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diff --git a/43059-0.txt b/43059-0.txt index 5d85254..d004b8f 100644 --- a/43059-0.txt +++ b/43059-0.txt @@ -1,4 +1,5 @@ *** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 43059 *** + RUMANIAN BIRD AND BEAST STORIES RENDERED INTO ENGLISH diff --git a/43059-8.txt b/43059-8.txt deleted file mode 100644 index fb9ab8a..0000000 --- a/43059-8.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,13853 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of Rumanian Bird and Beast Stories, by Anonymous - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org/license - - -Title: Rumanian Bird and Beast Stories - Rendered into English - -Author: Anonymous - -Translator: Moses Gaster - -Release Date: June 29, 2013 [EBook #43059] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK RUMANIAN BIRD AND BEAST STORIES *** - - - - -Produced by Jeroen Hellingman and the Online Distributed -Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net/ for Project -Gutenberg (This file was produced from images generously -made available by The Internet Archive/Canadian Libraries) - - - - - - - - - RUMANIAN BIRD AND BEAST STORIES - RENDERED INTO ENGLISH - - BY - - M. GASTER, Ph.D. - - VICE-PRESIDENT AND SOMETIME PRESIDENT OF THE FOLK-LORE SOCIETY - VICE-PRESIDENT OF THE ROYAL ASIATIC SOCIETY - VICE-PRESIDENT AND SOMETIME PRESIDENT OF THE JEWISH HISTORICAL SOCIETY - ETC., ETC. - - - - "But ask now the beasts, and they shall teach thee; - And the fowls of the air, and they shall tell thee." - - Job xii. 7. - - - LONDON - Published for the Folk-Lore Society by - SIDGWICK & JACKSON, LTD., 3 ADAM ST., ADELPHI, W.C. - 1915 - - - - - - - - - To - HER MAJESTY QUEEN ELISABETH OF RUMANIA - "Carmen Sylva" - To Whom the Soul of the Rumanian People is as an Open Book - A Page of that Book - Is - By Gracious Permission - Dedicated - - - - - - - - -PREFACE. - - -"Neither can men hear the voice of the cattle; both the fowl of the -heavens and the beast are fled, they are gone." The forests are silent, -over hill and dale hangs a black pall; beast and bird are in hiding; -the voices are hushed. But before they have disappeared, following -in the track of others, I have endeavoured to catch the hum of the -bee, the twitter of the bird, the chirp of the cricket, the song of -the dying swan, and all the tales which beasts and birds and little -beetles tell their young before they go to sleep ere the flash of -the glow-worm flits across the darkness of the forest. - -I have followed up to their lairs the ferocious wolf, the cantankerous -dog, the sly fox and the wise hedgehog, have listened to the lark and -to the nightingale, and paid homage to little king wren. Who knows how -much longer they will disport themselves in the fields and forests of -Rumania, where the hoofs of the horses, the feet of the marching men, -the shout of battle and the thunder of the guns have silenced--let -us hope only for a while--the voice of the dumb creatures, who still -speak so eloquently to him who knows their language and understands -the cunning spell of their hidden wisdom. It is as if I had gathered -flowers from the field of the Rumanian popular imagination. They are -fresh from the field, and the dew still hangs upon them like so many -diamonds, flashing in the light of popular poetry; nay, sometimes a -few specks of the original soil are still clinging to the roots. I -have not pressed them between the leaves of this book. I have handled -them tenderly. It has been a work of love, the dreamy fancies of youth, -the solace of maturer age. Peradventure one or the other may be taken -out and planted anew in the nurseries of the West, where they may -blossom and grow afresh. They might bring with them the breath of the -open field, the perfume of the forest. They might conjure up the time -when the nations were still young and lived in the great Nursery of -Nature. If one could only bring to the nations of the West for awhile -a glimpse of the time of their youth! In my wanderings through these -enchanted fields I have tried to find whence the seeds have come, -whose hands have sown them, and what spiritual wind and weather have -fostered their growth, whether the rain of heaven or the fountains -of the deep have watered the roots, what sun has shone upon them, -what fiery blast has made these flowers wither and die. - -Such as they are, then, they are offered in love to the English people. - -I have to thank Mr. S. L. Bensusan, who in true friendship, with -admirable skill and with untiring zeal has helped me to remove the -boulders, to level the ground, to plan the beds and to trim the edges; -Miss C. S. Burne, whose keen sympathy, unerring eye and deft hand have -helped to weed the tares and group the flowers; my son Vivian, who -with loving care and gentle touch has brushed away the dead leaves that -had fallen on the green sward, and last, but not least, the Folk-Lore -Society, which has granted me a niche in its great Pantheon. It is -indeed no small honour to be in the company of the gods. - - -M. G. - - In the month when - "smale fowles maken melodie." - - - - - - - - -CONTENTS. - - -Introduction - - I. - - Why is the Bee black, and why is it making Honey? How did the Bee - outwit the Devil? - - I. B. - - How did the Bee outwit the Mole? - - II. - - Why is the Bee busy and the Spider sullen? - - III. - - Why is the Bee black, and why has it a Narrow Waist? - - IV. - - Why does the Little Worm glow? - - V. - - Why does the Little Worm glow? - - VI. - - Why does the Little Worm glow? - - VII. - - Why is the Wolf ferocious? - - VIII. - - Why do the Eyes of the Wolf glow and his Hair bristle? - - IX. - - Why does the Wolf run after the Devil? - - X. - - Why the Goat's Knees are bare - - XI. - - Why did Noah get drunk? - - XII. - - God and the Lamb - - XIII. - - The Hart and the making of the World - - XIV. - - Why is the Fly called the Devil's Horse? - - XV. - - The Devil stealing the Sun - - XVI. - - Why is it called the Bull-Fly? - - XVII. - - Why is the Saw-Fly red? - - XVIII. - - Why does the Saw-Fly live in Stables? - - XIX. - - Why is the Lady-Bird dainty? - - XX. - - Why does the Gad-Fly sting the Cattle? - - XXI. - - Why does the Fly of Kolumbatsh poison the Cattle? - - XXII. - - Why is there a Worm in the Apple? - - XXIII. - - Why are the Locusts voracious? - - XXIV. - - Why does the Grasshopper run to and fro? - - XXV. - - Another Story of the Grasshopper - - XXVI. - - Why does the Nun Beetle cover its Face? - - XXVII. - - Why is the Beetle called the Nun? - - XXVIII. - - Why is the Wasp the Gipsies' Bee? - - XXVIII. A. - - Another Version of the Wasp Legend - - XXIX. - - Why does the Hornet live in Smoky Places? - - XXX. - - Why is the Hornet so spiteful? - - XXX. A. - - Hornet Charm - - XXXI. - - Why has the Woodpecker such a Long Beak and why does it peck at - the Trees? - - XXXII. - - Why has the Pelican a Big Pouch under its Beak? - - XXXIII. - - Why does the Titmouse get into the Pumpkin? - - XXXIV. - - Why has the Nightingale a Drab Colour? - - XXXV. - - Why has the Nightingale Twelve Tunes and why does the Turtle-Dove coo? - - - XXXVI. - - Why is the Nightingale the Songster of the King? - - XXXVII. - - Why does the Thrush hide in the Tree? - - XXXVIII. - - Why has the Partridge a Mottled Colour? - - XXIX. - - Why has the Thistle-Finch Ruffled Feathers? - - XL. - - Why has the Bullfinch a Red Breast and a Big Mouth? - - XLI. - - Why does the Hoopoe feed on Droppings? - - XLII. - - Why is the Wagtail called the Gipsies' Bird? - - XLIII. - - Why is the Hoopoe such a Dirty Bird? - - XLIV. - - Why does the Cuckoo lead a Restless Life? - - XLV. - - Why is the Cuckoo silent in the Winter? - - XLVI. - - The Story of the Crow and its Ugly Fledglings - - XLVII. - - Why is there enmity between the Crow and the Hawk? - - XLVII. A. - - Crow Charms - - XLVIII. - - Why does the Heron drink only Rain-Water? - - XLIX. - - Why does the Kite cry in Dry Weather? - - L. - - Why can the Mole not come out on the High Road? - - LI. - - Why has the Tortoise a Round Back? - - LII. - - Why have the Fish no Feet? - - LIII. - - Why do the Plover fly singly? - - LIV. - - Why does the Spider hang on a Thread? - - LIV. A. - - Why are the Spider and the Mouse accursed? - - LV. - - Why has the Swallow a Forked Tail and a Red Spot on its Breast? - - - LVI. - - Why does the Frog shrivel up at Death? - - LVII. - - Why does the Silkworm spin a Thin Thread? - - LVIII. - - Why is it right to kill a Sparrow? - - LIX. - - Why should the Oak Tree not boast? - - LX. - - Why does the Mosquito live in the Well? - - LXI. - - Why does the Mosquito feed on Blood? - - LXII. - - Why does the Fly eat the Cherry? - - LXIII. - - Why has the Butterfly Rings on its Wings? - - LXIV. - - Why does the Cricket chirp? - - LXV. - - Why do the Ants feed the Cricket? - - LXVI. - - Why do Cats and Dogs fight? - - LXVII. - - Why do Cats eat Mice? - - LXVII. A. - - Another Version - - LXVIII. - - Why does a Cat sit on the Doorstep in the Sun? - - LXIX. - - Why does the Fly settle on the Dead? - - LXX. - - Why is the Foot of Man arched? - - LXXI. - - Why has a Snake no Tail? and why do Fleas suck Human Blood? - - LXXII. - - Charms against Fleas and other House Vermin - - LXXIII. - - Charms against Bugs - - LXXIV. - - Why does the Cuckoo call "Cuckoo"? - - LXXV. - - Why does a Wagtail wag its Tail? - - LXXVI. - - Why has the Hoopoe a Tuft? - - LXXVII. - - Why does the Eagle live on Raw Meat? - - LXXVIII. - - Why has the Lark a Tuft? - - LXXIX. - - Why is the Tuft of the Lark dishevelled? - - LXXX. - - Why do Larks fly towards the Sun? - - LXXX. A. - - The Story of the Lark - - LXXXI. - - The Wooing of the Sister of the Sun - - LXXXII. - - The Wooing of a Fairy - - LXXXIII. - - Where did the Swan come from? - - LXXXIV. - - The Swan Maiden, the Bird of Heaven and the Crown of Paradise - - LXXXV. - - Why does the Duck feed on Refuse? - - LXXXVI. - - Why has the Stork no Tail? - - LXXXVII. - - Why has the Swallow a Forked Tail and a Red Spot on its Breast? - - - LXXXVIII. - - Why does the Swallow live in Hot Places? - - LXXXIX. - - Why is the Dove a Homing Bird? - - XC. - - Why does the Raven feed on Carcases? - - XCI. - - Why is the Ant cut in the Middle? - - XCII. - - Why does the Cuckoo call "Cuckoo"? - - XCIII. - - Why does the Armenian love the Dirty Hoopoe? - - XCIV. - - The Story of the Partridge, the Fox and the Hound - - XCV. - - The Story of the Partridge and her Young - - XCVI. - - The Story of the Lark and the taming of Women - - XCVII. - - The Story of the Turtle Dove and its love for its Mate - - XCVIII. - - Why does the Wren hide himself? - - XCIX. - - Why is there no King over the Birds? - - C. - - The Story of King Log and King Stork - - CI. - - The Story of the Stork and Little Tomtit - - CII. - - The Story of the Flea and the Gnat - - CIII. - - The Story of the Gnat, the Lion, and the Man - - CIV. - - The Story of the Gnat and the Buffalo - - CV. - - The Story of the Town Mouse and the Field Mouse - - CVI. - - The Story of the Hare and the Frogs - - CVII. - - Why does the Buffalo walk slowly and tread gently? - - CVIII. - - The Story of the Pointer and the Setter - - CIX. - - The Story of the Rat and his Journey to God - - CX. - - The Story of the Seven-Witted Fox and the One-Witted Owl - - CXI. - - The Story of the Fox and his Bagful of Wits and the One-Witted - Hedgehog - - CXII. - - The Story of the Peasant, the Snake, and King Solomon - - CXIII. - - The Story of the Dog and the Snake and the cure of Headache - - CXIV. - - The Story of the Horse, the Lion, and the Wolf - - CXV. - - The Marriage of Tom and the Vixen - - CXVI. - - The Story of Man and his Years - - CXVII. - - The Judgment of the Soul of Man, accused and defended by Beast - and Birds - - CXVIII. - - The Pilgrimage of the Soul after Death - - CXIX. - - The Reward of the Good Man - - -APPENDIX I. - -RUMANIAN INCANTATIONS AGAINST THE ILLNESSES OF ANIMALS. - - I. - - Against the Illness of Poultry - - II. - - Charm for a Cow against the Evil Eye - - III. - - Charm for a Suckling Calf - - IV. - - Charm for a Cow against Snake-Bite - - V. - - Charm against Evil Eye - - VI. - - Charm against Evil Eye - - VII. - - Charm against Worms in Beasts - - VIII. - - Against Worms - - IX. - - Charm against Snake-Bite - - X. - - Charm if bitten by a Weasel - - -APPENDIX II. - -THREE STORIES FROM ARKIR. - - The Rumanian Version of the Story of Ahikar - - -APPENDIX III. - -ANIMAL STORIES FROM THE HEBREW ALPHABET OF BEN SIRA. - - I. - - Why were Flies created which live only One Day? - - II. - - Why did God create Wasps and Spiders which are of no use? - - III. - - Why has the Ox no Hair on his Nose? - - IV. - - Why does the Cat eat Mice more than any other Creeping Thing? - - V. - - Why does the Ass mix his Water with that of other Asses, and smell - the Dung? - - VI. - - Why does the Dog fight the Cat? - - VII. - - Why is it that the Dog recognises his Master and the Cat does not? - - - VIII. - - Why is there a Seam in the Mouth of the Mouse? - - IX. - - Why does the Raven hop in its Walk? - - X. - - Why does the Raven mate differently from any other Bird? - - XI. - - Why are there no Counterpart to the Fox and the Weasel among the - Creatures of the Sea? and the Story of the Fox's Heart and the - Fishes - - - - - - - - -INTRODUCTION. - - -The Rumanian animal tales, which appear here for the first time -outside Rumania, are so weird, so different from any known to the -folk-lore of the West, that they arrest our attention and invite -close examination. They are, for the most part, not only beautiful -in themselves, but by reason of a peculiar flight of fancy and a -powerful imagination are so unlike anything known in other collections -of folk-lore that they raise problems far reaching, and, I venture to -think, of the highest importance to the study of popular literature. We -are moving in a religious atmosphere. Many of the tales start, as -it were, from the beginning of creation. God, the Apostles, the Evil -One seem to take a hand in the work and to rejoice more or less in the -labour of their hands. We have, besides, animal fables pure and simple, -tales designed for enjoyment, tales of fancy in which the nimble and -small creatures outwit the burly and heavy ones. We have also fairy -tales like those known to us in the West and made familiar to us -by numerous collections. A prominent characteristic is the childlike -simplicity of all the stories, the absence of any dualistic element. No -"moral" has been tacked on to these tales, and probably they were not -even intended to teach one. The questions which the study of folk-lore -has raised, whether anthropological, psychological, or historical will -be raised with a renewed force. I shall endeavour, however briefly, -to deal with some of the problems in the light which this collection -of Rumanian tales is able to shed upon the study of folk-lore. - -The anthropological, historical and psychological problems underlying -our studies must be attacked--I venture to think--from a fresh point of -view. The view I hold is that the European nations form one spiritual -unit, and that within that unit the various degrees of development -through which one or the other has passed are still preserved. I -believe that we must study the manifestations of the human spirit -from a geographical angle of vision, that this development has spread -directly from one group of men to another, and that, before going -to the extreme ends of the earth for doubtful clues, we must first -try to find them, and perhaps we shall succeed in finding them more -easily and satisfactorily, among some of the European nations whose -folk-lore has not yet been sufficiently investigated. We can find -in Europe various stages of "culture," and these we must trace by -slow descent to the lowest rung of the ladder. At a certain stage of -our descent we may strike the stratum of Asiatic folk-lore which may -lead us further in our comparative study. Let me give some practical -examples of my meaning. The relation between man and animal has been -the subject of numerous highly speculative but none the less extremely -interesting and acute investigations. We have had Totemism, we have -had Animism and many other explanations, which by their number became -simply bewildering. Students have gone to the Bushmen of Australia, -and to the Red Indians of America for parallels and explanations, -or for proofs of their highly ingenious theories. But are there no -animal and bird stories in Europe which would show us how, to this -day, the people understand the relations between man and other living -creatures, what views they hold of birds and beasts and insects? Are -the animals humanised--using the word in the sense of impersonating -a human being? Do the people see any fundamental difference between -the created things? In the fairy tale, at any rate, no such definite -clear-cut distinction between man and animal can be discerned. - -But at the root of many anthropological myths the animal is only a -disguised human being. The worth of these Rumanian stories--culled -as they are from the mouth of the people--is their ability to show -how to this very day the people look upon the animal world. Perhaps -another view will ultimately find its way among the students of -folk-lore. What I am anxious to emphasise is the fact that there are, -for the investigation of folk-lore students, mines of untold wealth -that have hitherto not been sufficiently worked. - -These tales represent one or more of the earlier stages of European -folk-lore. The elements, not yet quite closely moulded together, -allow us at times to lay bare the sources and thus trace the inner -history of this part of folk-lore. The people are confronted by -a world filled with weird and mysterious animals, birds, insects, -each with their own peculiarities to invite question. - -Almost everything that is not of daily occurrence excites the people's -curiosity, and they ask for an explanation of it; where does this -or that animal come from, and why has it this or that peculiarity -in its habits, colours, form and other matters? They are very -grateful for instruction. But it must be of a kind adapted to their -understanding. It must be plausible, even if it puts some strain on -their imagination. The more wonderful and weird that explanation, -the more easily it is accepted by the people, and the more firmly -is it believed. This question of "belief" has often been raised in -connection with fairy tales. It is asked whether the people believe -in the existence of fairies, monsters, marvellous and wonder-working -animals, in short, in all the mechanism of the fairy tale. - -To this an unhesitating answer can be given in so far as these Rumanian -tales and legends are concerned. They are believed in implicitly. They -form an integral part--I feel almost inclined to say they form an -exclusive part--of the popular religious beliefs of the folk. The -people are neither too squeamish, nor too sophistical in their faith, -nor do they enquire too closely into the dogmatic character of such -beliefs or into the sources from which they have come. - -In the East too the people, as a rule, are good-natured, and a good -story remains a good story, whether told by a believer or an infidel. - -The study of these tales promises to exceed by far in interest the -study of mere "fairy tales." We are moving in a spiritual world, -which appears to be much more primitive in the animal tale than in -the fairy tale. We are getting much nearer to the very soul of the -people, to its power of imagination and abstraction. We can see more -clearly the manner of its working. - -The comparative study of fairy lore has led to the surprising -recognition of the world-wide range of these tales. In spite of -investigations carried on for close upon a century, no satisfactory -solution has yet been found which would explain the appearance of one -and the same fairy tale at such widely separate parts of the world -as India and England. Various answers have been advanced in order -to explain this surprising similarity. And the same problem arises -here. This collection of tales, as already mentioned, contains two -groups. The larger group consists of the legend or creation stories--in -which, however, one section contains fairy tales though used also -as creation stories--and the other group consists of fables pure -and simple. It would be unscientific, I hold, to treat these groups -on one plane as if they were all contemporary in their origin. They -may represent various degrees either of local evolution, and if so, -that may be found to be the best solution, or they may have come -in various stages of transmission. The theory of migration has been -applied hitherto to the fairy tale. I am not aware that the history of -the popular fable has been attempted, still less that of the creation -legends, which have remained almost unknown until quite recently. I -will deal with each of these groups as far as possible separately, -and the conclusions drawn from each group will afterwards be merged -into one final conclusion established by the fact of their actual -presence in Rumanian popular lore. - -Migration, no doubt, offers the best solution of the riddle set by -the fairy tale. No one, unless he solves the riddle of the heroine -in the fairy tale, can win her. But still the opinion of scholars is -divided. The mistake, I venture to think, has been that all the tales -called by this title, and even culled from the mouth of the people, -have been treated on one general principle, without recognising -the possibility that there may be divers layers, some older, some -of a more recent date. This probability seems to have been entirely -overlooked. That which holds good for one cycle need not hold equally -good for all the rest. But the question of the central origin of tales -must not be confused with that of their transmission. Thus a tale may -originate in India or Egypt, but once it has started on a journey of -its own it will be carried, chiefly by word of mouth, from country -to country. And as its structure is loose, a mere framework with -a very simple plot, it will assimilate other elements and undergo -those manifold changes, the investigation of which is the delight -and despair of the folk-lorist. - -We are now faced by a new set of stories, some of which are mere tales, -while others are of a more legendary character. I class under the -latter heading all those in which the religious element stands out -prominently. They have assumed their actual form no doubt probably -under the powerful sway of some religious influence. The peculiar -shade of religious teaching which has moulded the actual form of -these legendary stories, and which is of decisive importance in our -investigation, will be discussed more fully later on, after we have -been able to dispose of other solutions offered by the explanation -of the origin of these tales. It will then be possible to approach -the question of the fairy tales from the coign of vantage gained. - -Within this class of tales there are some in which the legendary -character is not so pronounced, where the tale is intended to -explain certain peculiarities of animals. These seem to be of so -primitive a character that the closest parallels can only be found -among primitive nations. Here a new problem sets in--the problem of -origins. For curiously enough a striking similarity cannot be denied -to the Rumanian, Indian, African and possibly American tales. But -the similarity is only in the aim. The other nations ask precisely -the same questions about the animals with which they are familiar, -and they endeavour to give an answer to their query. The parallelism -is in the question. Are we, then, to treat these tales in the same -manner as the "fairy tales" and account for that similarity in the -same manner as that of fairy tales gathered from distant regions? Or, -in other words, have we here another set of tales which have been -carried chiefly by word of mouth from one country to another? Are these -stories also new witnesses to the process of "migration"? And are we, -then, to assume that this theory of migration should be applied to -these animal tales, as it has been to the fairy tale? Or, are we to -assume that the unity of the human soul works on parallel lines in -divers countries among divers nations not otherwise connected with -one another? If not, how is this similarity to be explained? True, -the parallelism between Rumanian and Indian tales is not so close as -it is between the "fairy tales." For the animals are often not the -same. They are everywhere local beasts. This change in the animals -chosen may be due to different circumstances and local assimilation. It -is quite natural that for a tiger and jackal, a wolf and a fox might -have been substituted when the animal tale reached Europe, for the -tale had to be localised in order to preserve its interest in a new -atmosphere. One need not go very far to find the same change taking -place even in written literature. The jackals in the frame story of -the Panchatantra become "foxes" in Kalila Wa Dimna in the European -versions. Or, to take another example, in the famous parable of the -"man in the pit" in the Barlaam Josaphat legend the furious elephant -becomes a camel, however incongruous the substitution may appear. If -such changes could take place in the written literature in which the -incidents are fixed, how much more easily could it take place when -a story is carried only by word of mouth? Then the substitution of -a familiar animal for one unknown would be quite natural. The people -want to know the reason for the peculiarities of those animals that -they know. They are not likely to care much for unknown fauna. Unless -those other animals are of a purely mythical and fantastical character, -and as such appeal to the universal imagination, there is no room in -the popular mythology for animals of foreign countries. - -If, then, we admit that these animal fables have been brought to Europe -in the same manner as the fairy tales, by means of oral transmission, -then they have preserved their original character and their primitive -form less modified than has happened in the case of the fairy tale, -for reasons which would have to be explained. The only other suggestion -is that these legends and animal tales are of a local origin, the -product of the poetical imagination of the Rumanian peasant, and as -such quite independent of any other source. If this is not acceptable -we must admit a continuous stream of popular tradition, setting in -at a time not yet determined and spreading from East to West or from -South to North, the direction of the stream having been determined -by the presumable centre of origin in Asia, before or contemporary -with the spread of the real fairy tales. - -But, it might be argued, as has been also done in the case of the fairy -tales, that these stories are the product of individual efforts of -local myth-makers and popular poets, that they are purely indigenous in -origin. One cannot deny that the people could invent such stories. Some -one must have invented them, and why could they not have been invented -by the Rumanian peasant independently of the Indian story teller? - -The cosmogonic setting invalidates this suggestion. Such a setting -presupposes a definite set of ideas about the beginnings of things -which are neither spontaneous nor indigenous. All that can be said is -that, once the impulse had been given, the imagination of the people -followed the lead and worked in its own way on the given lines. This is -the general trend of real popular lore. Each nation mints in its own -fashion the gold brought from elsewhere, and places its own imprint -upon it. - -This view I find myself unable to accept. It could be entertained -only and solely if no parallels whatsoever could be found anywhere to -some at least of the more important and characteristic creation tales, -fairy tales and fables. - -The question then remains, Where do these tales come from? Are they -indeed the expression of the primitive mind, and if so, have we to -recognise these specific Rumanian beast tales as so many indigenous -products of the primitive Rumanian mind? - -Tylor, in his Primitive Culture (i. 3 ed. 410 ff.), discusses at -some length the beast tales found among primitive peoples, tales -that as yet are not the excuse for a moral and have not been reduced -to the background of an allegory. He takes his examples from the -North Indians of America, from the Kamtchadals of Kamtchatka and -from the inhabitants of Guinea. These stories are thus, as it were, -the primitive expression of the myth-making imagination of peoples in -which the animal stands in as close a relation as any human being. Be -this as it may, the conclusions drawn by Tylor rest on this evidence -gathered only from so-called dark ages. He is not aware of any such -tales among the nations of Europe, who certainly cannot be classed -among the primitive peoples. And on the other hand he is fully alive to -the fact that a number of such beast tales have been worked up in the -eleventh and twelfth centuries in the famous epic of Reynard the Fox. - -The question arises, Whence came some of the incidents believed -to be more ancient? They lead us straight to the supposition that -such animal tales in a primitive form must have existed among the -peoples of Europe, even as far west as Flanders and France. They -were afterwards woven into one consecutive narrative, conceived -in a spirit of satire on existing social and clerical conditions. A -"moral" has thus been introduced into a set of more ancient tales. But -of this anon. In view of these Rumanian tales we can no longer be -content to leave the question of the compilation of Reynard where -Tylor has left it. The new materials now at our disposal allow us to -follow it much further and to arrive at conclusions differing from -those of Tylor. From the moment that we find in Europe similar beast -tales to those found among primitive peoples in other parts of the -world, we are confronted by a new problem. We may recognise the same -spiritual agency at work: we may see the same action of the mind, -asking everywhere for an explanation of the phenomena from beast and -bird, from sky and sea. Thus far the minds of all the nations run on -parallel lines. The differentiation begins with the answer, and here, -then, the problem sets in. How many nations give the same answer, and -in so doing form, as it were, a group by themselves? How old is this -or that answer or the tale that contains it? And what is the form in -which it is given? Is it a fable or has it a religious colouring? In -endeavouring to reply to these queries we find ourselves face to -face with the problems of indigenous character, primitive origin, -independent evolution and question of survival. We are thus brought -face to face with yet another theory--the theory of survivals--the -most important of all, which sways the trend of the study of modern -folk-lore. I must deal with it here at some greater length. I mean, -of course, the theory that sees in every manifestation of the popular -spirit, in every story, in every ballad or song, a survival from -hoary antiquity, a remnant of prehistoric times, to which the people -have clung with a marvellous tenacity, although they have entirely -forgotten its meaning. Out of an unconscious antiquarian weakness -they are supposed to have preserved every fossil even if and when it -had become burdensome to them. But it must not be forgotten that the -people retain only those practices and beliefs by means of which they -hope to obtain health, wealth and power, and they will take care not -to jeopardise such benefits by any neglect. So long as these results -are expected, the people will cling tenaciously to the beliefs which -promise them the greater gifts. It is not impossible that such beliefs, -being too deeply rooted, might survive local political changes. - -But in order to survive, two conditions are essential, continuity of -place and continuity of ethnical unity. The religious continuity is -also an important condition, though not by any means so essential. The -clash of two or more religious doctrines causes on the one hand -the destruction of the official system of religious ceremonies -and practices, and on the other drives to the bottom that mass of -ceremonies from the observance of which benefits to health and wealth -are expected. In the moment when the belief in their efficacy has gone -they disappear without leaving a trace. Very little, if anything, -survives. It is a fallacy to believe, as is now the fashion, that -without such continuity any real survival can take place. This -theory has been carried to extreme lengths, without the slightest -justification. It all rests on finely spun hypotheses in which time -and space have entirely disappeared. - -No connecting link has been brought forward to bind the present to -the past. However plausible some aspects of the "vegetation god" -may appear, one must remember the essential fact, that there is now -not a single nation in Europe living on the soil where such practices -as the slaying of an annual king god has been practised, if, indeed, -they have ever been practised, beyond a very strictly limited area -in Asia Minor and possibly in Sicily or Italy. With whom could such -practices survive, for example, in Bulgaria or even in Thrace? It is -known that the population there has changed its character many times, -even within the last eight hundred years. There is such a medley of -races, some old, some new, that it would be impossible to expect -survivals from the Pelasgian or Dacian past. Nor would they have -anything in common. The Rumanians of Latin origin are certainly not -the oldest inhabitants of Rumania. If, then, each of these ethnical -unities had separate practices or, to come nearer to our subject, -separate tales and stories marked with its own individuality, it -might perhaps be argued that these stories and popular beliefs are -survivals from prehistoric times, remnants of a past long forgotten, -embodying a folk-lore and popular psychology which date back to remote -antiquity. None of these nations, and, in fact, none of the modern -nations of Europe, reach back to any extreme antiquity, nor are they -homogeneous in their ethnical character nor the descendants of the -autochthonous inhabitants. There may be a few rare strains of other -blood in the modern admixture, but not of any decisive character, -certainly it is not strong enough to have preserved any survivals. - -True, many of the modern practices are no more of yesterday than -these tales and stories are, but again, they are certainly not so old -as a modern school of thought endeavours to make out. Comparatively -modern nations, often alien to the soil which they inhabit, none of -them of a pure unmixed origin, cannot have retained beliefs, tales, -etc., of which their forefathers knew nothing. They could not have -laid stress on things which had disappeared with the nations whom -their successors or victors had destroyed. If, then, we find that -these nations of diverse origins and of diverse times possess a -certain stock of folk-lore in common, it follows naturally that -they must have obtained it in common at a certain definite period, -when in spite of their ethnical and possibly political differences -they were all subjected together to one pervading influence. A great -spiritual force moulded them at one and the same time, and this -produced one common result, which, in spite of its genetic unity, -would have allowed a certain latitude for individual development. If, -as I assume, it was the all-pervading influence of religious sects -which stretched from far East to extreme West and embraced all the -cultured nations of Europe, impressing them with the same seal--a -certain popularly modified Christianity embellished with legends and -tales appealing to the imagination, containing a strong didactic and -ethical strain, propounding a new solution of the world's problem -suited to the understanding of the people, accounting satisfactorily -for the evil in the world, warding off the effects of these spirits -of evil--then it is small wonder that their teaching sunk deeper into -the heart of the people and brought about that surprising spiritual -unification in the religion of the masses which survives in folk-lore. - -They would thus date from more or less the same period, when the -whole of Europe felt the influence of teachings which lasted two to -three centuries at least, quite long enough to leave indelible traces. - -It is not to be denied that among these tales some may belong to an -anterior period. The newer facts had in some cases been grafted on -older ones. Some remnants of ancient myths had survived the first -process of forcible Christianisation. But only there where ancient -paganism can be shown to have flourished when this new wave of -proselytism set in, only there might one be able to discover such -traces. These are the local incidents, the local colouring, which -give to each tale its own popular character without changing its -substance. Such process of assimilation is akin to the other before -mentioned, viz. the substitution of the European fauna for Asiatic or -Indian animals. Though references to ancient Greek myths occur in these -stories, yet in spite of that the Rumanian versions approximate more -closely to the later Byzantine than the ancient classical forms. The -transformation sets in practically where the Middle Ages part from -antiquity. Here