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diff --git a/43060-h/43060-h.htm b/43060-h/43060-h.htm index 9be478e..0e08a27 100644 --- a/43060-h/43060-h.htm +++ b/43060-h/43060-h.htm @@ -3,7 +3,7 @@ <head> <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content= - "text/html; charset=iso-8859-1" /> + "text/html; charset=UTF-8" /> <title> The Project Gutenberg eBook of Encyclopædia Britannica, Volume XVII Slice III - McKinley, William to Magnetism, Terrestrial. @@ -144,46 +144,7 @@ </style> </head> <body> - - -<pre> - -The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, -Volume 17, Slice 3, by Various - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org - - -Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 17, Slice 3 - "McKinley, William" to "Magnetism, Terrestrial" - -Author: Various - -Release Date: June 29, 2013 [EBook #43060] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. BRITANNICA, VOL 17 SL 3 *** - - - - -Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net - - - - - - -</pre> - - +<div>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 43060 ***</div> <table border="0" cellpadding="10" style="background-color: #dcdcdc; color: #696969; " summary="Transcriber's note"> <tr> @@ -235,7 +196,7 @@ McKinley, William to Magnetism, Terrestrial</h3> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar11">MACLEOD, NORMAN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar65">MADVIG, JOHAN NICOLAI</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar12">MACLISE, DANIEL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar66">MAECENAS, GAIUS</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar13">MACLURE, WILLIAM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar67">MAECIANUS, LUCIUS VOLUSIUS</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar14">MacMAHON, MARIE EDM PATRICE MAURICE DE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar68">MAELDUIN, VOYAGE OF</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar14">MacMAHON, MARIE EDMÉ PATRICE MAURICE DE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar68">MAELDUIN, VOYAGE OF</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar15">McMASTER, JOHN BACH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar69">MAELIUS, SPURIUS</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar16">MACMILLAN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar70">MAELSTROM</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar17">MACMONNIES, FREDERICK WILLIAM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar71">MAENADS</a></td></tr> @@ -248,8 +209,8 @@ McKinley, William to Magnetism, Terrestrial</h3> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar24">MACOMB</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar78">MAFFEI, FRANCESCO SCIPIONE</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar25">MACOMER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar79">MAFIA</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar26">MACON, NATHANIEL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar80">MAFRA</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar27">MCON</a> (town of France)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar81">MAGADHA</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar28">MACON</a> (Georgia, U.S.A.)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar82">MAGALDN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar27">MÂCON</a> (town of France)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar81">MAGADHA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar28">MACON</a> (Georgia, U.S.A.)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar82">MAGALDÁN</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar29">MACPHERSON, SIR DAVID LEWIS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar83">MAGALLANES</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar30">MACPHERSON, JAMES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar84">MAGAZINE</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar31">McPHERSON, JAMES BIRDSEYE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar85">MAGDALA</a></td></tr> @@ -260,13 +221,13 @@ McKinley, William to Magnetism, Terrestrial</h3> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar36">MACROOM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar90">MAGELLANIC CLOUDS</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar37">MACUGNAGA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar91">MAGENTA</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar38">MacVEAGH, WAYNE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar92">MAGGIORE, LAGO</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar39">MADCH, IMRE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar93">MAGIC</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar39">MADÁCH, IMRE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar93">MAGIC</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar40">MADAGASCAR</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar94">MAGIC SQUARE</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar41">MADAN, MARTIN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar95">MAGINN, WILLIAM</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar42">MADDALONI</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar96">MAGISTRATE</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar43">MADDEN, SIR FREDERIC</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar97">MAGLIABECHI, ANTONIO DA MARCO</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar44">MADDER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar98">MAGLIANI, AGOSTINO</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar45">MADEC, REN-MARIE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar99">MAGNA CARTA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar45">MADEC, RENÉ-MARIE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar99">MAGNA CARTA</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar46">MADEIRA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar100">MAGNA GRAECIA</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar47">MADELENIAN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar101">MAGNATE</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar48">MADELEY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar102">MAGNES</a></td></tr> @@ -555,7 +516,7 @@ Islands (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Hawaii</a></span>) in August 1 the Territory of Hawaii in April 1900; the cessation in 1899 of the tripartite (German, British, and French) government of the Samoan Islands, and the annexation by the United -States of those of the islands east of 171, including the harbour +States of those of the islands east of 171°, including the harbour of Pago-Pago; the participation of American troops in the march of the allies on Pekin in August 1900, and the part played by McKinley’s secretary of state, John Hay, in securing a @@ -863,8 +824,8 @@ Macklin as Shylock, and shouted their wish, in response to the manager’s question, to have him discharged. This was done in order to quell the riot. His lawsuit, well conducted by himself, against the leaders of the disturbance resulted in an award -of 600 and costs, but Macklin magnanimously elected instead -that the defendants should take 100 in tickets at three benefits—for +of £600 and costs, but Macklin magnanimously elected instead +that the defendants should take £100 in tickets at three benefits—for himself, his daughter and the management. He returned to Covent Garden, but his appearances thereafter were less frequent, ending in 1789, when as Shylock, at his benefit, he was @@ -952,10 +913,10 @@ victory of the allies had obliterated the memory of earlier disasters, he was, at the request of Prince Schwarzenberg, reinstated in the army as lieutenant field marshal and a member of the order of Maria Theresa. He died on the 22nd of October -1828 at S. Plten.</p> +1828 at S. Pölten.</p> <div class="condensed"> -<p>See Schweigerd, <i>Oesterreichs Helden</i> (Vienna, 1854); Wrzbach, +<p>See Schweigerd, <i>Oesterreichs Helden</i> (Vienna, 1854); Würzbach, <i>Biogr. Lexikon d. Kaiserthums Oesterr.</i> (Vienna, 1867); Ritter von Rittersberg, <i>Biogr. d. ausgezeichneten Feldherren d. oest. Armee</i> (Prague, 1828); Raumer’s <i>Hist. Taschenbuch</i> (1873) contains Mack’s @@ -1017,7 +978,7 @@ Scottish author and divine. The son of John Watson, a civil servant, he was born at Manningtree, Essex, on the 3rd of November 1850, and was educated at Stirling and at Edinburgh University, afterwards studying theology at New College, -Edinburgh, and at Tbingen. In 1874 he entered the ministry +Edinburgh, and at Tübingen. In 1874 he entered the ministry of the Free Church of Scotland and became assistant minister of Barclay Church, Edinburgh. Subsequently he was minister at Logiealmond in Perthshire and at Glasgow, and in 1880 he @@ -1318,7 +1279,7 @@ studies, etched or lithographed in outline, and touched more or less with the emphasis of the caricaturist, which were afterwards published as the <i>Maclise Portrait Gallery</i> (1871). In 1858 Maclise commenced one of the two great monumental -works of his life, the “Meeting of Wellington and Blcher,” +works of his life, the “Meeting of Wellington and Blücher,” on the walls of Westminster Palace. It was begun in fresco, a process which proved unmanageable. The artist wished to resign the task; but, encouraged by Prince Albert, he studied @@ -1387,9 +1348,9 @@ Sci.</i>, vol. xlvii. (1844), p. 1.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">MacMAHON, MARIE EDM PATRICE MAURICE DE,<a name="ar14" id="ar14"></a></span> duke +<p><span class="bold">MacMAHON, MARIE EDMÉ PATRICE MAURICE DE,<a name="ar14" id="ar14"></a></span> duke of Magenta (1808-1893), French marshal and president of the -French republic, was born on the 13th of July 1808 at the chteau +French republic, was born on the 13th of July 1808 at the château of Sully, near Autun. He was descended from an Irish family which went into exile with James II. Educated at the military school of St Cyr, in 1827 he entered the army, and soon saw @@ -1431,14 +1392,14 @@ MacMahon was recalled.</p> <p>War being declared between France and Prussia in July 1870, MacMahon was appointed to the command of the Alsace army detachment (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Franco-German War</a></span>). On the 6th of August -MacMahon fought the battle of Wrth (<i>q.v.</i>). His courage +MacMahon fought the battle of Wörth (<i>q.v.</i>). His courage was always conspicuous on the field, but the two-to-one numerical superiority of the Germans triumphed. MacMahon was compelled to fall back upon Saverne, and thence to Toul. Though he suffered further losses in the course of his retreat, his movements were so ably conducted that the emperor confided to him the supreme command of the new levies which he was -mustering at Chlons, and he was directed to effect a junction +mustering at Châlons, and he was directed to effect a junction with Bazaine. This operation he undertook against his will. He had an army of 120,000 men, with 324 guns; but large numbers of the troops were disorganized and demoralized. @@ -1469,7 +1430,7 @@ he declared in favour of a confirmation of his own powers for seven years, and expressed his determination to use all his influence in the maintenance of Conservative principles. After prolonged debates the Septennate was adopted on the 19th of -November by 378 votes to 310. There was no <i>coup d’tat</i> in +November by 378 votes to 310. There was no <i>coup d’état</i> in favour of “Henri V.,” as had been expected, and the president resolved to abide by “existing institutions.” One of his earliest acts was to receive the finding of the court-martial upon @@ -1499,7 +1460,7 @@ government. The president declined to yield, and being supported by the Senate, he dissolved the Chamber, by decree, on the 25th of June. The prosecution of Gambetta followed for a speech at Lille, in which he had said “the marshal -must, if the elections be against him, <i>se soumettre ou se dmettre</i>.” +must, if the elections be against him, <i>se soumettre ou se démettre</i>.” In a manifesto respecting the elections, the president referred to his successful government and observed, “I cannot obey the injunctions of the demagogy; I can neither become the @@ -1525,7 +1486,7 @@ among the generals and officials. The president refused to supersede them, and declined to sanction the law brought in with this object. Perceiving further resistance to be useless, however, MacMahon resigned the presidency on the 30th of -January 1879, and Jules Grvy was elected as his successor.</p> +January 1879, and Jules Grévy was elected as his successor.</p> <p>MacMahon now retired into private life. Relieved from the cares of state, his simple and unostentatious mode of existence @@ -1609,7 +1570,7 @@ West. At the age of sixteen MacMonnies was received as an apprentice in the studio of Augustus St Gaudens, the sculptor, where he remained for five years. In 1884 he went to Paris and thence to Munich, where he painted for some months. Returning -to Paris next year he became the most prominent pupil of Falguire. +to Paris next year he became the most prominent pupil of Falguière. His “Diana” brought him a mention at the Salon of 1889. Three life-sized figures of angels for the church of St Paul, New York, were followed by his “Nathan Hale,” in the City Hall @@ -1679,7 +1640,7 @@ party, for whom his house had become the resort. He also betrayed to the government prosecutors political clients whom he defended eloquently in the courts. He made a fine defence for Robert Emmet and cheered him in his last hours, although -before appearing in court he had sold, for 200, the contents +before appearing in court he had sold, for £200, the contents of his brief to the lawyers for the Crown. After living a professed Protestant all his life, he received absolution on his deathbed from a Roman Catholic priest. He died on the 13th of February @@ -1711,7 +1672,7 @@ rendered him popular.</p> <p><span class="bold">MACNEIL, HERMON ATKINS<a name="ar21" id="ar21"></a></span> (1866-  ), American sculptor, was born at Chelsea, Massachusetts. He was an instructor in industrial art at Cornell University in 1886-1889, and was then -a pupil of Henri M. Chapu and Falguire in Paris. Returning to +a pupil of Henri M. Chapu and Falguière in Paris. Returning to America, he aided Philip Martiny in the preparation of sketch models for the Columbian exposition, and in 1896 he won the Rinehart scholarship, passing four years (1896-1900) in Rome. @@ -1738,7 +1699,7 @@ promise of exceptional gifts of oratory, led a wealthy uncle, Major-General Daniel McNeill, to adopt him as his heir; and he was destined for a parliamentary career. During a stay at Florence, Hugh McNeile became temporarily intimate with Lord -Byron and Madame de Stal. On returning home, he determined +Byron and Madame de Staël. On returning home, he determined to abandon the prospect of political distinction for the clerical profession, and was disinherited. In 1820 he was ordained, and after holding the curacy of Stranorlar, Co. Donegal, for two @@ -1967,31 +1928,31 @@ in their honour in 1830.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">MCON,<a name="ar27" id="ar27"></a></span> a town of east-central France, capital of the department -of Sane-et-Loire, 45 m. N. of Lyons on the Paris-Lyon -railway. Pop. (1906), 16,151. Mcon is situated on the right -bank of the Sane facing the plain of the Bresse; a bridge of +<p><span class="bold">MÂCON,<a name="ar27" id="ar27"></a></span> a town of east-central France, capital of the department +of Saône-et-Loire, 45 m. N. of Lyons on the Paris-Lyon +railway. Pop. (1906), 16,151. Mâcon is situated on the right +bank of the Saône facing the plain of the Bresse; a bridge of twelve arches connects it with the suburb of St Laurent on the opposite bank. The most prominent building is the modern Romanesque church of St Pierre, a large three-naved basilica, with two fine spires. Of the old cathedral of St Vincent (12th and 13th centuries), destroyed at the Revolution, nothing remains but the Romanesque narthex, now used as a chapel, the -faade and its two flanking towers. The htel de ville contains +façade and its two flanking towers. The hôtel de ville contains a library, a theatre and picture-gallery. Opposite to it stands a statue of the poet Alphonse Lamartine, a native of the town. -Mcon is the seat of a prefecture, and has tribunals of first instance +Mâcon is the seat of a prefecture, and has tribunals of first instance and of commerce, and a chamber of commerce. There are <span class="pagenum"><a name="page267" id="page267"></a>267</span> -lyces and training colleges. Copper-founding is an important +lycées and training colleges. Copper-founding is an important industry; manufactures include casks, mats, rope and utensils for the wine-trade. The town has a large trade in wine of the -district, known as Mcon. It is a railway centre of considerable +district, known as Mâcon. It is a railway centre of considerable importance, being the point at which the line from Paris to Marseilles is joined by that from Mont Cenis and Geneva, as well as by a branch from Moulins.</p> -<p>Mcon (<i>Matisco</i>) was an important town of the Aedui, but under +<p>Mâcon (<i>Matisco</i>) was an important town of the Aedui, but under the Romans it was supplanted by Autun and Lyons. It suffered a succession of disasters at the hands of the Germans, Burgundians, Vandals, Huns, Hungarians and even of the Carolingian @@ -1999,7 +1960,7 @@ kings. In the feudal period it was an important countship which in 1228 was sold to the king of France, but more than once afterwards passed into the possession of the dukes of Burgundy, until the ownership of the French crown was established in the -time of Louis XI. In the 16th century Mcon became a stronghold +time of Louis XI. In the 16th century Mâcon became a stronghold of the Huguenots, but afterwards fell into the hands of the League, and did not yield to Henry IV. until 1594. The bishopric, created by King Childebert, was suppressed in @@ -2172,11 +2133,11 @@ of Lismore</i>, Gaelic verses, collected by J. McGregor, dean of Lismore, in the early 16th century (ed. T. McLauchlan, 1862); the <i>Leabhar na Feinne</i> (1871) of F. J. Campbell, who also discusses the subject in <i>Popular Tales of the Western Highlands</i>, iv. (1893). See also L. C. -Stern, “Die ossianische Heldenlieder” in <i>Zeitschrift fr vergleichende +Stern, “Die ossianische Heldenlieder” in <i>Zeitschrift für vergleichende Litteratur-geschichte</i> (1895; Eng. trans. by J. L. Robertson in <i>Trans. Gael. Soc. of Inverness</i>, xxii., 1897-1898); Sir J. Sinclair, <i>A Dissertation on the Authenticity of the Poems of Ossian</i> (1806); <i>Transactions -of the Ossianic Society</i> (Dublin, 1854-1861); <i>Cours de littrature +of the Ossianic Society</i> (Dublin, 1854-1861); <i>Cours de littérature celtique</i>, by Arbois de Jubainville, editor of the <i>Revue celtique</i> (1883, &c.); A. Nutt, <i>Ossian and the Ossianic Literature</i> (1899), with a valuable bibliographical appendix; J. S. Smart, <i>James @@ -2229,7 +2190,7 @@ its best soldiers, and I have lost my best friend.”</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">MACQUARIE,<a name="ar32" id="ar32"></a></span> a British island in the South Pacific Ocean, -in 54 49′ S. and 159 49′ E. It is about 20 m. long, and covered +in 54° 49′ S. and 159° 49′ E. It is about 20 m. long, and covered with a grassy vegetation, with some trees or shrubs in the sheltered places which afford food to a parrot of the genus <i>Cyanorhamphus</i>, allied to those of the Auckland Islands. Although it @@ -2265,7 +2226,7 @@ success in Isaac Pocock’s (1782-1835) adaptation of Scott’s when he played Richard III. at Covent Garden on the 25th of October 1819. Transferring his services to Drury Lane, he gradually rose in public favour, his most conspicuous success -being in the title-rle of Sheridan Knowles’s <i>William Tell</i> +being in the title-rôle of Sheridan Knowles’s <i>William Tell</i> (May 11, 1825). In 1826 he completed a successful engagement in America, and in 1828 his performances met with a very flattering reception in Paris. On the 15th of December 1830 he appeared @@ -2394,14 +2355,14 @@ Johannes Scotus Erigena (9th century).</p> editions, and commentary) and F. Eyssenhardt (1893, Teubner text); on the sources of the <i>Saturnalia</i> see H. Linke (1880) and G. Wissowa (1880). The grammatical treatise will be found in Jan’s -edition and H. Keil’s <i>Grammatici latini</i>, v.; see also G. F. Schmann, +edition and H. Keil’s <i>Grammatici latini</i>, v.; see also G. F. Schömann, <i>Commentatio macrobiana</i> (1871).</p> </div> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">MACROOM,<a name="ar36" id="ar36"></a></span> a market town in the western part of county Cork, -Ireland, on the river Sullane, an affluent of the Lee, 24 m. W. +Ireland, on the river Sullane, an affluent of the Lee, 24½ m. W. of Cork by the Cork & Macroom railway, of which it is the terminus. Pop. (1901), 3016. Besides a fine Roman Catholic church, a court house and barracks, Macroom possesses a modernized @@ -2451,18 +2412,18 @@ republic of Venezuela.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">MADCH, IMRE<a name="ar39" id="ar39"></a></span> (1829-1864), Hungarian dramatist, was -born at Als-Sztregova. He took part in the great revolution +<p><span class="bold">MADÁCH, IMRE<a name="ar39" id="ar39"></a></span> (1829-1864), Hungarian dramatist, was +born at Alsó-Sztregova. He took part in the great revolution of 1848-49 and was imprisoned; on his return to his small -estate in the county of Ngrd, he found that his family life had +estate in the county of Nógrád, he found that his family life had meanwhile been completely wrecked. This only increased his natural tendency to melancholy, and he withdrew from public life till 1861, devoting his time mainly to the composition of -his chief work, <i>Az ember tragoedija</i> (“The Tragedy of Man”). +his chief work, <i>Az ember tragoediája</i> (“The Tragedy of Man”). John Arany, then at the height of his fame as a poet, at once -recognized the great merits of that peculiar drama, and Madch +recognized the great merits of that peculiar drama, and Madách enjoyed a short spell of fame before his untimely death of heart-disease -in 1864. In <i>The Tragedy of Man</i> Madch takes us +in 1864. In <i>The Tragedy of Man</i> Madách takes us from the hour when Adam and Eve were innocently walking in the Garden of Eden to the times of the Pharaohs; then to the Athens of Miltiades; to declining Rome; to the period @@ -2485,9 +2446,9 @@ the drama is elevated and pure, and although not meant for the stage, it has proved very effective at several public performances.</p> <div class="condensed"> -<p>Concerning Madch there is an ample literature, consisting mostly -of elaborate articles by Charles Szsz (1862), Augustus Greguss -(1872), B. Alexander (1871), M. Palgyi (1890), and others.</p> +<p>Concerning Madách there is an ample literature, consisting mostly +of elaborate articles by Charles Szász (1862), Augustus Greguss +(1872), B. Alexander (1871), M. Palágyi (1890), and others.</p> </div> @@ -2500,10 +2461,10 @@ Since 1896 Madagascar has been a French colony. It is 995 m. in length from N. to S., and about 250 m. in average breadth, although near the centre it is nearly 360 m. across; its area is about 228,000 sq. m., or not quite four times the extent of -England and Wales. It lies mainly between 44 and 50 E. -Its northernmost point, Cape Ambro, in 12 S., inclines 16 to +England and Wales. It lies mainly between 44° and 50° E. +Its northernmost point, Cape Ambro, in 12° S., inclines 16° to the E. from the longitude of Cape St Mary, the southernmost -point, in 25 35′ S., so that the main axis of the island runs +point, in 25° 35′ S., so that the main axis of the island runs from N.N.E. to S.S.W. In its broad structure Madagascar consists of an elevated mountainous region, from 3000 to 5000 ft. in altitude, occupying from two-fifths to a half of the @@ -2518,25 +2479,25 @@ elevated plateaus, especially in the south-west and south.</p> form, with few indentations considering its great extent of shore-line. In general outline it has a strong resemblance to the impression of a human foot—the left side. Along two-thirds of its eastern side the -coast is almost a straight line, without any inlet, Tamatve, the chief +coast is almost a straight line, without any inlet, Tamatàve, the chief port on this side of the island, being only protected by coral reefs. North of this line, however, is Antongil Bay, a deep and wide inlet running northwards for about 50 m.; farther north is Port Louquez, -and at almost the extreme point of the island is Digo-Suarez Bay, +and at almost the extreme point of the island is Diégo-Suarez Bay, one of the finest harbours in the world. But the north-western side of Madagascar is broken up by a number of inlets, some of them land-locked and of considerable size. South of Cape St Andrew, the north-west angle of the island, the coast-line is unbroken until -the estuary of the river Onilhy, or St Augustine’s Bay, is reached. +the estuary of the river Onilàhy, or St Augustine’s Bay, is reached. Rounding the southern end of the island, there is no other inlet save the small bay north of Fort Dauphin, at the southern end of the straight line of coast already mentioned.</p> <p>The islands around Madagascar are few and unimportant. The largest are Ste Marie, near the eastern coast, a narrow island about -35 m. long, and Nossi-b (<i>q.v.</i>), larger and more compact in form, -opposite Ampsindva Bay on the N.W. coast. Except the Minnow -group, north of Nossi-b, the rest are merely rocky islets, chiefly of +35 m. long, and Nossi-bé (<i>q.v.</i>), larger and more compact in form, +opposite Ampàsindàva Bay on the N.W. coast. Except the Minnow +group, north of Nossi-bé, the rest are merely rocky islets, chiefly of coral.</p> <p>The shores of the greater portion of the southern half of the island @@ -2551,32 +2512,32 @@ as huge bosses, and in certain regions present very varied and picturesque outlines, resembling Titanic castles, cathedrals, domes, pyramids and spires. The highest mountain mass is centrally situated as regards the length of the island, but more to the eastern side. This -is the ancient extinct volcano Ankratra, three of the highest points +is the ancient extinct volcano Ankàratra, three of the highest points varying in elevation from 7284 to 8635 ft. above the sea, and from 4000 to 5000 ft. above the general level of the surrounding country. -The loftiest of these is named Tsi-fa-jvona, <i>i.e.</i> “That which the -mists cannot climb.” It had been supposed that Ankratra was the -highest point in the island, but in 1903 it was found that Ambro, -in the northern province of Antankrana, is about 9490 ft. in altitude. +The loftiest of these is named Tsi-àfa-jàvona, <i>i.e.</i> “That which the +mists cannot climb.” It had been supposed that Ankàratra was the +highest point in the island, but in 1903 it was found that Ambòro, +in the northern province of Antankàrana, is about 9490 ft. in altitude. Besides these highest points there are a considerable number of -mountains in the central provinces of Imrina and Btsilo and the -intervening and surrounding districts; and in the Bra country -the Islo range has been compared to the “Church Buttes” and +mountains in the central provinces of Imèrina and Bétsiléo and the +intervening and surrounding districts; and in the Bàra country +the Isàlo range has been compared to the “Church Buttes” and other striking features of the scenery of Utah. One of the finest of the Madagascar mountains is an isolated mass near the northern -point of the island called Ambhitra. This is 4460 ft. high, and +point of the island called Ambòhitra. This is 4460 ft. high, and rising from land little above the sea-level, is well seen far out to sea.</p> <p>In the elevated region of Madagascar are many fertile plains and valleys, the former being the dried-up beds of ancient lakes. Among -these are Btsimittatra in Imrina, and Tsinimparhy in Btsilo, +these are Bètsimitàtatra in Imèrina, and Tsiènimparìhy in Bétsiléo, supplying a large proportion of the rice required for the capitals of -these two provinces. Still more spacious valleys are the Antsihnaka -country and the Anky district, between the two eastern +these two provinces. Still more spacious valleys are the Antsihànaka +country and the Ankày district, between the two eastern lines of forest. The extensive coast plains on the western side of -the island are chiefly in Ibina (N.W.) and in Mnab (S. of the Tsribhina -River); those on the east are widest in the Taifsy country +the island are chiefly in Ibòina (N.W.) and in Ménabé (S. of the Tsìribìhina +River); those on the east are widest in the Taifàsy country (S.E.). The water-parting for six-sevenths of the whole length of the island is much nearer the eastern than the western side, averaging from 80 to 90 m. from the sea. There are no arid districts, @@ -2587,35 +2548,35 @@ soil, while the valleys have a rich humus of bluish-black alluvium.</p> <p>The chief rivers flow to the west and north-west sides of the island. -The eastern streams are all less in size, except the Mangro, which +The eastern streams are all less in size, except the Mangòro, which flows parallel with the coast. Few of them therefore are of much service for navigation, except for the light-draught native canoes; and all of them are more or less closed at their outlets by sand-bars. Beginning at the south-eastern point and going northwards, the -principal rivers are the Mnanra, Mnamptrana, Mtitnana, -Mnanjry, Mangro, with its great affluent Oniv, Vhitra, Mningry, -and the Antnamblana at the head of Antongil Bay. On the -N.W. coast, going southwards, are the Sofi and Mhajmba, falling -into Mhajmba Bay, the Btsiboka with the Ikpa—the great +principal rivers are the Mànanàra, Mànampàtrana, Màtitànana, +Mànanjàry, Mangòro, with its great affluent Onivé, Vòhitra, Màningòry, +and the Antànambàlana at the head of Antongil Bay. On the +N.W. coast, going southwards, are the Sofià and Màhajàmba, falling +into Màhajàmba Bay, the Bétsiboka with the Ikòpa—the great drains of the northern central provinces, forming unitedly the second -largest river of the island and falling into Bmbatka Bay—the -Mhavry, Mnamblo, Tsribhina or Oniminty, the third largest -river, with its tributaries the Ktsmby, Mhajlo and Mana, the -Mrondva, Mangky, probably the largest river in the country, -with its important tributaries the Matsatra, Mnantnana and -Rnomitso, the Fihernana and Onilhy. On the south coast are -four considerable streams, the largest of which is the Mnarndra. -Of the western rivers the Btsibka can be ascended by small -steamers for about 100 m., and the Tsribhina is also navigable for +largest river of the island and falling into Bèmbatòka Bay—the +Màhavàry, Mànambòlo, Tsìribìhina or Onimàinty, the third largest +river, with its tributaries the Kìtsàmby, Màhajìlo and Manìa, the +Mòrondàva, Mangòky, probably the largest river in the country, +with its important tributaries the Matsìatra, Mànantànana and +Rànomàitso, the Fiherènana and Onilàhy. On the south coast are +four considerable streams, the largest of which is the Mènaràndra. +Of the western rivers the Bètsibòka can be ascended by small +steamers for about 100 m., and the Tsìribìhina is also navigable for a considerable distance. The former is about 300 m. long; the latter somewhat less, but by its affluents spreads over a greater extent of -country, as also does the Mangky. The rivers are all crossed frequently +country, as also does the Mangòky. The rivers are all crossed frequently by rocky bars, which often form grand waterfalls. The eastern rivers cut their way through the ramparts of the high land by magnificent gorges amidst dense forest, and descend by a succession -of rapids and cataracts. The Mtitnana, whose falls were first +of rapids and cataracts. The Màtitànana, whose falls were first seen by the writer in 1876, descends at one plunge some 400 ft.; -and on the Vhitra River, whose valley is followed by the railway, +and on the Vòhitra River, whose valley is followed by the railway, there are also many fine waterfalls.</p> <p>On the eastern side of Madagascar the contest between the fresh @@ -2624,27 +2585,27 @@ of lagoons for nearly 300 m. In many places these look like a river following the coast-line, but frequently they spread out into extensive sheets of water. By cutting about 30 m. of canal to connect them, a continuous waterway could be formed for 270 m. along the -coast. This has already been done for about 55 m. between Ivndrona -and Andvornto, a service of small steamers forming part +coast. This has already been done for about 55 m. between Ivòndrona +and Andòvorànto, a service of small steamers forming part of the communication between the coast and the capital. Besides these lagoons, there are few lakes of any size in Madagascar, although there were some very extensive lakes in a recent geological epoch. -Of the largest of these, the Alotra Lake in the Antsihnaka plain -is the relic; it is about 25 m. long. Next comes Kinkny, near -Marambitsy Bay (N.W. coast), about 16 m. long, and then Itsy, -in western Imrina, about half as large. There is also a salt lake, -Tsimnampetstsa (S.W. coast), about as large as Alotra.</p> +Of the largest of these, the Alàotra Lake in the Antsihànaka plain +is the relic; it is about 25 m. long. Next comes Kinkòny, near +Maròambitsy Bay (N.W. coast), about 16 m. long, and then Itàsy, +in western Imèrina, about half as large. There is also a salt lake, +Tsimànampetsòtsa (S.W. coast), about as large as Alàotra.</p> <p>There is now no active volcano in Madagascar, but a large number of extinct cones are found, some apparently of very recent formation. -Some miles south of Digo-Suarez is a huge volcanic mountain, -Ambhitra, with scores of subsidiary cones on its slopes and around -its base. About 40 m. south-west of Antannarvo there is a still -larger extinct volcano, Ankratra, with an extensive lava field -surrounding it; while near Lake Itsy are some 200 volcanic cones. -Another group of extinct volcanoes is in the Vkinankratra district, -S.W. of Ankratra. Many others exist in other parts of the -island (see <i>Geology</i>). Slight shocks of earthquake are felt every +Some miles south of Diégo-Suarez is a huge volcanic mountain, +Ambòhitra, with scores of subsidiary cones on its slopes and around +its base. About 40 m. south-west of Antanànarìvo there is a still +larger extinct volcano, Ankàratra, with an extensive lava field +surrounding it; while near Lake Itàsy are some 200 volcanic cones. +Another group of extinct volcanoes is in the Vàkinankàratra district, +S.W. of Ankàratra. Many others exist in other parts of the +island (see § <i>Geology</i>). Slight shocks of earthquake are felt every year, and hot springs occur at many places. Several of these are sulphurous and medicinal, and have been found efficacious in skin diseases and in internal complaints.</p> @@ -2691,18 +2652,18 @@ along the western side of Madagascar, following the coast-line; in the north these series of strata are only from 20 to 30 m. across, but farther south they reach a breadth of nearly 100 m., while opposite -the Btsilo province they extend nearly half across +the Bétsiléo province they extend nearly half across the island. A narrow band, of Cretaceous age, occurs also on the east coast, for about 120 m., -between Vtomndry and Mnanjry. The following +between Vàtomàndry and Mànanjàry. The following formations are represented:—</p> <p>1. <i>Primary.</i> It is thought that certain beds of slaty rocks, which have been recognized at different places, may belong to some of the Primary strata. Some siliceous schists of the Permian age were discovered -in 1908 in the valley of the Skamira, -south of the Onilhy, or Augustine river. (S.W. +in 1908 in the valley of the Sàkamèira, +south of the Onilàhy, or Augustine river. (S.W. coast). These contain reptilian remains, and also clear imprints of leaves of the <i>Glossopteris indica</i>, as well as other indications of an ancient vegetation. @@ -2739,8 +2700,8 @@ although faults occur here and there.</p> <p>3. <i>Tertiary.</i> A small strip of coast of Eocene age is known near Tullear (S.W. coast), and rocks -of the same period occur in Nssi-b, at Mhajamba -Bay, and at Digo-Suarez, with Nummulites and +of the same period occur in Nòssi-bé, at Màhajamba +Bay, and at Diégo-Suarez, with Nummulites and other foraminifera. Near the latter locality, beds of Oligocene age have been noticed, consisting of coarse limestones.</p> @@ -2750,17 +2711,17 @@ these deposits extends along the west coast, from north of Cape St Andrew nearly to the extreme southern point of the island. But the most noticeable of these are those in the ancient bed of the -Alotra Lake, which formerly extended far southwards -along the valley of the Mangro; also those -in the marshes of Antsrab and of Ifnja, in the -Ikpa valley (the great rice plain west of the -capital), and also in the plain of Tsinimprhy in -Btsilo, and especially the recent deposits of -Ampsambazmba, north-west of Lake Itsy, discovered +Alàotra Lake, which formerly extended far southwards +along the valley of the Mangòro; also those +in the marshes of Antsìrabè and of Ifànja, in the +Ikòpa valley (the great rice plain west of the +capital), and also in the plain of Tsiénimpàrìhy in +Bétsiléo, and especially the recent deposits of +Ampàsambazìmba, north-west of Lake Itàsy, discovered in 1902. These beds, rich in subfossil remains, have yielded important additions to our knowledge of the extinct fauna of the island. -(See <i>Palaeontology</i>.)</p> +(See § <i>Palaeontology</i>.)</p> <p><i>Igneous Rocks.</i> (1) <i>Plutonic rocks.</i>—The ancient or plutonic igneous rocks (including granite, syenite, @@ -2775,9 +2736,9 @@ rocks.</i>—Recent volcanic eruptive rocks (including rhyolite, trachyte, phonolite, andesite and basalt) have been examined at a number of points throughout both the geological regions of the island. In <span class="pagenum"><a name="page272" id="page272"></a>272</span> -the Archean region these are very noticeable near Lake Itsy, in -the <i>massif</i> of Ankratra (an ancient volcano) and in Vkinankratra -(at Btfo, Antsrab, &c.); while there are numerous outflows of +the Archean region these are very noticeable near Lake Itàsy, in +the <i>massif</i> of Ankàratra (an ancient volcano) and in Vàkinankàratra +(at Bètàfo, Antsìrabé, &c.); while there are numerous outflows of doleritic rocks, probably from faults, along the eastern side of the island and almost parallel with the coast line. In the sedimentary region volcanic rocks are very numerous; the most extensive of @@ -2788,10 +2749,10 @@ its broad features.<a name="fa2b" id="fa2b" href="#ft2b"><span class="sp">2</spa <p><i>Minerals and Metals.</i>—The country has considerable mineral wealth. Gold is found almost all over the region of crystalline rocks, -except in and around the Antsihnaka province, the richest auriferous +except in and around the Antsihànaka province, the richest auriferous districts being a band of country parallel with the east coast and spreading at its southern end into the interior; and another tract, -whose centre is about 100 m. N. of the capital (see <i>Industries</i>, &c.). +whose centre is about 100 m. N. of the capital (see § <i>Industries</i>, &c.). Silver has been detected in certain galenas, and also platinum; copper has been found in various localities, as well as zinc, lead, nickel, antimony and manganese, but none of these metals has yet @@ -2807,7 +2768,7 @@ large crystals, and variously coloured quartz, also often found in crystals of great size. Bitumen and petroleum have been found; graphite is plentiful, and sulphur, salt, saltpetre and lime are also procured. On the north-west coast thin beds of lignite occur, and -coal has been found in the valley of the Skamira.</p> +coal has been found in the valley of the Sàkamèira.</p> <p><i>Palaeontology.</i>—Researches in various parts of the island have revealed the existence, in a subfossil state, of the bones of numerous @@ -2817,7 +2778,7 @@ varied in size from that of a bustard to birds much exceeding an ostrich, and rivalling the recently extinct moa of New Zealand, the largest species being about 10 ft. in height. One species of these great wingless birds laid an egg which is the largest known, being -12 in. by 9 in. Associated with these remains there have been +12½ in. by 9½ in. Associated with these remains there have been found those of many other birds, including a hawk, a duck, a darter, a spoonbill, a heron, a rail and a wild-goose, some of these being much larger than any now inhabiting Madagascar. In the same @@ -2850,9 +2811,9 @@ Ganges had been previously discovered, from which a new genus called <i>Steneosaurus</i> has been founded. Since the French occupation (1895) considerable additions have been made to our knowledge of the fossil fauna of Madagascar from researches made both on the west -and south-west coast (at Blo and Amblisatrana) and in the interior -(at Antsrab), especially in the rich deposits near Tsrazza (Ampsambazimba), -to the north-west of Lake Itsy. From these various +and south-west coast (at Bèlo and Ambòlisatrana) and in the interior +(at Antsìrabè), especially in the rich deposits near Tsàrazàza (Ampàsambazimba), +to the north-west of Lake Itàsy. From these various localities the subfossil remains of thirteen or fourteen extinct species of lemuroid animals (including the gigantic species already mentioned) have been obtained, and have been classified under five new @@ -2891,20 +2852,20 @@ frequent in the rainy season. Terrific thunderstorms are also common at that period; waterspouts are sometimes seen; and as the Indian Ocean cyclone region touches the eastern coast, hurricanes occur every few years, at rare intervals ascending into the interior -highland. The yearly rainfall of the Imrina province (Antannarvo) -averages about 54 in.; accurate statistics as to that of other +highland. The yearly rainfall of the Imèrina province (Antanànarìvo) +averages about 54½ in.; accurate statistics as to that of other parts of the island are not available; but on the east coast it appears to be about double that of the interior; in the south-east considerably -more than that amount; while at Mrondva (west coast) it is +more than that amount; while at Mòrondàva (west coast) it is given as about 21 in. annually, and at Tullear (south-west coast) as -only 10 in. At Tamatve (east coast) the mean annual temperature -is given as 76.5, while at the capital it is about 66; the temperature -of Antannarvo resembles that of Naples or Palermo.<a name="fa4b" id="fa4b" href="#ft4b"><span class="sp">4</span></a> The +only 10 in. At Tamatàve (east coast) the mean annual temperature +is given as 76.5°, while at the capital it is about 66°; the temperature +of Antanànarìvo resembles that of Naples or Palermo.<a name="fa4b" id="fa4b" href="#ft4b"><span class="sp">4</span></a> The following table gives the mean of two different sets of government -returns of mean rainfall: Antannarvo, 1369 mm.; Tamatve, -E. coast, 1863 mm.; Frafangna, S.E. coast, 2803 mm.; Digo-Suarez, -N. end of island, 1196 mm.; Mrondva, W. coast, 543 mm.; -Tullear, S.W. coast, 273 mm.; Mrovoy, W. interior, 1413 mm.</p> +returns of mean rainfall: Antanànarìvo, 1369 mm.; Tamatàve, +E. coast, 1863 mm.; Fàrafangàna, S.E. coast, 2803 mm.; Diégo-Suarez, +N. end of island, 1196 mm.; Mòrondàva, W. coast, 543 mm.; +Tullear, S.W. coast, 273 mm.; Màrovoày, W. interior, 1413 mm.</p> <p><i>Fauna.</i>—The fauna of Madagascar, while deficient in most of the characteristic tropical forms of life, is one of great interest to the @@ -2999,10 +2960,10 @@ The vegetation of the forests, the abundant epiphytes, the tree-mosses, the filmy ferns and the viviparous character of many of the ferns, show clearly how abundant the rainfall is in the eastern forest region. This contains a large variety of hard-wooded and valuable -timber trees, including species of <i>Weinmannia</i> (<i>Lalna</i><a name="fa5b" id="fa5b" href="#ft5b"><span class="sp">5</span></a>), <i>Elaeocarpus</i> -(<i>Vonana</i>), <i>Dalbergia</i> (<i>Vambana</i>), <i>Nuxia</i> (<i>Vlanrana</i>), <i>Podocarpus</i>, -a pine, the sole species in the island (<i>Htatra</i>), <i>Tambourissa</i> (<i>Ambra</i>), -<i>Neobaronia</i> (<i>Hrahra</i>), <i>Ocotea</i> (<i>Varngy</i>) and probably ebony, +timber trees, including species of <i>Weinmannia</i> (<i>Lalòna</i><a name="fa5b" id="fa5b" href="#ft5b"><span class="sp">5</span></a>), <i>Elaeocarpus</i> +(<i>Voànana</i>), <i>Dalbergia</i> (<i>Vòambòana</i>), <i>Nuxia</i> (<i>Vàlanìrana</i>), <i>Podocarpus</i>, +a pine, the sole species in the island (<i>Hètatra</i>), <i>Tambourissa</i> (<i>Ambòra</i>), +<i>Neobaronia</i> (<i>Hàrahàra</i>), <i>Ocotea</i> (<i>Varòngy</i>) and probably ebony, <i>Diospyros</i> sp., &c. The following trees are characteristic of Madagascar vegetation, some of them being endemic, and others very prominent features in the landscape: the traveller’s-tree (<i>Urania @@ -3014,21 +2975,21 @@ building; the Raphia (rofia) palm (<i>Sagus ruffia</i>); the tall fir-like eastern coast, as well as several species of screw-pine (<i>Pandanus</i>); the Madagascar spice (<i>Ravintsara madagascariensis</i>), a large forest tree, with fragrant fruit, leaves and bark; a beautiful-leaved species -of <i>Calophyllum</i>; and the Tangna (<i>Tanghinia veneniflua</i>), formerly +of <i>Calophyllum</i>; and the Tangèna (<i>Tanghinia veneniflua</i>), formerly employed as a poison ordeal. On the lagoons and lower reaches of -the rivers the Vha (<i>Typhonodorum lindleyanum</i>), an arum endemic +the rivers the Vìha (<i>Typhonodorum lindleyanum</i>), an arum endemic to Madagascar, grows in great profusion to a height of 12 or 13 ft. and has a white spathe more than a foot in length; and on the western coast dense thickets of mangrove line the creeks and rivers. In the interior rivers is found the curious and beautiful lace-leaf plant (<i>Ouvirandra fenestralis</i>), with an edible tuberous root. On -the western side of the island the baobab, the tamarind, the rtra +the western side of the island the baobab, the tamarind, the ròtra (<i>Eugenia</i> sp.), the rofia palm, and several species of fan-palm (<i>Hyphaene</i>) and of <i>Ficus</i> are prominent; and the mango (introduced) grows to a large tree. In the generally bare interior highlands, -large trees, species of <i>Ficus</i> (<i>Amntana</i>, <i>Avivy</i>, <i>Nnoka</i>, <i>Adbo</i>, +large trees, species of <i>Ficus</i> (<i>Amòntana</i>, <i>Aviàvy</i>, <i>Nònoka</i>, <i>Adàbo</i>, &c.), often mark the position of the old towns; and some of these, -as Ambhimnga, Vhilna, &c., are surrounded by remnants of the +as Ambòhimànga, Vòhilèna, &c., are surrounded by remnants of the original forest, which formerly covered large portions of the interior. The most prominent tree in the central province is now the Cape-lilac (<i>Melia azederach</i>) introduced about 1825; and since the French @@ -3049,7 +3010,7 @@ of <i>Hibiscus</i>, <i>Euphorbia</i>, <i>Buddleia</i>, <i>Ixora</i>, <i>Kitching On the east coast two orchids, species of <i>Angraecum</i>, with large white waxy flowers, one with an extraordinarily long spur or nectary, attract the attention of every traveller during June and July by -their abundance and beauty. Some 320 species o fern have been +their abundance and beauty. Some 320 species o£ fern have been collected, and there are large numbers of spiny and prickly plants, as well as numerous grasses, reeds and rushes, many of them of great service in the native manufactures of mats, hats, @@ -3096,36 +3057,36 @@ an important article of export.</p> or provinces, which in the main indicate tribal divisions. Of these tribal territories the following may be distinguished, taking them in three main divisions, from north to south: -(1) <i>Eastern</i>: Antankrana, occupying the northern peninsula; -the country of the Btsimisraka, who inhabit a long extent +(1) <i>Eastern</i>: Antankàrana, occupying the northern peninsula; +the country of the Bétsimisàraka, who inhabit a long extent of the coast plains, about 500 m. in length; parallel with this for about a third of it, and between the two lines of forest, is the -Bznozno country. South again are the districts of the -Taimbahaka, the Taimro, the Taifsy and the Taiska; and -at the south-eastern corner are the Tansy. (2) <i>Central</i>: the -districts of Tsimihty and the Sihnaka; Imrina, the Hva -province; the Btsilo; the Tanla or foresters; the Bra; -and the emigrant Tansy. (3) <i>Western</i>: the people from +Bézànozàno country. South again are the districts of the +Taimbahòaka, the Taimòro, the Taifàsy and the Taisàka; and +at the south-eastern corner are the Tanòsy. (2) <i>Central</i>: the +districts of Tsimihèty and the Sihànaka; Imèrina, the Hòva +province; the Bétsiléo; the Tanàla or foresters; the Bàra; +and the emigrant Tanòsy. (3) <i>Western</i>: the people from almost the northern to the southern extremities of the island -are known as Skalva, but consist of a number of distinct -tribes—the Tibina, the Milaka, the Tamnab, and the -Fihernana, &c. South of these last are the Mhafly, with -the Tandry at the extreme south. There are no distinctly +are known as Sàkalàva, but consist of a number of distinct +tribes—the Tibòina, the Màilaka, the Taménabé, and the +Fiherènana, &c. South of these last are the Màhafàly, with +the Tandròy at the extreme south. There are no distinctly marked boundaries between any of these tribal territories; and -west of Imrina and Btsilo there is a considerable extent of +west of Imèrina and Bétsiléo there is a considerable extent of country with hardly any population, a kind of “no-man’s-land.” There are numerous subdivisions of most of the tribes.</p> -<p>The capital, Antannarvo (pop. 69,000), in the highlands of -Imrina, and Tamatve (pop. 4600), on the east coast and +<p>The capital, Antanànarìvo (pop. 69,000), in the highlands of +Imèrina, and Tamatàve (pop. 4600), on the east coast and the chief seaport, are separately described. Majunga (properly -Mojang, pop. 5300) on the north-west coast, just north of -16 S., and Digo-Suarez, are important ports for foreign trade, +Mojangà, pop. 5300) on the north-west coast, just north of +16° S., and Diégo-Suarez, are important ports for foreign trade, the latter being also a fortified naval and military station. -Other ports and towns are Mhanro, Mnanjry (S.E. coast, -pop. 4500), Tullear (S.W. coast), and Fianrantsa (pop. -6200), the chief town of the Btsilo. There are very few +Other ports and towns are Màhanòro, Mànanjàry (S.E. coast, +pop. 4500), Tullear (S.W. coast), and Fianàrantsòa (pop. +6200), the chief town of the Bétsiléo. There are very few places besides these with as many as 2000 people.</p> <p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page274" id="page274"></a>274</span></p> @@ -3136,7 +3097,7 @@ and a smaller number of Indian, Arab, and other Asiatics, mostly small traders found in the seaports, the Chinese being found in every town of any size. The island, it will be seen, is very sparsely inhabited; the most densely peopled province -is that of Imrina with (1905) 388,000 inhabitants. The natives, +is that of Imèrina with (1905) 388,000 inhabitants. The natives, collectively known as Malagasy, are divided into a considerable number of tribes, each having its distinct customs. Although geographically an African island, the majority of its inhabitants @@ -3155,7 +3116,7 @@ believed that there are traces of an aboriginal people (the Vazimba), who occupied portions of the interior before the advent of the present inhabitants, and these appear to have been a somewhat dwarfish race, and lighter-coloured than the -Malagasy generally. The Hva became the dominant tribe +Malagasy generally. The Hòva became the dominant tribe from the beginning of the 19th century; they appear to be the latest immigrants, and are the lightest in colour; and they are also the most intelligent and civilized of all the peoples inhabiting @@ -3186,10 +3147,10 @@ proverbs, give ample evidence of the mental ability and imaginative powers of the Malagasy.</p> <div class="condensed"> -<p>Native society in Imrina among the Hva was formerly divided -into three great classes: the Andrana, or nobles; the Hva, freemen -or commoners; and the Andvo, or slaves; but these last became free -by a proclamation issued in 1896. The Andrana are, strictly speaking, +<p>Native society in Imèrina among the Hòva was formerly divided +into three great classes: the Andrìana, or nobles; the Hòva, freemen +or commoners; and the Andèvo, or slaves; but these last became free +by a proclamation issued in 1896. The Andrìana are, strictly speaking, royal clans, being descendants of petty kings who were conquered or otherwise lost their authority through the increasing power of the ancestors of the reigning family. Their descendants retained certain @@ -3197,8 +3158,8 @@ honours in virtue of their royal origin, such as special terms of salutation, the use of the smaller scarlet umbrella (the larger one was the mark of royal rank), the right to build a particular kind of tomb, &c.; they also enjoyed exemption from certain government service, and -from some punishments for crime. The Hva<a name="fa7b" id="fa7b" href="#ft7b"><span class="sp">7</span></a> or commoners form -the mass of the population of Imrina. They are composed of a +from some punishments for crime. The Hòva<a name="fa7b" id="fa7b" href="#ft7b"><span class="sp">7</span></a> or commoners form +the mass of the population of Imèrina. They are composed of a large number of tribes, who usually intermarry strictly among themselves, as indeed do families, so that property and land may be kept together. The third great division was the slave population, which @@ -3211,29 +3172,29 @@ agreement with the British government.</p> customs. It had a semi-sacred character; the chief was, in heathen tribes, while living, the high priest for his people, and after death, was worshipped as a god; in its modern development among the -Hva sovereigns it gathered round it much state and ceremony. +Hòva sovereigns it gathered round it much state and ceremony. There were many curious examples of the taboo with regard to actions connected with royalty, and also in the words used which relate to Malagasy sovereigns and their surroundings. These were particularly seen in everything having to do with the burial of a monarch. While the foregoing description of native society applied chiefly -to the people of the central province of Imrina, it is applicable, +to the people of the central province of Imèrina, it is applicable, with local modifications, to most of the Malagasy tribes. But on the island becoming a French colony, in 1896, royalty was formally abolished; and little regard is paid to native rank by French officials.</p> <p>The chief employment of the Malagasy is agriculture. In the -cultivation of rice they show very great ingenuity, the <i>ktsa</i> grounds, +cultivation of rice they show very great ingenuity, the <i>kètsa</i> grounds, where the rice is sown before transplanting, being formed either on the margins of the streams or in the hollows of the hills in a series of terraces, to which water is often conducted from a considerable distance. In this agricultural engineering no people surpass the -Btsilo. No plough is used, all work being done by a long-handled +Bétsiléo. No plough is used, all work being done by a long-handled spade; and oxen are only employed to tread out the soft mud preparatory to transplanting. The rice is threshed by being beaten in bundles on stones set upright on the threshing-floor; and when beaten -out the grain is stored by the Hva in rice-pits dug in the hard red +out the grain is stored by the Hòva in rice-pits dug in the hard red soil, but by the coast tribes in small timber houses raised on posts. In preparing the rice for use it is pounded in a wooden mortar to remove the husk, this work being almost always done by the women. @@ -3248,7 +3209,7 @@ of fine humped cattle are found almost all over the island.