 2:23 132 - 4:4 132 - 4:23 431 - 5:1 218 - 5:20 213, 218 - 6:4 429 - 6:17 165 - 7:11 159 - 7:31 213, 218 - 8:27 133 - 10:12 329 - 10:25 151 - 10:31 431 - 12:15-17 165 - 12:41 209 - 12:42 165 - 13:35 140 - 13:44 430 - 14:26 211 - 14:30, 68, 72 140 - 14:32 137, 211 - 16:3, 4 184 - -LUKE-- - - 2:1-5 432 - 2:2 434, 437 - 2:3-5 435 - 3:17 135 - 3:19 165 - 4:24 429 - 4:26 133 - 5:9 430 - 6:1 132 - 6:42 428 - 7:5 98 - 8:5 132 - 9:51-54 119 - 11:47, 48 183 - 12:2 431 - 12:6 165 - 12:28 149 - 13:30 431 - 15:8 165 - 15:22 157 - 17:21 430 - 18:25 151 - 20:36 430 - 21:1 209 - 21:2 165 - 22:34, 60 140 - 22:39 211 - 23:18, 21 206 - 24:2 184 - -JOHN-- - - 2:20 208 - 3:16, 36 431 - 3:29 416 - 4:5 133 - 4:9, 20 119 - 4:44 429 - 5:4 187 - 5:24 431 - 13:38 140 - 18:1 211 - 18:24 101 - 18:27 140 - 20:1 184 - -ACTS-- - - 3:2 210 - 8:27 39 - 8:27-39 33 - 9:11 214 - 9:32 111 - 12:23 377 - 15, 16 440 - 16:14 226 - 17:6 438 - 17:22-31 220 - 17:23 438, 439 - 17:27 178 - 18:1 220 - 18:4, 7 221 - 18:11 220, 440 - 18:12 221, 439 - 19:23-41 224 - 20:15, 17 222 - 20:35 431 - 23:23, 24 133 - 24:27 439 - 26:14 135 - -ROMANS-- - - 16:3-16 441 - -1 CORINTHIANS-- - - 1:4 441 - 3:10-17 223 - 14:7 155 - 15:32 224 - -2 CORINTHIANS-- - - 1:46 441 - 3:14 194 - 11:32 174, 442, 443 - -GALATIANS-- - - 1:18 440 - 2:1 440 - -PHILIPPIANS-- - - 1:3, 9 441 - -COLOSSIANS-- - - 1:3 441 - 4:13 230 - -1 THESSALONIANS-- - - 1:2 441 - 3:9 441 - -2 THESSALONIANS-- - - 1:3, 11 441 - 2:13 441 - -PHILEMON-- - - 4 441 - -HEBREWS-- - - 13:12 211 - -3 JOHN-- - - 2 441 - -REVELATION-- - - 2:10 230 - 2:12 438 - 2:13 225 - 2:18-29 226 - 3:1-6 227 - 3:5 228 - 3:12 229 - 3:15, 16 230 - 6:13 136 - 21:2, 9 416 - - - - -INDEX - - - Abana, 214 - - Abbi-Teshub, makes treaty with Mursil, 80 - - Abdi-Hepa, vassal of Amenophis IV, 76 - - Abi-Adda, 80 - - Abraham, sojourn in Egypt, 35; - purchase of the cave of Machpelah, 76; - home in Mesopotamia, 112; - sacrifice of Isaac, 172 - - Abraham, Babylonian account of farmer of this name, 108, 290 - - "Absalom's Pillar," 183 - - Abu Haba, Turkish exploration of, 46 - - Abu Shusheh (Gezer), 93 - - Abydos, chief town of This, 25 - - Acts, archaeological light on the book of, 438 - - Adab (Bismya), 47, 57 - - Adad-nirari III, King of Assyria, 53 - - Adad-nirari IV, inscription regarding Syria and Palestine, 61, 365 - - Adam, Biblical account of, 289; - Babylonian forms of the name, 266 - - Adapa and the fall of man, legend of, 260 - - Adime, 266 - - "Admonitions of Ipuwer, The," 28 - - Adzes, 153 - - AElia Capitolina, 122, 212 - - Africanus, Julius Sextus, _Chronigraphiai_ of, 21 - - Agade (Sippar), 54, 57, 266 - - Agricultural implements, 134; - calendar, 138 - - Agriculture, 134 - - Ahab, in confederacy against Shalmaneser III, 61; - palace of, 100; - pays tribute to Tiglathpileser IV, 369 - - Ahaz, vassal to Tiglath-pileser IV, 62; - altar of, 198 - - Ahmose I, siege of Sharuhen, 110 - - Ain es-Sultan (Elisha's Fountain), 98 - - Ain Kades, 95 - - Ain Shems (Beth-shemesh), 94 - - Ain Sitti Miriam, see _Gihon_. - - Akkad, derivation of, 58 - - Akra, 203 - - Alaparos, 271 - - Alexander Jannaeus, 120, 201, 205 - - Alexander the Great, empire of, 33; - conquests of, 66; - death of, 119 - - Alexandra, Asmonaean queen, 120 - - Alorus, 271 - - Altar of incense, 173 - - Amanus, source of cedar, 58, 358 - - Amelon, 271 - - _Amelu_, 267, 271 - - Amempsinos, 271 - - Amenemhet I, 76 - - Amenemhet III, 28 - - Amenophis I, 23, 110 - - Amenophis III, 60, 304 - - Amenophis III and IV, 29 - - American Exploration Society, 86 - - American Palestine Exploration Society, 86 - - American School of Oriental Research in Palestine, 99 - - American School of Classical Studies at Athens, 221 - - Amil-Marduk (Evil-Merodach), 66; - inscription of, 381 - - Amman, 218 - - Ammenon, 271 - - Ammienshi, Amorite chieftain, 108, 109 - - Ammi-zadugga, reign of, 53 - - Amorites, conquests of the, 107 - - Amosis I, 29 - - Amosis II, 32 - - Anderson, H. J., explorations in Palestine, 86 - - Anderson, J. G. C., inscription discovered at Antioch, 436 - - Andrae, W., exploration at Kalah-Sherghat, 47; - inscription of Tukulti-Ninib, 52 - - Animals, representative of Egyptian tribes, 24; - domestic, 138 - - Anklets, 157 - - Antigonus, 120, 205 - - Antiochus III, 130 - - Antiochus IV, 203 - - Antipas, 121 - - Antiquities, preservation of Egyptian, 19; - of Babylonian, 41 - - Antonia, fortress, 205 - - Anu, 260 - - Anubanini, King of Lulubi, 57 - - Apollophanes, tomb of, 183 - - Arad-Sin, King of Larsa, 58 - - Aramaeans, migration of, 113 - - Arandas, successor of Subbiluliuma, 79 - - Araunah the Jebusite, 168 - - Archaeological Institute of America, 99 - - Archelaus, 121 - - Areopagus, 220 - - Aretas, see _Haretat IV_. - - Arioch, identified with Arad-Sin and Rim-Sin, 58 - - Aripi, 266 - - Aristobulus I and II, 120 - - Arnuanta, successor of Dudkhalia, 81 - - Arpad, overthrow of, 371 - - Arrows, 153 - - Artatama I, King of the Mitanni, 77; - alliance with Thothmes IV, 77 - - Artatama II, King of the Harri, 78 - - Artaxerxes, inscriptions of, 48 - - Artaxerxes III, Jews rebel against, 66 - - Asarjik, Hittite remains at, 70 - - Asenath, wife of Joseph, 33 - - Asherim, at Tell es-Safi, 169 - - Ashmolean Museum, 19 - - Ashteroth-Karnaim, 215 - - Ashtoreth, figures of, at Taanach, 173 - - Ashur, 47, 60 - - Ashurbanipal, succeeds Esarhaddon, 64; - his account of his campaign against Tyre, 378; - proverbs from library of, 407 - - Ashur-dan, 52 - - Ashur-nasirpal II, records of, referred to, 60; - military exploits of, 61; - advance toward Hebrew territory, 360 - - Ashur-rim-nishishu, King of Assyria, 53, 60 - - Ashur-uballit, King of Assyria, 60 - - Asia, churches of, 221 - - Asmonaean coins, 164 - - Asmonaeans, 120 - - Assumptionist Fathers, excavations at Jerusalem, 101; - collection of flint implements, 103 - - Assurbanipal, invasion of Egypt, 31 - - Assyria, wars with Egypt, 31; - the land, 40; - explorations in, 47; - relations to Babylonia, 59; - early period of, 60; - second period of, 61 - - Atbara, 18 - - Athenae Polias, temple of, 225 - - Athens, 219 - - Aton, Egyptian hymn in praise of, 403 - - Atys, worship of, 226 - - Augustus, temple to, at Samaria, 178 - - Awls, 152 - - Axes, 152 - - Azariah (Uzziah), 367 - - Azekah, excavation at, 90 - - Aziru, Amorite king, 79, 113, 304 - - - Babylon, capture of, 383 - - Babylonia, the land, 40; - exploration by Harper and Banks, 47; - historical periods, 55; - early period, 59; - Persian period, 66; - psalms from, 398; - proverbs from, 407 - - Babylonian column, 50 - - Babylonian creation epic, 235, 247; - account of the flood, 273 - - Babylonian exile, 65; - termination of, 118 - - Bacchides, Syrian general, 124 - - Bactria, secedes from the empire of the Seleucidae, 67 - - Bagoses, general of Artaxerxes III, 66 - - Baking-trays, 150 - - Balata, 102 - - Ball, C. J., decipherment of Hittite inscriptions, 71 - - Banks, Edgar J., exploration in Babylonia, 47 - - Barada, 214 - - Bar Chocaba, 121 - - Baris, castle of, 204 - - Barsalnunna, 267 - - Baskets, 153 - - Bath, 158 - - Beads, 156 - - Beautiful gate, 210 - - Bees, 139 - - Behistun inscription of Darius I, 50 - - Beit Jibrin, caves at, 106 - - Bel (Enlil), god of Nippur, 55; - Babylonian hymn to, 401 - - Belshazzar, son of Nabuna'id, 382 - - Ben-Hadad in league with Ahab, 61 - - Benjamin of Tudela, explorations of, 42 - - _Beqa_, 161 - - Bergama, 224 - - Berossos, list of Babylonian kings, 54; - Babylonian priest, 247; - list of kings, 270 - - Bethesda, Pool of, 210 - - Beth-Ninib (Beth-shemesh), 95 - - Beth-shemesh, excavations at, 94; - capture of, 117; - walls of, 125; - gates of, 129; - burial caves at, 180 - - Bezetha, hill, 212 - - Birds, 139 - - "Bishop Gobat's School," 191 - - Bismya (Adab), mound of, 47; - Luguldaudu, King of, 57 - - Blanche-Garde, fortress of the Crusaders, 91 - - Bliss, Frederick J., excavations at Lachish, 89 - - Boghaz Koi, excavations at, 69; - Hittite kingdom at, 77; - the "Hittite City," 78 - - Bor (Tyan), 82 - - Bork, Ferdinand, studies in the Mitanni language, 73 - - Botta, Paul Emil, exploration of Nineveh, 43 - - Bowls, 150 - - Bracelets, 156 - - Breasted, Henry James, accession of Mena, 23; - _Ancient Records, Egypt_, 76, 352 - - British Museum, trustees direct excavation at Carchemish, 70 - - Bruce, James, 20 - - Brugsch, H., _History of Egypt_, 76; - inscription at Elephantine, 305 - - Bruennow, R., studies in the Mitanni language, 71; - explorations in Edom, 88 - - Bubastis, capital of Shishak dynasty, 31 - - Bulghar-Maden, Hittite remains at, 70 - - Burckhardt, J. L., explorations in Palestine, 85 - - Burial customs, 180 - - Burnaburiash, 60 - - Burnouf, Eugene, 50 - - Butler, H. C., explorations in Syria, 102, note; - excavations at Sardis, 228 - - - Cab, 158 - - Cain, list of descendants, 269 - - Cairo, 17, 19 - - Calah, made capital of Assyria, 60 - - Calendar, 138 - - Calvary, site of, 211 - - Cambyses, son of Cyrus, 32; - extends power of Persia, 66 - - Canaanites, migration of the, 109 - - Capernaum, identification of, 98 - - Caphtor, home of the Philistines, 115, 116 - - Captivity, Babylonian, 65 - - Carchemish, excavations at, 70; - alliance with Assyria, 81 - - Carthaginian law regarding sacrifices, 342 - - Cataracts of the Nile, 18 - - Cave-dwellers, 142, 187 - - Caves of the stone age, 104 - - Chaldaean Empire, 65 - - Champollion, Jean Francois (Le Jeune), 21, 22 - - Chaplin, Thomas, description of weight from Samaria, 160 - - Charles, B. B., explorations in Asia Minor, 70; - _Travels and Studies in the Nearer East_, 73 - - Chateaubriand, explorations in Palestine, 85 - - Chedorlaomer, 295 - - Cheops, 25 - - Child sacrifice, 172 - - Chisels, 152 - - Chosroes II, captures Jerusalem, 122 - - Christian Nubians, 39 - - Church of the Holy Sepulcher, 211 - - Churches of Asia, 221 - - Cistern burial, 180 - - Cities, topography of Palestinian, 123; - situated near springs, 186 - - City gates, 129 - - Clark, Herbert, 160 - - Clay, A. T., _Babylonian Texts from the Yale Collection_, 384 - - Clermont-Ganneau, explorations in Palestine, 88, 89, 198; - Moabite Stone, 363 - - Code of Hammurapi, 313 - - Coins, 162; - Roman, 165 - - "Columbarium," 182 - - Combs, 156 - - Conder, Lieut.-Col. C. R., _The Hittites and Their Language_, 72; - survey of Palestine, 88 - - Constantine, interest in holy places, 84, 85, 122 - - Constantinople, tablets hoarded in, 48 - - Cor (Homer), 158 - - Corinth, 220 - - Corners, considered sacred, 128 - - Cossaeans, see _Kassites_. - - Creation, epic of, 235; - comparison with first chapter of Genesis, 247; - second account of, found at Babylon, 255; - compared with second chapter of Genesis, 256 - - Creation and flood, account of, from Nippur, 278 - - Cremation, 179 - - Croesus, temple of, 223; - wealth of, 227; - overthrown by Cyrus the Great, 163, 383 - - Cromlech (heap of stones), 104 - - Cros, Gaston, explorations of, 45 - - Crucifixion, site of the, 211 - - "Cuneiform" characters, origin of, 56 - - Curtis, Samuel Ives, discovery at Petra, 102 - - Cybele, worship of, 226; - temple of, 228 - - Cyprus, seal of Sargon found in, 57 - - Cyrus the Great, founder of Persian empire, 32; - conquests of, 66; - overthrows Croesus, 163, 383; - captures Sardis, 227; - inscription of, 385 - - - Dalman, Gustaf II., explorations in Petra, 88 - - Damascus, 213, 248, 369 - - Danaoi, migration of, 115 - - Daniel, book of, 384 - - Daonos (Daos), 271 - - Daphne, 38 - - Darics, 163 - - Darius I, rule in Egypt, 32; - inscriptions of, 48; - extends power of Persia, 66; - coinage of, 163 - - Darius the Mede, 384 - - David, conquests of, 117, 118; - captures Jebus, 188; - Tower of, 206 - - Decapolis, description of, 213 - - Delitzsch, Friedrich, development of Hittite grammar, 74 - - _Deutscher Palaestina-Verein_, 96 - - Dilmun, 283 - - Dion, 216 - - Domazewsky, Alfred von, explorations in Edom, 88 - - Domestic animals, 138 - - Doorway tombs, 182 - - Dor, excavations at, 117 - - _Drachma_, 165 - - Drovetti, M., collection of, 22 - - Dudkhalia, successor of Hattusil II, 81 - - Dudu, 304 - - Dulcimer, 155 - - Dumuzi, 271 - - Dung Gate, 202 - - Dungi, King of Babylonia, 58 - - Dushratta, a king of Mitanni, 69; - two El-Amarna letters from, 71; - contemporary with Amenophis IV, 77; - death of, 78 - - "Dynastic tablets," 52 - - - Ea, 260 - - Eannatum, King of Lagash, 56 - - Early Assyrian period, 60 - - Early Babylonian period, 59 - - Earth-graves, 181 - - Ebed-Ashera, Amorite king, 113 - - Ebed-Hepa, 187; - letters of, 345; - history of, 349 - - Ecbatana, visited by Rawlinson, 50 - - Ecclesiastes, parallel to, 412 - - Ecclesiasticus, 203 - - Eclipse at Nineveh, 51 - - Egypt, the land, 17; - history of, 21, 23; - division of, 24; - Roman period, 33; - Hyksos invasion of, 34; - period of the Oppression and the Exodus, 35; - Jewish colony in, 387; - psalms from, 402; - parallels to Song of Songs from, 413; - social conscience in, 418; - wisdom literature of, 421 - - Elam, invasion of, during reign of Kurigalzu, 59 - - El-Amarna letters, 35, 60; - from Dushratta, 69; - Palestinian cities mentioned in, 112; - source of information regarding Jerusalem, 187; - selections from, 303; - from Rib-Adda of Gebal, 344; - from Ebed-Hepa of Jerusalem, 345; - reflecting conditions in Palestine, 348 - - Elamites, subjugated by Eannatum, 56; - invade Babylonia, 60 - - Elephantine, papyri discovered at, 37, 387 - - El-Gib, 130 - - Elisha's Fountain, 98 - - "Eloquent Peasant, The," 28, 418 - - El-Wad, 185 - - Eni-Teshub, King of Carchemish, 81 - - Enlil, 279; - see also _Bel_. - - Enmeduranki, King of Sippar, 266, 271 - - Enmeirgan, 267 - - Enmenunna, 267 - - Enoch, identified with Etana, 266 - - Enosh, 267 - - En-rogel, 186 - - Enrolment of Quirinius, 432 - - Entemena, successor of Eannatum, 57 - - Enu-ilu, King of Hamath, 82 - - Ephah, 158 - - Ephesus, 221 - - Ephraim, gate of, 202 - - Epic of creation, text of, 235 - - Epiphanius, on measures, 158, 159 - - Epistles, archaeological light on the, 440 - - "Eponym Canon," 359 - - "Eponym Lists," 51 - - Erech, exploration at, 44, 47; - dynasties of, 54; - founding of, 55 - - Eridu, 55, 283 - - Esarhaddon, invasion of Egypt, 31; - succeeds Sennacherib, 64; - money in reign of, 163; - kings conquered by, 378 - - Eski Hissar, 230 - - Etana, 266; - identified with Abel, 270 - - Etruscans, relation to Lydians, 227 - - Euedorachos, 271 - - Eumenes I, 224 - - Euphrates river, 40 - - Eusebius, _Chronicon_ of, 21; - list of Palestinian names, 85, 133 - - Evil-Merodach (Amil-Marduk), 66; - inscription of, 381 - - Exile, Babylonian, 65; - termination of, 382 - - Eye-paint, 156 - - Eyuk, Hittite monuments at, 78 - - Ezekiel, 65 - - - Fahl, 216 - - Famine, the seven years of, 305 - - Feast of Marduk and Zarpanit, 258 - - Feeding-bottles, 150 - - Fibulae, 156 - - Files, 153 - - Fish Gate, 199 - - Fish-hooks, 154 - - Flesh-hooks, 151 - - Flood, Babylonian account of, 273; - comparison with the Biblical account of, 277; - second Babylonian account of, 277 - - Forks, 151 - - Foundation sacrifices, 128 - - Fountain Gate, 202 - - Fraktin, Hittite remains at, 70 - - Fruits, 136 - - "Furnaces, Tower of the," 202 - - - Gadara, 216 - - Gallio, 439 - - Galumum, 266 - - Gate, see _descriptive name_. - - Gateways, 129 - - Gath (Tell es-Safi), 91; - walls of, 124 - - Gebal, excavations at, 117 - - Gebel Fureidis, 121, 131 - - Gennath, gate of, 211 - - Genouillac, H. de, exploration at Ukhaimir, 48 - - Gerasa, topography of, 123, 216 - - Gerizim, Mount, 119 - - Germer-Durand, Pere, 159 - - Gethsemane, Garden of, 137, 210 - - Gezer, excavations at, 92; - caves at, 104; - walls of, 109, 124; - besieged by Merneptah, 115; - captured by the Hebrews, 117; - gates of, 129; - pottery at, 142, 145; - weights found at, 160; - sanctuary at, 167; - high place of, 169; - temple at, 175; - tombs at, 179 - - Giaour-Kalesi, Hittite remains at, 70 - - Gibeon, water supply of, 130 - - Gihon, springs at, 87, 186; - caves at, 101, 106 - - Gilgal (menhirs set in a circle), 104; - burial in, 180 - - Gilgamesh, epic, 256 - - Glassware, 150 - - Gobryas, 384 - - Golgotha, site of, 211 - - Gordon, Gen. C. E., suggestion regarding Golgotha, 211 - - Granaries, 134 - - Green, William Henry, 269 - - Grenfell, B. P., and A. S. Hunt, discovery of Oxyrhynchus papyri, 39, 428 - - Griffith, F. L., 39 - - Grinding, 135 - - Grotefend, Georg Friedrich, interpretation of inscriptions found at - Persepolis, 49 - - Gudea, ruler at Lagash, 58; - rebuilds Eninnu, 358 - - Guerin. H. V., explorations in Palestine, 86 - - Gurun, Hittite remains at, 70 - - Guthe, H., excavations in Jerusalem, 96 - - Gutium, dynasty of, 54; - hordes from, overrun Babylonia, 58 - - Gyges, dynasty of, 163 - - - Habiri, 113, 188, 349 - - Hadrian, restores Jerusalem under name of AElia Capitolina, 212 - - Haggai, assists in rebuilding the temple, 118 - - Hamadan (Ecbatana), visited by Rawlinson, 50 - - Hamath, Hittite kingdom at, 81; - overthrow of, 371 - - Hammeah, tower of, 202 - - Hammers, 153 - - Hammurapi, laws of, 47; - King of Larsa, 53, 58; - conqueror of Babylonia, 59; - conquest of the "west land," 108; - identified with Amraphel, 294; - code of, 313 - - Hananel, tower of, 202 - - Hananiah, Passover letter of, 390 - - Haran, possibly a Hittite