is yet another proof for the more recent phase of -this popular literature. - -A grave danger threatens the scientific character of folk-lore, if -a wrong method of investigation be persisted in much longer. I refer -to the system of haphazard comparisons arising out of the view that -everything done and every rite kept by the folk must of necessity be a -survival from extreme antiquity and belong to a period anterior to our -modern civilization--a fossil from the age of man's childhood embedded -in layers of more recent date. For proof of this theory parallels are -sought and found among primitive nations, or those who we believe have -not yet left the rude stage of primitive culture. If, then, something -is found among them which resembles closely or remotely any of the -customs, tales, and beliefs, in our own midst, we are convinced that -these customs, tales or beliefs are really remnants of an older stage, -through which the modern nations have passed before they reached the -present stage of development, and which they have cherished and kept -unchanged throughout the ages. The history of comparative philology -offers the best analogy for the demonstration of the futility of -such reasoning. Nothing contributed so much to make the study of -comparative philology a laughing-stock as this endeavour to build up -theories of the origin of the language on such arbitrary foundations. - -How deceptive such haphazard similarities can be is best demonstrated -by the endeavours to derive all the European languages from the -Hebrew. This was believed to have been the original language which -Adam spoke. Nothing more natural, then, than to trace all the languages -back to the Hebrew, which moreover was a holy language. Much ingenuity -and immense learning were spent--nay wasted--for centuries in this -undertaking. The most trifling incident, the most superficial identity -in sound or meaning was looked upon as complete evidence. It has taken -close upon half a century to demolish this fabric of philological -fallacy, and to place comparative philology on a sound basis. We -know now that similarities in different languages may be the result -of independent evolution. - -The similarities are often quite superficial. No one would, for -example, compare a modern English word with an old Latin or Greek stem -or with any archaic dialect of these languages, without showing the -gradual development of our modern word. He would take it back step by -step, and then compare the oldest English form with a contemporary -form. Most of the European languages, as we now see, are derived -from one common stock, more archaic than any of them. No one would -now trace a French word directly to that old Indo-European root, -without going first to the Latin; and so with every other language -belonging to the same group. Each nation has put the seal of its -own individuality on its language, which it has moulded and shaped -according to its own physiological and psychical faculties. The -one will have retained more primitive forms; for example, local and -historical as well as ethnical continuity have kept the Italian much -closer to the Latin than Spanish or Portuguese. No one dreams to-day -of reducing a French word to a Hebrew root, despite any similarity -of form which they might have in common. - -We can go now one step further and suggest a common origin for the -Indo-European and Semitic groups of languages, a unity which lies -beyond the time of their separation, and it is the dream and aim of -comparative philology to attain this goal. - -Returning now to our science of folk-lore, we have a perfect analogy -in the study of comparative philology briefly sketched above. The -analogy is so complete that it is almost unnecessary to elaborate -it in detail. It is obvious that safety and scholarship lie in the -following line of investigation. A European group of folk-lore must -first be established, and the dependence on an earlier common stock -demonstrated. But the historical connection stands foremost, and the -fixing, more or less definitely, of the time of its appearance in the -form in which it now exists. In adopting this line of investigation, -it will then become unscientific to postulate early survivals -for elements that may date from a comparatively recent period, -and for which an explanation can be found by this historical and -comparative study. And just as it has happened in the case of the -study of comparative philology, so it will happen that we shall be in -a much better position to separate and to appreciate the individual -character of the folk-lore of each nation, the form which the common -stock assumes under the psychical and cultural conditions which -characterise its spiritual life. This method will give us also the -key to the ethno-psychology, the ultimate aim and goal of folk-lore -studies. No doubt some higher unity may possibly emerge out of this -historical investigation, for which again the study of comparative -philology offers us the best parallel. Separate groups may be formed of -European and Asiatic folk-lore. The artificial geographical division -need not form the separating barrier either in folk-lore, or, as has -been proved, in the study of language. But to continue the method of -haphazard parallelism and indiscriminate comparison between old and -new will be indefensible. It will be found that even in the so-called -immutable East continual changes have taken place which do not allow us -to assume favourable conditions of continuity and "survivals." Still -less is this the case with the peoples who concern us more directly, -the inhabitants of the south-eastern part of Europe. One has only to -cast a glance at the medley of nationalities inhabiting the Balkan -Peninsula and the neighbourhood to realise the profound differences -of faith, origin and language of Greeks and Albanians, Slavs and -Rumanians, Hungarians and Saxons, and one is forced to the conclusion -that whatever these may possess in common is not a survival from olden -times, but must have come to them at a time when they were all living -together in that part of Europe, subject to one common influence -strong enough to leave an indelible impression on their imagination. - -This result is unavoidable if we remember also the past history of -these countries. They have been swept over by nations, one more -barbarous than another, one more ruthless than another, and none -remaining there long enough to become a decisive factor in the -formation of the existing nationalities. Dacians and Pelasgians, -Romans and Goths, Petchenegs and Cumans, Alans and Huns, Tartars and -Hungarians, Bulgars, Slavs and Turks have succeeded one another with -great rapidity, not to mention the numerous colonies of Armenians, -Syrians and Gipsies planted in the heart of the Byzantine Empire by -the foreign rulers on the throne of Byzantium. It would be a sheer -miracle if anything of ancient times could have survived. Assuming -even the theoretical possibility of such a miracle--and those who -hold strongly to such a theory of unqualified survivals evidently -do believe in such miracles--even then it will remain to be shown, -with whom these ancient beliefs and tales originated and survived. The -romantic legend may have, and practically has, been forgotten in its -entirety. Out of one of the episodes have grown the popular Rumanian -poems of the Wanderer. - -If folk-lore is to become an exact science I venture to think that the -problem of survivals will have to undergo a serious re-examination. We -shall have to revise our views and try to define more precisely -the method according to which we ought to label certain practices, -customs and tales as survivals, and also to determine the period to -which such survivals may be ascribed. A primary condition consists -in establishing historical continuity and ethnical unity. - -If nations of diverse origin and of different ages possess the same -tales and practices, it follows that this common property cannot be a -survival, but each must have received all these at a certain fixed date -simultaneously, quite independent of their own ethnical or historical -and local past. All of them must have been standing under one and -the same levelling influence. This new influence may have brought -with it some older elements belonging to different traditions and -to a different past, and introduced them among these nations, as in -the case of the Barlaam legend or that of the legend of St. George -and the Dragon; but though locally accepted and assimilated they are -not original constituent elements of the local folk-lore of these -nations. These were only adopted and assimilated materials brought -from elsewhere. They are not local survivals. - -The analogy between the study of folk-lore and that of comparative -philology can be pursued profitably much further. It may prove of -decisive importance. It is not an indifferent question as to whether -language and ethnic character are interchangeable terms. Russified -Tartars, Magyarised Rumanians, Anglicised Hindoos will speak Russian, -Hungarian or English as the case may be, but this will not change -their ethnical character. They will remain what they were: Tartars, -Rumanians or Hindoos. Thus also nothing can be proved for the specific -origins of folk-lore if found among any one of these nations; it -may be just as much Tartar as Russian, Rumanian or Hungarian, etc., -for it can easily have been taken over with the language. - -The fact that these tales are found in Rumania and are told by -Rumanian peasants is in itself not yet sufficient proof of their -indigenous origin. We are taken out of the region of hypothetical -speculation into that of concrete facts by modern philology. In the -first place, it is put on record, on the irrefutable evidence of the -modern languages themselves, that there is no nation in Europe which -speaks a language of its own so pure as to be free from admixture with -foreign elements. All owe their very origin, in fact, to this clash -of languages, which was the determining factor in their creation and -form. English is typical in that respect in the west, and Rumanian -in the east of Europe. Both languages have been born through the -combined forces of at least two different languages. In England, -through the violent Norman conquest, French was superimposed upon -Anglo-Saxon. In Rumania, through peaceful penetration and religious -influence, Slavonic became part of the Rumanian language. - -If, then, we should examine each of the European languages to find -the various elements of which they are composed, we should be able -to trace the origin of much that is also the spiritual property of -these nations. Every word borrowed from another language represents -a new idea, a fresh notion taken from elsewhere and embodied. We -can study the history of nations from their vocabulary. We can -trace the migrations of the Gipsies by the foreign words now in -their language. The proportion of these alien elements helps us to -determine the period which elapsed since they went from one nation -to another. The large number of Rumanian words in the Gipsy language -shows that the Gipsies must have lived a long time peaceably among the -Rumanians, and the Rumanian words in all the dialects of the Gipsy, -from Spain to Siberia, are conclusive evidence for the fact that -Rumania was a centre of diffusion for the European Gipsy. And yet -step by step one can follow up a modification; small at the confines -of the Balkans, it grows greater the further it is carried westwards. - -The conclusion is obvious. In Rumanian, the language is preponderantly -of a Latin origin, but other tongues come in to make up its -present character. A comparatively large proportion of the popular -language--which alone is of importance--is Slavonic; then follow in -decreasing proportions Hungarian, modern Greek, Turkish and Albanian -elements, but scarcely any trace of a more ancient local language. In -the Hungarian language there is a large proportion of Slavonic, -then of Rumanian and German elements. The other languages of the -Balkans show a similar mixture of heterogeneous influences. So -thorough has been this process of assimilation that the original -Tartarian language of the Bulgars, who hailed from the Volga--hence -their name--has entirely disappeared. The same has happened with the -Cumans in Hungary. If there is anything tenacious it is undoubtedly -the human language, the means of satisfying one's daily wants. And -yet there is constant change and assimilation going on all the time, -one nation borrows freely from its neighbour and enriches its own -treasury with the possessions of the others. How easily, then, could -a philologist of the eighteenth century, who wanted to compare these -languages among themselves, by collecting similar words haphazard -prove that Rumanian was Turkish, that Hungarian was Slavonic and -that Bulgarian was Greek, or on finding some Albanian words in -Rumanian and Bulgarian how easily could he declare these languages -to be survivals of the ancient mythical Pelasgians with whom the -Albanians were connected. Thanks to our modern comparative science -these languages are placed on their proper basis, and the words and -elements are sifted and separated from one another. Each one by the -form in which it appears in the other languages yields to the scholar -the secret of the time when it was adopted. Having got thus far, -we may now apply these results to the question which is before us, -viz. the origin of these tales and apologues. - -It is obvious that where new words went, stories could also go, and -very likely did go. It is clear that the presence of a large number of -foreign elements in the language denotes a peaceful intercourse between -these nations, long enough and intimate enough to make them borrow -freely from one another and to become fixed into one spiritual unity. - -If a language contains a large number of foreign elements, no one -can deny the direct influence which the latter has exercised upon the -former. Words, then, are not a mere combination of sounds, they are -the outward expression of the mind. They are the materialised spirit -of the nation, and whither they go that spirit also goes. Spirit -communes thus with spirit. There is and there has always been such -a give and take. And it is for us to follow up this constant barter, -in which the richer unhesitatingly parted with their treasures to the -poor, for the more they gave the more was left with them, as is meet -in the charmed realm of folk-lore. - -These nations learn from one another not only words, but the thoughts -and ideas expressed in words. The proportion of these linguistic -elements in the vocabulary connotes the proportion of influence upon -the other people. It must not be forgotten that we are dealing with -illiterate nations, and with "oral" literature. It takes less time and -it requires less influence to disseminate a tale than to disseminate -a language and cause it to be acquired. The difficulty of borrowing -is thus obviously eliminated. We have the fact that even the language -had been borrowed and thoroughly assimilated. No archaic linguistic -element has been found in these languages. And it is therefore not -possible to postulate for the tales and apologues survivals of such -antiquity as is now so often assumed. - -Two more points stand out clearly from this investigation into the -history of the language: First, the existence of numerous layers in the -modern languages, some elements being older, others of a more recent -origin. There is no uniformity either in language or in literature, -no contemporary unity of all the elements, but as far as can be seen -none are very old, except a few stray elements of an older period which -may have survived, always subject to the two fundamental conditions, -ethnical and geographical continuity. - -The second point is the principle of concentric investigation. If tales -and apologues are borrowed, then those nearest the centre will preserve -the original form less changed; and the further a tale travels--always -by word of mouth--the more it will lose of its original character and -the more it will become mixed up and contaminated with other tales -which have undergone a similar emaciating and attenuating process. - -Following up, then, this line of investigation, our first endeavour -is to find out whether there are parallels to these Rumanian animal -tales among the nations round about, and if so, how far they agree -with the Rumanian, and how far they differ. The fact itself that -parallels exist would be an additional proof that we are dealing -here with matter introduced from elsewhere, matter that has been -transmitted from nation to nation and possibly may have also reached -the west of Europe, although very few traces have been preserved to -this day. This is not yet a question of origin, but the next step -towards the solution of the problem. For obviously, if these tales -had been imported, their origin must be sought elsewhere. If we then -compare Rumanian tales with those of the ancient Byzantine Empire -and especially with those of the modern Greeks, then, in our case, -it might be argued that the Greeks were the repositories of ancient -folk-lore. The logical conclusion would be that these tales must be -found most profusely and in a more archaic form in the folk-lore -of modern Greece, and that the variants and parallels among the -other nations must show a distinct falling away from the original -types. Literary tradition or written folk-lore is, of course, excluded -from this investigation, for once folk-lore becomes fixed by being -written in a book it is no longer subject to any appreciable change. - -We are dealing here exclusively with the oral folk-lore of illiterate -peoples. The relation between written and oral folk-lore and the -mutual influence of one upon another will be incidentally touched -upon in connection with the tales themselves. But, curiously enough, -a comparison of these stories with the known and published tales -of modern Greece is thoroughly disappointing. Only very few bird -tales--no insect or beast tales--seem to have been preserved, and -these mostly in Macedonia, the population of which is overwhelmingly -Slavonic, but scarcely any from among the Greeks proper inhabiting -European Greece. On the other hand, those few tales, which have been -mentioned by Abbott and Hahn, are very significant. They show the -profound difference which separates these modern bird tales from the -"Metamorphoses" known in ancient Greek mythology. A goodly number of -changes into animals are recorded in ancient Greek literature.--The -story of Philomela and Halcyon is sufficiently well known.--All these -are, with perhaps a few exceptions, the results of the wrath of an -offended god, rewards for acts of personal kindness or for steps -taken to assuage physical pain. They are all strictly individual in -character, and while none of them is intended to explain the origin -of bird, beast or insect, still less are they of the "creation" type, -in which each animal stands as the beginning of its species. And even -in those few tales in which supernatural beings are mentioned, very -little of the "Moirai" or goddesses of fate appears in the Greek form, -though the belief in them is now very strong among modern Greeks. Even -then these "Moirai" differ considerably from those of ancient Greek -mythology. Their attributes differ and their appearance and shape have -nothing in common with those of classical antiquity. The name also -has assumed a peculiar significance, different from that of ancient -times. This, then, is all which the modern Greeks have retained of -the ancient goddesses of fate; none of the other neighbouring nations -knows the "Moirai" by name. They have other goddesses of fate, Vilas or -Zanas, etc. Charon, who is now the angel of death among modern Greeks, -is remembered by them also as the boatman who carries the souls over -the waters of forgetfulness. The boatman alone may still be found in -one tale or another retaining something of the Greek local colour. But -no other direct parallels are found among the animal tales of modern -Greece. Much greater, on the contrary, is the approximation with the -Slavonic nations south and north of Rumania. - -Turning, then, from the Greek to the Slavonic tales, we shall find -a much larger number of parallels between them and the Rumanian. In -the collection of South Slavonic tales and fables published by Krauss -only one or two real "creation" tales are found, and others are pure -and simple animal tales of the type of the "Gnat and the Lion," -"The Wedding Feast of Tom," etc., agreeing more or less with the -Rumanian versions. They prove thereby the popular character of the -Rumanian tales; yet they differ sufficiently from them--as is shown -later on,--when they are quoted in connection with the above. One -of the creation stories is that of the sheep which, according to the -South Slavonic tale, was made by the Evil One, when he boasted that -he could improve on God's creation. - -Incidentally I may mention the collection of tales from the Saxon -colony in Transylvania, collected by Haltrich. There is not one single -"creation" tale among them. Only two of the Rumanian animal fables -find their parallels in that collection. Turning to the Russian -tales, notably the great collection of Afanasiev, we shall find a -large number of animal tales, including also a number of "creation" -tales. In the former the central figures are, as in the South -Slavonic, Rumanian, Saxon, etc., the fox, the bear, the wolf, the -hedgehog and sometimes domestic animals, the dog, the cock, the hen, -the duck, etc. The same can be said also of tales collected from the -Lithuanians, Letts and Ruthenians, and to a smaller degree of those -from the Poles and Czechs. All, however, have retained definite -traces of such animal tales and legends. The animal character has -been thoroughly preserved. The fox is generally the "clever" animal, -but is, as often as not, outwitted by smaller animals or by man. The -general trend of these animal tales is to pit the cunning of the -smaller and weaker against that of the more powerful animal and to -secure the victory for the former. It is so natural for the people, -who live under the despotism of the mighty and powerful, to rejoice -in seeing the discomfiture of the great and stupid brought about by -the wit and cunning of the small and despised, and answers so aptly -to their feelings. - -In these tales, which belong to the group of animal fables, we are -in a different atmosphere, far removed from that of the creation -legend. We are approaching that phase in the evolution in which the -animal stands for a disguised human being, which, in spite of its -appellation, speaks and acts entirely in accordance with human ways -and notions. These have not yet been found among the Rumanians and -those nations whose folk-lore shows close affinity with theirs. - -Having thus far established that these animal tales, fables and -creation legends are neither of a local nor an indigenous origin, -nor survivals from a remote past, and also that the Rumanian tales -do not stand isolated, but form part of a group of tales and legends -common to most of the nations surrounding Rumania in a more or less -complete degree, it behoves us to endeavour to trace these tales to -their probable origin, and also to account for the shape which they -have assumed, as shown in the course of this investigation. These tales -among the Eastern nations of Europe are so much akin to one another -that they must have reached these nations almost simultaneously. All -must have stood under the same influence, which must have been powerful -and lasting enough to leave such indelible traces in the belief and -in the imagination of the people. - -A great difficulty arises, when we attempt to define the influence -which brought these stories and fables to the nations of the near -East and thence to the West. Some have connected them with the -invasion of the Mongols. If similar tales could be found among them, -such a date might fit also the introduction of the animal tales -into Eastern Europe, especially if they had originally a Buddhist -background. Nothing, in fact, could apparently harmonise better with -the Buddhist teaching of Metempsychosis and the principle of man's -transformation into beast in order to expiate for sins committed -than some of these tales.--Of course, Egyptian influences cannot be -overlooked in this connection. I may refer to them later on.--The -burden of the majority is indeed that the birds and insects are, -in fact, nothing else than human beings transformed into ungainly -shapes for some wrong which they have done. - -Many theories have been put forward on the mediation, among them also -the theory of transmission by the Gipsies. These came first to Thrace, -and lived long enough among the nations of the Balkans, in Rumania -and Russia, to have exercised a possible influence upon them. But this -theory can be dismissed briefly. The Gipsies are not likely carriers -of folk-tales. They came too late, and their march through Europe is -nothing if not a long-drawn agony of suspicion, hatred, persecution. - -Some occult practices may have been taken over by some adepts of -the lower forms of magic, and possibly Playing Cards, originally an -oracle of divining the future, may have been brought by the Gipsies -to Europe, but popular tales, though they possess a good number, have -certainly not been communicated to Europe by them. They never had the -favourable occasion for meeting the people on a footing of equality, -or of entering with them into any intimate intercourse. - -The Gipsy of the Rumanian fairy tale is mostly a villain, and is -merely the local substitute for the Arab or Negro of the Eastern -parallels. In the Rumanian popular jests the Gipsy is always the -fool. From such as these the people would have nothing to learn. - -Next the Mongolian theory has long been put forward as a plausible -explanation, for it has been believed that Russia formed one of the -channels of transmission. This latter assumption, however, rests -on a geographical misconception, and also on a want of historical -knowledge. Up to comparatively modern times, the whole of the South -of Russia was inhabited by Tartars, and the Mongolian influence upon -Russia could not pass the border of the so-called White Russia. Nor -can a temporary invasion of Europe by the Mongolians, who left ruin -and desolation behind them, have been the means by which such tales -could be introduced. They are told at the peaceful fireside or in the -spinning-rooms, and are not carried by the wings of the arrow sped -from the enemy's bow, nor are they accepted if presented on the point -of the sword. They are frightened away by the din of battle. Years -must pass ere the blood is staunched, the wounds healed, and only -after peaceable concord and social harmony have been established, -can a spiritual interchange take place; this was impossible between -Russians or Mongols. We must look elsewhere, then, for a possible -channel of transmission, always subject to the theory of "migration." - -Besides, to Kieff, the centre of Russian inspiration, the place -hallowed by the minstrels and poets, the Mongols never came. The only -influence which prevailed there was that of Byzance, and to that we -shall have to look as the channel of transmission and the centre of -dissemination of these tales and legends. These had come from Asia, -carried on the crest of the wave of that religious movement known -as Manichaeism and Bogomilism, and from there they started their -triumphant course throughout Europe. They came along with other -religious legends, carried by the current of thought which also taught -the doctrine of Dualism and Metempsychosis. This is the only possible -source for most of the legends and tales found among the Rumanians -and Slavs, and, as will be seen, it must have been the primary source -for such tales in the West of Europe. - -A dualistic heterodox teaching with such a background reached from -the confines of India far into the South of France across central -Europe. It was probably the same agency which transformed the life -of Buddha into the legends of the saints Barlaam and Josaphat. - -Nor is this the only legend invented, manipulated and circulated by -the numerous Gnostic sects. Those who have studied the history of the -apocryphal literature are fully aware of the apocryphal Gospels, Acts -of the Apostles and of the rest of the apocryphal tales which were -already put on the "Index," in the first centuries of the common era. - -Some of the cosmogonic tales of the dualistic origin of the world, -of the influence of the Evil Spirit, of the origin of the Bee, the -Glow-worm, the Wolf and others show unmistakably such a Gnostic origin. - -It is therefore not too much to assume that they have been brought to -Europe and disseminated by the same agency. These sectaries alone came -into direct contact with the masses of the people. They preached their -doctrines to the lowly and the poor. They were known themselves as -the pure (Cathars) and the poor (Pobres). They alone reached the heart -of the people, and were able to influence them to a far higher degree -than the murderous Mongols, or other nations that ravaged the country. - -The dualistic tales connected with the story of the Creation are found -also among other nations, especially among those in Russia and in the -countries which belonged to the ancient Persian Empire. Dähnhardt, -who has made the investigation of such legends and tales the object -of special study (Natursagen, i.; Berlin 1907), comes to the same -conclusion that they rest ultimately on the Iranian dualism of the -Avesta. He believes that Zoroastrian teaching has penetrated far -into the North and West, and has produced these peculiar dualistic -cosmogonic legends. - -The point to bear in mind in this investigation of the origin of the -Rumanian tales and legends is not so much to trace the remote possible -source of dualism, but the immediate influences which have been -brought to bear upon the shape which these legends have taken. This -is the salient problem. Dähnhardt, of course, discusses the further -development of the dualistic conception, through Manichaeism and -Bogomilism, and thus far is helpful in establishing the connection -between Iran and Thrace, and in strengthening the argument that we -must trace a number of these "creation" legends to the propaganda of -these sects. - -It must be remembered that these tales in the European versions have -a thoroughly Christian aspect. They presuppose the existence of God -and His saints; nay, they show a close acquaintance with apocryphal -narratives, which have gathered round the canonical biblical stories -and episodes. The Evil Spirit is a clearly-defined personality, and -his antagonism to God is not of the pronounced acute controversial -type as is the Angromainya who, in the teaching of the Avesta, is -the direct opponent and almost negative of God. - -A complete transformation had taken place ere these tales became -the property of the Rumanian peasants, and for that, also, of the -Russian and other North-Eastern peoples, who also have similar -tales akin to certain of the cosmogonic legends--to which reference -will be made at the proper place in the short notes to the stories -themselves. It will not be disputed that some of them are imported, -i.e. belong to the circulating stock of popular literature. Mongolian -influence--as already remarked above--is entirely excluded, in spite -of Dähnhardt. The Mongols never came in direct contact either with -the Rumanians or with the nations of the Balkans, who also possess -a number of similar tales, and must have derived them from another -source, more direct and, as will be seen, more complete than the -versions published by Dähnhardt from Russia, Lithuania, Finland and -Esthonia, not to speak of Northern Asiatic nations. Of real animal -tales there are only a few among those studied by Dähnhardt, such as -a peculiar version of "the Bee and Creation," very much shorter than -the Rumanian version; then a version of the creation of the Wolf and -the Lamb, and of the Goat's knees. These are all taken by Dähnhardt -from South-Slavonic and Albanian collections, again corroborating the -view that we have to look to the Balkans as the immediate centre of -this class of "creation" tales, and then further back to Asia Minor. - -The appearance of the "Creation" legends in a compilation of the -seventh or eighth century is not to be taken as the date of their -origin. They may be very much older, and no doubt are, and may -have formed part of a primitive Physiologus in which the origin -as well as the peculiarities of the various birds and beasts were -described. This is not the place to discuss the remarkable history of -the Physiologus. The only point to be noted is that the symbolical and -allegorical interpretation of the tales contained in the Physiologus -is of a strictly religious Christian character. - -The absence from the popular literature of such bird and beast tales -as are found in the Physiologus--the Bestiaires of the West--is not -surprising, for the Physiologus deals mostly with animals and birds -which are of an outlandish character. Very few have any reference to -the animals with which the people are familiar, and in which alone -they take an interest. - -Though the book was known also among the Rumanians, only a faint -trace of it could be detected among the popular tales in the -present collection. The oldest Fathers of the Church made use of this -Physiologus in their homilies, and the other sects have no doubt done -the same. Some of the creation legends may have found their way into -the old legendary homiletical interpretation of the creation, like -the Hexameron of Basil, and other kindred compilations. All these -tales form part of a wider cycle of allegorised animal fables. In -Jewish literature a collection of Fox fables is mentioned as early -as the second or third century. - -Indian literature is full of such animal tales, approximating often -to some of the Rumanian fables. The collections of Frere, Temple, -Steele, Skeat, and Parker abound in such animal tales, in which -the more nimble and quick-witted, though small and weak, animal -regularly gets the best of the bigger and stronger, yet duller and -slower rival. No moral lesson is squeezed out of the tales, and the -animal is not a thinly-disguised human being. Yet there can be no -greater fallacy than, guided by this similarity, to assume a direct -Indian origin for the Rumanian fables. - -None of these animal tales finish with the usual "moral," known to -us from Aesop onward. Nor do the people seem to be influenced by -these artificial fables. In the literary European fable the animal -is merely a disguised human being. The animals are performing acts -which have nothing of the animal in them. The Indian and Oriental -fable differs in this respect from the European, inasmuch as in a -good number of them the animal character of the performing beasts -is faithfully preserved. Exactly the same happens with the Rumanian -animal fables. The cat does not play the rôle of the queen, and the -fox is not a sly courtier. Cat is cat, and fox is fox. And yet they -were not unaware of the fables of Aesop. I have found these fables in -many old Rumanian manuscripts, and one of the first printed popular -books of the country was the Collection of Aesop. - -Unquestionably a good many proverbs are intimately connected with -tales. The "moral" in Aesop has often dwindled down to a simple -proverb, or has expanded out of it. These proverbs are, as it were, -succinct conclusions drawn out by the people. Anton Pann (in the -middle of the last century)--to whom the Rumanian popular literature -will for ever remain indebted--therefore calls his Collection of -Proverbs and Tales "Povestea vorbii," i.e. "The tale which hangs by -the Proverb." One and all of the hundred tales found in the second and -last edition of this book are mostly of a purely popular origin. The -process throughout is not to invent a story for the moral, but the -"moral," such as it is, is to flow naturally from the story. - -This is not the place to discuss the origin of the animal fable -in general. But one cannot overlook the fact that all the Indian -fables--with the exception of some embodied in the Panchatantra--are -found in modern collections. All that we know of them is that they -live actually in the mouth of the modern people. They may be old, -they may be of more recent date. - -Against these modern collections must be set now the story of Ahikar, -which carries us back at least to the fifth century B.C., and is -thus far the oldest record of animal tales. It has become one of the -popular stories which circulated in a written form, and became the -source of many a quaint proverb, as probably also of some animal tales. - -The recent discovery among the Papyri of Elephantine in Southern Egypt -of the Story of Ahikar has carried back the knowledge of allegorical -beast fables to at least the fifth century B.C. For not only do we find -in that story the prototype of the life of Aesop, but also a number -of maxims and saws, and not a few beast tales, which are mentioned by -Ahikar in order to teach his ungrateful nephew Nadan. We find there, -e.g. the prototype of "pious" wolf, who appears in the Ahikar story as -an innocent student, but who cannot take in the lesson given