</p> <p>The central and eastern peoples have considerable manual dexterity. The women spin and weave, and with the rudest appliances manufacture a variety of strong and durable cloths of silk, cotton and -hemp, and of rfia palm, aloe and banana fibre, of elegant patterns, +hemp, and of ròfia palm, aloe and banana fibre, of elegant patterns, and often with much taste in colour. They also make from straw and papyrus peel strong and beautiful mats and baskets in great variety, some of much fineness and delicacy, and also hats resembling @@ -3258,9 +3219,9 @@ a rough cloth of bark. Their non-employment of skins for clothing is a marked distinction between the Malagasy and the South African races, and their use of vegetable fibres an equally strong link between them and the Polynesian peoples. The men wear a loincloth -or <i>salka</i>, the women a <i>kitmby</i> or apron folded round the +or <i>salàka</i>, the women a <i>kitàmby</i> or apron folded round the body from waist to heel, to which a jacket or dress is usually added; -both sexes use over these the <i>lmba</i>, a large square of cloth folded +both sexes use over these the <i>làmba</i>, a large square of cloth folded round the body something like the Roman toga, and which is the characteristic native dress. The Malagasy are skilful in metal-working; with a few rude-looking tools they manufacture silver chains @@ -3271,7 +3232,7 @@ considerable inventive power, and they are exceedingly quick to adopt new ideas from Europeans.</p> <p>There is a considerable variety in the houses of the different -Malagasy tribes. The majority of Hva houses were formerly built +Malagasy tribes. The majority of Hòva houses were formerly built of layers of the hard red soil of the country, with high-pitched roofs thatched with grass or rush; while the chiefs and wealthy people had houses of framed timber, with massive upright planking, and @@ -3282,9 +3243,9 @@ houses, large numbers of which are made in two storeys and in European fashion. The forest and coast tribes make their dwellings chiefly of wood framing filled in with the leaf-stalks of the traveller’s tree, with the leaves themselves forming the roof covering. The houses -of the Btsilo and Skalva are very small and dirty, but those of -the coast peoples are more cleanly and roomy. Among the Hva -and Btsilo the old villages were always built for security on the +of the Bétsiléo and Sàkalàva are very small and dirty, but those of +the coast peoples are more cleanly and roomy. Among the Hòva +and Bétsiléo the old villages were always built for security on the summits of lofty hills, around which were dug several deep fosses, one within the other. In other districts the villages and homesteads are enclosed within formidable defences of prickly-pear or thorny @@ -3302,7 +3263,7 @@ exception) only female sovereigns, helped to give women considerable influence in native society. The southern and western peoples still practise infanticide as regards children born on several unlucky days in each month. This was formerly the general practice all -over the island. The old laws among the Hva were very barbarous +over the island. The old laws among the Hòva were very barbarous in their punishments, and death in various cruel forms was inflicted for very trifling offences. Drunkenness is very prevalent in many parts of the island; and it can hardly be said of many of the Malagasy @@ -3318,14 +3279,14 @@ was seldom exercised in a cruel or oppressive way.</p> forms of worship; there are no temples, images or stated seasons of devotion, nor is there a priesthood, properly so-called. Yet they have never been without some distinct recognition of a supreme being, -whom they call <i>Andriamnitra</i>, “The Fragrant One,” and <i>Znahry</i>, +whom they call <i>Andriamànitra</i>, “The Fragrant One,” and <i>Zànahàry</i>, “The Creator”—words which are recognized all over the island. They have also retained many ancient sayings, proverbial in their style, which enforce many of the truths of natural religion as to the attributes of God. With all this, however, there has long existed a kind of idolatry, which in its origin is simply fetishism—the belief in charms—as having power to procure various benefits and protect -from certain evils. Among the Hva in modern times four or five +from certain evils. Among the Hòva in modern times four or five of these charms had acquired special sanctity and were each honoured as a kind of national deity, being called “god,” and brought out on all public occasions. Together with this idolatry there is @@ -3333,7 +3294,7 @@ also a firm belief in the power of witchcraft and sorcery, in divination, in lucky and unlucky days and times, in ancestor worship, especially that of the sovereign’s predecessors, and in several curious ordeals for the detection of crime. The chief of these was the celebrated -tangna poison ordeal, in which there was implicit belief, +tangèna poison ordeal, in which there was implicit belief, and by which, until its prohibition by an article in the Anglo-Malagasy treaty of 1865, thousands of persons perished every year. Sacrifices of fowls and sheep are made at many places at sacred @@ -3342,11 +3303,11 @@ and as propitiatory offerings. Blood and fat are used to anoint many of these stones, as well as the tombs of ancestors, and especially those of the Vazimba. In some of the southern districts it is said that human sacrifices were occasionally offered. The chief festival -among the Hva, and almost confined to them, was that of the New +among the Hòva, and almost confined to them, was that of the New Year, at which time a kind of sacrificial killing of oxen took place, and a ceremonial bathing, from which the festival took its name of -Fndrana (the Bath). This festival is now merged in the French -national fte of the 14th of July. Another great festival was at +Fàndròana (the Bath). This festival is now merged in the French +national fête of the 14th of July. Another great festival was at circumcision times. This rite was observed by royal command at intervals of a few years; these were occasions of great rejoicing, but also of much drunkenness and licentiousness. Since 1868 circumcision @@ -3380,7 +3341,7 @@ and cattle, rubber and hides continue staple products. Other important exports are raphia fibre and beeswax. Since 1900 gold has become a leading export, the value of the gold sent out of the country in the five years 1901-1906 being -1,384,493. The imports consist chiefly of tissues (mostly +£1,384,493. The imports consist chiefly of tissues (mostly cotton goods), breadstuffs and rice, liquors, metal-ware and coal. Better means of internal transport and increased production in the island have greatly reduced the import of @@ -3393,18 +3354,18 @@ merchants. In July 1897 the French tariff was applied and increased rates levied on foreign goods, notably cottons. This practically killed the American trade and reduced the British trade to a very small proportion. In 1897 the British imports -were valued at 179,000; the next year, with the new tariff -in force, they had dropped to 42,000. The only export duties +were valued at £179,000; the next year, with the new tariff +in force, they had dropped to £42,000. The only export duties are: cattle 2s. per head and rubber 2d. per ℔.</p> <p>In 1880-1885 the entire foreign trade of Madagascar, imports -and exports, was estimated to be about 1,000,000; in 1900-1906 -the volume of trade had increased to a little over 2,500,000 a +and exports, was estimated to be about £1,000,000; in 1900-1906 +the volume of trade had increased to a little over £2,500,000 a year. But while from 1900 onwards imports had a tendency -to decrease (they were 1,841,310 in 1901 and 1,247,936 in +to decrease (they were £1,841,310 in 1901 and £1,247,936 in 1905), exports steadily increased, owing to the working of gold-mines. -The total value of the exports rose from 359,019 in -1901 to 822,470 in 1906.[1] About 90% of the trade is with +The total value of the exports rose from £359,019 in +1901 to £822,470 in 1906.[1] About 90% of the trade is with France or other French colonies. The remaining trade is nearly all British and German.</p> @@ -3420,19 +3381,19 @@ twentieth fraction of the same amount.</p> <div class="condensed"> <p><i>Gold-mining.</i>—Gold-mining has been carried on regularly since -1897, and by 1900 the value of the ore extracted exceeded 100,000. +1897, and by 1900 the value of the ore extracted exceeded £100,000. Reports of rich discoveries attracted considerable attention in South Africa and Europe during 1904-1906, but experts, sent from the Transvaal, came to the conclusion that Madagascar would not become one of the rich goldfields of the world. The chief mining districts have been already indicated (see under <i>Geology</i>). Rich finds were reported from the north of the island during 1907, in -which year the export of gold was 320,000. The mines afford a +which year the export of gold was £320,000. The mines afford a lucrative occupation for some thousands of persons, and many of the claim-holders are British. Decrees of 1902 and 1905 regulate the conditions under which mining is carried on. By decree of the 23rd of May 1907, the radius of the circle within which claims may -be pegged is 2 kilometres (1 m.), and a tax of 5% is levied on the +be pegged is 2 kilometres (1¼ m.), and a tax of 5% is levied on the value of the gold extracted.</p> <p><i>Communications.</i>—There is regular steamship communication @@ -3442,7 +3403,7 @@ the island in telegraphic connexion with the rest of the world. The French have built carriage roads from the interior to the principal ports as well as to connect the principal towns. On these roads large use is made of bullock wagons, as well as carts drawn by men, -and women also. Tamatve and Antannarvo are joined by coast +and women also. Tamatàve and Antanànarìvo are joined by coast canals and lakes and by a railway service. Where other means are not available, goods are carried by canoes, or on the shoulders of bearers along the native footpaths.</p> @@ -3462,17 +3423,17 @@ composed of local merchants and planters. The island is divided into <i>circles</i>, placed under military officers, and <i>provinces</i>, presided over by a civilian. As far as possible in local affairs, each of the native races is granted autonomy, the -dominion of the Hva over the other tribes being abolished. +dominion of the Hòva over the other tribes being abolished. Each province has its native governor and minor officials, the governor being generally selected by popular vote. Each -village has an organization (the <i>Fkon’ lona</i>) resembling that +village has an organization (the <i>Fòkon’ òlona</i>) resembling that of a commune; at its head is a chief or <i>mpiadidy</i>, who serves for three years.</p> <table class="ws" summary="Contents"> <tr><td class="tcc allb"><span class="sp">1</span><i>Exports:</i></td> <td class="tcc allb">1901</td> <td class="tcc allb">1906</td> <td class="tcc allb"><i>Increase</i>.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Rubber</td> <td class="tcr rb">26,679</td> <td class="tcr rb">301,518</td> <td class="tcr rb">274,839</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Rubber</td> <td class="tcr rb">£26,679</td> <td class="tcr rb">£301,518</td> <td class="tcr rb">£274,839</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Hides and skins</td> <td class="tcr rb">31,548</td> <td class="tcr rb">250,339</td> <td class="tcr rb">218,791</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">Gold</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">131,987</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">270,613</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">138,626</td></tr> </table> @@ -3496,17 +3457,17 @@ customs, posts and telegraphs, ferries, licences and other indirect imposts. The excess of expenditure over revenue is made good by subventions from France. A considerable portion of the revenue is expended on public works. Revenue and expenditure in 1905 -were each just beneath 1,000,000. This is exclusive of the sums +were each just beneath £1,000,000. This is exclusive of the sums spent by France in the island on the army, and for the naval base -at Digo-Suarez. There is a public debt amounting (1907) to -4,055,600. As stated in the French senate (February 1909), +at Diégo-Suarez. There is a public debt amounting (1907) to +£4,055,600. As stated in the French senate (February 1909), everything is taxed in the island; and no sooner has any enterprise become fairly successful than it is so heavily taxed as to be no longer worth carrying on, and certain crops have therefore been destroyed by the colonists who had planted them. This has been the case with tobacco, sugar, rum, and also in butter-making, cattle-breeding and other things. Notwithstanding this taxation, from 1895 to -1908 12,000,000 was required for Madagascar from the home +1908 £12,000,000 was required for Madagascar from the home government, and the demand is constantly increasing.</p> </div> @@ -3519,18 +3480,18 @@ country. Each of these was under its own chief, and was often at war with its neighbours. No one tribe seems to have gained any great ascendancy over the rest until about the middle of the 17th century, when a small but warlike people called -Skalva, in the south-west of Madagascar, advanced northward, +Sàkalàva, in the south-west of Madagascar, advanced northward, conquered all the inhabitants of the western half of the island, as well as some northern and central tribes, and eventually founded two kingdoms which retained their supremacy until the close of the 18th century. About that time, the -Hva in the central province of Imrina began to assert their +Hòva in the central province of Imèrina began to assert their own position under two warlike and energetic chieftains, -Andrianimpina and his son Radma; they threw off the -Skalva authority, and after several wars obtained a nominal +Andrianimpòina and his son Radàma; they threw off the +Sàkalàva authority, and after several wars obtained a nominal allegiance from them; they also conquered the surrounding tribes, and so made themselves virtual kings of Madagascar. -From that time until 1895 Hva authority was retained over +From that time until 1895 Hòva authority was retained over a large part of the central and eastern provinces, but it was only nominal over much of the western side of the island, while in the south-west the people were quite independent and @@ -3547,7 +3508,7 @@ possessed by a few of the people. But in these provinces they have become merged in the general mass of the people. It is different, however, in the north-west and west of the island. Here are several large Arab colonies, occupying the ports of -Anrontsnga, Mjang, Mrovoy and Mrondva, and retaining +Anòrontsànga, Mòjangà, Màrovoày and Mòrondàva, and retaining their distinct nationality. There is also in these districts a Hindu element in the population, for intercourse has also been maintained for some centuries between India and northern @@ -3590,20 +3551,20 @@ and more than once their stations were destroyed and the French were massacred. Early in the 19th century all their positions on the mainland were relinquished, and they retained nothing but the island of Ste Marie on the east coast. In 1811 -Tamatve had been occupied by British troops, and the Treaty +Tamatàve had been occupied by British troops, and the Treaty of Paris of 1814 recognized as British the “French settlements in Madagascar,” but as a matter of fact France had then no settlements on the mainland. The then governor of Mauritius, Sir Robert Farquhar, endeavoured to prosecute British claims and -obtained a cession of Digo-Suarez Bay. These claims were not +obtained a cession of Diégo-Suarez Bay. These claims were not backed up by the home government, and a little later the policy -was adopted by Great Britain of supporting the Hva authority.</p> +was adopted by Great Britain of supporting the Hòva authority.</p> <p>The political history of Madagascar as a whole may be said -to date from the reign of Radma I. (1810-1828). He was a man +to date from the reign of Radàma I. (1810-1828). He was a man much in advance of his age—shrewd, enterprising, and undeterred by difficulty—a kind of Peter the Great of -<span class="sidenote">Radma I.</span> +<span class="sidenote">Radàma I.</span> his time. He saw that it was necessary for his people to be educated and civilized if the country was to progress; and making a treaty with the governor of Mauritius to abolish the export of @@ -3611,7 +3572,7 @@ slaves, he received every year in compensation a subsidy of arms, ammunition, and uniforms, as well as English training for his troops. He was thus enabled to establish his authority over a large portion of the island. For some years a British agent, -Mr Hastie, resided at Radma’s court, and exercised a powerful +Mr Hastie, resided at Radàma’s court, and exercised a powerful influence over the king, doing much for the material advance of <span class="sidenote">Introduction of Christianity.</span> the country. At the same period (1820) Christian @@ -3628,10 +3589,10 @@ partly due to the keen good sense of the king, but chiefly to the spread of knowledge and religious teaching.</p> <p>The bright prospects thus opening up were clouded by the -death of Radma at the age of thirty-six, and the seizure of +death of Radàma at the age of thirty-six, and the seizure of the royal authority by one of his wives, the Princess -Rnavlona. She looked with much suspicion upon -<span class="sidenote">Rnavlona I.</span> +Rànavàlona. She looked with much suspicion upon +<span class="sidenote">Rànavàlona I.</span> the ideas then gaining power among many of her people, and determined to strike a decisive blow at the new teaching. In 1835 the profession of the Christian religion @@ -3651,17 +3612,17 @@ was deplorable; there were frequent rebellions, many of the distant provinces were desolated by barbarous wars; and for some years all Europeans were excluded, and foreign commerce almost ceased. This last circumstance was partly owing to -an ill-managed attack upon Tamatve in 1846 by a combined +an ill-managed attack upon Tamatàve in 1846 by a combined British and French force, made to redress the wrongs inflicted upon the foreign traders of that port. But for the leaven of Christianity and education which had been introduced into the country it would have reverted to a state of barbarism.</p> <p>This reign of terror was brought to a close in 1861 by the -death of the queen and the accession of her son Radma II. The +death of the queen and the accession of her son Radàma II. The island was reopened to European trade, and missionary efforts were recommenced. A determined -<span class="sidenote">Radma II.</span> +<span class="sidenote">Radàma II.</span> attempt was made by some Frenchmen to gain for their country an overwhelming influence by means of a treaty which they induced the king to sign. But this act, as well @@ -3672,15 +3633,15 @@ and his life to an end. He was put to death in his palace and her government refused to ratify the agreement which had been illegally obtained, choosing rather to pay a million francs as compensation to the French company. During the five years’ -reign of Queen Rasohrina, quiet and steady advances were +reign of Queen Rasohérina, quiet and steady advances were made in civilization and education, and treaties were concluded with the British, French and American governments.</p> -<p>At the death of Rasohrina in 1868, she was succeeded by her -cousin, Rnavlona II. One of the first acts of the new queen +<p>At the death of Rasohérina in 1868, she was succeeded by her +cousin, Rànavàlona II. One of the first acts of the new queen was the public recognition of Christianity; and very soon afterwards she and her husband, the prime -<span class="sidenote">Rnavlona II.</span> +<span class="sidenote">Rànavàlona II.</span> minister, were baptized, and the erection of a chapel royal was commenced in the palace yard. These acts were followed in the succeeding year by the burning of the royal @@ -3691,7 +3652,7 @@ and enlightenment made great progress, chiefly through the labours of missionaries of various societies.</p> <p>The native Malagasy government, though theoretically -despotic, was limited in various ways. Radma I. and Rnavlona +despotic, was limited in various ways. Radàma I. and Rànavàlona I. were much more absolute sovereigns than those before or after them, but even they were <span class="sidenote">Native Government.</span> @@ -3700,33 +3661,33 @@ announced at large assemblies of the people, whose consent was asked, and always given through the headmen of the different divisions of native society; this custom was no doubt a survival from a time when the popular assent was not a merely formal -act. The large disciplined army formed by Radma I. aided +act. The large disciplined army formed by Radàma I. aided much in changing what was formerly a somewhat limited -monarchy into an absolute one. The Hva queen’s authority +monarchy into an absolute one. The Hòva queen’s authority was maintained over the central and eastern portions of Madagascar, and at almost all the ports, by governors appointed by -the queen, and supported by small garrisons of Hva troops. +the queen, and supported by small garrisons of Hòva troops. At the same time the chiefs of the various tribes were left in possession of a good deal of their former honours and influence. -Rnavlona II., her predecessor and her successor were successively -married to the prime minister, Rinilairivny, a man of +Rànavàlona II., her predecessor and her successor were successively +married to the prime minister, Ràinilaiàrivòny, a man of great ability and sagacity, who, by his position as husband and chief adviser of the sovereign, became virtual ruler of the country. Chiefly owing to his influence, many measures tending to improve the administration were introduced. The -Hva army was estimated at from 30,000 to 40,000 men, several +Hòva army was estimated at from 30,000 to 40,000 men, several English non-commissioned officers and, latterly, others of higher rank being engaged to train them in European methods. Revenue was derived from customs duties, firstfruits, fines and confiscation of offenders’ property, and a money offering called -<i>hsina</i>, presented on a great variety of occasions both to the +<i>hàsina</i>, presented on a great variety of occasions both to the sovereign in person and to her representatives; and these were supplemented by “benevolences” (in the medieval sense of the word) levied upon the people for occasional state necessities. The government also claimed the unpaid service of all classes of the community for every kind of public work.</p> -<p>The Hva government aspired to have Madagascar recognized +<p>The Hòva government aspired to have Madagascar recognized as an independent civilized state, and consuls appointed by the British, French and American governments were accredited to the Malagasy sovereign, the queen @@ -3739,16 +3700,16 @@ earl of Clarendon, then foreign secretary, an understanding was come to between the British and French governments by which it was agreed that each power should respect the independence of Madagascar; and the future of the country appeared to be -bound up in the gradual consolidation of the central Hva +bound up in the gradual consolidation of the central Hòva authority over the whole island. While this prospect would have satisfied the British interests in the island, it was otherwise with the French. The tradition of their former settlements in and influence over the island was strong; in 1840 they had -taken under their protection the Skalva ruler of the small -island of Nossi-b, off the north-west coast, and in virtue of that +taken under their protection the Sàkalàva ruler of the small +island of Nossi-bé, off the north-west coast, and in virtue of that act claimed a vague protectorate over the adjacent shores of the mainland. A treaty, concluded in 1868, while establishing -French consular jurisdiction in Madagascar, recognized Rnavlona +French consular jurisdiction in Madagascar, recognized Rànavàlona II. as queen of Madagascar, and under the Second Empire attempts to establish French political influence were discouraged, and even as late as 1872 the subsidy enjoyed by the @@ -3757,17 +3718,17 @@ Laborde, died, and a dispute arose as to the disposal of his property. This dispute was the occasion of further intervention on the part of the French, for the Paris government supported the claims of Laborde’s heirs, and revived their claim to a protectorate -over the Skalva of the north-west coast, as based on their -agreement with them in 1840, ceding Nossi-b to France. A +over the Sàkalàva of the north-west coast, as based on their +agreement with them in 1840, ceding Nossi-bé to France. A policy of colonial expansion generally, and in Africa in particular at this time, was manifest in France, as in other European -countries, and the French claims on the Hva were pressed +countries, and the French claims on the Hòva were pressed with vigour.</p> <p>Towards the middle of 1882 the relations between the native government and that of France became much strained, and to settle, if possible, these causes of dispute, two -Hva officers of high rank were sent to France as +Hòva officers of high rank were sent to France as <span class="sidenote">Franco-Malagasy War of 1883-85.</span> ambassadors, but as they were not authorized to concede any territory, their visit accomplished very @@ -3777,7 +3738,7 @@ Madagascar, but before the return of the envoys matters had come to a crisis in the island. In May 1883 an ultimatum was sent to the Malagasy queen, requiring immediate compliance with the demands of France; and as these were refused by the -Hva government, Tamatve was bombarded by a French +Hòva government, Tamatàve was bombarded by a French squadron and then occupied by the marines. The war continued in a desultory fashion for many months; but no serious attempt was made to invade the interior; and in 1885 terms @@ -3785,7 +3746,7 @@ of peace were agreed to. By a treaty signed on the 17th of December it was agreed that the foreign relations of Madagascar should be directed by France; that a resident should live at the capital, with a small guard of French soldiers; and that -the Bay of Digo-Suarez, together with surrounding territory, +the Bay of Diégo-Suarez, together with surrounding territory, should be ceded to France. The word “protectorate” was carefully excluded from the treaty, although doubtless the French envoys intended that this should be its practical issue. @@ -3793,20 +3754,20 @@ It was at the same time agreed that there should be no foreign interference with the internal government of the country, and that the queen should retain her former position, with all its honours and dignity. It should be here noticed that the queen, -Rnavlona II., died just at the beginning of the war, on the +Rànavàlona II., died just at the beginning of the war, on the <span class="pagenum"><a name="page278" id="page278"></a>278</span> 13th of July 1883, and was succeeded by her niece, Princess -Razfindrahty, under the title of Rnavlona III., who maintained +Razàfindrahèty, under the title of Rànavàlona III., who maintained the same policy as her predecessor, and was much beloved <span class="sidenote">French Protectorate, 1885-1894.</span> by her people and respected by all. Several French -residents successively represented France at Antannarvo; +residents successively represented France at Antanànarìvo; but these found themselves unable to obtain that influence which the home authorities thought they had a right to demand. Although the British government, in return for concessions in Zanzibar, had consented, in 1890, to recognize a French protectorate over Madagascar, the Malagasy -prime minister, Rinilairivny, was not disposed to give any +prime minister, Ràinilaiàrivòny, was not disposed to give any advantage to France and continued to arm and train, by the help of British officers, a large body of native soldiers. This state of tension and irritation could not last, and at length, @@ -3821,15 +3782,15 @@ the French traders and others, including the large Jesuit mission. As soon as these had left the island, the chief ports were occupied by French troops, and an expeditionary force under General Duchesne was afterwards -landed on the north-west coast at Mjang—commonly, but incorrectly, +landed on the north-west coast at Mòjangà—commonly, but incorrectly, written Majunga—with the object of breaking the -Hva authority. Owing to the necessity of making a road for the +Hòva authority. Owing to the necessity of making a road for the passage of artillery and military stores, many months were spent on the march into the interior, and there was considerable loss of life by fever and other disease among the invading troops. But no effectual resistance was made by the Malagasy, and at length, on the 30th of September 1895, the French forces -appeared on the heights north and east of Antannarvo, bombarded +appeared on the heights north and east of Antanànarìvo, bombarded the city, which surrendered in the afternoon, and on the evening of the same day the French entered the capital.</p> @@ -3837,7 +3798,7 @@ the evening of the same day the French entered the capital.</p> in the central provinces, but the queen was allowed to retain her position. Early in 1896, however, a serious <span class="sidenote">Rebellion of 1896, and Gradual Subjection of the Malagasy.</span> -rebellion broke out in several parts of Imrina. This +rebellion broke out in several parts of Imèrina. This movement was not only anti-French and anti-foreign, but also distinctly anti-Christian. The French troops gradually broke up the power of the rebellion in the @@ -3853,9 +3814,9 @@ who had never submitted to any control from others. Among the first steps he took were to put the country <span class="sidenote">Administration of General Gallieni.</span> under martial law, to abolish royalty and all semblance -of Hva government, and to declare Madagascar to be -henceforth a colony of France. Queen Rnavlona III. was -exiled to Runion, and subsequently to Algeria. Meanwhile +of Hòva government, and to declare Madagascar to be +henceforth a colony of France. Queen Rànavàlona III. was +exiled to Réunion, and subsequently to Algeria. Meanwhile carriage roads were commenced to connect all the chief centres, and the military posts were gradually extended so as to consolidate French rule over all the outlying tribes. French residents @@ -3871,7 +3832,7 @@ made him liked by the people, retired in 1905, and was succeeded in that office by M. Victor Augagneur, late mayor of Lyons. Since the French occupation the Malagasy have conformed pretty readily to the new order of things, although many of the -most intelligent Hva deeply regret that their country did not +most intelligent Hòva deeply regret that their country did not retain its independence. Justice is administered, on the whole, with fairness and impartiality; but the taxation seems too heavy for the means of the people, indeed it is affirmed by trustworthy @@ -3888,7 +3849,7 @@ by the governor-general, in 1907, with their religious customs, by the suppression of hundreds of their congregational schools, and the closing of numbers of their churches. In July 1910 M. Augagneur was replaced as governor-general by -N. Picqui, a prominent official of the Colonial Department, +N. Picquié, a prominent official of the Colonial Department, who had previously served with acceptance as deputy governor-general of French Indo-China, and who had a reputation for tact and impartiality.</p> @@ -3902,8 +3863,8 @@ carried on by them, some 10,000 to 12,000 children having been instructed in their schools. On the reopening of the country to Europeans in 1862, the L.M.S. mission was resumed and was carried on with vigour for several years, stations being formed in several -parts of Imrina, in the Btsilo and Antsihnaka provinces, and at -the ports of Tamatve, Majunga and Frafangna (south-east coast). +parts of Imèrina, in the Bétsiléo and Antsihànaka provinces, and at +the ports of Tamatàve, Majunga and Fàrafangàna (south-east coast). In 1890 the number of their churches was 1220; adherents, 248,000; and scholars, 68,000; so that for long the greater part of the educational work was in their hands, carried on not only in primary @@ -3916,13 +3877,13 @@ theological college in its neighbourhood, but the chief work of the Anglican mission is on the east coast. In 1866 the Norwegian Lutheran Society began work in Madagascar, and was joined in 1888 by an American Lutheran Society. With a representative church at -the capital, the chief work of these missions is in the Vkinankratra -district (south-west of Imrina), in the Btsilo province, and on the +the capital, the chief work of these missions is in the Vàkinankàratra +district (south-west of Imèrina), in the Bétsiléo province, and on the south-east and south-west coasts; in these places they have a large number of converts and (until lately) schools. In 1867 a mission was begun by the Society of Friends, who gave great attention to education and literary work, and afterwards took up as their field -of labour the western and south-western parts of Imrina, where +of labour the western and south-western parts of Imèrina, where they have a large and well-organized mission. Immediately after the island became a French possession the French Protestant Churches began (in 1896) to take part in the evangelizing of their @@ -3990,39 +3951,39 @@ Madagascar</i>. Many of the volumes consist of coloured lithograph plates illustrating the natural history of the country, as well as atlases of maps from the earliest period.</p> -<p><i>General</i>: tienne de Flacourt, <i>Histoire de la grande isle Madagascar</i> +<p><i>General</i>: Étienne de Flacourt, <i>Histoire de la grande isle Madagascar</i> (Paris, 1658); <i>Madagascar, or Robert Drury’s Journal during Fifteen Years’ Captivity on that Island</i> (London, 1729; new ed., 1890); -<i>Voyages et mmoires de Maurice Auguste, comte de Benyowski</i> (Paris, +<i>Voyages et mémoires de Maurice Auguste, comte de Benyowski</i> (Paris, 1791); Froberville, <i>Histoire de Madagascar</i> (Isle de France, 1809); Ellis, <i>History of Madagascar</i> (London, 1838); Guillain, <i>Documents -sur ... la partie occidentale de Madagascar</i> (Paris, 1845); Mac -Descartes, <i>Histoire et gographie de Madagascar</i> (Paris, 1846); Ellis, +sur ... la partie occidentale de Madagascar</i> (Paris, 1845); Macé +Descartes, <i>Histoire et géographie de Madagascar</i> (Paris, 1846); Ellis, <i>Three Visits to Madagascar</i> (London, 1859); J. Sibree, <i>Madagascar -and its People</i> (London, 1870); <i>Tantara ny Andrana eto Madagascar: -Histoire des rois d’Imrina d’aprs les manuscrits malgaches</i> -(Antannarvo, 1875); Mullens, <i>Twelve Months in Madagascar</i> -(London, 1875); Blanchard, <i>L’le de Madagascar</i> (Paris, 1875); +and its People</i> (London, 1870); <i>Tantara ny Andrìana eto Madagascar: +Histoire des rois d’Imérina d’après les manuscrits malgaches</i> +(Antanànarìvo, 1875); Mullens, <i>Twelve Months in Madagascar</i> +(London, 1875); Blanchard, <i>L’Île de Madagascar</i> (Paris, 1875); Dahle, <i>Madagaskar og dets Beboere</i> (Christiania, 1876-1878); Sibree -and Baron (eds.), <i>The Antannarvo Annual</i>, Nos. i-xxiv. (1875-1900, +and Baron (eds.), <i>The Antanànarìvo Annual</i>, Nos. i-xxiv. (1875-1900, pp. 3115); <i>Notes, reconnaissances, et explorations, revue mensuelle</i> -(Antannarvo, 5 vols., 1897-1899, pp. 3041); Sibree, <i>A -Madagascar Bibliography</i> (Antannarvo, 1885); Vaissire, <i>Histoire -de Madagascar</i> (Paris, 1884), <i>Vingt ans Madagascar</i> (Paris, 1885); +(Antanànarìvo, 5 vols., 1897-1899, pp. 3041); Sibree, <i>A +Madagascar Bibliography</i> (Antanànarìvo, 1885); Vaissière, <i>Histoire +de Madagascar</i> (Paris, 1884), <i>Vingt ans à Madagascar</i> (Paris, 1885); Oliver, <i>Madagascar: an Historical and Descriptive Account</i> (2 vols., London, 1886); Cousins, <i>Madagascar of To-day</i> (London, 1895); -<i>Bulletin du comit de Madagascar</i> (monthly) (Paris, 1895, et seq.); +<i>Bulletin du comité de Madagascar</i> (monthly) (Paris, 1895, et seq.); Sibree, <i>Madagascar before the Conquest</i> (London, 1896); Catat, <i>Voyage - Madagascar</i> (Paris, 1895); <i>Annuaire de Madagascar</i> (Antannarvo, +à Madagascar</i> (Paris, 1895); <i>Annuaire de Madagascar</i> (Antanànarìvo, 1898, et seq.); J. S. Gallieni; <i>Rapport d’ensemble sur la situation -gnrale de Madagascar</i> (2 vols., Paris, 1899); <i>Revue de Madagascar, -mensuelle, illustre</i> (1895, et seq.); <i>Guide de l’immigrant Madagascar</i> +générale de Madagascar</i> (2 vols., Paris, 1899); <i>Revue de Madagascar, +mensuelle, illustrée</i> (1895, et seq.); <i>Guide de l’immigrant à Madagascar</i> (3 vols., with atlas, Paris, 1899); <i>Collection des anciens ouvrages -relatifs Madagascar, par les soins du comit de Madagascar</i> (a +relatifs à Madagascar, par les soins du comité de Madagascar</i> (a collection and translation of all works relating to the island from 1500 to 1800, in 10 vols.), (Paris, 1899 et seq.); <i>Bulletin trimestriel de -l’acadmie de Malgache</i> (quarterly) (Antannarvo, 1902 et seq.); -G, Grandidier et autres, <i>Madagascar au dbut du xx<span class="sp">e</span> sicle</i> (Paris, +l’académie de Malgache</i> (quarterly) (Antanànarìvo, 1902 et seq.); +G, Grandidier et autres, <i>Madagascar au début du xx<span class="sp">e</span> siècle</i> (Paris, 1902); G. Grandidier, <i>Bibliographie de Madagascar</i> (2 vols., Paris, 1905 and 1907).</p> @@ -4031,41 +3992,41 @@ G, Grandidier et autres, <i>Madagascar au dbut du xx<span class="sp">e</span> s Madagascar</i> (London, 1885); Shaw, <i>Madagascar and France</i> (London, 1885); Saillens, <i>Nos droits sur Madagascar</i> (Paris, 1885); K. Blind “The Fictitious French Claim to Madagascar,” <i>Contemp. Rev.</i> -(1894); Martineau, <i>tude de politique contemporaine. Madagascar</i> +(1894); Martineau, <i>Étude de politique contemporaine. Madagascar</i> (Paris, 1894); Rentier, <i>Les droits de la France sur Madagascar</i> (1895); -Corlay, <i>Notre campagne Madagascar</i> (Paris, 1896); Knight, <i>Madagascar +Corlay, <i>Notre campagne à Madagascar</i> (Paris, 1896); Knight, <i>Madagascar in War-time</i> (London, 1896); Carol, <i>Chez les Hovas</i> (Paris, 1898); -Gallieni, <i>Neuf ans Madagascar</i> (Paris, 1908).</p> +Gallieni, <i>Neuf ans à Madagascar</i> (Paris, 1908).</p> <p><i>Philology</i>: Houtman, <i>Spraak ende woord boek in de Maleische ende Madagaskarsche talen</i> (Amsterdam, 1603); <i>Voyage de C. van Heemskerk; -vocabulaire de la langue parle dans l’le Saint-Laurent</i> (Amsterdam, -1603) Megiser, <i>Beschreibung der Mechtigen und Weitberhmbten +vocabulaire de la langue parlée dans l’Île Saint-Laurent</i> (Amsterdam, +1603) Megiser, <i>Beschreibung der Mechtigen und Weitberhümbten Insul Madagascar</i>, with dictionary and dialogues (Altenburg, 1609); Arthus, <i>Colloquia latino-maleyica et madagascarica</i> (Frankfort, 1613); -Challand, <i>Vocabulaire franais-malgache et malgache-franais</i> (le de -France, 1773); Froberville, <i>Dictionnaire franais-madcasse</i> (3 vols., -le de France, 1809); Freeman and Johns, <i>Dictionary of the Malagasy -Language</i> (<i>Eng.-Mal. and Mal.-Eng.</i>), (Antannarvo, 1835); Dalmond, -<i>Vocabulaire et grammaire pour les langues malgaches, Skalva -et Btsimisra</i> (Bourbon, 1842); R. C. Missionaries’ <i>Dictionnaire -franais-malgache</i> (Runion, 1853); and <i>Dictionnaire malgache-franais</i> -(Runion, 1855); Van der Tunk, “Outlines of a Grammar +Challand, <i>Vocabulaire français-malgache et malgache-français</i> (Île de +France, 1773); Froberville, <i>Dictionnaire français-madécasse</i> (3 vols., +Île de France, 1809); Freeman and Johns, <i>Dictionary of the Malagasy +Language</i> (<i>Eng.-Mal. and Mal.-Eng.</i>), (Antanànarìvo, 1835); Dalmond, +<i>Vocabulaire et grammaire pour les langues malgaches, Sàkalàva +et Bétsimisàra</i> (Bourbon, 1842); R. C. Missionaries’ <i>Dictionnaire +français-malgache</i> (Réunion, 1853); and <i>Dictionnaire malgache-français</i> +(Réunion, 1855); Van der Tunk, “Outlines of a Grammar of the Malagasy Language,” <i>Jour. Roy. Asiat. Soc.</i> (1860); Ailloud, -<i>Grammaire malgache-hva</i> (Antannarvo, 1872); W. E. Cousins, +<i>Grammaire malgache-hòva</i> (Antanànarìvo, 1872); W. E. Cousins, <i>Concise Introduction to the Study of the Malagasy Language as -spoken in Imrina</i> (Antannarvo, 1873); Marre de Marin, <i>Grammaire -malgache</i> (Paris, 1876); id., <i>Essai sur le malgache, ou tude -compare des langues javanaise, malgache, et malayse</i> (Paris, 1876); -id., <i>Le Jardin des racines ocaniennes</i> (Paris, 1876); Dahle, <i>Specimens -of Malagasy Folk-lore</i> (Antannarvo, 1877); and W. E. Cousins, +spoken in Imèrina</i> (Antanànarìvo, 1873); Marre de Marin, <i>Grammaire +malgache</i> (Paris, 1876); id., <i>Essai sur le malgache, ou Étude +comparée des langues javanaise, malgache, et malayse</i> (Paris, 1876); +id., <i>Le Jardin des racines océaniennes</i> (Paris, 1876); Dahle, <i>Specimens +of Malagasy Folk-lore</i> (Antanànarìvo, 1877); and W. E. Cousins, “The Malagasy Language,” in <i>Trans. Phil. Soc.</i> (1878). Besides these there are several valuable papers by Dahle in the yearly numbers -of The <i>Antannarvo Annual</i> (<i>ante</i>) (1876-1877); Richardson, -<i>A New Malagasy-English Dictionary</i> (Antannarvo, 1885); Cousins -and Barrett, <i>Malagasy Proverbs</i> (Antannarvo, 1885); Caussque, -<i>Grammaire malgache</i> (Antannarvo, 1886); Abinal et Malzac, <i>Dictionnaire -malgache-franais</i> (Antannarvo, 1889); Brandstetter, +of The <i>Antanànarìvo Annual</i> (<i>ante</i>) (1876-1877); Richardson, +<i>A New Malagasy-English Dictionary</i> (Antanànarìvo, 1885); Cousins +and Barrett, <i>Malagasy Proverbs</i> (Antanànarìvo, 1885); Caussèque, +<i>Grammaire malgache</i> (Antanànarìvo, 1886); Abinal et Malzac, <i>Dictionnaire +malgache-français</i> (Antanànarìvo, 1889); Brandstetter, “Die Beziehungen des Malagasy zum Malaiischen,” <i>Malaio-polynesische Forschungen</i>, pt. 2 (Lucerne, 1893).</p> @@ -4077,15 +4038,15 @@ Ellis, <i>Madagascar Revisited</i> (London, 1867); id., <i>The Martyr Church</i> Briggs, <i>The Madagascar Mission</i> (L.M.S. 1879); id., <i>Ten Years’ Review of Mission Work in Madagascar</i> (L.M.S. 1870-1880, 1881); Johnson, <i>Review of Work of the Friends’ Foreign Mission Association -in Madagascar</i>, 1867-1880 (Antannarvo, 1880); Vaissire, <i>Histoire +in Madagascar</i>, 1867-1880 (Antanànarìvo, 1880); Vaissière, <i>Histoire de Madagascar, ses habitants et ses missionaires</i> (Paris, 1884); <i>The Church in Madagascar</i> (<i>S.P.G.</i>, <i>15 years’ progress</i>, 1874-1889, 1889); -<i>La Libert religieuse Madagascar</i> (Paris, 1897); Matthews, <i>Thirty +<i>La Liberté religieuse à Madagascar</i> (Paris, 1897); Matthews, <i>Thirty Years in Madagascar</i> (London, 1904); Sibree, <i>The L.M.S. Mission in Madagascar</i> (L.M.S. Mission Hand Books, London, 1907); id., “Christian Missions in Madagascar and French Colonial Policy,” <i>The East and the West</i> (Jan. 1909); and General Gallieni’s -“Neuf ans Madagascar”, <i>Journal of the African Society</i> (April +“Neuf ans à Madagascar”, <i>Journal of the African Society</i> (April 1909).</p> </div> <div class="author">(J. Si.*)</div> @@ -4104,9 +4065,9 @@ mines, and the Rev. R. Baron, F.G.S., F.L.S.</p> Newton, <i>Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc.</i> (Feb. 1895).</p> <p><a name="ft4b" id="ft4b" href="#fa4b"><span class="fn">4</span></a> The following are figures of mean temperature, kindly supplied -by the Rev. E. Colin, S. J., director of the observatory: Digo-Suarez, -N., 79; Frafangna, S.E. coast, 75; Mrovoy, W. intr., -81; Mrondva, W. coast, 77; Tullēar, S.W. coast, 78.</p> +by the Rev. E. Colin, S. J., director of the observatory: Diégo-Suarez, +N., 79°; Fàrafangàna, S.E. coast, 75°; Màrovoày, W. intr., +81°; Mòrondàva, W. coast, 77°; Tullēar, S.W. coast, 78°.</p> <p><a name="ft5b" id="ft5b" href="#fa5b"><span class="fn">5</span></a> The words in parentheses are the native Malagasy names.</p> @@ -4114,8 +4075,8 @@ N., 79; Frafangna, S.E. coast, 75; Mrovoy, W. intr., but it is probably a little over that amount, as some localities are still imperfectly known.</p> -<p><a name="ft7b" id="ft7b" href="#fa7b"><span class="fn">7</span></a> This is a special and restricted use of the word, Hva in its widest -sense being a tribal name, including all ranks of people in Imrina.</p> +<p><a name="ft7b" id="ft7b" href="#fa7b"><span class="fn">7</span></a> This is a special and restricted use of the word, Hòva in its widest +sense being a tribal name, including all ranks of people in Imèrina.</p> <p><a name="ft8b" id="ft8b" href="#fa8b"><span class="fn">8</span></a> It is true that 200 years earlier than this, persistent efforts were made for nineteen years (1600-1619) by Portuguese Roman Catholic @@ -4126,7 +4087,7 @@ abandoned, leaving no fruit of their labours in a single church or convert. Half a dozen small books of devotion are all that remain to show their presence in Madagascar.</p> -<p><a name="ft9b" id="ft9b" href="#fa9b"><span class="fn">9</span></a> The work of the “Frres chrtiens” was, however, almost +<p><a name="ft9b" id="ft9b" href="#fa9b"><span class="fn">9</span></a> The work of the “Frères chrétiens” was, however, almost broken up by the anti-clerical policy of the French government.</p> </div> @@ -4160,7 +4121,7 @@ Juvenal and Persius</i> (1789). He died on the 2nd of May 1790.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">MADDALONI,<a name="ar42" id="ar42"></a></span> a town of Campania, Italy, in the province of -Caserta, about 3 m. S.E. of Caserta, with stations on the railways +Caserta, about 3½ m. S.E. of Caserta, with stations on the railways from Caserta to Benevento and from Caserta to Avellino, 200 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1901), 19,778 (town); 21,270 (commune). It is prettily situated at the base of one of the Tifata hills, the @@ -4168,7 +4129,7 @@ towers of its medieval castle and the church of San Michele crowning the heights above. The fine old palace of the Caraffa family, once dukes of Maddaloni, the old college now named after Giordano Bruno, and the institute for the sons of soldiers are the -chief points of interest. About 2 m. east of Valle di Maddaloni, +chief points of interest. About 2½ m. east of Valle di Maddaloni, the Ponte della Valle, an aqueduct built by the orders of Charles III. of Naples and his son to convey the water of the Tiburno to Caserta (19 m.), is carried across the valley between @@ -4204,7 +4165,7 @@ published by the university of Oxford. In 1866-1869 he edited the <i>Historia Minor</i> of Matthew Paris for the Rolls Series. In 1833 he wrote the text of Henry Shaw’s <i>Illuminated Ornaments of the Middle Ages</i>; and in 1850 edited the English translation -of Silvestre’s <i>Palographie universelle</i>. He died on the 8th of +of Silvestre’s <i>Paléographie universelle</i>. He died on the 8th of March 1873, bequeathing his journals and other private papers to the Bodleian Library, where they were to remain unopened until 1920.</p> @@ -4266,7 +4227,7 @@ same family as madder.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">MADEC, REN-MARIE<a name="ar45" id="ar45"></a></span> (1736-1784)—called Medoc in Anglo-Indian +<p><span class="bold">MADEC, RENÉ-MARIE<a name="ar45" id="ar45"></a></span> (1736-1784)—called Medoc in Anglo-Indian writings—French adventurer in India, was born at Quimper in Brittany on the 7th of February 1736, of poor parents. He went out to India and served under Dupleix and Lally, but @@ -4285,7 +4246,7 @@ for a French alliance with the Mogul emperor against the British, but the project came to nothing.</p> <div class="condensed"> -<p>See mile Barb, <i>Le Nabab Ren Madec</i> (1894).</p> +<p>See Émile Barbé, <i>Le Nabab René Madec</i> (1894).</p> </div> @@ -4296,7 +4257,7 @@ inhabited islands named Madeira and Porto Santo and two groups of uninhabited rocks named the Desertas and Selvagens. Pop. (1900), 150,574; area, 314 sq. m. Funchal, the capital of the archipelago, is on the south coast of Madeira Island, in -32 37′ 45″ N. and 16 54′ W. It is about 360 m. from the +32° 37′ 45″ N. and 16° 54′ W. It is about 360 m. from the coast of Africa, 535 from Lisbon, 1215 from Plymouth, 240 from Teneriffe, and 480 from Santa Maria, the nearest of the Azores.</p> @@ -4318,7 +4279,7 @@ is uninhabited, though cultivated, for the towns, villages and scattered huts are usually built either at the mouths of ravines or upon the lower slopes that extend from the mountains to the coast. The ridges between the ravines usually terminate in lofty -headlands, one of which, called Cabo Giro, has the height of +headlands, one of which, called Cabo Girão, has the height of 1920 ft., and much of the seaboard is bound by precipices of dark basalt. The north coast, having been more exposed to the erosion of the sea, is more precipitous than the south, and presents everywhere @@ -4345,11 +4306,11 @@ is grown here, the limited requirements of the inhabitants being supplied from Funchal.</p> <p><i>The Desertas</i> lie about 11 m. S.E. of Madeira, and consist of -three islands, Ilheo Cho, Bugio and Deserta Grande, together -with Sail Rock off the north end of Ilheo Cho. They present +three islands, Ilheo Chão, Bugio and Deserta Grande, together +with Sail Rock off the north end of Ilheo Chão. They present lofty precipices to the sea on all sides. Rabbits and goats abound on them. The archil weed grows on the rocks, and is gathered -for exportation. The largest islet (Deserta Grande) is 6 m. long, +for exportation. The largest islet (Deserta Grande) is 6½ m. long, and attains the height of 1610 ft. These rocks are conspicuous objects in the sea-views from Funchal.</p> @@ -4370,7 +4331,7 @@ trachytic lavas, beds of tuff and other ejectamenta, the result of a long and complicated series of eruptions from innumerable vents. Besides this building up by the emission of matter from craters and clefts, a certain amount of upheaval in mass has taken place, for at -a spot about 1200 ft. above the sea in the northern valley of So +a spot about 1200 ft. above the sea in the northern valley of São Vicente, and again at about the same height in Porto Santo, there have been found fragments of limestone accompanied by tuffs containing marine shells and echinoderms of the Miocene Tertiary @@ -4383,7 +4344,7 @@ and in many instances even their species, being made out.</p> Madeira was being increased in height. The leaf bed and the accompanying carbonaceous matter, frequently termed lignite, although it displays no trace of structure, which lie under 1200 ft. -of lavas in the valley of So Jorge, afford proof that there had been +of lavas in the valley of São Jorge, afford proof that there had been sufficient time for the growth of a vegetation of high order, many of the leaf impressions belonging to species of trees and shrubs which still exist on the island. Moreover, great alterations and dislocations @@ -4479,11 +4440,11 @@ burnt into lime for building purposes.</p> <p><i>Climate.</i>—Observations taken at Funchal Observatory (80 ft. above sea-level) in the last twenty years of the 19th century showed -that the mean annual temperature is about 65 F. The mean +that the mean annual temperature is about 65° F. The mean minimum for the coldest part of the year (October to May inclusive) -does not fall below 55, and the average daily variation of temperature -in the same period does not exceed 10. Madeira thus has a -remarkably mild climate, though it lies only 10 north of the Tropic +does not fall below 55°, and the average daily variation of temperature +in the same period does not exceed 10°. Madeira thus has a +remarkably mild climate, though it lies only 10° north of the Tropic of Cancer. This mildness is due to the surrounding ocean, from which the atmosphere obtains a large supply of watery vapour. The mean humidity of the air is about 75 (saturation = 100). The prevalent @@ -4494,8 +4455,8 @@ from the east is a dry wind. A hot and dry wind, the leste of the natives, occasionally blows from the east-south-east, the direction of the Sahara, and causes the hill region to be hotter than below; but even on the coast the thermometer under its influence sometimes -indicates 93. The <i>leste</i> is often accompanied by sandstorms. -As the thermometer has never been known to fall as low as 46 at +indicates 93°. The <i>leste</i> is often accompanied by sandstorms. +As the thermometer has never been known to fall as low as 46° at Funchal, frost and snow are there wholly unknown; but snow falls on the mountains once or twice during the winter, very seldom, however, below the altitude of 2000 ft. Thunderstorms are rare, @@ -4638,7 +4599,7 @@ vegetation, consequently the species are few and poor.</p> probably some intermixture of Moorish and negro blood amongst the lower classes. The dress of the peasantry, without being picturesque, is peculiar. Both men and women in the outlying -country districts wear the <i>carapua</i>, a small cap made of blue +country districts wear the <i>carapuça</i>, a small cap made of blue cloth in shape something like a funnel, with the pipe standing upwards. The men have trousers of linen, drawn tight, and terminating at the knees; a coarse shirt enveloping the upper @@ -4687,7 +4648,7 @@ without the consent of the landlord, and if he does not so dispose of it that share passes to his heirs. In this way the tenant practically enjoys fixity of tenure, for the landlord is seldom in a position to pay the price at which the tenant’s share is valued. Money -rents are rare, the mtayer system regulating almost universally +rents are rare, the métayer system regulating almost universally the relations between landlord and tenant; that is, the tenant pays to the owner a certain portion of the produce, usually one half or one third. The holdings are as a rule rarely larger than one man can @@ -4741,7 +4702,7 @@ the hills large quantities of the Spanish chestnut afford an item in the food of the common people. A little tobacco is grown, and is made into cigars of inferior quality.</p> -<p>The total foreign trade of Madeira was valued at 628,000 in 1900. +<p>The total foreign trade of Madeira was valued at £628,000 in 1900. The principal exports are wine, sugar, embroidery, vegetables, fruits and wicker goods. Coal is imported for the ships calling at Funchal, which is the headquarters of Madeiran commerce and industry. @@ -4753,7 +4714,7 @@ are important fisheries.</p> <p><i>Chief Towns and Communications.</i>—Funchal (pop. 20,850) is described in a separate article. The other chief towns are Camara de Lobos (7150), Machico (6128), Santa Cruz (5876), Ponta do -Sol (5665), So Vicente (4896), Calheta (3475), Sant’ Anna +Sol (5665), São Vicente (4896), Calheta (3475), Sant’ Anna (3011) and Porto Santo (2311). Each of these is the capital of a commune (<i>concelho</i>), to which it gives its name. Madeira is connected by regular lines of steamships with Great Britain, @@ -4765,7 +4726,7 @@ carriages are rare, and all heavy goods are transported either on the backs of mules or upon rude wooden sledges drawn by bullocks. When horses are not employed, locomotion is effected either by means of hammocks or by bullock cars. The hammock -(<i>rde</i>) is a piece of stout canvas gathered up and secured +(<i>rêde</i>) is a piece of stout canvas gathered up and secured at each end to a long pole carried by a couple of bearers. In place of cabs, curtained cars on sledges, made to hold four persons, and drawn by a pair of bullocks, are employed. They @@ -4788,7 +4749,7 @@ that the Phoenicians discovered Madeira at a very early period. Pliny mentions certain Purple or Mauretanian Islands, the position of which with reference to the Fortunate Islands or Canaries might seem to indicate the Madeiras. There is a romantic story, to -the effect that two lovers, Robert Machim, Machin, or Macham, +the effect that two lovers, Robert Machim, à Machin, or Macham, and Anna d’Arfet, fleeing from England to France (<i>c.