capital, 77 - - Haretat IV, Nabathaean king, 174; - besieges Jerusalem, 205; - inscription regarding, 442 - - Harper, Robert, exploration in Babylonia, 47 - - Harps, 155 - - Harri, become part of Subbiluliuma's kingdom, 78 - - Hasmonaeans, see _Asmonaeans_. - - Hattusil I, King of Boghaz Koi, 78 - - Hattusil II, successor of Mutallu, 69, 80 - - Hawara, 28 - - Haynes, John H., Babylonian explorations of, 46 - - Head, B. V., date of ancient coins, 162 - - Hebrews, migration of, 116 - - Hebron, possessed by the Hittites, 76 - - Helena, mother of Constantine, 211 - - Helena of Adiabene, tomb of, 183 - - Heliopolis, 35 - - Hens, 139 - - Herod Agrippa I, 121 - - Herod the Great, rebuilds the Jewish temple, 121; - capture of Rabbah Ammon, 130; - coinage of, 165; - building in Jerusalem, 205 - - Herodotus, on early navigation, 32; - on wars between Egypt and Assyria, 32; - comparison with 2 Kings, 376 - - Hezekiah, threatened by Sennacherib, 63, 374; - improvements made by, 198 - - High places, 167 - - Hill, G. F., on Palestinian coins, 164 - - Hilprecht, Herman V., Babylonian explorations of, 46 - - Hin, 158 - - Hincks, Edward, 50 - - Hinnom, valley of, 185, 199 - - Hippacus, tower of, 206, 212 - - Hippos, 215 - - Hittites, invade Babylonia, 59; - monuments of, 68; - theories concerning, 68; - ethnology of, 74; - history of, 75 - - Hoes, 134 - - Homer, _The Odyssey_, 79 - - Homer, a measure, 158 - - Hophra, lures Judah to destruction, 32; - palace of, at Memphis, 37 - - Horam, King of Gezer, 117 - - Horites, 106 - - Horse, domestication of the, 74 - - Horse Gate, 202 - - Hoshea, rebels against Assyria, 62, 369 - - Houses in ancient Palestine, 126 - - Howe, Fisher, suggestion regarding Golgotha, 211 - - Hull, Edward, geological survey of the valley of the Dead Sea, 89 - - Human sacrifice, 172 - - Hunt, A. S., discovery of Oxyrhynchus papyri, 39, 428 - - Huntington, Ellsworth, 95 - - Hyksos, invasion of Egypt, 28, 34, 110; - possibly Hittites, 75 - - Hystaspes, father of Darius, 49 - - - Ilu-bidi (Yau-bidi), 82 - - Ilumailu, founder of the second dynasty of Babylon, 59 - - Ilu-shumma, King of Assyria, 52 - - Ina-uzni-eresu, 267 - - Ipuwer, Egyptian sage, 421 - - Irad, 270 - - Irhulina, King of Hamath, 82 - - Ishmi-Dagan, 52 - - Ishtar, on coins, 163; - Babylonian prayer to, 399 - - Israel, the northern kingdom, 118 - - Ivriz, Hittite remains at, 70 - - - Jacob, historical study of the name, 299 - - Jacobel, 111, 112 - - Jars, 142 - - Jebus, 188 - - Jehoahaz, deposed by Necho, 32 - - Jehoash, breaks wall of Jerusalem, 196 - - Jehoiachin, imprisoned by Nebuchadrezzar, 66 - - Jehoiakim, rebellion of, 65 - - Jehu, pays tribute to Shalmaneser III, 61 - - Jensen, Peter, studies in the Hittite and the Mitanni languages, 71 - - Jerabis, site of ancient Carchemish, Hamath, etc., 71, 72 - - Jerash, temple at, 178; - ruins at, 217 - - Jericho, excavations at, 98; - walls of, 109; - capture of, 117; - topography of, 123; - area of, 125; - remains of buildings, 127 - - Jeroboam, 30; - name on seal, 359 - - Jerome, _Onomasticon_, 85, 133 - - Jerusalem, sieges and destruction of, 65; - captured by Orodes I, 120; - besieged by Pompey, 120; - destroyed by Titus, 121; - captured by the Persians, 122; - passes under Mohammedan control, 122; - area of, 126; - water supply of, 130; - rock altar at, 168; - topography of, 185; - in the time of Solomon, 190; - destruction of, by Nebuchadrezzar, 199; - walls of, rebuilt, 202; - capture of, by Ptolemy I, 203; - during the Asmonaean period, 204; - construction during reign of Agrippa I, 212 - - Jesus, in the Decapolis, 218; - reputed sayings of, found in Egypt, 428 - - Jewish colony in Egypt, 387 - - Joab, captures Rabbah, 217 - - Job, Babylonian parallel to, 392 - - John Hyrcanus, conquers Samaria and Edom, 100, 120; - coinage of, 165; - builds palace in Jerusalem, 204; - supplies Jerusalem with water, 205 - - John Hyrcanus II, 120 - - Johns, C. H. W., 163 - - Jordan, Julius, exploration at Warka, 47 - - Joseph, texts bearing on story of, 33, 303; - historical study of the name, 300 - - Josephel, 111, 112 - - Josephus, story of Onias, 38; - on measures, 158 - - Joshua, conquest of Palestine, 117 - - Jovanoff, Alexander, numismatist of Constantinople, 70 - - Judah, the southern kingdom, 118 - - Judas Maccabaeus, 119 - - Judges, period of, 352 - - Justus, house of, 221 - - - Kadashman-turgu, 60 - - Kadesh, battle at, 80 - - Kadesh-Barnea, identification of, disputed, 95 - - Kalah-Sherghat, exploration at, 47 - - Kanatha, 215 - - Kara-Bel, Hittite remains at, 70 - - Karaburna, Hittite remains at, 70 - - Kara Dagh, Hittite remains at, 70 - - Karaindash, King of Babylon, 53, 60 - - Karanog, exploration of, 39 - - Kara Su, 69 - - Karnak, temple of, 37 - - Kassites, invade Babylonia, 59; - migration of the, 109 - - Kenan, 267 - - Keys, 151 - - Khafre, 26 - - Khartum, 18 - - Khattu land, name given to Hittite settlement in Cappadocia, 75 - - _Kheta_, see _Hittites_. - - Khnum, 305 - - Khufu (Cheops), 25 - - Kidron, valley of, 185 - - King list of Karnak, etc., 22 - - Kings, books of, archaeological light on, 358 - - King's Gardens, 189 - - Kish, exploration at, 48; - dynasty of, 54 - - Kitchener, H. H., Major and Lord, survey of Palestine, 88; - surveys in Arabia, 89 - - Kizil Dagh, Hittite remains at, 70 - - Klein, F. A., 363 - - Knives, 152 - - Knudtzon, J. A., _Die El-Amarna Tafeln_, 303 - - _Kok_ (shaft), 182 - - Koldewey, Robert, Babylonian exploration, 46, 65 - - Kudur-Mabug, 295 - - Kugler, Franz Xaver, astronomical calculation relating to Assyrian - chronology, 53 - - Kukukumal, 297 - - Kummukh, Hittite kingdom, 82 - - Kurigalzu, invasion of Elam during reign of, 59 - - - Labyrinth, 28 - - Lachish, excavations at, 89; - walls of, 124 - - Lagash, 47; - founding of, 55; - colonists from, found Ashur, 47, 60 - - Lamartine, A. M., explorations in Palestine, 85 - - Lamech, 267 - - Lamentation for Tammuz, 426 - - Lamp-stands, 151 - - Langdon, Stephen, _Sumerian Epic of Paradise, the Flood, and the Fall of - Man_, 283 - - Laodicea, 230 - - Larsa, kings of, 53; - divided power with Nisin, 58 - - Lassen, Christian, 50 - - Lawrence, T. E., explorations in the wilderness of Zin, 95 - - Layard, Austen Henry, explorations of, 43; - discoveries at Nineveh, 64, 71 - - Lebanon, copper from, 58 - - Leontopolis, Jewish temple at, 38 - - _Lepton_, 165 - - Letters from Palestine, 344 - - Leviticus, alleged parallel to, 342 - - Library of Ashurbanipal at Nineveh, 64 - - Liverpool, University of, directs Hittite exploration, 70 - - Loftus, William Kennett, explorations of, 44 - - Log, 158 - - Lotan, 109 - - Lowenstern, Isidore, 50 - - Lugaldaudu, statue of, 48; - King of Adab, 57 - - Lugalzaggisi, 54, 57 - - Lydia, origin of coinage in (?), 163; - kingdom of, 226 - - Lynch, Lieut. W. F., explorations in Palestine, 86 - - Lyon, D. G., excavations at Samaria, 100 - - Lyres, 155 - - - Macalister, Alexander, anatomist, 105 - - Macalister, R. A. Stewart, excavations at Gezer, 92; - conjecture regarding walls of Gezer, 124 - - Maccabaean period, 203 - - Maccabees, 119 - - MacIver, R., exploration at Karanog, 39 - - Mackenzie, Duncan, excavations at Bethshemesh, 94 - - Magan, conquered by Naram-Sin, 57; - quarries at, 58 - - Magdol, 34 - - Mana, 160 - - Manasseh, vassal of Esarhaddon and Ashurbanipal, 64 - - Manetho, Egyptian priest, 21 - - Manishtusu, King of Kish, 47 - - Manissia, Hittite sculptures and remains near, 77, 79 - - Marash, Hittite remains at, 70, 92 - - Marduk, central figure in Babylonian creation epic, 247 - - Marduk and Zarpanit, feast of, 258 - - Marduknadinakhi, King of Babylon, 51, 52 - - Margolis, Max L., meaning of _Pim_, 161 - - Mars' Hill, 220 - - Masterman, E. W. G., estimate of Parker's excavations, 101 - - Mattiuaza, made king of the Mitanni, 78 - - "Maudsley's Scarp," 90, 191 - - Measures, 158 - - Medeba, taken by Omri, 365 - - Megalaros, 271 - - Megiddo, battle of, 32; - excavations at, 96; - wall of, 109; - topography of, 123; - area of, 126; - remains of buildings, 128; - gates of, 129; - rock altar at, 168; - temple at, 176; - seal found at, 359 - - Melamkish, 267 - - Memphis, capital of Egypt, 27 - - Mena, accession of, 23; - reign of, 25 - - Menahem, 62 - - Menant, Joachim, decipherment of Hittite inscriptions, 71 - - Menhir (stone columns), 104; - burial in, 180 - - Menkaure, 26 - - _Men-nofer_, 27 - - Merneptah, successor of Ramses II, 30; - Pharaoh of the Exodus, 37; - siege of Gezer, 114, 115; - pillar of, 311 - - Merodachbaladan, takes the throne of Babylon, 63; - relations with Hezekiah, 377 - - Meroe, 32, 39 - - Merrill, Selah, explorations in Palestine, 86 - - Meruitensi, 420 - - Meselim, King of Kish, 56 - - Mesha, King of Moab, 170, 363 - - Meskingashir, 267 - - Mesopotamian Valley, 40 - - Messerschmidt, L., studies in the Mitanni language, 72 - - Methuselah, 267 - - Meyer, Edward, accession of Mena, 23; - origin of the Philistines, 357 - - Meyer, Rudolph, map of Palestine, 86 - - Middle Kingdom, period of (Egypt), 27 - - Migdol, 34 - - Miletus, 222 - - Millo, 189, 190 - - Millstones, 136 - - Mina, 160 - - Mitanni, 69; - kingdom of, 77 - - Mite, coin, 165 - - Moabite Stone, 363 - - Mohammedans, prevail in Palestine, 122 - - Money, 162 - - Monoliths, at Gezer, 170 - - Mordtmann, A. D., account of Hittite inscriptions, 70 - - Moresheth-Gath (Marash), 70, 92 - - Morgan, J. de, exploration at Susa, 47, 313 - - Moriah, Mount, 168; - site of the temple, 192 - - Mortars, 136 - - Mosaic Code, not borrowed from the Babylonians, 340 - - Mosque of Omar, 168 - - Moulton, W. J., 100 - - Mount, see _descriptive name_. - - Mukes, 216 - - Mueller, W. Max, origin of the Hittites, 69 - - Mursil, successor of Arandas, 79; - makes treaty with the Amorites, 80; - death of, 80 - - Mutallu, successor of Mursil, 80 - - Mutu-elu, 267 - - Mutu-sa-elu, 267 - - Mutu-salal-eqla, 267 - - - Nabathaeans, 174 - - Nabopolassar, 65 - - Nabuna'id, King of Babylon, 54, 55; - inscriptions of, 382 - - Nails, 153 - - Names, Sumerian, with Semitic, Babylonian, and Hebrew equivalents, 268 - - Napata, 31 - - Napoleon I, invasion of Egypt, 20 - - Naram-Sin, 54, 57 - - Naville, E., excavation of Pithom, 35 - - Nebuchadrezzar I, King of Babylon, 60 - - Nebuchadrezzar II, defeats Necho, 32, 65; - destroys Jerusalem, 199; - inscriptions of, 379 - - Necho, 32, 65, 379 - - Necklaces, 156 - - Needles, 151 - - Nehemiah, rebuilds the walls of Jerusalem, 202 - - Nehushtan, 171 - - Neo-Babylonian period, 65 - - Neolithic implements, 103 - - Nicanor's gate, 210 - - Niebuhr, Carsten, inscriptions at Persepolis, 49 - - Nile, 17 - - Nineveh, explored by Botta, Place, and Layard, 43; - by Rassam and Loftus, 44; - by George Smith, 45; - eclipse at, 51; - Ashurbanipal's library at, 64 - - Ninkharsag, 279, 289 - - Nippur, exploration of, 46; - founding of, 55; - account of creation and flood discovered at, 278; - account of the origin of a city and the beginning of agriculture, 283 - - Nisin, 53, 54, 58 - - Noah, 268, 287 - - Nomes, divisions of Egypt, 24 - - Noph, 27 - - Norden, F. L., 19 - - Nubians, Christian, 39 - - Nuffar, exploration of, 46 - - - Odoric, 49 - - _Odyssey, The_, referred to, 79 - - Old Gate, 202 - - Olive-presses, 137 - - Olives, Mount of, 211 - - Olmstead, A. T., explorations in Asia Minor, 70 - - Omar, Mosque of, 168 - - Omer, 158 - - Omri, 100, 365, 366 - - On, 35; - priest of, founder of fifth dynasty, 26 - - Onias, 38 - - _Onomasticon_, by Jerome, 85, 133 - - Ophel, excavations on, 102; - topography of, 123 - - Opis, dynasty of, 54 - - Oppert, Jules, explorations of, 44, 50 - - _Orient-Gesellschaft_, Babylonian exploration, 46 - - Ornaments, personal, 156 - - Ornan, 168 - - Orodes I, King of Parthia, 120 - - Osorkon II, 30 - - Otiartes, 271 - - Ovens, 149 - - Oxyrhynchus, papyri from, 39, 428 - - - Paine, John A., explorations in Palestine, 86 - - Palaces of ancient Palestine, 127 - - Palaeolithic implements, 103 - - "Palermo Stone," 22 - - Palestine, physical geography of, 83; - Mohammedans invade, 122 - - Palestine Exploration Fund, 87 - - Papyri, discovered at Elephantine, 37; - at Oxyrhynchus, 39, 428 - - Papyrus Ebers, 23 - - Parchment, origin of the word, 224 - - Parker, Capt., the Hon. Montague, excavations in Jerusalem, 101 - - Parthia, secedes from the empire of the Seleucidae, 67 - - Pashe dynasty, succeeds the Kassite dynasty, 60 - - Paton, L. B., excavations in Jerusalem, 100 - - Patriarchs before the flood, 264 - - Paul, scene of his missionary activity, 219 - - _Payim_, 161 - - Peiser, F. E., decipherment of Hittite inscriptions, 71 - - Pekah, 62, 369 - - Peleset (Philistines), 356 - - Pella, 114, 216 - - Pentateuch, Code of Hammurapi compared with, 313; - laws of, not borrowed from Babylonia, 340 - - Perfume-boxes, 156 - - Pergamum, 222, 224 - - Persepolis, inscriptions at, 49 - - Persia, languages of ancient, 48 - - Persian period of Babylonia, 66 - - Persians, dominant in Palestine, 122 - - Pesibkhenno II, 30 - - Peters, John P., Babylonian explorations of, 45; - discovery at Beit Jibrin, 102 - - Petra, 173, 174 - - Petrie, William Matthew Flinders, excavation at Tell el-Yehudiyeh, 34, - 38; - discovery of Raamses, 36; - of Hophra's palace, 37; - excavation at Tell Defenneh, 38; - at Lachish, 89; - _Egyptian Tales_, 302 - - Phaestos, disc discovered at, 115, 357 - - Pharaoh of the Exodus, 30, 311 - - Philadelphia, 123, 217, 228 - - Philadelphus, 33 - - Philetaerus, King of Pergamum, 224 - - Philip, son of Herod the Great, 121 - - Philistia, 83 - - Philistines, migration of, 115; - civilization of, 117; - Ramses III, reference to, 356; - Meyer's opinion of origin, 357 - - Phoenicians, weight standards of, 160 - - Pilate, Pontius, 121 - - Pilikam, 267, 271 - - Pillar of Merneptah, 311 - - Pillars, at Tell es-Safi, 169; - at Taanach, 173 - - _Pim_, 161 - - Pinches, Theophilus G., tablets from Erech, 384 - - "Pipe," musical instrument, 155 - - Pithom, 34, 35 - - Place, Victor, explorations of, 43 - - Plows, 134 - - Pococke, R., 19 - - Poebel, Arno, 54, 267, 271, 278 - - Politarchs, of Thessalonica, 438 - - Pompey, siege of Jerusalem, 120, 205 - - Pool of Bethesda, 210 - - Pools of Solomon, 131 - - Potiphar, 34 - - Pottery, 141 - - Pre-Babylonian period, 56 - - Prophets, character of the Hebrew, 417 - - Proverbs, parallels to book of, 407 - - Psalms, from Babylonia and Egypt, 398 - - Psammetik I, 31 - - Psammetik II, 387 - - Psephinus, tower of, 212 - - Ptahhotep, precepts of, 409 - - Ptolemaic period, 32 - - Ptolemy I, captures Jerusalem, 203 - - Ptolemy, Claudius, king list compiled by, 51 - - Ptolemy Lagi, 33, 119 - - Ptolemy Philadelphus, 33 - - Puchstein, Otto, discoveries at Boghaz Koi, 70 - - Pul, 61 - - Pumpelly, Raphael, explorations in Turkestan, 74 - - Put-akhi, Amorite king, 80 - - Pyramids, 25 - - - Qarqar, 61 - - _Quadrans_, 165 - - Quirinius, archaeological light on enrolment of, 432 - - - Raamses, built by the Israelites, 35 - - Rabbah Ammon, rebuilt and renamed by Philadelphus, 33; - topography of, 123; - site of Philadelphia, 217 - - Ramsay, Sir William Mitchell, view of Quirinius' enrolment, 434 - - Ramses II, 29, 35, 69; - treaty with Hattusil, 69; - conquests in northern Syria, 80; - Palestinian rule of, 114 - - Ramses III, 30, 115 - - Ramses IV, IX, XII, 30 - - Raphana, 215 - - Rassam, Hormuzd, explorations of, 44, 45, 64 - - Rawlinson, Sir Henry C., explorations of, 44, 50, 51 - - Rehoboam, 30; - opposed by Shishak, 118 - - Reisner, G. A., excavations at Samaria, 100 - - Renan, Ernest, explorations in Palestine, 86 - - Rephaim, 104 - - Reservoirs, 130 - - Retenu (Lotan), 109 - - Rich, Claude James, explorations of, 42 - - Richardson, Rufus B., excavations at Corinth, 221 - - Rim-Sin, King of Larsa, 58 - - Rings, finger, 157; - money, 162 - - Roads, 132 - - Robinson, Edward, explorations in Palestine, 85 - - Robinson, George L., discovery at Petra, 102 - - "Robinson's Arch," 87, 204 - - Rockefeller, John D., 47 - - Roman rule of Egypt, 33 - - "Rosetta Stone," 20 - - - Sacrifices in foundations, 128; - human, 172; - Carthaginian law concerning, 342 - - Sacy, Sylvestre de, interpretation of Sassanian inscriptions, 49 - - Sakje-Geuze, excavations at, 75 - - Samal, kingdom of, 81 - - Samaria, siege of, 62; - excavations at, 100; - topography of, 123; - remains of palaces at, 127; - temple at, 178 - - Samaritans, origin of, 118 - - Samsuiluna, King of Larsa, 53 - - Sarbut el-Khadem, 28 - - Sardis, 226, 228 - - Sargon of Agade, 54, 57; - conquests of, 63, 107; - legend of, 310 - - Sargon of Assyria, besieges Samaria, 63, 369 - - Sarzec, Ernest de, explorations of, 45 - - Sassanian dynasty of Persia, 49, 67 - - Saturninus, Sentius, 437 - - Saul, reign of, 117 - - Saws, 152 - - Sayce, A. H., theories regarding Hittites, 68; - decipherment of Hittite inscriptions, 70, 73 - - "Scarp, Maudsley's," 191 - - Scheil, V., exploration of, 46, 54 - - Schick, Dr. Conrad, discoveries in Jerusalem, 207 - - Schmidt, Nathaniel, explorations in Palestine, 100 - - Schumacher, Gottlieb, explorations in Palestine, 88; - excavations at Megiddo, 96, 124 - - Scythians threaten Assyria, 64 - - Scythopolis, 214 - - Seah, 158 - - Seals, 154; - found at Megiddo, 359 - - Sebaste, see _Samaria_. - - Second Assyrian period, 61 - - Sela, 173 - - Seleucus, King