to him, -his mind wandering to the sheep. There are other wolf, fox, rat and -bird fables in the Rumanian and, still more so, in the Oriental and -other versions. Ahikar himself relates the beast tales, allowing Nadan -to draw the lesson. By the manner in which these tales are referred -to, it is obvious that they must have been well known tales current -among the people. - -The real importance of this discovery lies in the fact that we have -here a number of cleverly-used popular animal tales, more than two -thousand years old, whose home was in all probability Syria or Egypt, -embedded in a collection which has deeply influenced the apocryphal -Book of Tobit, and to a certain degree even the writers of the New -Testament, as shown by Professors Rendel Harris and Conybeare in -the Introduction to their edition of the Story of Ahikar (second -edition). The claim for an Indian origin of these fables will -have to be abandoned, unless someone could show older writings -from India, and the possible road by which these fables could have -reached the Western shore of Asia Minor and been taken up by the -peoples of Syria and Egypt at such an early date. It is not at all -unlikely that some of the fables, just as they travelled westwards, -also travelled eastwards and found a home in India as they found a -home in Rumania and Russia. If one remembers now that the fabulous -"Life" of Aesop ascribed to Planudes is almost identical with part of -that of Ahikar, as I have shown, as far back as 1883 in my History -of the Rumanian Popular Literature (Bucharest 1883, p. 104 ff.), -it will not be difficult to account for the West-Asiatic origin of -the fables themselves. - -From a Rumanian MS. of the eighteenth century, I have since published -the fuller narrative of that version in an English translation -(the Journal of the Royal As. Soc., 1900, pp. 301-319). The two -tales contained therein have also been reprinted here at the end -of the collection, especially as they vary somewhat from the other -ancient and mediæval recensions of the Story of Ahikar. This story -has become one of the Rumanian popular chap-books in the shortened -version of Anton Pann. The practical application of the fable, the -"moralisation," is a second stage, limited, as it seems, to the purely -literary composition. The people put their own interpretations upon -the fables and often dispensed with any such interpretations. - -We are brought back again to the same centre, Syria and Byzance, -for the dissemination of these fables. Such tales were then within -the reach of the teaching of the various sects, such as Manichaeans, -Bogomils, Cathars, etc., and travelled with them from East to West, -where they met the other current of the Aesopian fables transmitted to -the West through Latin and Arabic sources. According to this theory -the religious sectarians made deft use also of animal tales, for the -purpose of inculcating a moral, of drawing a lesson, of holding up the -Church and State to the ridicule and contempt of the masses, and thus -creating the animal satire, the best type of which is the cycle of -Reynard the Fox. I am not oblivious of the fact that an allegorical -use has been made of animal tales in the Arabic literature, such as -the "Judgment of the Animals," under the title of Hai ben Yokdhan, -written in Arabic by Ibn Tophail, translated into English by Simon -Ockley in 1711, in which the lion holds a court, and animal after -animal appears to accuse man; or the collection of Sahula (thirteenth -cent.) in his ancient apologue Mashal ha-kadmoni. But there is no -real connection between this cycle and that of Reynard the Fox. - -Any reference to the epic of Reynard the Fox must be incidental. It can -only be alluded to here, and not followed up in detail. A real Western -origin for these tales, taking them separately or as "branches," -as they appear in the old French versions, has not been found, -nor any explanation for their sudden appearance in the eleventh or -twelfth century. - -There are two or three points in connection with this cycle which have -to be kept steadily in view. In the first place its almost complete -independence of the purely Aesopian fable with its polished form, -with its thinly-disguised human attributes, and with its stilted -and stiff "moral." Though modified somehow in Babrius, Avianus, even -Marie de France and Berachya, this latter cycle belongs more to the -literary class. The "clerks" could not take umbrage at them. Not so the -tales in the Reynard cycle. They are thoroughly popular. The animals -retain their natural attributes, they act as they are expected to do, -and they are utilised in the same manner as "political broadsides" -were in later times. The human beings represented in these "satirical -sheets" are disguised as animals, and not the animals disguised as -human beings. There lies the profound difference between these two -sets of beast tales. - -And because of their animal propensity, the human beings are ridiculed -and lampooned in the form of animals and held up to the scorn and -laughter of the reader. The bad man, as in the old story of Ahikar, is -likened to the beast, and chastised accordingly. The popular origin -and character of this kind of satire is self-evident. Courtiers -and clerks would not attempt such persiflage of their superiors, -and certainly not in so sustained a manner. - -Of the men thus ridiculed none are so virulently assailed as the -Clergy. People do not mind occasionally a slight skit on priests and -other privileged classes, and there are abundant fabliaux which leave -very little to be desired from the point of view of ridicule. But to -have singled out the Clergy for such unmeasured vituperation shows a -deliberate attempt to lower and destroy the influence and authority -of the Church in general and of its ministers in particular. Only -partisans of heterodox teaching could find pleasure and profit in -applying the beast tales to break down the walls of the Church. Only -men in contact with the masses could throw that leaven of critical -examination into the hearts of the people and open their eyes by -means of animal tales to the weaknesses and vices of their official -clergy. Such outspoken criticism seldom comes from within. It is -often imported wholesale from without, or at least comes from an -opposing quarter. In their polemical propaganda these heterodox -teachers brought and used also some of those fox tales for which, -significantly enough, parallels are to be found mostly in Slavonic -tales from Russia and the Balkans. - -If such be the partial origin of these Reynard tales, one can easily -understand why they appeared in the eleventh or twelfth century, -and notably in the countries then the very centres of such heterodox -teaching: South of France, Flanders and elsewhere. A very remarkable -fact seems to corroborate this hypothesis. One of the presumed authors -of a "branch" of the French Reynard cycle, Pierre Cloot, was burnt in -Paris in 1208 for heresy. Here we have a man who paid with his life -for his heretic faith, actually working on these tales. It may be a -mere coincidence, still some connection between the Reynard poem and -"heretics" cannot be denied. - -With the victory of the Church, Reynard nearly disappeared, yet that -satirical leaven has continued to work in those political animal -broadsides, which stretch from the "Who killed Cock Robin?" in England -to "Who killed the Cat?" in Russia among the Russian broadsides. - -There remains now still one section of these Rumanian tales to be -considered, that in which the origin of the animal is closely connected -with what is commonly known as the fairy tale. It is just in this fact -that the pre-eminence of these tales can be found. It is like a window -through which the East is looking westwards. It is noteworthy that the -"fairy tales" found here connected with the origin of the birds and -beasts do not stand so isolated as the legends. To more than one of -them parallels may be adduced from other than Eastern collections. In -spite of similarity, they differ, however, in many points so profoundly -that they lead to a very serious question. It cannot be passed over, -though it cannot be treated here at such length as the problem raised -would demand. To put it briefly, the difference between these fairy -tales and those of the West, is that in these versions of the former -a "moral" or perhaps a plausible reason is given to the fairy tale -which is often missing in the general form of the fairy tales. - -The question has been asked repeatedly, "What is the meaning of such -and such a tale," e.g. the "Cinderella" tales or "Bluebeard"? To -Miss Cox's indefatigable labour we owe a monumental investigation of -the first-mentioned tale, and yet for all that the main question has -remained unanswered. This is but one example out of many. - -Every collection of fairy tales teems with them. Of course, the -æsthetic pleasure of seeing innocence triumphant and virtue rewarded -might be a sufficient motive, and no doubt often is. The people -like to see, in the imaginary tale, a vindication of the justice -which they often miss in real life. The adventurous hero will also -appeal to the chivalrous instincts of the people, and especially to -the young. Such tales as the epic romances of old require no further -explanation. Still there are a good many fairy tales the reason and -meaning of which are anything but clear. If it can now be shown that -there is a cosmogonic background, or one which gives the clue to -it, inasmuch as it tells the "origin" of certain creatures, such a -tale is at once its own explanation and justification: if e.g. the -final development of "Cinderella" is not that she becomes the wife -of a prince, but that she becomes the "dove" or the "sparrow," then -"Cinderella" assumes a definite meaning. Under other influences, -when such heterodox teachings cannot be tolerated by the powers that -be, obviously the creation tales, with this specific character, had -to lose their "tail," as the stork does in the story, and hence the -fairy tale became partly meaningless. Thus, if the "Bluebeard" could -no longer be "a cannibal," as in the tale No. 83, such a person not -being tolerated in a modern state, except as a wizard, lycanthropos, -or werwolf, he had to be changed into what he is now. The modern -"Bluebeard" is a mere pale reflex of the original monster. He does -not even make the flesh creep sufficiently. This watering down may -have taken place also in other tales which appear to us without any -sense. They have lost that decisive part which gave point to the story. - -I am fully aware of the objection which could be raised against this -view of the original character of some of our fairy tales. It might -be urged with some show of plausibility that the process might have -been an inverse one, that the popular story-teller used a fairy tale -to tack on his moral, that the question of the origin of the bird or -insect was an "after-thought," and did not belong originally to the -tale. Theoretically, such an objection could be urged, and it might -even gain in force if applied to the fairy tales of the West. Andersen, -not to speak of minor poets, would supply a proof of it. But we must -bear in mind that we are dealing with the unsophisticated people, -who would not use the folk-lore material in the manner of the -literary artist. They have no preconceived idea to which a tale -or legend is made artificially to fit. Moreover, these tales and -legends are believed in implicitly. They bear the stamp of their -primitiveness. They do not represent a later degree of development, -such as the parallels from the West often show. The existence side by -side with them of other creation tales of animals is an additional -support of the view that the fairy tales have not been "edited" or -adapted to cosmogonic purposes to explain the origin of beast and bird. - -Fairy tales are, as a rule, taken out of the range of the survival -theory. The similarity of fairy tales, so striking among a large -number of nations, precludes the possibility of seeing in them local -survivals, and yet it appears unscientific to separate one section -of oral literature from the other. The line of demarcation between -creation legend and creation fairy tale is so thin that it is often -indistinguishable. Both spring from the same root, and the theory that -endeavours to explain the origin of the one must also be applicable -to the other. - -In the theory of survivals, however, no attempt is made to deal at -the same time with the question of origins. It has not yet been made -clear, by any of the more prominent representatives of the theory -of survivals, how the similarity in customs and ceremonies is to -be explained, in tales and fables, between the most diverse nations -living separated from one another. If these survivals represent local -tradition, which has persisted throughout the ages, how, then, does it -come to pass that they should resemble so closely other ceremonies and -customs observed by different nations also as local traditions? Is it -to be inferred that at some distant time, far back in the prehistoric -ages, some such ceremonies were used, that, in spite of evolution -and separation, they have survived everywhere almost unchanged, in -spite of the profound modifications of the nations in their ethnical, -political and religious status? Either they are local inventions, -in which case they could not resemble any other, or they all go back -to one common stock, and have survived in such a miraculous manner -contrary to every law of human nature. The only explanation feasible -and satisfactory is, I believe, the theory of transmission from nation -to nation; those resembling one another closely in modern Europe are -not of so early an age as has hitherto been assumed, but have come at -a certain time from one definite centre, and were propagated among the -nations, and disseminated by means of a great religious movement at -a time when the political and national consolidation of the peoples -of Europe had already assumed a definite shape. - -To this conclusion we are forced by the examination of these Rumanian -animal tales in their manifold aspect, "creation" tales, fables, fairy -tales. They are all more or less of comparatively recent origin. They -owe their actual shape to the dualistic teaching of the Manichaeans -and Bogomils. They have come by these intermediaries of the religious -sects from Syria and the Balkans. These tales stopped first among the -nations in the Near East, and then by the same agency were carried to -the extreme West. Only in such wise can we explain the appearance of -these tales--whatever their archaic character may be--among nations -of comparatively recent origin like those now under consideration, -Rumanians, Bulgars, Russians and even Saxons and Hungarians. This -is the only possible explanation of the very remarkable dualistic -character, and of the peculiar teachings embodied in these tales. For, -whatever these nations have in common, there cannot be any question -of survivals, for the reasons advanced above. All the nations are -comparatively modern. It is impossible to assume that what might be -a Latin survival among the Rumanians could be so closely connected -with what might be a Turanian survival among the Bulgars or a -Pelasgian survival among the Albanians. There might be found among -these tales traces of more ancient beliefs, myths and customs, just -as it is possible to find similar traces among the folk-lore of the -nations of the West. But what I contend is that these are not local -survivals--that, whatever their primitive character may be, they -need not originally belong to the nations among whom they are found -now. They were brought by the same movement that brought the tales -and legends, customs and ceremonies. The new and the old were carried -along by the same stream of tradition and religious influence. An -adjustment and readjustment of materials, the placing of layer upon -layer, localisation and assimilation then took place. But these are -rocks swept along by the stream and deposited far away from the place -of origin, or, to take another simile, that of the insect and the -amber. The amber has been carried from the North Sea many centuries -ago, nay, thousands of years ago, along the trade routes from North -to South, and has found its way also to ancient Egypt. Embedded in the -amber we have here and there a North European insect which was caught -at the time when the amber was still a liquid, and, imprisoned in it, -became fossilised, and was carried a long distance. If found, then, -among the beads in the tombs of the ancient Pharaohs, no one could -say that that insect was of Egyptian origin, or that fly a remnant -of the local fauna. It had come thither together with the amber that -carried it, and may have remained there if the amber had decayed. - -In the same manner ancient customs, ancient beliefs and ancient -tradition have been caught in the liquid tales, apologues and legends, -like the fly in the amber, and carried along with them from East -to West. In this manner they may perhaps be termed survivals, but -survivals of a different kind than has been assumed hitherto. They have -survived only as long as they were tolerated in the lore of the people. - -Hand in hand with dissemination go the assimilation and localisation of -these diverse elements. It is impossible to do more within the compass -of this introduction than merely touch the fringe of a far-reaching -problem which arises from the examination of these peculiar beast and -bird tales. One of the most instructive examples of this religious -syncretism, of the manner in which it has influenced the people, and -the form in which it has been preserved, localised, and assimilated, -among them, is shown to advantage in the stories of the origin of -the Glow-worm and in the stories of the Bee. Some of the cosmogonic -legends of the Rumanians are also found among the Balkan people. They -are a fragmentary reflex of a great conception of the world. If I -may use the mystical and symbolical language of the legends, they are -also sparks from a great light that had fallen down from heaven. The -creation of man, the fall of the angels, are here curiously blended -together. They represent part of the teaching that went under many -names but, in essence, was one. That is, of course, the belief in -the dualism of the creative powers, the good God and the wicked one, -styled Satan. - -From these tales and legends, which are derived from well-known -apocryphal writings, we can see how deeply the latter have entered the -life of nations which have not yet fallen under the unifying sway of -strict dogmatism, and how unable the people are to grasp the higher -spiritual interpretations of the dogmas and practices of the Church. - -From a purely dogmatic point of view, all these tales are rank heresy; -but who among the simple folk knows the distinction between orthodox -and heretical teaching? The people are more easily disposed towards -a simple philosophy which explains satisfactorily the phenomena of -life. They listen with pleasure to tales of imagination. One of the -fundamental theories of Gnosticism or, rather later, of dualism, -is this peculiar conception of the creation. The world is divided -between the power of light and the power of darkness. The latter is -anxious to participate in the possession of light, and for that reason -steals some, which it breaks up into sparks and covers over with -thick matter so that it may not escape. These sparks are the human -soul deeply embedded in human clay, anxious always to be reunited -with the ancient glory. - -In this Gnostic teaching we have the very source of the legend of these -angelic sparks now relegated to glow-worms, originally placed in other -"earthly worms"--the human race. We hear, moreover, the faint echo of -the fall of the angels and of the angels of a lower rank inhabiting -(and ruling) the planets and the stars. We even have the legend, found -in the Book of Enoch, of the angels who fell in love with a woman and -remain upon earth as evil spirits, whilst she is translated to heaven -and becomes a star. The interest lies not only in the fact that these -ancient religious conceptions have been so faithfully preserved among -the people, but also in the manner of their preservation. They have -been adapted to the understanding of the folk, and, from dogmatic -teachings, they have become beautiful popular legends. But the inner -meaning has been entirely lost. The old sparks have been embedded in -very thick clay indeed, as can be seen in the treatment meted out to -God, Christ, the Virgin, the Apostles and Saints. They are greeted -with an apparent lack of reverence and respect that must disturb the -equanimity of people of a Puritanic mind. The gods could not have been -put on a footing of greater familiarity; it almost borders on the -burlesque. Primitive nations show the same apparent want of respect -to their gods, idols or fetishes, and we are inclined to put them on -a lower scale of faith and reverence than the peoples of Europe. - -A better knowledge of the life and religion of the peoples in the East -and of the Eastern part of Europe would soon change such a view. In -fact, I believe, that if we could descend to the lower depths of -the masses of Western Europe, and especially of those in Catholic -countries, and get a peep into their innermost soul, we should not find -it very different from that of the Slav and the Rumanian. The Saints -are not treated differently in Spain and in Italy on the one hand, or -in Rumania and in Bulgaria, or even Russia, on the other. They have all -the same essential conditions in common, viz. all have a Pantheon of -Saints of various degrees and of both sexes. In Protestant countries -the people have been impoverished. All the saints have been driven -away; a cold abstract spirituality has taken their place, and yet depth -of fervour and strength of belief cannot be denied to these Eastern -peoples. There is, moreover, a sufficient fund of humour and innate -rectitude to keep them at a certain level of morality and albeit free -from the hypocrisy of the so-called higher civilization. So that, if -the Rumanians take liberties with God and the Church and the Saints, -and pay homage to the Devil by mocking and laughing at the jokes -which God performs for his confusion, it is all done more in the -spirit of good-natured banter, not in that of polemical or fanatical -intolerance. Why should the poor Devil not also occasionally have a -good time? He is always sure to be outwitted in the long run. - -I am fully aware of the objection that may be raised against -attributing so much influence to the activity and propaganda of the -heretical sects. It may be argued, that their influence was not in -any way commensurate with the results ascribed to them, that they -did not carry the masses with them to such an extent as to leave -indelible traces on their religious life and popular imagery. Some -may go so far as to look upon their activity as similar to that -of some of the mendicant friars during the Middle Ages. Yet the -mendicant friars were able to exercise a tremendous influence upon -the people and, helped by other political powers, they were able to -create a movement which led up to the Crusades. It seized upon the -masses of Europe with an irresistible force. In a minor, yet no less -effective manner, the same agencies were able to arm the Kings of -France against the Albigenses in Provence. Church history, however, -shows very clearly that the power of the Manichaeans was so great -that it has taken the Church many centuries to bring the fight to a -satisfactory close.--The Cathars (pure) have given the name Ketzer to -the German heretics, and every language in Europe shows traces of this -heretic nomenclature.--The struggle was a terrible and a long one, -and if it had not been for the secular arm which placed itself at -the service of the Church for political reasons, who knows whether -the Romish Church would have come out victorious in the struggle? - -The question may be asked, How did it come about, that the teaching -of an obscure sect could be propagated from the Black Sea to the -Atlantic and could win the support of so many peoples? The answer lies -in a fact which has hitherto been entirely ignored. The connection -between Arianism and Manichaeism in Europe has to my mind not yet been -even hinted at; yet there must have been a very close and intimate -one. Arianism, in fact, prepared the ground for the new wave of -heretical teaching which, a few centuries after the former's official -extinction, followed in its wake. No one has, as yet, endeavoured to -trace the effect which the Arian teaching has had in Europe when it -became the national faith of the Goths. In them we have a nation which, -from the third century to the end of the sixth, practically dominated -central Europe. It established more than one kingdom between the Black -Sea and the Atlantic, in Illyricum, in Northern Italy, one of might and -strength in the South of France in Provence, with its headquarters in -Toulouse. It had overflowed into Spain, and broke down only after the -invasion of the Arabs. These Goths are described as rude barbarians, -because they differed in their life, and probably in their original -forms of faith, from the Greeks and the Romans. The modern idea is -that their original home was somewhere in the North-West of Europe, -that they came along the Vistula, and then migrated to the country -between the Don and the Ural. - -This is not the place to discuss the question of their original home, -yet the whole history of the migration of the nations shows that -the movement came also from the same direction as that of the other -nations which followed upon one another from east to west, and that -these migrations were prompted by tremendous political changes among -the nations of Central Asia. It is therefore probable that the Goths -migrated from the western shore of the Caspian Sea, somewhere near -Lake Ascanius--hence the confusion--then to the countries between the -Ural and Don, and thence by slow degrees southwards and westwards. This -would explain many obscure points in the migration of the Goths. Be it -as it may, we find them in the second century settled in those very -countries in which we now find the Ruthenians and the Rumanians, and -stretching further into Pannonia. The Goths are said to have adopted -Christianity towards the end of the third century, as it is alleged, -by priests and lay Christians brought as captives from Cappadocia -and other parts of Asia Minor. As early as the Council of Nicæa, 325, -a Gothic bishop is mentioned among the signatories to the decrees. An -outstanding figure of the Gothic Christians was Ulfilas, who, owing -to pressure from the non-converted section of the Goths, crossed the -Danube and settled at the foot of Mount Haemus (the Balkans) in the -middle of the fourth century. He had become converted to the Arian -doctrine, and took part in the Council under the Emperor Valens, -which was held in Constantinople in 358. - -Theodosius, who became the Great after his recantation of Arianism, -towards the end of the fourth century, promulgated decree after decree, -one more drastic than the other, for the persecution and extirpation of -this heresy; in fact, he was the very first to establish an inquisition -of faith. The example set by Theodosius was followed afterwards by the -Catholic Emperors and Kings of the West, even down to the Holy Office, -as the Inquisition was afterwards called. But, in spite of this, -Arianism spread among the Goths, and, whatever were their political -vicissitudes, they kept staunch to this peculiar form of Christianity, -the greatest and most powerful enemy of the orthodox and Catholic -Church. They spread eastwards and westwards, partly as vassals of the -Huns and partly acting quite independently under their own kings and -rulers. They overran the Balkan peninsula, destroying every heathen -temple, and not sparing Catholic churches. They then sacked Rome, -entered Gaul, and occupied the South of France, with Toulouse as -the capital. They spread into Burgundy and conquered Spain. It -took many battles and many centuries to break the political power -of the Goths. It was rather the subtle influences of the Catholic -women than religious conviction that brought about the conversion -to Catholicism of the Gothic rulers in Spain and Italy. The Catholic -Church, in the year 507, armed the Frankish King Clovis--who adopted -Catholicism--against the Gothic Arian King Alaric, and thus brought -about the first "crusade" between Catholics and heretics in the country -north of the Pyrenees. A crusade was to be renewed hereafter for a -second time against the Albigenses in the very same country and against -the very same cities. Unfortunately very little is known of the beliefs -and practices of the half-heathen, half-Christian Goths. The fact, -however, remains that they held on to their faith for many centuries -in spite of the official conversion of the leaders. In Burgundy, -Arianism persisted down to the sixth century, and among the Lombards -(merely another tribal name for Goths) in Northern Italy, it persisted -to the eighth century. - -Meanwhile, other nations poured into the Balkans. Whether they -entirely annihilated the Goths, or whether they assimilated with -them, will remain a problem unsolved. Very few Gothic words can, -however, be traced among the nations of the Balkans. The Slavs, -probably coming from Pannonia, are first noticed in large numbers in -the fifth and the sixth centuries. The Bulgars from the old haunts -of the Goths near the Volga came in the seventh century. The last -heathen king was Boris, who was converted to Christianity in the -middle of the ninth century. No sooner has Christianity an official -status among the Bulgars than we hear of the heresy of the Bogomils -and Cathars spreading among them to such an extent that they almost -overthrew the orthodox Church. The break between the eastern and -western Churches--between Constantinople and Rome--at the end of the -ninth century also contributed, in a way, to weaken the allegiance -of the faithful to the orthodox Church, and the manner in which the -Orthodox vilified the Catholics must have been quite sufficient to -reconcile the people to heterodox doctrines. Manichaeans and Bogomils -took advantage of the schism and the violence of the two parties to win -the people over to their tenets. Bogomilism in a slightly varied form, -as Cathars and Albigenses, etc., spread henceforth from east to west, -following exactly the same course as that taken by the Goths in their -migration from east to west. The ground had been prepared for them, -the seed had been sown, and the work was made easy for them by the -preceding Arians. - -There is one feature in this schismatic movement, the importance -of which cannot be appraised too highly. The Word of God was -taught in the vernacular, the Bible and, along with it, uncanonical -writings, were translated into the vernacular. While the Orthodox and -Catholic Churches kept strictly to Greek and Latin as the language -of Scripture and Service, the Arians no doubt, on the contrary, -allowed the people to pray and to learn in their own language. It -was the outstanding merit of Ulfilas that he translated the Bible -into Gothic. This practice of translating the word of God into the -vernacular remained a distinctive characteristic of the schismatic -Arians and other sectaries. They were thus able to reach the heart -of the people much more easily than the Catholic and Greek clergy, -and to exercise a lasting influence upon the masses, far deeper -than that of the representatives of a creed taught in a foreign -tongue. This also continued to keep the Arian-Goths away from the -Catholic Church for many centuries. The change, which came later on, -was due to two causes--the conversion of the kings and rulers, and, -to a far larger degree than has hitherto been recognised, the loss of -the Teutonic language. The Goths slowly forgot their own language and -adopted that of the nations in whose midst they lived as a minority. - -This explains much more satisfactorily than has hitherto been attempted -the mysterious disappearance of the Goths after the official conversion -of Recared in Spain, and the overthrow of Alaric by Clovis in the -beginning of the sixth century in the South of France. In Italy -they kept to their Arianism under the name of Lombards, down to -the eighth century. It must not, however, be assumed that with the -public disappearance of Arianism and that of the Goths as a ruling -nation, the Arian heresy and all that it brought to the people had -also disappeared. That teaching could not easily be uprooted. It was -merely driven underground. The Catholic Church was satisfied with -having obtained an official public victory. Then followed a slow -process of extirpation. The writings of the schismatics were hunted -up and destroyed, and thus the wells of heresy were dried up. The -people were weaned from their errors by the convincing power of sword -and faggot. But so long as these sinners did not belong to the higher -classes, the Church winked at their aberrations, especially when they -kept quiet and were not aggressive in their action. - -Thus the fire of heresy smouldered on under the ashes of the -autos-da-fé until it was fanned again into a mighty blaze through the -Cathars and Albigenses. The ground was prepared for their reception by -the Arianism of the Goths, and by the Manichaean propaganda, which had -penetrated into Europe from the West as early as the fourth century. - -It is important in this connection to refer, however briefly, to -the Priscillianites in Spain, who flourished from the middle of -the fourth to the second half of the sixth century, close upon two -hundred years. The founder was Priscillianus (d. 385) a man of noble -birth and great achievement. He was a great scholar, and had become -acquainted with Gnostic and Manichaean doctrines. He was accused of -heresy, and was the first Christian who was executed by Christians for -preaching a different form of creed. The accusations made against him -and his followers were precisely the same which were raised centuries -afterwards against the Cathars and Albigenses, and no doubt just -as false. From them we learn, however, that he had apocryphal books -and mystical oriental legends, which he used for his teaching, and -which were believed by his followers. It took two, or close upon three -centuries, before the public traces of Priscillianism disappeared from -Spain and Gaul. The followers, probably, shared the fate of the Gothic -Arians settled in these countries. Then the conquest of Spain by the -Arabs or Moors prevented the Catholic Church from further sifting the -chaff from the grain. No doubt a good number of so-called heretics, -who could not enter the bosom of the Catholic Church, embraced Islam, -just as a good number of prominent Cathars in Dalmatia and Bosnia -preferred to become Mohammedans after the conquest of the country by -the Turks rather than become united with the Orthodox Church. When -the Cathars started their propaganda, they followed, as it were, -in the track of the Goths. They occupy exactly the same tracts of -land as those held for so many centuries by the former, and without -a doubt they found there remnants of the old heresy, popular legends -and beliefs, even tales and mystical as well as mythical songs, all -so many welcome pegs on which to hang their own teaching. It may in a -way have been a kind of revival, in which what had been preserved by -the descendants from the Goths of old was blended with the new matter -brought afresh from the East. Unfortunately--as already remarked--too -little is known of the beliefs and practices of the Goths in their -pagan state and afterwards as Arian Christians. That they, in spite -of being "rude barbarians," had also some theological treatises is -evident from Anathema No. 16 of the Council of Toledo (589), when -Recared forswore his Arianism and became a fervent Catholic. The -anathema runs against "the abominable treatises which we composed to -seduce the provincials into the Arian heresy." Many such compositions, -especially in the vernacular, must be meant here; they all fell under -the ban. - -The Cathars followed the same practice and were zealous propagators and -translators of the Bible and Apocrypha into the vernacular. They knew -the Bible so well that in disputations with the Catholic clergy the -latter were easily beaten. Almost every one of the "forbidden" books, -i.e. forbidden by the Orthodox and Catholic Church, was preserved in -old Slavonian (and Rumanian) translations, and some are to be found -this very day among the holy books of the Russian schismatics. Nay, -even the oldest French translation of the Bible was the work of -Albigenses. So much did this affect the Catholic Church that she -excommunicated it, and forbade the people to read the Bible at the -Council of Toulouse in 1229; the Bible in the vernacular having before -been ordered to be burned publicly by the decree of the Church. - -No wonder, therefore, at the popularity of these sectaries and -the immense influence they wielded upon the popular mind and -imagination. And if it be true that Arius set forth his religious -views in doggerel rhymes to be sung to popular tunes by the sailors -and labourers, then he initiated a movement which has