</i> 1370) were driven out of their course by a violent storm and cast on the coast of Madeira at the place subsequently named Machico, in @@ -4796,7 +4757,7 @@ memory of one of them. Both perished here, but some of their crew escaped to the Barbary coast, and were made slaves. Among them was the pilot Pedro Morales of Seville, who is said to have been ransomed and to have communicated his knowledge -of Madeira to Joo Gonalvez Zarco (or Zargo). How far this story +of Madeira to João Gonçalvez Zarco (or Zargo). How far this story is true cannot now be ascertained. It is, however, certain that Zarco first sighted Porto Santo in 1418, having been driven thither by a storm while he was exploring the coast of West Africa. @@ -4826,14 +4787,14 @@ peaceful commercial development.</p> (1903), a comprehensive study of the three archipelagoes. <i>The Land of the Wine</i>, by A. J. D. Biddle (Philadelphia, 1901) is generally valuable, but its history cannot be trusted. See also P. Langerhaus, -<i>Handbuch fr Madeira</i> (1884) and Vahl, <i>Madeira’s Vegetation</i> +<i>Handbuch für Madeira</i> (1884) and Vahl, <i>Madeira’s Vegetation</i> (Copenhagen, 1904).</p> </div> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">MADELENIAN,<a name="ar47" id="ar47"></a></span> a term derived from La Madeleine, a cave in -the Vzre, about midway between Moustier and Les Eyzies, +the Vézère, about midway between Moustier and Les Eyzies, France, and given by the French anthropologist Gabriel de Mortillet to the third stage of his system of cave-chronology, synchronous with the fourth or most recent division of the @@ -4868,9 +4829,9 @@ Gorge d’Enfer in Dordogne; Grotte du Placard in Charente and others in south-west France.</p> <div class="condensed"> -<p>See G. de Mortillet, <i>Le Prhistorique</i> (1900); Edouard Lartet and +<p>See G. de Mortillet, <i>Le Préhistorique</i> (1900); Edouard Lartet and Henry Christy, <i>Reliquiae Aquitanicae</i> (1865-1875); Edouard Dupont, -<i>Le Temps prhistorique en Belgique</i> (1872); Lord Avebury, <i>Prehistoric +<i>Le Temps préhistorique en Belgique</i> (1872); Lord Avebury, <i>Prehistoric Times</i> (1900).</p> </div> @@ -4884,7 +4845,7 @@ railways (Madeley Court). Pop. of civil parish (1901), 8442. There are large ironworks, ironstone and coal are mined, and potter’s clay is raised. The church of St Michael (1796) replaced a Norman building. The living was held from 1760 to 1783 by -John William Fletcher or de la Flechre, a close friend of the +John William Fletcher or de la Flechêre, a close friend of the Wesleys. The parish includes a portion of Coalbrookdale (<i>q.v.</i>), and the towns of Ironbridge and Coalport. <span class="sc">Ironbridge</span>, a town picturesquely situated on the steep left bank of the Severn, @@ -5070,7 +5031,7 @@ national Congress of power to negative state acts; and the establishment of a council of revision (the executive and a convenient number of national judges) with veto power over all laws passed by the national Congress. Madison, always an opponent of -slavery, disapproved of the compromise (in Art. I. 9 and Art. V.) +slavery, disapproved of the compromise (in Art. I. § 9 and Art. V.) postponing to 1808 (or later) the prohibition of the importation of slaves. He took a leading part in the debates of the convention, of which he kept full and careful notes, afterwards published by @@ -5559,15 +5520,15 @@ in <i>Historic Towns of the Western States</i> (New York, 1900), and his <p><span class="bold">MADOU, JEAN BAPTISTE<a name="ar55" id="ar55"></a></span> (1796-1877), Belgian painter and lithographer, was born at Brussels on the 3rd of February 1796. He studied at the Brussels Academy of Fine Arts and -was a pupil of Franois. While draughtsman to the topographical +was a pupil of François. While draughtsman to the topographical military division at Courtrai, he received a commission for lithographic work from a Brussels publisher. It was about 1820 that he began his artistic career. Between 1825 and 1827 he contributed to <i>Les Vues pittoresques de la Belgique, to a Life of Napoleon</i>, and to works on the costumes of the Netherlands, and later made a great reputation by his -work in <i>La Physionomie de la socit en Europe depuis 1400 -jusqu’ nos jours</i> (1836) and <i>Les Scnes de la vie des peintres</i>. +work in <i>La Physionomie de la société en Europe depuis 1400 +jusqu’ à nos jours</i> (1836) and <i>Les Scènes de la vie des peintres</i>. It was not until about 1840 that he began to paint in oils, and the success of his early efforts in this medium resulted in a long series of pictures representing scenes of village and @@ -5575,14 +5536,14 @@ city life, including “The Fiddler,” “The Jewel Merchant,&rdquo “The Police Court,” “The Drunkard,” “The Ill-regulated Household,” and “The Village Politicians.” Among his numerous works mention may also be made of “The Feast -at the Chteau” (1851), “The Unwelcome Guests” (1852, +at the Château” (1851), “The Unwelcome Guests” (1852, Brussels Gallery), generally regarded as his masterpiece, “The Rat Hunt” (acquired by Leopold II., king of the Belgians), “The Arquebusier” (1860), and “The Stirrup Cup.” At the age of sixty-eight he decorated a hall in his house with a series of large paintings representing scenes from La Fontaine’s fables, and ten years later made for King Leopold -a series of decorative paintings for the chteau of Ciergnon. +a series of decorative paintings for the château of Ciergnon. Madou died at Brussels on the 31st of March 1877.</p> <div class="condensed"> @@ -5608,8 +5569,8 @@ and soon went abroad, dying at Genoa in 1870. Madoz was distinguished from most of the politicians of his generation by the fact that in middle life he compiled what is still a book of value—a geographical, statistical and historical dictionary -of Spain and its possessions oversea, <i>Diccionario geogrfico, -estadstico y historico de Espaa, y sus posesiones de Ultramar</i> +of Spain and its possessions oversea, <i>Diccionario geográfico, +estadístico y historico de España, y sus posesiones de Ultramar</i> (Madrid, 1848-1850).</p> @@ -5842,7 +5803,7 @@ are creations of British rule and subject to the usual Hindu custom of partition. The total area of the <i>zamindari</i> estates is about 26 million acres, more than one-fourth of the whole presidency. The <i>peshkash</i> or tribute payable to government in perpetuity amounts -to about 330,000 a year. <i>Inms</i>, revenue-free or quit-rent grants +to about £330,000 a year. <i>Ináms</i>, revenue-free or quit-rent grants of lands made for religious endowments or for services rendered to the state, occupy an aggregate area of nearly 8 million acres.</p> @@ -6012,13 +5973,13 @@ the most formidable antagonist which the English had ever encountered (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Hyder Ali</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">India</a></span>). Since the beginning of the 19th century Madras has known no regular war, but occasional disturbances have called for measures of repression. -The <i>plegrs</i> or local chieftains long clung to their independence +The <i>pálegárs</i> or local chieftains long clung to their independence after their country was ceded to the British. On the west coast, the feudal aristocracy of the Nairs, and the religious fanaticism of the Moplahs, have more than once led to rebellion and bloodshed. In the extreme north, the wild tribes occupying the hills of Ganjam and Vizagapatam have only lately learned -the habit of subordination. In 1836 the <i>zamndar</i> of Gumsur +the habit of subordination. In 1836 the <i>zamíndarí</i> of Gumsur in this remote tract was attached by government for the rebellious conduct of its chief. An inquiry then instituted revealed the wide prevalence among the tribe of Kondhs of human @@ -6043,7 +6004,7 @@ tract encircling Madras city, then known as the Jagir now Chingleput district, was ceded by the nawab of Arcot. In 1765 the Northern Circars, out of which the French had recently been driven, were granted to the Company by the Mogul emperor, -but at the price of an annual tribute of 90,000 to the nizam +but at the price of an annual tribute of £90,000 to the nizam of Hyderabad. Full rights of dominion were not acquired till 1823, when the tribute was commuted for a lump payment. In 1792 Tippoo was compelled to cede the Baramahal (now @@ -6075,8 +6036,8 @@ Gazetteer</i> (2 vols., Calcutta, 1908).</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">MADRAS,<a name="ar58" id="ar58"></a></span> the capital of Madras presidency, and the chief -seaport on the eastern coast of India, is situated in 13 4′ N. -and 80 17′ E. The city, with its suburbs, extends nine miles +seaport on the eastern coast of India, is situated in 13° 4′ N. +and 80° 17′ E. The city, with its suburbs, extends nine miles along the sea and nearly four miles inland, intersected by the little river Cooum. Area, 27 sq. m.; pop. (1901), 509,346, showing an increase of 12.6% in the decade. Madras is the @@ -6104,7 +6065,7 @@ public buildings on the sea-face. (3) West and south of this lung of the city are crowded quarters known by native names—Chintadrapet, Turuvaleswarampet, Pudupak, Royapet, Kistnampet and Mylapur, which bend to the sea again at the old -town of Saint Thom. (4) To the west of George Town are the +town of Saint Thomé. (4) To the west of George Town are the quarters of Veperi and Pudupet, chiefly inhabited by Eurasians, and the suburbs of Egmore, Nangambakam, and Perambur, adorned with handsome European mansions and their spacious @@ -6170,7 +6131,7 @@ an English fleet relieved the garrison, and the besiegers retired with some precipitancy. With the exception of the threatening approach of Hyder Ali’s horsemen in 1769, and again in 1780, Madras has since the French siege been free from external -attack. The town of Saint Thom, now part of Madras city, +attack. The town of Saint Thomé, now part of Madras city, was founded and fortified by the Portuguese in 1504, and was held by the French from 1672 to 1674.</p> @@ -6200,7 +6161,7 @@ King of Jerusalem.” The artist then went to Rome, where he worked at various subjects, sacred and profane. Then he painted “Maria Christina in the Dress of a Nun by the bedside of Ferdinand III.” (1843), “Queen Isabella,” “The -Duchess of Medina-Coeli,” and “The Countess de Vilchs” +Duchess of Medina-Coeli,” and “The Countess de Vilchès” (1845-1847), besides a number of portraits of the Spanish aristocracy, some of which were sent to the exhibition of 1855. He received the Legion of Honour in 1846. He was made a corresponding @@ -6220,7 +6181,7 @@ pupil was his son, <span class="sc">Don Raimundo De Madrazo</span> (b. 1841).</p <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">MADRID<a name="ar60" id="ar60"></a></span>, a province of central Spain, formed in 1833 of districts previously included in New Castile, and bounded -on the W. and N. by vila and Segovia, E. by Guadalajara, +on the W. and N. by Ávila and Segovia, E. by Guadalajara, S.E. by Cuenca and S. by Toledo. Pop. (1900), 775,034, of whom 539,835 inhabit the city of Madrid; area, 3084 sq. m. Madrid belongs to the basin of the Tagus, being separated @@ -6229,7 +6190,7 @@ N.W. and N., and by the Sierra de Gredos on the S.W. The Tagus is the southern boundary for some distance, its chief tributary being the Jarama, which rises in the Somosierra in the north and terminates at Aranjuez. The Jarama, in -turn, is joined by the Henares and Tajua on the left, and by +turn, is joined by the Henares and Tajuña on the left, and by the Lozoya and Manzanares on the right. The Guadarrama, another tributary of the Tagus, has its upper course within the province. Like the rest of Castile, Madrid is chiefly of @@ -6263,7 +6224,7 @@ except for the supply of the capital with necessaries.</p> <p>Besides the local lines, all the great railways in the kingdom converge in this province, and it contains in all 221 m. of line. -Besides Madrid, the towns of Aranjuez (12,670) and Alcal +Besides Madrid, the towns of Aranjuez (12,670) and Alcalá de Henares (11,206) and the Escorial are described in separate articles. The other towns with more than 5000 inhabitants are Vallecas (10,128), Colmenar de Oreja (6182), Colmenar @@ -6298,9 +6259,9 @@ centre of the peninsula, nearly equidistant from the Bay of Biscay, the Mediterranean and the Atlantic. Owing to its high altitude and open situation it is liable to sudden and frequent variations of climate, and the daily range of temperature sometimes -exceeds 50 F. In summer the heat is rendered doubly oppressive +exceeds 50° F. In summer the heat is rendered doubly oppressive by the fiery, dust-laden winds which sweep across the Castilian table-land; -at this season a temperature of 109 has been registered in the +at this season a temperature of 109° has been registered in the shade. In winter the northerly gales from the Sierra Guadarrama bring intense cold; snow falls frequently, and skating is carried on in the Buen Retiro park. A Spanish proverb describes the wind @@ -6326,7 +6287,7 @@ rounded off; from east to west it measures rather less than from north to south. It was formerly surrounded by a poor wall, partly of brick, partly of earth, some 20 ft. in height, and pierced by five principal gates (<i>puertas</i>) and eleven doorways (<i>portillos</i>). -Of these only three, the Puerta de Alcal on the east, the Puerta +Of these only three, the Puerta de Alcalá on the east, the Puerta de Toledo on the south and the Portillo de San Vicente on the west, actually exist; the first and the third were erected in the time of Charles III. (1759-1788), and the second in honour of @@ -6343,7 +6304,7 @@ south side stands the Palacio de la Gobernacion, or ministry of the interior, a heavy square building by a French architect, J. Marquet, dating from 1768. From the Puerta del Sol diverge, immediately or mediately, ten of the principal streets of Madrid—eastward -by north, the Calle de Alcal, terminating beyond +by north, the Calle de Alcalá, terminating beyond the Buen Retiro park; eastward, the Carrera de San Jeronimo, terminating by the Plaza de las Cortes in the Prado; southward, the Calle de Carretas; westward, the Calle Mayor, which leads @@ -6357,24 +6318,24 @@ street through central Madrid, to be called the Gran Via, was given to an English firm in 1905.</p> <div class="condensed"> -<p>The Calle de Alcal is bordered on both sides with acacias, and +<p>The Calle de Alcalá is bordered on both sides with acacias, and contains the Real Academia de Bellas Artes, founded in 1752 as an academy of art and music; its collection of paintings by Spanish masters includes some of the best-known works of Murillo. The -handsome Bank of Spain (1884-1891) stands where the Calle de Alcal +handsome Bank of Spain (1884-1891) stands where the Calle de Alcalá meets the Prado; in the oval Plaza de Madrid, at the same point, is a fine 18th-century fountain with a marble group representing the -goddess Cybele drawn in a chariot by two lions. The Calle de Alcal +goddess Cybele drawn in a chariot by two lions. The Calle de Alcalá is continued eastward past the Buen Retiro gardens and park, and through the Plaza de Independencia, in the middle of which is the -Puerta de Alcal. The Plaza de las Cortes is so called from the +Puerta de Alcalá. The Plaza de las Cortes is so called from the Congreso de los Diputados, or House of Commons, on its north side. The square contains a bronze statue of Cervantes, by Antonio Sola, erected in 1835. The Calle de Carretas, on the west side of which is the General Post Office, ranks with the Carrera de San Jeronimo and Calle de la Montera for the excellence of its shops. From the Calle Mayor is entered the Plaza Mayor, a rectangle of about 430 ft. by 330 ft., -formerly the scene of tournaments, bull fights, autos de f, acts of +formerly the scene of tournaments, bull fights, autos de fé, acts of canonization (including that of Ignatius Loyola in 1622) and similar exhibitions, which used to be viewed by the royal family from the balcony of one of the houses called the Panaderia (belonging to the @@ -6388,7 +6349,7 @@ thoroughfares of Madrid, leads to the outskirts of the inner city; it contains two large hospitals and part of the university buildings (faculty of medicine). The house occupied by Cervantes from 1606 until his death in 1616 stands at the point where it meets the Calle -de Lon; in this street is the Real Academia de la Historia, with a +de Léon; in this street is the Real Academia de la Historia, with a valuable library and collections of MSS. and plate. From the south-west angle of the Plaza Mayor begins the Calle de Toledo, the chief mart for the various woollen and silken fabrics from which the picturesque @@ -6456,7 +6417,7 @@ to the north-east.</p> <p><i>Principal Buildings.</i>—As compared with other capitals Madrid has very few buildings of much architectural interest. -The Basilica de Nuestra Seora de Atocha, on the Paseo de +The Basilica de Nuestra Señora de Atocha, on the Paseo de Atocha, a continuation of the Calle de Atocha, was originally founded in 1523. After being almost destroyed by the French, it was restored by Ferdinand VII., and rebuilt after 1896. The @@ -6484,7 +6445,7 @@ of the leading Spanish artists of the time. Of secular buildings unquestionably the most important is the royal palace (Palacio Real), on the west side of the town, on rising ground overhanging the Manzanares. It occupies the site of the ancient Moorish -alczar (citadel), where a hunting seat was built by Henry IV.; +alcázar (citadel), where a hunting seat was built by Henry IV.; this was enlarged and improved by Charles V. when he first made Madrid his residence in 1532; was further developed by Phillip II., but ultimately was destroyed by fire in 1734. The @@ -6494,7 +6455,7 @@ of Turin, and was finished in 1764. It is in the Tuscan style, and is 470 ft. square and 100 ft. in height, the material being white Colmenar granite, resembling marble. To the north of the palace are the royal stables and coach-houses, remarkable for their -extent; to the south is the armoury (Museo de la Real Armera), +extent; to the south is the armoury (Museo de la Real Armería), containing what is possibly the best collection of the kind in existence. After the Palacio Real may be mentioned the royal picture gallery (Real Museo de Pinturas), adjoining the @@ -6538,11 +6499,11 @@ a palace was built for Philip IV. in 1633; it was destroyed during the French occupation.</p> <p><i>Education, Religion and Charity.</i>—Madrid University -developed gradually out of the college of Doa Maria de Aragon, +developed gradually out of the college of Doña Maria de Aragon, established in 1590 by Alphonso Orozco. Schools of mathematics and natural science were added in the 16th and 17th centuries, and in 1786 the medical and surgical college of San Carlos was -opened. In 1836-1837 the university of Alcal de Henares (<i>q.v.</i>) +opened. In 1836-1837 the university of Alcalá de Henares (<i>q.v.</i>) was transferred to the capital and the older foundations incorporated with it. The university of Madrid thenceforth became the headquarters of education in central Spain. It has @@ -6643,13 +6604,13 @@ in the provinces.</p> <p><i>History.</i>—Spanish archaeologists have frequently claimed for Madrid a very high antiquity, but the earliest authentic historical -mention of the town (Majrt, Majoritum) occurs in the Arab +mention of the town (Majrít, Majoritum) occurs in the Arab chronicle, and does not take us farther back than to the first half of the 10th century. The place was finally taken from the Moors by Alphonso VI. (1083), and was made a hunting-seat by Henry IV., but first rose into importance when Charles V., benefiting by its keen air, made it his occasional residence. -Philip II. created it his capital and “only court” (<i>nica corte</i>) +Philip II. created it his capital and “only court” (<i>única corte</i>) in 1560. It is, however, only classed as a town (<i>villa</i>), having <span class="pagenum"><a name="page295" id="page295"></a>295</span> never received the title of city (<i>ciudad</i>). Fruitless attempts @@ -6659,13 +6620,13 @@ the seat of government to Valladolid and to Seville. (See also <div class="condensed"> <p>See J. Amador de los Rios, <i>Historia de la villa y corte de Madrid</i> -(Madrid, 1861-1864); Valverdey Alvarez, <i>La Capitol de Espaa</i> (Madrid, -1883); E. Seplveda, <i>La Vida en Madrid en 1886</i> (Madrid, 1887); H. -Peasco, <i>Las Calles de Madrid</i> (Madrid, 1889); C. Perez Pastor, -<i>Bibliografia madrilea, siglo XVI.</i> (Madrid, 1891); F. X. de Palacio y +(Madrid, 1861-1864); Valverdey Alvarez, <i>La Capitol de España</i> (Madrid, +1883); E. Sepúlveda, <i>La Vida en Madrid en 1886</i> (Madrid, 1887); H. +Peñasco, <i>Las Calles de Madrid</i> (Madrid, 1889); C. Perez Pastor, +<i>Bibliografia madrileña, siglo XVI.</i> (Madrid, 1891); F. X. de Palacio y Garcia, count of las Almenas, <i>La Municipalidad de Madrid</i> (Madrid, -1896); E. Seplveda, <i>El Madrid de los recuerdos: coleccin de -artculos</i> (Madrid, 1897); P. Hauser, <i>Madrid bajo el punto de vista +1896); E. Sepúlveda, <i>El Madrid de los recuerdos: colección de +artículos</i> (Madrid, 1897); P. Hauser, <i>Madrid bajo el punto de vista medico-social</i> (Madrid, 1902); L. Williams, <i>Toledo and Madrid, their Records and Romances</i> (London, 1903).</p> </div> @@ -6715,25 +6676,25 @@ The idea of compliment is essential. J. F. Guichard (1730-1811) writes:—</p> <table class="reg f90" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr"> -<p>Orgon, pote marital,</p> - <p class="i2"> Venus compare sa femme;</p> +<p>Orgon, poète marital,</p> + <p class="i2">À Venus compare sa femme;</p> <p>C’est pour la belle un madrigal,</p> - <p class="i2">C’est pour Venus une pigramme.</p> + <p class="i2">C’est pour Venus une épigramme.</p> </div> </td></tr></table> <p>This quatrain emphasizes the fact that in French a madrigal is a trifling piece of erotic compliment, neatly turned but not seriously meant. The credit of inventing the old French verse-form -of madrigal belongs to Clment Marot, and one of his may +of madrigal belongs to Clément Marot, and one of his may be quoted in contrast to that of Drummond:—</p> <table class="reg f90" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr"> <p>Un doux nenni avec un doux sourire</p> <p class="i1">Est tant honneste, il le vous faut apprendre;</p> -<p>Quant est de oui, si veniez le dire,</p> +<p>Quant est de oui, si veniez à le dire,</p> <p class="i1">D’avoir trop dit je voudrois vous reprendre;</p> - <p class="i1">Non que je sois ennuy d’entreprendre</p> -<p>D’avoir le fruit dont le dsir me point;</p> + <p class="i1">Non que je sois ennuyé d’entreprendre</p> +<p>D’avoir le fruit dont le désir me point;</p> <p class="i1">Mais je voudrois qu’en ne le laissant prendre,</p> <p class="i1">Vous me disiez: vous ne l’aurez point.</p> </div> </td></tr></table> @@ -6756,7 +6717,7 @@ was known in the Netherlands by the middle of the 15th century; like the motet, it obviously originated in the treatment of counterpoint on a canto fermo, some early examples even combining an ecclesiastical canto fermo in the tenor with secular counterpoint -in the other parts. Thus Josquin’s <i>Dploration de Jehan +in the other parts. Thus Josquin’s <i>Déploration de Jehan Okenheim</i> (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Music</a></span>) might equally well be called a madrigal or motet, if the word “madrigal” were used for compositions to French texts at all. But by the middle of the 16th century @@ -6784,7 +6745,7 @@ the themes puts upon the ecclesiastical style.</p> <p>The breaking strain was put on the madrigal style at the end of the 16th century, in one way by the new discords of Monteverde -and (with more musical invention) Schtz; and in another +and (with more musical invention) Schütz; and in another way by the brilliant musical character-drawing of Vecchi, whose <i>Amfiparnasso</i> is a veritable comic opera in the form of a set of fourteen madrigals, all riotously witty in the purest and most @@ -6824,8 +6785,8 @@ oratorio <i>Eden</i> is a movement of rare beauty.</p> Indies, separated by the shallow Strait of Madura from the N.E. coast of Java. Pop. (1897), 1,652,580, of whom 1,646,071 were natives, 4252 Chinese and 558 Europeans. It extends from -about 112 32′ to 114 7′ E., and is divided into two nearly -equal portions by the parallel of 7 S.; the area is estimated at +about 112° 32′ to 114° 7′ E., and is divided into two nearly +equal portions by the parallel of 7° S.; the area is estimated at 1725 sq. m. It is a plateau-like prolongation of the limestone range of northern Java, with hills (1300 to 1600 ft. high) and dales. The formation of the coast and plains is Tertiary and @@ -7098,8 +7059,8 @@ was the inventor of a system of shorthand.</p> <div class="condensed"> <p>There is no good modern biography of Maecenas. The best known -is that by P. S. Frandsen (1843), See “Horace et Mecne” by J. -Girard, in <i>La Rvue politique et littraire</i> (Dec. 27, 1873); V. +is that by P. S. Frandsen (1843), See “Horace et Mecène” by J. +Girard, in <i>La Révue politique et littéraire</i> (Dec. 27, 1873); V. Gardthausen, <i>Augustus und seine Zeit</i>, i. 762 seq.; ii. 432 seq. The chief ancient authorities for his life are Horace (<i>Odes</i> with Scholia), Dio Cassius, Tacitus (<i>Annals</i>), Suetonius (<i>Augustus</i>). The fragments @@ -7122,7 +7083,7 @@ concluding portion.</p> <p>See Capitolinus, <i>Antoninus</i>, 3; Vulcacius Gallicanus, <i>Avidius Cassius</i>, 7; edition of the metrological work by F. Hultsch in <i>Metrologicorum scriptorum reliquiae,</i> ii. (1866); Mommsen in <i>Abhandlungen der -schsischen Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften</i>, iii. (1853).</p> +sächsischen Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften</i>, iii. (1853).</p> </div> @@ -7160,7 +7121,7 @@ MS. 1782 in the British Museum. There are translations by Patrick Joyce, <i>Old Celtic Romances</i> (1879), by Whitley Stokes (a more critical version, printed together with the text) in <i>Revue celtique</i>, vols. ix. and x. (1888-1889). See H. Zimmer, “Brendan’s Meerfahrt” -in <i>Zeitschrift fr deutsches Altertum</i>, vol. xxxiii. (1889). +in <i>Zeitschrift für deutsches Altertum</i>, vol. xxxiii. (1889). Tennyson’s <i>Voyage of Maeldune</i>, suggested by the Irish romance, borrows little more than its framework.</p> </div> @@ -7213,7 +7174,7 @@ probably of Thracian origin)—all more or less synonymous.</p> <div class="condensed"> <p>See the exhaustive articles by A. Legrand in Daremberg and -Saglio’s <i>Dictionnaire des antiquits</i> and A. Rapp in Roscher’s +Saglio’s <i>Dictionnaire des antiquités</i> and A. Rapp in Roscher’s <i>Lexikon der Mythologie</i>; also editions of Euripides, <i>Bacchae</i> (<i>e.g.</i> J. E. Sandys).</p> </div> @@ -7245,7 +7206,7 @@ Damme. His early works are translations of French romances. Maerlant’s most serious work in the field of romance was his <i>Ystorien van Troyen</i> (<i>c.</i> 1264), a poem of some forty thousand lines, translated and amplified from the <i>Roman de Troie</i> of -Benot de Sainte-More. From this time Maerlant rejected +Benoît de Sainte-More. From this time Maerlant rejected romance as idle, and devoted himself to writing scientific and historical works for the education and enlightenment of the Flemish people. His <i>Heimelicheit der Heimelicheden</i> (<i>c.</i> 1266) @@ -7253,7 +7214,7 @@ is a translation of the <i>Secreta secretorum</i>, a manual for the education of princes, ascribed throughout the middle ages to Aristotle. <i>Van der Naturen Bloeme</i> is a free translation of <i>De natura rerum</i>, a natural history in twenty books by a native -of Brabant, Thomas de Cantimpr; and his <i>Rijmbijbel</i> is taken, +of Brabant, Thomas de Cantimpré; and his <i>Rijmbijbel</i> is taken, with many omissions and additions, from the <i>Historia scholastica</i> of Petrus Comestor. He supplemented this metrical paraphrase of Scripture history by <i>Die Wrake van Jherusalem</i> (1271) from @@ -7339,7 +7300,7 @@ sirocco.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">MAETERLINCK, MAURICE<a name="ar76" id="ar76"></a></span> (1862-  ), Belgian-French dramatist and poet, of Flemish extraction, was born at Ghent -on the 29th of August 1862. He was educated at the Collge +on the 29th of August 1862. He was educated at the Collège Sainte-Barbe, and then at the university of his native city, where, at the age of twenty-four, he was enrolled as a barrister. In 1887 he settled in Paris, where he immediately became @@ -7367,16 +7328,16 @@ leaning to mysticism was now explained, or defined, by a translation of the Flemish medieval visionary, the Admirable Ruysbroeck, which Maeterlinck brought out in 1891. In 1892 appeared what has been perhaps the most successful of all his -plays on the stage, <i>Pellas et Mlisande</i>, followed in 1894 by +plays on the stage, <i>Pelléas et Mélisande</i>, followed in 1894 by those very curious and powerful little dramas written to be -performed by marionettes: <i>Alladine el Palomides</i>, <i>Intrieur</i> +performed by marionettes: <i>Alladine el Palomides</i>, <i>Intérieur</i> and <i>La Mort de Tintagiles</i>. In 1895 Maeterlinck brought out, under the title of <i>Annabella</i>, a translation of Ford’s <i>’Tis Pity She’s a Whore</i>, with a preface. Two philosophical works followed, -a study on Novalis (1895) and <i>Le Trsor des humbles</i> (1896). -In 1896 he returned to drama with <i>Aglavaine el Slysette</i> and to +a study on Novalis (1895) and <i>Le Trésor des humbles</i> (1896). +In 1896 he returned to drama with <i>Aglavaine el Sélysette</i> and to lyric verse with <i>Douze chansons</i>. A monograph on the ethics -of mysticism, entitled <i>La Sagesse et la destine</i>, was issued, +of mysticism, entitled <i>La Sagesse et la destinée</i>, was issued, as a kind of commentary on his own dramas, in 1898; and in 1901 Maeterlinck produced a fascinating volume of prose, founded upon observations made in his apiaries at Oostacker, @@ -7407,9 +7368,9 @@ or circumstantial about them. Their life is intense and consistent, but it is wholly of a spiritual character; they are mysterious with the mystery of the movements of a soul. These characteristics, which make the dramatic work of Maeterlinck so curious -and unique, are familiar to most readers in <i>Pellas et Mlisande</i>, +and unique, are familiar to most readers in <i>Pelléas et Mélisande</i>, but are carried, perhaps, to their farthest intensity in <i>Aglavaine -et Slysette</i>, which seems to be written for a phantom stage and +et Sélysette</i>, which seems to be written for a phantom stage and to be acted by disembodied spirits. In spite of the violence of his early admirers, and of the fact that the form of his dramas easily lent itself to the cheap ridicule of parodists, the talent @@ -7422,8 +7383,8 @@ graces and offended at his nebulous mysticism. While the crude enthusiasm which compared him with Shakespeare has been shown to be ridiculous, the best judges combine with Camille Mauclair when he says: “Maurice Maeterlinck est un homme -de gnie authentique, un trs grand phnomne de puissance -mentale la fin du xix<span class="sp">e</span> sicle.” In spite of the shadowy action +de génie authentique, un très grand phénomène de puissance +mentale à la fin du xix<span class="sp">e</span> siècle.” In spite of the shadowy action of Maeterlinck’s plays, which indeed require some special conditions and contrivances for their performance, they are frequently produced with remarkable success before audiences @@ -7514,12 +7475,12 @@ and purposes much resemble those of the Camorra (<i>q.v.</i>).</p> a Tuscan synonym for <i>miseria</i>; others, a corruption of Fr. <i>mauvais</i> <span class="pagenum"><a name="page300" id="page300"></a>300</span> (bad). Others connect it with the name of an alleged Arab tribe, -M-fir, once settled at Palermo. Giuseppe Pitr asserts that the +Mà-âfir, once settled at Palermo. Giuseppe Pitré asserts that the word is peculiar to western Sicily and that, with its derivatives, it formerly meant, in Il Borgo, a district of Palermo, beauty or excellence. Thus, a handsome woman showily dressed was said “to have <i>mafia</i>,” or to be <i>mafiusa</i>. Often in Palermo the street merchants -call <i>arance-mafiuse</i> (fine oranges). Thus, Pitr argues, <i>mafia</i>, +call <i>arance-mafiuse</i> (fine oranges). Thus, Pitré argues, <i>mafia</i>, applied to a man to express manly carriage and bravery, would naturally become the title of a society the members of which were all “bravos.” A less credible explanation of the term is connected @@ -7549,7 +7510,7 @@ mines or on the fields, fostered the growth of two classes of to put themselves as passive members under the protection of the Mafia, while the active members shared in the plunder. The Mafia thus became a loosely organized society under an -unwritten code of laws or ethics known as <i>Omert</i>, <i>i.e.</i>, manliness +unwritten code of laws or ethics known as <i>Omertà</i>, <i>i.e.</i>, manliness (from Sicil. <i>omu</i>, Ital. <i>uomo</i>, a man), which embodied the rules of the Vendetta. Candidates were admitted after trial by duel, and were sworn to resist law and defeat justice. Like @@ -7607,7 +7568,7 @@ to be a small Franciscan settlement here. The architects, Johann Friedrich Ludwig of Regensburg, and his son Johann Peter, took the Escurial for their model; but the imitation is less successful than the original, though the cost exceeded -4,000,000. The building is in the form of a parallelogram +£4,000,000. The building is in the form of a parallelogram measuring upwards of 800 ft. from north to south and 700 ft. from east to west; it is said to contain 866 rooms, and to be lighted by no fewer than 5200 windows. The centre is occupied @@ -7630,18 +7591,18 @@ dynasty.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">MAGALDN<a name="ar82" id="ar82"></a></span>, a town in the northern part of the province of +<p><span class="bold">MAGALDÁN<a name="ar82" id="ar82"></a></span>, a town in the northern part of the province of Pangasinan, Luzon, Philippine Islands, about 2 m. from the shore of the Gulf of Lingayen. Pop. (1903), 15,841. In 1903 the adjacent municipality of Mapandan (pop. in 1903, 4198) -was annexed to Magaldn. Most of its inhabitants are engaged +was annexed to Magaldán. Most of its inhabitants are engaged in rice culture. The principal language is Pangasinan; Ilocano is also spoken.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">MAGALLANES<a name="ar83" id="ar83"></a></span> (Spanish form of <i>Magellan</i>), a territory of -southern Chile extending from 47 S. to Cape Horn and including +southern Chile extending from 47° S. to Cape Horn and including the mainland from the Argentine frontier to the Pacific coast, the islands extending along that coast, the Fuegian archipelago, and the western half of Tierra del Fuego. Area, about 71,127 sq. m.; @@ -7693,11 +7654,11 @@ with which it was proposed to deal.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">MAGDALA<a name="ar85" id="ar85"></a></span> (more correctly <span class="sc">Makdala</span>), a natural stronghold in the country of the Wollo Gallas, Abyssinia, about 250 m. W. -of Jibuti on the Gulf of Aden, in 11 22′ N., 39 25′ E. The +of Jibuti on the Gulf of Aden, in 11° 22′ N., 39° 25′ E. The basaltic plateau of which it consists rises 9110 ft. above the sea. It is about three-quarters of a mile in length by less than half a mile in breadth, and lies more than a thousand feet higher -than the neighbouring plain of Arogi. Chosen about 1860 by +than the neighbouring plain of Arogié. Chosen about 1860 by the emperor Theodore of Abyssinia as his principal stronghold in the south, Magdala owes its celebrity to the fact that, as the place of imprisonment of the English captives, it became the @@ -7733,7 +7694,7 @@ citadel; this is united with both banks by bridges. With the exception of the Breite Weg, a handsome thoroughfare running from north to south, the streets of the town proper are narrow and crooked. Along the Elbe, however, extend fine promenades, -the Frstenwall and the Frsten fer. To the south of the +the Fürstenwall and the Fürsten Üfer. To the south of the inner town is the Friedrich Wilhelms Garten, a beautiful park laid out on the site of the celebrated convent of Berge, which was founded in 968 and suppressed in 1809. By far the most @@ -7744,7 +7705,7 @@ Romanesque and Gothic architecture. The two fine western towers were completed about 1520. The interior contains the tombs of the emperor Otto the Great and his wife Edith, an English princess, and the fine monument of Archbishop Ernest -(d. 1513), executed in 1495 by Peter Vischer of Nremberg. +(d. 1513), executed in 1495 by Peter Vischer of Nüremberg. The Liebfrauenkirche, the oldest church in Magdeburg, is an interesting Romanesque edifice of the 12th and 13th centuries, which was restored in 1890-1891. The chief secular buildings @@ -7769,7 +7730,7 @@ manufacture of cotton and silk goods. Magdeburg is the central market in Germany for sugar and chicory, but trades extensively also in cereals, fruit, vegetables, groceries, cattle, horses, wool, cloth, yarn, leather, coal and books. A new winter harbour, -made at a cost of 400,000, facilitates the river traffic along the +made at a cost of £400,000, facilitates the river traffic along the Elbe. Three million tons of merchandise pass Magdeburg, going upstream, and nearly 1 million tons, going downstream, annually. Magdeburg is the headquarters of the IV. corps of the German @@ -7784,7 +7745,7 @@ seat of an archbishop, who exercised sway over an extensive territory. Although it was burnt down in 1188, Magdeburg became a flourishing commercial town during the 13th century, and was soon an important member of the Hanseatic League. -Its bench of jurats (<i>Schppenstuhl</i>) became celebrated, and +Its bench of jurats (<i>Schöppenstuhl</i>) became celebrated, and “Magdeburg law” (<i>Magdeburger Recht</i>), securing the administrative independence of municipalities, was adopted in many parts of Germany, Poland and Bohemia. During the middle @@ -7819,12 +7780,12 @@ poor choristers.</p> <div class="condensed"> <p>See W. Kawerau, <i>Aus Magdeburgs Vergangenheit</i> (Halle, 1886) -O. von Guericke, <i>Geschichte der Belagerung, Eroberung und Zerstrung -von Magdeburg</i> (Magdeburg, 1887); M. Dittmar, <i>Beitrge zur +O. von Guericke, <i>Geschichte der Belagerung, Eroberung und Zerstörung +von Magdeburg</i> (Magdeburg, 1887); M. Dittmar, <i>Beiträge zur Geschichte der Stadt Magdeburg</i> (Halle, 1885); F. W. Hoffmann, -<i>Geschichte der Stadt Magdeburg</i> (Magdeburg, 1885-1886); F. Hlsse, -<i>Die Einfhrung der Reformation in der Stadt Magdeburg</i> (Magdeburg, -1883); R. Volkholz, <i>Die Zerstrung Magdeburgs</i> 1631 (Magdeburg, +<i>Geschichte der Stadt Magdeburg</i> (Magdeburg, 1885-1886); F. Hülsse, +<i>Die Einführung der Reformation in der Stadt Magdeburg</i> (Magdeburg, +1883); R. Volkholz, <i>Die Zerstörung Magdeburgs</i> 1631 (Magdeburg, 1892); W. Leinung and R. Stumvoll, <i>Aus Magdeburgs Sage und Geschichte</i> (Magdeburg, 1894); and the <i>Urkundenbuch der Stadt Magdeburg</i> (1892).</p> @@ -7856,8 +7817,8 @@ It included 29 towns and over 400 villages and contained about <div class="condensed"> <p>See the <i>Regesta archiepiscopatus magdeburgensis</i>, edited by G. A. -von Mlverstedt (Magdeburg, 1876-1899); and K. Uhlirz, <i>Geschichte -des Erzbistums Magdeburg unter den Kaisern aus schsischem Hause</i> +von Mülverstedt (Magdeburg, 1876-1899); and K. Uhlirz, <i>Geschichte +des Erzbistums Magdeburg unter den Kaisern aus sächsischem Hause</i> (Magdeburg, 1887).</p> </div> @@ -7984,13 +7945,13 @@ the most distinguished of English prelates.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">MAGELLAN, FERDINAND<a name="ar89" id="ar89"></a></span> (in Sp. <span class="sc">Fernando Magallanes</span>, -in Port. <span class="sc">Ferno de Magalhes</span>) (<i>c.</i> 1480-1521), the first +in Port. <span class="sc">Fernão de Magalhães</span>) (<i>c.</i> 1480-1521), the first circumnavigator of the globe, was born at Sabrosa in the Villa Real district of the Traz-os-Montes province of Portugal. He -was a son of Pedro de Magalhes, and belonged to the fourth +was a son of Pedro de Magalhães, and belonged to the fourth order of Portuguese nobility (<i>fidalgos de cota de armas</i>). He was brought up as one of the pages of Queen Leonor, consort of -King John (Joo) II “the Perfect.” In 1495 he entered the +King John (João) II “the Perfect.” In 1495 he entered the service of Manuel “the Fortunate,” John’s successor, and in 1504 enlisted as a volunteer for the Indian voyage of the first Portuguese viceroy in the East, Francisco d’Almeida. He sailed @@ -8041,7 +8002,7 @@ of his great successor. Magellan proposed to reach the Spice Islands of the East Indies by the west; for that purpose he hoped to discover a strait at the extreme south of South America, and is said to have declared himself ready to sail southwards to -75 to realize his project. Ruy Faleiro the astronomer, another +75° to realize his project. Ruy Faleiro the astronomer, another Portuguese exile, aided him in the working out of his plan, and he found an invaluable financial ally in Christopher de Haro, a member of a great Antwerp firm, who owed a grudge to the @@ -8067,8 +8028,8 @@ gentleman who has left the best history of the voyage, went as a volunteer in Magellan’s suite. Faleiro stayed behind, having cast his horoscope and found that the venture would be fatal to him. The fleet was well armed, and the total cost -of equipment was 8,751,000 maravedis, or 5032 (equal to over -50,000 in present value). Three-quarters were defrayed by +of equipment was 8,751,000 maravedis, or £5032 (equal to over +£50,000 in present value). Three-quarters were defrayed by the Spanish Crown, one-quarter by Christopher Haro and his friends. Before starting, Magellan made his will and addressed a memorandum to Charles V., assigning geographical positions @@ -8083,7 +8044,7 @@ near Pernambuco on the 29th of November; thence he followed the east coast of the New World down to the La Plata estuary, which he examined in the hope of finding a passage at this point (Jan. 11-Feb. 6, 1520). On the 31st of March -following, he arrived at Port St Julian (in 49 20′ S.) +following, he arrived at Port St Julian (in 49° 20′ S.) where he wintered. Here he crushed a formidable mutiny (April 1-2), and made acquaintance with the natives, whom he called <i>Patagonians</i> (“Big Feet”), whose great size and lofty @@ -8105,7 +8066,7 @@ these names. To the south of the passage lay the forbidding land “stark with eternal cold,” which from the many fires here observed Magellan named “Tierra del Fuego.” The expedition now entered the “Great South Sea,” first sighted -by Vasco Nuez de Balboa (<i>q.v.</i>), which, from the steady and +by Vasco Nuñez de Balboa (<i>q.v.</i>), which, from the steady and gentle winds that drove the fleet across the immeasurable expanse, was by Magellan called “Pacific.” For ninety-eight days Magellan crossed this sea, almost beyond the grasp of @@ -8147,7 +8108,7 @@ Moluccas (Nov. 6), visiting Borneo on the way (July 9-Sept. the “Trinidad,” becoming leaky, stayed behind with her crew; and the “Vittoria,” under Juan Sebastian del Cano, proceeded to Europe alone (Dec. 21, 1521). To double the Cape -of Good Hope the “Vittoria” reached between 40 and 41 S. +of Good Hope the “Vittoria” reached between 40° and 41° S. (April 7-16, 1522) and suffered from contrary winds, heavy seas, scurvy and starvation. In the Cape Verde Islands (July 9-15, 1522) thirteen of the crew were detained prisoners @@ -8191,10 +8152,10 @@ grand master of the order of the Hospital of St John. But this view is rejected by J. A. Robertson (see below), who believes the Ambrosian MS. to be the ultimate text. See the <i>Primo viaggio intorno al mondo</i>, otherwise the <i>Navigation et descouvrement de la -Indie suprieure faicte par moi Anthoyne Pigapheta, Vincentin, +Indie supérieure faicte par moi Anthoyne Pigapheta, Vincentin, chevallier de Rhodes</i>, probably published in 1524 (in August of that year Pigafetta obtained leave to print his book in Venice). Of the -three French MSS., two are in the Bibliothque Nationale, Paris +three French MSS., two are in the Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris (5650 and 24,224 Fr.), the latter is wrongly supposed by Thomassy, followed by Lord Stanley of Alderley, to have been the copy presented by Pigafetta to the regent of France, Marie Louise of Savoy, @@ -8216,7 +8177,7 @@ in the Seville Archives, supposed to be the work of Francisco Albo, <i>contramaestre</i> of Magellan’s flagship, the “Trinidad”: this consists mainly of nautical observations; (3) the narrative of the so-called Genoese pilot, written in excellent Portuguese, and printed -in vol. iv. of the <i>Colleco de noticias</i> of the Lisbon Academy; (4) +in vol. iv. of the <i>Collecão de noticias</i> of the Lisbon Academy; (4) various <i>informaciones</i> and other papers in the Seville Archives, especially bearing on the mutiny; (5) the letter of Maximilian of Transylvania, under-secretary to Charles V., to the cardinal of @@ -8231,8 +8192,8 @@ value for his life.</p> <p>See also Lord Stanley of Alderley, <i>The First Voyage round the World by Magellan, translated from ... Pigafetta, &c.</i>, Hakluyt Society -(London, 1874); Diego de Barros Arana, <i>Vida e viagems de Ferno -de Magalhes</i>, a trans. of the Spanish life by Fernando de Magalhes +(London, 1874); Diego de Barros Arana, <i>Vida e viagems de Fernão +de Magalhães</i>, a trans. of the Spanish life by Fernando de Magalhães Villas Boas (Lisbon, 1881); F. H. H. Guillemard, <i>Life of Magellan</i> (London, 1890); <i>Magellan ... the original text of the Ambrosian MS</i>. (of Pigafetta), with English translation, notes, bibliography, &c., @@ -8248,7 +8209,7 @@ Ministry of Public Instruction, 1894).</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">MAGELLANIC CLOUDS<a name="ar90" id="ar90"></a></span> (named after Ferdinand Magellan), two cloud-like condensations of stars in the southern constellation -of Mensa about 69 S. Dec. and between 5 and 5 40′ of +of Mensa about 69° S. Dec. and between 5° and 5° 40′ of R. A. They are remarkable in the resemblance of their stars as regards spectra and physical constitution to the stars of the Milky Way, though entirely detached from that object.</p> @@ -8271,7 +8232,7 @@ given from it the name of “magenta.”</p> <i>Lac Majeur</i>; Ger. <i>Langensee</i>), the most extensive of the lakes that extend along the foot of the Alps in Lombardy, N. Italy. Its area is about 83 sq. m., its length 37 m., its greatest width -5 m., and its greatest depth 1198 ft., while its surface is 646 ft. +5½ m., and its greatest depth 1198 ft., while its surface is 646 ft. about sea-level. It is mainly formed by the Ticino (Tessin) River, flowing in at the north and out at the south end, on its way to join the Po, but on the west the lake receives a very @@ -8282,12 +8243,12 @@ and the Tresa (E.). The upper end of the lake (about 16 sq. m.) is in the Swiss canton of Ticino (Tessin). Locarno, at the northern or Swiss end, is 14 m. by rail S.W. of Bellinzona on the St Gotthard line. There is a railway along the south-eastern -shore, from Magadino (10 m. S.W. of Bellinzona) to -Sesto Calende (36 m.), at the southern end of the lake and 20 m. +shore, from Magadino (10½ m. S.W. of Bellinzona) to +Sesto Calende (36½ m.), at the southern end of the lake and 20 m. by rail from Novara. The east shore of the lake is reached at Luino by a steam tramway from Ponte Tresa on the lake of Lugano (8 m.), while the direct Simplon line runs along the west -shore of the lake for 15 m. from near Pallanza past Baveno and +shore of the lake for 15½ m. from near Pallanza past Baveno and Stresa to Arona, which is 23 m. by rail from Novara. On the east shore are Luino (Ital. Luvino) and Laveno. On the west shore are (reckoning from N. to S.) Cannobio, Pallanza, Baveno, @@ -8310,9 +8271,9 @@ term for the practice and power of wonder-working, as depending on the employment of supposed supernatural agencies. Etymologically the Gr. <span class="grk" title="mageia">μαγεία</span> meant the science and religion of the <i>magi</i>, or priests of Zoroaster, as known among the Greeks; -in this sense it was opposed to <span class="grk" title="goteia">γοητεία</span> (? necromancy) and +in this sense it was opposed to <span class="grk" title="goêteia">γοητεία</span> (? necromancy) and <span class="grk" title="pharmakeia">φαρμακεία</span> (the use of drugs); but this distinction was not -universally recognized, and <span class="grk" title="goteia">γοητεία</span> is often used as a synonym +universally recognized, and <span class="grk" title="goêteia">γοητεία</span> is often used as a synonym of <span class="grk" title="mageia">μαγεία</span>. There is no general agreement as to the proper definition of “magic,” which depends on the view taken of “religion.”</p> @@ -8614,7 +8575,7 @@ to their other qualities, one which supplements without destroying their mechanical action.</p> <p><i>b.</i> Similar ideas are found in other areas. (i) The continental -Malays have a word <i>Kramt</i> (<i>hrm</i>), which means sacred or magical; +Malays have a word <i>Kramât</i> (<i>hrm</i>), which means sacred or magical; in Indo-China the Bahnars use the word <i>deng</i>; in Madagascar <i>hasina</i> seems to embody in part the same notion. (ii) In Africa the idea is less apparent; perhaps the <i>ngai</i> of the Tanganika tribes comes @@ -9193,7 +9154,7 @@ bold. (iii.) Words may not be used; Scottish fishermen will not mention the pig at sea; the real names of certain animals, like the bear, may not be used; the names of the dead may not be mentioned; a sacred language must be used, <i>e.g.</i> camphor language in the Malay -peninsula, or only words of good omen (cf. Gr. <span class="grk" title="euphmeite">εὐφημεῖτε</span>); or +peninsula, or only words of good omen (cf. Gr. <span class="grk" title="euphêmeite">εὐφημεῖτε</span>); or absolute silence must be preserved. Personal names are concealed; a man may not mention the names of certain relatives, &c. There are customs of avoidance not only as to (iv.) the names of relatives, @@ -9268,13 +9229,13 @@ but an adequate study of savage medicine is still a desideratum.</p> <div class="condensed"> <p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>—For a general discussion of magic with a list of -selected works see Hubert and Mauss in <i>Anne sociologique</i>, vii. +selected works see Hubert and Mauss in <i>Année sociologique</i>, vii. 1-146; also A. Lehmann, <i>Aberglaube und Zauberei</i>; the article -“Religion” in <i>La Grande encyclopdie</i>; K. T. Preuss in <i>Globus</i>, +“Religion” in <i>La Grande encyclopédie</i>; K. T. Preuss in <i>Globus</i>, vols. 86, 87; Mauss, <i>L’Origine des pouvoirs magiques</i>, and Hubert, -<i>La Rprsentation du temps</i> (Reports of cole pratique des -hautes tudes, Paris). For general bibliographies see Hauck, -<i>Realencyklopdie</i>, <i>s.v.</i> “Magie”; A. C. Haddon, <i>Magic and Fetishism</i>. +<i>La Réprésentation du temps</i> (Reports of École pratique des +hautes études, Paris). For general bibliographies see Hauck, +<i>Realencyklopädie</i>, <i>s.v.</i> “Magie”; A. C. Haddon, <i>Magic and Fetishism</i>. J. G. T. Graesse’s <i>Bibliotheca magica</i> is an exhaustive list of early works dealing with magic and superstition. For Australia see Spencer and Gillen’s works, and A. W. Howitt, <i>Native Tribes</i>. @@ -9288,8 +9249,8 @@ A. Maury, <i>La Magie</i>. For illustrations of magic see J. G. Frazer, <i>The Golden Bough</i>; E. S. Hartland, <i>Legend of Perseus</i>; E. B. Tylor, <i>Primitive Culture</i>; W. G. Black, <i>Folkmedicine</i>. For negative magic see the works of Frazer and Skeat cited above; also <i>Journ. Anthrop. -Inst.</i> xxxvi. 92-103; <i>Zeitschrift fr Ethnologie</i> (Verhandlungen) -(1905), 153-162; <i>Bulletin trimestriel de l’acadmie malgache</i>, iii. +Inst.</i> xxxvi. 92-103; <i>Zeitschrift für Ethnologie</i> (Verhandlungen) +(1905), 153-162; <i>Bulletin trimestriel de l’académie malgache</i>, iii. 105-159. See also bibliography to <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Taboo</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Witchcraft</a></span>.</p> </div> <div class="author">(N. W. T.)</div> @@ -9324,7 +9285,7 @@ more of the encircling bands of numbers be taken away the remaining central squares are still magical. Subsequently Poignard constructed squares with numbers in arithmetical progression, having the magical summations. The later researches of -Phillipe de la Hire, recorded in the <i>Mmoires de l’Acadmie +Phillipe de la Hire, recorded in the <i>Mémoires de l’Académie Royale</i> in 1705, are interesting as giving general methods of construction. He has there collected the results of the labours of earlier pioneers; but the subject has now been fully systematized, @@ -9418,9 +9379,9 @@ of the central square, the square of fig. 11 is formed. He also constructed squares such that if one or more outer bands of numbers are removed the remaining central squares are magical. His method of forming them may be understood from a square of 5. -Here each summation is 5 13; if therefore 13 is subtracted from +Here each summation is 5 × 13; if therefore 13 is subtracted from each number, the summations will be zero, and the twenty-five -cells will contain the series i, 2, 3, ... 12, the odd +cells will contain the series ± i, ± 2, ± 3, ... ± 12, the odd cell having 0. The central square of 3 is formed with four of the twelve numbers with + and − signs and zero in the middle; the band is filled up with the rest, as in fig. 12; then, 13 being added @@ -9523,7 +9484,7 @@ whose sum will be Σp. Similarly, if q<span class="su">1</span> be placed along any of the normal paths, different from that of the p’s, and each row filled as above with the letters q<span class="su">2</span>, q<span class="su">3</span>, ... q<span class="su">n</span>, the sum of the q’s along any normal path different from that of -the q<span class="su">1</span> will be Σq. The n cells of the square will now be found to +the q<span class="su">1</span> will be Σq. The n² cells of the square will now be found to contain all the combinations of the p’s and q’s; and if the q’s be multiplied by n, the p’s made equal to 1, 2, ... n, and the q’s to 0, 1, 2, ... (n − 1) in any order, the Nasik square of n will be @@ -9547,7 +9508,7 @@ summation along eight of its ten normal paths. In fig. 22 the numbers are in the nonary scale; that in the centre is -the middle one of 1 to 9, and +the middle one of 1 to 9², and the sum of pair of numbers equidistant from and opposite to the central 45 is twice 45; @@ -9595,9 +9556,9 @@ obtained by a similar adjustment.</p> <tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 27.</span></td> <td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 28.</span></td></tr></table> -<p><i>Nasik Cubes.</i>—A Nasik cube is composed of n small equal cubes, +<p><i>Nasik Cubes.</i>—A Nasik cube is composed of n³ small equal cubes, here called cubelets, in the centres of which the natural numbers -from 1 to n are so placed that every section of the cube by planes +from 1 to n³ are so placed that every section of the cube by planes perpendicular to an edge has the properties of a Nasik square; also sections by planes perpendicular to a face, and passing through the cubelet centres of any path of Nasical summation in that face. @@ -9631,16 +9592,16 @@ the p’s are made equal to 1, 2, ... 7, and the q’s and r’s to 0, 1, 2, ... 6, in any order, and the q’s multiplied by 7, and the r’s -by 7, then, as in the case of the squares, the 7 cubelets will -contain the numbers from 1 to 7, and the Nasical summations will -be Σ7r + Σ7q + p. If 2, 4, 5 be values of r, p, q, the number for +by 7², then, as in the case of the squares, the 7³ cubelets will +contain the numbers from 1 to 7³, and the Nasical summations will +be Σ7²r + Σ7q + p. If 2, 4, 5 be values of r, p, q, the number for that cubelet is written 245 in the septenary scale, and if all the cubelet numbers are kept thus, the paths along which summations are found can be seen without adding, as the seven numbers would contain 1, 2, 3, ... 7 in the unit place, and 0, 1, 2, ... 