of Babylonia, 67 - - Sellin, Ernst, excavations at Taanach, 97, 124; - excavations at Jericho, 98 - - Semites, first inhabitants of Mesopotamia, 55 - - Sendjirli, excavations at, 69 - - Seneferu, 25 - - Sennacherib, 31; - discovery of seal at Babylon, 52; - succeeds Sargon, 63; - his account of his campaigns, 372 - - Seplel, see _Subbiluliuma_. - - Septuagint, translation of, 33 - - Sesostris, monarchs of Middle Kingdom, 27 - - Seth, 267; - list of descendants, 269 - - Seti I, 29; - campaigns against Palestine, 80; - conquests in Asia, 114 - - _Shabatum_, 259 - - Shaft tombs, 181 - - Shalmaneser I, 60 - - Shalmaneser III, campaigns of, 61; - oppression of Palestine, 360 - - Shalmaneser V, 62 - - Shamash-shumukin, 64 - - Shamshi-Adad, 52 - - Shamshi-Adad IV, 61 - - Shamsu-ditana, King of Babylon, 75 - - Shamsu-iluna, successor of Hammurapi, 108 - - Sheba, 381 - - Shechem, captured by Sesostris III, 28; - excavations at, 102 - - Sheep Gate, 202 - - Shema, seal of, 176 - - Sheol, 423 - - Shephelah, borderland between Judaea and Philistia, 90, 94, 186 - - "Shepherd Kings," 28 - - Sheshonk, see _Shishak_. - - "Shinar" (Sumir), 58 - - Shishak, 30; - record of his campaign in Palestine, 37, 118, 359 - - Shithu-elu, 267 - - Shur, 95 - - Shushan, 47 - - Shutarna I, successor of Artatama I, 77 - - Siamon, 30 - - Sicilians, migration of, 115 - - Sickles, 135 - - Siloah, 189 - - Siloam inscription, 377 - - Simon the Maccabee, coinage of, 164 - - Sin, the moon-god, Babylonian hymn to, 400 - - Sinuhe, adventures of, 108, 307 - - Sippar (Agade), temple at, 54 - - Smith, Eli, explorations in Palestine, 85 - - Smith, George, explorations of, 45 - - Smyrna, Hittite sculptures and remains near, 76, 79; - general account of, 229 - - Solomon marries daughter of Pharaoh, 30; - empire of, 118; - Pools of, 131, 205; - buildings of, 192 - - Song of Songs, Egyptian parallels to, 413 - - "Sothic Cycle," 22 - - Spatulae, for eye-paint, 156 - - Spears, 154 - - Sphinx, 26 - - Spinning "whorls," 151 - - Spoons, 150 - - Springs, favorite sites for cities, 186 - - "Stele of the vultures," 56 - - Step Pyramid, 25 - - Stone age in Palestine, 103 - - Styli, 154 - - Subbiluliuma, extends power of the Hittites, 77; - deposes Sutatarra, 78; - Amorites conquered by, 113 - - Sumerian, early language of Babylonia, 51 - - Sumerian names, with Semitic, Babylonian, and Hebrew equivalents, 268 - - Sumerians, ethnology of, 56 - - Sumir, derivation of, 58 - - Sun-god, Egyptian hymn to the, 402 - - Susa, exploration at, 47 - - Sutarna II, King of the Harri, 78 - - Sutatarra, successor of Dushratta, 78 - - Swords, 154 - - "Synagogue of the Hebrews" in Corinth, 221 - - Sypilus, Mount, 70 - - - Taanach, excavations at, 97; - walls of, 124; - buildings at, 127; - pillars and altar of incense at, 173; - letter from, 350 - - Tabu-utul-Bel, 395 - - Tagtug, 288, 289 - - Tahpanhes, castle at, 37 - - Talbot, Fox, 50 - - Tale of the Eloquent Peasant, 418 - - Tale of Sinuhe, 307 - - Tale of the Two Brothers, 300 - - Tamerlane, 227 - - Tammuz, lamentation for, 426 - - Tanut-amon, 31 - - Tashji, Hittite remains at, 70 - - Taylor, J. E., explorations of, 44 - - Tell Defenneh, 38 - - Tell el-Hesy (Lachish), 89, 110 - - Tell el-Jazar, excavations at, 92 - - Tell el-Judeideh, excavations at, 91 - - Tell el-Retabeh, site of Raamses, 36 - - Tell el-Yehudiyeh, 38 - - Tell es-Safi, 91, 110, 124, 169 - - Tell Hum (Capernaum), 98 - - "Tell of the Jewess," 38 - - Tell Sandahanna (Marash), 92; - weight found at, 162 - - Tell Taanek, see _Taanach_. - - Tell Zakariya (Azekah), 90 - - Temple, Solomon's, site of, 168; - description of, 193; - building of the second, 200; - Herod's, 207 - - Temple at Gezer, 175 - - Temple to Augustus at Samaria, 178 - - Temple of Jewish colony in Egypt, 387 - - Thakut, 34 - - Thebes, nome of, 27 - - Thekel, migration of, 115, 116 - - Thenius, Otto, suggestion regarding Golgotha, 211 - - Thessalonica, politarchs of, 438 - - Thiersch, Hermann, discovery at Beit Jibrin, 102 - - This, nome of, 25 - - Thompson, R. Campbell, decipherment of Hittite inscriptions, 73 - - Thothmes I, raids through Palestine, 110 - - Thothmes III, 29, 77, 111 - - Thothmes IV, alliance with Artatama I, 77 - - Threshing, 135 - - Thyatira, 226 - - Ti, tomb of, 26 - - _Tiamat_, 248, 251 - - Tiberius, coinage of, 165 - - Tiglath-pileser I, 51, 60 - - Tiglath-pileser IV, conquests of, 61, 366 - - Tigris river, 40 - - Timur (Tamerlane), 227 - - Tirhakah, 31, 64 - - Titus, destroys Jerusalem, 121 - - Tiuman, King of Elam, 417 - - Tobler, Titus, explorations in Palestine, 86 - - Toi, King of Hamath, 81 - - Tombs, 181 - - "Tombs of the Judges," 182 - - "Tombs of the Kings," 183, 212 - - Topheth, 199 - - Tou, see _Toi_. - - Towers, 202 - - Toys, 155 - - Trajan, 133; - organizes province of Arabia, 174 - - Travel, between Babylonia and Palestine, 293 - - Trumbull, Henry Clay, identification of Kadesh-Barnea, 95 - - Tukulti-Ninib I, 52, 60 - - "Turin Papyrus," 22 - - Two Brothers, Tale of the, 300 - - Tyana, Hittite capital, 82 - - Tyropoeon valley, 199 - - - Ukhaimir, exploration at, 48 - - Umm Keis, 216 - - Ummanu, 267 - - Uni, officer of Pepi I, 107 - - University Museum, Philadelphia, 53, 54 - - Upper Retenu, 109 - - Ur, founding of, 55; - kings of, 53, 54, 58 - - Urkagina, King of Lagash, 57 - - Ur-Nina founds dynasty at Lagash, 56 - - Utensils, 149 - - Uzziah, 196, 367 - - - Valley Gate, 202 - - Van Dyke, Henry, reference to _Felix_, 429 - - Vincent, Hughes, 99, 101 - - Vineyards, 137 - - - Wady Maghara, turquoise mines in, 25 - - Walls of Palestinian cities, 109, 123, 125, 202 - - Ward, William Hayes, Babylonian explorations of, 45 - - Warka, exploration at, 47 - - Warren, Gen. Sir Charles, excavations at Jerusalem, 87; - at Gihon, 101 - - Water Gate, 202 - - Water supply in Palestine, 129 - - Weidner, Ernst, 74 - - Weights, 160 - - Weil, Captain, excavations on Ophel, 102 - - Wenamon, report of, 117, 352 - - Whetstones, 153 - - White Wall, 27 - - Wilderness of Zin, explorations in, 95 - - Winckler, Hugo, excavations at Boghaz Koi, 69, 79; - first instalment of the El-Amarna letters, 71 - - Winckler und Abel, _Thoutafelnfund von El-Amarna_, 303 - - Wine-vats, 137 - - Winnowing, 135 - - _Wisdom of Jesus, the Son of Sirach_, 203 - - Wood, J. T., discoveries in Ephesus, 223 - - Woolley, C. Leonard, 75, 95 - - Wrench, J. E., explorations in Asia Minor, 70 - - Wright, William, _The Empire of the Hittites_, 68 - - - Xerxes, inscriptions of, 48 - - Xisouthros, 271 - - Xystus, 203 - - - Yadi, kingdom of, 81 - - Yaila, Hittite remains at, 70 - - Yakut, Arabian geographer, 217 - - Yau-bidi, King of Hamath, 82 - - Yaudi, identity of, 371 - - Year, divisions of, 138 - - - Zamama, temple of, 48 - - Zaphenath-Paneah, 34 - - Zechariah, assists in rebuilding the temple, 118, 200 - - Zedekiah, rebellion against Babylon, 32, 65 - - Ziggurat of Zamama temple, 48 - - Zin, explorations in the wilderness of, 95 - - Zion, site of Jebus, 188 - - Ziugiddu, 280 - - Zoser, first king of third dynasty, 25, 305 - - Zugagib, 266 - - - - -PLATES - - -PLATE 1 - -[Illustration: FIG. 1. SYRIAN TRADERS IN EGYPT, FROM A TOMB AT BENI -HASAN.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 2. CROWN OF LOWER EGYPT.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 3. CROWN OF UPPER EGYPT.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 4. CROWN OF UNITED EGYPT.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 5. SPHINX AND PYRAMID OF KHAFRE.] - - -PLATE 2 - -[Illustration: FIG. 6. PYRAMIDS OF KHUFU AND KHAFRE.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 7. STEP PYRAMID OF ZOSER.] - - -PLATE 3 - -[Illustration: FIG. 8. BODY FROM A PRE-DYNASTIC TOMB.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 9. HEAD OF THE MUMMY OF RAMSES II.] - - -PLATE 4 - -[Illustration: FIG. 10. A STORE-CHAMBER AT PITHOM (_after Naville_).] - -[Illustration: FIG. 11. ANCIENT AND MODERN BRICK-MAKING (_after Petrie_).] - - -PLATE 5 - -[Illustration: FIG. 12. PLAN OF CITY AND TEMPLE OF LEONTOPOLIS (_after -Petrie_).] - -[Illustration: FIG. 13. A PASSOVER-OVEN (_after Petrie_).] - - -PLATE 6 - -[Illustration: FIG. 14. THE ROSETTA STONE. - -_By permission of Thomas Nelson & Sons._] - -[Illustration: FIG. 15. THE "ISRAEL" INSCRIPTION OF MERNEPTAH.] - - -PLATE 7 - -[Illustration: FIG. 16. MOUNDS OF NUFFAR (_after Clay_).] - -[Illustration: FIG. 17. EXCAVATION AT NUFFAR (_after Clay_).] - - -PLATE 8 - -[Illustration: FIG. 18. GATE OF ISHTAR, BABYLON (_after Koldeway_).] - -[Illustration: FIG. 19. PHALANX OF SOLDIERS FROM EANNATUM'S "STELE OF -VULTURES."] - - -PLATE 9 - -[Illustration: FIG. 20. INSCRIBED COLUMN FROM PERSEPOLIS.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 21. SILVER VASE OF ENTEMENA.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 22. MOUND OF BIRS NIMRUD (_after Peters_).] - - -PLATE 10 - -[Illustration: FIG. 23. HITTITE GATES AT BOGHAZ KOI (_after Puchstein_).] - -[Illustration: FIG. 24. HITTITE TYPES FROM EGYPTIAN MONUMENTS (_after -Garstang_).] - - -PLATE 11 - -[Illustration: FIG. 25. A HITTITE KING (_after Puchstein_).] - -[Illustration: FIG. 26. THE BOSS OF TARKONDEMOS.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 27. THE SEAL OF SHEMA, SERVANT OF JEROBOAM.] - - -PLATE 12 - -[Illustration: FIG. 28. TELL EL-HESY AFTER EXCAVATION.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 29. THE SITE OF THE OLD TESTAMENT JERICHO.] - - -PLATE 13 - -[Illustration: FIG. 30. EXCAVATION OF GEZER.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 31. REMAINS OF A COLONNADED STREET AT SAMARIA.] - - -PLATE 14 - -[Illustration: FIG. 32. EXCAVATION AT TELL HUM.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 33. EGYPTIANS ATTACKING A PALESTINIAN CITY (_after -Perrot and Chipiez_).] - - -PLATE 15 - -[Illustration: FIG. 34. ISRAELITISH JERICHO (_after Sellin_).] - -[Illustration: FIG. 35. ISRAELITISH HOUSES AT JERICHO (_after Sellin_).] - - -PLATE 16 - -[Illustration: FIG. 36. PHILISTINES FROM THE PALACE OF RAMSES III.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 37. CANAANITISH FORTRESS AT JERICHO (_after Sellin_).] - - -PLATE 17 - -[Illustration: FIG. 38.--INSCRIBED DISC FROM PHAESTOS (ONE-FOURTH ACTUAL -SIZE).] - -[Illustration: FIG. 39. GEBEL FUREIDIS.] - - -PLATE 18 - -[Illustration: FIG. 40. BASTION FOR THE PROTECTION OF AN INSERTED TOWER -(_after Macalister_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - -[Illustration: FIG. 41. REMAINS OF WALLS OF MEGIDDO (_after Schumacher_).] - - -PLATE 19 - -[Illustration: FIG. 42. WALLS OF BUILDINGS AT SAMARIA (_after Reisner_).] - -[Illustration: FIG. 43. SPECIMENS OF STONE-WORK AT GEZER (_after -Macalister_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - -[Illustration: FIG. 44. BUILDING-BRICKS FROM GEZER (_after Macalister_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - - -PLATE 20 - -[Illustration: FIG. 45. PLAN OF PALACE AT TAANACH (_after Sellin_).] - -[Illustration: FIG. 46. THE GREAT CITY WALL AT GEZER (_after Macalister_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - - -PLATE 21 - -[Illustration: FIG. 47. ISRAELITISH HOUSES AT GEZER. - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - -[Illustration: FIG. 48. SPECIMENS OF MOSAIC FLOORS (_after Macalister_). - -_By Permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - - -PLATE 22 - -[Illustration: FIG. 49. A DOORWAY AT GEZER (_after Macalister_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - -[Illustration: FIG. 50. DOOR-SOCKETS FROM GEZER (_after Macalister_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - - -PLATE 23 - -[Illustration: FIG. 51. SUPPOSED HOUSE OF HIEL, JERICHO (_after Sellin_).] - -[Illustration: FIG. 52. FOUNDATION OF THE PALACE OF OMRI, SAMARIA (_after -Reisner_).] - -[Illustration: FIG. 53. HEBREW PALACE AT MEGIDDO (_after Schumacher_).] - - -PLATE 24 - -[Illustration: FIG. 54. PLAN OF THE MACCABAEAN CASTLE AT GEZER (_after -Macalister_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - -[Illustration: FIG. 55. STONE-WORK OF THE MACCABAEAN CASTLE (_after -Macalister_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - -[Illustration: FIG. 56. A FOUNDATION-DEPOSIT, GEZER (_after Macalister_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - - -PLATE 25 - -[Illustration: FIG. 57. A CITY GATE AT MEGIDDO (_after Schumacher_).] - -[Illustration: FIG. 58. THE SOUTH GATE AT GEZER (_after Macalister_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - -[Illustration: FIG. 59. THE SOUTH GATE AT BETHSHEMESH (_after Mackenzie_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - - -PLATE 26 - -[Illustration: FIG. 60. ENTRANCE TO THE UNDERGROUND TUNNEL AT GEZER -(_after Macalister_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - -[Illustration: FIG. 61.--THE NORTH GATE AT GEZER (_after Macalister_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - - -PLATE 27 - -[Illustration: FIG. 62. PLANS OF THE UNDERGROUND TUNNEL AT GEZER (_after -Macalister_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - - -PLATE 28 - -[Illustration: FIG. 63. PLAN OF UNDERGROUND TUNNEL AT GIBEON (_after -Abel_).] - -[Illustration: FIG. 64. ONE OF SOLOMON'S POOLS.] - - -PLATE 29 - -[Illustration: FIG. 65. POST OF CITY GATE, SAMARIA (_after Reisner_).] - -[Illustration: FIG. 66. PART OF CITY WALL AND GATE, SAMARIA (_after -Reisner_).] - - -PLATE 30 - -[Illustration: FIG. 67. ROAD SOUTH OF GERIZIM.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 68. LINES OF ROMAN ROADS AT TELL EL-FUL.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 69. ROMAN ROAD NORTH OF AMMAN.] - - -PLATE 31 - -[Illustration: FIG. 70. A GRANARY AT GEZER (_after Macalister_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - -[Illustration: FIG. 71. SOME ROMAN MILE-STONES.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 72. PLAN OF A GRANARY AT GEZER (_after Macalister_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - - -PLATE 32 - -[Illustration: FIG. 73. A HOE (_after Macalister_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - -[Illustration: FIG. 74. AN EGYPTIAN REAPING (_after Wreszinski_).] - -[Illustration: FIG. 75. A SICKLE (_after Wreszinski_).] - -[Illustration: FIG. 76. PLOWSHARES FROM MEGIDDO (_after Schumacher_).] - - -PLATE 33 - -[Illustration: FIG. 77. EGYPTIAN PLOWING (_after Wilkinson_).] - -[Illustration: FIG. 78. A MODERN THRESHING-FLOOR.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 79. EGYPTIANS THRESHING AND WINNOWING (_after -Wilkinson_).] - -[Illustration: FIG. 80. EGYPTIAN THRESHING-SLEDGE (_after Wilkinson_).] - - -PLATE 34 - -[Illustration: FIG. 81. A SADDLE-QUERN FROM MEGIDDO (_after Schumacher_).] - -[Illustration: FIG. 82. A ROTARY-QUERN (_after Macalister_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - -[Illustration: FIG. 83. A MORTAR AND PESTLE (_after Macalister_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - -[Illustration: FIG. 84. TWO WOMEN GRINDING AT A MILL (_after -Schumacher_).] - - -PLATE 35 - -[Illustration: FIG. 85. AN ANCIENT OLIVE-PRESS (_after Macalister_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - -[Illustration: FIG. 86. A MODERN OLIVE-PRESS (_after Macalister_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - - -PLATE 36 - -[Illustration: FIG. 87. A WINE VAT (_after Macalister_). - -_By Permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - -[Illustration: FIG. 88. AN OLIVE-PRESS AT WORK (_after Macalister_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - - -PLATE 37 - -[Illustration: FIG. 89. COWS' HORNS FROM GEZER (_after Macalister_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - -[Illustration: FIG. 90. ANIMALS' HEADS FROM GEZER (_after Macalister_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - -[Illustration: FIG. 91. A HORSE'S BIT FROM GEZER (_after Macalister_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - -[Illustration: FIG. 92. DRAWINGS OF HORSES FROM GEZER (_after -Macalister_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - - -PLATE 38 - -[Illustration: FIG. 93. A CLAY BIRD FROM GEZER (_after Macalister_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - -[Illustration: FIG. 94. A COCK FROM MARISSA (_after Peters and Thiersch_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - -[Illustration: FIG. 95. A BEE-HIVE FROM GEZER (_after Macalister_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - - -PLATE 39 - -[Illustration: FIG. 96. PRE-SEMITIC JARS (_after Macalister_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - -[Illustration: FIG. 97. PRE-SEMITIC POTTERY (_after Macalister_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - -[Illustration: FIG. 98. FOUR PITCHERS FROM THE FIRST SEMITIC STRATUM -(_after Macalister_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - -[Illustration: FIG. 99. THREE PITCHERS FROM THE FIRST SEMITIC STRATUM -(_after Macalister_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - -[Illustration: FIG. 100. A JAR FROM THE FIRST SEMITIC STRATUM (_after -Macalister_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - - -PLATE 40 - -[Illustration: FIG. 101. JUGS FROM THE SECOND SEMITIC STRATUM (_after -Macalister_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - -[Illustration: FIG. 102. A JUG