continued ever -since in religious minstrelsy, and is practised amongst others, by the -Russian blind beggar-minstrels and other popular ballad singers on -festive occasions among the Rumanians and southern Slavs. Nothing, -in fact, could better serve the purpose of propaganda than such -songs. They would appeal at once to the primitive, unlettered nations, -specially amongst those who had such mythological epics of their -own. The rude barbarians would be deeply impressed, and they would very -easily adopt such songs and the teaching they contained. We can then -easily understand a Volsunga Saga or a similar saga originating under -such influences, or moulded in accordance with such new models. Neither -the Orthodox nor the Catholic Church knows of such popular religious -songs of an epic character, filled with the mysteries of the Holy -Writ, much less of any filled with mysteries from the apocryphal and -legendary writings. They have no more than Church hymns sung in the -Church, only on special occasions, together with a certain psalmody -chanted by the officiating clergy. And when these Greek (or Syriac) -hymns were translated into Slavonic or Rumanian, they practically -lost their tune and their inspiration, and they were recited with a -peculiar monotonous cantilation. Quite otherwise were the popular -carols, and the popular epic ballads with a distinctive religious -background and full of wonderful incidents from the life of the -saints. Unlike the former, they are not congregational litanies, but -purely popular songs and ballads, devoid of any official or liturgical -character. This may also explain the origin of the so-called Ambrosian -chant as an attempt on the part of St. Ambrose of Milan to counteract -the other popular chants by introducing, as it were, congregational -singing into the Church. But there it remained, whilst the other -spread and has retained its original popular character. Thus, through -Gothic Arianism, a certain continuity of the dualistic and peculiar -schismatic form of religious teaching has been established. - -Moreover, an historic explanation has been found for the origin and -spread of these doctrines, tales and fables. Put to the test, these -beast tales yield a dogmatic system which approximates in many points -to such heterodox teaching. The old Ebionite conception of Jesus, -taken up by Arius and afterwards adopted by the Manichaeans, sees in -him only a deified human being, and very little more can be found in -these tales. Jesus is seldom mentioned, and even then is more like -a deified all-powerful human being. God Himself is often treated as -a simple human being, almost like the Ialdabaoth of the Gnostics or -the inferior God of the Manichaean doctrine. With this, agrees also -the notion of the dualism in the creation of the world, i.e. that the -evil creatures, wolves, poisonous snakes, etc., are the work of the -Evil One. This was also the view held by the Priscillianites. There -seem to be, also, reminiscences of such myths as "the world tree," -the wolf, etc., which are found in Teutonic mythology and which -may also be of an Oriental origin. The Rumanian tales are almost a -running commentary on Grimm's German Mythology (Germ. 4th ed. 1876, -ch. xxiii. pp. 539-581), which ought to be read in conjunction with -the present volume. The legend of the Cuckoo, the hoopoe referred to -by Grimm, can be read here under No. 43. - -It is significant that there is not a trace of Mariolatry in these -tales and fables. If anything, St. Mary appears in a character far -from loveable. She is easily offended, she does not spare her curses, -she takes umbrage easily at the slightest mishap. She is altogether -very disagreeable, just as in the apocryphal literature, where there -is not much room for her. Her intercession is invoked only in some -Rumanian charms and spells in a peculiar stereotyped form. But of real -worship there is scarcely any trace. Quite different is the position -which the Catholic Church assigned afterwards to St. Mary. She has -become there second to none outside the Trinity. - -More prominently almost than any of these points, stands out the fact -that, underlying these creation and other tales, is the belief in the -transmigration of the human soul into an animal body--the well-known -belief in Metempsychosis, or change of human beings into animals, -so important a feature of Manichaean teaching, in which all the -heretical sects seem to have shared. - -It is impossible now to follow this question further. I am satisfied -to have indicated the rôle which the Goths may have played in the -preparation for the dissemination of special myths and legends, -branded as heretical, which other sectaries had brought from the East -and propagated in the West of Europe. - -As to possible ethnical and geographical continuity, it may be -remarked that the places where these tales are found were also the -homesteads of the Goths, in which they dwelt for at least two or -three hundred years. They were then after a short interval almost -supplanted by the Slavs. It is a moot point how long the Rumanians -have dwelt there, and when they were converted to Christianity. Not -a single old Teutonic word has hitherto been found in the Rumanian -language. Any direct contact or convivium of any length of time is -thus excluded. The tales may have been remnants carried along from -Illyricum across the Danube by the new missionaries of the dualistic -doctrine. The problem would be less intricate if we only knew anything -definite about Gothic heathen and Christian mythology. - -With the Cathars and Bogomils we are on more solid ground. This -new stream of similar traditions was brought by a similar religious -movement and was propagated by identical means--viz. writings and -songs in the language of the people, legends and tales and a simple -creed understood by all. - -It may be asked, if this theory is correct, if these tales and legends -were brought first into Thrace and then spread from that country to -the other nations, how does it come to pass that so few traces of -them can be found in Greek folk-lore? Paradoxical as it may sound, -the absence of such creation and other legends and tales from the -Greek folk-lore is, if anything, a further proof of the accuracy of the -theory advanced. It must be remembered that there was no more ruthless -persecution of ancient paganism, idolatry, ceremonies and legends than -that carried out by the Greek Church against anything that reminded -them of the Hellenic or pagan past. Nothing was spared, neither -shrines nor books. The Greek's subtle mind devised the first thorough -system of heresy-hunting and persecution. It ranged from polemical -and harmless dialogues to the handing over of the so-called heretics -to fire and sword. The secular power was there more than anywhere -else the representative of the religious power, and justified its -existence, as it were, only as the executor of the Church's mandate. - -One has only to read about the innumerable decrees of councils and -synods, to see the way in which Manichaeism, Arianism and Gnosticism -in every shape and form were mercilessly uprooted, and to understand -that this fight did not stop at Bogomilism. The polemics were carried -out even down to the time of Eutemios Zygabenos and even the Emperors -on the throne of Byzance did not consider it below their dignity -to combat heretical teaching, the followers of which were given no -pardon. There was also another factor which militated against the -success of the Gnostic teaching--the literary past of the Greeks. To -the circulation of apocryphal books and legendary tales, the Greeks -were able to oppose a vast literary array. In Greece the Bogomils did -not deal with simple-minded, illiterate folk at the beginning of whose -literature they stood; on the contrary, they had to fight against -an ancient influential literature, and against minds trained in the -subtlest dialectics. They could not, therefore, succeed so easily, -if at all. - -Quite different were the conditions of the other nations with which -they came in contact. None of these had yet more than the very -beginnings of a literature. They were rude, simple-minded folk, -and wherever the Greek Church or Greek Emperors did not wield any -influence at all, as it happened in the Bulgaro-Vallachian kingdom -established by Peter and Asan (1185 to 1257), the Bogomils had an easy -task. For centuries, then, the Rumanians formed with the Bulgarians not -only a religious, but also a political unity. The Bulgaro-Vallachian -kingdom stretched from the Haemus to the Carpathians, and down to the -end of the seventeenth century Slavonic was the official language of -State and Church in Rumania. There could not have been a more close -intimacy than between these two nations, despite the difference of the -language which each of them spoke. They had their literature in common, -and no doubt shared the same traditions. Bogomilism was just as rife -in Vallachia as it was in Bulgaria. Even the written literature of -Rumania shows how profound its influence has been: still more so does -the oral literature of tales and legends, of fables and beliefs. Though -the Bogomils did not bring Christianity to these peoples, for they were -Christians, they brought at any rate a kind of religion to the mass of -the folk. It was one of their own making and in their own image. It -was clothed in beautiful tales, and answered the expectations of the -rank and file, satisfied their curiosity, and gave them a glimpse of -the moral beauty underlying the work of creation. In a way, it tended -to purify the heart and to elevate the soul by allegories, parables -and apologues, and thus it found ready acceptance, and struck deep -root in the heart of the people, unaffected by decrees of Councils -and by the fanatical intolerance of the established Church. - -Not so successful, therefore, if successful at all, was the fight -of the Greek Church against the heretical sects even in the Balkan -Peninsula, where they were so numerous and so powerful. They persisted -down to the time of the capture of Constantinople and the Turkish -rule. A large number of the aristocracy in Bosnia and Dalmatia -still adhered to the teaching of the Cathars, and when the Turks -occupied the country in the sixteenth century, the majority of them -embraced Islam, instead of entering either the Catholic or the Greek -Church. A whole mass of apocryphal and spurious literature placed -on the Index, has been preserved in Slavonic and Rumanian texts -with outspoken dualistic views. Many of them have found their way -into the Lucidaria, or "Questions and Answers," a kind of catechism, -very popular among the nations of the Balkans, the Rumanians and the -Russians. Similar Lucidaria were known in the West, but there they have -been thoroughly expurgated, whilst, in the above-mentioned "questions," -many an answer is found to which no orthodox Church would subscribe, -but which form now a popular living belief among these nations. The -political lethargy which settled upon most of these nations after -the Turkish conquest created a happy brooding-place for such tales, -and thus it can easily be understood why they have lived to this very -day practically undisturbed and little changed. - -To those who have followed the history of the religious development -of the Russians, it will therefore not be surprising to find among -their popular tales a number of variants closely allied to the -Rumanian animal tales, and, what is of the utmost importance in -this connection, not a few of the "creation" tales. No country -perhaps has been so much torn by religious discussions and sects -as Russia. The number of sects is legion. The most extraordinary -notions, extreme views on dogma and practice, heterodox principles -expressed in worship, belief and popular song or tale are all found -in Russia: unadulterated Dualism, Bogomilism, Manichaean teaching are -openly professed by a number of the sects persecuted and condemned -by the Orthodox Church. Almost all the books condemned as heretical -in the early Indices Expurgatoria put forth by Councils and Church -Assemblies, have been preserved almost intact in the old Slavonic -and Russian language, and the religious and epic songs of the "blind" -minstrels of Russia are full of the legendary lore of those heterodox -sects. This fact has been established beyond doubt by the researches -of Russian scholars, and notably by Wesselofsky. Among the Russians, -then, we find the nearest parallels to the Rumanian "creation" -stories; a clear evidence of common origin, both drawing upon the -same source of information; the religious in the form of apologues, -legends and tales, so prominent a feature of heterodox propaganda. - -The weapons used by the Catholic Church in its persecution of -heretical sects are, almost every one of them, borrowed from the -Greek armoury. One learns to know this fact more and more from a -closer enquiry into the inner history of Byzance, its laws, decrees, -administration and practice. And, precisely the same influence -destroyed later the heretical teaching in the West as it destroyed it -among the Greeks. The power of the Church and the secular arm were -both used ruthlessly for exterminating any idea or any belief that -ran counter to the doctrines taught by the established Church. The -Cathars had also a much more difficult task in converting the East of -Europe, inasmuch as they were also confronted there by some amount of -literary tradition. Illiterate as were the masses, there were still -among them and among their clerics, men of ability, men of learning, -men trained in the scholastic schools, able, if not to refute, at -any rate to confuse, the strange doctrine. - -All these forces combined, produced in the East the same result -as they have produced among the Greeks. We are thus on the track -of one of the most important sources of Western European folk-lore, -always remembering that the medium in which this propaganda flourished -differed considerably in the West from that in the East. In the former -such propaganda met with a more ancient layer of well-established -literary tradition. The Catholic Church, as mentioned above, was first -in possession. It was not a tabula rasa on which the new teaching -could be written, but yet that which existed was profoundly modified -and a new fund of highly poetic yet popular material was added to the -small store of knowledge possessed by the common people. But in time -the Church took up the challenge, and remorselessly hunted down the -apostles of popular heterodox teaching, just as the Greeks had done, -going even further. It punished with sword and fire the followers of -unauthorised practices, and branded every deviation from the strait -path as rank heresy. The books containing legends and tales were burnt, -and their possessors were often treated in like fashion. - -Inquisition, Church and other influences helped, as already mentioned, -to destroy them. In the tragedy of heresy-hunting and burning -of witches, the charge of devil worship was the basic principle, -the chief head of accusation. It was clearly devised against the -followers of the dualistic teaching. To tell a tale like any of these -Rumanian "creation" tales, would have been inviting the heaviest -punishment--to believe in it would have meant sure death. No wonder -that they disappeared quickly, or were changed into harmless satires, -as in the Reynard Cycle, or were even used for political cartoons, -in broadsides, like the Cock Robin Cycle in the time of Charles II., -which, when transplanted to Russia, became a political lampoon on -Peter and his Court. - -Heresy-hunting becomes a popular distraction only when the official -clergy find it profitable to make it so, and when the people are made -to trace their own ills and troubles, their losses in field and stable, -to the evil machinations of these tools of the devil. So long as they -are not suffering in body or purse, the folk are absolutely indifferent -to dogmas, and they will eagerly accept anything that pleases them. It -will therefore not come as a surprise, in view of what has been stated, -if we find some weird conceptions among the Rumanian peasantry. - -Studied from the point of view of heresiology or rather of popular -psychology, some of these tales will appear to us as so many living -records of the great spiritual movement, which for centuries dominated -Europe, and which has since died out. - -Too little attention has been given hitherto to the influence of those -numerous sects, which stretched from Asia Minor to the south of France, -and overflowed even into England. Their dualism, the strong belief -in the Power of Evil, Satan and his host, the consequent duty of the -faithful to banish him or to subdue him, thus developed into belief in -sorcery and witchcraft, with the attending horrors of the Inquisition. - -Then came a period of wider education still less tolerant of old -women's superstition and nursery tales. What was left still standing -has been, and is being, finally destroyed by our modern schools and -schoolmasters. From this dire fate, the folk-lore of the nearer East -has as yet been preserved. The importance of the study of folk-lore -has happily been recognised in those countries, early enough to stop -the blight which had set in and which threatened to destroy it more -ruthlessly than even in the West. The modern "man of science" is a -more relentless iconoclast than the religious fanatic. He starts -from the mind in his attempt to destroy folk-lore, using to this -end cold reasoning, logical conclusions, spiritual prepossession -and intolerance. The religious fanatic starts from the heart, with -overwhelming passion, fiery zeal, unreasoning hatred, from which -there is a possible escape for mysticism and mythical lore, whilst -from the former there is none. Happily, our science of folk-lore with -its deep sympathy and profound appreciation of these manifestations -of the popular psyche has come in the nick of time to rescue from -total extinction what the schoolmaster and the heresy-hunter have -not yet annihilated. - -I turn now to another aspect of these bird and beast tales. If, as I -believe, they show us what is at the back of the mind of the people, -they are of invaluable service to the student of anthropology, above -all to him who seeks enlightenment in the grave problems of education -and civilization; and they are not without importance for the solution -of political problems. - -Attempts are made--well meant, no doubt--to foist that state of culture -which the West calls "modern civilization," or "civilization" pure -and simple, upon the reluctant people of the Near and Far East. We -are forgetful of the fact that these nations have had a civilization -of their own, and that something more important is included in this -forcible change than the change of a dress. - -As the outcome of a long-drawn battle between feudalism and modern -society, as a result of political and economic evolutions, the -civilization of the West, when introduced among nations that have not -gone through the same experience, acts like the Juggernaut car, which -crushes under its wheels the worshippers of this new god and destroys -at the same time the foundations of the old order of things. Only -students of folk-lore, those who try to reach the hidden depths, nay, -to penetrate the inner soul of the people, are in a position to judge -of the results of these civilizing attempts. They can compare the past -with the present, and draw a proper balance between gain and loss. Are -the people happier, more contented, more moral, and even more religious -after the change, than they were before it? Surely not. And if not, -why not? The answer is very simple: because in this violent change no -tenderness is shown to those beliefs and practices which are dear to -the people and which help to lighten the burden of life by innocent -mirth and the wholesome play of fancy. Wire brooms may sweep well; but -they may do it too well, and they can sweep everything away, leaving -the home bare and the gardens stripped of every leaf and flower. - -A few words concerning the order and grouping of these tales. They -have been arranged in three main groups. The first comprises those -tales which I have characterised as creation legends. In them the -origin of birds, beasts and insects is explained as the result of -some direct act of God, or the Saints, or the Devil. An attempt has -been made to follow a certain chronological order. Those tales stand -first in which God is acting at the beginning of the creation. Then, -following the Biblical order, the legends connected with the persons -of sacred history from Adam to the Apostles, including St. Mary -and St. Anne. Mystical Christmas carols or rather epic ballads, -in which similar subjects are treated, have been inserted between -the legends. The second section comprises such legends as are more -like fairy tales. The mythical personages are no longer those known -through the Scriptures. On the contrary, there are in these tales -reminiscences of ancient heathen gods and heroes, chief among them -being Alexander the Great. - -In the third section the animal fables are grouped together. It -is the literature of the apologues without any framework or moral -setting. The parallels, as far as could be found, are given briefly at -the end of each legend, tale or fable. I have striven to be concise in -my references to the best-known collections of tales, such as Grimm, -Hahn, Cosquin, and Gonzenbach, where the student of fairy tales can -easily find the whole comparative literature. - -For the genuine and unadulterated popular origin of these tales I -can vouch absolutely. Some I have heard in my early youth, but the -majority have been culled from the works of S. Fl. Marian (Ornitologia -poporana Româna, 2 vols., Cernauti 1883; and Insectele, Bucharest -1903), than whom a more painstaking trustworthy collector could -not be imagined. Some have been taken from the Folk-lore reviews, -Sezatoarea, ed. by A. Gorovei (i.-xii., Falticeni 1892 to 1912), -and Ion Creanga, published by the Society of that name (i.-viii., -Barlad 1908-1915). Anton Pann (Poveste si istoriaire, Bucharest 1836) -has given us a few stories, as well as A. and A. Schott (Walachische -Maehrchen, Stuttgart and Tübingen 1845). The Pilgrimage of the Soul is -from S. Mangiuca, Calindariu, pe. 1882, Brasiovu 1881 and the Story -of Man and his Years, No. 113, from M. Gaster, Chrestomatie Romana, -vol. ii., Bucharest 1891. These tales have been collected from every -country where Rumanians live, not only in the Kingdom of Rumania, -but also from the Rumanians of Transylvania and Bukovina, as well as -from the Kutzo-Vlachs of Macedonia. - -I have added a few charms and also a few more mystical religious -songs and carols, which throw light on some of the beliefs underlying -the tales and legends, taken mostly from the great collection of -G. Dem. Teodorescu (Poesii Popularare Romane, Bucharest 1885). - -In some cases I have given also variants of the same tale. - -I have endeavoured to render the stories as faithfully as the spirit -of the Rumanian and English languages allows, and I fear that I have -on sundry occasions forced the latter in my desire to preserve as far -as possible the quaintness and the flavour of the Rumanian original. - -There is one characteristic feature in the collection of animal tales -and legends given here, upon which I should like to lay great stress, -and that is the complete purity which pervades them all. There is -no playing with moral principles. No double meaning is attached to -any story: and this, to my mind, is the best proof of their popular -origin. These tales are not sullied by a morbid imagination, nor -contaminated by sexual problems. The people are pure at heart and in -the stories their simplicity and purity appear most beautifully. - -In these tales and legends we have syncretism in full swing. It is -not a picture of the past which we have to piece laboriously together -from half-forgotten records, from writing half obliterated by the -action of time and by changes which have swept over those nations of -the past, whose life and thought we are endeavouring to conjure up -and to understand. In our midst, at our door, under our own eyes, -this process of mixing and adjusting, of change and evolution, of -differentiation, combination and assimilation is still going on. It -is a wonderful picture for any one who is able to discover the forces -that are at work, who can trace every strand of the webbing, every -thread in the woof and warp, to its immediate and to its remoter -source. We see the shuttle of human imagination, of human belief, -flying busily through the loom, charged at one time with one thread, -at another with a different one. Many of the ways of the human mind -meet here, cross one another, and new roads are thus created by busy -wayfarers. And thus paganism sustains a busy and robust life. The old -Pantheon is still peopled with the old gods, or, shall we better say, -the Pandaemonium in its highest and best sense is displaying itself -with unexpected vigour. The heathen gods, the Christian saints, God and -the devil legends, fairy tales, oriental imagery, mystical traditions -and astrological lore are all inextricably blended together. The line -of demarcation between man and animal has not been clearly drawn, or -it has not yet been attempted. These multifarious elements have not -yet been combined into one homogeneous structure. The problem arises -whether other nations have also passed through a similar mental and -psychical process; whether they have had a similar Pandaemonic mixture, -out of which their more colourless folk-lore had been distilled in -the crucible of "civilization." - -Primitive people can often hear the footfall of men by putting the -ear to the ground. We may, by putting an ear to the ground, hear the -footfalls of the Past, and listen to the echo before it dies away -into eternity. - - - - - - - - -BIRD AND BEAST STORIES - - -I. - -WHY IS THE BEE BLACK, AND WHY IS IT MAKING HONEY? HOW DID THE BEE -OUTWIT THE DEVIL? - - -In the beginning only water and God and the devil existed. These two -were all the time moving about upon the surface of the waters. After -some time God, feeling rather tired of this flitting about without -rest or peace, said to the devil, "Go down to the bottom of the sea -and bring up in my name a handful of the seed of the earth." The devil -did as he was told, but whilst he was plunging in the depths he said -to himself, "Why shall I bring up the seed in his name? I will take -it in my own." And so he did. When he came up God asked him, "Hast -thou brought the seed?" The devil replied, "Yes, here it is." But -when he opened his hand to show the seed to God, lo, it was quite -empty. The water had wasted the seed away. - -Then God told him to plunge again and bring up the seed of the earth -in his name. The devil, however, again took the seed from the bottom -of the sea in his own name, and when he opened his hand to give -the seed to God the waters had again washed his hand clean. For a -third time God sent him down to the bottom of the sea to bring up -seed. This time the devil bethought himself, and instead of taking -the seed in his own name as he had determined, now took it in God's -name and in his own. He would not do it in God's name alone. When he -came up the waters had this time also washed everything away that he -had taken in his hand. Only a few grains, however, remained under the -nails of his fingers. God asked him whether he had brought the seed -up, and he replied "To be sure." But when he opened his hand it was -again empty. Still, there were the few grains which had stuck under -the nails. God greatly rejoiced at these few, which he carefully -scraped out from under the nails, and made of them a small cake -which he put upon the water, where it floated, and God sat upon it -to rest. Being now very tired, God fell asleep on that little cake -of earth. When the devil saw God fast asleep, what did the unclean -one think? "What a lucky thing that is for me," he said to himself, -"I can now drown him." And so he tried to turn the cake over, so -that God should fall into the water. But what happened? In whatever -direction God rolled, the cake of earth expanded and stretched -under him. He first rolled him towards the east, and the earth grew -under God. The devil then tried to upset the cake towards the west, -and again the earth stretched under God. Now, said the devil, "Now -there is also room for me to rest," and he sat down on the opposite -side where the earth had grown bigger. There again he endeavoured -with all his weight to press down the earth, so as to make the earth -turn turtle, once towards the north, once towards the south; and God -rolled towards them and the earth grew in all directions. - -Now by this continual rolling the earth grew so big that it became -wider and larger than the waters. When God awoke and saw what the -devil had done he did not know what to do with this huge earth, -which had become far too big. The devil, seeing what he had done, -and being afraid of God's wrath, ran away and hid himself in one of -the clefts of the earth. God then decided to ask the devil what he -was to do with this earth, which had become so big. - -Now, of all the beasts and creatures which God had made, none was more -pleasing in his sight than the bee, which was then playing in Paradise. - -The bee was white, and not black as she is now, and I will tell you -presently how it came about that she changed her colour. - -God sent the bee to ask the devil what he was to do and what good -advice he could give him. The bee, at once, went as she was commanded, -and came to the place where the devil lived. - -"Good morning, uncle," said the bee. - -"Good morning, sister," said the devil. "What has brought thee to me?" - -"Well, you see, God has sent me to ask what he was to do with this -huge earth." - -But the devil grumpily and sneeringly replied, "If he is God he ought -to know better than to ask a poor devil for advice. I am not going -to tell him. Let him find it out for himself." - -The bee, who was a clever little thing--it was not for nothing that -God's choice had fallen upon her--pretended to fly away. But she soon -crept back quite stealthily and settled noiselessly on the upper -beam of the door. She knew that the devil cannot keep any secrets, -and he would surely speak out. So, indeed, it happened. No sooner -did he believe himself alone, than he started muttering to himself, -chuckling all the time. - -"A clever man that God really is. He asks me what to do. Why does -he not think of mountains and valleys?" You must know that the earth -when first made was quite flat, like a pancake. - -"Let him take the earth in his arms and squeeze it a bit, and it will -fit all right." - -The bee overheard what he said, for he spoke loud enough, and rejoicing -that she had got the answer, spread out her wings and started flying -away. The buzzing of her wings betrayed her, and the devil, hearing -the noise, rushed out of his cave with his whip in his hand and said: -"O you thief! So that is the way you have cheated me. Mayst thou feed -on what comes out of thy body." And he struck the bee with his whip. - -This changed her white colour into black. Moreover, he hit her so -badly that he nearly cut her in two. That is why the bee has such -a narrow waist, that she looks as if she were cut in two and barely -hanging together by a thread. - -Limping and sore, the bee came back to God and told him what she -had overheard from the devil. God was greatly pleased and, squeezing -the earth in his arms, he made mountains and valleys, and the earth -grew smaller. - -Then turning to the bee he said, "Out of thy body henceforth shall -come only honey to sweeten the life of man and he shall bless thee for -that gift; also shalt thou bring forth wax for candles on the altar." - -And God went on to ask the bee what reward she would claim for the -errand which she had so well fulfilled. The bee, impudent and greedy, -replied: "Why should man share in my gift and have my honey? Give me -the power to kill with my sting." - -And God was angry at the impudence of the bee, and replied: "All the -honey shall be thine alone, if thou art able to make a gallon of it -during the summer: if not, man may share it with thee. And because -thou hast asked for the power of killing with thy sting, meaning to -kill man by it, thine own death shall be by thy sting." - -This is the reason why the bees work so industriously and indefatigably -during the summer. Each hopes to make a gallon of honey, but they can -never succeed. And this, too, is the reason why the bee dies when it -stings anyone. - -There is another variant of the cosmogonic part. - -The place of the devil is taken by the mole [1] whom the Rumanians -believe to be a very deep fellow. - - - -The story then runs as follows: - -When God had made the heavens there was as yet no earth. So God took -a ball of string and measured the span of heaven. Then he called -the mole and told him to keep the ball whilst he was busy making the -earth, according to the measure which he had taken. But whilst God -went on measuring by the string which he had rolled off the ball, -the mole very slyly let the ball roll on whilst God was tugging at -the string. And so it came to pass that the earth made thus by God -was larger than the span of heaven, and could not be got under it. - -The mole, seeing what he had done, went away and hid himself in his -earth. Hither the bee was sent to get the secret from him how the -earth could be made smaller. - -The story then runs on like the one just told, without the explanation -of the dark colour and of the narrow waist. Nor is any reference made -in that version to the sting and the gallon of honey. - -The dualistic conception of the creation of the world is here clearly -set out. The people believe in it. In the formation of the earth the -devil has his full, nay an equal share, though he always is fooled -in the end and is cheated even by a little bee. - -To this creation story a few variants can be found among the -Bulgarians and Letts, but they are neither so full nor so complete -as the Rumanian version. - -They are given by Dähnhardt, Natursagen, i. pp. 127-128 (Leipzig and -Berlin 1907). The first part of the story of the devil being sent -down to bring up seed from the bottom, and only that part, is found -among the Gipsy tales from Transylvania, published by Wlislocki, -Zigeuner-märchen aus Transylvania, p. 1, No. 1. - -Among the Russians, Ralston gives a short variant in which only God -and the devil are mentioned, nothing of the bee, and even the first -part is extremely short. (Russian Folk Tales, p. 329, London 1873.) - -The existence of hills is accounted for by legendary lore in this -wise. When the Lord was about to fashion the face of the earth he -ordered the devil to dive into the watery depths and bring thence -a handful of the soil he found at the bottom. The devil obeyed, -but when he filled his hand he filled his mouth also. The Lord -took the soil, sprinkled it around, and the earth appeared, all -perfectly flat. The devil, whose mouth was quite full, looked on -for some time in silence. At last he tried to speak, but choked, -and fled in terror. After him followed the thunder and lightning, -and so he rushed over the whole face of the earth, hills springing -up where he coughed, and sky-cleaving mountains where he leaped. - - - - - - - - -I. B. - -HOW DID THE BEE OUTWIT THE MOLE? - -Another Version. - - -When the Lord made the heavens he took a ball and spanned the heavens, -and after he had finished spanning the heavens he started making -the earth. The mole, cunning little beast, came to him and said: -"O Lord, let me help thee in making the earth"; and the Lord, who is -always good, said in the goodness of his heart: "Very well," and he -gave the ball to the mole to keep it. - -The Lord started working, and was busy weaving and working making -the earth. But the sly mole let just a little bit of the thread go -from time to time, and the Lord worked on without noticing it. When -he had finished, how great was his astonishment when he found that -the earth was greater than the heavens. What was he to do? how could -he fit them together? He turned to the mole, but the mole was not -there; he knew what was coming and had buried himself deep down in -the earth. So the Lord walked up and down the earth, but could not -find him. What was he to do? At last he sent the bee to discover the -mole and to find out from him what was to be done. The bee flew away -alone, and, buzzing about, at last came to the hole where the mole -was sitting buried in the earth. - -The bee came to him and said, "Good morning, uncle." - -"What brings thee to me, my sister?" - -"Well," she said, "the Lord God has sent me to ask thee what is to -be done. The earth is so big and the heavens so small." - -The mole, a sly beast, chuckled and said to himself, "The Lord ought -to know better than I. I am not going to tell him, though I know what -ought to be done." - -The bee would not take this answer. She pretended to fly away, and -then went stealthily and settled herself in a flower which was near -to the mole's burrow. She knew that the mole would talk to himself, -and hoped to overhear what he would say. - -So in sooth it happened. The bee overheard him chuckling and laughing -and saying to himself: "Oh what a clever fellow I am! if I had