6 in each of the other places. In all Nasik cubes, if such values are given to the letters on the central cubelet that the number is the middle -one of the series 1 to n, the sum of all the pairs of numbers opposite +one of the series 1 to n³, the sum of all the pairs of numbers opposite to and equidistant from the middle number is the double of it. Also, if around a Nasik cube the twenty-six surrounding equal cubes be placed with their cells filled with the same numbers, and their @@ -9654,19 +9615,19 @@ summation of the cube. Further, if we take n similarly filled Nasik cubes of n, n new letters, s<span class="su">1</span>, s<span class="su">2</span>, ... s<span class="su">n</span>, can be so placed, one in each of the n<span class="sp">4</span> cubelets of this group of n cubes, that each shall contain a different combination of the p’s, q’s, r’s and s’s. This is -done by placing s<span class="su">1</span> on each of the n cubelets of the first cube that -contain p<span class="su">1</span>, and on the n cubelets of the 2d, 3d, ... and nth cube +done by placing s<span class="su">1</span> on each of the n² cubelets of the first cube that +contain p<span class="su">1</span>, and on the n² cubelets of the 2d, 3d, ... and nth cube that contain p<span class="su">2</span>, p<span class="su">3</span>, ... p<span class="su">n</span> respectively. This process is repeated with s<span class="su">2</span>, beginning with the cube at which we ended, and so on with the other s’s; the n<span class="sp">4</span> cubelets, after multiplying the q’s, r’s, and s’s by -n, n, and n respectively, will now be filled with the numbers from -1 to n<span class="sp">4</span>, and the constant summation will be Σns + Σnr + Σnq + Σp. +n, n², and n³ respectively, will now be filled with the numbers from +1 to n<span class="sp">4</span>, and the constant summation will be Σn³s + Σn²r + Σnq + Σp. This process may be carried on without limit; for, if the n cubes are placed in a row with their faces resting on each other, and the corresponding faces looking the same way, n such parallelepipeds might be put side by side, and the n<span class="sp">5</span> cubelets of this solid square be Nasically filled by the introduction of a new letter t; while, by introducing -another letter, the n<span class="sp">6</span> cubelets of the compound cube of n Nasik +another letter, the n<span class="sp">6</span> cubelets of the compound cube of n³ Nasik <span class="pagenum"><a name="page313" id="page313"></a>313</span> cubes might be filled by the numbers from 1 to n<span class="sp">6</span>, and so <i>ad infinitum</i>. When the root is an odd composite number the values of the three @@ -9677,7 +9638,7 @@ summations are the same in each, as in fig. 26.</p> <p>Among the many ingenious squares given by various writers, this article may justly close with two by L. Euler, in the <i>Histoire de -l’acadmie royale des sciences</i> (Berlin, 1759). In fig. 27 the natural +l’académie royale des sciences</i> (Berlin, 1759). In fig. 27 the natural numbers show the path of a knight that moves within an odd square in such a manner that the sum of pairs of numbers opposite to and equidistant from the middle figure is its double. In fig. 28 the knight @@ -9704,7 +9665,7 @@ from it, in whatever cubes they are, is twice 1201.</p> <p><i>Fennell’s Magic Ring.</i>—It has been noticed that the numbers of magic squares, of which the extension by repeating the rows and columns of n numbers so as to form a square of 2n − 1 sides -yields n magic squares of n sides, are arranged as if they were +yields n² magic squares of n sides, are arranged as if they were all inscribed round a cylinder and also all inscribed on another cylinder at right angles to the first. C. A. M. Fennell explains this apparent anomaly by describing such magic squares as @@ -9712,7 +9673,7 @@ Mercator’s projections, so to say, of “magic rings.”</p> <div class="condensed"> <p>The surface of these magic rings is symmetrically divided into -n quadrangular compartments or cells by n equidistant zonal +n² quadrangular compartments or cells by n equidistant zonal circles parallel to the circular axis of the ring and by n transverse circles which divide each of the n zones between any two neighbouring zonal circles into n equal quadrangular cells, while the zonal @@ -9726,7 +9687,7 @@ two diagonals of its cell. The numbers are most easily seen if the smallest circle on the surface of the ring, which circle is concentric with the axis, be one of the zonal circles. In a perfect magic ring the sum of the numbers of the cells whose diagonals form -any one of the 2n diagonal curves aforesaid is n (n + 1) with or +any one of the 2n diagonal curves aforesaid is ½n (n² + 1) with or without increment, <i>i.e.</i> is the same sum as that of the numbers in each zone and each transverse section. But if n be 3 or a multiple of 3, only from 2 to n of the diagonal curves carry the sum in question, @@ -9734,21 +9695,21 @@ so that the magic rings are imperfect; and any set of numbers which can be arranged to make a perfect magic ring or magic square can also make an imperfect magic ring, <i>e.g.</i> the set 1 to 16 if the numbers 1, 6, 11, 16 lie thus on a diagonal curve instead of in the order 1, 6, 16, -11. From a perfect magic ring of n cells containing one number -each, n distinct magic squares can be read off; as the four numbers +11. From a perfect magic ring of n² cells containing one number +each, n² distinct magic squares can be read off; as the four numbers round each intersection of a zonal circle and a transverse circle constitute corner numbers of a magic square. The shape of a magic ring gives it the function of an indefinite extension in all directions -of each of the aforesaid n magic squares.</p> +of each of the aforesaid n² magic squares.</p> </div> <div class="author">(C. A. M. F.)</div> <div class="condensed"> -<p>See F. E. A. Lucas, <i>Rcrations mathmatiques</i> (1891-1894); W. W. R. +<p>See F. E. A. Lucas, <i>Récréations mathématiques</i> (1891-1894); W. W. R. Ball, <i>Mathematical Recreations</i> (1892); W. E. M. G. Ahrens, <i>Mathematische Unterhaltungen und Spiele</i> (1901); H. C. H. Schubert, <i>Mathematische Mussestunden</i> (1900). A very detailed work is B. -Violle, <i>Trait complet des carrs magiques</i> (3 vols., 1837-1838). +Violle, <i>Traité complet des carrés magiques</i> (3 vols., 1837-1838). The theory of “path nasiks” is dealt with in a pamphlet by C. Planck (1906).</p> </div> @@ -9910,7 +9871,7 @@ election.</p> <div class="condensed"> <p>See A. H. J. Greenidge, <i>Roman Public Life</i>, 152 seq., 363 seq. -(London, 1901); T. Mommsen, <i>Rmisches Staatsrecht</i>, I. 11. i. (1887). +(London, 1901); T. Mommsen, <i>Römisches Staatsrecht</i>, I. 11. i. (1887). </p> </div> <div class="author">(A. M. Cl.)</div> @@ -10186,7 +10147,7 @@ as of paramount importance.</p> <p>Chapter II. fixes the amount of the relief to be paid to the king by the heir of any of his vassals. Previously John, disregarding the custom of the past, had taken as much as he could extort. Henceforward -he who inherits a barony must pay 100, he who inherits a +he who inherits a barony must pay £100, he who inherits a knight’s fee 100 shillings or less, and for smaller holdings less “according to the ancient custom of fiefs.”</p> @@ -10629,8 +10590,8 @@ earliest commentator of note was Sir Edward Coke, who published his <i>Second Institute</i>, which deals with Magna Carta, by order of the Long Parliament in 1642. Modern commentators, who also print the various texts of the charter, are Richard Thomson, <i>An -Historical Essay on the Magna Carta of King John</i> (1829); C. Bmont, -in his <i>Chartes des liberts anglaises</i> (1892); and W. Stubbs in his +Historical Essay on the Magna Carta of King John</i> (1829); C. Bémont, +in his <i>Chartes des libertés anglaises</i> (1892); and W. Stubbs in his <i>Select Charters</i> (1895). A more recent book and one embodying the results of the latest research is W. S. McKechnie, <i>Magna Carta</i> (1905). The text of Magna Carta is also printed in the <i>Statutes of the Realm</i> @@ -10651,7 +10612,7 @@ Holdsworth, <i>A History of English Law</i> (1903), and Kate Norgate, apparently, in the 6th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) to the group of Greek cities along the coast of the “toe” of South Italy (or more strictly those only from Tarentum to Locri, along the east coast), while -the people were called Italiotes (<span class="grk" title="Italitai">Ἰταλιῶται</span>). The interior, +the people were called Italiotes (<span class="grk" title="Italiôtai">Ἰταλιῶται</span>). The interior, which the Greeks never subdued, continued to be in the hands of the Bruttii, the native mountaineers, from whom the district was named in Roman times (<span class="grk" title="Brettia">Βρεττία</span> also in Greek writers). @@ -10744,7 +10705,7 @@ It is the first mention of an Italian place in a literary record.</p> <p><span class="bold">MAGNATE<a name="ar101" id="ar101"></a></span> (Late Lat. <i>magnas</i>, a great man), a noble, a man in high position, by birth, wealth or other qualities. The term is specifically applied to the members of the Upper House in -Hungary, the <i>Frendihaz</i> or House of Magnates (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Hungary</a></span>).</p> +Hungary, the <i>Förendihaz</i> or House of Magnates (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Hungary</a></span>).</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> @@ -10797,13 +10758,13 @@ highly ornate Ionic order, built on older foundations by Hermogenes of Alabanda at the end of the 3rd century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> The platform has been greatly overgrown since the excavation, but many bases, capitals, and other architectural members are visible. In -front of the west faade stood a great altar. An immense +front of the west façade stood a great altar. An immense <i>peribolus</i> wall is still standing (20 ft. high), but its Doric colonnade has vanished. The railway runs right through the precinct, and much of Magnesia has gone into its bridges and embankments. South and west of the temple are many other remains of the Roman city, including a fairly perfect theatre excavated by -Hiller von Grtringen, and the shell of a large gymnasium. +Hiller von Gärtringen, and the shell of a large gymnasium. Part of the Agora was laid open to Humann, but his trenches have fallen in. The site is so unhealthy that even the Circassians who settled there twenty years ago have almost all died @@ -10852,7 +10813,7 @@ material has the appearance of unglazed porcelain, and the earthy that of chalk. In colour it is usually dead white, sometimes yellowish. The hardness of the crystallized mineral is 4; sp. gr. 3.1. The name magnesite as originally applied by -J. C. Delamtherie in 1797 included several minerals containing +J. C. Delamétherie in 1797 included several minerals containing magnesium, and at the present day it is used by French writers for meerschaum. The mineral has also been called baudisserite from the locality Baudissero near Ivrea in Piedmont. @@ -10923,9 +10884,9 @@ creeping of the electrolyte over the top. The carbon anode passes through the cover of a porcelain cylinder, open at the bottom, and provided with a side-tube at the top to remove the chlorine formed during electrolysis. The operation is conducted at a dull red heat -(about 760 C. or 1400 F.), the current density being about 0.64 +(about 760° C. or 1400° F.), the current density being about 0.64 amperes per sq. in. of cathode surface, and the pressure about -7 volts. The fusing-point of the metal is about 730 C. (1350 F.), +7 volts. The fusing-point of the metal is about 730° C. (1350° F.), and the magnesium is therefore reduced in the form of melted globules which gradually accumulate. At intervals the current is interrupted, the cover removed, and the temperature of the vessel @@ -10949,8 +10910,8 @@ should be freed from water and sulphates.</p> <p>Magnesium is a silvery white metal possessing a high lustre. It is malleable and ductile. Sp. gr. 1.75. It preserves its lustre in dry air, but in moist air it becomes tarnished by the -formation of a film of oxide. It melts at 632.7 C. (C. T. Heycock -and F. H. Neville), and boils at about 1100C. Magnesium +formation of a film of oxide. It melts at 632.7° C. (C. T. Heycock +and F. H. Neville), and boils at about 1100°C. Magnesium and its salts are diamagnetic. It burns brilliantly when heated in air or oxygen, or even in carbon dioxide, emitting a brilliant white light and leaving a residue of magnesia, MgO. The @@ -10977,7 +10938,7 @@ employed in the manufacture of crucibles, furnace linings, &c. It is also used in making hydraulic cements. A crystalline form was obtained by M. Houdard (<i>Abst. J. C. S.</i>, 1907, ii. p. 621) by fusing the oxide and sulphide in the electric furnace. <i>Magnesium hydroxide</i> -Mg(OH)<span class="su">2</span>, occurs native as the minerals brucite and nmalite, and +Mg(OH)<span class="su">2</span>, occurs native as the minerals brucite and némalite, and is prepared by precipitating solutions of magnesium salts by means of caustic soda or potash. An artificial brucite was prepared by A. de Schulten (<i>Comptes rendus</i>, 1885, 101, p. 72) by boiling magnesium @@ -10992,10 +10953,10 @@ cements.</p> of bromine or iodine there is a violent reaction, and the corresponding halide compounds are formed. With the exception of the fluoride, these substances are readily soluble in water and are deliquescent. -The fluoride is found native as sellate, and the bromide and iodide +The fluoride is found native as sellaïte, and the bromide and iodide occur in sea water and in many mineral springs. The most important of the halide salts is the <i>chloride</i> which, in the hydrated form, -has the formula MgCl<span class="su">2</span>6H<span class="su">2</span>O. It may be prepared by dissolving +has the formula MgCl<span class="su">2</span>·6H<span class="su">2</span>O. It may be prepared by dissolving the metal, its oxide, hydroxide, or carbonate in dilute hydrochloric acid, or by mixing concentrated solutions of magnesium sulphate and common salt, and cooling the mixture rapidly, when the less soluble @@ -11004,7 +10965,7 @@ in the manufacture of potassium chloride from carnallite. The hydrated salt loses water on heating, and partially decomposes into hydrochloric acid and magnesium oxychlorides. To obtain the anhydrous salt, the double magnesium ammonium chloride, -MgCl<span class="su">2</span>NH<span class="su">4</span>Cl6H<span class="su">2</span>O, +MgCl<span class="su">2</span>·NH<span class="su">4</span>Cl·6H<span class="su">2</span>O, is prepared by adding ammonium chloride to a solution of magnesium chloride. The solution is evaporated, and the residue strongly heated, when water and ammonium chloride are expelled, @@ -11024,34 +10985,34 @@ as dolomite, whilst hydromagnesite is a basic carbonate. It is not possible to prepare the normal carbonate by precipitating magnesium salts with sodium carbonate. C. Marignac has prepared it by the action of calcium carbonate on magnesium chloride. A salt -MgCO<span class="su">3</span>3H<span class="su">2</span>O or Mg(CO<span class="su">3</span>H)(OH)2H<span class="su">2</span>O may be prepared from the +MgCO<span class="su">3</span>·3H<span class="su">2</span>O or Mg(CO<span class="su">3</span>H)(OH)·2H<span class="su">2</span>O may be prepared from the carbonate by dissolving it in water charged with carbon dioxide, and then reducing the pressure (W. A. Davis, <i>Jour. Soc. Chem. Ind.</i> 1906, 25, p. 788). The carbonate is not easily soluble in dilute acids, but is readily soluble in water containing carbon dioxide. <i>Magnesia alba</i>, a white bulky precipitate obtained by adding sodium carbonate -to Epsom salts, is a mixture of Mg(CO<span class="su">3</span>H)(OH)2H<span class="su">2</span>O, Mg(CO<span class="su">3</span>H)(OH) +to Epsom salts, is a mixture of Mg(CO<span class="su">3</span>H)(OH)·2H<span class="su">2</span>O, Mg(CO<span class="su">3</span>H)(OH) and Mg(OH)<span class="su">2</span>. It is almost insoluble in water, but readily dissolves in ammonium salts.</p> <p><i>Magnesium Phosphates.</i>—By adding sodium phosphate to magnesium sulphate and allowing the mixture to stand, hexagonal -needles of MgHPO<span class="su">4</span>7H<span class="su">2</span>O are deposited. The <i>normal phosphate</i>, +needles of MgHPO<span class="su">4</span>·7H<span class="su">2</span>O are deposited. The <i>normal phosphate</i>, Mg<span class="su">3</span>P<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">8</span>, is found in some guanos, and as the mineral wagnerite. It may be prepared by adding normal sodium phosphate to a magnesium salt and boiling the precipitate with a solution of magnesium sulphate. It is a white amorphous powder, readily soluble in acids. -<i>Magnesium ammonium phosphate</i>, MgNH<span class="su">4</span>PO<span class="su">4</span>6H<span class="su">2</span>O, is found as the +<i>Magnesium ammonium phosphate</i>, MgNH<span class="su">4</span>PO<span class="su">4</span>·6H<span class="su">2</span>O, is found as the mineral struvite and in some guanos; it occurs also in urinary calculi and is formed in the putrefaction of urine. It is prepared by adding sodium phosphate to magnesium sulphate in the presence of ammonia -and ammonium chloride. When heated to 100 C., it loses five +and ammonium chloride. When heated to 100° C., it loses five molecules of water of crystallization, and at a higher temperature loses the remainder of the water and also ammonia, leaving a residue of magnesium pyrophosphate, Mg<span class="su">2</span>P<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">7</span>. <i>Magnesium Nitrate</i>, -Mg(NO<span class="su">3</span>)26H<span class="su">2</span>O, is a colourless, deliquescent, crystalline solid obtained +Mg(NO<span class="su">3</span>)2·6H<span class="su">2</span>O, is a colourless, deliquescent, crystalline solid obtained by dissolving magnesium or its carbonate in nitric acid, and -concentrating the solution. The crystals melt at 90 C. <i>Magnesium +concentrating the solution. The crystals melt at 90° C. <i>Magnesium Nitride</i>, Mg<span class="su">3</span>N<span class="su">2</span>, is obtained as a greenish-yellow amorphous mass by passing a current of nitrogen or ammonia over heated magnesium (F. Briegleb and A. Geuther, <i>Ann.</i>, 1862, 123, p. 228; see also W. @@ -11108,22 +11069,22 @@ magnesium being removed as a basic halide salt.</p> <p><i>Applications.</i>—For the formation of primary and secondary alcohols see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Aldehydes</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ketones</a></span>. Formaldehyde behaves abnormally with magnesium benzyl bromide (M. Tiffeneau, <i>Comptes rendus</i>, -1903, 137, p. 573). forming ortho-tolylcarbinol, CH<span class="su">3</span>C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">4</span>CH<span class="su">2</span>OH, -and not benzylcarbinol, C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">5</span>CH<span class="su">2</span>CH<span class="su">2</span>OH (cf. the reaction of formaldehyde +1903, 137, p. 573). forming ortho-tolylcarbinol, CH<span class="su">3</span>·C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">4</span>·CH<span class="su">2</span>OH, +and not benzylcarbinol, C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">5</span>CH<span class="su">2</span>·CH<span class="su">2</span>OH (cf. the reaction of formaldehyde on phenols: O. Manasse, <i>Ber.</i> 1894, 27, p. 2904). Acid esters yield carbinols, many of which are unstable and readily pass over into unsaturated compounds, especially when warmed with -acetic anhydride: RCO<span class="su">2</span>R′(R″)<span class="su">2</span>R⋮COMgX → (R″)<span class="su">2</span>R⋮COH.</p> +acetic anhydride: R·CO<span class="su">2</span>R′(R″)<span class="su">2</span>·R⋮C·OMgX → (R″)<span class="su">2</span>R⋮C·OH.</p> <p>Formic ester yields a secondary alcohol under similar conditions. Acid chlorides behave in an analogous manner to esters (Grignard and Tissier, <i>Comptes rendus</i>, 1901, 132, p. 683). Nitriles yield ketones (the nitrogen being eliminated as ammonia), the best yields being given by the aromatic nitriles (E. Blaise, ibid., 1901, 133, p. -1217): RCN → RR′:C:NMgI → RCOR′. Acid amides also react -to form ketones (C. Bis, ibid., 1903, 137, 575):</p> +1217): R·CN → RR′:C:NMgI → R·CO·R′. Acid amides also react +to form ketones (C. Béis, ibid., 1903, 137, 575):</p> -<p class="center">RCONH<span class="su">2</span> → RR′:C(OMgX)NHMgX + R′H → RCOR′;</p> +<p class="center">R·CONH<span class="su">2</span> → RR′:C(OMgX)·NHMgX + R′H → R·CO·R′;</p> <p class="noind">the yield increases with the complexity of the organic residue of the acid amide. On passing a current of dry carbon dioxide over the @@ -11131,7 +11092,7 @@ reagent, the gas is absorbed and the resulting compound, when decomposed by dilute acids, yields an organic acid, and similarly with carbon oxysulphide a thio-acid is obtained:</p> -<p class="center">RMgX → RCO<span class="su">2</span>MgX → RCO<span class="su">2</span>H; COS → CS(OMgX)R → RCSOH.</p> +<p class="center">RMgX → R·CO<span class="su">2</span>MgX → R·CO<span class="su">2</span>H; COS → CS(OMgX)·R → R·CSOH.</p> <p class="noind">A. Klages (<i>Ber.</i>, 1902, 35, pp. 2633 et seq.) has shown that if one uses an excess of magnesium and of an alkyl halide with a ketone, an @@ -11461,7 +11422,7 @@ accurately specified by reference to the concentration of the lines. The lines presented to the eye by the scattered filings are too vague and ill-defined to give a satisfactory indication of the field-strength (see Faraday, <i>Experimental Researches</i>, - 3237) though they show its direction clearly enough. It is +§ 3237) though they show its direction clearly enough. It is however easy to demonstrate by means of the compass that the force is much greater in some parts of the field than in others. Lay the compass upon the cardboard, and observe the rate @@ -11509,11 +11470,11 @@ horizontal position, and the dip is zero. At places north of this line, which is called the <i>magnetic equator</i>, the north end of the needle points downwards, the inclination generally becoming greater with increased distance from the equator. Within a -certain small area in the Arctic Circle (about 97 W. long., 70 N. +certain small area in the Arctic Circle (about 97° W. long., 70° N. lat.) the north pole of the needle points vertically downwards, -the dip being 90. South of the magnetic equator the south +the dip being 90°. South of the magnetic equator the south end of the needle is always inclined downwards, and there is a -spot within the Antarctic Circle (148 E. long., 74 S. lat.) where +spot within the Antarctic Circle (148° E. long., 74° S. lat.) where the needle again stands vertically, but with its north end directed upwards. All these observations may be accounted for by the fact first recognized by W. Gilbert in 1600, that the earth itself @@ -11527,7 +11488,7 @@ magnetic poles correspond with their geographical situations. Within a limited space, such as that contained in a room, the field due to the earth’s magnetism is sensibly uniform, the lines of force being parallel straight lines inclined to the horizon at the -angle of dip, which at Greenwich in 1910 was about 67. It is +angle of dip, which at Greenwich in 1910 was about 67°. It is by the horizontal component of the earth’s total force that the compass-needle is directed.</p> @@ -11654,7 +11615,7 @@ magnetic poles is mutual. If m<span class="su">1</span> and m<span class="su">2< poles, <i>d</i> the distance between them expressed in centimetres, and f the force in dynes,</p> -<p class="center">ƒ = m<span class="su">1</span>m<span class="su">2</span> / d</p> +<p class="center">ƒ = m<span class="su">1</span>m<span class="su">2</span> / d²</p> <div class="author">(1).</div> <p class="noind">The force is one of attraction or repulsion, according as the sign of @@ -11689,8 +11650,8 @@ when it is desired to draw attention to the fact that it is a vector quantity, by the block letter <b>H</b>, or the German character ℌ. Magnetic force is sometimes, and perhaps more suitably, termed <i>magnetic intensity</i>; it corresponds to the intensity of gravity <i>g</i> in the theory -of heavy bodies (see Maxwell, <i>Electricity and Magnetism</i>, 12 and - 68, footnote). A <i>line of force</i> is a line drawn through a magnetic +of heavy bodies (see Maxwell, <i>Electricity and Magnetism</i>, § 12 and +§ 68, footnote). A <i>line of force</i> is a line drawn through a magnetic field in the direction of the force at each point through which it passes. A <i>uniform magnetic field</i> is one in which H has everywhere the same value and the same direction, the lines of force being, @@ -11763,7 +11724,7 @@ unit of volume, and is denoted by I, <b>I</b>, or ℑ. Hence</p> <p class="noind">v being the volume and a the sectional area. If the magnet is not uniform, the magnetization at any point is the ratio of the moment of an -element of volume at that point to the volume itself, or I = mds/dv. +element of volume at that point to the volume itself, or I = m·ds/dv. where ds is the length of the element. The direction of the magnetization is that of the magnetic axis of the element; in isotropic substances it coincides with the direction of the magnetic force at the point. @@ -11838,7 +11799,7 @@ magnet with poles concentrated at its ends. The potential due to a small magnet of moment M, at a point whose distance from the centre of the magnet is r, is</p> -<p class="center">V = M cos θ/r,</p> +<p class="center">V = M cos θ/r²,</p> <div class="author">(10)</div> <p class="noind">where θ is the angle between r and the axis of the magnet. Denoting @@ -11848,14 +11809,14 @@ co-ordinate axes by X and Y, we have</p> <table class="math0" summary="math"> <tr><td rowspan="2">X = −</td> <td>δV</td> <td rowspan="2">=</td> <td>M</td> -<td rowspan="2">(3 cos θ − 1),</td></tr> -<tr><td class="denom">δx</td> <td class="denom">r</td></tr></table> +<td rowspan="2">(3 cos² θ − 1),</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">δx</td> <td class="denom">r³</td></tr></table> <table class="math0" summary="math"> <tr><td rowspan="2">Y = −</td> <td>δV</td> <td rowspan="2">=</td> <td>M</td> -<td rowspan="2">(3 sin θ cos θ).</td></tr> -<tr><td class="denom">δy</td> <td class="denom">r</td></tr></table> +<td rowspan="2">(3 sin² θ cos θ).</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">δy</td> <td class="denom">r³</td></tr></table> <div class="author">(11)</div> <p class="noind">If F<span class="su">r</span> is the force along r and F<span class="su">t</span> that along t at right angles to r,</p> @@ -11863,21 +11824,21 @@ co-ordinate axes by X and Y, we have</p> <table class="math0" summary="math"> <tr><td rowspan="2">F<span class="su">r</span> = X cos θ + Y sin θ =</td> <td>M</td> <td rowspan="2">2 cos θ,</td></tr> -<tr><td class="denom">r</td></tr></table> +<tr><td class="denom">r³</td></tr></table> <div class="author">(12)</div> <table class="math0" summary="math"> <tr><td rowspan="2">F<span class="su">t</span> = −X sin θ + Y cos θ =</td> <td>M</td> <td rowspan="2">sin θ.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="denom">r</td></tr></table> +<tr><td class="denom">r³</td></tr></table> <div class="author">(13)</div> <p class="noind">For the resultant force at P,</p> <table class="math0" summary="math"> -<tr><td rowspan="2">F = √ (F<span class="su">r</span> + F<span class="su">t</span>) =</td> <td>M</td> -<td rowspan="2">√<span class="ov">3 cos θ + 1</span>.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="denom">r</td></tr></table> +<tr><td rowspan="2">F = √ (F<span class="su">r</span>² + F<span class="su">t</span>²) =</td> <td>M</td> +<td rowspan="2">√<span class="ov">3 cos² θ + 1</span>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">r³</td></tr></table> <div class="author">(14)</div> <p class="noind">The direction of F is given by the following construction: Trisect @@ -11886,7 +11847,7 @@ the axis produced in D; then DP will be the direction of the force at P. For a point in the axis OX, θ = 0; therefore cos θ = 1, and the point D coincides with C; the magnitude of the force is, from (14),</p> -<p class="center">F<span class="su">x</span> = 2M / r,</p> +<p class="center">F<span class="su">x</span> = 2M / r³,</p> <div class="author">(15)</div> <p class="noind">its direction being along the axis OX. For a point in the line OY @@ -11894,7 +11855,7 @@ bisecting the magnet perpendicularly, θ = π/2 therefore cos θ = 0 the point D is at an infinite distance. The magnitude of the force is in this case</p> -<p class="center">F<span class="su">y</span> = M / r,</p> +<p class="center">F<span class="su">y</span> = M / r³,</p> <div class="author">(16)</div> <p class="noind">and its direction is parallel to the axis of the magnet. Although @@ -11924,24 +11885,24 @@ M; the axes of SN and S′N′ make angles of can be deduced from (17), (12) and (13) that the couple on S′N′ due to SN, and tending to increase φ, is</p> -<p class="center">MM′ (sin θ cos φ − 2 sin φ cos θ) / r.</p> +<p class="center">MM′ (sin θ cos φ − 2 sin φ cos θ) / r³.</p> <div class="author">(18)</div> -<p class="noind">This vanishes if sin θ cos φ = 2 sin φ cos θ, <i>i.e.</i> if tan φ = tan θ, +<p class="noind">This vanishes if sin θ cos φ = 2 sin φ cos θ, <i>i.e.</i> if tan φ = ½ tan θ, S′N′ being then along a line of force, a result which explains the construction given above for finding the direction of the force F in (14). If the axis of SN produced passes through the centre of S′N′, θ = 0, and the couple becomes</p> -<p class="center">2MM′ sin φ/r,</p> +<p class="center">2MM′ sin φ/r³,</p> <div class="author">(19)</div> <p class="noind">tending to diminish φ; this is called the “end on” position. If the centre of S′N′ is on the perpendicular bisector of SN, θ = -π, and +½π, and the couple will be</p> -<p class="center">MM′ cos φ/r,</p> +<p class="center">MM′ cos φ/r³,</p> <div class="author">(20)</div> <p class="noind">tending to increase φ; this is the “broadside on” position. These @@ -11992,17 +11953,17 @@ of magnetization will be uniformly magnetized.</p> <p>It can be shown that uniform magnetization is possible only when the form of the body is ellipsoidal. (Maxwell, <i>Electricity and -Magnetism</i>, II., 437). The cases of greatest practical importance +Magnetism</i>, II., § 437). The cases of greatest practical importance are those of a sphere (which is an ellipsoid with three equal axes) and an ovoid or prolate ellipsoid of revolution. The potential due to a uniformly magnetized sphere of radius a for an external point at a distance r from the centre is</p> -<p class="center">V = <span class="spp">4</span>⁄<span class="suu">3</span>πaI cos θ/r,</p> +<p class="center">V = <span class="spp">4</span>⁄<span class="suu">3</span>πa³I cos θ/r²,</p> <div class="author">(23)</div> -<p class="noind">θ being the inclination of r to the magnetic axis. Since <span class="spp">4</span>⁄<span class="suu">3</span>πaI is -the moment of the sphere (= volume magnetization), it appears +<p class="noind">θ being the inclination of r to the magnetic axis. Since <span class="spp">4</span>⁄<span class="suu">3</span>πa³I is +the moment of the sphere (= volume × magnetization), it appears from (10) that the magnetized sphere produces the same external effect as a very small magnet of equal moment placed at its centre and magnetized in the same direction; the resultant force therefore @@ -12018,7 +11979,7 @@ a distance equal to <span class="spp">2</span>⁄<span class="suu">3</span>a externally like a simple solenoid of length <span class="spp">4</span>⁄<span class="suu">3</span>a. The internal force F is opposite to the direction of the magnetization, and equal to NI, where N is a coefficient depending only on the ratio of the axes. -The moment = <span class="spp">4</span>⁄<span class="suu">3</span>πacI = −<span class="spp">4</span>⁄<span class="suu">3</span>πacFN.</p> +The moment = <span class="spp">4</span>⁄<span class="suu">3</span>πac²I = −<span class="spp">4</span>⁄<span class="suu">3</span>πac²FN.</p> <p>The distribution of magnetism and the position of the poles in magnets of other shapes, such as cylindrical or rectangular bars, @@ -12039,7 +12000,7 @@ can always be determined with accuracy.</p> <p><i>Magnetic Induction or Magnetic Flux.</i>—When magnetic force acts on any medium, whether magnetic, diamagnetic or neutral, it produces within it a phenomenon of the nature of a flux or flow called -<i>magnetic induction</i> (Maxwell, <i>loc. cit.</i>, 428). Magnetic induction, +<i>magnetic induction</i> (Maxwell, <i>loc. cit.</i>, § 428). Magnetic induction, like other fluxes such as electrical, thermal or fluid currents, is defined with reference to an area; it satisfies the same conditions of continuity as the electric current does, and in isotropic media it depends on the @@ -12056,7 +12017,7 @@ said that in empty space (and practically in air and other non-magnetic substances) B and H are identical. Inside a magnetized body, B is the force that would be exerted on a unit pole if placed in a narrow crevasse cut in the body, the walls of the crevasse being -perpendicular to the direction of the magnetization (Maxwell, +perpendicular to the direction of the magnetization (Maxwell, § § 399, 604); and its numerical value, being partly due to the free magnetism on the walls, is generally very different from that of H. In the case of a straight uniformly magnetized bar the direction of @@ -12192,7 +12153,7 @@ field of changing intensity, the changes which take place in the induced magnetization of the iron exhibit a tendency to lag behind those which occur in the intensity of the field—a phenomenon to which J. A. Ewing (<i>Phil. Trans.</i> clxxvi. 524) has given the name of <i>hysteresis</i> -(Gr. <span class="grk" title="hystere">ὑστερέω</span>, to lag behind). Thus it happens that there is no definite +(Gr. <span class="grk" title="hystereô">ὑστερέω</span>, to lag behind). Thus it happens that there is no definite relation between the magnetization of a piece of metal which has been previously magnetized and the strength of the field in which it is placed. Much depends upon its antecedent magnetic condition, @@ -12250,7 +12211,7 @@ the ellipsoid will then be</p> <tr><td class="denom">e<span class="su">2</span></td> <td class="denom">2e</td> <td class="denom">1 − e</td></tr></table> -<p class="noind">e being the eccentricity (see Maxwell’s <i>Treatise</i>, 438). Since +<p class="noind">e being the eccentricity (see Maxwell’s <i>Treatise</i>, § 438). Since I = κH, we have</p> <p class="center">κH + κNI = κH<span class="su">0</span>,</p> @@ -12268,36 +12229,36 @@ ratio of the length of the ellipsoid 2c to its equatorial diameter 2a <p>Since</p> <table class="math0" summary="math"> -<tr><td rowspan="2">e = <span class="f200">√(</span> 1 −</td> <td>a</td> +<tr><td rowspan="2">e = <span class="f200">√(</span> 1 −</td> <td>a²</td> <td rowspan="2"><span class="f200">)</span> = <span class="f200">√(</span> 1 −</td> <td>1</td> <td rowspan="2"><span class="f200">)</span>,</td></tr> -<tr><td class="denom">c</td> <td class="denom"><b>m</b></td></tr></table> +<tr><td class="denom">c²</td> <td class="denom"><b>m</b>²</td></tr></table> <p class="noind">the above expression for N may be written</p> <table class="math0" summary="math"> <tr><td rowspan="2">N =</td> <td>4π</td> <td rowspan="2"><span class="f200">(</span></td> <td><b>m</b></td> -<td rowspan="2">log</td> <td><b>m</b> + √(<b>m</b> − 1)</td> +<td rowspan="2">log</td> <td><b>m</b> + √(<b>m</b>² − 1)</td> <td rowspan="2">− 1 <span class="f200">)</span></td></tr> -<tr><td class="denom"><b>m</b> − 1</td> <td class="denom">2√(<b>m</b> − 1)</td> -<td class="denom"><b>m</b> − √(<b>m</b> − 1)</td></tr></table> +<tr><td class="denom"><b>m</b>² − 1</td> <td class="denom">2√(<b>m</b>² − 1)</td> +<td class="denom"><b>m</b> − √(<b>m</b>² − 1)</td></tr></table> <table class="math0" summary="math"> <tr><td rowspan="2">=</td> <td>4π</td> <td rowspan="2"><span class="f200">{</span></td> <td><b>m</b></td> -<td rowspan="2">log <span class="f200">(</span> <b>m</b>+ √(<b>m</b> − 1) <span class="f200">)</span> − 1 <span class="f200">}</span>,</td></tr> -<tr><td class="denom"><b>m</b> − 1</td> <td class="denom">√(<b>m</b> − 1)</td></tr></table> +<td rowspan="2">log <span class="f200">(</span> <b>m</b>+ √(<b>m</b>² − 1) <span class="f200">)</span> − 1 <span class="f200">}</span>,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom"><b>m</b>² − 1</td> <td class="denom">√(<b>m</b>² − 1)</td></tr></table> <p class="noind">from which the value of N for a given dimensional ratio can be calculated. When the ellipsoid is so much elongated that 1 is -negligible in relation to <b>m</b>, the expression approximates to the +negligible in relation to <b>m</b>², the expression approximates to the simpler form</p> <table class="math0" summary="math"> <tr><td rowspan="2">N =</td> <td>4π</td> <td rowspan="2"><span class="f200">(</span> log 2<b>m</b> − 1 <span class="f200">)</span></td></tr> -<tr><td class="denom"><b>m</b></td></tr></table> +<tr><td class="denom"><b>m</b>²</td></tr></table> <div class="author">(31)</div> <p class="noind">In the case of a <i>sphere</i>, e = O and N = <span class="spp">4</span>⁄<span class="suu">3</span>π; therefore from (29)</p> @@ -12340,16 +12301,16 @@ of the demagnetizing factor by <span class="ov">N</span>, we have</p> <div class="author">(35)</div> <p class="noind">Du Bois has shown that when the dimensional ratio m (= length/diameter) -exceeds 100, <span class="ov">N</span><b>m</b> = constant = 45, and hence for long +exceeds 100, <span class="ov">N</span><b>m</b>² = constant = 45, and hence for long thin rods</p> -<p class="center"><span class="ov">N</span> = 45 / <b>m</b>.</p> +<p class="center"><span class="ov">N</span> = 45 / <b>m</b>².</p> <div class="author">(36)</div> <p class="noind">From an analysis of a number of experiments made with rods of different dimensions H. du Bois has deduced the corresponding mean -demagnetizing factors. These, together with values of <b>m</b><span class="ov">N</span> for -cylindrical rods, and of N and <b>m</b>N for ellipsoids of revolution, are +demagnetizing factors. These, together with values of <b>m</b>²<span class="ov">N</span> for +cylindrical rods, and of N and <b>m</b>²N for ellipsoids of revolution, are given in the following useful table (<i>loc. cit.</i> p. 41):—</p> <p class="pt1 center"><i>Demagnetizing Factors.</i></p> @@ -12357,7 +12318,7 @@ given in the following useful table (<i>loc. cit.</i> p. 41):—</p> <table class="ws" summary="Contents"> <tr><td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2"><b>m</b>.</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="2">Cylinder.</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="2">Ellipsoid.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tccm allb"><span class="ov">N</span>.</td> <td class="tccm allb"><b>m</b><span class="ov">N</span>.</td> <td class="tccm allb">N.</td> <td class="tccm allb"><b>m</b>N.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tccm allb"><span class="ov">N</span>.</td> <td class="tccm allb"><b>m</b>²<span class="ov">N</span>.</td> <td class="tccm allb">N.</td> <td class="tccm allb"><b>m</b>²N.</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcr lb rb">0</td> <td class="tcc rb">12.5664</td> <td class="tcc rb">0</td> <td class="tcc rb">12.5664 </td> <td class="tcc rb"> 0</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcr lb rb">0.5</td> <td class="tcc rb">—</td> <td class="tcc rb">—</td> <td class="tcc rb">6.5864</td> <td class="tcc rb">—</td></tr> @@ -12451,7 +12412,7 @@ sphere may be regarded as unchanged, we shall have</p> <table class="math0" summary="math"> <tr><td rowspan="2">W = −</td> <td>v</td> <td rowspan="2"> </td> <td>κ</td> -<td rowspan="2">H<span class="su">0</span>.</td></tr> +<td rowspan="2">H²<span class="su">0</span>.</td></tr> <tr><td class="denom">2</td> <td class="denom">1 + <span class="spp">4</span>⁄<span class="suu">3</span>πκ</td></tr></table> <div class="author">(37)</div> @@ -12461,7 +12422,7 @@ x is</p> <table class="math0" summary="math"> <tr><td rowspan="2">F = −</td> <td>dW</td> <td rowspan="2">= v</td> <td>κ</td> -<td rowspan="2"> </td> <td>dH<span class="su">0</span></td> +<td rowspan="2"> </td> <td>dH²<span class="su">0</span></td> <td rowspan="2">.</td></tr> <tr><td class="denom">dx</td> <td class="denom">1 + <span class="spp">4</span>⁄<span class="suu">3</span>πκ</td> <td class="denom">dx</td></tr></table> @@ -12512,7 +12473,7 @@ a magnetic field of which the lines of force are concentric circles around the axis of the wire. At a point whose distance from the axis of the wire is r the tangential magnetic force is</p> -<p class="center">H = 2ir / a</p> +<p class="center">H = 2ir / a²</p> <div class="author">(39)</div> <p class="noind">it therefore varies directly as the distance from the axis, where it is @@ -12535,7 +12496,7 @@ value will be approximately</p> <table class="math0" summary="math"> <tr><td rowspan="2">H<span class="su">i</span> =</td> <td>H<span class="su">0</span></td> <td rowspan="2">.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="denom">1 + <span class="spp">2</span>⁄<span class="suu">9</span> (μ − 2) (1 − r/R)</td></tr></table> +<tr><td class="denom">1 + <span class="spp">2</span>⁄<span class="suu">9</span> (μ − 2) (1 − r³/R³)</td></tr></table> <div class="author">(40)</div> <p class="noind">For a cylinder placed with its axis at right angles to the lines of force,</p> @@ -12543,7 +12504,7 @@ value will be approximately</p> <table class="math0" summary="math"> <tr><td rowspan="2">H<span class="su">i</span> =</td> <td>H<span class="su">0</span></td> <td rowspan="2">.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="denom">1 + <span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">4</span> (μ − 2) (1 − r/R)</td></tr></table> +<tr><td class="denom">1 + <span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">4</span> (μ − 2) (1 − r²/R²)</td></tr></table> <div class="author">(41)</div> <p class="noind">These expressions show that the thicker the screen and the greater @@ -12587,12 +12548,12 @@ H, the horizontal component of the earth’s force. The product MH is first determined by suspending the magnet horizontally, and causing it to vibrate in small arcs. If A is the moment of inertia of the magnet, and t the time of a complete vibration, -MH = 4πA / t (torsion being neglected). The ratio M/H is +MH = 4π²A / t² (torsion being neglected). The ratio M/H is then found by one of the magnetometric methods which in their simplest forms are described below. Equation (44) shows that as a first approximation.</p> -<p class="center">M / H = (d − l) tan θ/2d,</p> +<p class="center">M / H = (d² − l²) tan θ/2d,</p> <p class="noind">where l is half the length of the magnet, which is placed in the “broadside-on” position as regards a small suspended magnetic @@ -12600,10 +12561,10 @@ needle, d the distance between the centre of the magnet and the needle, and θ the angle through which the needle is deflected by the magnet. We get therefore</p> -<p class="center">M = MH M/H = 2πA (d − l) tan θ/td</p> +<p class="center">M² = MH × M/H = 2π²A (d² − l²)² tan θ/t²d</p> <div class="author">(42)</div> -<p class="center">H = MH H/M = 8πAd / {t (d − l) tan θ}.</p> +<p class="center">H² = MH × H/M = 8π²Ad / {t² (d² − l²)² tan θ}.</p> <div class="author">(43)</div> <p class="noind">When a high degree of accuracy is required, the experiments and @@ -12615,7 +12576,7 @@ which, when the magnetic axis points north and south, is free from torsion, and if θ is the angle through which the upper end of the wire must be twisted to make the magnet point east and west, then MH = Cθ, or M = Cθ/H, where C is the torsional couple for -1. A bifilar suspension is sometimes used instead of a single +1°. A bifilar suspension is sometimes used instead of a single wire. If P is the weight of the magnet, l the length of each of the two threads, 2a the distance between their upper points of attachment, and 2b that between the lower points, then, approximately, @@ -12644,10 +12605,10 @@ the distance from either pole to a point P on the line AB (fig. 5), we have for the resultant force at P</p> -<p class="center">R = −2 cos θ m / d = −2lm / d = -M / d.</p> +<p class="center">R = −2 cos θ × m / d² = −2lm / d³ = -M / d³.</p> <p class="noind">When P is the neutral point, H is equal and -opposite to R; therefore M = Hd, or the +opposite to R; therefore M = Hd³, or the moment is numerically equal to the cube of the distance from the neutral point to a pole, multiplied by the <span class="pagenum"><a name="page329" id="page329"></a>329</span> @@ -12668,7 +12629,7 @@ directly measured by observing the action which a magnetized body, generally a long straight rod, exerts upon a small magnetic needle placed near it. The magnetic needle may be cemented horizontally across the back of a little plane or concave mirror, -about or <span class="spp">3</span>⁄<span class="suu">8</span> in. in diameter, which is suspended by a single fibre +about ¼ or <span class="spp">3</span>⁄<span class="suu">8</span> in. in diameter, which is suspended by a single fibre of unspun silk; this arrangement, when enclosed in a case with a glazed front to protect it from currents of air, constitutes a simple but efficient magnetometer. Deflections of the suspended @@ -12728,14 +12689,14 @@ the field at M due to the rod</p> <td rowspan="2">−</td> <td>m</td> <td rowspan="2">= m</td> <td>4dl</td> <td rowspan="2">.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="denom">(d − l)</td> <td class="denom">(d + l)</td> -<td class="denom">(d − l)</td></tr></table> +<tr><td class="denom">(d − l)²</td> <td class="denom">(d + l)²</td> +<td class="denom">(d² − l²)²</td></tr></table> <p class="noind">Therefore</p> <table class="math0" summary="math"> -<tr><td rowspan="2">2ml = M =</td> <td>(d − l) H<span class="su">P</span></td> -<td rowspan="2">=</td> <td>(d − l) H<span class="su">E</span> tan θ</td> +<tr><td rowspan="2">2ml = M =</td> <td>(d² − l²)² H<span class="su">P</span></td> +<td rowspan="2">=</td> <td>(d² − l²)² H<span class="su">E</span> tan θ</td> <td rowspan="2">.</td></tr> <tr><td class="denom">2d</td> <td class="denom">2d</td></tr></table> <div class="author">(44)</div> @@ -12744,7 +12705,7 @@ the field at M due to the rod</p> <table class="math0" summary="math"> <tr><td rowspan="2">I =</td> <td>M</td> -<td rowspan="2">=</td> <td>(d − l) H<span class="su">E</span></td> +<td rowspan="2">=</td> <td>(d² − l²)² H<span class="su">E</span></td> <td rowspan="2">tan θ,</td></tr> <tr><td class="denom">v</td> <td class="denom">2dv</td></tr></table> <div class="author">(45)</div> @@ -12757,29 +12718,29 @@ that the direction of the undeflected suspended needle bisects it at right angles. This is known as the “broadside-on” position, and is represented in fig. 7. Let the distance of each pole of the rod AB from the centre of the magnetometer needle = d. Then, since H<span class="su">P</span>, -the force at M due to m and −m, is the resultant of m/d and −m/d, +the force at M due to m and −m, is the resultant of m/d² and −m/d², we have</p> <table class="math0" summary="math"> <tr><td>H<span class="su">P</span></td> <td rowspan="2">=</td> <td>2l</td> </tr> -<tr><td class="denom">m/d</td> <td class="denom">d</td></tr></table> +<tr><td class="denom">m/d²</td> <td class="denom">d</td></tr></table> <p class="noind">or</p> <table class="math0" summary="math"> <tr><td rowspan="2">H<span class="su">P</span> =</td> <td>2ml</td> <td rowspan="2">,</td></tr> -<tr><td class="denom">d</td></tr></table> +<tr><td class="denom">d³</td></tr></table> <p class="noind">the direction being parallel to AB.</p> <p class="noind">And</p> <table class="math0" summary="math"> -<tr><td rowspan="2">I =</td> <td> dH<span class="su">P</span></td> -<td rowspan="2">=</td> <td>dH<span class="su">E</span></td> +<tr><td rowspan="2">I =</td> <td> d³H<span class="su">P</span></td> +<td rowspan="2">=</td> <td>d³H<span class="su">E</span></td> <td rowspan="2">tan θ.</td></tr> <tr><td class="denom">v</td> <td class="denom">v</td></tr></table> <div class="author">(46)</div> @@ -12802,28 +12763,28 @@ we have for the force at M due to the magnetism of the rod</p> <tr><td rowspan="2">H<span class="su">P</span> =</td> <td>m</td> <td rowspan="2">− horizontal component of</td> <td>m</td> </tr> -<tr><td class="denom">d<span class="su">1</span></td> <td class="denom">d<span class="su">2</span></td></tr></table> +<tr><td class="denom">d<span class="su">1</span>²</td> <td class="denom">d<span class="su">2</span>²</td></tr></table> <table class="math0" summary="math"> <tr><td rowspan="2">= m <span class="f200">(</span></td> <td>1</td> <td rowspan="2">−</td> <td>d<span class="su">1</span></td> <td rowspan="2"><span class="f200">)</span>.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="denom">d<span class="su">1</span></td> <td class="denom">d<span class="su">2</span></td></tr></table> +<tr><td class="denom">d<span class="su">1</span>²</td> <td class="denom">d<span class="su">2</span>³</td></tr></table> <p class="noind">Therefore</p> <table class="math0" summary="math"> <tr><td rowspan="2">m =</td> <td>H<span class="su">P</span></td> -<td rowspan="2">=</td> <td>d<span class="su">1</span>H<span class="su">E</span></td> +<td rowspan="2">=</td> <td>d<span class="su">1</span>²H<span class="su">E</span></td> <td rowspan="2">tan θ,</td></tr> -<tr><td class="denom">(1 / d<span class="su">1</span>) − (d<span class="su">1</span> / d<span class="su">2</span>)</td> <td class="denom">1 − (d<span class="su">1</span> / d<span class="su">2</span>)</td></tr></table> +<tr><td class="denom">(1 / d<span class="su">1</span>²) − (d<span class="su">1</span> / d<span class="su">2</span>³)</td> <td class="denom">1 − (d<span class="su">1</span> / d<span class="su">2</span>)³</td></tr></table> <p class="noind">and</p> <table class="math0" summary="math"> -<tr><td rowspan="2">I =</td> <td>ld<span class="su">1</span> H<span class="su">E</span></td> +<tr><td rowspan="2">I =</td> <td>ld<span class="su">1</span>² H<span class="su">E</span></td> <td rowspan="2">tan θ.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="denom">v {1 − (d<span class="su">1</span> / d<span class="su">2</span>) }</td></tr></table> +<tr><td class="denom">v {1 − (d<span class="su">1</span> / d<span class="su">2</span>)³ }</td></tr></table> <div class="author">(47)</div> <p class="noind">This last method of arrangement is called by Ewing the “one-pole” @@ -12917,9 +12878,9 @@ deduce H<span class="su">0</span>, and from the latter the corresponding value o the formulae H<span class="su">0</span> = 4πin/l and</p> <table class="math0" summary="math"> -<tr><td rowspan="2">I =</td> <td>d<span class="su">1</span> H<span class="su">E</span></td> -<td rowspan="2"> s,</td></tr> -<tr><td class="denom">2nπr { 1 − (d<span class="su">1</span> / d<span class="su">2</span>) }</td></tr></table> +<tr><td rowspan="2">I =</td> <td>d<span class="su">1</span>² H<span class="su">E</span></td> +<td rowspan="2">× s,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">2nπr² { 1 − (d<span class="su">1</span> / d<span class="su">2</span>)³ }</td></tr></table> <p class="noind">where s is the deflection in scale-divisions, n the distance in scale-divisions between the scale and the mirror, and r the radius of the @@ -13091,7 +13052,7 @@ the process becomes strictly cyclic, the upward and downward curves always following with precision the paths indicated in the figure. In order to establish the cyclic condition, it is sufficient to apply alternately the greatest positive and negative forces -employed in the test (greatest H = about 5 C.G.S. units in the +employed in the test (greatest H = about ±5 C.G.S. units in the case illustrated in the figure), an operation which is performed by simply reversing the direction of the maximum magnetizing current a few times.</p> @@ -13428,7 +13389,7 @@ upon iron an apparent or spurious permeability of high value; this effort also is most conspicuous when the magnetizing force is weak. The permeability of a soft iron wire, which was tapped while subjected to a very small magnetizing force, rose to the -enormous value of about 80,000 (<i>Magnetic Induction</i>, 85). It +enormous value of about 80,000 (<i>Magnetic Induction</i>, § 85). It follows that in testing iron for magnetic quality the greatest care must be exercised to guard the specimen against any accidental vibration.</p> @@ -13549,7 +13510,7 @@ prevented from exerting any material demagnetizing force, while the permeance of the magnetic circuit is at the same time increased. A A, called the “yoke,” is a block of annealed wrought iron -about 18 in. long, 6 in. wide and 2 in. thick, through +about 18 in. long, 6½ in. wide and 2 in. thick, through which is cut a rectangular opening to receive the two magnetizing coils B B. The test bar C C, which slides through holes bored in the yoke, is divided near the @@ -13577,7 +13538,7 @@ his paper. When it is not required to determine the residual magnetization there is no necessity to divide the sample bar, and ballistic tests may be made in the ordinary way—by steps or by reversals—the source of error due to the transverse cut -thus being avoided. Ewing (<i>Magnetic Induction</i>, 194) has devised +thus being avoided. Ewing (<i>Magnetic Induction</i>, § 194) has devised an arrangement in which two similar test bars are placed side by side; each bar is surrounded by a magnetizing coil, the two coils being connected to give opposite directions of magnetization, @@ -13603,42 +13564,42 @@ be measured by observing the force required to draw apart the two portions of a divided rod or ring when held together by their mutual attraction. If a transverse cut is made through a bar whose magnetization is I and the two ends are placed in contact, -it can be shown that this force is 2πI dynes per unit of area -(Mascart and Joubert, <i>Electricity and Magnetism</i>, 322); and if +it can be shown that this force is 2πI² dynes per unit of area +(Mascart and Joubert, <i>Electricity and Magnetism</i>, § 322); and if the magnetization of the bar is due to an external field H produced by a magnetizing coil or otherwise, there is an additional force equal to HI. Thus the whole force, when the two portions of the bar are surrounded by a loosely-fitting magnetizing coil, is</p> -<p class="center">F = 2πI + HI</p> +<p class="center">F = 2πI² + HI</p> <p class="noind">expressed as dynes per square centimetre. If each portion of the bar has an independent magnetizing coil wound tightly upon it, we have further to take into account the force due to the mutual action of the two magnetizing coils, which assists -the forces already considered. This is equal to H8π per unit +the forces already considered. This is equal to H²8π per unit of sectional area. In the case supposed therefore the total force per square centimetre is</p> <table class="math0" summary="math"> -<tr><td rowspan="2">F = 2πI + HI +</td> <td>H</td> +<tr><td rowspan="2">F = 2πI² + HI +</td> <td>H²</td> </tr> <tr><td class="denom">8π</td></tr></table> <table class="math0" summary="math"> -<tr><td rowspan="2">=</td> <td>(4πI + H)</td> +<tr><td rowspan="2">=</td> <td>(4πI + H)³</td> </tr> <tr><td class="denom">8π</td></tr></table> <table class="math0" summary="math"> -<tr><td rowspan="2">=</td> <td>B</td> +<tr><td rowspan="2">=</td> <td>B²</td> <td rowspan="2">.