FROM THE SECOND SEMITIC STRATUM (_after -Macalister_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - -[Illustration: FIG. 103. A JAR FROM THE SECOND SEMITIC STRATUM (_after -Macalister_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - - -PLATE 41 - -[Illustration: FIG. 104. SOME FINE POTTERY FROM THE FIRST SEMITIC STRATUM -(_after Macalister_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - -[Illustration: FIG. 105. "EAR" AND "BUTTON" JAR-HANDLES (_after -Macalister_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - -[Illustration: FIG. 106. A "PILLAR" HANDLE (_after Macalister_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - -[Illustration: FIG. 107. A FLAT-BOTTOMED JUG (_after Macalister_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - - -PLATE 42 - -[Illustration: FIG. 108. A PAINTED PHILISTINE VASE FROM BETH-SHEMESH -(_after Mackenzie_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - -[Illustration: FIG. 109. WAR-SCENE ON POTSHERD FROM MEGIDDO (_after -Schumacher_).] - -[Illustration: FIG. 110. JARS OF THIRD SEMITIC STRATUM FROM BETH-SHEMESH -(_after Mackenzie_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - -[Illustration: FIG. 111. HEBREW POTTERY FROM MEGIDDO (_after -Schumacher_).] - - -PLATE 43 - -[Illustration: FIG. 112. HEBREW JARS AND PITCHERS FROM JERICHO (_after -Sellin_).] - -[Illustration: FIG. 113. HEBREW PITCHERS AND BOWLS FROM JERICHO (_after -Sellin_).] - - -PLATE 44 - -[Illustration: FIG. 114. A FUNNEL FROM GEZER (_after Macalister_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - -[Illustration: FIG. 115. A POTTER'S SEAL FROM GEZER (_after Macalister_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - -[Illustration: FIG. 116. AN INSCRIBED HEBREW JAR-STAMP FROM THE SHEPHELAH -(_after Bliss and Macalister_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - -[Illustration: FIG. 117. HEBREW POTTERY FROM GEZER (_after Macalister_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - - -PLATE 45 - -[Illustration: FIG. 118. A SCARAB USED AS A JAR-STAMP (_after -Macalister_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - -[Illustration: FIG. 119. A JAR-HANDLE STAMPED WITH A SCARAB (_after -Macalister_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - -[Illustration: FIG. 120. A JAR WITH TAPERING BASE FROM GEZER (_after -Macalister_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - -[Illustration: FIG. 121. HELLENISTIC FILTER FROM GEZER (_after -Macalister_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - -[Illustration: FIG. 122. HELLENISTIC POTTERY FROM GEZER (_after -Macalister_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - - -PLATE 46 - -[Illustration: FIG. 123. HELLENISTIC STRAINER FROM GEZER (_after -Macalister_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - -[Illustration: FIG. 124. ROMAN POTS FROM GEZER (_after Macalister_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - -[Illustration: FIG. 125. HELLENISTIC JAR FROM GEZER (_after Macalister_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - -[Illustration: FIG. 126. A LAMP OF THE FIRST SEMITIC PERIOD, MEGIDDO -(_after Schumacher_).] - - -PLATE 47 - -[Illustration: FIG. 127. LAMPS FROM THE SECOND SEMITIC PERIOD, GEZER -(_after Macalister_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - -[Illustration: FIG. 128. LAMPS FROM THE ISRAELITISH PERIOD, GEZER (_after -Macalister_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - -[Illustration: FIG. 129. A BYZANTINE LAMP FROM JERICHO (_after Sellin_).] - -[Illustration: FIG. 130. A LAMP BEARING A CHRISTIAN LEGEND (_after -Macalister_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - - -PLATE 48 - -[Illustration: FIG. 131. HELLENISTIC LAMPS FROM GEZER (_after -Macalister_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - -[Illustration: FIG. 132. HEBREW LAMPS FROM JERICHO (_after Sellin_).] - - -PLATE 49 - -[Illustration: FIG. 133. OVENS FOUND AT GEZER (_after Macalister_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - -[Illustration: FIG. 134. A BAKING-TRAY FROM GEZER (_after Macalister_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - -[Illustration: FIG. 135. BRONZE DISHES FROM GEZER (_after Macalister_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - -[Illustration: FIG. 136. SHELL SPOONS FROM GEZER (_after Macalister_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - - -PLATE 50 - -[Illustration: FIG. 137. SILVER DISHES FROM A PHILISTINE GRAVE AT GEZER -(_after Macalister_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - -[Illustration: FIG. 138. GLASS OINTMENT VESSELS FROM GEZER (_after -Macalister_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - - -PLATE 51 - -[Illustration: FIG. 139. FEEDING-BOTTLES (?). GEZER (_after Macalister_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - -[Illustration: FIG. 140. FORKS FROM GEZER (_after Macalister_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - -[Illustration: FIG. 141. PHILISTINE SILVER LADLE. GEZER (_after -Macalister_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - -[Illustration: FIG. 142. BRONZE NEEDLES AND PINS FROM GEZER (_after -Macalister_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - - -PLATE 52 - -[Illustration: FIG. 143. BONE NEEDLES FROM GEZER (_after Macalister_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - -[Illustration: FIG. 144. MODERN WOMAN SPINNING. - -_By permission of Mrs. Grant Williams._] - -[Illustration: FIG. 145. SPINDLE WHORLS FROM GEZER (_after Macalister_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - -[Illustration: FIG. 146. A LARGE KEY FROM GEZER (_after Macalister_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - -[Illustration: FIG. 147. A SMALLER KEY FROM GEZER (_after Macalister_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - - -PLATE 53 - -[Illustration: FIG. 148. LAMP STANDS FROM MEGIDDO (_after Schumacher_).] - -[Illustration: FIG. 149. FLINT KNIVES FROM JERICHO (_after Sellin_).] - - -PLATE 54 - -[Illustration: FIG. 150. IRON KNIVES FROM GEZER (_after Macalister_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - -[Illustration: FIG. 151. BRONZE KNIVES FROM GEZER (_after Macalister_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - - -PLATE 55 - -[Illustration: FIG. 152. A CHISEL FROM GEZER (_after Macalister_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - -[Illustration: FIG. 153. A FILE FROM GEZER (_after Macalister_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - -[Illustration: FIG. 154. A CONE OF FLINT FOR MAKING KNIVES, GEZER (_after -Macalister_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - -[Illustration: FIG. 155. A BRONZE HAMMER-HEAD, GEZER (_after Macalister_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - -[Illustration: FIG. 156. A FISH-HOOK, GEZER (_after Macalister_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - -[Illustration: FIG. 157. A BONE AWL-HANDLE FROM GEZER (_after -Macalister_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - -[Illustration: FIG. 158. WHETSTONES FROM JERICHO (_after Sellin_).] - -[Illustration: FIG. 159. NAILS FROM GEZER (_after Macalister_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - - -PLATE 56 - -[Illustration: FIG. 160. AXE-HEADS FROM GEZER (_after Macalister_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - -[Illustration: FIG. 161. CARPENTERS' TOOLS FROM GEZER (_after -Macalister_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - - -PLATE 57 - -[Illustration: FIG. 162. A SCIMITAR FROM GEZER (_after Macalister_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - -[Illustration: FIG. 163. IMPRESSION OF A BASKET ON MUD, GEZER (_after -Macalister_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - -[Illustration: FIG. 164. FLINT ARROW-HEADS FROM GEZER (_after -Macalister_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - -[Illustration: FIG. 165. BRONZE ARROW-HEADS FROM GEZER (_after -Macalister_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - - -PLATE 58 - -[Illustration: FIG. 166. BRONZE SWORDS FROM GEZER (_after Macalister_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - -[Illustration: FIG. 167. BRONZE SPEAR-HEADS, GEZER (_after Macalister_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - - -PLATE 59 - -[Illustration: FIG. 168. A PIPE FROM GEZER (_after Macalister_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - -[Illustration: FIG. 169. AN EGYPTIAN HARP (_after Haupt_).] - -[Illustration: FIG. 170. AN ASSYRIAN UPRIGHT HARP (_after Haupt_).] - -[Illustration: FIG. 171. AN ASSYRIAN HORIZONTAL HARP (_after Haupt_).] - -[Illustration: FIG. 172. A BABYLONIAN HARP (_after Haupt_).] - -[Illustration: FIG. 173. JEWISH HARPS ON COINS OF BAR COCHEBA, 132-135 A. -D. (_after Madden_).] - -[Illustration: FIG. 174. ASSYRIAN DULCIMER (_after Haupt_).] - - -PLATE 60 - -[Illustration: FIG. 175. SEALS FROM GEZER (_after Macalister_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - -[Illustration: FIG. 176. A COMB FROM GEZER (_after Macalister_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - -[Illustration: FIG. 177. TOYS FROM GEZER (_after Macalister_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - -[Illustration: FIG. 178. STYLI FROM GEZER (_after Macalister_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - -[Illustration: FIG. 179. CHILDREN'S RATTLES FROM GEZER (_after -Macalister_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - - -PLATE 61 - -[Illustration: FIG. 180. A PERFUME-BOX, GEZER (_after Macalister_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - -[Illustration: FIG. 181. A NECKLACE FROM GEZER (_after Macalister_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - -[Illustration: FIG. 182. BRACELETS FROM GEZER (_after Macalister_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - -[Illustration: FIG. 183. SPATULAE FROM GEZER (_after Macalister_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - -[Illustration: FIG. 184. RINGS FROM GEZER (_after Macalister_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - - -PLATE 62 - -[Illustration: FIG. 185. SUPPOSED HEBREW MEASURES FROM JERUSALEM (_after -Germer-Durand_).] - - -PLATE 63 - -[Illustration: FIG. 186. A _Neseph_ WEIGHT.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 187. A _Payim_ WEIGHT BELONGING TO HAVERFORD COLLEGE.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 188. A _Beqa_ WEIGHT (_after Torrey_).] - -[Illustration: FIG. 189. A "DARIC" OF DARIUS (_after Benzinger_).] - -[Illustration: FIG. 190. A TETRADRACHMA OF ALEXANDER THE GREAT (_after -Benzinger_).] - -[Illustration: FIG. 191. A COIN OF PTOLEMY LAGI (_after Benzinger_).] - - -PLATE 64 - -[Illustration: FIG. 192. HALF-SHEKEL OF SIMON THE MACCABEE (_after -Benzinger_).] - -[Illustration: FIG. 193. A COIN OF JOHN HYRCANUS (_after Madden_).] - -[Illustration: FIG. 194. TETRADRACHMA OF LYSIMACHUS.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 195. A COIN OF AUGUSTUS.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 196. A DENARIUS OF TIBERIUS.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 197. A COIN OF CLAUDIUS.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 198. A COIN OF HEROD THE GREAT.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 199. A ROMAN QUADRANS (?).] - -[Illustration: FIG. 200. A COIN OF HEROD AGRIPPA I.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 201. A SHEKEL OF THE REVOLT OF A. D. 70.] - - -PLATE 65 - -[Illustration: FIG. 202. CAVE-DWELLERS' PLACE OF SACRIFICE, GEZER (_after -Macalister_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - -[Illustration: FIG. 203. PLAN OF CAVES AT SEMITIC HIGH PLACE, GEZER -(_after Macalister_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - -[Illustration: FIG. 204. "PILLARS" OF THE HIGH PLACE AT GEZER.] - - -PLATE 66 - -[Illustration: FIG. 205. ROCK-ALTAR AT MEGIDDO (_after Schumacher_).] - -[Illustration: FIG. 206. THE "BETH-EL" OF GEZER (_after Macalister_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - -[Illustration: FIG. 207. THE SUPPOSED SERPENT-PEN AT GEZER (_after -Macalister_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - - -PLATE 67 - -[Illustration: FIG. 208. THE ROCK-ALTAR AT JERUSALEM (_after Dalman_).] - -[Illustration: FIG. 209. THE LAVER AT GEZER (_after Macalister_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - - -PLATE 68 - -[Illustration: FIG. 210. THE TERRA-COTTA ALTAR FROM TAANACH (_after -Sellin_).] - -[Illustration: FIG. 211. SUPPOSED HIGH PLACE AT TAANACH (_after Sellin_).] - - -PLATE 69 - -[Illustration: FIG. 212. HIGH PLACE AT TELL ES-SAFI (_after Bliss and -Macalister_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - -[Illustration: FIG. 213. LIBATION BOWL FROM TAANACH (_after Sellin_).] - -[Illustration: FIG. 214. AN ASTARTE PLAQUE FROM GEZER (_after -Macalister_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - - -PLATE 70 - -[Illustration: FIG. 215. PLAN OF THE HIGH PLACE AT PETRA (_after -Bruennow_).] - -[Illustration: FIG. 216. PLAN OF HEROD'S TEMPLE AT SAMARIA (_after -Lyon_).] - - -PLATE 71 - -[Illustration: FIG. 217. THE ALTAR AT PETRA (_after Bruennow_).] - -[Illustration: FIG. 218. THE "ROUND ALTAR" AT PETRA (_after Bruennow_).] - -[Illustration: FIG. 219. SUPPOSED "PILLARS" AT PETRA (_after Bruennow_).] - - -PLATE 72 - -[Illustration: FIG. 219_a_. A BRAZEN SERPENT FROM GEZER (_after -Macalister_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - -[Illustration: FIG. 220. PLAN OF SUPPOSED SEMITIC TEMPLE AT GEZER (_after -Macalister_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - -[Illustration: FIG. 221. WALLS OF HEROD'S TEMPLE, SAMARIA (_after -Reisner_).] - - -PLATE 73 - -[Illustration: FIG. 222. "PILLARS" OF A SUPPOSED TEMPLE, GEZER (_after -Macalister_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - -[Illustration: FIG. 223. CHAPEL OF THE PALACE AT MEGIDDO (_after -Schumacher_).] - - -PLATE 74 - -[Illustration: FIG. 224. VOLUTED CAPITAL (PROBABLY PHILISTINE) FROM -MEGIDDO (_after Schumacher_).] - -[Illustration: FIG. 225. INCENSE-BURNER FROM MEGIDDO (_after -Schumacher_).] - - -PLATE 75 - -[Illustration: FIG. 226. PHILISTINE GRAVES, GEZER (_after Macalister_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - -[Illustration: FIG. 227. A ROCK-HEWN TOMB AT SILOAM (_after Benzinger_).] - -[Illustration: FIG. 228. A SHAFT-TOMB (_after Bliss and Macalister_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - -[Illustration: FIG. 229. A CISTERN-BURIAL AT GEZER (_after Macalister_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - - -PLATE 76 - -[Illustration: FIG. 230. A COLUMBARIUM AT PETRA (_after Dalman_).] - -[Illustration: FIG. 231. ENTRANCE TO THE TOMB OF THE JUDGES.] - - -PLATE 77 - -[Illustration: FIG. 232. A SUNKEN-DOOR TOMB (_after Mitt. u. Nach. d. -Deutsch. Palaestina-Vereins_).] - -[Illustration: FIG. 233. _Kokim_ IN THE TOMB OF THE JUDGES.] - - -PLATE 78 - -[Illustration: FIG. 234. PLAN OF A HELLENISTIC TOMB AT MARISSA (_after -Peters and Thiersch_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - -[Illustration: FIG. 235. A CROSS-SECTION OF THE TOMB OF THE JUDGES.] - - -PLATE 79 - -[Illustration: FIG. 236. ARCHITECTURAL DECORATION OF A HELLENISTIC TOMB AT -MARISSA (_after Peters and Thiersch_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - -[Illustration: FIG. 237. PLAN OF THE UPPER FLOOR OF THE TOMB OF THE -JUDGES.] - - -PLATE 80 - -[Illustration: FIG. 238. A TOMB WITH A ROLLING-STONE AT BEIT JIBRIN -(_after Moulton_).] - -[Illustration: FIG. 239. INTERIOR OF A HELLENISTIC TOMB AT MARISSA (_after -Peters and Thiersch_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - - -PLATE 81 - -[Illustration: FIG. 240. THE HILLS AND VALLEYS OF JERUSALEM (_after -Vincent_).] - - -PLATE 82 - -[Illustration: FIG. 241. UNDERGROUND JEBUSITE TUNNEL AT GIHON, JERUSALEM -(_after Vincent_).] - -[Illustration: FIG. 242. MAUDSLEY'S SCARP, JERUSALEM.] - - -PLATE 83 - -[Illustration: FIG. 243. PLAN OF SOLOMON'S BUILDINGS, JERUSALEM (_after -Stade_).] - -[Illustration: FIG. 244. PHOENICIAN QUARRY-MARKS, JERUSALEM (_after -Warren_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - - -PLATE 84 - -[Illustration: FIG. 245. SHAFT AT THE SOUTHEAST CORNER OF THE TEMPLE AREA -(_after Warren_). - -_By permission of Palestine Exploration Fund._] - -[Illustration: FIG. 246. EXAMINING ANCIENT WALLS IN AN UNDERGROUND TUNNEL -(_after Warren_). - -_By permission of Palatine Exploration Fund._] - - -PLATE 85 - -[Illustration: FIG. 247. FRONT VIEWS OF SOLOMON'S TEMPLE (_after Stade_).] - -[Illustration: FIG. 248. SIDE VIEWS OF SOLOMON'S TEMPLE (_after Stade_).] - - -PLATE 86 - -[Illustration: FIG. 249. PLAN OF SOLOMON'S TEMPLE (_after Stade_).] - -[Illustration: FIG. 250. THE SEVEN-BRANCHED LAMP-STAND FROM THE ARCH OF -TITUS.] - - -PLATE 87 - -[Illustration: FIG. 251. THE BRAZEN LAVER OF SOLOMON'S TEMPLE (_after -Stade_).] - -[Illustration: FIG. 252. A PORTABLE LAVER OF SOLOMON'S TEMPLE (_after -Stade_).] - - -PLATE 88 - -[Illustration: FIG. 253. STONE-WORK OF A WALL OF JERUSALEM BUILT IN THE -FIFTH CENTURY A. D.