to -do it, I would take the earth in my arms and squeeze it tightly, -and then mountains would be pressed out and valleys would be sunk, -and then the earth would get small enough to fit under the heavens." - -No sooner had the bee heard what the mole had said, than she started -flying away. The mole, who heard her buzzing, ran after her and said: -"O sister, is that the way thou art dealing with me? Very well then, -now take my curse. Henceforth thou shalt feed on thyself." - -But the bee never listened, and flew straight to the Lord and told -him what she had heard when the mole muttered to himself. And the -Lord took the earth in his hands and squeezed it, and from the flat -that it was, mountains rose up and valleys were cut, and it fitted -the heavens which God had spanned. And God, hearing of the curse with -which the mole has cursed the bee, turned it into a blessing. That is -why the bee makes honey and feeds on itself, whilst the mole always -lives underground and is frightened to see the sky. - - - - - - - - -II. - -WHY IS THE BEE BUSY AND THE SPIDER SULLEN? - -The Story of the Widow and her two Children. - - -There is still another story about the origin of the bee, totally -different from those told hitherto. - - - -Once upon a time there lived a very poor widow. She had only two -children, a son and a daughter. When they had grown up, seeing that -their mother could no longer provide for them, they left her house -and went each one his or her way to find work. The girl went to a -place where they were building houses, and there she worked day and -night carrying bricks and mortar to the builders. The son went to a -weaver and learnt there to weave clothes. - -Not long after that, the mother grew very ill, and knowing that her -end was approaching, she sent for her children to come to her. When -the message reached the daughter, she was carrying a heavy load of -bricks in her apron. - -She did not hesitate for a moment, and saying, "I must not leave my -poor mother alone," she dropped the load of bricks and ran home as fast -as she could, and there she found her mother on the point of death. - -When the message reached the son, he was sitting at his weaving. He -said, "Let her die. I cannot give up my work. Here I am, and here -I stay." - -And there he stayed quite alone, working away, surly and grumbling -all the time. - -When the mother saw her daughter, who had left everything and had -come to her, she raised herself on her bed and, kissing her on the -forehead, blessed her, saying: "Daughter, thou hast been sweet to me -and a joy in my last hour. Mayst thou always be sweet to all." - -When she heard what her son had said, and why he had not come, she -cursed him and said: "As thou hast said so shall it go with thee. Day -and night shalt thou be weaving incessantly and never see the joy of -it: what thou doest, others shall destroy. In a corner shalt thou sit, -far away from everybody, and hated by everybody." - -And with these words she died, and her blessing and curse both came -true. The girl was changed into the busy active bee, whose honey -sweetens everything, and of whose wax candles are made to be lit before -the ikons of the saints and in the churches, and put by the head of -the dying and the dead. The brother was changed into the spider, who -sits alone and sullen and spiteful in the corner and weaves his webs, -never finishing: whoever sees a web brushes it away, and whoever can, -kills the spider. - - - -To this story I have not been able to find a parallel. A different -kind of curse seems to rest on the spider, according to the legend -of the "Lady Mary and the Spider," No. 54. - - - - - - - - -III. - -WHY IS THE BEE BLACK, AND WHY HAS IT A NARROW WAIST? - -The Story of the Bee and the Devil. - - -When God created the bee she was white of colour, hence her name -albina, the white one. One day, however, God sent the bee to the -Evil One to ask him for his advice, whether God should make one -sun or several. The bee went to the Evil One and told him God's -message. Then she slyly hid herself in his bushy hair, for the bee -knew that he would talk to himself aloud, and she would be able to -find out his true thought. And so it happened: for no sooner did he -think that the bee was not within earshot, than he started talking -aloud to himself and said: - -"One sun is better than a number of suns, for if there were a number -of suns the heat would be much greater than my fire and I should not -be able to torture and to burn. Then, too, if there were several suns, -they would shine all day and all night, and the people would not be -able to fall into my power. One sun would be best." - -When the bee had heard his reasoning and the conclusion to which he -had come, she started flying back to God. As she started, the Evil One -heard her buzz and, filled with anger at the trick which the bee had -played him, he struck her across the body with his whip. The white -colour was then turned black and the body of the bee nearly cut in -twain. The waist became as thin as a thread. In the beginning it was -white, and hence the name. It is due to the merit of the bee that -there is only one sun now in the heavens and not many. - -In the Bulgarian parallel it is not a question as to how many suns -were to be created but whether the sun is to get married. The story is -as follows (Dähnhardt, Natursagen, Leipzig u. Berlin 1907, i. p. 127): - -When God grew old he wanted to marry the sun. He invited all the -creatures. Among them also the devil, but he saddled his ass and rode -away angrily. Then God sent the bee to find out the thought of the -devil. The bee settled on his head and heard him mumble to himself: - -"Oh yes, it is a long time since God had remembered me, who helped -him in the making of the world, but he does not know what he is -doing now. If he marries the sun he will destroy mankind and burn up -the world." - -The bee heard it, and flying away went to God. The devil noticed her -and, thinking that she had overheard what he was saying, wanted to -kill her. He ran after her and shot at her. The bee hid herself in a -willow tree. After trying many times, he at last hit her and cut her -in two. With difficulty she reached God and told him what had happened. - -The Lord blessed her and said, "The lower part shall be thy best -and the upper part may remain as it is;" and he joined the two parts -together. God thereupon stopped the wedding, and the sun has remained -an unmarried maiden to this very day, whilst the bee is making honey -even now. - - - -The story of the marriage of the sun does not concern us here. In -a different form it occurs in Rumanian Fairy Tales, where we are -told that sun and moon were a brother and sister. They wished to woo -one another, but God forbade it, and therefore God put them in the -heavens and changed them into sun and moon, which never meet. When -one rises the other sets. (L. Saineanu, Basmele Române, Bucur 1895, -p. 398.) Other mythical references to sun and moon, and the way in -which the devil tries to steal them from Paradise, will be found in -the Carol given below, No. 15. - - - - - - - - -IV. - -WHY DOES THE LITTLE WORM GLOW? - -The Story of the Fallen Angel and the Maiden. - - -When God had created the world, men multiplied. There were then towns -and hamlets and gardens and fields. So one day a band of angels came -to the Lord and said: "O Lord, let us see the world which we now see -only from afar. Grant us in thy infinite mercy that we may go down -and see it more closely." - -And the Lord in his infinite love granted their request, although he -who knows everything knew what would happen to them hereafter. And -the angels came down and mixed with the men and women and rejoiced at -everything they saw. After a time God Almighty came down to them and -told them that the time for their return to heaven had come. The angels -gathered together in a joyful band and went up to heaven. But there was -one angel who did not share in their joy. He walked sadly and alone. - -God asked every one of the angels what they had seen. And one told -him of the flowers and their sweet smell, and another one told of the -fruit and a third of the singing birds. Everyone had a pleasant tale to -tell. When the turn came of that angel who was walking sadly in that -joyful company, the Lord asked him whether he had anything to tell, -and whether he would like to return to heaven as his companions did, -to which he replied that he would prefer to remain on earth, for he -would not like to go back to heaven. And the good God asked him why -he was so sad and why he would prefer to remain in this world. The -angel hesitated for a while, and then he said that he had looked too -far into the eyes of a girl, eyes which were as the blue of heaven, -and he could not bear to go away from her. And the Lord asked who -she was, and the angel replied, "A shepherdess feeding her flock on -a mountain." And the Lord asked him, "Hast thou spoken to her?" and -he said, "I could not forbear doing so." And the Lord asked him, -"What didst thou tell her?" and he replied, "I said I would forego -my angelic station rather than leave her." - -The Lord, who had up till then looked very young, suddenly turned -very old and careworn, and, after looking at him for a long time, -walked on slowly and silently with the band of angels. When they -reached the Gates of Heaven the Lord stopped short and, turning to -the angels, said: - -"You can no longer enter the heavenly abode. You are bringing -tidings of the ways of the world which must not be heard by the other -angels. And as you liked the world, you shall continue to look at the -soul's doings." Thereupon the Lord changed the angels and made them -into stars, which he scattered all over the heavens, and from there -they smile joyfully and kindly upon the earth. - -But the angel who wished to return did not turn into a pleasant, -twinkling little star. He turned into a fiery star that, always -blazing and unsteady, looked angrily at the other stars. At last -the Lord, fearing that there would be strife between them, cast the -red star down to the earth, and it came down on the meadow where the -shepherdess was; it came down as a shower over the whole field. But -the sparks never died out. The glow-worms carry them still. - - - - - - - - -V. - -WHY DOES THE LITTLE WORM GLOW? - -The Story of the Devil hurled down from Heaven. - - -Another legend about the origin of the glow-worm is of a similar -character. I will discuss later the possible origin, which will lead -us to the same remarkable results. - - - -The time of separation between the good and the evil angels had -come. The good ones gathered to the right, and the evil ones, under -the leadership of the devil, gathered to the left. You can imagine -what a confusion and uproar there was, for they could not easily -disentangle themselves. - -Whilst that confusion went on, there was a little devil who, after -all, did not like parting with the bliss of heaven. So what did he -do? He stole away from his own companions and hid himself among the -good angels, hoping that, by one way or another, he would get into -heaven. But he had not reckoned with St. Peter, who stands at the -gate of heaven and examines and searches every one asking leave of -entrance. Each angel had to present his pass, duly signed. St. Peter -examined the signature, and when he found it correct he allowed the -angel to enter heaven. So, one by one, they passed on, until the turn -of the little devil came. In vain did he protest that he was a good -angel. He had to produce his papers, and when St. Peter came to the -end, there was no proper signature. So St. Peter got very angry, and -without much ado, got hold of the little devil and cast him down to -earth. He came down with such violence that he broke up in millions -of luminous sparks, and these are the lights of the glow-worm. - - - - - - - - -VI. - -WHY DOES THE LITTLE WORM GLOW? - -The Story of St. Peter and the Cuckoo. - - -The tale of the glow-worm tells us that in olden times the people -were better and the earth cleaner than to-day. It was on this account -that God's saints used to walk about upon the earth. The saints and -the apostles had also their establishments just as we have them now, -house, table, cattle, children and everything that appertains to the -house of man. The most important of the saints was St. Peter. He used -to walk about with God more than any of the others, but, like every -Rumanian, he also had his house and all that belongs to it, just -as beseems one of God's saints. The tale from our forefathers tells -us that, among other things, he also had a stable full of beautiful -horses; black of skin like the raven's wing, and quick as the flame, -they were eating up the clouds, so fleet were they. In those times, -unfortunately, as in our times, besides saints, there were also -wicked people, thieves and the like, for the devil has had and will -always have his share in this world. But in those times there were -only a very few thieves, and they were very much ashamed of their -doings. They used to live in forests to which no one else went except -evil spirits. To-day--for our sins--the thieves are so numerous that -there is not a spot which is free of them. They rob you everywhere; -in the very midst of the town and in the open light of day. - -In those days, there lived a great thief, whose name was Cuckoo. I -do not know how it came to pass, but he heard of St. Peter's horses -and made up his mind to steal them. One day St. Peter had gone on -one of his usual journeys to a distant part of the country. Cuckoo, -who had learned of it, came in the night and stole the horses -and drove them into the forest. On the morrow, by a mere chance, -St. Peter came home from his journey and asked about the horses. They -were nowhere to be found. Do what he might, he could not find them; -they were gone. But who had taken them, and whither had he gone with -them? St. Peter asked God to give him some powerful dogs to go with -him to the forest. God gave him the wolves, and from that time they -have remained St. Peter's dogs. - -He went with them into the forest and searched high and low, but all -in vain. All through the day they hunted, but could find no trace of -the thief or of the horses. Night fell, and it was one of those dark -nights in which you can put your finger into your eye and yet not -see it. It was blacker and darker than the blackness and darkness -of hell. St. Peter did not know which way to turn, and he asked God -to perform some miracle for him to light up his way. God heard his -prayer, and before one could wipe one's eyes the whole forest was -full of glow-worms. St. Peter greatly rejoiced, and by the light -of the glow-worms he searched the forest all the night through, -but returned home with empty hands. Then St. Peter cursed the thief -Cuckoo, that he should be changed into a black, ill-omened bird, and -wherever he should find himself he was to call out his name. Since -then the cuckoo became a black and accursed bird, and when it sings -(calls) at the back of the house or in the courtyard it betokens -death. It speaks nothing else, but calls its own name, Cuckoo. The -cuckoo is frightened of the glow-worms, and, as soon as he sees them -in the forest he stops calling, for he thinks St. Peter is looking -out for him to catch him for stealing his horses. At the same time -the glow-worms were blessed by St. Peter and made the guides of -the wanderers through the forest. They come out about St. Peter's -day. Then the cuckoo keeps silence. - - - -In these glow-worm stories, much of the apocryphal literature -concerning the fall of the angels has been preserved. It is not, -however, the pride of Satan that causes his downfall, but it is -the love of the earthly woman which causes the angel to fall. The -story in this form is found in the Hebrew versions preserved in the -Chronicles of Jerahmeel (my ed. London 1899, ch. xxv. p. 52 ff.), -and in other kindred books, from which it has passed through the Greek -into the Slavonic apocryphal literature. The contest between the devil -and angels is, however, not unknown. It is referred to here rather -humorously in the story of the little devil who wanted to steal slily -into heaven in the rush and is detected by the wily Peter. It is also -referred to in the Dragon-fly story, No. 14. Curiously enough, very -little of it seems to have been preserved in Slavonic literature. In -Albanian literature a faint trace is recorded by Hahn (ii. No. 107), -where the connection with the Wolf story is entirely missing, and -therefore inexplicable there. But the fragmentary Albanian tale is -fully set out here in the Rumanian version about the creation of the -wolf, Nos. 7, 8, 9. - - - - - - - - -VII. - -WHY IS THE WOLF FEROCIOUS? - -The Story of God, St. Peter and the Devil. - - -Once upon a time God was walking with St. Peter. On the way they met a -dog who came close to them and frolicked round them, and God stroked -the animal. St. Peter looked at God questioningly, and God said, -"I know what is in thy mind, but since thou art he who keeps the key -of heaven it is meet that thou shouldst know everything, and I will -therefore tell thee the story of the dog and the wolf, for thou must -know whom to let into heaven and whom to shut out. Thou seest, Peter, -what that brother of mine--" - -"You mean the devil?" interposed St. Peter. - -"Yes," said God, "I mean him. You see what he has done to me with -Adam and Eve, and how he made me drive them out of Paradise. What was -I to do? When the poor man was starving I had to help him, so I gave -him the sheep to feed him and to clothe him. But dost thou think the -devil will give them peace?--no, not he!" - -"Yes," said Peter, "all very well, but what about the dog? I know -all that about Adam and Eve." - -"Do not be in such a hurry," replied God, "I will tell thee everything; -bide thy time." - -"Now, where was I? It was when I made the sheep, and the devil then -must again try and do something to hurt Adam, so he is now making the -wolf, who will destroy the sheep and bring Adam and Eve to grief. For -that reason I have made the dog, and he will drive the wolf away -and protect the flocks of sheep, and will be friendly to man, whose -property he will guard with faithfulness." - -St. Peter said, "I know that in thy goodness thou art going again to -help the devil, as thou hast done aforetime." - -The devil had made many things aforetime, but could not give them -life or movement, and it was always God who helped and completed -the work. Thus the devil made a car, but built it inside the house, -and did not know how to take it out and use it until God widened the -door and took it out, and as the devil was pulling away at it he broke -the hind wheels, so God took the first part of the car and put it in -the heavens, and it forms the constellation known as the Great Bear -(in Rumanian, the Great Car). - -Then the devil made the mill, but he could not start it, so God -did. Then he made a house, but put no light into it, so God had to -make the windows. Then the devil made a fire, but did not know how -to kindle it. - -He was now working away at moulding the wolf from clay. He worked so -hard that the perspiration ran down his face. Scratching his head, -he pulled out three hairs, but would not throw anything away--they -were much too precious--so he stuck them in the head of the wolf -between the eyes. - -When he thought he had finished, he turned to God and said, "See what -I have done." - -"Yes," replied God, "I see, but what is it?" - -"Thou shalt know more about it soon," replied the devil; and, turning -to the wolf, which lay there lifeless, he said, "Up, wolf, and go -for him." But the wolf never stirred. - -Then God turned to St. Peter and said, "Just wait and see how I will -pay him out," and, waving his hand over the wolf, he said, "Up, wolf, -and go for the devil." - -The devil can run fast, but never ran faster than on that day when -the wolf jumped up and ran after him. In running he jumped into the -lake. He dipped under the waters and saved himself from the fangs -of the wolf. And ever since that time, the wolf has power over the -devil: when he catches him, he eats him up. All the year round the -devils are hiding in pools and bogs, but, from the night of St. Basil -(1st January) until the Feast of Epiphany, the waters are holy, being -sanctified through the Baptism. The devil can no longer stay in the -water, and he must get on to the land, where the wolf lies in wait -for him, and woe unto the devils who get too near the wolf. - -When God and St. Peter saw the flight of the devil, they laughed -until the tears ran down their cheeks. Then God turned to St. Peter -and said to him, "I give these wolves now into thy care." Poor -St. Peter trembled from head to foot when he heard the charge that -was given to him, but God reassured him and said, "Never fear, Peter, -they will not harm thee; on the contrary, they will follow thee and -listen to thy command, as if they were friendly dogs." And so it has -remained. Once every year, on the day of the Feast of St. Peter, in -the winter-time, all the wolves come together to an appointed place -to meet St. Peter. Thither he comes with a huge book in his hand, in -which are written the names of all the persons who had given themselves -over to the devil, and he tells the wolves whom they are to eat. - -The three hairs which the devil had put on the wolf are of a green -colour, and make the wolf look ferocious, for they are the devil's -hairs, and it is from them that the devil's fire got into the wolves' -eyes, which are lit up by it. - - - - - - - - -VIII. - -WHY DO THE EYES OF THE WOLF GLOW AND HIS HAIR BRISTLE? - -The Story of the Wolf, God and the Devil. - - -When God had finished the creation of the world, and had made all the -good animals and beasts, the devil thought he would also make some -creatures. He took some of the clay and made the wolf. When he had -finished God came to see what he had done. When he saw the brute he -asked the devil what it was. - -"Ho, thou wilt soon see what it is. Up, wolf, and go for him." But -the wolf did not stir. There he lay where the devil had fashioned -him. When the devil saw that the wolf did not move, that there was -no life in him, he turned to God and said: - -"Just make him go." - -And God said, "Very well." - -But before he made him go, he chipped the wolf about, and moulded -him and fashioned him a bit better than the devil had done. Out of -these chippings came the snakes and the toads. When he had finished -shaping him, God cried: - -"Up, wolf, and go for him." - -Up jumped the wolf and went for the devil, who got so frightened that -he ran away as fast as his feet would carry him. - -When the devil saw that the wolf was running him close he pulled -out three hairs from his body and threw them behind him on to the -wolf. The wolf, who up to that time was hairless and smooth, was -suddenly covered with thick bristles, which, in one way or another, -were to prevent him from running so fast after the devil. It is -for that reason that the wolf has such thick bristles, and his eyes -glisten in the dark. They are the hair of the devil and the sparks -which have got into him through the devil's hair. And since that -time when he hears the wolves howling the devil takes to his heels, -lest they catch him as God commanded them to do. - -Polish, Lettish and other Slavonic variations of the legend -concerning the creation of the wolf by the devil are given by Dähnhardt -(l.c. pp. 147 ff.), yet none so full as the Rumanian version. According -to one, the devil had made the wolf so as to have a creature of his -own. But he endeavoured in vain to call his creature to life, for he -would persistently say to it, "Arise, for I have made thee." Only, -however, when he whispered into his ear, "Arise, God has made thee," -did the wolf spring to his feet. Then he attacked the devil, who ran -away and escaped with difficulty. - - - - - - - - -IX. - -WHY DOES THE WOLF RUN AFTER THE DEVIL? - -The Story of God, the Devil and the Stone. - - -According to a curious Rumanian version from Transylvania (in -Archiv. f. Siebenburg Landeskunde, 23, pp. 4-8, abbreviated by -Dähnhardt, pp. 152-3), the devil went to God and said to him, "O Lord, -thou hast created man and so many other creatures, but thou hast not -yet created the wolf." And God replied, "Very well," and, showing him -a huge boulder near a forest, told him to go and say to the stone, -"Devil, eat the stone." The devil went and said, "Stone, eat the -wolf." The boulder did not move. The devil went to God and said, -"The stone does not move." "What didst thou say?" "Stone, eat the -wolf." "But thou must say, 'Devil, eat the stone.'" The devil went -again to the stone and said, "Stone, eat the devil." Whereupon the -stone moved and ate the devil, and in its place there stood a wolf -with the face of the devil. Since then there are no more devils in -the world, but wolves too many. - - - -This story, as here abbreviated, is undoubtedly corrupted. The real -form must have been at the beginning, "Stone, eat the devil," but -the devil changed it into, "Devil, eat the stone," until he spoke -exactly as he was told, and the stone turned into a wolf. - -The wolf is dreaded as the most savage beast, and could therefore only -be conceived by the popular imagination as the creation of the devil. - -In the northern mythology there occurs the wolf Fenrir, whose father -is Loki, the God of Fire, who will play such a decisive rôle at -Doomsday. Hahn (No. 105) contains the following version: - -After the creation of man, the devil boasted that he could create -something better. God allowed him to do so. He took some clay and -moulded it and made the wolf. Then God said to him, "Give him life, -as I have done." The devil started blowing into the wolf until he -got red and blue in the face, but all in vain. Then God took a cane -and smote the wolf on his back, and that is why the back of the wolf -looks broken in the middle, and he said, "Creature, eat thy maker." Up -jumped the wolf and ate the devil. (Cf. Grimm, 148.) - - - - - - - - -X. - -WHY THE GOAT'S KNEES ARE BARE. - -The Story of God, the Fire and the Devil. - - -In the beginning the goats had wings, and used to fly about eating up -the tops of the trees. They did it so thoroughly that they left no -leaf or bud, and never allowed a tree to grow up. When God saw what -mischief they were doing, and how they were destroying all the trees, -he cursed them, and, taking away their wings, he said that henceforth -they should only be able to climb up crooked trees. And so they do. - -When they came down upon earth, finding themselves without wings, -they went and made a pact with the devil, that they should henceforth -help one another. The devil willingly entered into an agreement with -them. It so happened that the devil's fire went out, and he was not -able to rekindle it himself, so he sent the two goats to God to steal -the fire from him. God had lit his fire, he had put the tripod over -the fire, and had hung on it the bowl to cook his food in. Then he -sat down quietly, watching the wood crackle and burn up. When the -goats came they started a conversation with God, speaking of this and -speaking of that, so that God should not see that they had come for -the purpose of stealing fire. When they saw they could not get on, they -decided to make a rush upon the fire, and to snatch a brand from it. - -So they ran towards the tripod trying to snatch the fire. God, who -knew what they were bent upon, took the ladle which was sticking in -the food, and with the hot stuff on it he smote the goats on their -knees. The goats started running, and they shrieked from the pain of -the burning food on their knees, which burned the skin so that all -the hair fell out, and from that time the goats have no hair on their -knees, and the devil's beasts they have remained to this very day. - - - -In other South-Slavonian versions (Dähnhardt, i. 142 f.) it is the -Evil One who invents the fire, and God is anxious to obtain it from -him in order to give it to mankind. The Evil One had deprived them -of it. God sends St. Peter to the Evil One with an iron rod in his -hands. This he was to poke in the fire until it got white hot; then -he was to touch some wood and the fire would leap up. Pursued by the -Evil One, who perceived the ruse, St. Peter struck the flint before -the rod had got cold, and thus got the spark inside the flint. Thus -it is that sparks fly when the flint is struck by iron. - - - -As for the goats, the following variants and parallels are of interest: - -According to an Armenian legend of Transylvania (Dähnhardt, 154; -Wlislocki, 12), the goat is the very work of the Evil One. Jealous of -God, who has made all the creatures, he boasted that he also would -make a creature of his own. When he saw how God fashioned the lamb, -one of the last of God's creatures, he set to work to make an animal in -the likeness of the lamb. So he made a goat. But he wanted to make it -more beautiful, so he added a beard and planted some pointed horns on -its head. Then he asked God to give life to his creation. God did so, -and thus made for man two new animals, the good, useful and meek lamb, -and the mischievous goat. God then took a vase, in which he had put -the intelligence of the animals, and, finding in it only a few drops -of the liquid at the bottom of the vase, he said to the devil that he -must be careful in the use of these drops. So he dropped a few on the -head of the lamb, but when he was going to pour some on that of the -goat the devil shook the vase, and thus many more drops fell on the -head of the goat than on that of the lamb. The devil laughed and said, -"My creature is cleverer than thine." To which God replied, "That -may be, but thy creature shall play the fool and live on scanty food." - -In a Polish version (Dähnhardt, i. 162), the goat is made by the devil -almost in the same manner as he made the wolf in the tales Nos. 8, -9. And the goat comes to life only when, after saying "get up," he -whispers, "by the power of God." When the goat rises, the devil in -his fury gets hold of its tail and pulls it off; and ever since the -goats have had no tails. - -In the South-Slavonic tale, curiously enough, the sheep take the -place of the goat and are made by the devil, which, in the light of -the above version, is due to some confusion made by the story-teller -between the ram and the goat. (Krauss, Sud-slav. Sagen, Leipzig 1883, -No. 29, p. 109.) - -In a modern Greek legend, the devil made the goat, but he made the -knees stiff, and the goats perished from hunger. One day Christ was -walking upon earth, and he met the devil, who showed him the goats, -and said to him: "I have also made something, but I cannot make it sit -down; its knees are so stiff; so the goats die off." Whereupon Christ -took his seal and placed it upon the goats' knees. Afterwards they -could easily bend them. Hence the sign of the seal upon the goats' -knees. (Politis, No. 842; Dähnhardt, pp. 153-4.) - -In these two tales we have peculiar variants to some of the incidents -in the Rumanian version, only so far as the connection of the goat -with the Evil One and the bareness of the goats' knees are concerned, -though the explanation is totally different from--nay, opposite -to--that given in the Rumanian version, where the bareness is the -sign of God's punishment of the goats. - -A German tale (Grimm, 148) tells us: God made all the animals, even -the wolves, which were his dogs. The devil made the goats, which -destroyed the vines, the young trees, etc. The wolves then went and -killed the goats, and God offered to pay the devil the price of his -destroyed creatures, but only when all the oaks should lose their -leaves. But the devil was told that one oak in Constantinople keeps -its leaves all the year. He went in search of it for six months, -and could not find it. When he returned, the other oaks had got their -leaves again, and he got nothing. He poked out the eyes of the goats, -and put his own in instead, and therefore they have the devil's eyes, -and so the devil sometimes assumes their form. - -These stories of the goat and the devil are probably one chapter of -the larger and yet unwritten book on the goat-devil in popular beliefs -and customs. It must suffice merely to mention the "scape-goat," the -goat-demons (seirim of the Bible), the Greek fauns and satyrs. Satan, -worshipped under the guise of a goat in the alleged orgies of the -witches, is found in the record of the Inquisition in medieval -accusations against the heretics. Is not the devil himself depicted -in medieval imagery with the cloven hoof--of the goat and with the -horns of the goat? The why and wherefore is another story. It is not -here and now the place to enter upon it. The mischievous character -of the goat, the amorous inclinations, the offensive smell, may to a -certain extent have contributed later on to justify this equation of -goat and devil, but there must be some other reason for making the -goat, if not a type, at least the friend of Satan. - - - - - - - - -XI. - -WHY DID NOAH GET DRUNK? - -The Story of the Goat, Noah and the Vine. - - -It is said that the vine did not exist before the flood, and of -course, therefore, there was no wine. The giants, whatever mischief -they may have done, and however wicked may have been their ways, -at any rate were never drunk. They only drank water, which is the -eternal beverage for man and beast. When the flood came the giants and -all the living creatures, except those whom Noah saved in the ark, -were destroyed. When the flood had subsided, the animals went out, -spread themselves over the earth, and multiplied very quickly. - -Thus from the few head of cattle, sheep and goats there grew up soon -a large number, and Noah was able to live by his cattle and his goats. - -Of all these animals, Noah loved the goats best, especially when he -saw them climbing about everywhere up the trees and up the rocks, -going freely in all directions. One day Noah saw that one of the -he-goats left the rest alone and went his own way, and when the -evening came he came down dancing and jumping, quite jolly; this he -repeated many days, and every evening he came home jumping and dancing, -and frolicking like a madman. Noah, anxious to find out what was the -reason of this peculiar behaviour of the goat, followed him quietly -one day, and he found out what it was. There, on one of the hillsides, -he saw a tree with very huge grapes, each one as big as a bucket. The -goat went straight to these and ate his fill. Getting drunk, he laid -himself down to sleep. When he woke up he started the game again, -and so until the evening, when he returned home quite jolly. - -Old Noah was greatly surprised at this sight, for he had never seen -before any grapes; and so, climbing up as best he could, he plucked -a bunch in order to take it home and show his family. - -On his way home the heat grew unbearable, and he got very thirsty. He -turned to the right, he turned to the left; nowhere a drop of water to -be seen. I do not know what he thought; but, having the grapes in his -hand, he put one in his mouth, and sucked at it. He found the juice -very sweet and refreshing, so he took the other grapes and squeezed -the juice into his mouth. Not satisfied with that, as his thirst was -not yet quenched, he went back to the vine tree, and taking a whole -cluster, he sucked it dry. When he returned, he felt somehow that his -head had got rather heavier than usual, and his legs, on the contrary, -were much lighter than before. Altogether he felt in a merry mood, and -though old and advanced in years, he started singing a song. Getting -near his house, the goat overtook him, frolicking and jumping as it -had done every day. - -What should enter Noah's head but to follow the example of the goat, -frolicking and jumping, and in that state of high merriment both -reached the house. When Noah got near the house, he looked at himself, -and he could not make out what had happened to him, for he had lost -almost all his clothes. They had fallen off him on the way. He -could not get into the house, but, dropping down in front of it, -he fell fast asleep. There his sons found him, and thinking that he -was dangerously ill, put him on his bed and began wailing over him, -for they were sure he was at death's door. - -The next morning, to their astonishment, he woke hale and hearty, -and there and then he told them all about the goat and the vine and -the grape and the sweet juice. Then Noah gave orders that the vine -should be taken from the hills and planted in his garden. Before -he did so, he killed the goat and poured the blood of it on to the -roots in remembrance of the fact that it was through the goat that -he discovered the vine. - -Thus far the Rumanian story, which, however, requires completion. As -far as it goes it agrees almost verbatim with a story found in a very -ancient Hebrew collection of legends (Midrash Abkhir); the sequel -there is as follows: When Noah started planting the vine, the devil -came and asked to be allowed to take a part in it. Noah willingly -agreed. After killing the goat, the devil brought a lion, whose blood -was also used to water the roots of the vine, and finally brought a -swine, and his blood was also poured over the roots of the vine. - -For this reason it comes to pass that, when a man drinks a little -wine he gets merry and jumps and frolics like a young kid; and if -he drinks a little more, he