</td></tr> <tr><td class="denom">8π</td></tr></table> -<p>The equation F = B/8π is often said to express “Maxwell’s +<p>The equation F = B²/8π is often said to express “Maxwell’s law of magnetic traction” (Maxwell, <i>Electricity and Magnetism</i>, - 642-646). It is, of course, true for permanent magnets, where -H = 0, since then F = 2πI; but if the magnetization is due to +§§ 642-646). It is, of course, true for permanent magnets, where +H = 0, since then F = 2πI²; but if the magnetization is due to electric currents, the formula is only applicable in the special case when the mutual action of the two magnets upon one another is supplemented by the electromagnetic attraction @@ -13652,7 +13613,7 @@ grammes weight which just sufficed to tear asunder the two halves of a divided ring electromagnet when known currents were passing through the coils. He made use of the expression</p> -<p class="center">F = Wg = 2πI + HI,</p> +<p class="center">F = Wg = 2πI² + HI,</p> <p class="noind">where W is the weight in grammes per square centimetre of sectional area, and g is the intensity of gravity which was taken as @@ -13726,7 +13687,7 @@ a registering spring balance, which is clamped to the upper end of the rod, and thence the induction or the magnetization is deduced by applying the formula</p> -<p class="center">(B − H) / 8π = 2πI = Pg / S,</p> +<p class="center">(B − H)² / 8π = 2πI² = Pg / S,</p> <table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 350px;" summary="Illustration"> <tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:299px; height:126px" src="images/img335b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> @@ -13735,7 +13696,7 @@ applying the formula</p> <p class="noind">where P is the pull in grammes weight, S the sectional area of the rod in square cm., and g = 981. If the pull is measured in pounds and the area in square inches, the formula may be written -B = 1317 √<span class="ov">P/S</span> + H. The instrument exhibited by Thompson +B = 1317 × √<span class="ov">P/S</span> + H. The instrument exhibited by Thompson would, without undue heating, take a current of 30 amperes, which was sufficient to produce a magnetizing force of 1000 units. A testing apparatus of a similar type devised by Gisbert Kapp (<i>Journ. @@ -13775,8 +13736,8 @@ though the attractive forces F between B and C and between B′ and C′ are equal, the former has a greater moment. The weight W is moved along the scale until the yoke just tilts over upon the stop S; the distance of W from its zero position is then, as -can easily be shown, proportional to F, and therefore to B, and -approximately to I. The scale is graduated in such a manner that +can easily be shown, proportional to F, and therefore to B², and +approximately to I². The scale is graduated in such a manner that by multiplying the reading by a simple factor (generally 10 or 2) the absolute value of the magnetization is obtained. The actual magnetizing force H is of course less than that due to the coil; the @@ -13791,7 +13752,7 @@ is described in <i>Ann. d. Phys.</i>, 1900, 2, 317.</p> <p>In Ewing’s <i>magnetic balance</i> (<i>Journ. Inst. Elec. Eng.</i> 1898, 27, 526), the value of the magnetic induction corresponding to a single stated magnetizing force is directly read off on a divided scale. The specimen, -which has the form of a turned rod, 4 in. long and in. in diameter, +which has the form of a turned rod, 4 in. long and ¼ in. in diameter, is laid across the poles of a horseshoe electromagnet, excited by a current of such strength as to produce in the rod a magnetizing force H = 20. One pole has a <b>V</b>-shaped notch for the rod to rest in; @@ -13846,7 +13807,7 @@ test rod, till the induction in the two rods is the same, a condition which is fulfilled when reversal of the current has no effect on the compass needle. Let m be the number of turns in use, and H<span class="su">1</span> and H<span class="su">2</span> the magnetizing forces which produce the same induction B in -the test and the standard rods respectively; then H<span class="su">1</span> = H<span class="su">2</span> m/100. +the test and the standard rods respectively; then H<span class="su">1</span> = H<span class="su">2</span> × m/100. The value of B which corresponds to H<span class="su">2</span><i>m</i>/100 can be found from the <span class="pagenum"><a name="page336" id="page336"></a>336</span> (B, H) curve for the standard, which is assumed to have been determined; @@ -14020,11 +13981,11 @@ conclusion arrived at is that to produce the greatest concentration of force upon the central neck, the cones should have a common vertex in the -middle of the neck with a semi-vertical angle of 54 44′, while the condition +middle of the neck with a semi-vertical angle of 54° 44′, while the condition for a uniform field is satisfied when the cones have a semi-vertical -angle of 39 14′; in the latter case the magnetic force in the +angle of 39° 14′; in the latter case the magnetic force in the air just outside is sensibly equal to that within the neck. A pair of -cones having a semi-vertical angle of 45 were considered to combine +cones having a semi-vertical angle of 45° were considered to combine high concentrative power with a sufficient approximation to uniformity of field. In most of the experiments the measurements were made by suddenly withdrawing the bobbin from its place @@ -14037,7 +13998,7 @@ measured, and thus the total induction in the iron was determined. The highest induction reached in these experiments was 45,350 units, more than twice the value of any previously recorded. The corresponding intensity of the outside field was 24,500, but, owing to -the wide angle of the cones used (about 2 63), this was probably +the wide angle of the cones used (about 2 × 63°), this was probably greater than the value of the magnetic force within the metal. The following table shows some results of other experiments in which H was believed to have sensibly the same value inside as outside the @@ -14149,11 +14110,11 @@ a pair of electromagnets with opposite poles in contact, is only limited by the greatest value to which it is practically possible to raise the magnetizing force H. This is at once evident when the tractive force due to magnetization is expressed -as 2πI + HI. For fields of moderate intensity the +as 2πI² + HI. For fields of moderate intensity the first term of the expression is the more important, but when the value of H exceeds 12,000 or thereabouts, the second preponderates, and with the highest values that have been actually -obtained, HI is several times greater than 2πI. If H could +obtained, HI is several times greater than 2πI². If H could be increased without limit, so also could the tractive force. The following table shows the greatest “lifting powers” experimentally reached at the dates mentioned:—</p> @@ -14176,7 +14137,7 @@ fields the relation of the magnetization I to the magnetizing force H is approximately expressed by an equation of the form</p> -<p class="center">I = aH + bH,</p> +<p class="center">I = aH + bH²,</p> <p class="noind">or</p> @@ -14485,17 +14446,17 @@ an asymptotic value as the field was increased. The influence of temperature varying between wide limits has formed the subject of a research by K. Honda and S. Shimizu. For soft iron, tungsten-steel and nickel little difference appeared to -result from lowering the temperature down to −186 C. (the +result from lowering the temperature down to −186° C. (the temperature of liquid air); at sufficiently high temperatures, -600 to 1000 or more, it was remarked that the changes of +600° to 1000° or more, it was remarked that the changes of length in iron, steel and cobalt tended in every case to become proportional to the magnetic force, the curves being nearly straight lines entirely above the axis. The retraction of nickel -was diminished by rising temperature, and at 400 had almost +was diminished by rising temperature, and at 400° had almost vanished. The influence of high temperature on cobalt was very remarkable, completely altering the character of the change of length: the curves for annealed cobalt show that -at 450 this metal behaves just like iron at ordinary temperatures, +at 450° this metal behaves just like iron at ordinary temperatures, lengthening in fields up to about 300 and contracting in stronger ones. The same physicists have made some additional experiments upon the effect of tension on magnetic @@ -14566,7 +14527,7 @@ the total force due to the first face itself; hence the force per unit of area with which the faces would press against each other if in contact is</p> -<p class="center">P = (B − 2πI) I = 2πI + HI = (B − H) / 8π.</p> +<p class="center">P = (B − 2πI) I = 2πI² + HI = (B² − H²) / 8π.</p> <p class="noind">The width of the gap may be diminished until it is no greater than the distance between two neighbouring molecules, when it will @@ -14580,7 +14541,7 @@ will therefore be subject to a compressive longitudinal stress P, the associated contraction R, expressed as a fraction of the original length, being</p> -<p class="center">R = P / M = (B − H) / 8πM,</p> +<p class="center">R = P / M = (B² − H²) / 8πM,</p> <p class="noind">where M is Young’s modulus. This was found to be insufficient to account for the whole of the retraction exhibited by iron in strong @@ -14812,7 +14773,7 @@ be in accord with theory.</p> <p>The relations of torsion to magnetization were first carefully studied by G. Wiedemann, whose researches are described in -his <i>Elektricitt</i>, iii. 671. The most interesting of his discoveries, +his <i>Elektricität</i>, iii. 671. The most interesting of his discoveries, now generally known as the “Wiedemann effect,” is the following: If we magnetize longitudinally a straight wire which is fixed at one end and free at the other, and then pass @@ -14839,7 +14800,7 @@ moderate longitudinal magnetization has been called by Knott a <i>positive</i> Wiedemann effect; if the twist were reversed, the other conditions remaining the same, the sign of the Wiedemann effect would be <i>negative</i>. An explanation of the twist has been given -by Maxwell (<i>Electricity and Magnetism</i>, 448). The wire is +by Maxwell (<i>Electricity and Magnetism</i>, § 448). The wire is subject to two superposed magnetizations, the one longitudinal, the other circular, due to the current traversing the wire; the resultant magnetization is consequently in the direction of a @@ -15021,18 +14982,18 @@ entirely disappears, the permeability falling to about 1.14. For strong magnetizing forces (which in these experiments did not exceed H = 48.9) the permeability remains almost constant at its initial value (about 400), until the temperature is within nearly -100 of the critical point; then the permeability diminishes more +100° of the critical point; then the permeability diminishes more and more rapidly until the critical point is reached and the magnetization vanishes. Steel behaves in a similar manner, but the maximum permeability is not so high as in iron, and the fall, when the critical point is approached, is less abrupt. The critical temperature for various samples of iron and steel -ranges from 690 C. to 870 C.; it is the temperature at which +ranges from 690° C. to 870° C.; it is the temperature at which Barrett’s “recalescence” occurs. The critical temperature for the specimen of nickel examined (which contained nearly 5% -of impurities) was 310 C. F. Lydall and A. W. Pocklington +of impurities) was 310° C. F. Lydall and A. W. Pocklington found that the critical temperature of nearly pure iron was -874 C. (<i>Proc. Roy. Soc.</i>, 1893, 52, 228).</p> +874° C. (<i>Proc. Roy. Soc.</i>, 1893, 52, 228).</p> <p>An exhaustive research into the effects of heating on the magnetic properties of iron has been carried out by D. K. Morris @@ -15046,7 +15007,7 @@ or fusion. A third platinum coil, wound non-inductively between the primary and the secondary, served to carry the current by which the ring was heated; a current of 4.6 amperes, with 16 volts across the terminals, was found sufficient to maintain the -ring at a temperature of 1150 C. In the ring itself was embedded +ring at a temperature of 1150° C. In the ring itself was embedded a platinum-thermometer wire, from the resistance of which the temperature was determined. The whole was wrapped in several coverings of asbestos and placed in a glass vessel from which @@ -15059,21 +15020,21 @@ taken to guard against oxidation of the iron.</p> <div class="condensed"> <p>Some preliminary experiments showed the striking difference in -the effects of annealing at a red heat (840 C.) and at a low white -heat (1150 C). After +the effects of annealing at a red heat (840° C.) and at a low white +heat (1150° C). After one of the rings had -been annealed at 840, +been annealed at 840°, its maximum permeability at ordinary temperatures was 4000 for H = 1.84; when it had been subsequently annealed -at 1150, the +at 1150°, the maximum permeability rose to 4680 for H = 1.48, while the hysteresis loss for -B= 4000 was under +B= ±4000 was under 500 ergs per c.cm. As regards the effects of temperature, Morris’s @@ -15084,19 +15045,19 @@ the relation of induction to magnetic field at various temperatures, and of permeability to temperature with fields of different intensities, are given in figs. 27 and 28. The most striking feature presented by these is the enormous value, 12,660, which, with H = 0.153, is -attained by the permeability at 765 C., followed by a drop so precipitous -that when the temperature is only 15 higher, the value +attained by the permeability at 765° C., followed by a drop so precipitous +that when the temperature is only 15° higher, the value of the permeability has become quite insignificant. The critical -temperatures for three different specimens of iron were 795, -780, and 770 respectively. Above these temperatures the little +temperatures for three different specimens of iron were 795°, +780°, and 770° respectively. Above these temperatures the little permeability that remained was found to be independent of the magnetizing force, but it appeared to vary a little with the temperature, one specimen showing a permeability of 100 at -820, 2.3 at 950, and -17 at 1050. These last +820°, 2.3 at 950°, and +17 at 1050°. These last observations are, however, regarded as uncertain. The effects of temperature @@ -15112,7 +15073,7 @@ greatly the hysteresis loss is diminished as the critical temperature is approached. The coercive -force at 764.5 is +force at 764°.5 is stated to have been little more than 0.1 C.G.S. unit; above the critical temperature no evidence of hysteresis could @@ -15123,9 +15084,9 @@ be obtained.</p> <tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 28.</span></td></tr></table> <table class="ws" summary="Contents"> -<tr><td class="tcc" colspan="4">Hysteresis Loss in Ergs per c.cm. Max. H. = 6.83.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc" colspan="4">Hysteresis Loss in Ergs per c.cm. Max. H. = ±6.83.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcc bb">Temp. C.</td> <td class="tcc bb">Ergs.</td> <td class="tcc bb">Temp. C.</td> <td class="tcc bb">Ergs.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc bb">Temp. C.°</td> <td class="tcc bb">Ergs.</td> <td class="tcc bb">Temp. C.°</td> <td class="tcc bb">Ergs.</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcc"> 764.5</td> <td class="tcc rb">120</td> <td class="tcc">457</td> <td class="tcc">2025</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcc">748</td> <td class="tcc rb">328</td> <td class="tcc">352</td> <td class="tcc">2565</td></tr> @@ -15146,33 +15107,33 @@ thermo-junction in contact with the metal. Experiments were made at several constant temperatures with varying magnetic fields, and also at constant fields with rising and falling temperatures. For ordinary steel the critical temperature, at which magnetization -practically disappeared, was found to be about 830, and the curious +practically disappeared, was found to be about 830°, and the curious fact was revealed that, on cooling, magnetization did not begin to -reappear until the temperature had fallen 40 below the critical +reappear until the temperature had fallen 40° below the critical value. This retardation was still more pronounced in the case of -tungsten-steel, which lost its magnetism at 910 and remained non-magnetic -till it was cooled to 570, a difference of 240. For nearly +tungsten-steel, which lost its magnetism at 910° and remained non-magnetic +till it was cooled to 570°, a difference of 240°. For nearly pure nickel the corresponding temperature-difference was about -100. This phenomenon is of the same nature as that first discovered +100°. This phenomenon is of the same nature as that first discovered by J. Hopkinson for nickel-steel. The paper contains tables and curves showing details of the magnetic changes, sometimes very complex, at different temperatures and with different fields. The behaviour of cobalt is particularly noticeable; its permeability -increased with rising temperature up to a maximum at 500, when it -was about twice as great as at ordinary temperatures, while at 1600, +increased with rising temperature up to a maximum at 500°, when it +was about twice as great as at ordinary temperatures, while at 1600°, corresponding to white heat, there was still some magnetization remaining.</p> <p>Further contributions to the subject have been made by K. Honda and S. Shimizu,<a name="fa51f" id="fa51f" href="#ft51f"><span class="sp">51</span></a> who experimented at temperatures ranging from --186 to 1200. As regards the higher temperatures, the chief point +-186° to 1200°. As regards the higher temperatures, the chief point of interest is the observation that the curve of magnetization for -annealed cobalt shows a small depression at about 450, the temperature +annealed cobalt shows a small depression at about 450°, the temperature at which they had found the sign of the length-change to be reversed for all fields. In the case of all the metals tested a small but measurable trace of magnetization remained after the so-called critical temperature had been exceeded; this decreased very slightly -up to the highest temperature reached (1200) without undergoing +up to the highest temperature reached (1200°) without undergoing any such variation as had been suspected by Morris. When the curve after its steep descent has almost reached the axis, it bends aside sharply and becomes a nearly horizontal straight line; the @@ -15180,7 +15141,7 @@ authors suggest that the critical temperature should be defined as that corresponding to the point of maximum curvature. As thus defined the critical temperatures for iron, nickel and cobalt were <span class="pagenum"><a name="page344" id="page344"></a>344</span> -found to be 780, 360 and 1090 respectively, but these values are +found to be 780°, 360° and 1090° respectively, but these values are not quite independent of the magnetizing force.</p> <p>Experiments on the effect of high temperatures have also been @@ -15191,8 +15152,8 @@ R. L. Wills,<a name="fa56f" id="fa56f" href="#ft56f"><span class="sp">56</span>< <p><i>Low Temperature.</i>—J. A. Fleming and J. Dewar (<i>Proc. Roy. Soc.</i>, 1896, 60, 81) were the first to experiment on the permeability and hysteresis of iron at low temperatures down to that of liquid -air (−186 C.). Induction curves of an annealed soft-iron ring -were taken first at a temperature of 15 C., and afterwards when +air (−186° C.). Induction curves of an annealed soft-iron ring +were taken first at a temperature of 15° C., and afterwards when the ring was immersed in liquid air, the magnetizing force ranging from about 0.8 to 22. After this operation had been repeated a few times the iron was found to have acquired @@ -15200,12 +15161,12 @@ a stable condition, and the curves corresponding to the two temperatures became perfectly definite. They showed that the permeability of this sample of iron was considerably diminished at the lower temperature. The maximum permeability -(for H = 2) was 3400 at 15 and only 2700 at −186, a reduction +(for H = 2) was 3400 at 15° and only 2700 at −186°, a reduction of more than 20%; but the percentage reduction became less as the magnetizing force departed from the value corresponding to maximum permeability. Observations were also made of the changes of permeability which took place as the temperature -of the sample slowly rose from −186 to 15, the magnetizing +of the sample slowly rose from −186° to 15°, the magnetizing force being kept constant throughout an experiment. The values of the permeability corresponding to the highest and lowest temperatures are given in the following table. Most @@ -15214,15 +15175,15 @@ towards the axis of temperature, and in all the experiments, except those with annealed iron and steel wire, the permeability was greatest at the lowest temperature.<a name="fa59f" id="fa59f" href="#ft59f"><span class="sp">59</span></a> The hysteresis of the soft annealed iron turned out to be sensibly the same for -equal values of the induction at −186 as at 15, the loss in ergs +equal values of the induction at −186° as at 15°, the loss in ergs per c.cm. per cycle being approximately represented by 0.002 B<span class="su">1.56</span> -when the maximum limits of B were 9000. Experiments +when the maximum limits of B were ±9000. Experiments with the sample of unannealed iron failed to give satisfactory results, owing to the fact that no constant magnetic condition could be obtained.</p> <table class="ws f90" summary="Contents"> -<tr><td class="tcc allb">Sample of Iron.</td> <td class="tcc allb">H.</td> <td class="tcc allb">μ at 15.</td> <td class="tcc allb">μ at −186.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc allb">Sample of Iron.</td> <td class="tcc allb">H.</td> <td class="tcc allb">μ at 15°.</td> <td class="tcc allb">μ at −186°.</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Annealed Swedish</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.77</td> <td class="tcc rb">2835</td> <td class="tcc rb">2332</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Unannealed ”</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.78</td> <td class="tcc rb">  917</td> <td class="tcc rb">1272</td></tr> @@ -15240,7 +15201,7 @@ could be obtained.</p> of liquid air, employing a much wider range of magnetizing forces (up to about 700 C.G.S.) and testing a greater variety of metals. They found that the permeability of Swedish iron, tungsten-steel -and nickel, when the metals were cooled to −186, was diminished +and nickel, when the metals were cooled to −186°, was diminished in weak fields but increased in strong ones, the field in which the effect of cooling changed its sign being 115 for iron and steel and 580 for nickel. The permeability of cobalt, both annealed and @@ -15248,7 +15209,7 @@ unannealed, was always diminished at the low temperature. The hysteresis-loss in Swedish iron was decreased for inductions below about 9000 and increased for higher inductions; in tungsten-steel, nickel and cobalt the hysteresis-loss was always increased by cooling. -The range of B within which Steinmetz’s formula is applicable +The range of ±B within which Steinmetz’s formula is applicable becomes notably increased at low temperature. It may be remarked that, whereas Fleming and Dewar employed the ballistic method, their specimens having the form of rings, Honda and Shimizu @@ -15260,7 +15221,7 @@ also investigated the changes which occurred in permanently magnetized metals when cooled to the temperature of liquid air. The metals, which were prepared in the form of small rods, were magnetized between the poles of an electromagnet and tested -with a magnetometer at temperatures of −186 and 15. The +with a magnetometer at temperatures of −186° and 15°. The first immersion into liquid air generally produced a permanent decrease of magnetic moment, and there was sometimes a further decrease when the metal was warmed up again; but @@ -15269,13 +15230,13 @@ became definite and cyclic. When the permanent magnetic condition had been thus established, it was found that in the case of all the metals, except the two alloys containing large percentages of nickel, the magnetic moment was temporarily -increased by cooling to −186. The following table shows the +increased by cooling to −186°. The following table shows the principal results. It is suggested that a permanent magnet might conveniently be “aged” (or brought into a constant condition) by dipping it several times into liquid air.</p> <table class="ws f90" summary="Contents"> -<tr><td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">Metal.</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="2">Percentage Gain or Loss<br />of Moment at −186 C.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">Metal.</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="2">Percentage Gain or Loss<br />of Moment at −186° C.</td></tr> <tr><td class="tccm allb">First Effect.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Cyclic Effect.</td></tr> @@ -15314,7 +15275,7 @@ any value of H). If, however, this non-magnetic substance is cooled to a temperature a few degrees below freezing-point, it becomes as strongly magnetic as average cast-iron (μ = 62 for H = 40), and retains its magnetic properties indefinitely at ordinary -temperatures. But if the alloy is heated up to 580 C. it loses +temperatures. But if the alloy is heated up to 580° C. it loses its susceptibility—rather suddenly when H is weak, more gradually when H is strong—and remains non-magnetizable till it is once more cooled down below the freezing-point. This material @@ -15515,7 +15476,7 @@ been furnished by Carl Barus (<i>Terrestrial Magnetism</i>, 1897, 2, 11) for the preparation of magnets calculated to withstand the effects of time, percussion and ordinary temperature variations. The metal, having first been uniformly tempered glass-hard, -should be annealed in steam at 100 C. for twenty or thirty +should be annealed in steam at 100° C. for twenty or thirty hours; it should then be magnetized to saturation, and finally “aged” by a second immersion in steam for about five hours.</p> @@ -15552,11 +15513,11 @@ critical temperatures which vary greatly for the three metals, and it was suspected by Faraday<a name="fa73f" id="fa73f" href="#ft73f"><span class="sp">73</span></a> as early as 1845 that manganese might really be a ferromagnetic metal having a critical temperature much below the ordinary temperature of the air. He -therefore cooled a piece of the metal to −105 C., the lowest +therefore cooled a piece of the metal to −105° C., the lowest temperature then attainable, but failed to produce any change in its magnetic quality. The critical temperature (if there is one) was not reached in Faraday’s experiment; possibly even the -temperature of −250 C., which by the use of liquid hydrogen +temperature of −250° C., which by the use of liquid hydrogen has now become accessible, might still be too high.<a name="fa74f" id="fa74f" href="#ft74f"><span class="sp">74</span></a> But it has been shown that the critical temperatures of iron and nickel may be changed by the addition of certain other substances. @@ -15617,21 +15578,21 @@ bismuth wire prepared by Hartmann and Braun; this was placed between the pole-pieces of an electromagnet and subjected to fields of various strengths up to nearly 39,000 units. At constant temperature the resistance increased with the field; the changes in the resistance -of the spiral when the temperature was 18 C. are indicated in +of the spiral when the temperature was 18° C. are indicated in the annexed table, from which it will be seen that in the strongest transverse field reached the resistance was increased more than threefold. Other experiments showed the relation of resistance -to temperature (from 0 to about 90) in different constant fields. +to temperature (from 0° to about 90°) in different constant fields. It appears that as the temperature rises the resistance decreases to a minimum and then increases, the minimum point occurring at a higher temperature the stronger the field. For H = 11,500 the -temperature of minimum resistance was about 50; for much lower +temperature of minimum resistance was about 50°; for much lower or higher values of H the actual minimum did not occur within the range of temperature dealt with. Dewar and Fleming (<i>Proc. Roy. Soc.</i>, 1897, 60, 425) worked with a similar specimen of bismuth, -and their results for a constant temperature of 19 agree well with +and their results for a constant temperature of 19° agree well with those of Henderson. They also experimented with constant temperatures -of −79, −185 and −203, and found that at these low +of −79°, −185° and −203°, and found that at these low temperatures the effect of magnetization was enormously increased. The following table gives some of their results, the specific resistance of the bismuth being expressed in C.G.S. units.</p> @@ -15645,7 +15606,7 @@ of the bismuth being expressed in C.G.S. units.</p> </table> <table class="ws" summary="Contents"> -<tr><td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">Field<br />Strength.</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="2">Temp. 19C.</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="2">Temp. −185C.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">Field<br />Strength.</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="2">Temp. 19°C.</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="2">Temp. −185°C.</td></tr> <tr><td class="tccm allb">Spec. Res.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Comp. Res.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Spec. Res.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Comp. Res.</td></tr> @@ -15657,12 +15618,12 @@ of the bismuth being expressed in C.G.S. units.</p> <tr><td class="tcr lb rb bb">21800</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">257000</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">2.212</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">6190000</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">151   </td></tr> </table> -<p class="noind">At the temperature of liquid air (−185) the application of a field +<p class="noind">At the temperature of liquid air (−185°) the application of a field of 21,800 multiplied the resistance of the bismuth no less than 150 times. Fig. 29 shows the variations of resistance in relation to temperature for fields of different constant values. It will be seen that for H = 2450 and H = 5500 the minimum resistance occurs at -temperatures of about −80 and −7 respectively.</p> +temperatures of about −80° and −7° respectively.</p> </div> <p><i>Hall Effect.</i>—If an electric current is passed along a strip @@ -15699,7 +15660,7 @@ Rev.</i>, 1904, 18, 370) in the electric arc.</p> <tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 29</td></tr></table> <table class="ws f90" summary="Contents"> -<tr><td class="tcc bb">Metal.</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">K 10<span class="sp">15</span></td> <td class="tcc bb">Metal.</td> <td class="tcc bb">K 10<span class="sp">15</span></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc bb">Metal.</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">K × 10<span class="sp">15</span></td> <td class="tcc bb">Metal.</td> <td class="tcc bb">K × 10<span class="sp">15</span></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl">Antimony</td> <td class="tcr rb">+114000</td> <td class="tcl">Copper</td> <td class="tcr">−520</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl">Steel</td> <td class="tcr rb">+12060</td> <td class="tcl">Gold</td> <td class="tcr">−660</td></tr> @@ -15859,7 +15820,7 @@ the plates.</p> <div class="condensed"> <p>As to whether the magnetized plate becomes positive or negative to the other, different experimenters are not in agreement. It has, -however, been shown by Dragomir Hurmuzescu (<i>Rap. du Congrs +however, been shown by Dragomir Hurmuzescu (<i>Rap. du Congrès Int. de Phys.</i>, Paris, 1900, p. 561) that the true effect of magnetization is liable to be disguised by secondary or parasitic phenomena, arising chiefly from polarization of the electrodes and from local variations @@ -15885,7 +15846,7 @@ of internal energy, he demonstrates that for iron in a field of <table class="math0" summary="math"> <tr><td rowspan="2">E =</td> <td>l</td> -<td rowspan="2"></td> <td>I</td> +<td rowspan="2">·</td> <td>I²</td> </tr> <tr><td class="denom">δ</td> <td class="denom">2κ</td></tr></table> @@ -15909,16 +15870,16 @@ by T. Andrews (<i>Proc. Roy. Soc.</i>, 1890, 48, 116).</p> magnetic susceptibility of water:—</p> <table class="ws f90" summary="Contents"> -<tr><td class="tcc bb">Observer.</td> <td class="tcc bb">κ 10<span class="sp">6</span>.</td> <td class="tcc bb">Publication.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl">G. Quincke</td> <td class="tcl">−0.797 at 18 C.</td> <td class="tcl"><i>Wied. Ann.</i>, 1885, 24, 387.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl">H. du Bois</td> <td class="tcl">−0.837 (1 − 0.0025t − 15)</td> <td class="tcl"><i>Wied. Ann.</i>, 1888, 35, 137.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl">P. Curie</td> <td class="tcl">−0.790 at 4 C.</td> <td class="tcl"><i>C. R.</i>, 1893, 116, 136.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc bb">Observer.</td> <td class="tcc bb">κ × 10<span class="sp">6</span>.</td> <td class="tcc bb">Publication.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">G. Quincke</td> <td class="tcl">−0.797 at 18° C.</td> <td class="tcl"><i>Wied. Ann.</i>, 1885, 24, 387.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">H. du Bois</td> <td class="tcl">−0.837 (1 − 0.0025t − 15°)</td> <td class="tcl"><i>Wied. Ann.</i>, 1888, 35, 137.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">P. Curie</td> <td class="tcl">−0.790 at 4° C.</td> <td class="tcl"><i>C. R.</i>, 1893, 116, 136.</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl">J. Townsend</td> <td class="tcl">−0.77</td> <td class="tcl"><i>Phil. Trans.</i>, 1896, 187, 544.</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl">J. A. Fleming and J. Dewar</td> <td class="tcl">−0.74</td> <td class="tcl"><i>Proc. Roy. Soc.</i>, 1898, 63, 311.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl">G. Jger and S. Meyer 707.</td> <td class="tcl">−0.689(1 − 0.0016t)</td> <td class="tcl"><i>Wied. Ann.</i>, 1899, 67,</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl">J. Koenigsberger</td> <td class="tcl">−0.781 at 22 C.</td> <td class="tcl"><i>Ann. d. Phys.</i>, 1901, 6, 506.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl">H. D. Stearns</td> <td class="tcl">−0.733 at 22 C.</td> <td class="tcl"><i>Phys. Rev.</i>, 1903, 16, 1.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl">A. P. Wills</td> <td class="tcl">−0.720 at 18 C.</td> <td class="tcl"><i>Phys. Rev.</i>, 1905, 20, 188.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">G. Jäger and S. Meyer 707.</td> <td class="tcl">−0.689(1 − 0.0016t)</td> <td class="tcl"><i>Wied. Ann.</i>, 1899, 67,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">J. Koenigsberger</td> <td class="tcl">−0.781 at 22° C.</td> <td class="tcl"><i>Ann. d. Phys.</i>, 1901, 6, 506.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">H. D. Stearns</td> <td class="tcl">−0.733 at 22° C.</td> <td class="tcl"><i>Phys. Rev.</i>, 1903, 16, 1.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">A. P. Wills</td> <td class="tcl">−0.720 at 18° C.</td> <td class="tcl"><i>Phys. Rev.</i>, 1905, 20, 188.</td></tr> </table> <p>Wills found that the <span class="correction" title="amended from suceptibility">susceptibility</span> was constant in fields @@ -15927,28 +15888,28 @@ ranging from 4200 to 15,000.</p> <p><i>Oxygen and Air.</i>—The best modern determinations of the value of κ for gaseous oxygen agree very fairly well with that given by Faraday in 1853 (<i>Exp. Res.</i> III, 502). Assuming -that for water κ = −0.8 10<span class="sp">−6</span>, his value of κ for oxygen at -15 C. reduces to 0.15 10<span class="sp">−6</span>. Important experiments on the +that for water κ = −0.8 × 10<span class="sp">−6</span>, his value of κ for oxygen at +15° C. reduces to 0.15 × 10<span class="sp">−6</span>. Important experiments on the susceptibility of oxygen at different pressures and temperatures were carried out by P. Curie (<i>C.R.</i> 1892, 115, 805; 1893, 116, 136). <i>Journ. de Phys.</i>, 1895, 4, 204. He found that the susceptibility for unit of mass, K, was independent of both pressure and magnetizing force, but varied inversely as the absolute temperature, θ, so that 10<span class="sp">6</span>K = 33700/θ. Since the mass of 1 cub. cm. of -oxygen at 0 C. and 760 mm. pressure is 0.00141 grm., the mass at -any absolute temperature θ is by Charles’s law 0.00141 273θ = +oxygen at 0° C. and 760 mm. pressure is 0.00141 grm., the mass at +any absolute temperature θ is by Charles’s law 0.00141 × 273θ = 0.3849/θ grm.; hence the susceptibility per unit of volume at 760 mm. will be</p> -<p class="center">κ = 10<span class="sp">−6</span> 0.3849 33700 / θ<br /> -  = 10<span class="sp">−6</span> 12970 / θ.</p> +<p class="center">κ = 10<span class="sp">−6</span> × 0.3849 × 33700 / θ²<br /> +  = 10<span class="sp">−6</span> × 12970 / θ².</p> -<p class="noind">At 15 C. θ = 273 + 15 = 288, and therefore κ = 0.156 10<span class="sp">-6</span>, -nearly the same as the value found by Faraday. At 0 C., -κ = 0.174 10<span class="sp">-6</span>. For air Curie calculated that the susceptibility +<p class="noind">At 15° C. θ = 273 + 15 = 288, and therefore κ = 0.156 × 10<span class="sp">-6</span>, +nearly the same as the value found by Faraday. At 0° C., +κ = 0.174 × 10<span class="sp">-6</span>. For air Curie calculated that the susceptibility per unit mass was 10<span class="sp">6</span>K = 7830/θ; or, taking the -mass of 1 c.c. of air at 0 C. and 760 mm. as 0.001291 -grm., κ = 10<span class="sp">−6</span> 2760/θ for air at standard atmospheric +mass of 1 c.c. of air at 0° C. and 760 mm. as 0.001291 +grm., κ = 10<span class="sp">−6</span> × 2760/θ² for air at standard atmospheric pressure. It is pointed out that this formula may be used as a temperature correction in magnetic determinations carried out in air.</p> @@ -15956,9 +15917,9 @@ correction in magnetic determinations carried out in air.</p> oxygen (<i>Proc. Roy. Soc.</i>, 1896, 60, 283; 1898, 63, 311) by two different methods. In the first experiments it was calculated from observations of the mutual induction of two conducting circuits -in air and in the liquid; the results for oxygen at −182 C. were</p> +in air and in the liquid; the results for oxygen at −182° C. were</p> -<p class="center">μ = 1.00287, κ = 228 10<span class="sp">−6</span>.</p> +<p class="center">μ = 1.00287, κ = 228 × 10<span class="sp">−6</span>.</p> <p class="noind">In the second series, to which greater importance is attached, measurements were made of the force exerted in a divergent @@ -15966,7 +15927,7 @@ field upon small balls of copper, silver and other substances, first when the balls were in air and afterwards when they were immersed in liquid oxygen. If V is the volume of a ball, H the strength of the field at its centre, and κ′ its apparent susceptibility, -the force in the direction x is ƒ = κ′VH dH/dx; and if κ′<span class="su">a</span> +the force in the direction x is ƒ = κ′VH × dH/dx; and if κ′<span class="su">a</span> and κ′<span class="su">0</span> are the apparent susceptibilities of the same ball in air and in liquid oxygen, κ′<span class="su">a</span> − κ′<span class="su">0</span> is equal to the difference between the susceptibilities of the two media. The susceptibility of air @@ -15974,7 +15935,7 @@ being known—practically it was negligible in these experiments—that of liquid oxygen can at once be found. The mean of 36 experiments with 7 balls gave</p> -<p class="center">μ = 1.00407, κ = 324 10<span class="sp">−6</span>.</p> +<p class="center">μ = 1.00407, κ = 324 × 10<span class="sp">−6</span>.</p> <p class="noind">A small but decided tendency to a decrease of susceptibility in very strong fields was observed. It appears, therefore, @@ -15989,30 +15950,30 @@ commonly spoken of as non-magnetizable.</p> <p><i>Bismuth.</i>—Bismuth is of special interest, as being the most strongly diamagnetic substance known, the mean value of the -best determinations of its susceptibility being about −14 10<span class="sp">-6</span> +best determinations of its susceptibility being about −14 × 10<span class="sp">-6</span> (see G. Meslin, <i>C. R.</i>, 1905, 140, 449). The magnetic properties of the metal at different temperatures and in fields up to 1350 units have been studied by P. Curie (<i>loc. cit.</i>), who found that its “specific susceptibility” (K) was independent of the strength of the field, but decreased with rise of temperature up to the -melting-point, 273C. His results appear to show the relation</p> +melting-point, 273°C. His results appear to show the relation</p> -<p class="center">−Κ 10<span class="sp">6</span> = 1.381 − 0.00155t.</p> +<p class="center">−Κ × 10<span class="sp">6</span> = 1.381 − 0.00155t°.</p> <p class="noind">Assuming the density of Bi to be 9.8, and neglecting corrections -for heat dilatation, his value for the susceptibility at 20C. -is equivalent to κ = −13.23 10<span class="sp">−6</span>. As the temperature was -raised up to 273, κ gradually fell to −9.38 10<span class="sp">−6</span>, rising -suddenly when fusion occurred to −0.37 10<span class="sp">−6</span>, at which +for heat dilatation, his value for the susceptibility at 20°C. +is equivalent to κ = −13.23 × 10<span class="sp">−6</span>. As the temperature was +raised up to 273°, κ gradually fell to −9.38 × 10<span class="sp">−6</span>, rising +suddenly when fusion occurred to −0.37 × 10<span class="sp">−6</span>, at which value it remained constant when the fluid metal was further heated. Fleming and Dewar give for the susceptibility the -values −13.7 10<span class="sp">−6</span> at 15C. and −15.9 10<span class="sp">-6</span> at −182, the -latter being approximately equivalent to Κ 10<span class="sp">6</span> = −1.62. -Putting t = −182 in the equation given above for Curie’s -results, we get Κ 10<span class="sp">6</span> = −1.66, a value sufficiently near that +values −13.7 × 10<span class="sp">−6</span> at 15°C. and −15.9 × 10<span class="sp">-6</span> at −182°, the +latter being approximately equivalent to Κ × 10<span class="sp">6</span> = −1.62. +Putting t° = −182 in the equation given above for Curie’s +results, we get Κ × 10<span class="sp">6</span> = −1.66, a value sufficiently near that obtained by Fleming and Dewar to suggest the probability that the diamagnetic susceptibility varies inversely as the temperature -between −182 and the melting-point.</p> +between −182° and the melting-point.</p> <p><i>Other Diamagnetics.</i>—The following table gives Curie’s determinations (<i>Journ. de Phys.</i>, 1895, 4, 204) of the specific @@ -16020,13 +15981,13 @@ susceptibility Κ of other diamagnetic substances at different temperatures. It should be noted that Κ = κ/density.</p> <table class="ws f90" summary="Contents"> -<tr><td class="tcc bb">Substance</td> <td class="tcc bb">Temp. C.</td> <td class="tcc bb">−Κ 10<span class="sp">6</span>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc bb">Substance</td> <td class="tcc bb">Temp. °C.</td> <td class="tcc bb">−Κ × 10<span class="sp">6</span>.</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl">Water</td> <td class="tcl"> 15-189</td> <td class="tcc">0.790</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl">Rock salt</td> <td class="tcl"> 16-455</td> <td class="tcc">0.580</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl">Potassium chloride</td> <td class="tcl"> 18-465</td> <td class="tcc">0.550</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl">Potassium sulphate</td> <td class="tcl"> 17-460</td> <td class="tcc">0.430</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl">Potassium nitrate (fusion 350)</td> <td class="tcl"> 18-420</td> <td class="tcc">0.330</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Potassium nitrate (fusion 350°)</td> <td class="tcl"> 18-420</td> <td class="tcc">0.330</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl">Quartz</td> <td class="tcl"> 18-430</td> <td class="tcc">0.441</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl">Sulphur, solid or fused</td> <td class="tcl"> 18-225</td> <td class="tcc">0.510</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl">Selenium, solid or fused</td> <td class="tcl"> 20-200</td> <td class="tcc">0.320</td></tr> @@ -16051,7 +16012,7 @@ the value of Κ was found to be independent of the temperature.</p> solutions of salts of iron is independent of the magnetizing force, and depends only on the quantity of iron contained in unit volume of the liquid. If W is the weight of iron present -per c.c. at about 10C., then for ferric salts</p> +per c.c. at about 10°C., then for ferric salts</p> <p class="center">10<span class="sp">6</span>κ = 266W − 0.77</p> @@ -16072,17 +16033,17 @@ examined, w being the weight of the salt per c.c. of the solution.</p> </table> <p class="noind">Susceptibility was found to diminish greatly with rise of temperature. -According to G. Jger and S. Meyer (<i>Wien. Akad. Sitz.</i>, +According to G. Jäger and S. Meyer (<i>Wien. Akad. Sitz.</i>, 1897, 106, II. <i>a</i>, p. 623, and 1898, 107, II. <i>a</i>, p. 5) the atomic susceptibilities k of the metals nickel, chromium, iron, cobalt and manganese in solutions of their salts are as follows:—</p> <table class="ws f90" summary="Contents"> -<tr><td class="tcc bb">Metal.</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">k 10<span class="sp">6</span></td> <td class="tcc bb">Metal.</td> <td class="tcc bb">k 10<span class="sp">6</span>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc bb">Metal.</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">k × 10<span class="sp">6</span></td> <td class="tcc bb">Metal.</td> <td class="tcc bb">k × 10<span class="sp">6</span>.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl">Ni</td> <td class="tcl rb">4.95 = 2.5 2</td> <td class="tcl">Co</td> <td class="tcl">10.0 = 2.5 4</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl">Cr</td> <td class="tcl rb">6.25 = 2.5 2.5</td> <td class="tcl">Fe(2)</td> <td class="tcl">12.5 = 2.5 5</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl">Fe(1)</td> <td class="tcl rb">7.5 = 2.5 3</td> <td class="tcl">Mn</td> <td class="tcl">15.0 = 2.5 6</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Ni</td> <td class="tcl rb">4.95 = 2.5 × 2</td> <td class="tcl">Co</td> <td class="tcl">10.0 = 2.5 × 4</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Cr</td> <td class="tcl rb">6.25 = 2.5 × 2.5</td> <td class="tcl">Fe(2)</td> <td class="tcl">12.5 = 2.5 × 5</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Fe(1)</td> <td class="tcl rb">7.5 = 2.5 × 3</td> <td class="tcl">Mn</td> <td class="tcl">15.0 = 2.5 × 6</td></tr> </table> <p class="noind">Fe(1) is iron contained in FeCl<span class="su">2</span> and Fe(2) iron contained in @@ -16101,7 +16062,7 @@ been determined by J. Koenigsberger (<i>Wied. Ann.</i>, 1898, 66, 698) are the following elements:—</p> <table class="ws f90" summary="Contents"> -<tr><td class="tcc bb">Element.</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">κ 10<span class="sp">6</span>.</td> <td class="tcc bb">Element.</td> <td class="tcc bb">κ 10<span class="sp">6</span>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc bb">Element.</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">κ × 10<span class="sp">6</span>.</td> <td class="tcc bb">Element.</td> <td class="tcc bb">κ × 10<span class="sp">6</span>.</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl">Copper</td> <td class="tcc rb">−0.82</td> <td class="tcl">Tellurium</td> <td class="tcl">− 2.10</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl">Silver</td> <td class="tcc rb">−1.51</td> <td class="tcl">Graphite</td> <td class="tcl">+ 2</td></tr> @@ -16127,7 +16088,7 @@ but much more complete, have been published by S. Meyer have filled up many previously existing gaps. The values assigned to the atomic susceptibilities of most of the known elements are appended. According to the notation adopted by Meyer the -atomic susceptibility k = κ atomic-weight / (density 1000).</p> +atomic susceptibility k = κ × atomic-weight / (density × 1000).</p> <div class="condensed"> <p>Meyer thinks that the susceptibilities of the metals praseodymium, @@ -16143,7 +16104,7 @@ are those of O. Liebknecht and A. P. Wills (<i>Ann. d. Phys.</i>, 1900, 1, 178), H. du Bois and O. Liebknecht (ibid. p. 189), and Meyer (ibid. p. 668). An excellent summary regarding the magnetic properties of matter, with many tables and references, has been -compiled by du Bois (<i>Report to the Congrs Int. de Phys.</i>, Paris, +compiled by du Bois (<i>Report to the Congrès Int. de Phys.</i>, Paris, 1900, ii. 460).</p> </div> @@ -16156,15 +16117,15 @@ compiled by du Bois (<i>Report to the Congrs Int. de Phys.</i>, Paris, <tr><td class="tcl lb">N</td> <td class="tcl rb" colspan="2"> ?</td> <td class="tcl">Ge</td> <td class="tcl rb">−</td> <td class="tcl">Ce</td> <td class="tcl rb" colspan="2">+34.0</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl lb">O</td> <td class="tcl rb" colspan="2">+</td> <td class="tcl">As</td> <td class="tcc rb">?</td> <td class="tcl">Pr</td> <td class="tcl">+</td> <td class="tclm rb cl" rowspan="4">Strong</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl lb">F</td> <td class="tcl rb" colspan="2">−0.01*</td> <td class="tcl">Se</td> <td class="tcl rb">−0.025</td> <td class="tcl">Nd</td> <td class="tcl">+</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcc lb rb" colspan="3"> </td> <td class="tcl">Br</td> <td class="tcl rb">−0.033</td> <td class="tcl">Sa</td> <td class="tcl">+</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl lb">Na</td> <td class="tcl rb" colspan="2">−0.005*</td> <td class="tcc rb" colspan="2"> </td> <td class="tcl">Gd</td> <td class="tcl">+</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl lb">Mg</td> <td class="tcl rb" colspan="2">+0.014</td> <td class="tcl">Rb</td> <td class="tcl rb">−0.02*</td> <td class="tcc rb" colspan="3"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb" colspan="3">· · · · · · · · · ·</td> <td class="tcl">Br</td> <td class="tcl rb">−0.033</td> <td class="tcl">Sa</td> <td class="tcl">+</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb">Na</td> <td class="tcl rb" colspan="2">−0.005*</td> <td class="tcc rb" colspan="2">· · · · · · · · · ·</td> <td class="tcl">Gd</td> <td class="tcl">+</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb">Mg</td> <td class="tcl rb" colspan="2">+0.014</td> <td class="tcl">Rb</td> <td class="tcl rb">−0.02*</td> <td class="tcc rb" colspan="3">· · · · · · · · · ·</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl lb">Al</td> <td class="tcl rb" colspan="2">+</td> <td class="tcl">Sr</td> <td class="tcl rb">−0.02*</td> <td class="tcl">Er</td> <td class="tcl rb" colspan="2">+41.8(?)</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl lb">Si</td> <td class="tcl rb" colspan="2">+0.002</td> <td class="tcl">Y</td> <td class="tcl rb">+3.2(?)</td> <td class="tcc rb" colspan="3"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb">Si</td> <td class="tcl rb" colspan="2">+0.002</td> <td class="tcl">Y</td> <td class="tcl rb">+3.2(?)</td> <td class="tcc rb" colspan="3">· · · · · · · · · ·</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl lb">P</td> <td class="tcl rb" colspan="2">−0.007</td> <td class="tcl">Zr</td> <td class="tcl rb">−0.014</td> <td class="tcl">Yb</td> <td class="tcl rb" colspan="2">+   (?)</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl lb">S</td> <td class="tcl rb" colspan="2">−0.011</td> <td class="tcl">Nb</td> <td class="tcl rb">+0.49(?)</td> <td class="tcl">Ta</td> <td class="tcl rb" colspan="2">+ 1.02(?)</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl lb">Cl</td> <td class="tcl rb" colspan="2">−0.02*</td> <td class="tcl">Mo</td> <td class="tcl rb">+0.024</td> <td class="tcl">W</td> <td class="tcl rb" colspan="2">+ 0.1</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcc lb rb" colspan="3"> </td> <td class="tcl">Ru</td> <td class="tcl rb">+</td> <td class="tcl">Os</td> <td class="tcl rb" colspan="2">+ 0.074</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb" colspan="3">· · · · · · · · · ·</td> <td class="tcl">Ru</td> <td class="tcl rb">+</td> <td class="tcl">Os</td> <td class="tcl rb" colspan="2">+ 0.074</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl lb">K</td> <td class="tcl rb" colspan="2">−0.001*</td> <td class="tcl">Rh</td> <td class="tcl rb">+</td> <td class="tcl">Ir</td> <td class="tcl rb" colspan="2">+</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl lb">Ca</td> <td class="tcl rb" colspan="2">−0.003*</td> <td class="tcl">Pd</td> <td class="tcl rb">+0.55</td> <td class="tcl">Pt</td> <td class="tcl rb" colspan="2">+ 0.227</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl lb">Sc</td> <td class="tcl rb" colspan="2"> ?</td> <td class="tcl">Ag</td> <td class="tcl rb">−0.016</td> <td class="tcl">Au</td> <td class="tcl rb" colspan="2">− 0.031</td></tr> @@ -16172,9 +16133,9 @@ compiled by du Bois (<i>Report to the Congrs Int. de Phys.</i>, Paris, <tr><td class="tcl lb">V</td> <td class="tcl rb" colspan="2">+0.17</td> <td class="tcl">In</td> <td class="tcl rb">+0.01*</td> <td class="tcl">Tl</td> <td class="tcl rb" colspan="2">− 0.93</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl lb">Cr</td> <td class="tcl">+</td> <td class="tclm rb bb cl" rowspan="5">Strong</td> <td class="tcl">Sn</td> <td class="tcl rb">+0.004*</td> <td class="tcl">Pb</td> <td class="tcl rb" colspan="2">− 0.025</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl lb">Mn</td> <td class="tcl">+</td> <td class="tcl">Sb</td> <td class="tcl rb">−0.069</td> <td class="tcl">Bi</td> <td class="tcl rb" colspan="2">− 0.023</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl lb">Fe</td> <td class="tcl">+</td> <td class="tcl">Te</td> <td class="tcl rb">−0.039</td> <td class="tcc rb" colspan="3"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb">Fe</td> <td class="tcl">+</td> <td class="tcl">Te</td> <td class="tcl rb">−0.039</td> <td class="tcc rb" colspan="3">· · · · · · · · · ·</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl lb">Co</td> <td class="tcl">+</td> <td class="tcl">I</td> <td class="tcl rb">−0.040</td> <td class="tcl">Th</td> <td class="tcl rb" colspan="2">+16.0(?)</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl lb bb">Ni</td> <td class="tcl bb">+</td> <td class="tcc rb bb" colspan="2"> </td> <td class="tcl bb">U</td> <td class="tcl rb bb" colspan="2">+ 0.21</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb bb">Ni</td> <td class="tcl bb">+</td> <td class="tcc rb bb" colspan="2">· · · · · · · · · ·</td> <td class="tcl bb">U</td> <td class="tcl rb bb" colspan="2">+ 0.21</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcc" colspan="8">* Calculated.</td></tr> </table> @@ -16198,7 +16159,7 @@ molecule to be acted on by a force tending to preserve it in its original direction, the position actually assumed by the axis being in the direction of the resultant of this hypothetical force and the applied magnetizing force. Maxwell (<i>Electricity -and Magnetism</i>, 444), recognizing that the theory in this +and Magnetism</i>, § 444), recognizing that the theory in this form gave no account of residual magnetization, made the further assumption that if the deflection of the axis of the molecule exceeded a certain angle, the axis would not return to @@ -16301,11 +16262,11 @@ circuit for distant points is equivalent to that of a short magnet whose axis is perpendicular to the plane of the circuit and whose moment is iS, the direction of the magnetization being related to that of the circulating current as the thrust of a right-handed -screw to its rotation. Ferromagnetism was explained by Ampre +screw to its rotation. Ferromagnetism was explained by Ampère on the hypothesis that the magnetization of the molecule is due to an electric current constantly circulating within it. The theory now most in favour is merely a development of -Ampre’s hypothesis, and applies not only to ferromagnetics, +Ampère’s hypothesis, and applies not only to ferromagnetics, but to paramagnetics as well. To account for diamagnetism, Weber supposed that there exist within the molecules of diamagnetic substances certain channels around which an electric @@ -16317,11 +16278,11 @@ direction of the field. The strength of the induced current is −HS cos θ/L, where θ is the inclination of the axis of the circuit to the direction of the field, and L the coefficient of self-induction; the resolved part of the magnetic moment in -the direction of the field is equal to −HS cos θ/L, and if there +the direction of the field is equal to −HS² cos² θ/L, and if there are n molecules in a unit of volume, their axes being distributed indifferently in all directions, the magnetization of the substance -will be −<span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">3</span>nHS/L, and its susceptibility -<span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">3</span>S/L (Maxwell, -<i>Electricity and Magnetism</i>, 838). The susceptibility is therefore +will be −<span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">3</span>nHS²/L, and its susceptibility -<span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">3</span>S²/L (Maxwell, +<i>Electricity and Magnetism</i>, § 838). The susceptibility is therefore constant and independent of the field, while its negative sign indicates that the substance is diamagnetic. There being no resistance, the induced current will continue to circulate @@ -16349,7 +16310,7 @@ has demonstrated the existence under many different conditions of particles more minute than anything previously known to science. The mass of each is about 1/1700th part of that of a hydrogen atom, and with each is indissolubly associated a charge -of negative electricity equal to about 3.1 10<span class="sp">−10</span> C.G.S. electrostatic +of negative electricity equal to about 3.1 × 10<span class="sp">−10</span> C.G.S. electrostatic unit. These particles, which were termed by their discoverer <i>corpuscles</i>, are more commonly spoken of as <i>electrons</i>,<a name="fa93f" id="fa93f" href="#ft93f"><span class="sp">93</span></a> the particle thus being identified with the charge which it carries. @@ -16394,7 +16355,7 @@ of M due to an external field H is shown to be ΔM = −He<span class=" <tr><td class="denom">M</td> <td class="denom">4π m</td></tr></table> <p class="noind">According to the best determinations the value of <i>e</i>/<i>m</i> does not -exceed 1.8 10<span class="sp">7</span>, and τ is of the order of 10<span class="sp">−15</span> second, the +exceed 1.8 × 10<span class="sp">7</span>, and τ is of the order of 10<span class="sp">−15</span> second, the period of luminous vibrations; hence ΔM/M must always be less than 10<span class="sp">−9</span>H, and therefore the strongest fields yet reached experimentally, which fall considerably short of 10<span class="sp">5</span>, could not @@ -16458,7 +16419,7 @@ like poles repel was recorded before the publication in 1581 of the work. The same book contains an account of Norman’s discovery and correct measurement of the dip (1576). The downward tendency of the north pole of a magnet pivoted in the usual -way had been observed by G. Hartmann of Nremberg in 1544, +way had been observed by G. Hartmann of Nüremberg in 1544, but his observation was not published till much later.