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 254. STONE-WORK IN NEHEMIAH'S WALL, JERUSALEM.] - - -PLATE 89 - -[Illustration: FIG. 255. RESTORATION OF THE ASMONAEAN BRIDGE OVER THE -TYROPOEON VALLEY (_after Hanauer_).] - -[Illustration: FIG. 256. FRONT OF "DAVID'S TOWER" (HEROD'S PALACE) TODAY -(_after Breen_).] - - -PLATE 90 - -[Illustration: FIG. 257. RECONSTRUCTION OF HEROD'S TEMPLE (_after -Caldecott_).] - -[Illustration: FIG. 258. "SOLOMON'S STABLES."] - - -PLATE 91 - -[Illustration: FIG. 259. ONE OF THE SUPPOSED POOLS OF BETHESDA (_after -Hanauer_).] - -[Illustration: FIG. 260. FRONT OF THE CHURCH OF THE HOLY SEPULCHER.] - - -PLATE 92 - -[Illustration: FIG. 261. "GORDON'S CALVARY," LOOKING TOWARD JERUSALEM -(_after Breen_).] - -[Illustration: FIG. 262. "GORDON'S CALVARY," FROM THE CITY WALL (_after -Breen_).] - - -PLATE 93 - -[Illustration: FIG. 263. OUTSIDE OF "GORDON'S HOLY SEPULCHER" (_after -Breen_).] - -[Illustration: FIG. 264. INSIDE OF "GORDON'S HOLY SEPULCHER" (_after -Breen_).] - - -PLATE 94 - -[Illustration: FIG. 265. THE BARADA (ABANA), DAMASCUS.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 266. THE STREET CALLED STRAIGHT, DAMASCUS.] - - -PLATE 95 - -[Illustration: FIG. 267. PALACE AT KANATHA (_after Bruennow_).] - -[Illustration: FIG. 268. CIRCULAR FORUM AND COLONNADED STREET, GERASA.] - - -PLATE 96 - -[Illustration: FIG. 269. TEMPLE OF THE SUN, GERASA.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 270. SITE OF RABBAH AMMON.] - - -PLATE 97 - -[Illustration: FIG. 271. THEATER AT AMMAN (PALESTINIAN PHILADELPHIA).] - -[Illustration: FIG. 272. ROMAN FORUM AT ATHENS.] - - -PLATE 98 - -[Illustration: FIG. 273. MARS' HILL, ATHENS.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 274. FOUNTAIN IN THE AGORA, CORINTH.] - - -PLATE 99 - -[Illustration: FIG. 275. LINTEL OF JEWISH SYNAGOGUE, CORINTH (_after -Richardson_).] - -[Illustration: FIG. 276. LECHAEUM ROAD, CORINTH (_after Richardson_).] - - -PLATE 100 - -[Illustration: FIG. 277. PARTHENON, ATHENS, FROM THE EAST.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 278. MAIN STREET AT EPHESUS.] - - -PLATE 101 - -[Illustration: FIG. 279. SITE OF THE TEMPLE OF DIANA, EPHESUS, IN 1902.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 280. THE THEATER, EPHESUS.] - - -PLATE 102 - -[Illustration: FIG. 281. THE AMPHITHEATER, EPHESUS.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 282. THE STADIUM, EPHESUS.] - - -PLATE 103 - -[Illustration: FIG. 283. PERGAMUM (_after Ramsay_).] - -[Illustration: FIG. 284. THE ACROPOLIS AND PARTLY EXCAVATED TEMPLE, SARDIS -(_after Butler_).] - - -PLATE 104 - -[Illustration: FIG. 285. EXCAVATED TEMPLE, SARDIS, LOOKING TOWARD THE -HERMUS VALLEY (_after Butler_).] - - -PLATE 105 - -[Illustration: FIG. 286. A CHRISTIAN CHURCH AT SARDIS (_after Butler_).] - -[Illustration: FIG. 287. SMYRNA (_after Ramsay_).] - - -PLATE 106 - -[Illustration: FIG. 288. A RUIN AT LAODICEA (_after Ramsay_).] - -[Illustration: FIG. 289. A BRIDGE OVER THE JORDAN ON THE LINE OF A ROMAN -ROAD.] - - -PLATE 107 - -[Illustration: FIG. 290. FRAGMENT OF A CREATION-TABLET.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 291. ASSYRIAN SACRED TREE CONVENTIONALIZED.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 292. HAMMURAPI RECEIVING THE LAWS FROM THE SUN-GOD.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 293. THE SO-CALLED ADAM AND EVE SEAL.] - - -PLATE 108 - -[Illustration: FIG. 294. A TABLET FROM NIPPUR. RELATING THE BEGINNINGS OF -IRRIGATION AND AGRICULTURE (_after Langdon_).] - -[Illustration: FIG. 295. TOP OF THE BLACK OBELISK OF SHALMANESER.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 296. JEHU OF ISRAEL DOING HOMAGE TO SHALMANESER.] - - -PLATE 109 - -[Illustration: FIG. 297. THE SILOAM INSCRIPTION.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 298. SENNACHERIB RECEIVING TRIBUTE AT LACHISH (_after -Ball_).] - - -PLATE 110 - -[Illustration: FIG. 299. AN ALTAR TO UNKNOWN GODS (_after Deissmann_).] - -[Illustration: FIG. 300. THE MOABITE STONE.] - - -PLATE 111 - -[Illustration: FIG. 301. PAPYRUS CONTAINING SAYINGS OF JESUS (_after -Grenfell and Hunt_).] - - -PLATE 112 - -[Illustration: Jerusalem of Solomon] - -[Illustration: Early Jerusalem] - - -PLATE 113 - -[Illustration: Jerusalem from Uzziah to the Exile] - -[Illustration: Jerusalem of Nehemiah] - - -PLATE 114 - -[Illustration: Asmonaean Jerusalem] - -[Illustration: Jerusalem of Herod and of Christ] - - - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[1] _Century Dictionary_, edition of 1903, Vol. I, p. 293. - -[2] The chronology of Archbishop Usher, printed in the margin of many -Bibles, is not a part of the Biblical text, but a collection of -seventeenth century calculations and guesses. - -[3] For fuller accounts of the history of Egypt, see Breasted's _History -of the Ancient Egyptians_, New York, Scribner's, 1908; or Breasted's -_History of Egypt_, second edition, 1909, New York, Scribner's. - -[4] See Petrie, _Hyksos and the Israelite Cities_, London, 1906. - -[5] See Naville, _The Store-City of Pithom and the Route of the Exodus_, -4th ed., London, 1903. - -[6] See Petrie, _Hyksos and the Israelite Cities_, p. 28, f. - -[7] See Petrie, _The Palace of Apries_, London, 1909. - -[8] See Petrie, _Hyksos and the Israelite Cities_, p. 191, ff. - -[9] See _Annals of Archaeology and Anthropology_, VII, Liverpool, 1914, pp. -1-10. - -[10] So called from the name of the mountain on which it is written. - -[11] First published by Hilprecht, _Babylonian Expedition of the -University of Pennsylvania_, Vol. XX, No. 47; cf. p. 46. - -[12] See Poebel, _Historical and Grammatical Texts_, Philadelphia, 1914, -Nos. 2-5, and _Historical Texts_, Philadelphia, 1914, pp. 73-140. - -[13] It is the prevailing view of scholars that Arabia was the cradle-land -of the Semites. The reasons for this view as well as a _resume_ of other -views will be found in G. A. Barton's _Sketch of Semitic Origins, Social -and Religious_, New York, 1902, Chapter I. - -[14] In Gen. 10:11 it is by implication said that the city was founded by -Nimrod. - -[15] For a discussion of the reasons for the view here stated, and a -presentation of other views, see Part II, p. 374, ff. - -[16] The Chaldaeans were a Semitic people who came into the marsh-lands of -southern Babylonia from Arabia. We can first detect their presence in -Babylonia about 1000 B. C. - -[17] Those who desire fuller accounts of the history should read L. W. -King's _History of Sumer and Akkad_, London, 1910, and R. W. Rogers' -_History of Babylonia and Assyria_. 2d ed., New York, 1915. - -[18] In the _Mitteilungen der vorderasiatischen Gesellschaft_, 1899, Heft. -4. - -[19] In the _Mitteilungen der vorderasiatischen Gesellschaft_, 1900, Hefte -4 and 5. - -[20] See Pumpelly, _Explorations in Turkestan_, Washington, 1908, I, p. -50, f. - -[21] See L. W. King, _Chronicles Concerning Early Babylonian Kings_, -London, 1907, Vol. II, p. 22. - -[22] _History of Egypt_, II. 404, 405. - -[23] _Expository Times_, November, 1914, p. 91. - -[24] _Asien und Europa nach altaegyptischen Denkmaelern_, 319, note 3. - -[25] _Ancient Records, Egypt_, I, 227, 228. - -[26] Breasted's _Ancient Records, Egypt_, II, Sec. 773. - -[27] Winckler in _Mitteilungen der vorderasiatischen Gesellschaft_, 1913, -Heft 4, p. 81. - -[28] _Itineraire de Paris a Jerusalem_, Paris, 1811. - -[29] _Travels in Syria_, 1821. - -[30] _Souvenirs, impressions, el paysages, pendant un voyage en Orient_, -Paris, 1835. - -[31] For a more complete account see F. J. Bliss, _The Development of -Palestine Exploration_, New York, 1906. - -[32] See _Official Report of the United States Expedition to Explore the -Dead Sea and the River Jordan_, Baltimore, 1852. - -[33] See his "Identification of Pisgah" in the third _Statement_ of the -American Exploration Society, 1870. - -[34] See his _East of the Jordan_, New York, 1883. - -[35] Warren's results were first published in _The Recovery of Jerusalem_, -London, 1870, and more fully in _Jerusalem_, London, 1889, one of the -Memoirs of the Palestine Exploration Fund. The arch mentioned is called -"Robinson's Arch," because its significance was first perceived by -Robinson. - -[36] _Across the Jordan_, London, 1886; _Jaulan_, London, 1886, and -_Abila, Pella, and Northern Aijlun_, London, 1889. - -[37] _Die Provincia Arabia_, Strassburg, 1904-1909 (3 volumes). - -[38] _Petra_, Leipzig, 1908, and _Neu-Petra Forschung_, Leipzig, 1912. - -[39] _Archaeological Researches in Palestine_, London, 1896-1899. - -[40] _Geology of Palestine and Arabia Petraea_, London, 1886. - -[41] See Petrie, _Tell el-Hesy (Lachish)_, London, 1891. - -[42] See his _Mound of Many Cities_, London, 1894. - -[43] See Bliss, _Excavations at Jerusalem_, London, 1898. - -[44] An artificially made precipice on which a fortress once stood. It is -named from an Englishman, Maudsley, who first perceived its true nature. - -[45] Bliss and Macalister, _Excavations in Palestine during the Years -1898-1900_, London, 1902. - -[46] See his _Archaeological Researches in Palestine_, II, p. 251, f. - -[47] This is the period called by Petrie and Bliss "Seleucid." - -[48] See Macalister, _The Excavation of Gezer_, London, 1912, II, 381-403. - -[49] _Ibid._, 406-408. - -[50] _Ibid._, I, 256-268. - -[51] See Macalister, _The Excavation of Gezer_, London, 1912, II, 200-223. - -[52] _Ibid._, 236-266. - -[53] See the _Annual_ of the Palestine Exploration Fund, Vols. I and II, -for the details here given, and for many others. - -[54] _Zeitschrift des deutschen Palaestina-Vereins._ - -[55] See _Zeitschrift des deutschen Palaestina-Vereins_, V, pp. 7-204. - -[56] See Schumacher und Steuernagel, _Tell el-Mutesellim_, Leipzig, 1908. - -[57] Sellin, _Tell Taanek_, Wien, 1904. - -[58] See _Mitteilungen der deutschen Orient-Gesellschaft_, No. 29, Berlin, -1905, p. 14, f. - -[59] See Sellin und Watzinger, _Jericho_, Leipzig, 1913. - -[60] See _Journal of Biblical Literature_, Vol. XXII, Boston, 1903, pp. -164-182; XXIV, 196-220; XXV, 82-95. - -[61] See _Harvard Theological Review_, Cambridge, Mass., I, 1908, p. 92. - -[62] _Ibid._, II, 102-113; III, 136-138, 248-263. - -[63] Josephus, _Antiquities of the Jews_, xiii, 10, 2 and 3; _Wars of the -Jews_, i, 2, 7. - -[64] _Revue biblique_, 1912 (Paris), pp. 86-116. - -[65] _Biblical World_, Vol. XXXIX, Chicago, 1912, pp. 295-306. - -[66] See Germer-Durand in _Revue biblique_, 1914, pp. 71-94, and -Frontispiece. - -[67] See _Quarterly Statement_ of the Palestine Exploration Fund, October, -1914, p. 167, f. Additional material on Ophel and Balata is given in the -Appendix, p. 446. - -[68] First noticed by Prof. George L. Robinson, of McCormick Seminary, -Chicago, and afterward by Prof. Samuel Ives Curtis, of the Chicago -Theological Seminary; see Chapter XI, p. 173, f. - -[69] Discovered in 1902 by Dr. J. P. Peters and Dr. Thiersch; see their -_Painted Tombs of Marissa_, London, 1905. - -[70] Reference should also be made to the expedition from Princeton -University, referred to on p. 107, led by Prof. H. C. Butler, which went -out in 1899-1900, in 1904-1905, and in 1909, and examined the ruins in the -Hauran (or region east of the Sea of Galilee), in the Lebanon Mountains, -and in that part of Syria to the east of Lebanon. The expedition gathered -many inscriptions, most of which belong to the Christian period. The -results of this exploration are published in _The Publications of an -Archaeological Expedition to Syria in 1899-1900_, New York, 1904, and -_Publications of the Princeton Archaeological Expeditions to Syria in -1904-1905 and 1909_, Leyden, 1908-1914. - -[71] See R. A. S. Macalister, _History of Civilization in Palestine_, -Cambridge University Press, 1912, pp. 10, 11. - -[72] See Barton, _A Year's Wandering in Bible Lands_, Philadelphia, 1904, -p. 143. - -[73] See Barton, in the _Biblical World_, Chicago, 1904, Vol. XXIV, p. -177. - -[74] See Conder, _Survey of Eastern Palestine_, I, pp. 125-277, and -Mackenzie in the _Annual_ of the Palestine Exploration Fund, I, pp. 5-11. - -[75] See Gen. 14:5; 15:20. - -[76] See H. S. Cowper, _The Hill of the Graces, a Record of Investigation -among the Trilithons and Megalithic Sites of Tripoli_, London, 1897, and -Brandenburg, _Ueber Felsarchitektur im Mittelmeergebiet_ in _Mitteilungen -der Vorderasiatischen Gesellchaft_, 1914. - -[77] See the _Annals of Archaeology and Anthropology_, Vol. V, Liverpool, -1913, pp. 112-128. - -[78] See Macalister, _The Excavation of Gezer_, I, 72-152. - -[79] See Macalister, _The Excavation of Gezer_, I, 145-152. - -[80] _Ibid._, 236, ff. - -[81] R. A. S. Macalister, _Bible Side-lights from the Mound of Gezer_, -London, 1906, Chapter II. - -[82] See P. E. Mader in _Zeitschrift des deutschen Palaestina-Vereins_, -Vol. XXXVII, 1914, pp. 20-44. - -[83] See Amos 4:4; 5:5. - -[84] See Dr. Masterman, in _Biblical World_, XXXIX, 301, f. - -[85] See the legend concerning him translated in Part II, p. 310, f. - -[86] See Clay, _Amurru_, Philadelphia, 1909, pp. 102, 103. - -[87] See _Recueil de travaux relatifs a phil. et a arch. egpt. et assyr._, -XXXIV, 105-108. - -[88] See Breasted, _Ancient Records, Egypt_, Vol. I, Chicago, 1906, Sec. 315. - -[89] See Chapter II, p. 59. - -[90] Translated in Part II, p. 313, f. - -[91] See Part II, p. 293. - -[92] See Part II, p. 290, ff. - -[93] See Part II, p. 299, ff. - -[94] See Breasted, _Ancient Records, Egypt_, I, p. 233, f. - -[95] See Barton, _Commentary on Job_, New York, 1911, pp. 5-7, and -Breasted, _Ancient Records, Egypt_, I, p. 238, note _a_. - -[96] See Breasted, _Ancient Records, Egypt_, Sec. 680, and Barton in _Journal -of Biblical Literature_, Vol. XXVIII, p. 29. - -[97] Macalister, _Excavation of Gezer_, I, 238-243 and 253. - -[98] _Tell el-Mutesellim_, Tafeln, vii-xi. - -[99] See Chapter IV, p. 96. - -[100] See Chapter II, p. 59, f. - -[101] See Chapter I, p. 28. - -[102] See Chapter III, p. 75, f. - -[103] See Chapter IV, pp. 89, 91. - -[104] See Breasted, _Ancient Records, Egypt_, III, Sec. 616. - -[105] Translated from W. Max Mueller's publication in the _Mitteilungen der -vorderasiatischen Gesellschaft_, 1907, Heft 7. - -[106] Hammath means "hot." - -[107] See Chapter I, p. 29. - -[108] See pp. 79, 80, and 345. - -[109] See the letters of its king translated in Part II, p. 345, f. - -[110] Chapter XIII. - -[111] See Chapter III, p. 78, f. - -[112] See Part II, p. 349, f. - -[113] See Breasted's _History of Egypt_, New York, 1909, p. 414. - -[114] See Breasted's _Ancient Records, Egypt_, III. Secs. 81 and 140. - -[115] Translated from W. Max Mueller's _Egyptological Researches_, -Washington, 1906, pl. 59, ff. - -[116] See Part II, p. 311. - -[117] See Sir Arthur Evans. _Scripta Minoa_, Oxford, 1909, pp. 280, 282, -and R. A. S. Macalister in the _Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy_, -Vol. XXX, Sec. C, p. 342; also his _Philistines, Their History and -Civilization_, London, 1913, pp. 84, 85. - -[118] See _Sitzungsberichte of the Berlin Academy_, 1909, p. 1022, f. - -[119] Caphtor is the same as _Keftiu_ of the Egyptian inscriptions, but it -is uncertain whether _Keftiu_ refers to Crete or Asia Minor. - -[120] Translated from W. Max Mueller's _Egyptological Researches_, I, pl. -64, f. - -[121] See Macalister, _The Excavation of Gezer_, I, p. 21. - -[122] See p. 99. - -[123] See p. 95. - -[124] See the books of I and II Samuel. - -[125] See Chapters VI, IX, and XI. - -[126] See Part II, Chapter XVII. - -[127] See Part II, p. 385, f. - -[128] See J. A. Montgomery, _The Samaritans, the Earliest Jewish Sect, -Their History, Theology, and Literature_, Philadelphia, 1907. - -[129] For the narrative of the struggle, see the book of I Maccabees, and -S. Mathews, _History of the New Testament Times in Palestine_, New York, -1908. - -[130] See I Macc. 14:41. - -[131] For details see Guy Le Strange, _Palestine Under the Moslems_, -London, 1890. - -[132] For details see C. R. Conder, _The Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem_, -London, 1897. - -[133] See Chapter XIV. - -[134] See p. 94. - -[135] On these walls, see Macalister, _Excavation of Gezer_, I, 236-256. - -[136] Petrie, _Tell el-Hesy_, p. 17 and Plates 2 and 3. - -[137] See his _Tell Taanek_, p. 13. - -[138] See p. 96 and Fig. 41. - -[139] See p. 91. - -[140] _Harvard Theological Review_, III, 137. - -[141] Palestine Exploration Fund's _Annual_, II, 17, f. - -[142] Sellin and Watzinger's _Jericho_, p. 29, f. and Tafel I. - -[143] _Ibid._, 54, ff. - -[144] See Macalister, _Excavation of Gezer_, I, 244. - -[145] See Dickie, in _Quarterly Statement_ of Palestine Exploration Fund, -1897, 61-67. - -[146] These remarks about the house are based on the excavation at Gezer. -The excavators of other sites have not given as much attention to the -construction of houses as Mr. Macalister did. - -[147] Sellin, _Tell Taanek_, p. 21. - -[148] One of these is translated in Part II, p. 350. - -[149] See the writer's article, "Corners," in Hastings' _Encyclopaedia of -Religion and Ethics_, Vol. IV 119, ff. - -[150] Sellin, _Tell Taanek_, p. 61. - -[151] Schumacher, _Tell el-Mulesellim_, pp. 45, 54. - -[152] See Macalister, _The Excavation of Gezer_, I, 240. - -[153] In 2 Sam. 12:27 we should read "pool of waters" instead of "city of -waters"; see Barton in _Journal of Biblical Literature_, XXVII, 147-152. - -[154] See Polybius, V, 