becomes hot and roars like the lion; and -his last stage is reached when he wallows in the mire like the pig, -for he has drunk the blood of all of them. - -Here, then, we have a tale which shows how a man can become a beast -without changing his human form, not like all the other tales, in -which he remains a bird or a beetle to the end of his days. - -A peculiar transformation of this legend is found in the following -variant, in which the bones of the animals are substituted for their -blood. The whole setting is different from the more primitive type -preserved in the Rumanian. - - - -When Saint Dionysios was still young, he once made a journey through -Greece, in order to go to Naxia (the isle of Naxos), but the way -being very long, he got tired and sat down on a stone to rest. While -he was sitting, and looking down in front of himself, he saw at his -feet a little plant sprouting from the earth, which seemed to him so -beautiful that he resolved at once to take it with him and to plant -it. He took the plant out of the ground and carried it away; but, -as the sun was very hot just then, he feared that it might dry up -before his arrival in Naxia. Then he found the small bone of a bird, -and put the plant into it and went on. In his holy hand, however, -the plant grew so quickly that it peeped forth from both sides of -the bone. Then he again feared that it would dry up, and thought of -a remedy. He found the bone of a lion, which was thicker than the -bird's bone, and he put the bird's bone, together with the plant, -into the bone of the lion. But the plant quickly grew, even out of -the lion's bone. Then he found the bone of a donkey, which was still -thicker, and he put the plant, together with the bird's and lion's -bones, into the donkey's bone, and so he came to Naxia. When he was -planting it, he saw that the roots had wound thickly round the bones -of the bird, the lion and the donkey; and, as he could not take it -out without injuring the roots, he planted it in the ground as it -was, and it quickly grew up and produced, to his delight, the finest -grapes, from which he made the first wine, which he gave to men to -drink. But what a wonder did he see now! When men drank of it, they -sang in the beginning like merry little birds; drinking more of it, -they became strong as lions; and drinking still more, they became -stupid like donkeys. (Hahn, Albn. Märchen, ii. 76; v. also Thumb, -Bulletin of the John Rylands Library, Manchester, vol. ii. No. 1, -Oct. 1914, p. 38 and note 50). - -I add here a Christmas carol about the shepherd and the sheep, -for it seems that at the basis of it lies the idea of God giving a -special blessing to the sheep. It is a second stage after the idea -of creation of the sheep by God. - - - - - - - - -XII. - -GOD AND THE LAMB. - -A Christmas Carol. - - - On the flowery mountain, - O Lord, good Lord, - Nica feeds his flock. - He feeds them, - He drives them, - He touches the foremost, - He gathers the hindmost, - And leads them into the pasture. - But where has he fixed the pasture? - On the top of the mountains, - Under the yellow plane tree. - A summer breeze is blowing, - Shaking the leaves, - And scattering them over the plain. - The sheep grew excited, - And they made a great noise. - They bleated, and the bleating reached the heaven and the earth. - The Holy God heard them, - And he came down to them, - And thus he spake with his mouth: - "Halloo, brave Nica, whose are these sheep, - Which bleat so beautifully, - So beautifully and devoutly?" - Nica the brave replied: - "O dear merciful God, - As thou hast come and askest me, - I will answer truly - To whom these sheep belong: - They are thine, - As well as mine. - I feed them; - Thou guardest them. - I milk them; - Thou multipliest them. - I shear them; - Thou makest them grow." - The good God replied - And said to Nica the brave: - "May they be given to thee - From me as a gift-- - From a good father - To a clever son-- - For thou art sweet of tongue. - But thou shalt give me, - On St. John's day, - Two lambs; - On St. George's day - One suckling lamb; - And on Ascension day - A cake of cheese." - Nica the brave - May live in health, - He and his brothers - And his parents. - May God keep you all. - - -This refers no doubt to the creation of the sheep by God--as mentioned -before--and the manner in which the sheep were expected to help Adam -after the fall. (v. Wolf Story No. 7.) - - - - - - - - -XIII. - -THE HART AND THE MAKING OF THE WORLD. - -A Christmas Carol. - - - Slowly, slowly, O Lord, - The little river Olt - Has grown big, - So big - That the borders cannot be seen. - But what is coming - Down the Olt? - Tall pines - And dry fir trees. - Among the pines, - Among the fir trees, - A three-year-old stag - Is swimming. - The stag swims, - And lifts up its horns. - On the top of his horns - A cradle is hanging and swinging, - A green cradle made of silk, - Woven in six strands. - But who sits in the cradle? - The maiden, the young girl, - With her tresses hanging down the back, - Shining - Like the holy sun. - She sits and sews, - And embroiders - A collar for her father, - A kerchief for her brother. - But she stops and does not sew, - Nor does her mouth keep quiet, - For she is singing: - "Slowly, slowly, - Old stag, - Slowly, slowly be thou swimming. - Do not hinder my work. - And the waves are rising; - They might wash me off and carry me off thy horns. - Slowly, slowly, - Dear old stag, - For I have three brothers at court, - Where they learn many things. - All the three are noted hunters, - And good falconers. - They will discover thee, - And run after me. - With their falcons they will pursue thee. - With their dogs they will worry thee. - With their lances they will prick thee. - Slowly, slowly, - Dear old stag-- - For if my brothers find thee, - They will make my wedding feast - With thy poor flesh. - With thy bones - They will build - My little house. - With thy skin - They will cover - My little home. - With thy blood - They will paint - My little courts. - And with thy head - They will celebrate - The holy feast. - They will place it - Over the gate, - At the entrance of the little garden. - Of thy hoofs - They will make - Crystal cups, - Out of which - Nobles drink. - On rare occasions-- - On Christmas day and Epiphany-- - When the whole world rejoices, - I drink to the health of these houses - For many years. - - -The mythical stag carrying on his horns a girl who is like the sun -is similar to the bull of Mithras and to the bull in the Avesta, -out of which the world was created. The stag provides here all the -elements for the building of a house and for the merriment of the -nobles. Each part of its body is accounted for. - - - - - - - - -XIV. - -WHY IS THE FLY CALLED THE DEVIL'S HORSE? - -The Fight of St. George and the Devil. - - -In Rumania, the dragon-fly is known as the devil's horse or perhaps the -dragon's horse. It is also known as St. George's horse. The following -legends explain this peculiar name. - - - -We are told that in olden times there was continual strife between God -and the devil. God, however, who is peacefully inclined, let the devil -play his game as long as possible. He thought that perhaps after some -time the devil might become better behaved. But what can you expect -of the devil? He is what he is, and neither good nor bad treatment -will change him. And so it proved even to God. He waited a very long -time to see him quiet down and become more satisfied. But no sooner -had God granted him one thing, than the devil asked for another, and -so he went on asking continually. When at last God saw that nothing -could be done with Satan, he armed his host of angels and gave each -one a beautiful horse to ride on. One morning, at early dawn, they -all mounted their horses and, led by St. George, who was riding at -the head of the host, they started the fight with the devil. - -After a time St. George--who rode a horse, which was like unto none -of the others, wondrously beautiful--felt suddenly that his horse was -backing instead of going ahead. So St. George found himself involved -among his own host, and some other horses following his example, -started moving backwards and hitting those who were riding behind -them. He then suddenly heard the voice of God telling him to dismount, -for his horse had been bewitched by the devil. "If that is the case," -said St. George, "then be it the devil's own," and he let it go. And -so it happened. Scarcely had it made three steps when it was changed -into a flying insect, which we, upon this earth, call the devil's horse -(libellula depressa). - - - -A similar legend must have been current in West Europe and in England, -as otherwise the English name of Dragon-fly could not be explained. At -the root of it there must be some legend of St. George and the Dragon, -in addition to the fight between the hosts of heaven and the army of -Satan. This part must have entirely dropped out, and the knowledge and -recollection of the part which St. George played was connected either -with the worm, i.e. dragon probably transformed into an insect, or the -horse of St. George, believed to have been a winged horse. To us here, -however, the first part of the legend is of the utmost interest, -for it is nothing less than the Biblical legend of the rebellion -of Satan which led to the combat and to the fall. Satan had lost -Paradise, and ever since then he had been yearning for the light -of Paradise, either by attempting to steal the heavenly fire, as in -the Goat stories, or by stealing the sun and moon as in some of the -Christmas carols. Thereby he entered into a contest with the heavenly -power. Though these variants do not contain much of the legendary -fauna, they form an important part in the mythological conception -which lies at the root of many of these creation-tales and legends. - - - - - - - - -XV. - -THE DEVIL STEALING THE SUN. - -A Christmas Carol. - - - In the glory of the heavens, - On the outskirts of Paradise, - Close to the throne of God-- - The throne of Judgment-- - Where the whole world gathers, - Tables are decked, - And the saints sit round the table. - John St. John, - Ilie St. Ilie, - Peter St. Peter, - With all the other saints, - Are feasting joyously. - The Lord came then to the table, - Sat down at the table, - Blessed the bread, - And began - To eat. - They were eating, - Or not eating, - For on a sudden - They lifted their eyes, - And whom should they see from afar? - The archangel Gabriel - And the angel Michael, - Who were coming, always coming, - Drawing nearer and nearer, and then they reached the table. - They bent their knees before the Lord, - Bent their knees and prayed. - And said the following: - "Dost thou know, O Lord, or dost thou not know, - What has happened in Paradise? - What we have seen and what has been done? - No sooner had St. Peter gone, - And Ilie followed suit, - And St. John had left us, - When the heathen gods, realising it, - Stormed Paradise, - Entered inside, - Robbed it and - Have taken away the crown of Paradise. - They have taken the moon, - With its light. - They have taken the twilight, - With its glimmer. - They have taken the stars, - With their flowers. - They have taken the sun, - With its treasures. - The heathen gods have further taken away - The throne of judgment, - Before which the whole world must appear. - They have carried it all away into hell. - Paradise is darkened, - Whilst hell is lit up. - We have fought as much as we could fight, - But they overpowered us. - They refuse to give up the spoil. - We have now come to tell you, - To bring our prayer as a sacrifice, - That you may render us help, - And come back with us to Paradise." - When the Lord heard it, - He made a sign to the saints, - And turned his eyes upon the angels, - And went with them - To bear them company. - First St. Ilie, - Who is the most powerful saint; - And second to him St. Peter, - To smite the heathen gods with drought. - They followed him. - They started, - John baptising, - St. Ilie striking with his lightning flashes, - St. Peter drenching with rains and downpours. - When they arrived at hell - St. Ilie struck with his lightning; - St. Peter cursed them; - St. John baptised them. - The idols were seized with trembling. - They fell on their knees, - And submitted to St. John. - The archangel Gabriel, - Together with the angel Michael, - Entered hell, - Took everything - In their arms, - And brought them back to Paradise. - Holy moon with its light, - The twilight - With its rays, - The stars - With their flowers, - The sun - With its treasures, - The throne of judgment, - Before which all men must appear, - They brought them back to Paradise, - And Paradise again shone brightly. - Hell was darkened. - They turned to the Lord, - And prayed: - "May, O Lord, thy will - And thy kingdom last forever. - To your health for many years to come." - - -This carol is full of apocryphal reminiscences and mythical -elements. The contest between Satan and God, and between the evil and -good powers is here described under the form of Satan, stealing the -sun from heaven and plunging the world into darkness, but the angels, -with the prophet Ilie (Elijah) at their head, are able to defeat the -machinations of Satan, and to restore the sun to Paradise. Cf. among -others the English poem, "The Harrowing of Hell," and the literature -connected with the Gospel of Nicodemus. Wesselofsky has studied the -transformation of the prophet Elijah into the Ilie of the popular -faith, who rides the heavens with a thunderbolt in his hands, and -smites the devil wherever he finds him. It is a combination of the -prophet Elijah with a modified form of the Greek Helias. The archangels -Gabriel and Michael are here in their proper place, whilst in the -story of the dragon-fly they have been supplanted by St. George. We -shall find the same saint disguised as a knight and almost forgotten -as a saint in the legend of the Fly of Kolumbatsh, No. 21. - - - - - - - - -XVI. - -WHY IS IT CALLED THE BULL-FLY? - -The Story of God, the Sun and the Bulls. - - -In those days when God used to walk through fields and lanes carrying -his knapsack on his back and feeding his herds and flocks, his oxen -and cows, his sheep and goats, it is told that, once upon a time, -feeling very tired, he went to sleep with his head upon a hillock -of earth. He slept for a long while, and woke up very late. Before -lying down, he told the older and stronger oxen to take care to -behave themselves well, and also to look after the younger ones, -so that there should not be any fight or trouble among them. But no -sooner had he closed his eyes, when such a shouting and bellowing -was started that one might think that the hills were falling and the -earth was breaking up. The Lord sprang upon his feet as if he had -been touched by fire, for the holy sun had come to him, and waking -him up had said:--"O Lord, these creatures of yours have bellowed all -night long so loud and so vigorously that you might have thought that -they intended driving me away from the face of the earth. Look and -see what they have done to me. They have fought against me so long -that they have well-nigh torn my clothes into shreds and tatters, -and with great difficulty I saved myself behind that flower-bed." - -"What beetles are you speaking of?" asked the Lord. - -"I mean your oxen which have behaved so badly. They are not worthy -to be anything else but horned beetles." - -"Let it be so! But I must first look into the matter, and if I find -them guilty, I will punish them just as you wish." - -And as the Lord had said, so he did. For, finding them guilty, he drove -them away into the forest. There they climbed up the oak-trees, and -suddenly they all became horned beetles, bull-flies, with larger and -smaller horns, viz. the cows became cow-flies with smaller horns and -the oxen bull-flies with larger horns, through God's punishment. That -is why they are called the Lord's bulls and cows (Lucanus cervus). - - - -According to another legend, the bull-flies were originally the angels -who refused to help St. Elias in fastening the felloes to his fiery -chariot. Therefore their mouths have been closed as with a vice, -for ever, so that they be no longer able to speak, and that is why -they are also called wheelwrights. - -The horns of these bull-flies are used by women, who tie them into -their hair against the evil eye. The sharp points of these horns -have the same magical properties as the sharp points of the coral, -or of the horns, fingers, etc., which figure so largely in the magical -charms and amulets against the workings of the evil eye. - - - - - - - - -XVII. - -WHY IS THE SAW-FLY RED? - -The Story of Ileana, Voinic and the Archangel Gabriel. - - -The following legend is told of this little beetle. - -I do not know how long ago it was that Ileana Cosinziana (Ileana the -fay) walked about with her young, beautiful, and brave hero (Voinic -inflorit), and, singing with a loud voice, they filled mountain and -valleys with their music. It must have been long ago, for at that time -the archangel Gabriel also walked the earth in the form of a very -old man, leaning on iron crutches. He went about warning the people -that God would send upon them a new flood of foreign tongues and -wild nations, if they would not stop their quarrels and put an end -to their curses. After having travelled through many countries and -empires, St. Gabriel found himself one day at the top of a cliff, -so high that it made your head turn when you looked down. There -he met Ileana Cosinziana, who was weeping and singing a doleful -tune. With her was Voinic inflorit, whom she had met in the land of -the fairies, just as God makes men meet in their journeys. "How far -art thou going?" asked Voinic, seeing the old man. "Much farther than -thou wilt go," replied the archangel Gabriel. The young man looked up, -feeling wroth with the answer. And quite naturally so, when he heard a -very old man boasting that he was going much farther than he. Was he -not a young sturdy man, and more likely to walk ever so much further -than a bent-down old fellow grey of hair? "O old man, you must take -me for a weakling, when you say that I cannot walk as far as you do." - -"Young man, your sweet, strong voice will not be heard any more a -year hence." - -"And why?" - -"Because such is the will of God." - -"Yes, that might be so if you were the brother of Christ," replied -the young man, sneering. - -"I may not be the brother of Christ, but that of St. Peter I may well -be. If you do not believe me, let us enter a wager that a year hence -we will meet here again. But you will be weak and broken, much more -so than you think me to be now." - -"Well, be it so, but woe betide thee if I win the wager." - -"So it shall be." - -And wishing one another good-bye, each went his own way, bent on -winning the wager. - -"Who was that daring old man?" asked the Ileana; "it seems to me that -he is not so old as his grey hair betokens. He is a valiant man. God -knows who he may be, but one thing is certain, he is not an old man." - -"How did you know it?" - -"Well, when he put out his hand, he gripped mine with so much strength -that he very nigh burnt my soul out of me with the fire of his hand." - -When the young Voinic heard it, he got so angry that he was more like -a wild beast than a human being, and being overpowered by his fury, -got hold of her by the hair of her head and hurled her down the cliff -so that she broke into a thousand pieces. He then began to run away -so fast that the earth seemed to fly away under his feet. And thus -he continued running through many lands and many countries, until -the year had come round when he was to meet the old man again. On -the last day of the year, Voinic remembered the wager, and looking -into the water at the bottom of a well, he saw himself much weaker -and older than the old man had looked a year ago. In his anger he -threw himself into the well. But, in accordance with the will of God, -the water would not keep him, and cast him out. He had got very old -indeed, for the thoughts and worries had cut deep furrows into his -face; his hair from black, turned white as the snow. This was because -in his fury and in an unlucky hour he had killed his beloved Ileana -by throwing her down the cliff. - -The archangel Gabriel, who knew all that had happened, changed into -a young man beautiful as the sun, valiant as a king and brave as a -lion. He was mounted on a charger black as the night and swift as the -wind. Thus arrayed, he came to the cliff where they had arranged to -meet. Voinic noticed that against his will he had also come to that -spot. How great then was his fright when, instead of a decrepit old -man, he found there so valiant a knight. - -"Good morning, Voinic." - -"All hail! I am no longer a hero full of sap; I am now an old weak -man." - -"He, he, seest thou now that what I had told thee has come to pass? I -have grown young and thou hast grown old. So it is, for who can -alter the will of God? He can do what he likes, and man must submit -to his decrees. So it is, indeed, but how now about our wager? Where -is that beautiful maiden of thine, in whom thou didst believe more -than in God?" - -"She died soon after we met." - -"True, she is dead, for thou, O wretch, hast killed her." - -"I assuredly did not; she died by the will of God." - -"Oh no, thou hast thrown her down the cliff. I know it well, for I -have seen the rut on the cliff she fell down." - -"That is not true, for I have buried her with the assistance of the -priest of the next village. If thou dost not believe, come with me, -and I will show thee the grave." - -"This is an infamous lie. Thou hast murdered her. Thou come and I -will show thee her real grave and her blood." - -And, getting hold of him, he took him down and showed him a place -which seemed covered with red blood. But it was no blood. It was -a vast number of small red beetles. "Out of the blood of Ileana, -seest thou, have come these little flies." - -When Voinic heard this, he was seized with such a great fright that -he became changed from the old bent man that he was into a small -black insect, which unto this very day cries for his lost beloved -Ileana. The people call it the little cricket, or rather the bull -or cow of the Lord (Lygaeus equestris). The little red beetles which -come out of the blood of Ileana they also call Easter beetle, for it -was on Easter Day that she was thrown down the cliff. - - - - - - - - -XVIII. - -WHY DOES THE SAW-FLY LIVE IN STABLES? - -The Story of St. Mary and the Miserly Farmer. - - -Another legend of a totally different character is also told of this -little beetle. - - - -When the Holy Mother gave birth to Jesus, she had not enough milk -in her breasts to suckle the child. Next to her on the right lived a -very rich farmer who had a large number of cows. So the mother Mary -sent to him, and asked him to give her a little milk, as much as was -necessary to feed her little baby. But rich farmers are, as a rule, -very stingy. So he replied, "I am not going to give my good milk to -a witch to bewitch my cows and take away their gift." - -The Holy Mother, on hearing his words, got very angry, especially when -she heard that he had called her a witch. But she kept her counsel, -and went to the neighbour on the left, who had only one cow. He was -a kind-hearted man, and gave her at once a bowl full of milk. When -she left, she blessed him and said: "On the morrow thou shalt not -know what to do with the milk," i.e. he would have so much milk that -he would not know how to handle it. And so it happened. When, on the -next morning, he entered the stables he found them full of beautiful -fat kine, from which the milk was running, so rich were they. - -But the stingy neighbour the Holy Mother cursed, and said: "On the -morrow thy stable shall be empty, and in lieu of cows, beetles shall -be there." And so also it happened. When he entered the stables the -next morning, he found them empty, and instead of the cows, which -were no longer there, the stables were full of little red flies with -black spots on their backs, crawling up the walls and filling the -manger. And that is why they are called the cows and oxen of the Lord. - - - -To obtain abundance of milk peasant women in the Bukovina go on -a Tuesday evening to a place where there are a number of these -insects. The next morning, before sunrise, they go there again and, -taking a number of them, bring them home, chop them up with their -choppers and, mixing them with the food, give them to the cows to -eat. The cows will then yield much milk. - - - - - - - - -XIX. - -WHY IS THE LADY-BIRD DAINTY? - -The Story of the Wicked Maiden and the Archangel Michael. - - -In olden times, when the men were not yet so wicked and bad, there -was no hell, for the good God saw that it would remain empty, as there -would be no one to go there. The people were happy and grateful, and -satisfied with whatever God gave them. It did not enter their minds to -complain of God's wisdom and love. After a time the people multiplied -so much that they could no longer have enough of anything. So they -began to quarrel with one another. Those who had nothing, without -knowing that they were doing anything wrong, began to demand whatever -they wanted from the wealthy ones. They did not know that it was -forbidden to take another man's property. For up till then no one knew -what sin was. The Allmerciful God, who sees and knows everything, -noting that strife and quarrels increased more and more among men, -sent his trusty servant, the archangel Michael, to awaken mankind -to the sense of sin, and to train them to good deeds. The archangel -went among the people, enlightened their minds, and told them all -about sin and wrong-doing, and what they had to do in order to avoid -sin. That was just the knowledge that the people were lacking; but -no sooner did they know what evil was, than, curiously enough, they -took to wrong-doing. Jealousy, greed, strife, and murder were born -among them. When God saw the obstinacy and perverseness of mankind, -he let them go their own way to do whatever they liked, even if they -acted against his wishes. In order to punish them, however, he decided -not to allow them to get into Paradise. At the edge of the garden he -made a deep well; so deep that it was very dark, almost black. He then -took a fiery morning star, and cast him into the depth of the well, -thus filling it with burning coals. And then he turned every wicked -man into that fire so that he might repent. He called that place -Hell: and so it has remained to this day. In order that men should -know that God knows how to reward them, he at times left the gate of -Paradise open, so that everyone, if he liked, could enter into it -and see how beautiful it was. He also opened the gates of Hell, so -that they might also see the tortures and hear the cries of the wicked. - -Many people went and looked, and when they looked into Paradise, their -hearts swelled with joy; but when they went and looked into Hell, -their hearts got as small as a flea on account of the great fright -they got, when they saw how severely God punished the sinner. They -all repented of their evil ways, all of them, great and small, except -one single person, who on no account would repent. This one was a -girl as beautiful as an angel, and clever beyond comparison. She was -strong, with a fine body, round and sleek as no other, and she had a -head so beautiful that you might believe it was a picture. Her long -black hair, soft like silk, shone like the feathers of a raven. Her -eyes were black and sparkling--she could almost burn you up with her -look--her mouth had lips as red as the berries of the field--her cheeks -were white and smooth as snow lit up with two blood-red roses. I do -not know--by God I do not--where there is anyone who would not have -fallen in love with her. God sent the archangel Michael to take her -out of this world and put her in Hell, there to repent of her sins -of obstinacy and perversity. He went, but when he looked at her, -he could not utter a single word. He felt as though he had a knot -in his throat when he was to tell her that she must prepare for the -journey. For he knew how terrible it is in Hell. So he returned to -Heaven without taking the girl with him to throw her into the abysmal -depths. When God saw him so sad, he asked him what was the cause of it. - -"O Lord," said the archangel, "I have fulfilled all thy commands -except one, which I could not fulfil; I had pity on the beauty of -that girl. She is so beautiful that you cannot help feeling full -of pity, and to feel a sweet shiver passing through you when you -behold her. If it be possible, O Lord, let her live on for a while, -perchance she will repent." - -"O my son Michael, thou dost not know that thy pity will cause me much -trouble and worry. Just look down and see. Since thou hast left her, -she has increased the number of the wicked and sinful. For whoever -looks at her is seized with lust. Everyone thinks only of her eyes and -her face. When I sent thee, she was the only one left who was wicked, -for she alone was possessed of pride, obstinacy and perverseness. Now -the number has grown." - -"O, Lord, if it be only possible, do not uproot that example of -womankind, for she is beautiful, and it is not likely that another -like her will ever be born." - -"Very well, then, I will let her live on, perchance she will repent and -get better; but if she does not grow better at the end of one year, -I will send thee again, and then thou wilt throw her down into the -depths of Hell." - -"Well, let thy will be done." - -And with these words they separated, God going to mend the hinges of -the world, and the archangel to teach and to enlighten the mortals. So, -going through many countries, walking on foot or riding in a car, -when a year had past he came at last again to the house of the -beautiful maiden. There was a vast multitude assembled before her -house. He pushed his way among the people to see at what they were -looking. The beautiful maiden was enticing the people to follow only -pleasure and pride. - -"It is not good," so she spoke, "to believe only in what God and his -counsellors tell us. We must do what we think best, for no evil will -happen to us." - -When the archangel Michael heard these words, he grew very furious, -and, with a mighty effort, he got near her, so as to seize her and -hurl her into the fire of Hell. - -"Do not carry her to Hell," said the voice of God; "for she might -start fresh mischief and wickedness there also, and engender strife: -she had better be changed into some insignificant insect." - -When the archangel heard the command, he got hold of her by the hair -of her head, and he whirled her round so many times that she became -as small as a speck; and then, throwing her away, she turned into -a small red insect with black points on her wings, which was called -Bubureaza (Coccinella septempundata). To this very day, when you put -her on your finger, she will show you the way you are to go, but it -is better for men to do the reverse and go in the opposite direction; -for she leads one only to evil. - - - - - - - - -XX. - -WHY DOES THE GAD-FLY STING THE CATTLE? - -The Story of God, St. Peter and the Lazy Shepherd. - - -In olden times God and St. Peter used to walk about in the world, to -see what was happening, and how the world was going on. And after they -had seen what happened in one province, they used to go to another. - -Once upon a time, after leaving a certain village, they got into -a deep and dark forest. Walking along for a while, they lost their -way, and did not know how to get out of it. Tired and hungry, they -walked on, lost in that thick and gloomy wood, when suddenly before -them they saw a field, in which grass and flowers were growing and -herds of cattle were feeding. The cowherd lay fast asleep under the -shadow of a tree. He could take it easily, for the cattle were not -suffering from flies, and were wandering quietly about the field. God -and St. Peter rejoiced greatly when they saw a man lying there. They -went up to him and woke him, and asked him to tell them the way which -would take them out of the forest. The cowherd, being asked by God -which was the quickest road, did not even lift up his head to give a -polite answer. But lying outstretched on the grass, he merely moved -his right leg and, half asleep and lazy as he was, and pointing in -one direction, said, "If you wish to get out to the world of men, -just go that way and you will get there." Then, turning over on the -other side, he again fell asleep. - -God and St. Peter, resenting the rudeness of the cowherd, said, "Are -these, then, thy manners? Very well, thou wilt no longer be lazy from -this day onwards. Thy cattle will no longer feed quietly; the gad-fly, -which I am sending, will sting them, and they will run like mad whither -their feet and their eyes will carry them." And so it happened. The -gad-fly came and the cows and oxen suddenly started running like mad -in all directions, and so it has remained to this very day. - -The cowherd, when he saw the cattle running like mad things with their -tails in the air, jumped up like one stung to madness, and started -running after them to bring them back. But in vain, for the cattle, -which had run away as quickly as you strike a spark from the flint, -entered into a swamp. - -After they had thus punished the cowherd, God and St. Peter went on -walking without knowing whither they were going. So again, after a -long walk in that same forest, they came to another meadow, where a -shepherd tended his flock of sheep. But the sheep were running all -the time so fast that you could not see their legs. Hither and thither -they went, and the shepherd after them, out of breath, and the sweat -running down his face, hoping that he might get them together. But the -sheep were as if they had been bewitched, so fast did they run. And -whilst the shepherd could scarcely keep on his legs, and the sweat was -standing on his forehead like beads, God and St. Peter approached him -and asked him which was the way they were to go to come back to this -world. Although he was dead tired and hot, the shepherd none the less -stopped still and, wiping his face with the sleeve of his shirt, said: - -"Please, take that way, for if you follow that road, you will soon -get to the end of the forest." - -They took the way he showed them, and soon they found themselves in -this world. And God said to his companion: - -"From this day onward, the flock of this shepherd, who has given us -good advice, so courteously, shall no longer suffer from the gad-fly -(and the running madness), and they shall only run at times of rain and -wind. They will henceforth feed quietly, and the shepherd also will be -able to sit down and play his pipe." And from that day on the sheep -feed quietly, and the shepherd can tend them in peace and comfort, -for the sheep do not suffer from the gad-fly (Hypoderma bovis), -whilst the cowherds must weary their legs, as otherwise their cattle -would disappear. - - - -There is a Macedonian variation: - -Once upon a time God changed into a very old man. Walking one day in -a terrific heat, he met a cowherd and asked him for a drop of water, -for he said he would die of thirst. "Die," replied the cowboy, and -would neither give him a drop of water nor tell him where to find it. - -God found afterwards a shepherd hotly pursuing his sheep, and the -perspiration running down him. "Give me a drop of water, for I die," -said God. - -"I give you willingly, but my sheep have run away and I do not know -how to gather them"; and going to a fountain at the foot of a hill -he took some in his fur cap and gave him to drink. God gathered the -sheep, and blessed them to be God's flock, who should never henceforth -separate on the road or be scattered. Remembering the cowherd, he -cursed him and said: "The gad-fly is always to scatter his herd just -when the heat is greatest, so that he may run like mad." - -Therefore the sheep always walk together in flocks, and gather together -in hot summer weather in the shade. And for that reason the oxen are -driven mad by the fly in the hot season, and they run like mad as -if they were ridden by devils. The cowherd has to run after them, -and there are but few fountains in Thessaly from which to slacken -his thirst. - - - - - - - - -XXI. - -WHY DOES THE FLY OF KOLUMBATSH POISON THE CATTLE? - -The Ballad of the Knight and the Dragon. - - -Numerous ballads recount the same story of the origin of the Poison-fly -of Kolumbatsh, with slight variations, of which the most complete is -the following: - - - High up in the green forest - What does appear? - High up in the forest of Cerna, - At the ford of Rushava, - Have gone forth, verily gone forth, - From some village nigh, - Very early in the morning, - Through dew and mist, - Three sisters, - Beautiful maidens. - The elder sister, - Dressed sweetly, - Fair like a pink flower, - Surpassing a fairy, - When you espy her breast, - White like a lily. - The younger sister, - Darling Maria, - Full of pride - In her eyebrows, - In her eyes and lashes, - And when you look into her eyes, - You are like one smitten by the evil eye. - The youngest sister, - Like unto a dove, - Ana Ghirosana, - Like the fairy Sanziana, - Surpassed them all. - She is like the evening star, - And the star of morn, - The flower of flowers. - They played and frolicked, - And gathered flowers. - They made wreaths, - And while they twisted them they