</p> <p>The foundations of the modern science of magnetism were laid @@ -16529,7 +16490,7 @@ between two poles varies inversely as the square of the distance between them. Several previous attempts had been made to discover the law of force, with various results, some of which correctly indicated the inverse square; in particular the German -astronomer, J. Tobias Mayer (<i>Gtt. Anzeiger</i>, 1760), and the +astronomer, J. Tobias Mayer (<i>Gött. Anzeiger</i>, 1760), and the Alsatian mathematician, J. Heinrich Lambert (<i>Hist. de l’Acad. Roy. Berlin</i>, 1766, p. 22), may fairly be credited with having anticipated the law which was afterwards more satisfactorily @@ -16594,7 +16555,7 @@ an electric current tended to set itself at right angles to the wire, a phenomenon which indicated that the current was surrounded by a magnetic field. This discovery constituted the foundation of electromagnetism, and its publication in 1820 was immediately -followed by A. M. Ampre’s experimental and theoretical investigation +followed by A. M. Ampère’s experimental and theoretical investigation of the mutual action of electric currents,<a name="fa101f" id="fa101f" href="#ft101f"><span class="sp">101</span></a> and of the equivalence of a closed circuit to a polar magnet, the latter suggesting his celebrated hypothesis that molecular currents were @@ -16623,7 +16584,7 @@ of “lines of force,” or of induction, which he considered to be “closed curves passing in one part of the course through the magnet to which they belong, and in the other part through space,” always tending to shorten themselves, and repelling one -another when they were side by side (<i>Exp. Res.</i> 3266-8, +another when they were side by side (<i>Exp. Res.</i> §§ 3266-8, 3271). In 1873 James Clerk Maxwell published his classical <i>Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism</i>, in which Faraday’s ideas were translated into a mathematical form. Maxwell explained @@ -16672,8 +16633,8 @@ Faraday, <i>Experimental Researches in Electricity</i>, 3 vols. (London, on Electrostatics and Magnetism</i> (London, 1884, containing papers on magnetic theory originally published between 1844 and 1855, with additions); J. C. Maxwell, <i>Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism</i> -(3rd ed., Oxford, 1892); E. Mascart and J. Joubert, <i>Leons sur -l’lectricit et le magntisme</i> (2nd ed., Paris, 1896-1897; trans., not free +(3rd ed., Oxford, 1892); E. Mascart and J. Joubert, <i>Leçons sur +l’électricité et le magnétisme</i> (2nd ed., Paris, 1896-1897; trans., not free from errors, by E. Atkinson, London, 1883); J. A. Ewing, <i>Magnetic Induction in Iron and other Metals</i> (3rd ed., London, 1900); J. J. Thomson, <i>Recent Researches in Electricity and Magnetism</i> (Oxford, @@ -16681,10 +16642,10 @@ Thomson, <i>Recent Researches in Electricity and Magnetism</i> (Oxford, (3rd ed., Cambridge, 1904); H. du Bois, <i>The Magnetic Circuit</i> (trans. by E. Atkinson, London, 1896); A. Gray, <i>Treatise on Magnetism and Electricity</i>, vol. i. (London, 1898); J. A. Fleming, <i>Magnets and Electric -Currents</i> (London, 1898); C. Maurain, <i>Le magntisme du fer</i> (Paris, +Currents</i> (London, 1898); C. Maurain, <i>Le magnétisme du fer</i> (Paris, 1899; a lucid summary of the principal facts and laws, with special -regard to their practical application); <i>Rapports prsents au -Congrs international de physique</i>, vol. ii. (Paris, 1900); G. C. +regard to their practical application); <i>Rapports présentés au +Congrès international de physique</i>, vol. ii. (Paris, 1900); G. C. Foster and A. W. Porter, <i>Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism</i> (London, 1903); A. Winkelmann, <i>Handbuch der Physik</i>, vol. v. part i. (2nd ed., Leipzig, 1905; the most exhaustive compendium of magnetic @@ -16695,7 +16656,7 @@ and papers on every branch of the subject).</p> <hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> -<p><a name="ft1f" id="ft1f" href="#fa1f"><span class="fn">1</span></a> In London in 1910 the needle pointed about 16 W. of the +<p><a name="ft1f" id="ft1f" href="#fa1f"><span class="fn">1</span></a> In London in 1910 the needle pointed about 16° W. of the geographical north. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Terrestrial Magnetism</a></span>.)</p> <p><a name="ft2f" id="ft2f" href="#fa2f"><span class="fn">2</span></a> For the relations between magnetism and light see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Magneto-Optics</a></span>.</p> @@ -16722,21 +16683,21 @@ the “residual induction” (= 4πI).</p> <p><a name="ft9f" id="ft9f" href="#fa9f"><span class="fn">9</span></a> For all except ferromagnetic substances the coefficient is sensibly equal to κ.</p> -<p><a name="ft10f" id="ft10f" href="#fa10f"><span class="fn">10</span></a> See W. Thomson’s <i>Reprint</i>, 615, 634-651.</p> +<p><a name="ft10f" id="ft10f" href="#fa10f"><span class="fn">10</span></a> See W. Thomson’s <i>Reprint</i>, §§ 615, 634-651.</p> -<p><a name="ft11f" id="ft11f" href="#fa11f"><span class="fn">11</span></a> Ibid. 646, 684.</p> +<p><a name="ft11f" id="ft11f" href="#fa11f"><span class="fn">11</span></a> Ibid. §§ 646, 684.</p> <p><a name="ft12f" id="ft12f" href="#fa12f"><span class="fn">12</span></a> Faraday, <i>Exp. Res.</i> xxi.</p> -<p><a name="ft13f" id="ft13f" href="#fa13f"><span class="fn">13</span></a> J. J. Thomson, <i>Electricity and Magnetism</i>, 205.</p> +<p><a name="ft13f" id="ft13f" href="#fa13f"><span class="fn">13</span></a> J. J. Thomson, <i>Electricity and Magnetism</i>, § 205.</p> -<p><a name="ft14f" id="ft14f" href="#fa14f"><span class="fn">14</span></a> Maxwell, <i>Electricity and Magnetism</i>, 431.</p> +<p><a name="ft14f" id="ft14f" href="#fa14f"><span class="fn">14</span></a> Maxwell, <i>Electricity and Magnetism</i>, § 431.</p> <p><a name="ft15f" id="ft15f" href="#fa15f"><span class="fn">15</span></a> H. du Bois, <i>Electrician</i>, 1898, 40, 317.</p> -<p><a name="ft16f" id="ft16f" href="#fa16f"><span class="fn">16</span></a> M. Faraday, <i>Exp. Res.</i> xxii., xxiii.; W. Thomson, <i>Reprint</i>, 604; -J. C. Maxwell, <i>Treatise</i>, 435; E. Mascart and J. Joubert, <i>Electricity -and Magnetism</i>, 384, 396, 1226; A. Winkelmann, <i>Physik</i>, v. 287.</p> +<p><a name="ft16f" id="ft16f" href="#fa16f"><span class="fn">16</span></a> M. Faraday, <i>Exp. Res.</i> xxii., xxiii.; W. Thomson, <i>Reprint</i>, § 604; +J. C. Maxwell, <i>Treatise</i>, § 435; E. Mascart and J. Joubert, <i>Electricity +and Magnetism</i>, §§ 384, 396, 1226; A. Winkelmann, <i>Physik</i>, v. 287.</p> <p><a name="ft17f" id="ft17f" href="#fa17f"><span class="fn">17</span></a> See A. Winkelmann, <i>Physik</i>, v. 69-94; Mascart and Joubert. <i>Electricity and Magnetism</i>, ii. 617.</p> @@ -16745,14 +16706,14 @@ and Magnetism</i>, 384, 396, 1226; A. Winkelmann, <i>Physik</i>, v. 287.</p> <p><a name="ft19f" id="ft19f" href="#fa19f"><span class="fn">19</span></a> See C. G. Lamb, <i>Proc. Phys. Soc.</i>, 1899, 16, 517.</p> -<p><a name="ft20f" id="ft20f" href="#fa20f"><span class="fn">20</span></a> <i>Soc. Franc. Phys. Sances</i>, 1904, 1, 27.</p> +<p><a name="ft20f" id="ft20f" href="#fa20f"><span class="fn">20</span></a> <i>Soc. Franc. Phys. Séances</i>, 1904, 1, 27.</p> <p><a name="ft21f" id="ft21f" href="#fa21f"><span class="fn">21</span></a> E. G. Warburg, <i>Wied. Ann.</i> 1881, 13, 141; Ewing, <i>Phil. Trans.</i>, 1885, 176, 549; Hopkinson, <i>Phil. Trans.</i> 1885, 176, 466. For a simple proof, see Ewing, <i>Magnetic Induction</i> (1900), p. 99. Hopkinson pointed out that the greatest dissipation of energy which can be caused by a to-and-fro reversal is approximately represented by -<i>Coercive force</i> <i>maximum induction</i> /π.</p> +<i>Coercive force</i> × <i>maximum induction</i> /π.</p> <p><a name="ft22f" id="ft22f" href="#fa22f"><span class="fn">22</span></a> <i>Magnetic Induction</i>, 1900, 378.</p> @@ -16771,8 +16732,8 @@ Assoc. Rep.</i>, 1895, p. 636.</p> <p><a name="ft28f" id="ft28f" href="#fa28f"><span class="fn">28</span></a> S. Bidwell, <i>Proc. Roy. Soc.</i>, 1886, 40, 495.</p> -<p><a name="ft29f" id="ft29f" href="#fa29f"><span class="fn">29</span></a> Since in most practicable experiments H is negligible in comparison -with B, the force may be taken as B/8π without sensible +<p><a name="ft29f" id="ft29f" href="#fa29f"><span class="fn">29</span></a> Since in most practicable experiments H³ is negligible in comparison +with B², the force may be taken as B²/8π without sensible error.</p> <p><a name="ft30f" id="ft30f" href="#fa30f"><span class="fn">30</span></a> The same phenomenon is exhibited in a less marked degree when @@ -16808,7 +16769,7 @@ They are indicated in fig. 25 as kilos per sq. cm.</p> <p><a name="ft33f" id="ft33f" href="#fa33f"><span class="fn">33</span></a> Joule believed that the volume was unchanged.</p> <p><a name="ft34f" id="ft34f" href="#fa34f"><span class="fn">34</span></a> For a discussion of theories of magnetic stress, with copious -references, see Nagaoka, <i>Rap. du Congrs International de Physique</i> +references, see Nagaoka, <i>Rap. du Congrès International de Physique</i> (Paris, 1900), ii. 545. Also Nagaoka and Jones, <i>Phil. Mag.</i>, 1896, 41, 454.</p> @@ -16816,7 +16777,7 @@ references, see Nagaoka, <i>Rap. du Congrs International de Physique</i> <p><a name="ft36f" id="ft36f" href="#fa36f"><span class="fn">36</span></a> <i>Phil. Mag.</i>, 1895, 40, 345.</p> -<p><a name="ft37f" id="ft37f" href="#fa37f"><span class="fn">37</span></a> J. C. Maxwell, <i>Treatise</i>, 643.</p> +<p><a name="ft37f" id="ft37f" href="#fa37f"><span class="fn">37</span></a> J. C. Maxwell, <i>Treatise</i>, § 643.</p> <p><a name="ft38f" id="ft38f" href="#fa38f"><span class="fn">38</span></a> See correspondence in <i>Nature</i>, 1896, 53, pp. 269, 316, 365, 462, 533; 1906, 74, pp. 317, 539; B. B. Brackett, <i>loc. cit.</i>, quotes the opinion @@ -16878,7 +16839,7 @@ by Ewing and Cowan’s curves (<i>Phil. Trans.</i>, 1888, 179, plates 15, 16 <p><a name="ft59f" id="ft59f" href="#fa59f"><span class="fn">59</span></a> A. M. Thiessen (<i>Phys.</i>, 1899, 8, 65) and G. Claude (C. R., 1899, 129, 409) found that for considerable inductions (B = 15,000) the permeability and hysteresis-loss remained nearly constant down to --186; for weak inductions both notably diminished with temperature.</p> +-186°; for weak inductions both notably diminished with temperature.</p> <p><a name="ft60f" id="ft60f" href="#fa60f"><span class="fn">60</span></a> <i>Proc. Roy. Soc.</i>, 1898, 62, 210.</p> @@ -16908,7 +16869,7 @@ cast iron has also been noticed by F. C. Caldwell, <i>Elect. World</i>, 1898, <p><a name="ft71f" id="ft71f" href="#fa71f"><span class="fn">71</span></a> J. Trowbridge and S. Sheldon, <i>Phil. Mag.</i>, 1890, 29, 136; W. H. Preece, <i>Journ. Inst. Elec. Eng.</i>, 1890, 19, 62; <i>Electrician</i>, 1890, 25, -546; I. Klemeni, <i>Wien. Ber.</i>, 1896, 105, IIa, 635; B. O. Peirce, +546; I. Klemençiç, <i>Wien. Ber.</i>, 1896, 105, IIa, 635; B. O. Peirce, <i>Am. Journ. Sci.</i>, 1896, 2, 347; A. Abt, <i>Wied. Ann.</i>, 1898, 66, 116; F. Osmond, <i>C. R.</i>, 1899, 128, 1513.</p> @@ -16921,9 +16882,9 @@ temperature of liquid air or hydrogen; probably, however, negative results would not be published.</p> <p><a name="ft75f" id="ft75f" href="#fa75f"><span class="fn">75</span></a> The critical temperature of iron, for instance, is raised more than -100 by the addition of a little carbon and tungsten.</p> +100° by the addition of a little carbon and tungsten.</p> -<p><a name="ft76f" id="ft76f" href="#fa76f"><span class="fn">76</span></a> <i>Bull. Soc. Int. des lectriciens</i>, 1906, 6, 301.</p> +<p><a name="ft76f" id="ft76f" href="#fa76f"><span class="fn">76</span></a> <i>Bull. Soc. Int. des Électriciens</i>, 1906, 6, 301.</p> <p><a name="ft77f" id="ft77f" href="#fa77f"><span class="fn">77</span></a> <i>Proc. Roy. Soc.</i>, 1905, 76A, 271.</p> @@ -16941,7 +16902,7 @@ Leduc, <i>Journ. de Phys.</i>, 1887, 6, 78. Additional authorities are quoted by Lloyd, <i>loc. cit.</i></p> <p><a name="ft81f" id="ft81f" href="#fa81f"><span class="fn">81</span></a> P. Drude, <i>Ann. d. Phys.</i>, 1900, 1, 566; 1900, 3, 369; 1902, 7, 687. -See also E. van Everdingen, <i>Arch. Nerlandaises</i>, 1901, 4, 371; +See also E. van Everdingen, <i>Arch. Néerlandaises</i>, 1901, 4, 371; G. Barlow, <i>Ann. d. Phys.</i>, 1903, 12, 897; H. Zahn, ibid. 1904, 14, 886; 1905, 16, 148.</p> @@ -16995,10 +16956,10 @@ Gilbert Club, London, 1900.</p> <p><a name="ft96f" id="ft96f" href="#fa96f"><span class="fn">96</span></a> C. A. Coulomb, <i>Mem. Acad. Roy. Paris</i>, 1785, p. 578.</p> -<p><a name="ft97f" id="ft97f" href="#fa97f"><span class="fn">97</span></a> <i>Intensitas vis magneticae</i>, 21, C. F. Gauss’s <i>Werke</i>, 5, 79. -See also J. J. Thomson, <i>Electricity and Magnetism</i>, 132.</p> +<p><a name="ft97f" id="ft97f" href="#fa97f"><span class="fn">97</span></a> <i>Intensitas vis magneticae</i>, § 21, C. F. Gauss’s <i>Werke</i>, 5, 79. +See also J. J. Thomson, <i>Electricity and Magnetism</i>, § 132.</p> -<p><a name="ft98f" id="ft98f" href="#fa98f"><span class="fn">98</span></a> S. D. Poisson, <i>Mm. de l’Institut</i>, 1821 and 1822, 5, 247, 488; +<p><a name="ft98f" id="ft98f" href="#fa98f"><span class="fn">98</span></a> S. D. Poisson, <i>Mém. de l’Institut</i>, 1821 and 1822, 5, 247, 488; 1823, 6, 441; 1838, 16, 479.</p> <p><a name="ft99f" id="ft99f" href="#fa99f"><span class="fn">99</span></a> For outlines of the mathematical theory of magnetism and @@ -17007,7 +16968,7 @@ references see H. du Bois, <i>Magnetic Circuit</i>, chs. iii. and iv.</p> <p><a name="ft100f" id="ft100f" href="#fa100f"><span class="fn">100</span></a> Gilbert’s <i>Ann. d. phys.</i>, 1820, 6, 295.</p> <p><a name="ft101f" id="ft101f" href="#fa101f"><span class="fn">101</span></a> <i>Ann. de chim. et de phys.</i>, 1820, 15, 59, 170; <i>Recueil d’observations -lectrodynamiques</i>, 1822; <i>Thories des phnomnes lectrodynamiques</i>, +électrodynamiques</i>, 1822; <i>Théories des phénomènes électrodynamiques</i>, 1826.</p> <p><a name="ft102f" id="ft102f" href="#fa102f"><span class="fn">102</span></a> <i>Ann. de chim. et de phys.</i>, 1820, 15, 93.</p> @@ -17029,7 +16990,7 @@ references see H. du Bois, <i>Magnetic Circuit</i>, chs. iii. and iv.</p> its province the study of the magnetic phenomena of the earth.</p> -<p> 1. Terrestrial magnetism has a long history. Its early +<p>§ 1. Terrestrial magnetism has a long history. Its early growth was slow, and considerable uncertainty prevails as to its earliest developments. The properties of the magnet (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Magnetism</a></span>) were to some small extent known to @@ -17080,16 +17041,16 @@ Needle together with its Admirable Diminution lately discovered</i> of knowledge long delayed. William Borough, in his <i>Discourse on the Variation of the Compas or Magneticall Needle</i> (1581), gave for the declination at Limehouse in October 1580 the value -11 E. approximately. Observations were repeated at Limehouse, +11°¼ E. approximately. Observations were repeated at Limehouse, Gellibrand tells us, in 1622 by his colleague Edmund Gunter, professor of astronomy at Gresham College, who found -the much smaller value 6 13′. The difference seems to have been +the much smaller value 6° 13′. The difference seems to have been ascribed at first to error on Borough’s part, and no suspicion of the truth seems to have been felt until 1633, when some rough observations gave a value still lower than that found by Gunter. <span class="pagenum"><a name="page354" id="page354"></a>354</span> It was not until midsummer 1634 that Gellibrand felt sure of his -facts, and yet the change of declination since 1580 exceeded 7. +facts, and yet the change of declination since 1580 exceeded 7°. The delay probably arose from the strength of the preconceived idea, apparently universally held, that the declination was absolutely fixed. This idea, it would appear, derived some of its @@ -17146,7 +17107,7 @@ observations made at Paris he found that the inclination of the dipping needle and the intensity of the horizontal component of the magnetic force both possessed a diurnal variation.</p> -<p> 2. Whilst Italy, England and France claim most of the +<p>§ 2. Whilst Italy, England and France claim most of the early observational discoveries, Germany deserves a large share of credit for the great improvement in instruments and methods during the first half of the 19th century. Measurements @@ -17162,10 +17123,10 @@ Scottish origin resident in Germany.</p> <p>The institution of special observatories for magnetic work is largely due to Humboldt and Gauss. The latter’s observatory -at Gttingen, where regular observations began in 1834, was +at Göttingen, where regular observations began in 1834, was the centre of the Magnetic Union founded by Gauss and Weber for the carrying out of simultaneous magnetic observations -and it was long customary to employ Gttingen time in schemes +and it was long customary to employ Göttingen time in schemes of international co-operation.</p> <p>In the next decade, mainly through the influence of Sir Edward @@ -17190,7 +17151,7 @@ Lamont, Sabine and R. Wolf.</p> the number of observatories taking magnetic observations. After 1890 there was an increased interest in magnetic work. One of the contributory causes was the magnetic survey of the -British Isles made by Sir A. Rcker and Sir T. E. Thorpe, which +British Isles made by Sir A. Rücker and Sir T. E. Thorpe, which served as a stimulus to similar work elsewhere; another was the institution by L. A. Bauer of a magazine. <i>Terrestrial Magnetism</i>, specially devoted to the subject. This increased activity added @@ -17201,7 +17162,7 @@ details the writer is largely indebted to the works of E. Walker<a name="fa1g" i and L. A. Bauer.<a name="fa3g" id="fa3g" href="#ft3g"><span class="sp">3</span></a></p> <div class="condensed"> -<p> 3. All the more important magnetic observatories are provided +<p>§ 3. All the more important magnetic observatories are provided with instruments of two kinds. Those of the first kind give the absolute value of the magnetic elements at the time of observation. The unifilar magnetometer (<i>q.v.</i>), for @@ -17244,18 +17205,18 @@ corresponding to 10′ of arc in the declination and to 50γ <p>As an example of how the curves are standardized, suppose that absolute observations of declination are taken four times a month, -and that in a given month the mean of the observed values is 16 34′.6 +and that in a given month the mean of the observed values is 16° 34′.6 W. The curves are measured at the places which correspond to the times of the four observations, and the mean length of the four ordinates is, let us say, 2.52 cms. If 1 cm. answers to 10′, then 2.52 cms. represents 25′.2, and thus the value of the base line—<i>i.e.</i> the value which the declination would have if the curve came down to -the base line—is for the month in question 16 34′.6 less 25′.2 or +the base line—is for the month in question 16° 34′.6 less 25′.2 or <span class="pagenum"><a name="page355" id="page355"></a>355</span> -16 9′.4. If now we wish to know the declination at any instant in +16° 9′.4. If now we wish to know the declination at any instant in this particular month all we have to do is to measure the corresponding ordinate and add its value, at the rate of 10′ per cm., to the base -value 16 9′.4 just found. Matters are a little more complicated in +value 16° 9′.4 just found. Matters are a little more complicated in the case of the horizontal and vertical force magnetographs. Both instruments usually possess a sensible temperature coefficient, <i>i.e.</i> the position of the magnet is dependent to some extent on the @@ -17310,7 +17271,7 @@ of the ordinate the mean derived from a consideration of the area included between the curve, the base line and ordinates at the thirty minutes before and after each hour.</p> -<p> 4. Partly on account of the uncertainties due to disturbances, +<p>§ 4. Partly on account of the uncertainties due to disturbances, and partly with a view to economy of labour, it has been the practice at some observatories to derive diurnal inequalities from a comparatively small number of undisturbed or quiet days. Beginning @@ -17327,7 +17288,7 @@ variation in the latter was partly obscured by irregular disturbances, then supposing enough days taken to smooth out irregularities, one would get the same diurnal inequality from ordinary and from quiet days. It was found, however, that this was hardly ever the case -(see 29 and 30). The quiet day scheme thus failed to secure +(see §§ 29 and 30). The quiet day scheme thus failed to secure exactly what was originally aimed at; on the other hand, it led to the discovery of a number of interesting results calculated to throw valuable sidelights on the phenomena of terrestrial magnetism.</p> @@ -17345,7 +17306,7 @@ M. Snellen. The days are in all cases counted from Greenwich midnight, so that the results are strictly synchronous. The results promise to be of much interest.</p> -<p> 5. The intensity and direction of the resultant magnetic force +<p>§ 5. The intensity and direction of the resultant magnetic force at a spot—<i>i.e.</i> the force experienced by a unit magnetic pole—are known if we know the three components of force parallel to any set of orthogonal axes. It is usual to take for these axes the vertical @@ -17361,11 +17322,11 @@ choice. Apart from mathematical calculations, the more usual course is to define the force by its horizontal and vertical components—usually termed H and V—and by the declination or angle which the horizontal component makes with the astronomical meridian. The -declination is sometimes counted from 0 to 360, 0 answering to +declination is sometimes counted from 0° to 360°, 0° answering to the case when the so-called north pole (or north seeking pole) is -directed towards geographical north, 90 to the case when it is directed +directed towards geographical north, 90° to the case when it is directed to the east, and so on. It is more usual, however, to reckon declination -only from 0 to 180, characterizing it as easterly or westerly +only from 0° to 180°, characterizing it as easterly or westerly according as the north pole points to the east or to the west of the geographical meridian. The force is also completely defined by H or V, together with D the declination, and I the inclination to the @@ -17377,7 +17338,7 @@ between the symbols</p> <p class="center">X ≡ N, Y ≡ W or E, Z ≡ V, R ≡ T,<br /> -H ≡ √(X + Y), R ≡ √(X + Y + Z),<br /> +H ≡ √(X² + Y²), R ≡ √(X² + Y² + Z²),<br /> tan D = Y / X, tan I = V / H.</p> @@ -17385,7 +17346,7 @@ tan D = Y / X, tan I = V / H.</p> and even to the angles D and I.</p> </div> -<p> 6. Declination is the element concerning which our knowledge +<p>§ 6. Declination is the element concerning which our knowledge is most complete and most reliable. With a good unifilar magnetometer, at a fixed observatory distant from the magnetic poles, having a fixed mark of @@ -17458,7 +17419,7 @@ are thoroughly reliable, the prognostication made for a future date by even the most experienced of chart makers may be occasionally somewhat wide of the mark. Fig. 1 is a reduced copy of the British admiralty declination chart for the epoch 1907. It shows the isogonals -between 70 N. and 65 S. latitude. Beyond the limits of +between 70° N. and 65° S. latitude. Beyond the limits of this chart, the number of exact measurements of declination is somewhat limited, but the general nature of the phenomena is easily inferred. The geographical and the magnetic poles—where the @@ -17499,23 +17460,23 @@ will point exactly towards the centre of the circle at one of the points where the straight line drawn on the ground cuts the circumference, it will at the opposite end of the diameter point exactly away from the centre. The former part is clearly on the isogonal where the -declination is 0, the latter on the isogonal where it is 180. Isogonals +declination is 0°, the latter on the isogonal where it is 180°. Isogonals will thus radiate out from the north geographical pole (and similarly of course from the south geographical pole) in all directions. If we travel along an isogonal, starting from the north magnetic pole, our course will generally take us, often very circuitously, to the north -geographical pole. If, for example, we select the isogonal of 10 E., +geographical pole. If, for example, we select the isogonal of 10° E., we at first travel nearly south, but then more and more westerly, then north-westerly across the north-east of Asia; the direction then gets less northerly, and makes a dip to the south before finally making for the north geographical pole. It is possible, however, according to the chart, to travel direct from the north magnetic to the south geographical pole, provided we select an isogonal answering -to a small westerly or easterly declination (from about 19 W. to -7 E.).</p> +to a small westerly or easterly declination (from about 19° W. to +7° E.).</p> <p>Special interest attaches to the isogonals answering to declination -0. These are termed <i>agonic lines</i>, but sailors often call them <i>lines +0°. These are termed <i>agonic lines</i>, but sailors often call them <i>lines of no variation</i>, the term <i>variation</i> having at one time been in common use in the sense of declination. If we start from the north magnetic pole the agonic line takes us across Canada, the United States and @@ -17524,27 +17485,27 @@ pole. A curve continuous with this can be drawn from the south geographical to the south magnetic pole at every point of which the needle points in the geographical meridian; but here the north pole of the needle is pointing south, not north, so that this portion of curve -is really an isogonal of 180. In continuation of this there emanates -from the south magnetic pole a second isogonal of 0, or agonic line, +is really an isogonal of 180°. In continuation of this there emanates +from the south magnetic pole a second isogonal of 0°, or agonic line, which traverses Australia, Arabia and Russia, and takes us to the -north geographical pole. Finally, we have an isogonal of 180, -continuous with this second isogonal of 0 which takes us to the north +north geographical pole. Finally, we have an isogonal of 180°, +continuous with this second isogonal of 0° which takes us to the north magnetic pole, from which we started. Throughout the whole area -included within these isogonals of 0 and 180—excluding locally +included within these isogonals of 0° and 180°—excluding locally disturbed areas—the declination is westerly; outside this area the declination is in general easterly. There is, however, as shown in the -chart, an isogonal of 0 enclosing an area in eastern Asia inside which +chart, an isogonal of 0° enclosing an area in eastern Asia inside which the declination is westerly though small.</p> -<p> 7. Fig. 2 is a reduced copy of the admiralty chart of inclination +<p>§ 7. Fig. 2 is a reduced copy of the admiralty chart of inclination or dip for the epoch 1907. The places where the dip has the same value lie on curves called <i>isoclinals</i>. The dip is northerly (north pole dips) or southerly (south pole dips) according as the place is -north or south of the isoclinal of 0. At places actually on this -isoclinal the dipping needle is horizontal. The isoclinal of 0 +north or south of the isoclinal of 0°. At places actually on this +isoclinal the dipping needle is horizontal. The isoclinal of 0° is nowhere very far from the geographical equator, but lies to the north of it in Asia and Africa, and to the south of it in South -America. As we travel north from the isoclinal of 0 along the +America. As we travel north from the isoclinal of 0° along the meridian containing the magnetic pole the dipping needle’s north pole dips more and more, until when we reach the magnetic pole the needle is vertical. Going still farther north, we have the dip diminishing. @@ -17589,7 +17550,7 @@ hemisphere the lines of equal total force—called <i>isodynamic</i> lines&m two sets more or less distinct, consisting of closed ovals, one set surrounding the Canadian the other the Siberian focus.</p> -<p> 8. As already explained, magnetic charts for the world or for +<p>§ 8. As already explained, magnetic charts for the world or for large areas give only a general idea of the values of the elements. If the region is undisturbed, very fairly approximate values are derivable from the charts, but when the highest accuracy is necessary @@ -17661,7 +17622,7 @@ in the west of North America, in South America, and in the south and east of Asia, including Japan, south-east Siberia, eastern China and most of India.</p> -<p> 9. The information in figs. 1, 2, 3 and 4 and in Tables I. and +<p>§ 9. The information in figs. 1, 2, 3 and 4 and in Tables I. and II. applies only to recent years. Owing to secular change, recent charts differ widely from the earliest ones constructed. The first charts believed to have been constructed were those of Edmund @@ -17715,7 +17676,7 @@ January 1, 1901.</p> <tr><td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">Place.</td> <td class="tcc allb" colspan="3">Absolute values.</td> <td class="tcc allb" colspan="3">Secular change.</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcc allb">D.</td> <td class="tcc allb">I.</td> <td class="tcc allb">H.</td> <td class="tcc allb">D.</td> <td class="tcc allb">I.</td> <td class="tcc allb">H.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> ′</td> <td class="tcc rb"> ′</td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb">′</td> <td class="tcc rb">′</td> <td class="tcc rb">γ</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb">° ′</td> <td class="tcc rb">° ′</td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb">′</td> <td class="tcc rb">′</td> <td class="tcc rb">γ</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Pavlovsk</td> <td class="tcr rb">0 39.8E</td> <td class="tcr rb">70 36.8N</td> <td class="tcr rb">.16553</td> <td class="tcr rb">− 4.1</td> <td class="tcr rb">−0.8</td> <td class="tcr rb">+ 7</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Ekatarinburg</td> <td class="tcr rb">10  6.3E</td> <td class="tcr rb">70 40.5N</td> <td class="tcr rb">.17783</td> <td class="tcr rb">− 4.6</td> <td class="tcr rb">+0.5</td> <td class="tcr rb">−13</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Copenhagen</td> <td class="tcr rb">10 10.4W</td> <td class="tcr rb">68 38.5N</td> <td class="tcr rb">.17525</td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td></tr> @@ -17778,8 +17739,8 @@ we find</p> but is in all cases more recent than the epoch, January 1, 1901, for Table I., the mean difference being about 5 years.</p> -<p> 10. At Paris there seems to have been a maximum of easterly -declination (about 9) about 1580; the needle pointed to true north +<p>§ 10. At Paris there seems to have been a maximum of easterly +declination (about 9°) about 1580; the needle pointed to true north about 1662, and reached its extreme westerly position between 1812 and 1814. The phenomena at Rome resembled those at Paris and London, but the extreme westerly position is believed to have been @@ -17818,7 +17779,7 @@ east then set in, the mean annual change increasing from 1′.8 between 1873 and 1890 to 3′.8 between 1890 and 1900.</p> -<p> 11. Secular changes of declination have been particularly +<p>§ 11. Secular changes of declination have been particularly interesting in the United States, an area about which information is unusually complete, thanks to the labours and publications of the United States Coast and @@ -17826,8 +17787,8 @@ Geodetic Survey.<a name="fa13g" id="fa13g" href="#ft13g"><span class="sp">13</sp south-easterly direction from Lake Superior to South Carolina. To the east of the agonic line the declination is westerly, and to the west it is easterly. In 1905 the -declination varied from about 21 W. in the extreme north-east -to about 24 E. in the extreme north-west. At present +declination varied from about 21° W. in the extreme north-east +to about 24° E. in the extreme north-west. At present the motion of the agonic line seems to be towards the west, but it is very slow. To the east of the agonic line westerly declination is increasing, and to the west of the line, with @@ -17917,7 +17878,7 @@ point one way, and the future is as uncertain as it is interesting.</p> <tr><td class="tccm allb">Latitude.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Longitude.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Year.</td> <td class="tccm allb">D.</td> <td class="tccm allb">I.</td> <td class="tccm allb">H.</td> <td class="tccm allb">V.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Interval<br />in years.</td> <td class="tccm allb">D.</td> <td class="tccm allb">I.</td> <td class="tccm allb">H.</td> <td class="tccm allb">V.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcc lb rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb">  ′</td> <td class="tcc rb">  ′</td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb">  ′</td> <td class="tcc rb">   ′</td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb">′</td> <td class="tcc rb">′</td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb">°  ′</td> <td class="tcc rb">°  ′</td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb">°  ′</td> <td class="tcc rb">°   ′</td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb">′</td> <td class="tcc rb">′</td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Pavlovsk</td> <td class="tcc rb">59 41N</td> <td class="tcc rb"> 30 29E</td> <td class="tcc rb">1906</td> <td class="tcc rb">1  4.2E</td> <td class="tcc rb">70 36.6N</td> <td class="tcc rb">.16528</td> <td class="tcc rb">.46963</td> <td class="tcc rb">5</td> <td class="tcc rb">−4.5</td> <td class="tcc rb">+0.1</td> <td class="tcc rb">− 6</td> <td class="tcc rb">−14</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Sitka (Alaska)</td> <td class="tcc rb">57  3N</td> <td class="tcc rb">135 20W</td> <td class="tcc rb">1906</td> <td class="tcc rb">30  3.3E</td> <td class="tcc rb">74 41.7N</td> <td class="tcc rb">.15502</td> <td class="tcc rb">.56646</td> <td class="tcc rb">4</td> <td class="tcc rb">−3.0</td> <td class="tcc rb">−1.6</td> <td class="tcc rb">+18</td> <td class="tcc rb">−38</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Ekatarinburg</td> <td class="tcc rb">56 49N</td> <td class="tcc rb"> 60 38E</td> <td class="tcc rb">1906</td> <td class="tcc rb">10 31.0E</td> <td class="tcc rb">70 49.5N</td> <td class="tcc rb">.17664</td> <td class="tcc rb">.50796</td> <td class="tcc rb">5</td> <td class="tcc rb">−4.5</td> <td class="tcc rb">+1.7</td> <td class="tcc rb">−23</td> <td class="tcc rb">+18</td></tr> @@ -17982,7 +17943,7 @@ point one way, and the future is as uncertain as it is interesting.</p> <table class="ws" summary="Contents"> <tr><td class="tcc allb">Date.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Declination.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Date.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Declination.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Date.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Declination.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcc lb rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb">   ′</td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb">   ′</td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb">   ′</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb">°   ′</td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb">°   ′</td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb">°   ′</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1580</td> <td class="tcc rb">11   15E</td> <td class="tcc rb">1773</td> <td class="tcc rb">21   9W</td> <td class="tcc rb">1860</td> <td class="tcc rb">21   38.9W</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1622</td> <td class="tcc rb"> 6    0 </td> <td class="tcc rb">1787</td> <td class="tcc rb">23   19</td> <td class="tcc rb">1865</td> <td class="tcc rb"> 20   58.7</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1634</td> <td class="tcc rb"> 4    6 </td> <td class="tcc rb">1795</td> <td class="tcc rb">23   57</td> <td class="tcc rb">1870</td> <td class="tcc rb">20   18.3</td></tr> @@ -17995,7 +17956,7 @@ point one way, and the future is as uncertain as it is interesting.</p> <tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb bb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb bb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb bb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb bb">1905</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">16   32.9</td></tr> </table> -<p> 12. Table VII. gives particulars of the secular change of horizontal +<p>§ 12. Table VII. gives particulars of the secular change of horizontal force and northerly inclination at London. Prior to the middle of the 19th century information as to the value of H is of uncertain value. The earlier inclination data<a name="fa14g" id="fa14g" href="#ft14g"><span class="sp">14</span></a> are due to Norman, @@ -18008,7 +17969,7 @@ inclination at London increased. The earlier observations are not sufficient to admit of the date of the maximum inclination or its absolute value being determined with precision. Probably the date was near 1723. This view is supported by the fact that at Paris -the inclination fell from 72 15′ in 1754 to 71 48′ in 1780. The +the inclination fell from 72° 15′ in 1754 to 71° 48′ in 1780. The <span class="pagenum"><a name="page361" id="page361"></a>361</span> earlier observations in London were probably of no very high accuracy, and the rates of secular change deducible from them are @@ -18020,7 +17981,7 @@ rapid secular change of inclination towards the end of the 18th century in western Europe; for observations in Paris show a fall of 56′ between 1780 and 1791, and of 90′ between 1791 and 1806. Between 1801 and 1901 inclination in London diminished by -3 26′.5, or on the average by 2′.1 per annum, while between 1857 +3° 26′.5, or on the average by 2′.1 per annum, while between 1857 and 1900 H increased on the average by 22γ a year. These values differ but little from the secular changes given in Table I. as applying at Kew for the epoch Jan. 1, 1901. Since the beginning, @@ -18051,7 +18012,7 @@ about to set in over Europe it is yet hardly possible to say.</p> <table class="ws" summary="Contents"> <tr><td class="tccm allb">Year.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Declination<br />East.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Change since<br />previous year.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Year.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Declination<br />East.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Change since<br />previous year.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcr lb rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb">   ′  ″</td> <td class="tcr rb">′   ″  </td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb">   ′   ″</td> <td class="tcr rb">′  ″  </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr lb rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb">°   ′  ″</td> <td class="tcr rb">′   ″  </td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb">°   ′   ″</td> <td class="tcr rb">′  ″  </td></tr> <tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1876</td> <td class="tcr rb">0 55 58</td> <td class="tcr rb">0 37 E</td> <td class="tcc rb">1881</td> <td class="tcr rb">0 57 12</td> <td class="tcr rb">0  3 E</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1877</td> <td class="tcr rb">56 39</td> <td class="tcr rb">0 41 E</td> <td class="tcc rb">1882</td> <td class="tcr rb">0 56 50</td> <td class="tcr rb">0 22 W</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1878</td> <td class="tcr rb">57  6</td> <td class="tcr rb">0 27 E</td> <td class="tcc rb">1883</td> <td class="tcr rb">57  2</td> <td class="tcr rb">0 12 E</td></tr> @@ -18059,7 +18020,7 @@ about to set in over Europe it is yet hardly possible to say.</p> <tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">1880</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">57  9</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">0 21 W</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">1885</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">55  3</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">0 36 W</td></tr> </table> -<p> 13. It is often convenient to obtain a formula to express the +<p>§ 13. It is often convenient to obtain a formula to express the mean annual change of an element during a given period throughout an area of some size. The usual method is to assume that the change at a place whose latitude is <i>l</i> and longitude λ is given by @@ -18082,7 +18043,7 @@ and in horizontal force:—</p> </table> <p class="noind">Longitude λ is here counted positive to the east. The central -position assumed here (lat. 50, long. 10 E.) falls in the north of +position assumed here (lat. 50°, long. 10° E.) falls in the north of Bavaria. In the case of the horizontal force unity represents 1γ. Schmidt found the above formulae to give results in very close agreement with the data at the eight stations which he had @@ -18099,7 +18060,7 @@ A. Tanakadate in the Magnetic Survey of Japan.</p> <tr><td class="tcc allb">Date.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Declination.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Date.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Declination.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcc lb rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb">  ′</td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb">  ′</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb">°  ′</td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb">°  ′</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1610</td> <td class="tcc rb"> 7 13 E</td> <td class="tcc rb">1605</td> <td class="tcc rb"> 0 30 E</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1677</td> <td class="tcc rb"> 0 40</td> <td class="tcc rb">1609</td> <td class="tcc rb"> 0 12 W</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1691</td> <td class="tcc rb"> 1  0 W</td> <td class="tcc rb">1675</td> <td class="tcc rb"> 8 14</td></tr> @@ -18157,7 +18118,7 @@ A. Tanakadate in the Magnetic Survey of Japan.</p> <tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Detroit, Oregon</td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb">−3.8</td> <td class="tcc rb">−3.9</td> <td class="tcc rb">−3.9</td> <td class="tcc rb">−3.7</td> <td class="tcc rb">−3.4</td> <td class="tcc rb">−2.9</td> <td class="tcc rb">−2.5</td> <td class="tcc rb">−1.8</td> <td class="tcc rb">−0.8</td> <td class="tcc rb">−1.8</td> <td class="tcc rb">−3.8</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Salt Lake, Utah</td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb">−1.1</td> <td class="tcc rb">−0.4</td> <td class="tcc rb">+1.0</td> <td class="tcc rb">+1.0</td> <td class="tcc rb">−0.8</td> <td class="tcc rb">−2.8</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Prescott, Arizona</td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb">−1.4</td> <td class="tcc rb">−0.7</td> <td class="tcc rb">+0.4</td> <td class="tcc rb">+0.4</td> <td class="tcc rb">−1.2</td> <td class="tcc rb">−3.2</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">San Jos, California</td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb">−2.6</td> <td class="tcc rb">−2.9</td> <td class="tcc rb">−2.9</td> <td class="tcc rb">−2.9</td> <td class="tcc rb">−2.7</td> <td class="tcc rb">−2.5</td> <td class="tcc rb">−2.3</td> <td class="tcc rb">−2.0</td> <td class="tcc rb">−1.5</td> <td class="tcc rb">−0.8</td> <td class="tcc rb">−0.4</td> <td class="tcc rb">−1.9</td> <td class="tcc rb">−3.8</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">San José, California</td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb">−2.6</td> <td class="tcc rb">−2.9</td> <td class="tcc rb">−2.9</td> <td class="tcc rb">−2.9</td> <td class="tcc rb">−2.7</td> <td class="tcc rb">−2.5</td> <td class="tcc rb">−2.3</td> <td class="tcc rb">−2.0</td> <td class="tcc rb">−1.5</td> <td class="tcc rb">−0.8</td> <td class="tcc rb">−0.4</td> <td class="tcc rb">−1.9</td> <td class="tcc rb">−3.8</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">Los Angeles,   ”</td> <td class="tcc rb bb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb bb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb bb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb bb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb bb">−3.4</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">−3.4</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">−3.5</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">−3.2</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">−3.0</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">−2.7</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">−2.1</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">−1.6</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">−1.1</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">−0.9</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">−0.3</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">−1.6</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">−3.6</td></tr> </table> @@ -18166,7 +18127,7 @@ A. Tanakadate in the Magnetic Survey of Japan.</p> <p>Formulae are also wanted to show how the value of an element, or the rate of change of an element, at a particular place has varied throughout a long period. For comparatively short periods -it is best to use formulae of the type E = a + bt + ct, where E +it is best to use formulae of the type E = a + bt + ct², where E denotes the value of an element t years subsequent to some convenient epoch; a, b, c are constants to be determined from the observational data. For longer periods formulae of the type @@ -18176,8 +18137,8 @@ following examples, due to G. W. Littlehales,<a name="fa17g" id="fa17g" href="#f Hope, will suffice for illustration:</p> <table class="ws" summary="Contents"> -<tr><td class="tcl">Declination (West)</td> <td class="tcl">= 14.63 + 15.00 sin {0.61 (t − 1850) + 77.8}.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl">Inclination (South)</td> <td class="tcl">= 49.11 + 8.75 sin {0.8 (t − 1850) + 34.3}.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Declination (West)</td> <td class="tcl">= 14°.63 + 15°.00 sin {0.61 (t − 1850) + 77°.8}.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Inclination (South)</td> <td class="tcl">= 49°.11 + 8°.75 sin {0.8 (t − 1850) + 34°.3}.</td></tr> </table> <p class="noind">Here t denotes the date. It is perhaps hardly necessary to point @@ -18191,7 +18152,7 @@ rapidly the further the extrapolation is pushed.</p> <table class="ws" summary="Contents"> <tr><td class="tcc allb">Date.</td> <td class="tcc allb">I.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Date.</td> <td class="tcc allb">I.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Date.</td> <td class="tcc allb">I.</td> <td class="tcc allb">H.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Date.</td> <td class="tcc allb">I.</td> <td class="tcc allb">H.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcc lb rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb">  ′</td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb">  ′</td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb">  ′</td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb">  ′</td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb">°  ′</td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb">°  ′</td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb">°  ′</td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb">°  ′</td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td></tr> <tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1576</td> <td class="tcc rb">71 50</td> <td class="tcc rb">1801</td> <td class="tcc rb">70 36.0</td> <td class="tcc rb">1857</td> <td class="tcc rb">68 24.9</td> <td class="tcc rb">.17474</td> <td class="tcc rb">1891</td> <td class="tcc rb">67 33.2</td> <td class="tcc rb">.18193</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1600</td> <td class="tcc rb">72  0</td> <td class="tcc rb">1821</td> <td class="tcc rb">70  3.4</td> <td class="tcc rb">1860</td> <td class="tcc rb">69 19.8</td> <td class="tcc rb">.17550</td> <td class="tcc rb">1895</td> <td class="tcc rb">67 25.4</td> <td class="tcc rb">.18278</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1676</td> <td class="tcc rb">73 30</td> <td class="tcc rb">1830</td> <td class="tcc rb">69 38.0</td> <td class="tcc rb">1865</td> <td class="tcc rb">68  8.7</td> <td class="tcc rb">.17662</td> <td class="tcc rb">1900</td> <td class="tcc rb">67 11.8</td> <td class="tcc rb">.18428</td></tr> @@ -18234,7 +18195,7 @@ equidistant lines of latitude and longitude, found only sixty-three cases in which the motion was unmistakably clockwise, while in twenty-one cases it was clearly the opposite.</p> -<p> 14. All the magnetic elements at any ordinary station show a +<p>§ 14. All the magnetic elements at any ordinary station show a regular variation in the solar day. To separate this from the irregular changes, means of the hourly readings must be formed making use of a number of days. The amplitude of @@ -18268,8 +18229,8 @@ phenomena in any individual month.</p> <table class="ws" summary="Contents"> <tr><td class="tccm allb">Station.</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="2">Jan Mayen.</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="2">St Petersburg<br />and Pavlovsk.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Greenwich.</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="2">Kew.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Parc<br />St Maur.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Tiflis.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Kolaba.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Batavia.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Mauritius.</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="2">South Vic-<br />toria Land.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">Latitude.</td> <td class="tcc rb" colspan="2">71 0′ N.</td> <td class="tcc rb" colspan="2">59 41′ N.</td> <td class="tcc rb">51 28′ N.</td> <td class="tcc rb" colspan="2">51 28′ N.</td> <td class="tcc rb">48 49′ N.</td> <td class="tcc rb">41 43′ N.</td> <td class="tcc rb">18 54′ N.</td> <td class="tcc rb"> 6 11′ S.</td> <td class="tcc rb">20  6′ S.</td> <td class="tcc rb" colspan="2"> 77 51′ S.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">Longitude.</td> <td class="tcc rb" colspan="2"> 8 28′ W.</td> <td class="tcc rb" colspan="2">30 29′ E.</td> <td class="tcc rb"> 0  0′. </td> <td class="tcc rb" colspan="2"> 0 19′ W.</td> <td class="tcc rb"> 2 29′ E.</td> <td class="tcc rb">44 48′ E.</td> <td class="tcc rb">72 49′ E.</td> <td class="tcc rb">106 49′ E.</td> <td class="tcc rb">57 33′ E.</td> <td class="tcc rb" colspan="2">166 45′ E.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">Latitude.</td> <td class="tcc rb" colspan="2">71° 0′ N.</td> <td class="tcc rb" colspan="2">59° 41′ N.</td> <td class="tcc rb">51° 28′ N.</td> <td class="tcc rb" colspan="2">51° 28′ N.</td> <td class="tcc rb">48° 49′ N.</td> <td class="tcc rb">41° 43′ N.</td> <td class="tcc rb">18° 54′ N.</td> <td class="tcc rb"> 6° 11′ S.</td> <td class="tcc rb">20°  6′ S.</td> <td class="tcc rb" colspan="2"> 77° 51′ S.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">Longitude.</td> <td class="tcc rb" colspan="2"> 8° 28′ W.</td> <td class="tcc rb" colspan="2">30° 29′ E.</td> <td class="tcc rb"> 0°  0′. </td> <td class="tcc rb" colspan="2"> 0° 19′ W.</td> <td class="tcc rb"> 2° 29′ E.</td> <td class="tcc rb">44° 48′ E.</td> <td class="tcc rb">72° 49′ E.</td> <td class="tcc rb">106° 49′ E.</td> <td class="tcc rb">57° 33′ E.</td> <td class="tcc rb" colspan="2">166° 45′ E.</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcc allb">Period.</td> <td class="tcc allb" colspan="2">1882-1883.</td> <td class="tcc allb" colspan="2">1873-1885.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1890-1900.</td> <td class="tcc allb" colspan="2">1890-1900.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1883-1897.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1888-1898.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1894-1901.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1883-1894.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1876-1890.</td> <td class="tcc allb" colspan="2">1902-1903.</td></tr> @@ -18412,8 +18373,8 @@ Batavia and Mauritius on the other. There is, however, another cause, already alluded to, viz. the variability in the type of the diurnal inequality in tropical stations. With a view to illustrating this point Table XII. gives diurnal inequalities of declination for -June and December for a number of stations lying between 45 N. -and 45 S. latitude. Some of the results are represented graphically +June and December for a number of stations lying between 45° N. +and 45° S. latitude. Some of the results are represented graphically in fig. 6, plus ordinates representing westerly deflection. At the northmost station, Toronto, the difference between the two months is mainly a matter of amplitude, the range being much larger at @@ -18520,7 +18481,7 @@ gradual, but at some stations the transition seems pretty rapid.</p> <tr><td class="tcc allb">Range</td> <td class="tcc allb">12.3</td> <td class="tcc allb">5.0</td> <td class="tcc allb">4.3</td> <td class="tcc allb">1.0</td> <td class="tcc allb">3.1</td> <td class="tcc allb">2.3</td> <td class="tcc allb">2.1</td> <td class="tcc allb">4.2</td> <td class="tcc allb">3.3</td> <td class="tcc allb">3.6</td> <td class="tcc allb">2.9</td> <td class="tcc allb">5.1</td> <td class="tcc allb">3.2</td> <td class="tcc allb">5.5</td> <td class="tcc allb">3.7</td> <td class="tcc allb">11.8</td></tr> </table> -<p> 15. In the case of the horizontal force there are, as Table IX. +<p>§ 15. In the case of the horizontal force there are, as Table IX. shows, two markedly different types of diurnal inequality. In the one type, exemplified by Pavlovsk or Greenwich, the force is below its mean value in the middle of the day; it has a principal minimum @@ -18547,7 +18508,7 @@ in the northern and southern hemispheres.