71. - -[155] Josephus, _Jewish Wars_, I, xix, 5, ff. - -[156] For the conflicting evidence and theories, see G. A. Smith, -_Jerusalem_, I, 124-131. - -[157] Josephus, _Antiquities_, XVIII, iii, 2. - -[158] See p. 85. - -[159] See Thomsen in _Zeitschrift des deutschen Palaestina-Vereins_, XXVI, -170, ff. - -[160] See Chapter XIV. - -[161] See Macalister, _Excavation of Gezer_, I, 199, f; II, 22, ff. - -[162] See Macalister, _Excavation of Gezer_, II, 22, f. - -[163] The reader who cares to pursue the subject is referred to -Macalister's _Excavation of Gezer_, II, 48, ff., and Sellin's _Tell -Taanek_, 61, f., and Bliss and Macalister's _Excavations in Palestine_, -1898-1900, pp. 193, 196, f., 208, 227, and 248. - -[164] See Macalister, _Excavation of Gezer_, II, 1-15. - -[165] See Pumpelly, _Excavations in Turkestan_, Washington, 1908, p. 384, -f. - -[166] See Schumacher, _Mutesellim_, p. 89. - -[167] Ward, _Seal Cylinders of Western Asia_, p. 422, and Nos. 554, 556, -1126, and 1254. - -[168] See Dr. John P. Peters' article "The Cock" in the _Journal of the -American Oriental Society_, Vol. XXXIII, pp. 363-396. - -[169] See Peters and Thiersch, _The Painted Tombs of Marissa_, London, -1905. - -[170] See Sellin, _Tell Taanek_, 61, f. - -[171] Especial mention may be made of the following: Petrie, _Tell -el-Hesy_; Bliss and Macalister, _Excavations in Palestine, 1898-1900_, -Part II; Vincent, _Canaan d'apres l'exploration recente_, Paris, 1907, -Chapter V, and Macalister, _The Excavation of Gezer_, II, 128-231. - -[172] A "button" handle is a "ledge" handle made into a round knob. - -[173] See Macalister, _Excavation of Gezer_, II, 158. - -[174] See Chapter V, p. 115, f., and Figs. 108, 109. - -[175] For discussions of the subject, see Bliss and Macalister, -_Excavations in Palestine, 1898-1900_, 106-123; Macalister in the -_Quarterly Statement_ of the Palestine Exploration Fund, 1905, 243 and -328; also _Excavation of Gezer_, II, 209, ff., and Vincent, _Canaan -d'apres l'exploration recente_, pp. 357-360. - -[176] See Sellin, _Jericho_, p. 156. - -[177] For a fuller discussion of children's toys, see Rice, _Orientalisms -in Bible Lands_, pp. 49-58. - -[178] An early Christian writer, born in 315, died in 403 A. D., who was -bishop of Salamis in Cyprus. - -[179] From this equivalence the reader can easily compute the value which -the intermediate measures would have according to this theory. The -multiples of the Log which formed the Cab, etc., are given above. - -[180] See Pere Germer-Durand, "Mesures de capacite des Hebreux au temps de -l'evangile" in _Conferences de Saint-Etienne_, Paris, 1910, pp. 89-105, -and Fig. 185. - -[181] The Jewish name for an offering to God. (See Mark 7:11.) - -[182] "Mana" is both the Babylonian and the Hebrew term. In English it has -usually been corrupted to "Mina." - -[183] Some scholars understand MENE to be such a reference. - -[184] The weight is now in the library of Haverford College, near -Philadelphia. - -[185] The words rendered "the price was a _pim_" are translated in the -Authorized Version, "they had a file," margin, "a file with mouths"; in -the Revised Version, "they had a file," margin, or "when the edges ... -were blunt." The Revisers add, "The Hebrew text is obscure." The Hebrew -word rendered "file" and "blunt" comes from a root that means "to -prescribe" or "appoint." It could easily mean the "established price," but -can mean neither "file" nor "blunt." _Pim_ means "mouths" and is employed -figuratively for "edges," but neither of those meanings fits the passage. -The discovery of these weights has cleared up the whole obscurity. This -interpretation was suggested by Pilcher in the _Palestine Exploration Fund -Quarterly Statement_, 1914, p. 99. - -[186] See Macalister, _Excavation of Gezer_, II, 279. - -[187] See Macalister, _ibid._, pp. 278-293. - -[188] See Bliss and Macalister, _Excavations in Palestine_, 1898-1900, p. -61. - -[189] See Macalister, _Excavation of Gezer_, II, 291. - -[190] See Breasted, _Ancient Records, Egypt_, II, Secs. 436, 489, 490, 518, -and _History of Egypt_, 2d ed., pp. 277, 307. - -[191] See Schrader's _Keilinschriftliche Bibliothek_, I, 105 (cl. III, -62). - -[192] See C. H. W. Johns, _Assyrian Deeds and Documents_, I, Nos. 38, 39, -40, 41, 44, 45, 46, 50, and 108; cf. also III, 8. - -[193] See Hill, _Catalogue of the Greek Coins of Palestine_, London, 1914, -p. xciii, ff. - -[194] Cf. Luke 21:2. - -[195] The temples of Solomon, Zerubbabel, and Herod are treated in Chapter -XIII, on Jerusalem. - -[196] See Macalister, _The Excavation of Gezer_, I, 102; II, 378, ff. - -[197] See Schumacher, _Tell el-Mutesellim_, 156, ff. - -[198] In Gen. 22:9 Abraham, we are told, built the altar. He did not, -therefore, intend to use the rock-altar. The analogy of this altar with -the other two is not quite complete. It appears to have no cup-marks on -its surface. - -[199] See Bliss and Macalister, _Excavations in Palestine, 1898-1900_, p. -31, ff. - -[200] See Macalister, _The Excavation of Gezer_, I, 51, 105-107; II, -381-404. - -[201] See Part II, p. 364. - -[202] See C. H. Toy, _Introduction to the History of Religions_, Boston, -1913, Secs. 250, 257. - -[203] _Tell Taanek_, p. 68, ff. - -[204] See Part II, p. 442. - -[205] For descriptions of this high place, see the article by its -discoverer, George L. Robinson, in the _Biblical World_, XVII, 6-16; by S. -I. Curtis in the _Quarterly Statement_ of the Palestine Exploration Fund, -October, 1900, pp. 350-355; Savignac in _Revue biblique_, 1903, 280-284; -Libby and Hoskins, _The Jordan Valley and Petra_, New York, 1905, II, 172, -ff.; Bruennow and Domaszewski, _Provincia Arabia_, Vol. I, Strassburg, -1904, 239-245; Dalman, _Petra_, Leipzig, 1908, 56-58. - -[206] See the writer's _A Year's Wandering in Bible Lands_, Philadelphia, -1904, pp. 193, 194. - -[207] Those interested in them will find them described in Bruennow and -Domaszewski's _Provincia Arabia_, I, 246, ff., and in Dalman's _Petra_, -142, 225, 272, etc. - -[208] See Macalister, _Excavation of Gezer_, II, 405, ff. - -[209] Schumacher, _Tell el-Mutesellim_, 110-124. - -[210] Schumacher, _Tell el-Mutesellim_, 105-110. - -[211] _Ibid._, 125-130. - -[212] See _Harvard Theological Review_, II, 102-113; III, 248-263. - -[213] See Josephus, _Antiquities of the Jews_, XV, viii, 5, and _Wars of -the Jews_, I, xxi, 2. - -[214] See especially Fig. 269. - -[215] See Chapter V, p. 105. - -[216] See Macalister, _Excavation of Gezer_, I, 286. - -[217] _Ibid._, p. 122, f. - -[218] Palestine Exploration Fund's _Annual_, II, 42, ff. - -[219] For a Babylonian parallel, see Part II, p. 423, ff. - -[220] See Macalister, _Excavation of Gezer_, II, 429, f. - -[221] See _Biblical World_, Vol. XXIV, p. 177. - -[222] See Macalister, _Excavation of Gezer_, I, 288, f. - -[223] _Ibid._, 289, ff. - -[224] See Bliss and Macalister, _Excavations in Palestine, 1898-1900_, p. -9, ff. - -[225] So called because of a tradition that the members of the Sanhedrin -were buried there. The tradition probably arose because the _kokim_ and -shelves make provision for seventy bodies. - -[226] See _Journal of Biblical Literature_, XXII, 1903, p. 164, ff. - -[227] See Josephus, _Antiquities of the Jews_, XX, ii, 1; iv, 3. - -[228] See Peters and Thiersch, _Painted Tombs at Marissa_, London, 1905. - -[229] All who can do so should read George Adam Smith's _Jerusalem from -the Earliest Times to A. D. 70_, New York, 1908, and Hughes Vincent's -_Jerusalem_, Paris, 1912. Or, if this is not possible, L. B. Paton's -_Jerusalem in Bible Times_, Chicago, 1905. - -[230] See Dr. Masterman in the _Biblical World_, Vol. XXXIX, p. 295, f. - -[231] See Part II, Chapter XV, Letter V, and the writer's note in the -_Biblical World_, XXII, p. 11, n. 5. - -[232] See _Biblical World_, XXXIX, 306. - -[233] See Part II, Chapter XV. - -[234] See Chapter VI, Sec. 8. - -[235] Some scholars think the words are a distorted repetition of "in -Millo," which was accidentally repeated by a scribe. - -[236] Bliss and Dickie, _Excavations at Jerusalem_, 1894-1897, _passim_, -and p. 319, ff. - -[237] For "Bethso," see Josephus, _Wars of the Jews_, V, iv, 2. - -[238] See J. E. Hanauer, _Walks about Jerusalem_, London, 1910, 88, 89. - -[239] The writer is well aware that the name Moriah for this part of the -hill rests on slender evidence, but he employs it nevertheless as a -convenient term, since it is well understood by readers of the Bible. - -[240] Warren and Conder, _Jerusalem_, pp. 148-158. - -[241] See Chapter XI, p. 168. - -[242] _Wars of the Jews_, V, v, 1. - -[243] So Stade, _Geschichte des Volkes Israels_, Berlin, 1889, I, 314, and -G. A. Smith, _Jerusalem_, II, 60. - -[244] In giving the dimensions of the various temples, the writer has -followed the calculations of George Adam Smith in his _Jerusalem_. W. Shaw -Caldecott has published four volumes, one on the _Tabernacle_, one on -_Solomon's Temple_, one on the _Second Temple_, and one on _Herod's -Temple_, in which he claims to have discovered a key that harmonizes all -the Biblical statements as to the measurements of these structures. His -supposed key is his belief that the Babylonians had three different cubits -which they used side by side, that these cubits were known to Moses, and -that their use was perpetuated in the temple. Should these pages be read -by one who has accepted that claim as true, it is but fair that he be -informed that Caldecott's whole system is based upon a misinterpretation -of a Babylonian tablet that was published in Rawlinson's _Cuneiform -Inscriptions of Western Asia_, Vol. IV, p. 37. (See _Tabernacle_, pp. -107-139, and _Solomon's Temple_, pp. 215, 216.) This tablet contains a -table of time and of distances. The unit of time in Babylonia was a -_kaskal-gid_. An astronomical tablet published thirty years ago in the -book most widely used by beginners in Assyrian says that at the equinox -"six _kaskal-gid_ was the day, six _kaskal-gid_ the night." The -_kaskal-gid_ was, then, a period of two hours' duration. Just as in many -countries the word for "hour" is used for distance, and a place is said to -be so many "hours" away, so in Babylonia and Assyria _kaskal-gid_ was used -as a measure of distance. The tablet referred to gives a table of the ways -of writing fractions of _kaskal-gid_ and its other divisions in the -simplest of the two Babylonian numerical systems. The Assyriologist learns -from this tablet that 1 _kaskal-gid_ (the distance of two hours) equalled -30 _ush_, that 1 _ush_ equalled 60 _gar_, that 1 _gar_ equalled 12 _u_ or -cubits, and that 1 _u_ equalled 60 _shu_ or "fingers." Caldecott, however, -mistook the sign _gid_ for a numeral five, the sign _kaskal_ for a word -meaning "ell," and the word _u_ meaning "cubit" for a sign signifying -"plus"! He accordingly makes _gar_ a "palm"; _shu_, a "three-palm ell"; -_ush_, a "four-palm ell," and _kaskal-gid_, a "five-palm ell"! His whole -system is without foundation. - -Tables similar to the one published by Rawlinson were compiled in the -scribal school at Nippur. One was published without translation by -Hilprecht in 1906 in the _Babylonian Expedition of the University of -Pennsylvania_, Vol. XX, and interpreted by the present writer in 1909 in -_The Haverford Library Collection of Cuneiform Tablets_, Part II, pp. -13-18. The writer has examined other similar tablets in the University -Museum, Philadelphia. - -[245] See Chapter IX, p. 151. According to I Kings 7:48, there was a -"golden altar" here also, but as this is not mentioned in chapter 6 many -scholars think that it is a post-exilic gloss, introducing a feature from -the second temple. - -[246] _Antiquities of the Jews_, VIII, v, 2. - -[247] See translation, Part II, p. 377. - -[248] See Bliss, _Excavations at Jerusalem_, pp. 96-109. - -[249] See G. A. Smith, _Jerusalem_, I, 226. For another view, see Paton, -_Journal of Biblical Literature_, XXV, 1-13. - -[250] See G. A. Smith, _Jerusalem_, II, Chapters X and XI. - -[251] See Chapter II, p. 66; also Part II, p. 385, f. - -[252] Ezra 5:16 states that Sheshbazzar laid the foundations of the house -in the reign of Cyrus, but as Haggai and Zechariah give no hint of this, -many scholars think there must be some error in the text. - -[253] _Antiquities of the Jews_, XIII, xiii, 5. - -[254] See the Mishnah, _Middoth_ 3:6. - -[255] _Excavations at Jerusalem_, 16, ff. - -[256] See Josephus, _Antiquities of the Jews_, XI, vii, 1; cf. also G. A. -Smith, _Jerusalem_, II, 358-361. - -[257] See Josephus, _Antiquities of the Jews_, XII, i. - -[258] See Ecclesiasticus iii-v, vii, ix, xxiii, xxv, ff., and xxviii. - -[259] See Eccles. 50:1-4. - -[260] Cf. Josephus, _Antiquities of the Jews_, XII, v, 1. - -[261] See Selah Merrill, _Ancient Jerusalem_, New York, 1908, pp. 83-88. - -[262] See G. A. Smith, _Jerusalem_, II, 447-452. - -[263] Josephus, _Antiquities of the Jews_, XII, v, 1. - -[264] Josephus, _Antiquities of the Jews_, XIII, vi, 7. - -[265] See Chapter V, p. 119. - -[266] Josephus, _Antiquities of the Jews_, XV, xi, 4; XVIII, iv, 3. - -[267] Josephus, _Antiquities of the Jews_, XX, viii, 11; _Wars of the -Jews_, II, xvi, 3. - -[268] Merrill, _Ancient Jerusalem_, p. 88. - -[269] Josephus, _Antiquities of the Jews_, XIV, iv, 2, and Fig. 255. - -[270] Because its identity as a part of this bridge was first perceived by -Prof. Edward Robinson, of Union Seminary, New York. - -[271] Josephus, _Wars of the Jews_, I, vii, 2. - -[272] Warren and Conder, _Jerusalem_, 178, f. - -[273] See Chapter VI, p. 131. - -[274] Quoted by Alexander Polyhistor and Eusebius; see G. A. Smith, -_Jerusalem_, II, 462. - -[275] Josephus, _Antiquities of the Jews_, XIII, xiii, 5. - -[276] _Ibid._, XIV, ii, 1. - -[277] _Ibid._, XIV, iv, 2. - -[278] _Ibid._, XIV, xiii, 3, 4, 5. - -[279] _Ibid._, XIV, xv, 2; xvi. - -[280] _Ibid._, XV, viii, 5. - -[281] Josephus, _Wars of the Jews_, V, iv, 3. - -[282] _Ibid._, V, iv, 4. (See Fig. 256.) - -[283] Josephus, _Antiquities of the Jews_, XVII, ix, 3; _Wars of the -Jews_, II, ii, 2; xiv, 8. - -[284] Colonel Conder, the late Dr. Merrill, Georg Gatt, Dr. Rueckert, and -Dr. Mommert. - -[285] Josephus, _Antiquities of the Jews_, XV, viii, 1. - -[286] See _Quarterly Statement_ of the Palestine Exploration Fund, 1887, -p. 161, ff. Dr. Schick calls it an amphitheater, but it is simply a -theater of the Greek type. - -[287] Josephus, _Antiquities of the Jews_, XV, xi, 2. - -[288] Josephus, _Antiquities of the Jews_, XX, ix, 7. - -[289] _Ibid._, XV, xi, 3. - -[290] Above it was a chamber 30 cubits high. - -[291] Josephus, _Wars of the Jews_, V, v, 6. - -[292] See Josephus, _Wars of the Jews_, V, v, and the Mishna tract -_Middoth_ for the authority for this description. For a fuller -description, see G. A. Smith, _Jerusalem_, II, Chapter XVIII. - -[293] See Chapter VI, p. 131. - -[294] That is, the "Pool of Israel." - -[295] _Wars of the Jews_, V, iv, 2. - -[296] The city, restored under the heathen name of AElia Capitolina by the -Emperor Hadrian in 135 A. D., made Christian by Constantine in 325, sacked -by the Persian Chosroes in 614, taken by the Arabs in 636, captured after -many vicissitudes in 1072 by the Seljuk Turks, made by the First Crusade -the seat of the Latin kingdom of Jerusalem from 1099 to 1187, when Saladin -took it, was once more after many other vicissitudes captured by the -Ottoman Turks in 1517. - -[297] _Historia Naturalis_, V, xviii, 74. - -[298] Josephus, _Wars of the Jews_, I, vii, 7. - -[299] See Chapter V, p. 111. - -[300] See Schuerer, _Geschichte des Juedischen Volkes im Zeitalter Jesu -Christi_, Leipzig, 1907, II, 172, and note 321. - -[301] See Josephus, _Antiquities of the Jews_, XII, iv, 5. - -[302] See Barton, _A Year's Wandering in Bible Lands_, Philadelphia, 1904, -p. 176. - -[303] See Neubauer, _Geographie du Talmud_, Paris, 1868, 238-240. - -[304] Josephus, _Antiquities of the Jews_, XII, viii, 4. - -[305] Bruennow and Domaszewski, _Provincia Arabia_, III, 107-144, and Fig. -267. - -[306] See Polybius, V, 71. - -[307] Josephus, _Antiquities of the Jews_, XIII, xiii, 3. - -[308] Schuerer, _Geschichte des Juedischen Volkes im Zeitalter Jesu -Christi_, 4th ed., II, 1907, p. 175. - -[309] Neubauer, _Geographie du Talmud_, 274. - -[310] See Merrill, _East of the Jordan_, New York, 1883, 184, ff. and 442, -f.; also Schumacher, _Across the Jordan_, London, 1886, p. 272, f. - -[311] Merrill, _ibid._, 298, and G. A. Smith, _Historical Geography of the -Holy Land_, map. - -[312] So Bruennow and Domaszewski, _Provincia Arabia_, III, 264. - -[313] Josephus, _Wars of the Jews_, I, iv, 8. - -[314] See Merrill, _East of the Jordan_, 281-284; Schumacher in -_Zeitschrift des deutschen Palaestina-Vereins_, XXV, 1912, 111-177; Bruennow -and Domaszewski, _Provincia Arabia_, II, 234-139; Barton, _A Year's -Wandering in Bible Lands_, 158, f. - -[315] See Polybius, V, 71. - -[316] See 2 Sam. 12:27 and Barton in the _Journal of Biblical Literature_, -XXVII, 147-152. - -[317] See Josephus, _Wars of the Jews_, I, xix, 5. - -[318] See Merrill, _East of the Jordan_, 399, ff.; Schumacher, _Across the -Jordan_, 308; Bruennow and Domaszewski, _Provincia Arabia_, II, 216-220, -and Barton, _A Year's Wandering in Bible Lands_, 155, f. - -[319] Ramsay, _St. Paul the Traveller and Roman Citizen_, New York, 1896, -243, ff. - -[320] See Farnell, _Cults of the Greek States_, II, Oxford, 1896, 618-699. - -[321] See _American Journal of Archaeology_, 2d series, II, 133, f.; III, -204, f.; IV, 306, f.; VI, 306, f, 439, f.; X, 17, f., and XIV, 19, f. - -[322] See Benjamin Powell in _American Journal of Archaeology_, 2d series, -VII, 60, f., and Fig. 275. - -[323] See Ramsay's article "Ephesus" in Hastings' _Dictionary of the -Bible_, Vol. II, p. 721, f., for further details. - -[324] Book II, 1. 