sang. - Through the forest the singing was heard. - Thus they went on, - Until, overcome, - The youngest lay down, - And went to sleep. - The elder two, - The sisters twain, - When night arrived, - To their home they turned. - They left the youngest behind, - Who was fast asleep, - Until the dawn appeared, - When she called for them. - But none heard her, - Except the little cuckoo, - Beautiful and brave, - Who flitted among the trees, - And sang with a loud voice. - "Dear Cuckoo mine, - Listen to me, you brave one! - Lead me out into the open, - To the road of carriages, - That I find my sisters, - For I will be unto thee a cousin!" - "My sweet one! - I do not know - Whether I will lead thee into the open or not, - For I have many cousins, - As many as there are flowers on the mountain!" - "Cuckoo, cuckoo, listen, O brave one! - Lead me into the open, - To the road of cars. - I will be a sister unto thee." - The cuckoo replied: - "No, my child, no, - For I have sisters as many - As flowers that bloom in spring." - "Cuckoo, cuckoo, listen, O brave one! - Lead me into the open, - That I may find my sisters, - For I will be a wife unto thee - As long as I live." - "O no, for I am not a young man - Able to wed. - I am only a little bird, - And I know not of a beloved one." - Then suddenly appeared from a rock - The most horrible fright, - Gruesome and cruel-- - Twisting and crawling across the path-- - A terrible dragon. - Running after her, - He coiled himself round her, - Twisted his tail - Round her waist; he encircled her. - She was seized with terror, - And shrieked aloud. - The forest resounded. - High up the Cerna, - Very high up the river, - Many a brave has passed, - And all were laid low. - A valiant Ruman, - Ioan Iorgovan, - Whose arms were like clubs, - Was riding upon a horse, - Swift as the eagle, - Followed by two little dogs, - Keen and quick. - He was riding gaily, - Walking up the Cerna - Quite quickly, - His horse prancing, - Encouraging his dogs, - And waving his lance. - He suddenly heard a noise, - But he did not understand, - However much he strained, - Whether it was the voice of a man - Or that of a woman. - For the waves of the Cerna raged, - Sounding loud through the forest. - So he turned himself back, - And said to the Cerna: - "O my clean Cerna, - Stop, I pray thee, stop, - For I will throw - Into thy bed, - And I will give thee a silver lamprey, - And a golden distaff, - With dragon's eyes, - Which will spin and turn by itself." - The Cerna heard him, - And at once stood still. - Then Ioan Iorgovan, - With arms like clubs, - At once heard - And knew the voice, - That it was not that of a man, - But that of a woman. - Then he got angry, - Spurred on his horse, - And, striking it hard, - He roared like a lion, - Splitting the air. - The dragon got sight of him, - And, seized with fear, it ran away. - But he followed it, - And jumped across the Cerna, - And approached it. - The dragon waited for him, - And asked him: - "Ioan Iorgovan, - With arms like clubs. - With what kind of a good message - Dost thou come this day to me? - Or hast thou the thought - To destroy me? - I pray thee, grant me peace, - And turn back to thy home. - I swear on my head - That, dead, I shall be worse. - For, if thou killest me, - My head will rot. - Worms will breed; - Flies will swarm, - Who will bite thy horse. - It will burst of the poison, - The oxen will run mad, - The plough will come to a standstill!" - "Accursed snake! - Thou still bandiest words. - I will teach the country, - And the people will hearken to me. - They will raise the smoke, - And thy flies they will choke. - My horse will not die, - But thou shalt perish, - For I have heard - That thou hast killed - A beautiful maid - With thy robber's jaw." - "Ioan Iorgovan, - When I heard thy approach, - Thy horse's trot, - Roaring like a dragon, - I at once left the maid - Safe and unhurt. - I pray thee, - Leave me alone, - And turn back to thy home. - I swear on my head, - Worse shall I be dead." - Ioan Iorgovan, - With arms like clubs, - Brandished his sword, - Hit the snake, - And cut it up in pieces. - The maid looked on - Until he had finished it, - Then she showed herself, - And thus she spake: - "Ioan Iorgovan, - With arms like clubs, - Lead me out in the open, - To the carriage road, - That I may meet my sisters, - For I shall be unto thee a wife - As long as I be alive." - When he beheld her, - Wonder seized him - Of her beauty and of her youth. - "Ho, my beautiful flower, - Who art like a young fairy, - Be then to me a wife - As long as you be alive." - He then embraced her - And kissed her. - He then looked on-- - May it burst-- - There was the dragon's head - Running away, - Painting the Cerna red with his blood. - And it ran across the Danube, - Until it hid itself in the dark cave. - There it rotted. - The worms bred - And flies swarmed. - And so it is to this very day; - When the fly comes out - It bites the horses, - It poisons the oxen, - And stops the plough. - - -Thus far this, the most complete version. - -There are a number of other variants, but the central idea is the -same, that the poison-fly (Musca Columbaca) comes from the head of -the dragon, slain by the knight Ioan Iorgovan. - -The people show the imprint of the hoofs and the traces of Iorgovan's -dogs on the high cliff overhanging the banks of the Danube. - -This legend, localised in Rumania on the borders of Servia, is of -special interest for hagiography. It is nothing else but a variant of -the legend of St. George and the Dragon. It has assumed a peculiar -form, differing greatly from the other versions of that fight, -which is known all over the East and West, and lives in many forms -and versions. In the Rumanian hagiography there are at least two or -three versions of the legend as found in the Vitae Sanctorum and the -Synaxarium of the Greek and Slavonic Church. Thus it is found in one -of the oldest Rumanian prints, the Homiliary of 1646, the very first -book printed at Jasi, in Moldavia, in the Rumanian language. It occurs -also in part in the Lives of the Saints by the Archbishop Dositheus, -who used MS. collections for his book, printed also in Jasi, in -1682. An elaborate version is to be found in the great collection -of the Lives of the Saints in twelve volumes, by Bishop Benjamin -of Moldavia, and then reprinted in Bucharest in 1836. All these -collections are full of apocryphal matter, and the Life of St. George -makes no exception. There is one point more to which attention must -be drawn in this connection, viz. the influence of the Genoese and -Venetian traders who had established emporia along the Danube and -the Black Sea, among them one which to this very day has retained -the name of St. George. Along the Danube, on the left bank, on what -is now Rumania, stands that place, called Giurgiu in honour of the -patron saint of the Genoese who found it. Thus, from many quarters, -one or the other version became known to the folk, and was localised -at that point where the Carpathian mountains seem to dip into the -Danube, to emerge again on the other side and continue rising and -forming the chain of the Balkans. From a philological point of view -the name Iorgu Iorgovan denotes Servian influences. - - - - - - - - -XXII. - -WHY IS THERE A WORM IN THE APPLE? - -The Story of God and the False Teachers. - - -Before God came upon the earth there were a number of men who were -very clever, and who followed the rule of the devil. They claimed -that they could change themselves into dogs and cats, for the devil, -who took much pleasure in his clever people, helped them. Those who -saw them, believed them to be gods, and worshipped them and brought -them gifts. The devil almost jumped out of his skin with delight, for -he hoped that all the nations would do likewise, and soon God would be -forgotten. But God was watching the doings of the devil quietly from -above, until at last, seeing to what lengths he was going, he said: - -"By God! it is no good sitting here with my hands in my lap. I must -go down and put matters straight." - -So God took on the form of man, and went down among the people, going -from country to country and from village to village. At last, one day, -he made it known through all the land that all the clever men should -come together at a certain place to perform their arts, and whoever -would win in that competition, he would give him a sackful of gold. - -On the appointed day, all the clever men came together in a big hall -which God had prepared. It was surrounded by numerous apple-trees on -all sides. The clever men did what they could, each one more clever -than the other. They changed themselves into cats and dogs. At last -God said to them: - -"You have all done very well, but I would ask you to make me an apple -like those on the trees here around." - -In vain did they try to make an apple, but they could not succeed. So -God sent lightning among them, which so terrified them that they -crawled into the apples to hide themselves there. And God turned them -into caterpillars that can only live in apples. This is the origin of -the worm (Carpocapsa pomonella) which infests the orchards of apples -and pears. In order to protect them from this pest the Rumanians of -Bukovina keep a special Day of the worms, on the Tuesday in the first -week of the month of May. On it, it is strictly forbidden to work, -and it is good to give away a cake and other good things in alms for -the benefit (of the souls) of these men turned into flies. It is also -good to bring into the orchard a red Easter egg, which has been taken -to Church. - -Whoever catches an orchard worm and spits on its head, he spits on -the devil between the horns. - -Whoever throws any of these worms into the fire throws into it the -devil's servant. - - - -If we should call the "clever" men by the name of "Perfecti," of -which the former is an excellent translation, we might find in this -legend a slightly changed report of an act of accusation raised by -the Inquisition against the Albigenses and Cathars whose teachers -went by the name of "Perfecti." These men were accused of being -the servants and tools of the devil, and of possessing the power of -changing themselves into animals, the cat being the special animal -of the devil. It was said, moreover, that they enticed the world -to the worship of the devil, and that they had almost succeeded in -turning whole nations away from the true worship of God, so that it -required his own interposition in order to save the world from the -machinations of these men. He turned them into worms, which at any -rate continued to exist in apples and pears--the Inquisition has -turned them into dust and ashes. And yet their memory is preserved, -in spite of persecution and lives on in the memory of the people. - - - - - - - - -XXIII. - -WHY ARE THE LOCUSTS VORACIOUS? - -The Story of the Arrogant King and the Monks. - - -It is related that when the Emperor Por married his daughter he made -a great banquet, as big as had never been done before, for he called -all the kings and governors, and so many guests came together that -one might have thought that they would eat up even Por's ears. - -But Por the emperor knew what he had to do, and he prepared food for -all. He opened casks of wine, which had been kept closed for a thousand -years, and he spread tables in a field as large as a country, and he -brought musicians who were so skilled that one would have liked to -listen to them for ever. - -Everything had he prepared, only one thing had he forgotten. He -did not call the priests and the nuns. The priests he left out just -because he wanted to insult them, and he did not think of having the -marriage service performed in a Church. - -"What do I want them for?" he said, "all this can be done without their -blessing, and to have popas (priests) always about you in your house, -by God, is not quite a lucky thing, for it is well known if you meet -a popa in your way you are sure to have no luck, for you have met -the devil." - -The priests, seeing that Por had mocked at them, and the mothers of -the Church (the nuns) got very angry. They began ringing the bells -and praying, and they fasted three days on end, hoping that God -would hearken to their prayer and would punish the Emperor Por in -such signal manner as God alone in his wisdom could do. - -And God, as it seems, hearkened to their prayer, for while the tables -were laden with meat and drink, and all the guests had sat themselves -down to eat and drink, suddenly the heavens grew dark, a mighty wind -arose, and out of the sky came down a thick black cloud of winged -things with large mouths, voracious and hungry. - -They settled on the tables and devoured every bit of food that could -be found, and drank every drop of wine. The guests turned sick at this -horrible sight, and, falling ill, they all died there and then. From -a wedding feast it became a huge burial, the fame of which spread -throughout the lands. No one knew why this misfortune had befallen -them, only Por understood what had happened, and before his death -he said: - -"Nothing can be done without the mercy and grace of God. And this -has been my punishment." - -These were the locusts (Pachytylus migratorius) which God sends upon -men when they forget the true God. - - - -The rôle assigned here to the official priests, the "popa" of the -orthodox religion, is in perfect harmony with that sectarian teaching -which could not find words strong and opprobrious enough against the -"official" Church and its ministers. The belief is still alive in -Rumania that to meet a "popa," as he is called, is an evil omen, -and the people will often desist from some enterprise if a popa has -met them. There are practices by which the evil consequences of such -a meeting could be averted; but they belong to those of primitive -society. This story seems also to have been originally a satire against -these popas. They were the original locusts who descended upon the -tables of the rich and mighty, but now the point has been blunted and -the lesson deliberately turned round, making the locusts the means of -punishment for ignoring the priests. The man who told this tale must -have had a mischievous twinkle in his eye, not lost on his hearers, -but evidently lost upon him who wrote it down afterwards. - -The Emperor Por is none else than the Indian King Porus who plays so -important a part in the legendary history of Alexander the Great. This -is one of the most popular Rumanian chap-books--probably the oldest -in Rumanian folk-lore. There are a number of traces of this legendary -history in the Rumanian popular literature. We shall meet another -reference to it in the history of the cricket, No. 65, and of the -cuckoo, No. 91. - -This story evidently belongs to the cycle of legends in which an -emperor tries to invite God and his host to dine with him, boasting -that he would be able to feed them. He decks tables along the sea -shore and waits for God to come to the banquet. But a wind rises and -blows everything into the sea. A sage explains to the emperor that -thus far only one of the servants of God--the wind--has partaken of -his banquet. (v. Gaster, Exempla of the Rabbis, No. 12.) - - - - - - - - -XXIV. - -WHY DOES THE GRASSHOPPER RUN TO AND FRO? - -The Story of Jesus and the Unkind Reaper. - - -Another large kind of locust or grasshopper is also known by the name -of "little horse" or "mower." For the explanation of the last name -the following legend is told: - - - -Once upon a time when Jesus and St. Joseph hid themselves for fear -of the heathen in some very high grass which reached to their waist, -it is told that a giant came there to cut the grass, and he carried a -huge scythe, and with each stroke he cut down a large swath. Christ and -St. Joseph, seeing the work of that man and fearing lest they should -be discovered by the heathen if all the grass were cut down, asked him -not to cut any more. But when he heard that Christ begged him to stop, -he just went on with his work more furiously, full of spite, for was -not he also a heathen who wanted to catch him? When Christ saw this he -prayed to God to put as many obstacles in the giant's way as possible, -for it was still some time before the sun would set, and he would -otherwise quickly finish the cutting of the whole field. God heard -him, and he sent a heat so fierce that it dried up even the tongue -in the man's mouth. The mower, however, did not care. He only cast -off all his clothes and went on with his work in his shirt. When God -saw that the giant would not stop he changed the weather and made it -so bad that you would not have allowed a dog to leave the house. But -the mower went on with his work undisturbed. The only thing which he -did was to pick up the clothes which he had cast off and to put them -on again, and he made swaths as wide as the high road. - -When Christ saw the progress which he made he trembled like a reed. He -feared lest the heathen would catch him. Angrily, he knelt down, and -cursing the giant, he said: "Cursed shalt thou be, thou disobedient -and callous mower, all thy life henceforth thou shalt be always -only mowing and never gain any benefit from it. As long as the world -stands thou shalt always be running to and fro among the reapers, who -will cut thy legs as a punishment for not having listened to me." No -sooner was this curse uttered, when the giant was turned into a small -green insect with long legs, which to this very day is seen hopping -between the blades of grass on meadows and fields, running in front -of the scythes of cutters of grass. This insect is called the mower -(Locusta viridissima). - - - - - - - - -XXV. - -ANOTHER STORY OF THE GRASSHOPPER. - -St. Mary and the Wicked Innkeeper. - - -There is another legend of the origin of the grasshopper. - - - -When Christ was born in the stable, the animals which were there were -starved to death by the owner. There was no one who would as much as -put a handful of hay into the manger. The Holy Mother, full of pity -for the poor animals, asked the master of the house to give them at -least a forkful of hay. The master, however, shrugging his shoulders -said that all that he had, was gone and he could not give her even -as little as a handful. "If that be so, why did not you provide more -hay last summer?" asked the Holy Mother. - -"Why? just because I was too lazy to cut more." - -"If that be so," replied the Holy Mother, angrily, "then thou shalt -become a mower, and all thy life thou shalt not do anything else, -but from early morning to late at night thou shalt cut grass and yet -have no benefit therefrom." - -No sooner had she uttered these words than the master was turned into -the grasshopper called the "mower," and such has he remained to this -very day. - - - - - - - - -XXVI. - -WHY DOES THE NUN BEETLE COVER ITS FACE? - -The Story of St. Peter and the Girl Messenger. - - -In the time of the Holy Apostles, there was great trouble among the -heathen giants, as they did not know whom to elect as ruler. The -heathen then came in large numbers to the Christians, asking for -their vote, and came even to St. Peter, who was then the headman of -the Apostles. St. Peter, realising the importance of this election, -took counsel with his brothers the Apostles. They decided to call -together all the Christians in an Assembly to decide which part they -were to take. A good number came together. But as at that time the -Christians were scattered far and wide, and lived a good way distant -one from another, and also were afraid of the heathen, the greater -number stayed at home. - -For in such troublous times who would have liked to leave his wife -and children alone at home? Moreover, at that time Christians were -not permitted to meet, for when the heathen caught them speaking -to one another, they poured oil upon them and burned them like -torches. Still, when St. Peter had got a few counsellors together, -they discussed what was best to be done. The one said one thing, -the other another, as people do even to-day when talking in council, -but if you think you are getting on any further, you are waiting in -vain, for nothing comes out of it. - -St. Peter, who was more learned than the rest, saw that no good -was coming out of their deliberations, and as he was the headman, -he got up from his seat and said, "If we are to give our people good -and sound advice, we all know that as for battle, good and strong men -are wanted, so we must also have clever men. Unfortunately, however, -there are no such men in our midst. We also know that if the heathen -see us going from house to house, and find out our intentions, it -might go very ill with us. We must therefore find out other means, -so that our enemies should not even suspect our action. I, as the -oldest among you, have come to the conclusion that we must get some -very clever women. We might then possibly win our case. Let us make a -list of all such women and instruct them carefully. We can then send -them to the houses of the Christians to advise them what to do." - -"Excellent," replied the other learned men, and they called out all -the clever women from the list which they had made, and by teaching -them day and night, they fitted them for their work and sent them to -the houses of the Christians. Before they left, however, they were -told that they were neither to turn back and look at anything, nor -were they to look straight into the eyes of strangers, for their eyes -were bewitched by the devil, nor should they speak to strangers, who -would pour poison into their souls. After receiving these instructions, -they all covered their faces and left only holes for their eyes. Then -they took food for the journey, taking care to fast regularly for -two days and eating only on the third. One of them, called "Nun," -going into a town where the people were dressed up more richly than -in any other town, met a young man, tall as a reed, white as foam, -with a crisp upturned moustache, a small well-proportioned mouth, -and eyes glittering like those of a snake. He stood quite alone! The -young man, cunning as the young men of our days are, no sooner set -eyes on the young woman, when he began to tell her of all that is -in the heavens and upon earth, and made her forget her errand and -the instructions which she had received. So she unveiled her face, -and began to talk in such a manner that no man would have stopped her -from going on. In the end she told him even of the intentions of the -Christians and of the teaching of St. Peter. As soon as he had heard -all she had to tell him, the young man disappeared, for he was none -else than the son of Satan. St. Peter, who knew all that had happened, -for the angel of God had told him, started after the young woman in -order that he might stop her from revealing to others the intentions -of the Christians. He found her in a meadow playing with some children. - -"Thy name is nun, thy name shall remain nun (Mantissa religiosa), -but thou shalt not have any longer a human shape, as thou hast thrown -away the veil, and has denied thy beautiful face." - -When the nun beheld St. Peter she got frightened, and tried to pull -the veil over her face, which was uncovered, but she could not do it, -for God had changed her into a little green beetle which to this very -day joins its front legs, and it looks as if it intended to cover -its face with them. - - - -This legend has been turned into a charm against a bad wife. Put the -nun under her head at night, and say three nights consecutively the -following charm: - - - "Faithless Nun, St. Peter had taught thee; - St. Peter has sent thee to do good to the Christians, to give - them good teaching; to the ignorant thou hast given instruction. - But thy conduct was bad, - For thou hast spoken to the enemies, - And hast shown thy uncovered face; - And God has punished thee. - I now have also a wife, like unto a spark, with bad tongue and - evil speech-- - Evil in every way-- - Bad, envious, cheating, - Restless, - Always in motion, with a heart full of sin. - Thou, O faithless Nun, smitten by God, - Condemned by men, - Make my wife to become good. - From bad and faithless, make her good and faithful. - From cheating and envious, make her good and loving. - Otherwise, woe unto her. - Woe unto thy kind, - For I will set upon it and utterly destroy it. - I will fall upon it and annihilate it. - - -She will then repent of her evil ways. This charm is only to be used -in the case when the wife is younger than the husband. - - - -In the charm we have the "historical" or narrative element, -in the legend we have the symbolical in the application which is -assumed to run on parallel lines--the woman must also be faithful, -obedient, chaste, must not look into other people's eyes nor talk to -strangers--a grave danger for her soul. And finally the "threat" that -unless the "nun" will do the bidding, she will be severely chastised, -just like the demons in older conjurations, who are first cajoled -and then threatened. It is thoroughly typical, and shows the depths -of belief in the power of even the little insect which is, however, -still seen as a "nun" in a human form well instructed and powerful, -in spite of its actual "disguise." No real line of demarcation is -drawn between the human being and the meanest creature. In popular -belief and imagination they all live and move on the same plane. - -There is another tale told about this insect, which seems to be -another attempt to explain its name Nun. - - - - - - - - -XXVII. - -WHY IS THE BEETLE CALLED THE NUN? - -The Story of the Devil's Daughter in the Cloister. - - -It is said that the devil--may he go into the wild desert and remain -there--had a very bad-tempered daughter. She was so bad that in -the whole world there was none other like her to make a couple of -them. When the devil saw that, devil though he was, he was yet no -match for his daughter, he slyly got her into a convent and made a -nun of her, in the hope that she might perchance repent and change -for the better. But the daughter remained what she was; ill-tempered -and bad. She kept making mischief without end. God, who could not -tolerate a daughter of the devil in a convent, and seeing also that -the daughter of the unclean was doing all kinds of mischief, changed -her into an insect. The other sisters, seeing what had happened, -called it Nun, and this has remained its name to our very days. - -It is curious that this insect should bear the name "nun" in almost -all European languages. I am not aware, however, of any legend except -the Rumanian explaining the name. - - - - - - - - -XXVIII. - -WHY IS THE WASP THE GIPSIES' BEE? - -The Story of the Wasp, the Gipsies and the Rumanians. - - -In the beginning the wasp belonged to the Rumanians, and the bee -to the Gipsies. When the former saw how useless, nay, dangerous, -the wasps were, and how useful the bees, they cheated the Gipsies -into changing with them. - -Those of aforetime tell us that when God made the living creatures -which move with the sun, he made the bee first. The Gipsy, impudent -and greedy, as he has remained to this very day, stole the bee from -the hand of God saying, "Give it to me, O Lord, that I may eat of -its honey, I and my little ones. And of the wax--I will make candles -to light them up for thee in the Church." God did not say anything, -but kept silent and looked angrily at the Gipsy, for he was annoyed at -the Gipsy's impudence. He made up his mind to punish him. He therefore -at once made the big wasp, and, after he had made it, he gave it to -the Rumanians, saying, "Take this, for the bee has been ordained for -the Gipsy, and he has taken his share." The Rumanian took the wasp, -and thanked God. Sometime afterwards the Gipsy met the Rumanian, -and he asked him whether his bee had brought him much honey. The -Rumanian, smart as ever, replied, "My bee has filled many barrels, -for this bee carries the honey in bagfuls, as it was big and strong." - -"Oh," cried the Gipsy, "I see that he has deceived me; my bee has not -filled a cup with honey, and my duckies have not even rubbed their -lips with honey. Let us exchange our bees, my little Rumanian." - -"But what do you give in addition?" - -"What shall I give you? By God, I have nothing. I will make an axe -of my iron and give it to you." - -"Well, then, let it be so. Bring here your hive and I will bring -you mine." - -"I will do so," and the Gipsy went with the Rumanian to the hut and -gave him the hive. The Rumanian took it home, and when they reached -the forest the Rumanian showed him a big tree, as thick as a barrel -and high as the heavens, where the Rumanian had put before the wasps -and where they had grown to a very large number. - -"Here, you Gipsy, are my bees in this hollow tree. It is full of -honey enough to satisfy your whole nation of Gipsies and some to -remain over." - -"Thank you. May God bless you," replied the Gipsy. - -The Rumanian went home to look after the bees. The Gipsy gathered his -whole nation together. They brought copper pans and pots and ladders, -and came to the tree to eat of the honey to their fill. Arrived there, -they leaned the ladder just against the hole by which the wasps went -out and came in. Full of courage, as the Gipsy is by nature, he took -a pot for the honey and climbed up the ladder. No sooner had he got -there when a wasp thrust its sting into him. Another stung him on the -nose, and another, and again another, and the Gipsy could not see -out of his eyes because of the pain, and he began howling there on -the top of the tree. He forgot the honey and everything, and cried, -"Keep the ladder, keep the pot, keep me also, for we are falling," -and down he came with a thud. How long he lay there with broken -bones I do not know, but I do know that he had had enough of wasps' -honey to last him to the end of his days. Since then the bees belong -to the Rumanians, and the wasps are the Gipsies' bees. - - - - - - - - -XXVIII. A. - -ANOTHER VERSION OF THE WASP LEGEND. - - -Another legend which omits the first part of the story does not mention -anything about the Gipsy stealing the bee from God, but simply tells of -a Gipsy who found a hive in the forest, and taking it home, went about -bragging of his wonderful hive and of the honey. A clever Rumanian, -finding a wasp nest, told the Gipsy that his bees were making gold, -and induced him to change with him. Since then the bees belong to -the Rumanians. - - - - - - - - -XXIX. - -WHY DOES THE HORNET LIVE IN SMOKY PLACES? - -The Story of God and the Odd Present. - - -When God had finished making the trees and grass, the sun and moon, -and all that lives and moves, he sat down on his seat and ordered -all the creatures to come to him that he might bless them. Every one -came and brought a gift according to its best, and God blessed each -one according to its nature. The sheep brought wool and milk, and the -Lord blessed it, and bade it clothe the house of the Rumanians with -its wool and feed the babies with its milk. The bee brought sweet -honey and wax with the perfume of all the flowers. God blessed it, -so that with the honey man's food should be sweetened, and the wax -should light the Church at the Holy Office. Thus each creature got the -blessing according to its ways. Now came the turn of the hornet, by -nature lazy and accustomed to live by theft. What could she bring? and -again, how could she come with empty hands before the throne of the -Almighty? So, finding a piece of cardboard, she picked it up and -brought it to God. The Lord understood the trick which the hornet -wanted to play on him, and how lazy she was. He, therefore, cursed -her that all her work should be as brittle as bits of cardboard, and -she should live only by theft. Her habitation should be the chimney, -and her nest should be broken by everybody. So has it remained to -this very day. The nests look as if they had been made of cardboard, -they hang down from the smoky chimneys of houses, as if they were to -be smoked; she lives by theft and even upon dead bodies, and her nest -is always broken up. - - - - - - - - -XXX. - -WHY IS THE HORNET SO SPITEFUL? - -The Story of the Children of Cain. - - -It is told that one of the descendants of Cain had many children, one -worse than the other. When sent on an errand to bring one thing, out of -spite they would bring another; they were of no good to anyone. Their -mother, who was a wicked and stingy bird (eagle), did nothing else -from morning to evening but curse and shout and peck at them. The -youngest, who was the worst, finding his mother in a violent temper, -started quarrelling with her so loudly that the noise could be heard -at the other end of the country. They even went so far as to fight -one another. The mother, who was a strong woman, got the best of her -son at first, but the youngster, biting her in the throat, drank all -her blood until she died. Before dying, however, the mother cursed -him that none of his children should ever be prosperous, though they -should be very numerous. They should live in the hollows of trees and -feed on dead human bodies. They should become flies with poisonous -stings, and their blood should change into poison. When he heard his -mother's curse the youth ran into the forest, and the quicker he ran -the more it appeared to him that he became smaller and lighter, until -one morning he found himself changed into a hornet with a yellow body. - - - - - - - - -XXX. A. - -HORNET CHARM. - - -The hornet is used for the following charm: - -If people wish a dog to become savage, they take some hornets, and -mixing them with the food, give it to the puppies to eat, and say -the following words: "Just as the hornet is burning and unbearable, -so shalt thou become hot and savage and intolerable, and thou shalt -not tolerate any one else besides me and those of this household...." - - - -The hornet's nest in the stubble indicates the strength of the winter -and the depth of the snow, according as it is built high or low. - - - - - - - - -XXXI. - -WHY HAS THE WOODPECKER SUCH A LONG BEAK AND WHY DOES IT PECK AT -THE TREES? - -The Story of God and the Inquisitive Woman. - - -Know that the woodpecker was originally not a bird but an old woman -with a very long nose, which she put into everybody's pots and pans, -sniffing about, eavesdropping, inquisitive and curious about everything -whether it belonged to her or not, adding a little in her tale-bearing -and taking off a bit from another tale, and so making mischief -among her neighbours. When God saw her doings, he took a huge sack -and filled it with midges, beetles, ants, and all kinds of insects, -and, tying it tightly, gave it to the old woman, and said to her: -"Now take this sack and carry it home, but beware of opening it, -for if your curiosity makes you put your nose into it you will find -more than you care for, and you will have trouble without end." - -"Heaven forbid," replied the old hag, "that I should do such a thing; -I am not going against the will of God. I shall be careful." So she -took the sack on her back and started trotting home, but whilst she -was carrying it her fingers were already twitching, and she could -scarcely restrain herself, so no sooner did she find herself a short -distance away than she sat down in a meadow and opened the sack. That -was just what the insects wanted, for no sooner did she open it than -they started scrambling out and scampered about the field, each one -running his own way as fast as its little legs would carry it. Some -hid themselves in the earth, others scrambled under the grass, others, -again, went up the trees, and all ran away as fast as they could. - -When the old woman saw what had happened, she got mightily frightened, -and tried to gather the insects to pack them up again, and put -them back into the sack. But the insects did not wait for her. They -knew what to do, and a good number escaped into the field. Some she -was able to catch, and these she packed into the sack, and tied it -up. Then came the Voice of God, who asked her what she had done, -and if that was the way she kept her promise. - -"Where are the insects, beetles and midges, which I gave you to -carry? From this moment you shall change into a bird and go about -picking up all these insects until you get my sack full again, and -only then can you become a human being again." - -And so she changed into a woodpecker; the long beak is the long nose -of the old woman, and she goes about hunting for these midges, beetles -and ants in the hope of filling up the sack, when she would again -resume her human shape. But to this very day she has not completed -her task, and has remained the woodpecker. - - - - - - - - -XXXII. - -WHY HAS THE PELICAN A BIG POUCH UNDER ITS BEAK? - -The Story of God and the Disobedient Man. - - -The story of the woodpecker finds its closest parallel in the story of -the pelican. It is difficult to say which of the two is the original, -and which has been borrowed from the other. Certain legends have been -adapted to more than one subject, in the same manner as ballads and -tales and legends are often transferred from one hero or another. It -is that elasticity of adaptation, which to a certain extent gives -them the popularity which they enjoy. It is the very essence of the -tale not to be too much localised, but on the contrary to be able -to pass from one country to another, and to be fitted to the most -diverse circumstances and persons, so long as the general framework -has been retained. Popular imagination has no patience, and, in fact, -no room, for rigid forms or for