</p> <p>With diminishing latitude, there is a gradual transition from the temperate to the tropical type of horizontal force diurnal variation, -and at stations whose latitude is under 45 there is a very appreciable +and at stations whose latitude is under 45° there is a very appreciable variation in type with the season. The mean diurnal variation for the year at Tiflis in Table IX. really represents a struggle between the two types, in which on the whole the temperate type prevails. @@ -18566,7 +18527,7 @@ Tiflis, than at stations in either higher or lower latitudes. There is a very great difference in this respect between the north and the south of India.</p> -<p> 16. In the case of the vertical force in higher temperate latitudes—at +<p>§ 16. In the case of the vertical force in higher temperate latitudes—at Pavlovsk for instance—the diurnal inequalities from “all” and from “quiet” days differ somewhat widely in amplitude and slightly even in type. In mean latitudes, <i>e.g.</i> at Tiflis, there is @@ -18627,10 +18588,10 @@ maximum for the day is observed in summer.</p> <tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">Hobart</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">1841-1848 a</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">11.66 </td> <td class="tcc rb bb">11.80</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">9.50</td> <td class="tcc rb bb"> 7.26</td> <td class="tcc rb bb"> 4.56</td> <td class="tcc rb bb"> 3.70</td> <td class="tcc rb bb"> 4.61</td> <td class="tcc rb bb"> 5.89</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">8.24</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">11.01 </td> <td class="tcc rb bb">12.05 </td> <td class="tcc rb bb">11.81 </td></tr> </table> -<p> 17. Variations of inclination are connected with those of horizontal +<p>§ 17. Variations of inclination are connected with those of horizontal and vertical force by the relation</p> -<p class="center">δI = sin 2I {V<span class="sp">−1</span>δV − H<span class="sp">−1</span> δH}.</p> +<p class="center">δI = ½ sin 2I {V<span class="sp">−1</span>δV − H<span class="sp">−1</span> δH}.</p> <p class="noind">Thus in temperate latitudes where V is considerably in excess of H, whilst diurnal changes in V are usually less than those in H, it is @@ -18669,7 +18630,7 @@ maximum occurring about 1 p.m. At midsummer the principal maximum is found—as at Kew or Greenwich—about 10 or 11 a.m., the principal minimum about 4 p.m.</p> -<p> 18. Even at tropical stations a considerable seasonal change +<p>§ 18. Even at tropical stations a considerable seasonal change is usually seen in the amplitude of the diurnal inequality in at least one of the magnetic elements. At stations in Europe, and generally in temperate latitudes, the amplitude varies notably in all the @@ -18744,7 +18705,7 @@ is particularly well marked at Batavia.</p> <tr><td class="tcl lb bb">Hobart</td> <td class="tcc bb">1842-1848</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">a</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">1.95</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">2.16</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">1.72</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">1.62</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">1.23</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">1.16</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">1.28</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">1.42</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">1.39</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">1.75</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">2.04</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">2.10</td></tr> </table> -<p> 19. When discussing diurnal inequalities it is sometimes convenient +<p>§ 19. When discussing diurnal inequalities it is sometimes convenient to consider the components of the horizontal force in and perpendicular to the astronomical meridian, rather than the horizontal force and declination. If N and W be the components of H @@ -18825,7 +18786,7 @@ however the shape of vector diagrams changes largely.</p> <tr><td class="tcc rb bb">p.m.</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">+20</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">+22</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">+17</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">+11</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">+ 6</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">+ 4</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">+ 2</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">+ 1</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">0</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">− 1</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">− 2</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">− 2</td></tr> </table> -<p> 20. Any diurnal inequality can be analysed into a series of +<p>§ 20. Any diurnal inequality can be analysed into a series of <span class="sidenote">Fourier Series.</span> harmonic terms whose periods are 24 hours and submultiples thereof. The series may be expressed in either @@ -18847,12 +18808,12 @@ of the equivalent forms:—</p> </table> <p class="noind">In both forms t denotes time, counted usually from midnight, one -hour of time being interpreted as 15 of angle. Form (i) is that +hour of time being interpreted as 15° of angle. Form (i) is that utilized in actually calculating the constants a, b, ... Once the a, b, ... constants are known, the c, α, ... constants are at once derivable from the formulae:—</p> -<p class="center">tan α<span class="su">n</span> = a<span class="su">n</span> / b<span class="su">n</span>; c<span class="su">n</span> = a<span class="su">n</span> / sin α<span class="su">n</span> = b<span class="su">n</span> / cos α<span class="su">n</span> = √(a<span class="su">n</span> + b<span class="su">n</span>).</p> +<p class="center">tan α<span class="su">n</span> = a<span class="su">n</span> / b<span class="su">n</span>; c<span class="su">n</span> = a<span class="su">n</span> / sin α<span class="su">n</span> = b<span class="su">n</span> / cos α<span class="su">n</span> = √(a<span class="su">n</span>² + b<span class="su">n</span>²).</p> <p class="noind">The a, b, c, α constants are called sometimes Fourier, sometimes Bessel coefficients.</p> @@ -18873,8 +18834,8 @@ and 12 hour terms are usually much the more important; the the two. The c constants give the amplitudes of the harmonic terms or waves, the α constants the phase angles. An advance of 1 hour in the time of occurrence of the first (and subsequent, if -any) maximum and minimum answers to an <i>increase</i> of 15 in α<span class="su">1</span> -of 30 in α<span class="su">2</span>, of 45 in α<span class="su">3</span>, of 60 in α<span class="su">4</span> and so on. In the case of +any) maximum and minimum answers to an <i>increase</i> of 15° in α<span class="su">1</span> +of 30° in α<span class="su">2</span>, of 45° in α<span class="su">3</span>, of 60° in α<span class="su">4</span> and so on. In the case of magnetic elements the phase angles not infrequently possess a somewhat large annual variation. It is thus essential for a minute study of the phenomena at any station to carry out the analysis @@ -18907,7 +18868,7 @@ the best of what is available. Information is naturally most copious for the declination. For this element E. Engelenburg<a name="fa20g" id="fa20g" href="#ft20g"><span class="sp">20</span></a> gives values of C<span class="su">1</span>, C<span class="su">2</span>, C<span class="su">3</span>, C<span class="su">4</span>, and of α<span class="su">1</span>, α<span class="su">2</span>, α<span class="su">3</span>, α<span class="su">4</span> for each month of the year for about 50 stations, ranging from -Fort Rae (62 6′ N. lat.) to Cape Horn (55 5′ S. +Fort Rae (62° 6′ N. lat.) to Cape Horn (55° 5′ S. lat.). From the results for individual stations, Engelenburg derives a series of means which he regards as representative of 11 different @@ -18930,13 +18891,13 @@ employ Greenwich time, or time based on Greenwich or some other national observatory, and any departure from local time enters into the values of the constants. The data for Victoria Land refer to the “Discovery’s” 1902-1903 winter quarters, where the declination, -taken westerly, was about 207.5.</p> +taken westerly, was about 207°.5.</p> <p>As an example of the significance of the phase angles in Table XVII., take the ordinary day data for Kew. The times of occurrence -of the maxima are given by t + 234 = 450 for the 24-hour -term, 2t + 39.7 = 90 or = 450 for the 12-hour term, and so on, -taking an hour in t as equivalent to 15.</p> +of the maxima are given by t + 234° = 450° for the 24-hour +term, 2t + 39°.7 = 90° or = 450° for the 12-hour term, and so on, +taking an hour in t as equivalent to 15°.</p> <p>Thus the times of the maxima are:—</p> @@ -18978,7 +18939,7 @@ method of investigation.</p> <table class="ws" summary="Contents"> <tr><td class="tcc allb">Place.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Epoch.</td> <td class="tcc allb">c<span class="su">1</span>.</td> <td class="tcc allb">c<span class="su">2</span>.</td> <td class="tcc allb">c<span class="su">3</span>.</td> <td class="tcc allb">c<span class="su">4</span>.</td> <td class="tcc allb">α<span class="su">1</span>.</td> <td class="tcc allb">α<span class="su">2</span>.</td> <td class="tcc allb">α<span class="su">3</span>.</td> <td class="tcc allb">α<span class="su">4</span>.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb">′</td> <td class="tcc rb">′</td> <td class="tcc rb">′</td> <td class="tcc rb">′</td> <td class="tcc rb"></td> <td class="tcc rb"></td> <td class="tcc rb"></td> <td class="tcc rb"></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb">′</td> <td class="tcc rb">′</td> <td class="tcc rb">′</td> <td class="tcc rb">′</td> <td class="tcc rb">°</td> <td class="tcc rb">°</td> <td class="tcc rb">°</td> <td class="tcc rb">°</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Fort Rae (all)</td> <td class="tcc rb">1882-1883</td> <td class="tcc rb">18.49 </td> <td class="tcc rb">8.22</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.99</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.07</td> <td class="tcc rb">156.5</td> <td class="tcc rb"> 41.9</td> <td class="tcc rb">308</td> <td class="tcc rb">104</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Fort Rae (quiet)</td> <td class="tcc rb">”</td> <td class="tcc rb">9.09</td> <td class="tcc rb">4.51</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.32</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.73</td> <td class="tcc rb">166.5</td> <td class="tcc rb"> 37.5</td> <td class="tcc rb">225</td> <td class="tcc rb">350</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Ekatarinburg</td> <td class="tcc rb">1841-1862</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.57</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.81</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.73</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.22</td> <td class="tcc rb">223.3</td> <td class="tcc rb"> 7.4</td> <td class="tcc rb">204</td> <td class="tcc rb">351</td></tr> @@ -19002,7 +18963,7 @@ method of investigation.</p> <tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">Victoria Land (quieter)</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">”</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">15.34 </td> <td class="tcc rb bb">4.05</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">1.24</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">1.18</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">163.8</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">312.9</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">261</td> <td class="tcc rb bb"> </td></tr> </table> -<p> 21. Fourier coefficients of course often vary much with the season +<p>§ 21. Fourier coefficients of course often vary much with the season of the year. In the case of the declination this is especially true of the phase angles at tropical stations. To enter on details for a number of stations would unduly occupy space. A fair idea of the @@ -19036,7 +18997,7 @@ force.</p> <table class="ws" summary="Contents"> <tr><td class="tcc allb">Month.</td> <td class="tcc allb">c<span class="su">1</span>.</td> <td class="tcc allb">c<span class="su">2</span>.</td> <td class="tcc allb">c<span class="su">3</span>.</td> <td class="tcc allb">c<span class="su">4</span>.</td> <td class="tcc allb">α<span class="su">1</span>.</td> <td class="tcc allb">α<span class="su">2</span>.</td> <td class="tcc allb">α<span class="su">3</span>.</td> <td class="tcc allb">α<span class="su">4</span>.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb">′</td> <td class="tcc rb">′</td> <td class="tcc rb">′</td> <td class="tcc rb">′</td> <td class="tcc rb"></td> <td class="tcc rb"></td> <td class="tcc rb"></td> <td class="tcc rb"></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb">′</td> <td class="tcc rb">′</td> <td class="tcc rb">′</td> <td class="tcc rb">′</td> <td class="tcc rb">°</td> <td class="tcc rb">°</td> <td class="tcc rb">°</td> <td class="tcc rb">°</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl lb rb">January</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.79</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.86</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.41</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.27</td> <td class="tcc rb">251.2</td> <td class="tcc rb">29.8</td> <td class="tcc rb">254</td> <td class="tcc rb">64</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl lb rb">February</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.41</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.11</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.57</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.30</td> <td class="tcc rb">242.0</td> <td class="tcc rb">27.7</td> <td class="tcc rb">235</td> <td class="tcc rb">39</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl lb rb">March</td> <td class="tcc rb">3.05</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.98</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.11</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.45</td> <td class="tcc rb">233.2</td> <td class="tcc rb">36.1</td> <td class="tcc rb">223</td> <td class="tcc rb">49</td></tr> @@ -19051,7 +19012,7 @@ force.</p> <tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">December</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">1.61</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">0.81</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">0.35</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">0.20</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">255.1</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">22.0</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">243</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">56</td></tr> </table> -<p> 22. If secular change proceeded uniformly throughout the year, +<p>§ 22. If secular change proceeded uniformly throughout the year, the value E<span class="su">n</span> of any element at the middle of the nth month of the year would be connected with <span class="ov">E</span>, the mean value for the whole year, by the formula E<span class="su">n</span> = <span class="ov">E</span> + (2n − 13)s/24, @@ -19111,7 +19072,7 @@ for future research.</p> <table class="ws" summary="Contents"> <tr><td class="tcc allb" colspan="2"> </td> <td class="tcc allb">c<span class="su">1</span>.</td> <td class="tcc allb">c<span class="su">2</span>.</td> <td class="tcc allb">c<span class="su">3</span>.</td> <td class="tcc allb">c<span class="su">4</span>.</td> <td class="tcc allb">α<span class="su">1</span>.</td> <td class="tcc allb">α<span class="su">2</span>.</td> <td class="tcc allb">α<span class="su">3</span>.</td> <td class="tcc allb">α<span class="su">4</span>.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl lb rb" colspan="2"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"></td> <td class="tcc rb"></td> <td class="tcc rb"></td> <td class="tcc rb"></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb" colspan="2"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb">°</td> <td class="tcc rb">°</td> <td class="tcc rb">°</td> <td class="tcc rb">°</td></tr> <tr><td class="tclm lb cl" rowspan="3">I</td> <td class="tcl rb">Winter</td> <td class="tcc rb"> 0.240</td> <td class="tcc rb"> 0.222</td> <td class="tcc rb"> 0.104</td> <td class="tcc rb"> 0.076</td> <td class="tcc rb">250.0</td> <td class="tcc rb"> 91.8</td> <td class="tcc rb">344</td> <td class="tcc rb">194</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl rb">Equinox</td> <td class="tcc rb"> 0.601</td> <td class="tcc rb"> 0.290</td> <td class="tcc rb"> 0.213</td> <td class="tcc rb"> 0.127</td> <td class="tcc rb">290.3</td> <td class="tcc rb">135.5</td> <td class="tcc rb"> 4</td> <td class="tcc rb">207</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl rb">Summer</td> <td class="tcc rb"> 0.801</td> <td class="tcc rb"> 0.322</td> <td class="tcc rb"> 0.172</td> <td class="tcc rb"> 0.070</td> <td class="tcc rb">312.5</td> <td class="tcc rb">155.5</td> <td class="tcc rb"> 39</td> <td class="tcc rb">238</td></tr> @@ -19138,7 +19099,7 @@ it is a somewhat suggestive fact that the range seems to become less as we pass from older to more recent results, or from shorter to longer periods of years. Thus for Paris from 1821 to 1830 Arago deduced a range of 2′ 9″. Quiet days at Kew from 1890 to 1894 gave a range -of 1′.2, while at Potsdam Ldeling got a range 30% larger than that +of 1′.2, while at Potsdam Lüdeling got a range 30% larger than that in Table XX. when considering the shorter period 1891-1899. Up to the present, few individual results, if any, can claim a very high degree of certainty. With improved instruments and methods it @@ -19169,14 +19130,14 @@ may be different in the future.</p> <tr><td class="tcl allb">Range</td> <td class="tcc allb">1.02</td> <td class="tcc allb">0.42</td> <td class="tcc allb">0.34</td> <td class="tcc allb">0.95</td> <td class="tcc allb">0.64</td> <td class="tcc allb">1.80</td> <td class="tcc allb">0.65</td> <td class="tcc allb">0.74</td> <td class="tcc allb">1.27</td> <td class="tcc allb">1.33</td> <td class="tcc allb">1.03</td> <td class="tcc allb">0.88</td></tr> </table> -<p> 23. The inequalities in Table XX. may be analysed—as has in +<p>§ 23. The inequalities in Table XX. may be analysed—as has in fact been done by Hann—in a series of Fourier terms, whose periods are the year and its submultiples. Fourier series can also be formed representing the annual variation in the <span class="sidenote">Annual Variation Fourier Coefficients.</span> amplitudes of the regular diurnal inequality, and its component 24-hour, 12-hour, &c. waves, or of the -amplitude of the absolute daily range ( 24). To secure +amplitude of the absolute daily range (§ 24). To secure the highest theoretical accuracy, it would be necessary in calculating the Fourier coefficients to allow for the fact that the “months” from which the observational data are derived are not of uniform @@ -19191,7 +19152,7 @@ simplification is considerable.</p> <p class="center">P<span class="su">1</span> sin (t + θ<span class="su">1</span>) + P<span class="su">2</span> sin (2t + θ<span class="su">2</span>) + ...,</p> <p class="noind">where t is time counted from the beginning of the year, one month -being taken as the equivalent of 30, P<span class="su">1</span>, P<span class="su">2</span> represent the amplitudes, +being taken as the equivalent of 30°, P<span class="su">1</span>, P<span class="su">2</span> represent the amplitudes, and θ<span class="su">1</span>, θ<span class="su">2</span> the phase angles of the first two terms, whose periods are respectively 12 and 6 months. Table XXI. gives the values of these coefficients in the case of the range of the regular diurnal @@ -19205,7 +19166,7 @@ frequency of 75.0. S min. for Kew means the years 1890, 1899 and the years 1899-1902 with a mean sun spot frequency of 7.25.</p> <p>Increase in θ<span class="su">1</span> or θ<span class="su">2</span> means an earlier occurrence of the maximum -or maxima, 1 answering roughly to one day in the case of the 12-month +or maxima, 1° answering roughly to one day in the case of the 12-month term, and to half a day in the case of the 6-month term. P<span class="su">1</span>/M and P<span class="su">2</span>/M both increase decidedly as we pass from years of many to years of few sun spots; <i>i.e.</i> <i>relatively</i> considered the range @@ -19228,20 +19189,20 @@ The maxima of the 6-month terms fall near the equinoxes.</p> <table class="ws" summary="Contents"> <tr><td class="tcl allb" colspan="2"> </td> <td class="tcc allb">P<span class="su">1</span>.</td> <td class="tcc allb">P<span class="su">2</span>.</td> <td class="tcc allb">θ<span class="su">1</span>.</td> <td class="tcc allb">θ<span class="su">2</span>.</td> <td class="tcc allb">P<span class="su">1</span>/M.</td> <td class="tcc allb">P<span class="su">2</span>/M.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Kew</td> <td class="tcc rb">D<span class="su">o</span></td> <td class="tcc rb">3.36</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.94</td> <td class="tcc rb">279</td> <td class="tcc rb">280</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.40</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.11</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1890-1900</td> <td class="tcc rb">D<span class="su">q</span></td> <td class="tcc rb">3.81</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.22</td> <td class="tcc rb">275</td> <td class="tcc rb">273</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.47</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.15</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb">I<span class="su">q</span></td> <td class="tcc rb">0.67</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.16</td> <td class="tcc rb">264</td> <td class="tcc rb">269</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.42</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.10</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb">H<span class="su">q</span></td> <td class="tcc rb">13.6 </td> <td class="tcc rb">3.0 </td> <td class="tcc rb">269</td> <td class="tcc rb">261</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.48</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.11</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb bb">V<span class="su">q</span></td> <td class="tcc rb bb">11.7 </td> <td class="tcc rb bb">2.2 </td> <td class="tcc rb bb">282</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">242</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">0.63</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">0.12</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Kew</td> <td class="tcc rb">D<span class="su">o</span></td> <td class="tcc rb">3.36</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.94</td> <td class="tcc rb">279°</td> <td class="tcc rb">280°</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.40</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.11</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1890-1900</td> <td class="tcc rb">D<span class="su">q</span></td> <td class="tcc rb">3.81</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.22</td> <td class="tcc rb">275°</td> <td class="tcc rb">273°</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.47</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.15</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb">I<span class="su">q</span></td> <td class="tcc rb">0.67</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.16</td> <td class="tcc rb">264°</td> <td class="tcc rb">269°</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.42</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.10</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb">H<span class="su">q</span></td> <td class="tcc rb">13.6 </td> <td class="tcc rb">3.0 </td> <td class="tcc rb">269°</td> <td class="tcc rb">261°</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.48</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.11</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb bb">V<span class="su">q</span></td> <td class="tcc rb bb">11.7 </td> <td class="tcc rb bb">2.2 </td> <td class="tcc rb bb">282°</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">242°</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">0.63</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">0.12</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">S max.</td> <td class="tcl rb">Kew</td> <td class="tcc rb">4.50</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.26</td> <td class="tcc rb">277</td> <td class="tcc rb">282</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.47</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.13</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">D<span class="su">q</span></td> <td class="tcl rb bb">Falmouth</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">4.10</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">1.40</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">277</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">286</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">0.43</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">0.15</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">S max.</td> <td class="tcl rb">Kew</td> <td class="tcc rb">4.50</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.26</td> <td class="tcc rb">277°</td> <td class="tcc rb">282°</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.47</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.13</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">D<span class="su">q</span></td> <td class="tcl rb bb">Falmouth</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">4.10</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">1.40</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">277°</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">286°</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">0.43</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">0.15</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">S min.</td> <td class="tcl rb">Kew</td> <td class="tcc rb">3.35</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.10</td> <td class="tcc rb">274</td> <td class="tcc rb">269</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.49</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.16</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">D<span class="su">q</span></td> <td class="tcl rb bb">Falmouth</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">3.19</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">1.14</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">275</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">277</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">0.49</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">0.17</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">S min.</td> <td class="tcl rb">Kew</td> <td class="tcc rb">3.35</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.10</td> <td class="tcc rb">274°</td> <td class="tcc rb">269°</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.49</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.16</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">D<span class="su">q</span></td> <td class="tcl rb bb">Falmouth</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">3.19</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">1.14</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">275°</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">277°</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">0.49</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">0.17</td></tr> </table> -<p> 24. Allusion has already been made in 14 to one point which +<p>§ 24. Allusion has already been made in § 14 to one point which requires fuller discussion. If we take a European station such as Kew, the general character of, say, the declination does not vary very much with the season, but still it does @@ -19344,7 +19305,7 @@ range from the mean diurnal inequality for the year. In this case the ratio of the absolute to the inequality range varies from 1.55 in December to only 1.09 in May.</p> -<p> 25. The variability of the absolute daily range of declination is +<p>§ 25. The variability of the absolute daily range of declination is illustrated by Table XXIII., which contains data for Kew<a name="fa24g" id="fa24g" href="#ft24g"><span class="sp">24</span></a> derived from all days of the 11-year period 1890-1900. It gives the total number of times during the 11 years when the absolute range lay @@ -19379,7 +19340,7 @@ days, <i>i.e.</i> on 69 days out of every 100.</p> <tr><td class="tcl allb">  Totals</td> <td class="tcc allb">188 </td> <td class="tcc allb">1045 </td> <td class="tcc allb">1588 </td> <td class="tcc allb">714 </td> <td class="tcc allb">261 </td> <td class="tcc allb">98 </td> <td class="tcc allb">56 </td> <td class="tcc allb">25 </td> <td class="tcc allb">42 </td> <td class="tcc allb"> </td> <td class="tcc allb"> </td></tr> </table> -<p> 26. Magnetic phenomena, both regular and irregular, at any station +<p>§ 26. Magnetic phenomena, both regular and irregular, at any station vary from year to year. The extent of this variation is illustrated in Tables XXIV. and XXV., both relating to the period 1890 to 1900.<a name="fa25g" id="fa25g" href="#ft25g"><span class="sp">25</span></a> Table XXIV. gives the amplitudes of @@ -19483,7 +19444,7 @@ absolute ranges and for disturbances as for the inequality ranges.</p> <tr><td class="tcc allb">Means</td> <td class="tcc allb">9.6</td> <td class="tcc allb">12.6</td> <td class="tcc allb">13.6</td> <td class="tcc allb">16.0</td> <td class="tcc allb">72</td> <td class="tcc allb">39</td> <td class="tcc allb">51.1</td> <td class="tcc allb">274</td> <td class="tcc allb">246</td> <td class="tcc allb">100.2 </td> <td class="tcc allb">752</td> <td class="tcc allb">629</td></tr> </table> -<p> 27. The relationship between magnetic ranges and sun-spot +<p>§ 27. The relationship between magnetic ranges and sun-spot frequency has been investigated in several ways. W. Ellis<a name="fa26g" id="fa26g" href="#ft26g"><span class="sp">26</span></a> has employed a graphical method which has advantages, especially for tracing the general features of the resemblance, and is besides independent @@ -19620,23 +19581,23 @@ nearly twice as large.</p> <tr><td class="tcc allb" colspan="3">Diurnal Inequality for the Year.</td> <td class="tcc allb"><i>a.</i></td> <td class="tcc allb"><i>b.</i></td> <td class="tcc allb">100 <i>b/a.</i></td> <td class="tcc allb"><i>a.</i></td> <td class="tcc allb"><i>b.</i></td> <td class="tcc allb">100 <i>b/a.</i></td> <td class="tcc allb"><i>a.</i></td> <td class="tcc allb"><i>b.</i></td> <td class="tcc allb">100 <i>b/a.</i></td> <td class="tcc allb"><i>a.</i></td> <td class="tcc allb"><i>b.</i></td> <td class="tcc allb">100 <i>b/a.</i></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl lb" colspan="2">Pavlovsk, 1890-1900</td> <td class="tcl rb">all</td> <td class="tcc rb">5.74</td> <td class="tcc rb">.0400</td> <td class="tcc rb">.70</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.24</td> <td class="tcc rb">.0126</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.01</td> <td class="tcc rb">20.7</td> <td class="tcc rb">.211</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.02</td> <td class="tcc rb">8.1</td> <td class="tcc rb">.265</td> <td class="tcc rb">3.26</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl lb" colspan="2">Pavlovsk, 1890-1900</td> <td class="tcl rb">quiet</td> <td class="tcc rb">6.17</td> <td class="tcc rb">.0424</td> <td class="tcc rb">.69</td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb">20.6</td> <td class="tcc rb">.195</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.95</td> <td class="tcc rb">5.9</td> <td class="tcc rb">.027</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.46</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb" colspan="2">Pavlovsk, 1890-1900</td> <td class="tcl rb">quiet</td> <td class="tcc rb">6.17</td> <td class="tcc rb">.0424</td> <td class="tcc rb">.69</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcc rb">20.6</td> <td class="tcc rb">.195</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.95</td> <td class="tcc rb">5.9</td> <td class="tcc rb">.027</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.46</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl lb" colspan="2">Ekatarinburg, 1890-1900</td> <td class="tcl rb">all</td> <td class="tcc rb">5.29</td> <td class="tcc rb">.0342</td> <td class="tcc rb">.65</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.93</td> <td class="tcc rb">.0105</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.13</td> <td class="tcc rb">16.8</td> <td class="tcc rb">.182</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.09</td> <td class="tcc rb">8.6</td> <td class="tcc rb">.117</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.37</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl lb" colspan="2">Irkutsk , 1890-1900</td> <td class="tcl rb">all</td> <td class="tcc rb">4.82</td> <td class="tcc rb">.0358</td> <td class="tcc rb">.74</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.97</td> <td class="tcc rb">.0087</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.90</td> <td class="tcc rb">18.2</td> <td class="tcc rb">.190</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.04</td> <td class="tcc rb">6.5</td> <td class="tcc rb">.071</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.09</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl lb" colspan="2">Kew, 1890-1900</td> <td class="tcl rb">quiet</td> <td class="tcc rb">6.10</td> <td class="tcc rb">.0433</td> <td class="tcc rb">.71</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.87</td> <td class="tcc rb">.0125</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.45</td> <td class="tcc rb">18.1</td> <td class="tcc rb">.194</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.07</td> <td class="tcc rb">14.3 </td> <td class="tcc rb">.081</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.56</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl lb" colspan="2">Falmouth, 1891-1902</td> <td class="tcl rb">quiet</td> <td class="tcc rb">5.90</td> <td class="tcc rb">.0451</td> <td class="tcc rb">.76</td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb">20.1</td> <td class="tcc rb">.233</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.16</td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl lb" colspan="2">Kolaba, 1894-1901</td> <td class="tcl rb">quiet</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.37</td> <td class="tcc rb">.0066</td> <td class="tcc rb">.28</td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb">31.6</td> <td class="tcc rb">.281</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.89</td> <td class="tcc rb">19.4 </td> <td class="tcc rb">.072</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.37</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb" colspan="2">Falmouth, 1891-1902</td> <td class="tcl rb">quiet</td> <td class="tcc rb">5.90</td> <td class="tcc rb">.0451</td> <td class="tcc rb">.76</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcc rb">20.1</td> <td class="tcc rb">.233</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.16</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb" colspan="2">Kolaba, 1894-1901</td> <td class="tcl rb">quiet</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.37</td> <td class="tcc rb">.0066</td> <td class="tcc rb">.28</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcc rb">31.6</td> <td class="tcc rb">.281</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.89</td> <td class="tcc rb">19.4 </td> <td class="tcc rb">.072</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.37</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl lb" colspan="2">Batavia, 1887-1898</td> <td class="tcl rb">all</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.47</td> <td class="tcc rb">.0179</td> <td class="tcc rb">.72</td> <td class="tcc rb">3.60</td> <td class="tcc rb">.0218</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.61</td> <td class="tcc rb">38.7</td> <td class="tcc rb">.274</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.71</td> <td class="tcc rb">30.1 </td> <td class="tcc rb">.156</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.52</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tclm lb bb">Mauritius</td> <td class="tccm bb cl">1875-1880<br />1883-1890</td> <td class="tclm rb">all</td> <td class="tccm rb bb">4.06</td> <td class="tccm rb bb">.0164</td> <td class="tccm rb bb">.40</td> <td class="tccm rb bb"> </td> <td class="tccm rb bb"> </td> <td class="tccm rb bb"> </td> <td class="tccm rb bb">15.0</td> <td class="tccm rb bb">.096</td> <td class="tccm rb bb">0.64</td> <td class="tccm rb bb">11.9 </td> <td class="tccm rb bb">.069</td> <td class="tccm rb bb">0.58</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tclm lb bb">Mauritius</td> <td class="tccm bb cl">1875-1880<br />1883-1890</td> <td class="tclm rb">all</td> <td class="tccm rb bb">4.06</td> <td class="tccm rb bb">.0164</td> <td class="tccm rb bb">.40</td> <td class="tccm rb bb">· ·</td> <td class="tccm rb bb">· ·</td> <td class="tccm rb bb">· ·</td> <td class="tccm rb bb">15.0</td> <td class="tccm rb bb">.096</td> <td class="tccm rb bb">0.64</td> <td class="tccm rb bb">11.9 </td> <td class="tccm rb bb">.069</td> <td class="tccm rb bb">0.58</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl lb rb" colspan="3"><i>Mean from individual months:—</i></td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl lb" colspan="2">Pavlovsk, 1890-1900</td> <td class="tcl rb">all</td> <td class="tcc rb">6.81</td> <td class="tcc rb">.0446</td> <td class="tcc rb">.66</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.44</td> <td class="tcc rb">.0151</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.05</td> <td class="tcc rb">22.8</td> <td class="tcc rb">.243</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.07</td> <td class="tcc rb">9.7</td> <td class="tcc rb">.287</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.97</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl lb" colspan="2">Pavlovsk, 1890-1900</td> <td class="tcl rb">quiet</td> <td class="tcc rb">6.52</td> <td class="tcc rb">.0442</td> <td class="tcc rb">.68</td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb">22.2</td> <td class="tcc rb">.208</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.94</td> <td class="tcc rb">7.0</td> <td class="tcc rb">.044</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.63</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb" colspan="2">Pavlovsk, 1890-1900</td> <td class="tcl rb">quiet</td> <td class="tcc rb">6.52</td> <td class="tcc rb">.0442</td> <td class="tcc rb">.68</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcc rb">22.2</td> <td class="tcc rb">.208</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.94</td> <td class="tcc rb">7.0</td> <td class="tcc rb">.044</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.63</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl lb" colspan="2">Ekatarinburg, 1890-1900</td> <td class="tcl rb">all</td> <td class="tcc rb">6.18</td> <td class="tcc rb">.0355</td> <td class="tcc rb">.58</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.12</td> <td class="tcc rb">.0120</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.06</td> <td class="tcc rb">19.2</td> <td class="tcc rb">.195</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.01</td> <td class="tcc rb">9.2</td> <td class="tcc rb">.156</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.70</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl lb" colspan="2">Greenwich, 1865-1896</td> <td class="tcl rb">all</td> <td class="tcc rb">7.07</td> <td class="tcc rb">.0396</td> <td class="tcc rb">.56</td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb">23.6</td> <td class="tcc rb">.215</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.91</td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl lb" colspan="2">Kew, 1890-1900</td> <td class="tcl rb">all</td> <td class="tcc rb">6.65</td> <td class="tcc rb">.0428</td> <td class="tcc rb">.64</td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb" colspan="2">Greenwich, 1865-1896</td> <td class="tcl rb">all</td> <td class="tcc rb">7.07</td> <td class="tcc rb">.0396</td> <td class="tcc rb">.56</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcc rb">23.6</td> <td class="tcc rb">.215</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.91</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb" colspan="2">Kew, 1890-1900</td> <td class="tcl rb">all</td> <td class="tcc rb">6.65</td> <td class="tcc rb">.0428</td> <td class="tcc rb">.64</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl lb" colspan="2">Kew, 1890-1900</td> <td class="tcl rb">quiet</td> <td class="tcc rb">6.49</td> <td class="tcc rb">.0410</td> <td class="tcc rb">.63</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.17</td> <td class="tcc rb">.0130</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.11</td> <td class="tcc rb">21.5</td> <td class="tcc rb">.191</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.89</td> <td class="tcc rb">16.0 </td> <td class="tcc rb">.072</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.45</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl lb bb" colspan="2">Falmouth, 1891-1902</td> <td class="tcl rb bb">quiet</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">6.16</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">.0450</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">.73</td> <td class="tcc rb bb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb bb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb bb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb bb">20.9</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">.236</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">1.13</td> <td class="tcc rb bb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb bb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb bb"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb bb" colspan="2">Falmouth, 1891-1902</td> <td class="tcl rb bb">quiet</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">6.16</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">.0450</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">.73</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">· ·</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">· ·</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">· ·</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">20.9</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">.236</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">1.13</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">· ·</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">· ·</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">· ·</td></tr> </table> <p>Applying Wolf’s formula to the diurnal ranges for different months @@ -19673,7 +19634,7 @@ obtained from the ranges. This indicates that the inequality curve is relatively less peaked in years of many than in years of few sun-spots.</p> -<p> 28. The applications of Ellis’s and Wolf’s methods relate directly +<p>§ 28. The applications of Ellis’s and Wolf’s methods relate directly only to the amplitude of the diurnal changes. There is, however, a change not merely in amplitude but in type. This is clearly seen when we compare the values found in years of many and of few sun-spots @@ -19715,21 +19676,21 @@ Sun-spots.</p> <tr><td class="tcc lb rb">c<span class="su">3</span></td> <td class="tcc rb">0.89</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.72</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.55</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.42</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.16</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.97</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.97</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.77</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">c<span class="su">4</span></td> <td class="tcc rb bb">0.28</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">0.27</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">0.30</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">0.27</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">0.42</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">0.42</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">0.11</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">0.11</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcc lb rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"></td> <td class="tcc rb"></td> <td class="tcc rb"></td> <td class="tcc rb"></td> <td class="tcc rb"></td> <td class="tcc rb"></td> <td class="tcc rb"></td> <td class="tcc rb"></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb">°</td> <td class="tcc rb">°</td> <td class="tcc rb">°</td> <td class="tcc rb">°</td> <td class="tcc rb">°</td> <td class="tcc rb">°</td> <td class="tcc rb">°</td> <td class="tcc rb">°</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcc lb rb">α<span class="su">1</span></td> <td class="tcc rb">228.5 </td> <td class="tcc rb">232.4 </td> <td class="tcc rb">243.0 </td> <td class="tcc rb">256.0 </td> <td class="tcc rb">231.3 </td> <td class="tcc rb">233.7 </td> <td class="tcc rb">218.2 </td> <td class="tcc rb">220.3 </td></tr> <tr><td class="tcc lb rb">α<span class="su">2</span></td> <td class="tcc rb">41.7</td> <td class="tcc rb">46.6</td> <td class="tcc rb">23.5</td> <td class="tcc rb">36.9</td> <td class="tcc rb">40.6</td> <td class="tcc rb">43.9</td> <td class="tcc rb">50.6</td> <td class="tcc rb">52.5</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcc lb rb">α<span class="su">3</span></td> <td class="tcc rb">232.6 </td> <td class="tcc rb">243.6 </td> <td class="tcc rb">234.0 </td> <td class="tcc rb">257.6 </td> <td class="tcc rb">228.4 </td> <td class="tcc rb">236.2 </td> <td class="tcc rb">236.8 </td> <td class="tcc rb">245.4 </td></tr> <tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">α<span class="su">4</span></td> <td class="tcc rb bb">58.0</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">57.3</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">52.3</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">60.8</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">62.0</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">58.2</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">57.4</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">45.2</td></tr> </table> -<p> 29. There have already been references to <i>quiet</i> days, for instance +<p>§ 29. There have already been references to <i>quiet</i> days, for instance in the tables of diurnal inequalities. It seems to have been originally supposed that quiet days differed from other days only <span class="sidenote">Quiet Day Phenomena.</span> in the absence of irregular disturbances, and that mean annual values, or secular change data, or diurnal inequalities, derived from them might be regarded as truly normal or representative -of the station. It was found, however, by P. A. Mller<a name="fa29g" id="fa29g" href="#ft29g"><span class="sp">29</span></a> +of the station. It was found, however, by P. A. Müller<a name="fa29g" id="fa29g" href="#ft29g"><span class="sp">29</span></a> that mean annual values of the magnetic elements at St Petersburg and Pavlovsk from 1873 to 1885 derived from quiet days alone differed in a systematic fashion from those derived from all days, @@ -19745,7 +19706,7 @@ all-day means in these two cases were as follows:—</p> </table> <p class="noind">The sign of the difference in the case of D, I and H was the same in -each year examined by Mller, and the same was true of H at Greenwich. +each year examined by Müller, and the same was true of H at Greenwich. In the case of V, and of D at Greenwich, the differences are <span class="pagenum"><a name="page373" id="page373"></a>373</span> small and might be accidental. In the case of D at Greenwich 1891 @@ -19831,7 +19792,7 @@ the case of D movement to the west. At Falmouth<a href="#ft32g"><span class="sp" Kew, the non-cyclic change showed a tendency to be small in years of few sun-spots.</p> -<p> 30. In calculating diurnal inequalities from quiet days the non-cyclic +<p>§ 30. In calculating diurnal inequalities from quiet days the non-cyclic effect must be eliminated, otherwise the result would depend on the hour at which the “day” is supposed to commence. If the value recorded at the second midnight of the average day exceeds @@ -19843,14 +19804,14 @@ this is practically the case—a matter difficult either to prove or disprove—the correction may not secure exactly what is aimed at. This method has been employed in the previous tables. The fact that differences do exist between diurnal inequalities derived from -quiet days and all ordinary days was stated explicitly in 4, and is +quiet days and all ordinary days was stated explicitly in § 4, and is obvious in Tables VIII. to XI. An extreme case is represented by the data for Jan Mayen in these tables. Figs. 9 and 10 are vector diagrams for this station, for all and for quiet days during May, June -and July 1883, according to data got out by Ldeling. As shown +and July 1883, according to data got out by Lüdeling. As shown by the arrows, fig. 10 (quiet days) is in the main described in the normal or clockwise direction, but fig. 9 (all days) is described in -the opposite direction. Ldeling found this peculiar difference +the opposite direction. Lüdeling found this peculiar difference between all and quiet days at all the north polar stations occupied in 1882-1883 except Kingua Fjord, where both diagrams were described clockwise.</p> @@ -19885,7 +19846,7 @@ the inequality range is but little different for the two types of days, the mean of the hourly differences from the mean for the day is considerably reduced in the quiet days. The 24-hour term in the Fourier analysis is of smaller amplitude in the quiet days, and its -phase angle is on the average about 6.75 smaller than on ordinary +phase angle is on the average about 6°.75 smaller than on ordinary days, implying a retardation of about 27 minutes in the time of maximum. The diurnal inequality range is more variable throughout the year in quiet days than on ordinary days, and the same is true of @@ -19950,7 +19911,7 @@ the average quiet day of the period.</p> <tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">12 </td> <td class="tcc rb bb">+0.45</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">+0.44</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">+0.38</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">−0.54</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">−0.61</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">−0.67</td></tr> </table> -<p> 31. A satisfactory definition of magnetic disturbance is about +<p>§ 31. A satisfactory definition of magnetic disturbance is about as difficult to lay down as one of heterodoxy. The idea in its generality seems to present no difficulty, but it is a very different matter when one comes to details. Amongst @@ -20138,10 +20099,10 @@ larger than this.</p> <tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb"> 9-12</td> <td class="tcc rb bb"> 5.9</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">25.0</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">11.2</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">10.5</td> <td class="tcc rb bb"> 7.8</td> <td class="tcc rb bb"> 4.7</td> <td class="tcc rb bb"> 0.4</td> <td class="tcc rb bb"> 3.8</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">12.0</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">11.1</td> <td class="tcc rb bb"> 5.6</td> <td class="tcc rb bb"> 5.4</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Mean number<br /> per day</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.88</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.72</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.15</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.56</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.04</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.96</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.46</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.44</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.62</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.61</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.19</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.13</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">Mean size</td> <td class="tcc rb bb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb bb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb bb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb bb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb bb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb bb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb bb">1.72</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">1.69</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">18.0</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">19.5</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">16.7</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">15.5</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">Mean size</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">· ·</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">· ·</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">· ·</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">· ·</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">· ·</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">· ·</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">1.72</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">1.69</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">18.0</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">19.5</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">16.7</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">15.5</td></tr> </table> -<p> 32. From the point of view of the surveyor there is a good deal +<p>§ 32. From the point of view of the surveyor there is a good deal to be said for Sabine’s definition of disturbance, but it is less satisfactory from other standpoints. One objection has been already indicated, viz. the arbitrariness of applying the same limiting value @@ -20234,7 +20195,7 @@ disturbed year. Still, such a source of uncertainty is unlikely to have much influence on the diurnal, or even on the annual, variation.</p> -<p> 33. A third method of investigating a diurnal period in disturbances +<p>§ 33. A third method of investigating a diurnal period in disturbances is to form a diurnal inequality from disturbed days alone, and compare it with the corresponding inequalities from ordinary or from quiet days. Table XXXV. gives some declination data for Kew, @@ -20259,7 +20220,7 @@ are of the same general character as those between ordinary and quiet days in Table XXIX.; they are, however, very much larger, the range -in Table XXXV. being fully 5 times +in Table XXXV. being fully 5½ times that in Table XXIX. If quiet days had replaced ordinary days in Table XXXV., the algebraic excess of the @@ -20267,7 +20228,7 @@ disturbed day would have varied from +2′.7 at 2 p.m. to −4′.1 at 11 p.m., or a range of 6′.8.