868. - -[325] See Hogarth's _Ionia and the East_, Oxford, 1909, p. 45, f. - -[326] See _De Neocoria_, p. 38. - -[327] See Ramsay in Hastings' _Dictionary of the Bible_, III, 750. - -[328] Wood, _Discoveries at Ephesus_, London, 1877. See Fig. 279. - -[329] Hogarth, _Excavations at Ephesus_, London, 1908. - -[330] See Couze (and others), _Ausgrabungen zu Pergamos_, Berlin, 1880, -and Thraemer, _Pergamos_, Leipzig, 1888; also F. E. Clark, _The Holy Land -of Asia Minor_, New York, 1914, p. 67, f. - -[331] See Bousset, _Die Offenbarung des Johannes_, Goettingen, 1896, p. -245, ff.; Ramsay, _The Letters to the Seven Churches_, New York, 1905, -283, ff., and Moffat in _The Expositor's Greek Testament_, Vol. V, New -York, 1910, p. 355, f. - -[332] See Ramsay, _The Church and the Roman Empire_, New York, 1893, p. -252, f. - -[333] Josephus, _Antiquities of the Jews_, XII, iii, 1. - -[334] See Ramsay, _Letters to the Seven Churches_, p. 325, ff. - -[335] See Butler in _American Journal of Archaeology_, 2d series, Vol. -XVIII, 1914, p. 428. - -[336] Book, I, 7. - -[337] See Herbig's article, "Etruscan Religion," in Hastings' -_Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics_, Vol. V, New York, 1912, p. 532, ff. - -[338] _American Journal of Archaeology_, Vol. XVII, 1912, p. 474. - -[339] Barton, _A Year's Wandering in Bible Lands_, 76-79. - -[340] See _American Journal of Archaeology_, Vols. XIV-XVIII, and Fig. 285. - -[341] _Ibid._, XV, 452. - -[342] _Ibid._, XV, 457. - -[343] _Ibid._, XVI, 475, ff., and Fig. 286. - -[344] See "Altar (Christian)" in Hastings' _Encyclopaedia of Religion and -Ethics_, Vol. I, p. 338, f. - -[345] _Ecclesiastical History_, X, 4. - -[346] See Barton, _A Year's Wandering in Bible Lands_, p. 71. - -[347] See Chapter XIV, p. 217, f. - -[348] Ramsay, _Letters to the Seven Churches_, 407, ff. - -[349] _Ibid._, 410, ff. - -[350] See Curtius, _Philadelphia_, Berlin, 1873, and Barton, _A Year's -Wandering in Bible Lands_, 79, ff. - -[351] Ramsay, _Letters to the Seven Churches_, 25, 1. - -[352] See Ramsay, _Letters to the Seven Churches_, 257 and 274, ff. - -[353] See Barton, _A Year's Wandering in Bible Lands_, p. 82. - -[354] See Ramsay, _The Cities and Bishoprics of Phrygia_, Oxford, 1895, p. -32, f. - -[355] See Ramsay, _Letters to the Seven Churches_, 424, ff. - -[356] See F. E. Clark, _The Holy Land of Asia Minor_, New York, 1914, p. -145, f. - -[357] Other translations of this epic have been made. The most important -are as follows: Zimmern, in Gunkel's _Schoepfung und Chaos_, pp. 401, ff.; -Delitzsch, _Das Babylonische Weltschoepfungsepos_ (Abhandlungen der -saechsischen Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften, Bd. XVII, 1896); Muss-Arnolt, -in _Assyrian and Babylonian Literature_, Aldine ed., edited by R. F. -Harper; Jensen in Schrader's _Keilinschriftliche Bibliothek_, Bd. VI; L. -W. King, _The Seven Tablets of Creation_; Dhorme, _Choix de textes -religieux assyrobabyloniens_; Ungnad, in Gressman's _Altorientalische -Texte und Bilder zum Alten Testament_; Rogers, _Cuneiform Parallels to the -Old Testament_. A fragment of this tablet is shown in Fig. 290. - -[358] That is, Sea and Abyss, mentioned in lines 3 and 4. Apsu was the -waters underneath the dry land and Tiamat the salt sea. - -[359] _I. e._, the spirits of earth. - -[360] Another name for Tiamat. - -[361] Marduk's temple in Babylonia. - -[362] _I. e._, the captive gods of line 27. - -[363] The name which the Babylonians gave themselves. - -[364] Translated from _Cuneiform Texts from Babylonian Tablets in the -British Museum_, Part XIII, p. 35, ff. - -[365] Translated from Rawlinson's _Cuneiform Inscriptions of Western -Asia_, IV, 2d. ed., pl. 32, lines 28-38. - -[366] See _Proceedings of the Society of Biblical Archaeology_, Vol. XXVI, -pp. 51-56. - -[367] _Miscellaneous Inscriptions in the Yale Babylonian Collection_, New -Haven, 1916, Nos. 46-51. - -[368] Translated from _Recueil de Traveaux_. XX, 127, ff.; Winckler and -Abel's _Thontafelnfund von El-Amarna_, No. 240, _Keilinschriftliche -Bibliothek_, VI, p. xvii, f., and _Proceedings of the Society of Biblical -Archaeology_, XVI, 294, f. - -[369] The lines 14a, etc., are supplied from a parallel tablet. - -[370] Translated from Poebel, _Historical and Grammatical Texts_, -Philadelphia, 1914, No. 2. From the beginning of each column 16 to 18 -lines are broken away. - -[371] The sun-god. - -[372] Perhaps "palm-tree-fertilizer" instead of hunter. It is not the -usual ideogram for hunter, but one element stands for "hand" and the other -for "female flower of the date palm." (See Barton, _The Origin and -Development of Babylonian Writing_, Nos. 311({12}) and 303({6}).) - -[373] Seven lines are broken away from the end of the column. - -[374] The subject-matter shows that several columns are entirely broken -away. Dr. Poebel estimates that Column IV was originally Column X. If this -is true, six columns are entirely lost. Of Column IV, only a few lines out -of the middle remain. - -[375] A number of lines are lost at the end of the column. - -[376] Numbers 3, 4, and 5. - -[377] Poebel reads the name _Arpi_, apparently because in another -fragmentary tablet he thinks the name is _Arbum_, but both Poebel's copy -and the photograph of the tablet indicate that the reading was _A-ri-pi_. -The writer has endeavored to settle the matter by collating both tablets, -but both have unfortunately crumbled too much to make collation decisive. - -[378] Sumerian words which begin with a vowel, when they are taken over -into Hebrew, assume a guttural at the beginning. Thus the Sumerian AS-TAN, -"one," which became in Semitic Babylonian _istin_, comes into Hebrew as -_'este_ with an Ayin at the beginning. (See Jer. 1:3 and elsewhere.) -_Ayin_ in Semitic phonetics frequently changes to Heth. (See Brockelmann's -_Vergleichende Grammatik der Semitischen Sprachen_, I, Sec. 55, b, [Greek: -a].) In accordance with these facts AN-KU came into Hebrew as _Henok_. - -[379] He is mentioned in Zimmern's _Ritualtafeln fuer den Wahrsager_, -Leipzig, 1901, No. 24:1, ff., as the discoverer of the art of forecasting -events by pouring oil on water. - -[380] Poebel has shown, _Historical Texts_, 114, that EN-ME designates a -hero or special kind of priest. _Mutu_ in Semitic means both "man" and "a -kind of priest"; cf. Muss-Arnolt, _Assyrisch-Englisch-Deutsches -Handwoerterbuch_, 619, 620, and Knudtzon, _El-Amarna Tafeln_, No. 55, 43. -_Mutu_ was a popular element in Semitic proper names about 2000 B. C., -but later ceased to be employed. - -[381] The sign _kam_ Poebel failed to recognize. It is No. 364[Hebrew] of -Barton's _Origin and Development of Babylonian Writing_. It is sometimes -employed in early texts instead of other signs which had the values _ka_ -or _kam_. Here it is used for sign No. 357 of the work referred to. - -[382] Langdon makes the suggestion (_Sumerian Epic of Paradise, the Flood, -and the Fall of Man_, Philadelphia, 1915, p. 56, note 7) that Lamech is -the Sumerian LUMHA, an epithet of the Babylonian god Ea as the patron of -music. A more plausible theory would be that Lamech is a corruption of a -king's name, as suggested above, and after it was corrupted it was -confused with the name of the Sumerian god LAMGA, the constructive god, -whose emblem was the sign for carpenter. (See Barton, work cited, No. -503.) - -[383] See Meissner, _Seltene assyrische Ideogramme_, No. 1139. - -[384] See Barton, work cited, No. 275{(5)}. IN is the Sumerian verb -preformative. - -[385] See Delitzsch, _Sumerisches Glossar_, p. 262, f. - -[386] See Barton, work cited, No. 229{(18)}. - -[387] Jared might, of course, be a corruption of Irad (see p. 270). It -could have arisen by the wearing away of the Hebrew letter _Ayin_. - -[388] See his _Unity of the Book of Genesis_, New York, 1895, Chapter II. - -[389] See Rawlinson's _Cuneiform Inscriptions of Western Asia_, II, 59, -rev. 9, and Zimmern's _Babylonischer Gott Tamuz_, p. 13. - -[390] _Proceedings of the Society of Biblical Archaeology_, XV, 243-246. - -[391] _Expository Times_, X, 253. - -[392] See Chapter VI, p. 273. - -[393] _Historical Texts_, p. 42. - -[394] Rawlinson's _Cuneiform Inscriptions of Western Asia_, V, 44, 17b. -The Semitic name of this king is also said to have been Tabu-utul-bel. He -is the one whose fortunes correspond so closely to those of Job. (See -Chapter XX.) - -[395] See Meissner, _Seltene assyrische Ideogramme_, No. 6945. - -[396] Translated from Haupt's _Das Babylonische Nimrodepos_, p. 134, f. - -[397] The sun. - -[398] The spirits of heaven. - -[399] Or two accounts of the same event. - -[400] Translated from A. Poebel's _Historical and Grammatical Texts_ in -the University of Pennsylvania's "University Museum's publications of the -Babylonian Section," Vol. V, Philadelphia, 1914, No. 1. - -[401] Often called Bel. - -[402] Called Ea, p. 273. - -[403] A term by which the Semites of Babylonia designated themselves. The -Sumerians shaved their heads. - -[404] See Part II, Chapter VI, line 21, ff. - -[405] _I. e._, the sun. - -[406] See p. 277. - -[407] Translated from Langdon, _The Sumerian Epic of Paradise, the Flood, -and the Fall of Man_, Philadelphia, 1915, Plates I and II. Langdon, as his -title shows, regards the text as a description of Paradise, the flood, and -the fall of man,--a view that the present writer cannot share. Dilmun is -the name of the Babylonian Paradise, but the signs rendered Dilmun are not -the ones employed to express that name. For the rest the text seems to -describe the coming of rains, the beginnings of irrigation and -agriculture, and the revelation of the medicinal qualities of certain -plants. See _The Nation_, New York, November 18, 1915, pp. 597, ff. (For -the tablet, see Fig. 294.) - -[408] Apparently another name of Ninshar. - -[409] In Sumerian the goddess Nintulla. - -[410] In Sumerian the goddess Ninkasi. - -[411] In Sumerian the goddess Dazima. - -[412] In Sumerian, Nintil. - -[413] In Sumerian, Enshagme. - -[414] See his _Sumerian Epic of Paradise, the Flood, and the Fall of Man_, -p. 56. - -[415] Translated from _Vorderasiatische Schriftdenkmaeler der koeniglichen -Museen zu Berlin_, VII. No. 92. - -[416] _Vorderasiatische Schriftdenkmaeler der koeniglichen Museen zu -Berlin_, VII, No. 198. - -[417] _Ibid._, VII, No. 97. - -[418] Since this manuscript was sent to the printer, another Abraham has -been found in some tablets in the Yale University Collection. - -[419] Breasted, _Ancient Records, Egypt_, IV, pp. 352, 353. (See p. 360.) - -[420] See _Beitraege zur Assyriologie_, V, p. 498, no. 23; cf. p. 429, ff. - -[421] King, _Letters and Inscriptions of Hammurabi_, Vol. I, No. 66. - -[422] Some scholars suppose that the writer of the account in Genesis had -before him a source in the cuneiform writing in which the "pi" at the end -of Hammurapi's name was spelled with a sign that could be read either "pi" -or "pil" (see Barton, _Origin and Development of Babylonian Writing_, -Leipzig, 1913, No. 185), and that the _l_ was attached in consequence of a -misreading of this sign. That, however, admits corruption, though it -attempts to explain its cause. - -[423] _Cuneiform Texts, &c., in the British Museum_, XXI, 33. - -[424] It was until recently not known that Arad-Sin and Rim-Sin were -different persons, and some thought the king might be called either -Rim-Sin or Eri-aku (Arioch, Gen. 14:1). It is possible that Arad-Sin may -have been called Ari-aku in Sumerian, but it is improbable. It is now -known that Arad-Sin died 30 years before Hammurapi came to the throne. -With our present knowledge it is difficult to see how Arioch could be the -name of Rim-Sin unless Rim-Sin be read partly as Semitic and partly as -Sumerian and then considerably corrupted. - -[425] The text was published by Pinches in the _Journal of Transactions of -the Victoria Institute_, Vol. XXIX, 82, 83; cf. emendations by L. W. King, -_Letters and Inscriptions of Hammurabi_, Vol. I, p. li, ff. Sayce has also -translated them, filling out the lacunae by freely exercising the -imagination, in the _Proceedings of the Society of Biblical Archaeology_, -XXVIII, 203-218, 241-251, and XXIX, 7-17. - -[426] This could be read _Kudurkumal_. - -[427] _Cuneiform Texts, &c., in British Museum_, IV, 33, 22b. - -[428] Meissner, _Altbabylonisches Privatrecht_, 36, 25. - -[429] _Cuneiform Texts_, VIII, 25, 22. - -[430] _Ibid._, II, 9, 26. - -[431] Cf. _Mittheilungen der Vorderasiatischen Gesellschaft_, 1907, p. 27. - -[432] _Cuneiform Texts, &c., in the British Museum_, II, 23, 15. - -[433] _Mittheilungen der vorderasiatischen Gesellschaft_, 1907, p. 23. - -[434] Taken from Griffith's translation in Petrie's _Egyptian Tales_, -second series, London, 1895, p. 36, ff. - -[435] The sun-god. - -[436] Cf. Part I, p. 35. - -[437] Winckler und Abel, _Thontafelnfund von El-Amarna_, No. 40. Cf. -Knudtzon, _Die El-Amarna Tafeln_, No. 158. - -[438] Winckler und Abel, _Thontafelnfund von El-Amarna_, No. 38. See also -Knudtzon, _Die El-Amarna Tafeln_, No. 164. - -[439] Translated from the German rendering of Ranke in Gressmann's -_Altorientalische Texte und Bilder zum Allen Testament_, Tuebingen, 1909, -p. 223. - -[440] See his _Sieben Jahre der Hungersnot_, 1891. - -[441] From Brugsch's _Egypt under the Pharaohs_, London, 1881, I, 303, ff. - -[442] From Breasted's _Ancient Records, Egypt_, I, p. 237, ff. - -[443] An Egyptian name of the northern extension of the Gulf of Suez. - -[444] Some Egyptian trading-post in Asia. - -[445] An early name for the region east of the Jordan and the Dead Sea. It -is called Kedemah in Gen. 25:15 and 1 Chron. 1:30; Kedemoth in Deut. 2:26, -and translated "East" in Judges 6:3, 33; 7:12; 8:10, 11. In Gen. and -Chron. the name is applied to a person. - -[446] This is an Amorite name, Ammi-anshi. It shows that the Amorites were -already in this region. Later the Hebrews found Sihon, the Amorite here; -see Num. 21:21, ff. and Deut. 1:4, ff. - -[447] The Egyptian name for the higher parts of Palestine and Syria. The -Egyptians had no _l_; they always used _r_ instead. The name is identical -with the Hebrew Lotan, Gen. 36:20, of which Lot is a shorter form. - -[448] Perhaps the same name as Aiah (Ajah) of Gen. 36:24 and 1 Chron. -1:40. - -[449] From _Cuneiform Texts, &c., in the British Museum_, XIII, 42; cf. -also King, _Chronicles of Early Babylonian Kings_, II, 87, ff. - -[450] Another tablet reads "a father I had not." - -[451] A name for the Semitic peoples of Babylonia. - -[452] An island in the Persian Gulf. - -[453] Taken from Breasted's _Ancient Records, Egypt_, III, p. 264, ff. - -[454] That is, the foreign nations. - -[455] That is, Lybia, which lay to the west of the Egyptian Delta. - -[456] That is, the Hittites. - -[457] "The Canaan" refers to the land of Canaan, probably here Phoenicia. - -[458] Yenoam was a town situated at the extreme north of Galilee, just at -the end of the valley between the two ranges of the Lebanon mountains. - -[459] Translated from the cuneiform text in Harper's _Code of Hammurabi_, -and Ungnad's _Keilschrifttexte der Gesetze Hammurabis_. - -[460] The mana consisted of sixty shekels. Tn English it is corrupted to -_mina_. - -[461] The nature of these officials is in doubt. Scheil and others think -the first a recruiting-officer; Delitzsch and Ungnad, a soldier. The name -of the second officer is literally fish-catcher, but it is certain that -here he was some kind of a fisher of men. - -[462] Such as plowing, or the young plants early in the season. - -[463] At this point five columns of the pillar are erased. It is estimated -that 35 sections of the laws are thus lost. Sec. 66 is added from a fragment -found at Susa. - -[464] Translated from Poebel, _Historical and Grammatical Texts_, -Philadelphia, 1914, No. 93, col. ii. - -[465] Translated from _ibid._, col. iii. - -[466] The translation, "be brought to the judges," has no warrant in the -Hebrew. - -[467] Since Deut. 15:18 says that such a slave has served "double the hire -of a hireling," Dr. Johns thinks that it betrays a knowledge of the -Babylonian three-year regulation. This seems, however, quite -problematical. - -[468] In a marriage contract on a papyrus from the Jewish colony at -Elephantine in Egypt, written in the fifth century B. C., it is provided -that the wife may institute divorce proceedings on an equality with the -husband. Some Jewish women thus secured by contract that which the law did -not grant them. Christ assumed such cases among Palestinian women; see -Mark 10:12. - -[469] From the _Corpus Inscriptionum Semiticarum_, I, No. 