</p> -<p> 34. When the mean diurnal inequality in declination for the year +<p>§ 34. When the mean diurnal inequality in declination for the year at Kew is analysed into Fourier waves, the chief difference, it will be remembered, between ordinary and quiet days was that the amplitude of the 24-hour term was enhanced in the ordinary days, whilst @@ -20293,7 +20254,7 @@ inequality on disturbed days; but whether this is the general rule or merely a local peculiarity is a subject for further research.</p> -<p> 35. There are still other ways of attacking +<p>§ 35. There are still other ways of attacking the problem of disturbances. W. Ellis<a href="#ft27g"><span class="sp">27</span></a> made a complete list of disturbed days at Greenwich from 1848 onwards, arranging @@ -20388,7 +20349,7 @@ minimum frequency of endings and conversely; but the hours at which the respective maxima and minima occur at the two places differ rather notably.</p> -<p> 36. There are peculiarities in the sudden movements ushering +<p>§ 36. There are peculiarities in the sudden movements ushering in magnetic storms which deserve fuller mention. According to van Bemmelen the impulse consists usually at some stations of a sudden slight jerk of the magnet in one direction, followed @@ -20464,7 +20425,7 @@ Distribution.</p> <tr><td class="tcc rb bb">1882-1903</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">sudden</td> <td class="tcc rb bb"> 77</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">11.7</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">35.1</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">53.2</td></tr> </table> -<p> 37. That large magnetic disturbances occur simultaneously +<p>§ 37. That large magnetic disturbances occur simultaneously over large areas was known in the time of Gauss, on whose initiative observations were taken at 5-minute intervals at a number of stations <span class="pagenum"><a name="page377" id="page377"></a>377</span> @@ -20530,7 +20491,7 @@ earlier than Maunder, Arthur Harvey<a name="fa46g" id="fa46g" href="#ft46g"><spa days from a consideration of magnetic disturbances at Toronto. A. Schuster,<a name="fa47g" id="fa47g" href="#ft47g"><span class="sp">47</span></a> examining Maunder’s data mathematically, concluded that they afforded rather strong evidence of a period of about - (27.28) or 13.6 days. Maunder regarded his results as <i>demonstrating</i> +½ (27.28) or 13.6 days. Maunder regarded his results as <i>demonstrating</i> that magnetic disturbances originate in the sun. He regarded the solar action as arising from active areas of limited extent on the sun’s surface, and as propagated along narrow, well @@ -20549,11 +20510,11 @@ make the time of transmission to the earth slightly under two days. Amongst other theories which ascribe magnetic storms to direct solar action may be mentioned that of Kr. Birkeland,<a name="fa49g" id="fa49g" href="#ft49g"><span class="sp">49</span></a> who believes the vehicle to be cathode rays. Ch. Nordmann<a name="fa50g" id="fa50g" href="#ft50g"><span class="sp">50</span></a> similarly has -suggested Rntgen rays. Supposing the sun the ultimate source, +suggested Röntgen rays. Supposing the sun the ultimate source, it would be easier to discriminate between the theories if the exact time of the originating occurrence could be fixed. For instance, a disturbance that is propagated with the velocity of light may be -due to Rntgen rays, but not to Arrhenius’s particles. In support of +due to Röntgen rays, but not to Arrhenius’s particles. In support of his theory, Nordmann mentions several cases when conspicuous visual phenomena on the sun have synchronized with magnetic movements on the earth—the best known instance being the apparent @@ -20581,7 +20542,7 @@ lasts for several minutes, often for 10, 15 or 30 minutes. Thus the cause to which magnetic disturbances are due seems in many cases to be persistent in one direction for a considerable time.</p> -<p> 38. Attempts have been made to discriminate between the +<p>§ 38. Attempts have been made to discriminate between the theories as to magnetic storms by a critical examination of the phenomena. A general connexion between sun-spot frequency and the amplitude of magnetic movements, regular and irregular, @@ -20707,7 +20668,7 @@ extent of days of large and days of small magnetic range, but it is unusual for the range to be much above the average for more than 3 or 4 successive days.</p> -<p> 39. The records from ordinary magnetographs, even when run +<p>§ 39. The records from ordinary magnetographs, even when run at the usual rate and with normal sensitiveness, not infrequently show a repetition of regular or nearly regular small rhythmic movements, lasting sometimes for hours. The amplitude @@ -20775,7 +20736,7 @@ artificial disturbances.</p> <tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">Kew</td> <td class="tcc rb bb"> 4</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">8</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">19</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">14</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">22</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">18</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">11</td> <td class="tcc rb bb"> 4</td></tr> </table> -<p> 40. The fact that the moon exerts a small but sensible effect +<p>§ 40. The fact that the moon exerts a small but sensible effect on the earth’s magnetism seems to have been first discovered in 1841 by C. Kreil. Subsequently Sabine<a name="fa55g" id="fa55g" href="#ft55g"><span class="sp">55</span></a> investigated the nature of the lunar diurnal variation in declination @@ -20915,7 +20876,7 @@ difficulty in these investigations is that we are dealing with a small effect, and a very long series of data would be required satisfactorily to eliminate other periodic influences.</p> -<p> 41. From an analysis of seventeen years data at St Petersburg +<p>§ 41. From an analysis of seventeen years data at St Petersburg and Pavlovsk, Leyst<a name="fa60g" id="fa60g" href="#ft60g"><span class="sp">60</span></a> concluded that all the principal planets sensibly influence the earth’s magnetism. According to his figures, all the planets except Mercury—whose influence @@ -20928,7 +20889,7 @@ Schuster,<a name="fa61g" id="fa61g" href="#ft61g"><span class="sp">61</span></a> by Leyst from the mathematical standpoint, considers it to be inconclusive.</p> -<p> 42. The best way of carrying out a magnetic survey depends on +<p>§ 42. The best way of carrying out a magnetic survey depends on where it has to be made and on the object in view. The object that probably still comes first in importance is a knowledge of the declination, of sufficient accuracy for navigation @@ -20984,10 +20945,10 @@ on land. In Scandinavia use has been made of magnetic observations in prospecting for iron ore. There are also various geological and geodetic problems to whose solution magnetic surveys may afford valuable guidance. Among the most important recent surveys may -be mentioned those of the British Isles by A. Rcker and T. E. +be mentioned those of the British Isles by A. Rücker and T. E. Thorpe,<a name="fa62g" id="fa62g" href="#ft62g"><span class="sp">62</span></a> of France and Algeria by Moureaux,<a name="fa63g" id="fa63g" href="#ft63g"><span class="sp">63</span></a> of Italy by Chistoni and Palazzo,<a name="fa64g" id="fa64g" href="#ft64g"><span class="sp">64</span></a> of the Netherlands by Van Ryckevorsel,<a name="fa65g" id="fa65g" href="#ft65g"><span class="sp">65</span></a> of South -Sweden by Carlheim Gyllenskild,<a name="fa66g" id="fa66g" href="#ft66g"><span class="sp">66</span></a> of Austria-Hungary by Liznar,<a name="fa67g" id="fa67g" href="#ft67g"><span class="sp">67</span></a> +Sweden by Carlheim Gyllenskiöld,<a name="fa66g" id="fa66g" href="#ft66g"><span class="sp">66</span></a> of Austria-Hungary by Liznar,<a name="fa67g" id="fa67g" href="#ft67g"><span class="sp">67</span></a> of Japan by Tanakadate,<a name="fa68g" id="fa68g" href="#ft68g"><span class="sp">68</span></a> of the East Indies by Van Bemmelen, and South Africa by J. C. Beattie. A survey of the United States has been proceeding for a good many years, and many results have @@ -21046,7 +21007,7 @@ value for the month and the value at the actual hour of observation. There is here a difficulty, inasmuch as the latter part of the correction depends on the diurnal inequality, and so on the local time of the station. No altogether satisfactory method of surmounting this -difficulty has yet been proposed. Rcker and Thorpe in their +difficulty has yet been proposed. Rücker and Thorpe in their British survey assumed that the divergence from the mean value at any hour at any station might be regarded as made up of a regular diurnal inequality, identical with that at Kew when both were @@ -21083,7 +21044,7 @@ the effects of regular and irregular diurnal changes could be derived from the records of fixed observations, supposed suitably situated, combined in formulae of the same type as (i).</p> -<p> 43. The field results having been reduced to a fixed epoch, it +<p>§ 43. The field results having been reduced to a fixed epoch, it remains to combine them in ways likely to be useful. In most cases the results are embodied in charts, usually of at least two kinds, one set showing only general features, the other the chief local peculiarities. @@ -21094,7 +21055,7 @@ particular isogonal is to be regarded as really a mean from a considerable surrounding area.</p> <p>Various ways have been utilized for arriving at these <i>terrestrial -isomagnetics</i>—as Rcker and Thorpe call them—of which an elaborate +isomagnetics</i>—as Rücker and Thorpe call them—of which an elaborate discussion has been made by E. Mathias.<a name="fa69g" id="fa69g" href="#ft69g"><span class="sp">69</span></a> From a theoretical standpoint the simplest method is perhaps that employed by Liznar for Austria-Hungary. Let <i>l</i> and λ represent latitude and longitude @@ -21102,7 +21063,7 @@ relative to a certain central station in the area. Then assume that throughout the area the value E of any particular magnetic element is given by a formula</p> -<p class="center">E = E<span class="su">0</span> + al + bλ + cl + dλ + elλ,</p> +<p class="center">E = E<span class="su">0</span> + al + bλ + cl² + dλ² + elλ,</p> <p class="noind">where E<span class="su">0</span>, a, b, c, d, e are absolute constants to be determined from the observations. When determining the constants, we write for @@ -21115,7 +21076,7 @@ method. In Liznar’s case there were 195 stations, so that the labour of applying least squares would be considerable. This is one objection to the method. A second is that it may allow undesirably large weight to a few highly disturbed stations. In the case of the British -Isles, Rcker and Thorpe employed a different method. The area +Isles, Rücker and Thorpe employed a different method. The area was split up into <i>districts</i>. For each district a mean was formed of the observed values of each element, and the mean was assigned to an imaginary central station, whose geographical co-ordinates @@ -21126,7 +21087,7 @@ value of the element found for the central station of a district, it was assumed that the value E at any actual station whose latitude and longitude exceeded those of the central station by l and λ was given by E = E<span class="su">0</span> + al + bλ, with a and b constants throughout the -district. Having found E<span class="su">0</span>, a and b, Rcker and Thorpe calculated +district. Having found E<span class="su">0</span>, a and b, Rücker and Thorpe calculated values of the element for points defined by whole degrees of longitude (from Greenwich) and half degrees of latitude. Near the common border of two districts there would be two calculated values, of @@ -21135,53 +21096,53 @@ which the arithmetic mean was accepted.</p> <p>The next step was to determine by interpolation where isogonals—or other isomagnetic lines—cut successive lines of latitude. The curves formed by joining these successive points of intersection were -called <i>district</i> lines or curves. Rcker and Thorpe’s next step was to +called <i>district</i> lines or curves. Rücker and Thorpe’s next step was to obtain formulae by trial, giving smooth curves of continuous curvature—terrestrial isomagnetics—approximating as closely as possible to the district lines. The curves thus obtained had somewhat -complicated formulae. For instance, the isogonals south of 54.5 +complicated formulae. For instance, the isogonals south of 54°.5 latitude were given for the epoch Jan. 1, 1891 by</p> -<p class="center">D = 18 37′ + 18′.5 (l − 49.5) − 3′.5 cos {45 (l − 49.5) }<br /> -+ {26′.3 + 1′.5 (l − 49.5) } (λ − 4) + 0′.01 (λ − 4) (l − 54.5),</p> +<p class="center">D = 18° 37′ + 18′.5 (l − 49.5) − 3′.5 cos {45° (l − 49.5) }<br /> ++ {26′.3 + 1′.5 (l − 49.5) } (λ − 4) + 0′.01 (λ − 4)² (l − 54.5)²,</p> <p class="noind">where D denotes the westerly declination. Supposing, what is at least approximately true, that the secular change in Great Britain -since 1891 has been uniform south of lat. 54.5, corresponding +since 1891 has been uniform south of lat. 54°.5, corresponding formulae for the epochs Jan. 1, 1901, and Jan. 1, 1906, could be -obtained by substituting for 18 37′ the values 17 44′ and 17 24′ +obtained by substituting for 18° 37′ the values 17° 44′ and 17° 24′ respectively. In their very laborious and important memoir -E. Mathias and B. Baillaud<a href="#ft69g"><span class="sp">69</span></a> have applied to Rcker and Thorpe’s -observations a method which is a combination of Rcker and -Thorpe’s and of Liznar’s. Taking Rcker and Thorpe’s nine +E. Mathias and B. Baillaud<a href="#ft69g"><span class="sp">69</span></a> have applied to Rücker and Thorpe’s +observations a method which is a combination of Rücker and +Thorpe’s and of Liznar’s. Taking Rücker and Thorpe’s nine districts, and the magnetic data found for the nine imaginary central stations, they employed these to determine the six constants of Liznar’s formula. This is an immense simplification in arithmetic. The declination formula thus obtained for the epoch Jan. 1, 1891, was</p> -<p class="center">D = 20 45′.89 + .53474λ + .34716l + .000021λ<br /> -+ .000343lλ − .000239l,</p> +<p class="center">D = 20° 45′.89 + .53474λ + .34716l + .000021λ²<br /> ++ .000343lλ − .000239l²,</p> -<p class="noind">where l + (53 30′.5) represents the latitude, and (λ + 5 35′.2) the +<p class="noind">where l + (53° 30′.5) represents the latitude, and (λ + 5° 35′.2) the west longitude of the station. From this and the corresponding formulae for the other elements, values were calculated for each of -Rcker and Thorpe’s 882 stations, and these were compared with the +Rücker and Thorpe’s 882 stations, and these were compared with the observed values. A complete record is given of the differences between the observed and calculated values, and of the corresponding -differences obtained by Rcker and Thorpe from their own formulae. +differences obtained by Rücker and Thorpe from their own formulae. The mean numerical (calculated ~ observed) differences from the two different methods are almost exactly the same—being approximately -10′ for declination, 5′ for inclination, and 70γ for horizontal +10′ for declination, 5′½ for inclination, and 70γ for horizontal force. The applications by Mathias<a href="#ft69g"><span class="sp">69</span></a> of his method to the survey data of France obtained by Moureaux, and those of the Netherlands -obtained by van Rjckevorsel, appear equally successful. The +obtained by van Rïjckevorsel, appear equally successful. The method dispenses entirely with district curves, and the parabolic formulae are perfectly straightforward both to calculate and to apply; they thus appear to possess marked advantages. Whether the method could be applied equally satisfactorily to an area of the size of India or the United States actual trial alone would show.</p> -<p> 44. Rcker and Thorpe regarded their terrestrial isomagnetics +<p>§ 44. Rücker and Thorpe regarded their terrestrial isomagnetics and the corresponding formulae as representing the normal field that would exist in the absence of disturbances <span class="sidenote">Local Disturbances.</span> @@ -21190,44 +21151,44 @@ derived from the formulae from those observed, we obtain forces which may be ascribed to regional disturbance.</p> <p>When the vertical disturbing force is downwards, or the observed -vertical component larger than the calculated, Rcker and Thorpe +vertical component larger than the calculated, Rücker and Thorpe regard it as positive, and the loci where the largest positive values occur they termed <i>ridge lines</i>. The corresponding loci where the largest negative values occur were called <i>valley lines</i>. In the British -Isles Rcker and Thorpe found that almost without exception, in +Isles Rücker and Thorpe found that almost without exception, in the neighbourhood of a ridge line, the horizontal component of the disturbing force pointed towards it, throughout a considerable area on both sides. The phenomena are similar to what would occur if ridge lines indicated the position of the summits of underground masses of magnetic material, magnetized so as to attract -the north-seeking pole of a magnet. Rcker and Thorpe were +the north-seeking pole of a magnet. Rücker and Thorpe were inclined to believe in the real existence of these subterranean magnetic mountains, and inferred that they must be of considerable extent, as theory and observation alike indicate that thin basaltic sheets or dykes, or limited masses of trap rock, produce no measurable magnetic effect except in their immediate vicinity. In support -of their conclusions, Rcker and Thorpe dwell on the fact that in +of their conclusions, Rücker and Thorpe dwell on the fact that in the United Kingdom large masses of basalt such as occur in Skye, Mull, Antrim, North Wales or the Scottish coalfield, are according to their survey invariably centres of attraction for the north-seeking pole of a magnet. Various cases of repulsion have, however, been described by other observers in the northern hemisphere.</p> -<p> 45. Rcker and Thorpe did not make a very minute examination +<p>§ 45. Rücker and Thorpe did not make a very minute examination of disturbed areas, so that purely local disturbances larger than any noticed by them may exist in the United Kingdom. But any that exist are unlikely to rival some that have been observed elsewhere, notably those in the province of Kursk in Russia described by Moureaux<a name="fa70g" id="fa70g" href="#ft70g"><span class="sp">70</span></a> and by E. Leyst.<a name="fa71g" id="fa71g" href="#ft71g"><span class="sp">71</span></a> In Kursk Leyst observed declinations -varying from 0 to 360, inclinations varying from 39.1 to -90; he obtained values of the horizontal force varying from 0 to +varying from 0° to 360°, inclinations varying from 39°.1 to +90°; he obtained values of the horizontal force varying from 0 to 0.856 C.G.S., and values of the vertical force varying from 0.371 to 1.836. Another highly disturbed Russian district Krivoi Rog <span class="pagenum"><a name="page381" id="page381"></a>381</span> -(48 N. lat. 33 E. long.) was elaborately surveyed by Paul Passalsky.<a name="fa72g" id="fa72g" href="#ft72g"><span class="sp">72</span></a> +(48° N. lat. 33° E. long.) was elaborately surveyed by Paul Passalsky.<a name="fa72g" id="fa72g" href="#ft72g"><span class="sp">72</span></a> The extreme values observed by him differed, the declination by -282 40′, the inclination by 41 53′, horizontal force by 0.658, and -vertical force by 1.358. At one spot a difference of 116 was observed +282° 40′, the inclination by 41° 53′, horizontal force by 0.658, and +vertical force by 1.358. At one spot a difference of 116°½ was observed between the declinations at two positions only 42 metres apart. In cases such as the last mentioned, the source of disturbance comes presumably very near the surface. It is improbable that any @@ -21235,16 +21196,16 @@ such enormously rapid changes of declination can be experienced anywhere at the surface of a deep ocean. But in shallow water disturbances of a not very inferior order of magnitude have been met with. Possibly the most outstanding case known is that of an -area, about 3 m. long by 1 m. at its widest, near Port Walcott, off +area, about 3 m. long by 1¼ m. at its widest, near Port Walcott, off the N.W. Australian coast. The results of a minute survey made here by H.M.S. “Penguin” have been discussed by Captain E. W. Creak.<a name="fa73g" id="fa73g" href="#ft73g"><span class="sp">73</span></a> Within the narrow area specified, declination varied from -26 W. to 56 E., and inclination from 50 to nearly 80, the observations +26° W. to 56° E., and inclination from 50° to nearly 80°, the observations being taken some 80 ft. above sea bottom. Another noteworthy case, though hardly comparable with the above, is that of East Loch Roag at Lewis in the Hebrides. A survey by H.M.S. “Research” in water about 100 ft. deep—discussed by Admiral -A. M. Field<a name="fa74g" id="fa74g" href="#ft74g"><span class="sp">74</span></a>—showed a range of 11 in declination. The largest +A. M. Field<a name="fa74g" id="fa74g" href="#ft74g"><span class="sp">74</span></a>—showed a range of 11° in declination. The largest observed disturbances in horizontal and vertical force were of the order 0.02 and 0.05 C.G.S. respectively. An interesting feature in this case was that vertical force was reduced, there being a well-marked @@ -21259,7 +21220,7 @@ of the plumb line from the normal had been observed. He found a magnetic ridge line running approximately parallel to the line of no deflection of the plumb line.</p> -<p> 46. A question of interest, about which however not very much +<p>§ 46. A question of interest, about which however not very much is known, is the effect of local disturbance on secular change and on the diurnal inequality. The determination of secular change in a highly disturbed locality is difficult, because an unintentional @@ -21303,25 +21264,25 @@ observatories this consideration seems sometimes to have been lost sight of. At Mauritius, for instance, inside of a circle of only 56 ft. radius, having for centre the declination pillar of the absolute magnetic hut of the Royal Alfred Observatory, T. F. Claxton<a name="fa77g" id="fa77g" href="#ft77g"><span class="sp">77</span></a> -found that the declination varied from 4 56′ to 13 45′ W., the inclination -from 50 21′ to 58 34′ S., and the horizontal force from -0.197 to 0.244 C.G.S. At one spot he found an alteration of 1<span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">3</span> +found that the declination varied from 4° 56′ to 13° 45′ W., the inclination +from 50° 21′ to 58° 34′ S., and the horizontal force from +0.197 to 0.244 C.G.S. At one spot he found an alteration of 1°<span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">3</span> in the declination when the magnet was lowered from 4 ft. above the ground to 2. Disturbances of this order could hardly escape even a rough investigation of the site.</p> -<p> 47. If we assume the magnetic force on the earth’s surface +<p>§ 47. If we assume the magnetic force on the earth’s surface <span class="sidenote">Gaussian Potential and Constants.</span> derivable from a potential V, we can express V as the sum of two series of solid spherical harmonics, one containing negative, the other positive integral powers of the radius vector r from the earth’s centre. Let λ denote east -longitude from Greenwich, and let μ = cos (π − l), +longitude from Greenwich, and let μ = cos (½π − l), where l is latitude; and also let</p> <table class="math0" style="clear: both;" summary="math"> -<tr><td rowspan="2">H<span class="sp1">m</span><span class="su1">n</span> = (1 − <span class="sp">2</span>)<span class="sp">1/2m</span> <span class="f200">[</span> <span class="sp">n−m</span> −</td> <td>(n − m) (n − m − 1)</td> -<td rowspan="2"><span class="sp">n−m−2</span> + ... <span class="f200">]</span>,</td></tr> +<tr><td rowspan="2">H<span class="sp1">m</span><span class="su1">n</span> = (1 − µ<span class="sp">2</span>)<span class="sp">1/2m</span> <span class="f200">[</span> µ<span class="sp">n−m</span> −</td> <td>(n − m) (n − m − 1)</td> +<td rowspan="2">µ<span class="sp">n−m−2</span> + ... <span class="f200">]</span>,</td></tr> <tr><td class="denom">2 (2n − 1)</td></tr></table> <p class="noind">where n and m denote any positive integers, m being not greater than @@ -21351,8 +21312,8 @@ this case. Here we shall as usual treat it as spherical. We then have for the components of the force at the surface</p> <table class="ws" summary="Contents"> -<tr><td class="tcl">X = −R<span class="sp">-1</span> (1 − <span class="sp">2</span>)<span class="sp">1/2</span> (dV / d) towards the astronomical north,</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl">Y = −R<span class="sp">-1</span> (1 − <span class="sp">2</span>)<span class="sp">−1/2</span> (dV / dλ) towards the astronomical west,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">X = −R<span class="sp">-1</span> (1 − µ<span class="sp">2</span>)<span class="sp">1/2</span> (dV / dµ) towards the astronomical north,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Y = −R<span class="sp">-1</span> (1 − µ<span class="sp">2</span>)<span class="sp">−1/2</span> (dV / dλ) towards the astronomical west,</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl">Z = −dV / dr vertically downwards.</td></tr> </table> @@ -21386,7 +21347,7 @@ orders which are retained.</p> of the first order in some of the best-known computations, as collected by W. G. Adams.<a name="fa79g" id="fa79g" href="#ft79g"><span class="sp">79</span></a></p> -<p> 48. Allowance must be made for the difference in the epochs, +<p>§ 48. Allowance must be made for the difference in the epochs, and for the fact that the number of constants assumed to be worth retaining was different in each case. Gauss, for instance, assumed 24 constants sufficient, whilst in obtaining the results given in the @@ -21453,7 +21414,7 @@ measure from observational deficiencies.</p> <table class="ws" summary="Contents"> <tr><td class="tccm allb">Epoch.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Authority for<br />Constants.</td> <td class="tcc allb">North<br />Latitude.</td> <td class="tcc allb">West<br />Longitude.</td> <td class="tcc allb">M/R<span class="sp">3</span> in<br />G.C.S. units.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcc lb rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb">   ′</td> <td class="tcc rb">   ′</td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb">°   ′</td> <td class="tcc rb">°   ′</td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td></tr> <tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1650</td> <td class="tcl rb">H. Fritsche</td> <td class="tcc rb">82   50</td> <td class="tcc rb">42   55</td> <td class="tcc rb">.3260</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1836</td> <td class="tcl rb">   ”</td> <td class="tcc rb">78   27</td> <td class="tcc rb">63   35</td> <td class="tcc rb">.3262</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1845</td> <td class="tcl rb">J. C. Adams</td> <td class="tcc rb">78   44</td> <td class="tcc rb">64   20</td> <td class="tcc rb">.3282</td></tr> @@ -21462,7 +21423,7 @@ measure from observational deficiencies.</p> <tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">1885</td> <td class="tcl rb bb">Neumayer, Schmidt</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">78   34</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">68   31</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">.3230</td></tr> </table> -<p> 49. The first order Gaussian constants have a simple physical +<p>§ 49. The first order Gaussian constants have a simple physical meaning. The terms containing them represent the potential arising from the uniform magnetization of a sphere parallel to a fixed axis, the moment M of the spherical magnet being given by</p> @@ -21490,7 +21451,7 @@ It is in fact one of the weak points in the Gaussian analysis that when one wishes to represent the observed facts with high accuracy one is obliged to retain so many terms that calculation becomes burdensome.</p> -<p> 50. The possible existence of a positive power series is not the +<p>§ 50. The possible existence of a positive power series is not the only theoretical uncertainty in the Gaussian analysis. There is the further possibility that part of the earth’s magnetic field may not answer to a potential at all. Schmidt<a name="fa80g" id="fa80g" href="#ft80g"><span class="sp">80</span></a> @@ -21516,13 +21477,13 @@ Schmidt’s final estimate of the average intensity of the earth-air current, irrespective of sign, for the epoch 1885 was 0.17 ampere per square kilometre. Bauer employing the same observational data as Schmidt, reached somewhat similar conclusions from the differences -between integrals taken round parallels of latitude at 5 -intervals from 60 N. to 60 S. H. Fritsche<a name="fa83g" id="fa83g" href="#ft83g"><span class="sp">83</span></a> treating the problem +between integrals taken round parallels of latitude at 5° +intervals from 60° N. to 60° S. H. Fritsche<a name="fa83g" id="fa83g" href="#ft83g"><span class="sp">83</span></a> treating the problem similarly, but for two epochs, 1842 and 1885, got conspicuously different results for the two epochs, Bauer<a name="fa84g" id="fa84g" href="#ft84g"><span class="sp">84</span></a> has more recently repeated his calculations, and for three epochs, 1842-1845 (Sabine’s charts), 1880 (Creak’s charts), and 1885 (Neumayer’s charts), obtaining -the mean value of the current per sq. km. for 5 zones. Table +the mean value of the current per sq. km. for 5° zones. Table XLVI. is based on Bauer’s figures, the unit being 0.001 ampere, and + denoting an <i>upwardly</i> directed current.</p> @@ -21533,10 +21494,10 @@ XLVI. is based on Bauer’s figures, the unit being 0.001 ampere, and <tr><td class="tcc allb">1842-5.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1880.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1885.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1842-5.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1880.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1885.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcc lb rb"> 0 to 15</td> <td class="tcc rb">− 1</td> <td class="tcc rb">−32</td> <td class="tcc rb">−34</td> <td class="tcc rb">+66</td> <td class="tcc rb">+ 30</td> <td class="tcc rb">+ 36</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">15 to 30</td> <td class="tcc rb">−70</td> <td class="tcc rb">−59</td> <td class="tcc rb">−68</td> <td class="tcc rb">+ 2</td> <td class="tcc rb">− 62</td> <td class="tcc rb">− 63</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">30 to 45</td> <td class="tcc rb">+ 3</td> <td class="tcc rb">+14</td> <td class="tcc rb">−22</td> <td class="tcc rb">+26</td> <td class="tcc rb">− 11</td> <td class="tcc rb">− 14</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">45 to 60</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">−31</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">−21</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">+78</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">+ 5</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">+276</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">+213</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb"> 0° to 15°</td> <td class="tcc rb">− 1</td> <td class="tcc rb">−32</td> <td class="tcc rb">−34</td> <td class="tcc rb">+66</td> <td class="tcc rb">+ 30</td> <td class="tcc rb">+ 36</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">15° to 30°</td> <td class="tcc rb">−70</td> <td class="tcc rb">−59</td> <td class="tcc rb">−68</td> <td class="tcc rb">+ 2</td> <td class="tcc rb">− 62</td> <td class="tcc rb">− 63</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">30° to 45°</td> <td class="tcc rb">+ 3</td> <td class="tcc rb">+14</td> <td class="tcc rb">−22</td> <td class="tcc rb">+26</td> <td class="tcc rb">− 11</td> <td class="tcc rb">− 14</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">45° to 60°</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">−31</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">−21</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">+78</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">+ 5</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">+276</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">+213</td></tr> </table> <p>In considering the significance of the data in Table XLVI., it @@ -21547,8 +21508,8 @@ downwards during others, would affect the diurnal inequality; while currents which were upwards during certain months, and downwards during others, would cause an annual inequality in the absolute values. Thus, if the figures be accepted as real, we must suppose -that between 15 N. and 30 N. there are preponderatingly downward -currents, and between 0 S. and 15 S. preponderatingly upward +that between 15° N. and 30° N. there are preponderatingly downward +currents, and between 0° S. and 15° S. preponderatingly upward currents. Such currents might arise from meteorological conditions characteristic of particular latitudes, or be due to the relative distribution of land and sea; but, whatever their cause, any considerable @@ -21556,19 +21517,19 @@ real change in their values between 1842 and 1885 seems very improbable. The most natural cause to which to attribute the difference between the results for different epochs in Table XLVI. is unquestionably observational deficiencies. Bauer himself regards -the results for latitudes higher than 45 as very uncertain, but +the results for latitudes higher than 45° as very uncertain, but he seems inclined to accept the reality of currents of the average -intensity of <span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">30</span> ampere per sq. km. between 45 N. and 45 S.</p> +intensity of <span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">30</span> ampere per sq. km. between 45° N. and 45° S.</p> <p>Currents of the size originally deduced by Schmidt, or even those of Bauer’s latest calculations, seem difficult to reconcile with the results of atmospheric electricity (<i>q.v.</i>).</p> -<p> 51. There is no single parallel of latitude along the whole of +<p>§ 51. There is no single parallel of latitude along the whole of which magnetic elements are known with high precision. Thus results of greater certainty might be hoped for from the application of the line integral to well surveyed countries. Such applications -have been made, <i>e.g.</i> to Great Britain by Rcker,<a name="fa85g" id="fa85g" href="#ft85g"><span class="sp">85</span></a> and to Austria +have been made, <i>e.g.</i> to Great Britain by Rücker,<a name="fa85g" id="fa85g" href="#ft85g"><span class="sp">85</span></a> and to Austria by Liznar,<a name="fa86g" id="fa86g" href="#ft86g"><span class="sp">86</span></a> but with negative results. The question has also been considered in detail by Tanakadate<a href="#ft68g"><span class="sp">68</span></a> in discussing the magnetic survey of Japan. He makes the criticism that the taking of a line @@ -21580,7 +21541,7 @@ the surface integral.</p> <p class="center">4πI = ∫∫ (dY / dx − dX / dy) dx dy.</p> <p class="noind">He applied this formula not merely to his own data for Japan, but -also to British and Austrian data of Rcker and Thorpe and of +also to British and Austrian data of Rücker and Thorpe and of Liznar. The values he ascribes to X and Y are those given by the formulae calculated to fit the observations. The result reached was “a line of no current through the middle of the country; in @@ -21588,7 +21549,7 @@ Japan the current is upward on the Pacific side and downward on the Siberian side; in Austria it is upward in the north and downward in the south; in Great Britain upward in the east and downward in the west.” The results obtained for Great Britain differed considerably -according as use was made of Rcker and Thorpe’s own +according as use was made of Rücker and Thorpe’s own district equations or of a series of general equations of the type subsequently utilized by Mathias. Tanakadate points out that the fact that his investigations give in each case a line of no current passing @@ -21596,7 +21557,7 @@ through the middle of the surveyed area, is calculated to throw doubt on the reality of the supposed earth-air currents, and he recommends a suspension of judgment.</p> -<p> 52. A question of interest, and bearing a relationship to the +<p>§ 52. A question of interest, and bearing a relationship to the Gaussian analysis, is the law of variation of the magnetic elements with height above sea-level. If F represent the value at sea-level, and F + δF that at height h, of any component of force answering @@ -21634,11 +21595,11 @@ in their own directions. Tanakadate makes a comparison of the vertical variations of the magnetic elements calculated in the two ways, not merely for Japan, but also for Austria-Hungary and Great Britain. In each country he took five representative points, -those for Great Britain being the central stations of five of Rcker +those for Great Britain being the central stations of five of Rücker and Thorpe’s districts. Table XLVII. gives the mean of the five values obtained. By method (i.) is meant the formula involving 3h/R, by method (ii.) Tanakadate’s method as explained above. -H, V, D, and I are used as defined in 5. In the case of H and V +H, V, D, and I are used as defined in § 5. In the case of H and V unity represents 1γ.</p> <p class="pt1 center"><span class="sc">Table XLVII.</span>—Change per Kilometre of Height.</p> @@ -21650,8 +21611,8 @@ unity represents 1γ.</p> <tr><td class="tcl lb rb">H</td> <td class="tcl rb">− 8.1</td> <td class="tcl rb">− 6.7</td> <td class="tcl rb">−10.1</td> <td class="tcl rb">− 8.7</td> <td class="tcl rb">−13.9</td> <td class="tcl rb">−14.0</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl lb rb">V</td> <td class="tcl rb">−21.2</td> <td class="tcl rb">−19.4</td> <td class="tcl rb">−19.0</td> <td class="tcl rb">−18.1</td> <td class="tcl rb">−17.1</td> <td class="tcl rb">−17.4</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">D (west)</td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcl rb">− 0′.04</td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcl rb">+ 0′.10</td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcl rb">− 0′.27</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">I</td> <td class="tcc rb bb"> </td> <td class="tcl rb bb">− 0′.05</td> <td class="tcc rb bb"> </td> <td class="tcl rb bb">− 0′.06</td> <td class="tcc rb bb"> </td> <td class="tcl rb bb">− 0′.01</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">D (west)</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcl rb">− 0′.04</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcl rb">+ 0′.10</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcl rb">− 0′.27</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">I</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">· ·</td> <td class="tcl rb bb">− 0′.05</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">· ·</td> <td class="tcl rb bb">− 0′.06</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">· ·</td> <td class="tcl rb bb">− 0′.01</td></tr> </table> <p>The − sign in Table XLVII. denotes a decrease in the numerical @@ -21670,7 +21631,7 @@ At a few of the highest Japanese stations the correction thus introduced into the value of H was of some importance, but at the great majority of the stations the corrections were all insignificant.</p> -<p> 53. Schuster<a name="fa87g" id="fa87g" href="#ft87g"><span class="sp">87</span></a> has calculated a potential analogous to the +<p>§ 53. Schuster<a name="fa87g" id="fa87g" href="#ft87g"><span class="sp">87</span></a> has calculated a potential analogous to the Gaussian potential, from which the regular diurnal changes of the magnetic elements all over the earth may be derived. From the mean summer and winter diurnal variations @@ -21707,7 +21668,7 @@ frequency which has been exceeded only once since 1750; so that the magnetic data which he employed were far from representative of average conditions.</p> -<p> 54. It was discovered by Folgheraiter<a name="fa89g" id="fa89g" href="#ft89g"><span class="sp">89</span></a> that old vases from +<p>§ 54. It was discovered by Folgheraiter<a name="fa89g" id="fa89g" href="#ft89g"><span class="sp">89</span></a> that old vases from Etruscan and other sources are magnetic, and from combined observation and experiment he concluded that they acquired their magnetization when cooling after being baked, and @@ -21719,12 +21680,12 @@ applying these formulae to the phenomena observed in the old vases he calculated the magnetic dip at the time and place of manufacture. His observations led him to infer that in Central Italy inclination was actually southerly for some centuries prior to 600 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, when it changed -sign. In 400 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> it was about 20N.; since 100 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> the change has been +sign. In 400 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> it was about 20°N.; since 100 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> the change has been relatively small. L. Mercanton<a name="fa90g" id="fa90g" href="#ft90g"><span class="sp">90</span></a> similarly investigated the magnetization of baked clay vases from the lake dwellings of Neuchatel, whose epoch is supposed to be from 600 to 800 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> The results he obtained were, however, closely similar to those observed in recent -vases made where the inclination was about 63N., and he concluded +vases made where the inclination was about 63°N., and he concluded in direct opposition to Folgheraiter that inclination in southern Europe has not undergone any very large change during the last 2500 years. Folgheraiter’s methods have been extended to natural @@ -21737,13 +21698,13 @@ when the lava flow occurred. In drawing inferences, allowance must of course be made for any tilting of the strata since the volcanic outburst. From one case in France in the district of St Flour, where the volcanic action is assigned to the Miocene Age, Brunhes inferred -a southerly dip of some 75. Until a variety of cases have been +a southerly dip of some 75°. Until a variety of cases have been critically dealt with, a suspension of judgment is advisable, but if the method should establish its claims to reliability it obviously may prove of importance to geology as well as to terrestrial magnetism.</p> -<p> 55. Magnetic phenomena in the polar regions have received +<p>§ 55. Magnetic phenomena in the polar regions have received considerable attention of late years, and the observed results are of so exceptional a character as to merit separate consideration. One feature, the large amplitude of the regular diurnal @@ -21761,7 +21722,7 @@ general, is illustrated by the data for Fort Rae and South Victoria Land in Table XVII. It will be noticed that it is the 24-hour term in the Fourier analysis of the regular diurnal inequality which is specially enhanced. The station in South Victoria Land—the -winter quarters of the “Discovery” in 1902-1904—was at 77 51′ S. +winter quarters of the “Discovery” in 1902-1904—was at 77° 51′ S. lat.; thus the sun did not set from November to February (midsummer), nor rise from May to July (midwinter). It might not thus have been surprising if there had been an outstandingly large seasonal @@ -21781,19 +21742,19 @@ the following amplitudes for the range of the several elements<a name="fa92g" id <p>The most outstanding phenomenon in high latitudes is the frequency and large size of the disturbances. At Kew, as we saw in - 25, the absolute range in D exceeds 20′ on only 12% of the total +§ 25, the absolute range in D exceeds 20′ on only 12% of the total number of days. But at the “Discovery’s” winter quarters, about -sun-spot minimum, the range exceeded 1 on 70%, 2 on 37%, and -3 on fully 15% of the total number of days. One day in 25 had -a range exceeding 4. During the three midsummer months, only -one day out of 111 had a range under 1, and even at midwinter +sun-spot minimum, the range exceeded 1° on 70%, 2° on 37%, and +3° on fully 15% of the total number of days. One day in 25 had +a range exceeding 4°. During the three midsummer months, only +one day out of 111 had a range under 1°, and even at midwinter only one day in eight had a range as small as 30′. The H range at the “Discovery’s” station exceeded 100γ on 40% of the days, and the V range exceeded 100γ on 32% of the days.</p> <p>The special tendency to disturbance seen in equinoctial months in temperate latitudes did not appear in the “Discovery’s” records -in the Antarctic. D ranges exceeding 3 occurred on 11% of equinoctial +in the Antarctic. D ranges exceeding 3° occurred on 11% of equinoctial days, but on 40% of midsummer days. The preponderance of large movements at midsummer was equally apparent in the other elements. Thus the percentage of days having a V range over @@ -21814,11 +21775,11 @@ total number of cases taking place between 7 and 9 p.m. This lasting on the average about 20 minutes. During the first phase all the elements diminished in value, during the second phase they increased. In the case of D and H the rise and fall were about equal, -but the rise in V was about 3 times the preceding fall. The disturbing +but the rise in V was about 3½ times the preceding fall. The disturbing force—on the north pole—to which the first phase might -be attributed was inclined on the average about 5 below the horizon, +be attributed was inclined on the average about 5°½ below the horizon, the horizontal projection of its line of action being inclined about -41 to the north of east. The amplitude and duration of the disturbances +41°½ to the north of east. The amplitude and duration of the disturbances of the “special type” varied a good deal; in several cases the disturbing force considerably exceeded 200γ. A somewhat similar type of disturbance was observed by Kr. Birkeland<a name="fa93g" id="fa93g" href="#ft93g"><span class="sp">93</span></a> at @@ -21869,24 +21830,24 @@ a somewhat different explanation from Birkeland’s. But until our knowledge of facts has received considerable additions all explanations must be of a somewhat hypothetical character.</p> -<p>In 1831 Sir James Ross<a name="fa94g" id="fa94g" href="#ft94g"><span class="sp">94</span></a> observed a dip of 89 59′ at 70 5′ N., -96 46′ W., and this has been accepted as practically the position of +<p>In 1831 Sir James Ross<a name="fa94g" id="fa94g" href="#ft94g"><span class="sp">94</span></a> observed a dip of 89° 59′ at 70° 5′ N., +96° 46′ W., and this has been accepted as practically the position of the north magnetic pole at the time. The position of the south magnetic pole in 1840 as deduced from the <span class="sidenote">Magnetic Poles.</span> Antarctic observations made by the “Erebus” and -“Terror” expedition is shown in Sabine’s chart as about 73 30′ S., -147 30′ E. In the more recent chart in J. C. Adams’s <i>Collected -Papers</i>, vol. 2, the position is shown as about 73 40′ S., 147 7′ E. +“Terror” expedition is shown in Sabine’s chart as about 73° 30′ S., +147° 30′ E. In the more recent chart in J. C. Adams’s <i>Collected +Papers</i>, vol. 2, the position is shown as about 73° 40′ S., 147° 7′ E. Of late years positions have been obtained for the south magnetic pole by the “Southern Cross” expedition of 1898-1900 (A), by the “Discovery” in 1902-1904 (B), and by Sir E. Shackleton’s expedition 1908-1909 (C). These are as follow:</p> <table class="ws" summary="Contents"> -<tr><td class="tcl">(A)  72 40′ S., 152 30′ E.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl">(B)  72 51′ S., 156 25′ E.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl">(C)  72 25′ S., 155 16′ E.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">(A)  72° 40′ S., 152° 30′ E.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">(B)  72° 51′ S., 156° 25′ E.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">(C)  72° 25′ S., 155° 16′ E.</td></tr> </table> <p class="noind">Unless the diurnal inequality vanishes in its neighbourhood, a somewhat @@ -21901,7 +21862,7 @@ regular, and carried the point where the needle is vertical round a closed curve, the centroid of that curve—though a spot where the needle is never absolutely vertical—would seem to have the best claim to the title. It should also be remembered that when the dip -is nearly 90 there are special observational difficulties. There are +is nearly 90° there are special observational difficulties. There are thus various reasons for allowing a considerable uncertainty in positions assigned to the magnetic poles. Conclusions as to change of position of the south magnetic pole during the last ten years based @@ -21914,7 +21875,7 @@ during the last seventy years.</p> <p>See publications of individual magnetic observatories, more especially the Russian (<i>Annales de l’Observatoire Physique Central</i>), -the French (<i>Annales du Bureau Central Mtorologique de France</i>), +the French (<i>Annales du Bureau Central Météorologique de France</i>), and those of Kew, Greenwich, Falmouth, Stonyhurst, Potsdam, Wilhelmshaven, de Bilt, Uccle, O’Gyalla, Prague, Pola, Coimbra, San Fernando, Capo di Monte, Tiflis, Kolaba, Zi-ka-wei, Hong-Kong, @@ -21926,7 +21887,7 @@ B.A. = <i>British Association Reports</i>; Batavia = <i>Observations made at the Royal ... Observatory at Batavia</i>; M.Z. = <i>Meteorologische Zeitschrift</i>, edited by J. Hann and G. Hellman; P.R.S. = <i>Proceedings of the Royal Society of London</i>; P.T. = <i>Philosophical Transactions</i>; -R. = <i>Repertorium fr Meteorologie</i>, St Petersburg; T.M. = <i>Terrestrial +R. = <i>Repertorium für Meteorologie</i>, St Petersburg; T.M. = <i>Terrestrial Magnetism</i>, edited by L. A. Bauer; R.A.S. Notices = <i>Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society</i>. Treatises are referred to by the numbers attached to them; <i>e.g.</i> (1) p. 100 means p. 100 of @@ -21943,7 +21904,7 @@ and London, 1856).</p> <p><span class="fn">*1a</span> H. Lloyd, <i>A Treatise on Magnetism General and Terrestrial</i> (London, 1874).</p> -<p><span class="fn">*2</span> E. Mascart, <i>Trait de magntisme terrestre</i> (Paris, 1900).</p> +<p><span class="fn">*2</span> E. Mascart, <i>Traité de magnétisme terrestre</i> (Paris, 1900).</p> <p><a name="ft3g" id="ft3g" href="#fa3g"><span class="fn">3</span></a> L. A. Bauer, <i>United States Magnetic Declination Tables and Isogonic Charts, and Principal Facts relating @@ -21987,7 +21948,7 @@ II.</p> <p><a name="ft19g" id="ft19g" href="#fa19g"><span class="fn">19</span></a> <i>Die Elemente des Erdmagnetismus</i>, pp. 104.108.</p> -<p><a name="ft20g" id="ft20g" href="#fa20g"><span class="fn">20</span></a> <i>Zur tglichen +<p><a name="ft20g" id="ft20g" href="#fa20g"><span class="fn">20</span></a> <i>Zur täglichen Variation der mag. Deklination (aus Heft II. des Archivs des Erdmagnetismus)</i> (Potsdam, 1906).</p> @@ -22017,13 +21978,13 @@ Variation der mag. Deklination (aus Heft II. des Archivs des Erdmagnetismus)</i> <p><a name="ft32g" id="ft32g" href="#fa32g"><span class="fn">32</span></a> <i>P.T.</i> 204 A, p. 373.</p> -<p><a name="ft33g" id="ft33g" href="#fa33g"><span class="fn">33</span></a> <i>Ann. du Bureau Central Mtorologique, anne 1897</i>, 1 Mem. p. B65.</p> +<p><a name="ft33g" id="ft33g" href="#fa33g"><span class="fn">33</span></a> <i>Ann. du Bureau Central Météorologique, année 1897</i>, 1 Mem. p. B65.</p> <p><a name="ft34g" id="ft34g" href="#fa34g"><span class="fn">34</span></a> <i>P.T.</i> 161, p. 307.</p> <p><a name="ft35g" id="ft35g" href="#fa35g"><span class="fn">35</span></a> <i>M.Z.</i> 1895, 12, p. 321.</p> -<p><a name="ft35ag" id="ft35ag" href="#fa35ag"><span class="fn">35a</span></a> <i>P.T.</i> 1851, p. 123; and 1852, p. 103, see also (4) 38.</p> +<p><a name="ft35ag" id="ft35ag" href="#fa35ag"><span class="fn">35a</span></a> <i>P.T.</i> 1851, p. 123; and 1852, p. 103, see also (4) § 38.</p> <p><a name="ft36g" id="ft36g" href="#fa36g"><span class="fn">36</span></a> <i>P.T.</i> 159, p. 363.</p> @@ -22052,11 +22013,11 @@ and Proc. Roy. Ast. Soc. of Canada, 1902-1903, p. 74, 1904, p. xiv., &c.</p> <p><a name="ft48g" id="ft48g" href="#fa48g"><span class="fn">48</span></a> <i>T.M.</i> 10, p. 1.</p> -<p><a name="ft49g" id="ft49g" href="#fa49g"><span class="fn">49</span></a> <i>Expdition norvgienne de 1899-1900</i> (Christiania, 1901).</p> +<p><a name="ft49g" id="ft49g" href="#fa49g"><span class="fn">49</span></a> <i>Expédition norvégienne de 1899-1900</i> (Christiania, 1901).</p> -<p><a name="ft50g" id="ft50g" href="#fa50g"><span class="fn">50</span></a> <i>Thses prsentes la Facult des Sciences</i> (Paris, 1903).</p> +<p><a name="ft50g" id="ft50g" href="#fa50g"><span class="fn">50</span></a> <i>Thèses présentées à la Faculté des Sciences</i> (Paris, 1903).</p> -<p><a name="ft51g" id="ft51g" href="#fa51g"><span class="fn">51</span></a> <i>Nat. Tijdschrift voor Nederlandsch-Indi</i>, 1902, p. 71.</p> +<p><a name="ft51g" id="ft51g" href="#fa51g"><span class="fn">51</span></a> <i>Nat. Tijdschrift voor Nederlandsch-Indië</i>, 1902, p. 71.</p> <p><a name="ft52g" id="ft52g" href="#fa52g"><span class="fn">52</span></a> <i>Wied. Ann.</i> 1882, p. 336.</p> @@ -22065,7 +22026,7 @@ and Proc. Roy. Ast. Soc. of Canada, 1902-1903, p. 74, 1904, p. xiv., &c.</p> <p><a name="ft54g" id="ft54g" href="#fa54g"><span class="fn">54</span></a> <i>T.M.</i> 12, p. 1.</p> <p><a name="ft55g" id="ft55g" href="#fa55g"><span class="fn">55</span></a> <i>P.T.</i> 143, p. 549; <i>St Helena Observations</i>, vol. ii., -p. cxlvi., &c., (1) 62.</p> +p. cxlvi., &c., (1) § 62.</p> <p><a name="ft56g" id="ft56g" href="#fa56g"><span class="fn">56</span></a> <i>Trans. R.S.E.</i> 24, p. 669.</p> @@ -22081,7 +22042,7 @@ p. cxlvi., &c., (1) 62.</p> <p><a name="ft62g" id="ft62g" href="#fa62g"><span class="fn">62</span></a> <i>P.T.</i> 181 A, p. 53 and 188 A.</p> -<p><a name="ft63g" id="ft63g" href="#fa63g"><span class="fn">63</span></a> <i>Ann. du Bureau Central Mt.</i> vol. i. for years 1884 and 1887 to 1895.</p> +<p><a name="ft63g" id="ft63g" href="#fa63g"><span class="fn">63</span></a> <i>Ann. du Bureau Central Mét.</i> vol. i. for years 1884 and 1887 to 1895.</p> <p><a name="ft64g" id="ft64g" href="#fa64g"><span class="fn">64</span></a> <i>Ann. dell’ Uff. Centrale Met. e Geod.</i> vol. 14, pt. i. p. 57.</p> @@ -22097,7 +22058,7 @@ Classe der k. Akad. des Wiss.</i> (Wien), vols. 62 and 67.</p> <p><a name="ft69g" id="ft69g" href="#fa69g"><span class="fn">69</span></a> <i>Ann. de l’observatoire ... de Toulouse</i>, 1907, vol. 7.</p> -<p><a name="ft70g" id="ft70g" href="#fa70g"><span class="fn">70</span></a> <i>Ann. du Bureau Central Mt.</i> 1897, I. p. B36.</p> +<p><a name="ft70g" id="ft70g" href="#fa70g"><span class="fn">70</span></a> <i>Ann. du Bureau Central Mét.</i> 1897, I. p. B36.</p> <p><a name="ft71g" id="ft71g" href="#fa71g"><span class="fn">71</span></a> <i>T.M.</i> 7, p. 74.</p> @@ -22141,11 +22102,11 @@ Wiss. Wien, math. nat. Classe</i>, 1898, Bd. cvii., Abth. ii.</p> <p><a name="ft87g" id="ft87g" href="#fa87g"><span class="fn">87</span></a> <i>P.T.</i> (A) 180, p. 467.</p> -<p><a name="ft88g" id="ft88g" href="#fa88g"><span class="fn">88</span></a> <i>Die Tgliche Periode der erdmagnetischen Elemente</i> +<p><a name="ft88g" id="ft88g" href="#fa88g"><span class="fn">88</span></a> <i>Die Tägliche Periode der erdmagnetischen Elemente</i> (St Petersburg, 1902).</p> <p><a name="ft89g" id="ft89g" href="#fa89g"><span class="fn">89</span></a> <i>R. Accad. Lincei Atti</i>, viii. 1899, -pp. 69, 121, 176, 269 and previous volumes, see also <i>Sances de la Soc. +pp. 69, 121, 176, 269 and previous volumes, see also <i>Séances de la Soc. Franc. de Physique</i>, 1899, p. 118.</p> <p><a name="ft90g" id="ft90g" href="#fa90g"><span class="fn">90</span></a> <i>Bull. Soc. Vaud., Sc. Nat.</i> 1906, 42, p. 225.</p> @@ -22167,382 +22128,7 @@ Franc. de Physique</i>, 1899, p. 118.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> - - - - - - - -<pre> - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th -Edition, Volume 17, Slice 3, by Various - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. 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