165. - -[470] It is the word so translated in Deut. 33:10. - -[471] So rendered in Lev. 7:13; 10:14. Many scholars would render it -"thank-offering." - -[472] Compare Exod. 29:13, 14. The Hebrew law differed from the -Carthaginian. - -[473] This is the rendering of the Revised Version for this word. The -Authorized Version rendered it less accurately "meat-offering." - -[474] Each temple had a number of officials connected with it besides the -priests, such as carpenters, gate-keepers, slaughterers, barbers, -Sodomites, and female slaves. Another Phoenician inscription mentions -these. - -[475] See Part I, Chapter I. Sec. 7 (3). - -[476] From Winckler und Abel's _Thontafelnfund von El-Amarna_, No. 73. Cf. -Knudtzon, _Die El-Amarna Tafeln_, No. 84. - -[477] The letter takes up assertions made by Rib-Adda in previous letters. - -[478] Winckler und Abel, _op. cit._, No. 77, Knudtzon, _op. cit._, No. -103. - -[479] These "sons of Ebed-Ashera" are mentioned in many other letters. - -[480] Winckler und Abel, _op. cit._, No. 174, and Knudtzon, _op. cit._, -No. 286. - -[481] Winckler und Abel, No. 102; Knudtzon, 286. - -[482] Winckler und Abel, _op. cit._, No. 103; Knudtzon, _op. cit._, No. -287. - -[483] Winckler und Abel, No. 104; Knudtzon, No. 288. - -[484] Winckler und Abel, No. 105 plus No. 199; Knudtzon, No. 289. - -[485] Winckler und Abel, No. 106; Knudtzon, No. 290. - -[486] The tablet reads Beth-Ninib, but scholars are agreed that it refers -to Beth-shemesh. - -[487] For the text cf. Hilprecht, _Old Babylonian Inscriptions_, No. 17. -See also Knudtzon, _El-Amarna Tafeln_, No. 333. - -[488] Published by Hrozny in Sellin's _Tell-Taanek_, pp. 115 and 121. - -[489] In the Babylonian script, _Ahi-ya-mi_. - -[490] See the writer's article, "Yahweh before Moses," in _Studies in the -History of Religions Presented to C. H. Toy_, especially pp. 188-191. - -[491] Taken from Breasted's _Ancient Records, Egypt_, IV, pp. 278, ff. - -[492] "She" refers to Tentamon, the queen. - -[493] These statements are taken from Breasted's _Ancient Records, Egypt_, -IV. Secs. 44, 81, and 82. - -[494] See Evans, _Scripta Minoa_, Oxford, 1909, pp. 22, ff., 273, ff. - -[495] See R. A. S. Macalister, _The Philistines, Their History and -Civilization_, London, 1913, p. 83, ff. - -[496] See Sarzec, _Decouvertes en Chaldee_, p. ix, col. v, 28, ff. See -also Thureau-Dangin, _Les inscriptions de Sumer et d' Akkad_, Paris, 1905, -p. 109, and his _Sumerischen und akkadischen Koenigsinschriften_, Leipzig, -1907, p. 68, f. - -[497] _Ibid._, col. vi, 3, ff. - -[498] Translated from W. Max Mueller's _Egyptological Researches_, -Washington, D. C., 1906, Plates 75-87, with a comparison of Breasted's -_Ancient Records_, IV, pp. 350-354. - -[499] See Le Gac, _Les Inscriptions d' Assur-nasir-aplu III_, Paris, 1908, -p. 111, line 84, ff.; cf. also Rogers, _Cuneiform Parallels to the Old -Testament_, New York, 1912, p. 277, ff. - -[500] The text is published in Rawlinson's _Cuneiform Inscriptions of -Western Asia_, III, 7, 8. These lines are at the bottom of p. 8. Cf. also -Craig, _Hebraica_, III, 220, ff., and Rogers, _Cuneiform Parallels to the -Old Testament_, 295, ff. - -[501] From Layard's _Inscriptions in the Cuneiform Character from the -Assyrian Monuments_, London, 1851, p. 15. Cf. Delitzsch in _Beitraege zur -Assyriologie_, VI, 146. - -[502] Layard, _op. cit._, line 84, ff. - -[503] Layard, _op. cit._, line 90, ff. - -[504] _Ibid._, line 99, ff. - -[505] From Rawlinson's _Cuneiform Inscriptions of Western Asia_, III, 5, -No. 6. The text is also published in Delitzsch's _Assyrische Lesestuecke_, -4th ed., p. 51, ff. - -[506] The cliff at the mouth of the Dog river, a short distance north of -Beirut. This portrait, with that of Ramses II and other kings, may still -be seen carved in the cliff. - -[507] From Abel und Winckler's _Keilschrifttexte_, Berlin, 1890, p. 12. - -[508] Layard. _op. cit._, p. 10, line 102, ff. - -[509] Messerschmidt, _Keilschrifttexte aus Assur historischen Inhalts_, -Leipzig, 1911, No. 30, line 13, ff. Cf. Langdon's translation _Expository -Times_, Vol. XXIII, 1911, p. 69; also Rogers, _Cuneiform Parallels_, p. -298, ff. - -[510] Translated from Smend and Socin's _Die Inschrift Mesa von Moab_, -Freiburg I. B., 1886. Cf. also Lidzbarski, _Nordsemitische Epigraphik_, -Weimar, 1898, Tafel I; G. A. Cooke, _North Semitic Inscriptions_, Oxford, -1903, p. 1, ff.; Davis, in _Hebraica_, VII (1891), 178-182; Bennett, _The -Moabite Stone_, Edinburgh, 1911; and Hastings, _Dict. of the Bible_, III, -406, ff. - -[511] In Joshua the name appears as Bamoth-baal. - -[512] Translated from Rawlinson's _Cuneiform Inscriptions of Western -Asia_, Vol. I, p. 35, No. 1. Cf. also Rogers, _Cuneiform Parallels to the -Old Testament_, p. 305, ff., and the references there given to other -translations. - -[513] Translated from Rawlinson's _Cuneiform Inscriptions of Western -Asia_, III, 9, No. 2, with a comparison of Rost, _Die Keilschrifttexte -Tiglathpilesers III_. - -[514] Translated from Rawlinson, _ibid._, No. 3. - -[515] Translated from Layard, _Inscriptions in the Cuneiform Character_, -with a comparison of Rost, _op. cit._ - -[516] From Rawlinson, _op. cit._, 10, No. 2, with a comparison of Rost, -_op. cit._ - -[517] From Rawlinson, _op. cit._, Vol. II, p. 67. - -[518] From Winckler's _Keilschrifttexte Sargons_, p. 1, line 10, f. - -[519] Translated from Winckler. _op. cit._, p. 30, No. 64, 23, f. - -[520] _Ibid._, pp. 1, 2, beginning at p. 1, No. 2, line 10. - -[521] _Ibid._, p. 48, line 8, ff. - -[522] From Winckler, _op. cit._, p. 31, lines 27, ff. and 33, ff. - -[523] _Ibid._, p. 33, line 90, ff. - -[524] From Winckler's work previously cited, p. 44. - -[525] From Abel und Winckler's _Keilschrifttexte_, p. 18, col. ii, 34, ff. - -[526] From Winckler's _Keilschrifttextbuch_, 1892, p. 36. - -[527] From Abel und Winckler's _Keilschrifttexte_, p. 17, line 9, ff. - -[528] From _Vorderasiatische Schriftdenkmaeler der koeniglichen Museen zu -Berlin_, I, 75. - -[529] _Keilinschriften und das Alte Testament_, 1872, 168, ff. - -[530] Meinhold, _Die Jesaiaerzaehlungen_, Jes. 36-39, 1898. - -[531] Winckler, _Alttestamentliche Untersuchungen_, 1892, pp. 27-50. - -[532] Prasek, _Sanheribs Feldzuege gegen Juda_, 1903. - -[533] In _Bibliotheca Sacra_, LXIII (1906), 577-634. - -[534] _Cuneiform Parallels to the Old Testament_, 1912, 332-340. - -[535] _Historical Geography of the Holy Land_, 158, ff. - -[536] Translated from a facsimile in the Kautzsch-Gesenius, _Hebraische -Grammatik_, 1902. - -[537] Translated from Rawlinson's _Cuneiform Inscriptions of Western -Asia_, Vol. III, p. 16, col. v, line 12, ff. - -[538] _Ibid._, Vol. V, 2, 49, f. - -[539] _Ibid._, 9, 115, f. - -[540] From Breasted's _Ancient Records, Egypt_, IV, 498. - -[541] Translated from Rawlinson's _Cuneiform Inscriptions of Western -Asia_, I, 33, col. ii, line 12, ff. - -[542] Translated from Pognon, _Les inscriptions babyloniennes du Wadi -Brissa_, Pl. xiii, f., and _Recueil de traveaux relatifs a la philologie -et a l'archeologie egyptiennes et assyriennes_, XXVIII, 57. See also -Langdon, _Neubabylonischen Koenigsinschriften_, 174, ff. - -[543] Translated from the _Zeitschrift fuer Assyriologie_, I, 337, f. - -[544] See Part I, Chapter II, p. 46, f. - -[545] This is the reading of the margin in R. V., and correctly translates -the original. He was not walking "in" the palace, but upon its flat roof, -from which he could see the great city. - -[546] From de Morgan's _Delegation en Perse_, Vol. XIV, p. 60. - -[547] From Rawlinson's _Cuneiform Inscriptions of Western Asia_, V, 68, -No. 1. - -[548] From _Transactions of the Society of Biblical Archaeology_, VII, 157, -f. - -[549] From _Transactions of the Society of Biblical Archaeology_, VII, 162, -f., and Clay, _Light on the Old Testament from Babel_, 374, f. - -[550] See _Expository Times_. Vol. XXVI, 297-299 (April, 1915). - -[551] _Babylonian Texts from the Yale Collection_, No. 39. - -[552] From Rawlinson's _Cuneiform Inscriptions of Western Asia_, V, 35. - -[553] Herodotus, Book II, 161. - -[554] Josephus professes to be quoting Manetho, and puts the incident in -the time of Ramses. Perhaps Aristeas in his letter refers to this colony, -when he speaks of Jewish soldiers. (See Kautzsch, _Apokryphen und -Pseudepigraphen_, II, 7.) - -[555] The documents have been published by Sayce and Cowley, _Aramaic -Papyri Discovered at Assuan_, London, 1906, and Sachau. _Aramaeische -Papyrus und Ostraka aus Elephantine_, Leipzig, 1911. Those translated here -are Nos. 1, 4, 6, and 11 of Sachau's publication. - -[556] Perhaps this disfavor arose in part from the fact that, as a papyrus -not translated here shows, two other deities were worshiped along with -Jehovah. - -[557] It is possible that the Elephantine colony were taken from northern -Israel. - -[558] Translated from the _Proceedings of the Society of Biblical -Archaeology_, X, 478, f., and Rawlinson's _Cuneiform Inscriptions_, IV, -60*. - -[559] Literally, "like opening and shutting." - -[560] Perhaps one of the antediluvian Babylonian kings. (See Part II, -Chapter IV.) The Sumerian form of his name was Laluralim and in -Rawlinson's _Cuneiform Inscriptions of Western Asia_, Vol. V, p. 44, 17b, -is glossed as Zugagib or "scorpion." Zugagib is one of the early kings of -Babylonia, who is said to have ruled 840 years. - -[561] Translated from S. Langdon's _Historical and Religious Texts from -the Temple Library of Nippur_, Munich, 1914, No. 16. - -[562] Translated from Haupt's _Akkadische und sumerische -Keilschrifttexte_, 116, ff., with comparison of Zimmern's _Babylonische -Busspsalmen_, 33, f. - -[563] Translated from Haupt's _Akkadische und Sumerische -Keilschrifttexte_, p. 122, f. - -[564] Translated from _Cuneiform Texts from Babylonian Tablets, &c., in -the British Museum_, Part XV, pp. 16, 17. - -[565] Translated from _Cuneiform Texts from Babylonian Tablets, &c. in the -British Museum_, XV, 10. - -[566] An epithet of the inhabitants of Babylonia. - -[567] Taken from Breasted's _Religion and Thought in Ancient Egypt_, p. -315, f. - -[568] A fabulous mountain beyond the western horizon, over which the sun -was believed to pass at evening. - -[569] Taken from Breasted's _Development of Religion and Thought in -Ancient Egypt_, p. 324, f. - -[570] There is a pun on the word Re; it is the same as "all." Such puns -are frequent in the Hebrew of the Old Testament prophets. - -[571] Compare Psa. 104:24. - -[572] Ikhnaton is the name adopted by Amenophis IV in connection with his -reform. It means "Aton's man." His old name meant "Amon is gracious" and -had heathen associations. On the sentiment of lines 120, 121, compare -Matt. 11:27. - -[573] See Weigall, _The Treasury of Ancient Egypt_, London, 1911, p. 206. - -[574] The first twenty are culled from a tablet in the British Museum, -published by Langdon in the _American Journal of Semitic Languages_, Vol. -XXVIII, 217-243, under the title "Babylonian Proverbs." For convenience -those quoted are numbered consecutively without reference to the parts -omitted. - -[575] Translated from Delitzsch's _Assyrische Lesestuecke_, 4th ed., p. -118, f. - -[576] Translated from Meissner's _Beitraege zum Altbabylonischen -Privatrecht_, p. 108. - -[577] Taken from Macmillan's translation, _Beitraege zur Assyriologie_, V, -557, ff. - -[578] The sun-god, the god of justice. - -[579] _Development of Religion and Thought in Ancient Egypt_, p. 231, f. -Breasted's references to the sections of the original text are here -omitted. - -[580] The Gilgamesh Epic is an early Babylonian poem in twelve tablets or -cantos. It is a collection of early legends and myths. The Babylonian -account of the flood, translated in Chapter VI (Part II), forms the -eleventh canto of it. - -[581] Translated from the _Mitteilungen der vorderasiatischen -Gesellschaft_, 1902, Heft 1, p. 8. - -[582] These are translated from the German rendering in W. Max Mueller's -_Liebpoesie der alten Aegypter_, Leipzig, 1899. - -[583] From Mueller, p. 15. - -[584] _Ibid._, p. 16. - -[585] From Mueller, _ibid._, p. 17. - -[586] Perhaps the name of a Nileometer station in the vicinity of Memphis. - -[587] Mueller, _ibid._, p. 22. - -[588] Mueller, _ibid._, p. 22. - -[589] Mueller, _ibid._, p. 23. - -[590] Married couples are usually so represented in Egyptian pictures. - -[591] The Egyptian is here followed, rather than the German. - -[592] Mueller, p. 24. - -[593] _Ibid._, p. 27. It describes a walk in a garden. - -[594] The garden again. - -[595] Translated from Rawlinson's _Cuneiform Inscriptions of Western -Asia_, III, 32, 16, f. - -[596] _I. e._, the thing thou hast prayed for. - -[597] Translated from the German of Vogelsang und Gardiner, _Klagen des -Bauern_, Leipzig, 1908. - -[598] The original contains a list of plants, stones, birds, etc., the -modern equivalents of which are not known. - -[599] See Gardiner in _Proceedings of the Society of Biblical Archaeology_, -XXXV, 269. - -[600] Taken from A. H. Gardiner's _Admonitions of an Egyptian Sage_, -Leipzig, 1909, pp. 19 and 39, f., pp. 69 and 78. - -[601] Translated from Rawlinson's _Cuneiform Inscriptions of Western -Asia_, Vol. IV, p. 31. - -[602] The spirits of earth. - -[603] Translated from _Cuneiform Texts from Babylonian Tablets, &c., in -the British Museum_, Part XV, 18. - -[604] These sayings are translated from Grenfell and Hunt's _Sayings of -Our Lord_, 1897, with a comparison of Lock and Sanday's _Two Lectures on -the Sayings of Jesus Recently Discovered at Oxyrhynchus_, 1897. - -[605] Translated from Grenfell and Hunt's _New Sayings of Jesus and -Fragment of a Lost Gospel from Oxyrhynchus_, 1904. - -[606] Compare John 21:24, 25. - -[607] Translated from Viereck's publication of the text in _Philologus_, -Vol. LII, 234, f. - -[608] These assessments, then, occurred in the following years: 174-5; -160-1; 146-7; 132-3; 118-9; 104-5; 90-1; 76-7; 62-3; 48-9; 34-5; 20-1; -6-7; 9-8 B. C. - -[609] From _Hermes_, XXVIII, 1893, p. 233. - -[610] Translated from Grenfell and Hunt's _Oxyrhynchus Papyri_, II, 1898, -p. 214. Kenyon, _Greek Papyri in the British Museum_, II, 19, thinks that -this cannot refer to a census because the term by which it is described is -different, but, as Grenfell and Hunt remark, the simpler term in the -papyri earlier than the year 61 A. D., indicates that we are nearer the -beginning of the institution of the census. - -[611] _Ibid._, p. 205; cf. p. 206. - -[612] _Ibid._, p. 282. - -[613] Translated from Kenyon and Bell's _Greek Papyri in the British -Museum_, Vol. III, 1907, p. 125. - -[614] Translated from the _Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum_, XIV, No. 3613. - -[615] Translated after Ramsay, _Expositor_, series 8. Vol. IV, 1912, p. -401. For Ramsay's opinions, see the article of which the inscription forms -a part. - -[616] Translated from Burton's publication in the _American Journal of -Theology_, II, 600. - -[617] Translated from _ibid._, p. 604. - -[618] Taken from Deissmann's _St. Paul_, p. 261, f. - -[619] Pausanias, i, 1:4, and v. 14:8. - -[620] Philostratus, _Vita Apollonii_, vi, 3. - -[621] Translated from Deissmann's _St. Paul_, pp. 246, 247. - -[622] See Deissmann's _St. Paul_, p. 248, ff. - -[623] Dio Cassius, lvii, 14, 5. - -[624] The most reliable chronologies of the life of Christ now place his -crucifixion not later than 30 A. D. - -[625] The original is in Berlin and the publication is not accessible to -the writer. The above translation is taken from that of J. Rendel Harris -in the _Expositor_, 5th series, Vol. VIII, p. 164. - -[626] Translated by J. Rendel Harris, _ibid._, p. 166. - -[627] 2 Cor. 11:32. - -[628] Translated from the _Corpus Inscriptionum Semiticarum_, Pars II, -Tom. I, Fasc. ii, No. 209. - -[629] _Ibid._, Pars II, Tom. I, Fasc. ii. No. 196. - -[630] Taken from Breasted, _Ancient Records, Egypt_, III, p. 7. - -[631] Taken from Breasted, _ibid._, p. 273. - -[632] See S. Schiffer, _Keilschriftliche Spuren in der zweiten Haelfte des -8ten Jahrhunderts von den Assyrern nach Mesopotamien deportierten -Samarier_, Berlin, 1907. - -The text of the Berlin tablets was published by Ungnad in -_Vorderasiatische Schriftdenkmaeler_, I, Leipzig, 1907, Nos. 84-94, 101, -104. Those in the British Museum, by Johns, in _Assyrian Deeds and -Documents_, I, Cambridge, 1898, Nos. 22, 69, 73, 74, 98, 153, 154, 170, -229, 234, 245, 312. - -[633] _Vorderasiatische Schriftdenkmaeler_, I, No. 88. 15. - -[634] See Rogers, _Cuneiform Parallels to the Old Testament_, New York, -1912, p. 226. - - - - -Transcriber's Notes: - -Passages in italics are indicated by _italics_. - -Passages in bold are indicated by =bold=. - -Superscripted characters are indicated by {superscript}. - -The original text contains letters with diacritical marks that are not -represented in this text version. - -The original text includes Greek characters that have been replaced with -transliterations in this text version. - -The original text includes Hebrew characters that are represented as -[Hebrew] in this text version. - - - - - - -End of Project Gutenberg's Archaeology and the Bible, by George A. 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