mathematical formulae. The material -which it handles must be soft as wax to be moulded and kneaded, -and thin like gossamer to be woven into many strands. Of course, -the work of it can be seen in the variations in the theme and in its -adaptation to the new purpose. Thus in the following story: - -God and St. Peter were once upon a time walking upon the earth. There -came a great swarm of creeping things like rats, snakes, scorpions and -other vermin of this kind, as well as beetles, insects, ants and so -on. They crowded round them, and with great impudence worried them, -nay, even tried to bite them. St. Peter, who felt annoyed by the -constant worry of the vermin, said at last to God: - -"What is the good of keeping all these vermin upon the earth? see how -impudent, how aggressive they are! They molest even us, and try to bite -us, what then must the poor human beings be suffering through them?" - -"Very well," said God, "if it is thy wish, and thou thinkest to save -mankind of the attacks and molestations of these animals, I will try -to do as thou desirest." - -So he gathered them all together and put them in a huge sack, and -tied it carefully by the mouth, and he said to St. Peter, "Let us go -and throw it into the sea." - -On the way they fell in with a man, who was going in the same -direction. And God said to him, "Whither art thou going?" - -"I am going to the sea for fishing." - -"I will pay thee well," said God, "if you will take this sack and -take it to the sea and empty it into it. But mind, you must not open -it before you reach the shore; there, turning the sack upside down, -loosen it gently and let everything fall straight into the water. Be -careful and carry out my orders exactly, otherwise instead of obtaining -a reward you will get yourself into serious trouble." - -"For sure," replied the man, "I know how to carry out orders, you may -rely on me, I will do exactly as I am bidden." Then, shouldering the -sack, he went on his way to the sea. The sack was somewhat heavy and -the way to the sea rather long. Tired by the weight of the sack, he -sat down in the midst of his journey and rested. Then he asked himself: - -"What can be in that sack? why should those old men want me to empty -it into the sea? I will just loosen it a little and see." And so he -did. But no sooner had he loosened it a little when the animals, which -were all squeezed by God into the sack, pressed forward, and, before -the man could count two, out they were running, each one wherever his -eyes would lead him and his legs would carry him. Before he had time -to recover from his astonishment, he saw the two old men standing by -his side, and, pointing to the sack, God said to him: - -"Is that the way thou hast kept thy promise? As a punishment thou -shalt no longer be a human being, but a bird with long legs to be -able to run quickly after all these animals, and with a long beak to -pick them up, and under thy throat I will fasten the empty sack to -fill it with the animals caught." - -And thus he has remained to this very day, walking about on his long -legs, looking round with his keen eyes, and trying to pick up all -possible vermin which he espies crawling upon the earth. - - - - - - - - -XXXIII. - -WHY DOES THE TITMOUSE GET INTO THE PUMPKIN? - -The Story of God and the Food of the Titmouse. - - -When God had made all the creatures, he called every one of them -and told them what their food should be. Among the birds was the -titmouse. To her God turned and said, "Thy food shall be the seed of -the pumpkin." - -The titmouse, knowing that the seed of the pumpkin was very sweet, -did not wait to hear whether God said anything more, but, greedy -and impatient, ran as fast as she could, relishing beforehand the -delightful food which God had given her. So coming down to the earth, -she alighted on a field in which maize was growing, and among it a -large number of pumpkins. - -"Here, now, I have the food ready for me, and I am going to have a -good time." But she had made a wrong calculation. When she got up to -the pumpkins, she found to her dismay that the skin of the pumpkin -was as hard as bone. So she tried to pick a hole in it. She went -round and round, but wherever she tapped it with her little beak, -she found the shell too hard for her. - -Bitterly disappointed, she went away and tried to feed as best she -could by catching flies and beetles. So she eked out a miserable -livelihood only and solely because she was greedy, and had not waited -to hear what God had to say to her when he gave her that food. - -The time came when God was walking upon the earth. The titmouse heard -of it, and knowing the loving-kindness and mercy of God, and that he -would have pity if he heard of her miserable life, she took courage -and went to meet him, and told him how hard it was for her, that after -having had a gift from God, she could not enjoy it. She asked God, -therefore, that he would at least make a soft part in the skin of -the pumpkin that would become a hole, by which she could get inside -the pumpkin and eat the pips which were given to her for food. God -took pity on the little creature, who begged so piteously, and so, -taking a pumpkin, God made a hole in it. The titmouse got into it, -and did not leave the pumpkin until she had picked all the seeds. From -that time onwards the titmouse, whenever she sees a field of pumpkins, -will go round and round each pumpkin trying to find one with a hole, -by which to get into it and eat the pips. - -The titmouse was too quick again this time, for it did not ask God -to make two holes, to get in by one and out by the other, so now the -pumpkin often becomes a snare and a prison. Boys have only to make -a hole in the pumpkin for the titmouse to get into it and then they -catch it without any trouble. - - - - - - - - -XXXIV. - -WHY HAS THE NIGHTINGALE A DRAB COLOUR? - - -When God created the world he made all the living creatures of one -colour, or rather with none, for no one had any colouring on its -wings, feathers, or skin. So, one day, God called all his creatures -to paint them with different colours as he chose. All the birds and -beasts and creeping things came, and God gave every one a different -coat to wear. Only the nightingale did not come, as she had not heard -of God's command. At last some birds, seeing her, told her what had -happened. So she hastened to come to God. But when the nightingale -appeared before God, the paint-pot was quite empty, and no trace of any -paint (colour) was left. It had all been spent on those who had come -before. Thus nothing could be done, and the nightingale remained with -her drab colour. God, however, wanted to compensate the nightingale -for the lack of any colour, so he gave her a very beautiful voice. - - - - - - - - -XXXV. - -WHY HAS THE NIGHTINGALE TWELVE TUNES AND WHY DOES THE TURTLE-DOVE COO? - - -Once upon a time the nightingale met the turtle-dove. After greeting -one another, the nightingale said, "Sister, let us keep awake during -the night and learn some tunes to sing." - -"Quite agreeable," said the turtle-dove, "and in the morning we shall -see what each one of us has learned." - -In the following night the nightingale kept awake and listened -attentively to all the sounds that could be heard. She heard the -shepherd playing on his pipe, and the wind whistling, and the dogs -barking, and lambs calling, and many more sounds, and thus learned no -less than twelve tunes. The turtle-dove, lazy as she is by nature, did -not keep awake, but went to sleep as soon as the night grew dark. She -slept almost the whole night through, and awoke only at the break -of dawn. There was no sound to be heard. It was all quiet. Suddenly -she heard a man driving his horses to the fields shouting "trr, -trr." This sound she picked up, and no other. In the morning she -went to find her sister the nightingale, and asked her whether she -had heard anything, and whether she had learned any tunes. If so, -would she mind singing to her? - -The nightingale replied, "Oh, I have heard many songs, and have -learned many tunes." And without waiting any longer, she began to -warble her songs. The turtle-dove sat listening, lost in admiration -at the beautiful singing of the nightingale. When the latter had -finished her songs, she asked the turtle-dove: "And what have you -learned, sister mine?" - -The turtle-dove, full of shame over her laziness, owned that she had -not kept awake, but had gone to sleep, and that the only sound and song -she had learned was "trr, trr," which she had picked up from the man -who was driving his horses to the field. And so it has remained to this -very day. The nightingale sings all the night through and stops towards -the morning, when the turtle-dove awakens and starts its "trr, trr." - - - - - - - - -XXXVI. - -WHY IS THE NIGHTINGALE THE SONGSTER OF THE KING? - -The Story of the Nightingale, the Blackbird and the Thrush. - - -The king of the birds, feeling one day in a good humour, wanted to find -out which of his subjects could sing best. So he sent an order to his -birds to select from amongst themselves those whom they thought to be -the best singers. All the birds came together, and, after having heard -many of the birds who said they could sing, they selected three from -amongst them and sent up, as the best singers for the king to choose -from, the yellow thrush, the blackbird, and the nightingale. The -thrush, with his beautiful golden feathers which glow in the light -of the sun, was allowed to go first as the most beautiful of them; -nay, he put himself at the head and walked first. The blackbird, -which has a yellow beak, and whose feathers are shining like silk, -walked immediately behind, whilst the little nightingale, small -of build, with the drab-coloured feathers, followed meekly in the -rear. When they reached the palace, the king, seeing how beautiful -the thrush looked with his golden feathers, received him affably and -placed him at the head of the table. The thrush, swelling with pride, -began its song. The king listened attentively, and being pleased with -the song he praised the thrush very much. Then came the turn of the -blackbird; when the king saw it, he welcomed it and ordered a chair to -be brought near the table. The blackbird took its place and started -singing. It sang much more beautifully than the thrush. The king was -very pleased, and he expressed his delight. The last to come in was -the nightingale. When it entered the hall, it bowed down meekly to the -earth before the king, touching the floor with its little beak. When -the king saw that little ungainly bird, so small and meek and skinny -and of no appearance, he wondered what that bird wanted at the court, -and somewhat angrily he asked: - -"What do you want?" without even offering her a seat, as he had done -to the other guests. - -"May it please your majesty, do not be angry with your servant; I have -been selected by the other birds to sing here before your majesty." - -"Very well then; sing, I will just see what you can do." - -The nightingale, which did not even dare to look at the king, just -cleared her voice and started singing as she alone knows how to sing, -not like the others. When the king heard her singing, he was quite -taken aback with the beauty and sweetness of her voice; he was full -of admiration, for the nightingale had thrown the other birds into -the shade (lit. had put them under the bushel). - -When the nightingale had finished her song, the king did not allow -her to stop in the doorway where she had been standing any longer, -but called her up to the head of the table, and gave her the seat of -the thrush, and, when the meal was over and all the guests rose from -the table, it was the nightingale who walked first, and the blackbird, -which sang better than the thrush, walked immediately behind, whilst -the thrush, in spite of his grand array, now came third, feeling -abashed and ashamed by his failure. And from that time onward the -nightingale has been recognised as the best singer amongst them all, -and all the birds must bow their heads before her. - - - -There are a few more tales about the origin of the nightingale, but -they are somewhat confused. They do not seem to account either for -the beauty of its voice or for the simplicity of its appearance. - - - - - - - - -XXXVII. - -WHY DOES THE THRUSH HIDE IN THE TREE? - -The Story of the Boastful Thrush and St. Peter. - - -It was in the month of March, when Christ was walking on the earth -with St. Peter. Going through a forest they saw a thrush strutting -about on the top of a tree. - -"Good morning, Mr. Thrush," said St. Peter. - -"I have no time for you," replied the thrush. - -"And why not, prithee?" - -"Oh, you see, I am just now making summer, and I am busy. To-day I am -going to be married, and to-morrow a brother of mine has a wedding," -he said, turning his back upon them proudly. - -St. Peter and Christ said nothing, but went on their way. In that -afternoon there came a cold and heavy rain. It came down in torrents -all the afternoon, and during the night there came a frost from God -which made the stones crack, and it snowed heavily also. The next -morning, after they had done what they had to do, Christ and St. Peter -came again through the forest, and they found the thrush sitting -now on one of the lowest branches of the tree, huddled together and -trembling, with no more thoughts of marriage. - -"Good morning, Mr. Thrush," said St. Peter, when he saw him sitting -there huddled together and trembling. - -"Thank you," he replied angrily. - -"But what are you doing now? Why are you sitting so huddled up?" - -"To-day I am dying, and to-morrow a brother of mine is dying," he -answered, letting his beak down and ruffling his feathers to protect -himself a little more against the frost which had struck him to -the heart. - -From that time on the thrush does not boast any more that he is making -summer, and that he is going to marry; but he cries anxiously: "Socks -and sandals, for to-morrow it snows, good socks of cloth and sandals -of leaves to go in them to my beloved." This he sings because of the -fear of being caught again in snow and frost, and of not being able -to walk about in safety. - - - - - - - - -XXXVIII. - -WHY HAS THE PARTRIDGE A MOTTLED COLOUR? - - -In the beginning the partridge had red feathers. God had painted her -so when he painted all the other creatures, but for one reason or -another the partridge was not very pleased with this colour. After -a time she thought she would go to God and ask him to change her -colour. When she came to God, he asked her, "What ails thee?" - -"Well," she said, "I do not like the dye of my feathers." And God -asked her what was the reason for it. - -"Well," she said, "I do not like it." Upon which God, getting hold -of her, threw her into a box filled with ashes. When the partridge -recovered her senses--for she was dazed by the fall--she was mightily -indignant at the disgrace, and, climbing out of the box, she went as -fast as she could to the nearest brook, wishing to wash away the ashes -in which she was smothered. She wished to avoid being seen in that -state by the other birds. So she started dipping her beak into the -water and trying to wash off the ashes on her back. But, instead of -washing the ashes completely off, she managed to carry the ashes with -her wet beak under her wings also and along her sides. And that is why -she has remained to this very day mottled and freckled, the grey of the -ashes being mixed with the red--the original colour of her feathers. - - - - - - - - -XXXIX. - -WHY HAS THE THISTLE-FINCH RUFFLED FEATHERS? - - -When God created the world, he made all the creatures to be of one -colour, or rather none of them of any colour at all. You see, God was -too busy to bother about these little things. When he had finished -making everything that he intended to make, he called all the birds -together and said, "Now, I am going to paint you with nice colours." - -When the birds heard that message, they came all overjoyed to God, who -took his brush and dipped in various pots filled with paint and painted -them one by one. When he had almost finished, who would come but the -thistle-finch, with his feathers all ruffled and out of breath. When -God saw the little bird, he said to him, "Well, little master, how do -you look, where have you been, have you not heard my command, why did -you not come in time? Now all the paint is gone, I cannot do anything -for you, and it serves you right, you should have come in time like -the others did." And the little bird began to weep and said, "O God, -I am quite innocent, just look at me and see what a state I am in; -I was very hungry and tried to find something to eat, but could not -find anything for a long time, until I espied at last a few grains of -millet in a bush of thistles. So I got in and started picking. But, as -soon as I moved, the thistles got hold of me and would not let me go, -and the more I tried to get out, the more strongly did they hold me, -and tore my feathers and dishevelled my hair, and it was only after -a long tussle that I was able to get myself free and come here." - -When God saw that the little bird had told the truth, and that -it looked torn about and ruffled, he took pity on it and said, -"Wait a little and I will see what I can do," and taking his brush -he endeavoured to pick up the drops of paint which were left at -the bottom of the various pots. Taking them all on the tip of his -brush, he sprinkled the little bird all over with the drops of the -various colours which he had picked up from the bottom of the pots, -and that is the reason why the thistle-finch has so many spots and so -many colours. His name has remained to this very day "little master" -(domnisor in Rumanian) and also thistle-finch, because the thistles -ruffled his feathers and tore at him. - - - - - - - - -XL. - -WHY HAS THE BULLFINCH A RED BREAST AND A BIG MOUTH? - -The Story of the Brutish Innkeeper. - - -There lived in a town a brutish man, a grocer, who had only one care, -and that was how to cheat and rob in the quickest fashion the people -who came to deal with him. But this was not all, for, bad as it is, -one might let it pass, as there are so many others who do likewise, -cheating their customers right and left. But this man was also a -usurious moneylender, and he managed it so well that, instead of -helping people, he took the last shirt off their backs and sent them -out to die in misery. He sucked the blood of everyone who fell into -his clutches. - -But everything comes to an end. But no man is likely to repent -unless he has first come to grief. So it happened also to this -wicked man. Instead of being satisfied with what he had been able -to get by draining the very blood of his Christian fellow-men, he -persisted in his evil doings, robbing and fleecing right and left, -without mercy and without pity. When the cries of his victims came up -to God, he decided to punish him, and for his wickedness he changed -him into the bullfinch, which has still kept some of the features of -the man, when he was a human being. For he had a head like a melon, -and a wide mouth, and that is why the bullfinch has such a big head -and such a broad beak. The black feathers on its head are the black -cap of lambskin which he used to wear. The red breast is the blood -of the victims whom he had sucked dry, and the big body is the big -belly of the voracious fellow. - -Now when a bullfinch is caught, remembering its evil deeds, it will -bite out its tongue and die rather than become a mockery to the people -whom he had ill-treated in his former life. - - - - - - - - -XLI. - -WHY DOES THE HOOPOE FEED ON DROPPINGS? - -The Story of the Hoopoe and its Greed. - - -When God had created all the creatures, he gave everyone the food -which he thought best for them. When the turn of the hoopoe came, -God said to her, "Thy food shall be millet seed." The hoopoe was not -satisfied. She did not think it was good enough for her. So God in his -goodness gave her barley grains for food, but the hoopoe cannot easily -be satisfied. So she went on asking for better food. And God said, -"Let wheat be thy food." And still the hoopoe was not satisfied. So -God got angry, and said, "Thou impudent and greedy thing, I have -given thee the best food that is in this world, and in which even man -rejoices and is satisfied, but as this is not good enough for thee, -thou shalt find thy food henceforth in the droppings of other animals." - -The same happened when God arranged the dwelling-places of birds, -where they should build their nests. He had at first given to the -hoopoe sweet-smelling bushes and flowering trees to build her nest -in. But she wanted something better, and she was punished in the -same way as with the food. She now makes her nest in places which -are anything but clean and sweet-smelling. - - - - - - - - -XLII. - -WHY IS THE WAGTAIL CALLED THE GIPSIES' BIRD? - - -When God had made the world and all the creatures and man, he gave to -each one the food from which they should eat and be satisfied. All -the creatures thanked God, and whenever they eat their food they -are satisfied, except only the wagtail and the Gipsy who are never -satisfied. When God saw the greed of these two, he grew very angry and -said to the wagtail, "You shall not be allowed to go near any village -unless the Gipsies, after having eaten, say with their full heart that -they are quite satisfied." And to the Gipsy he said, "When the wagtail -will come into the villages, only then shall you be satisfied." But -the Gipsies, even when they are invited to the meals freely given in -honour of the dead, however much they may eat and stuff and fill, will -say as soon as they have got up from the table and gone a few steps, -"I am starving; I am dying of hunger." And therefore the wagtails -never come near the village. And it is also called the Gipsies' bird, -because it can only come near the village, when the Gipsy says he -has eaten enough and is satisfied. But as such a thing never happens, -this bird cannot approach the houses of men like other birds. Also it -is called "half a bird," for all the other birds get into the village -except the wagtail. - - - - - - - - -XLIII. - -WHY IS THE HOOPOE SUCH A DIRTY BIRD? - -The Story of the Hoopoe, the Cuckoo and God. - - -There are a good many stories told about the hoopoe, some of them -in connection with the cuckoo. These two birds seem to be found very -often together, and the people believe them to be a pair, the cuckoo -being the male and the hoopoe the female bird. The following story -is told of them: - -The cuckoo had married the hoopoe, and they lived happily together -for a time. But after a time the hoopoe grew ambitious, and told -the cuckoo that if he wanted to have peace in the house, he must go -to God and ask that the hoopoe should become the head woman of the -village. God, who listens patiently to the weakness of his creatures, -received the cuckoo affably and said to him, "Go home in peace, the -wish of your wife shall be fulfilled." So it came to pass. After a -while the hoopoe grew more ambitious, and she sent the cuckoo again -to God, and told him to go and ask God to make her the mayoress. And -God again listened to the cuckoo's pleading and made his wife a -mayoress. But a woman can never be satisfied. So, after a while, -she sent the cuckoo again to God to ask him to make her the queen -over all the birds. God again listened to his prayer, and he made her -queen over all the birds. Moreover, as sign of her queenly station, -God gave her the tuft of feathers on her head, which were to be like a -crown. But also this did not satisfy the foolish hoopoe, although God -had told the cuckoo, "Mind, this is the last time thou comest to me to -trouble me for thy wife's sake; there are many more things in the world -for me to do, than to listen to her wishes." Still she insisted on the -cuckoo going again to God, and to ask him that he should allow her to -sit next to him on his throne in heaven. When God heard these words, -he said, "As thy wife has had the temerity and impudence to make such -a demand and to send such a request to me, she shall now be the least -considered of all the birds. She may whoop henceforth as much as she -likes, no one is to take any notice of her. She is to hatch her eggs -in dung, whilst thou, O cuckoo, shall be singing for as many months -in the year as thou hast spent in coming to me with these messages, -and everyone shall be pleased to hear thy song." - -And so it has remained as God said. The people like the cuckoo, -whilst the hoopoe is detested by everybody. - - - - - - - - -XLIV. - -WHY DOES THE CUCKOO LEAD A RESTLESS LIFE? - -The Story of the Cuckoo and the Wonderful Bush. - - -Many a tale is told about the origin of the cuckoo. Curiously enough, -they generally agree in seeing in the cuckoo a man punished for his -wickedness and cruelty, or for his faithlessness against his companion -or brother whom he is now seeking in vain. - -There are, however, also other tales and legends in which the cuckoo -is the victim of the cruelty of others; one is the preceding one, -and others now follow: in the first place, one which tells also of -the greed of the wife--The Story of the Cuckoo and Hoopoe. - - - -Once upon a time there lived in a village a man who was so poor that -sometimes days passed and he could not get a crumb of bread. So one -day he said to his wife, "What is the good of my stopping here any -longer. We are both dying of hunger; I will go away into the wide -world and see what luck may bring." So he took up his axe and went -along. Before he left, his wife said to him: "Do not go far away, and -do not forsake me and the children, for we have no one else to look -to for help." So he went away. Walking alone, he came to a forest. At -the edge of the forest he saw a beautiful bush with shining leaves, -and all the twigs of equal length. It was so beautiful that the man -thought, "I will just cut it up." When he drew near, how great was -his astonishment when he saw the bush bending its boughs towards him, -and speaking with a human voice, it said, "Do not touch me, do not -hurt me, for I will do you much good." - -"What good can you do me?" enquired the man. - -"Go back to the village and they will appoint you headman. Just go -and try." - -Amazed as he was on hearing the bush speak, he said to himself, "I -lose nothing if I go back; I shall see whether the bush is speaking -the truth. If not, woe unto it," and so he returned. No sooner had he -come near the village, when he saw the people coming out to meet him, -and without asking him any questions, they, for reasons of their own, -appointed him to be their headman. His poverty was now a thing of the -past, and he lived in cheer and comfort. This went on for three years, -and then, for the same reasons unknown to him, the people changed -their minds, and without saying anything to him one day he was the -headman, the next he was so no longer. They had put another man in his -stead. So he returned to his want, and again began to feel the pinch of -poverty. For a time he went on as best he could, but not being able to -stand it any longer, he again took his axe, and going into the forest -he went to the bush and said, "Now I am going to cut you down." The -bush again began to speak, and said to the man, "Do not touch me; -I will do you much good. You have seen what I have done before. You -go now to that and that town and they will appoint you to be judge." - -Believing the words of the bush, the man continued his journey, -and came to the town of which the bush had spoken to him; and -there, as had been foretold, without asking him a single question, -the people appointed him mayor over the place. The man now lived in -affluence and comfort, forgetting his time of poverty and suffering -he had gone through. Here, again, after three years, just as he -was appointed without a question, so he was dismissed by the people -without a question. - -The evil days came back, and he was looking about for a crust of bread, -but could not find any for himself and his family. He bethought himself -again of the bush, and, taking his axe upon his shoulder, he went away -to find it. The bush said to him: "Don't touch me; much good will -I do you, still more than I have done hitherto. You go to such and -such a kingdom, and there they will appoint you to be their emperor." - -He did as he was bid, and as he came near the town, all the people came -out to meet him, and they appointed him to be their emperor. He took -his wife and children with him, and there he lived in great state, -great power and riches. The law of that land was that no man could -be emperor for more than three years, so when the three years came -round he lost his position and another emperor was appointed in his -stead. He had meanwhile amassed great fortune and no longer feared -poverty. But his wife was ambitious, and was not satisfied at living -in affluence and wealth. Envious of the other emperor, she nagged -the man and worried him and sneered at him for being so meek and -being satisfied with his lowly state, and made him go to the bush -to ask for something more. She wanted him to be even better treated -than any emperor. The poor man, what was he to do? he could not stand -the trouble in his house, so again taking his axe upon his shoulder, -he came for a fourth time to the bush. When the bush saw him, it said: - -"What has brought you hither? You are no longer in want of -anything." "Well," he said, "my wife has sent me to you. She says -you must make me as great as God, greater than all emperors." - -The bush grew angry, and said to him: "O miserable wretch, always -dissatisfied! I have made thee headman and judge and emperor, and thou -lackest nothing. Thou art not in want of anything. Now, because thou -hast become impudent and insolent, for thy impious wishes thou shalt -be punished. From the man thou hast been thou shalt henceforth be a -bird, restless, without peace, and without quiet, flitting from tree -to tree, and from branch to branch, always dissatisfied, without a -home, without a family, and thy name shall be Cuckoo. Tell thy wife, -who, because she had been urging thee on and driving thee to do this -impious thing, that she shall become the hoopoe; puffing herself -up she shall cry whoop, whoop." And so it has remained to this very -day. (Cf. Story in Grimm, No. 19.) - - - - - - - - -XLV. - -WHY IS THE CUCKOO SILENT IN THE WINTER? - -The Story of the Cuckoo and the Palace of the Goldfinch. - - -After the creation of all the birds, God called them together and -told them they should elect a king to rule over them. - -The birds, like human beings, would chatter and chirrup, and talk -and fight, and never come to any decision. - -When God saw that it was going on without an end, and that it was -no good waiting for them to make their choice, he picked out the -goldfinch and said, "This is to be your king." The birds submitted, -as they were bound to do, and making their obeisance to the new king, -each one departed to its own place. Although the gathering had lasted -for some time, the cuckoo was still missing, and who was the last to -come but the cuckoo. When all the birds had departed, he turned up -and made his obeisance to the new king. The goldfinch looked at him -and said, "Hallo, cuckoo, where have you been?" - -"Oh, I lost my way in the forest, and it took me a long time to -come here." - -"I will forgive you," said the goldfinch, "but on one condition; -you know the forest so well. Go and make me a nice palace out of the -bast of the trees." - -The cuckoo, glad to have got off so cheaply, said, "Willingly will -I do so," and went away. - -You know the cuckoo, how light-headed and unstable he is: he says one -thing one day and forgets it the next, so, light-heartedly he flew -from tree to tree and allowed the summer to pass without remembering -the promise which he had made to the goldfinch. - -When autumn drew near he suddenly recollected that the goldfinch -expected him to build him a palace out of the bast of the tree, for -the goldfinch wanted to live in a shining palace. And that was just -what the cuckoo never intended to do. - -Fearing the wrath of the king, he stopped singing and hid himself in -the thickest part of the forest. The goldfinch waited month after -month to see the palace, and seeing the cuckoo flitting from tree -to tree and hearing him singing, thought he was busily at work. But -when the autumn came, and no trace of any palace could be seen, he -looked round to see where the cuckoo was. But catch him if you can, -for he had disappeared. - -And that is why the goldfinch never had the palace which he -desired. And that is also the reason why the cuckoo stops singing -from the feast of St. John, lest he be discovered by the goldfinch -and taken to task for his broken promise. - - - - - - - - -XLVI. - -THE STORY OF THE CROW AND ITS UGLY FLEDGLINGS. - - -Let us turn now to the crow, with which the raven is often confused -in the popular mind. - - - -Of all the birds, this is considered the ugliest, especially its young -fledglings. The legend tells that sometime after God had created -all the living beings, he called everyone to see them and their -offspring. He wanted to see how the young birds and animals looked, -and then to give them suitable gifts, and food for their little ones. - -They came one by one, and God looked at them, patted some and stroked -others, and was very pleased with every one of them, for each one had -something of beauty in it. And so he blessed them and gave them food -by which to live. The last to come was the crow, bringing her little -brood with her, very proud of them. When God cast his eyes upon the -young crows, he spat in astonishment, and said: - -"Surely these are not my creatures. I could not have made such ugly -things. Every one of my creatures has such beautiful young ones that -they are a pleasure to look at, but thine are so ugly that it makes -one sick to look at them. Whence hast thou got this one?" "Where -should I get them from?" replied the crow; "it is my very own young -child," she added with pride. "You had better go back and bring me -another one, this is much too ugly, I cannot look at it." Annoyed at -the words of God, the crow went away, and flew all over the earth -to search for another young one that would be more beautiful than -the one she had brought to God. But no other young bird appeared so -beautiful in her eyes as her own. So she returned back to God and said, -"I have been all over the world, and I have searched high and low, -but young birds more beautiful and more dainty than mine I have not -been able to find." Then God smilingly replied, "Quite right, just -so are all mothers; no other child is so beautiful in their eyes as -their own." Then he blessed the little crows and sent them away into -the world with his gifts. - - - - - - - - -XLVII. - -WHY IS THERE ENMITY BETWEEN THE CROW AND THE HAWK? - - -The Rumanians tell another tale about the ugliness of young crows. It -is the story of the crow and the hawk. - - - -The crow was in very great distress, for however she tried and whatever -she did, she could not rear a family. No sooner were the young hatched, -than the hawk would come and pick them up. In vain did she try to -hide her nest in the hollows of a tree or in the thickets of a bush, -as sure as death would the hawk find them and eat them. - -Not knowing what to do, she bethought herself and said, "How would it -do if I try and get the hawk to be godmother, for then, being a near -relation, she is sure to spare my little ones?" Said and done. She went -out of her place to search for the hawk, and finding her, she said, -"Good morning, sister." - -"Good morning," replied the hawk. - -"How pleased I should feel," said the crow, "if you would become -godmother to my children." - -"With pleasure," replied the hawk, "why not?" And so they made up a -covenant of friendship and of good-fellowship between them. - -Before leaving the hawk, the crow said to her, "Now, sister, I have -one request to make." - -"Granted," replied the hawk, "what is it?" - -"I only beg of you to spare my children, do not eat them when you -have found them." - -"All right," replied the hawk, "I shall certainly not touch them, but -tell me how they look so that in case I meet them I may spare them." - -"O," replied the crow, "mine are the most beautiful creatures in the -world, they are more lovely than any other bird can boast of." - -"Very well, rest assured. Go in peace." And they parted. - -The crow, being quite satisfied with the hawk's promise, began flying -about the next day trying to find something with which to feed her -children. The hawk the next morning went about her own business -and tried to find some nice little young ones to eat. Flying about, -she saw the young ones of the thrush, the blackbird, and of other -beautiful birds, and she said to herself, "Surely these are the -children of the crow; look how lovely and beautiful they are, I am -not going to touch them." - -She went all day, without finding any little birds but these; and -she said to herself: - -"I must keep my word to my sister, I am not going to touch them." And -she went to bed hungry. The next day the same thing happened, and -still the hawk kept her word and would not touch them. - -On the third day she was so hungry that she could scarcely see out -of her eyes. Roaming about, the hawk suddenly lighted upon the nest -of the crow. Seeing the little, miserable, ugly things in the nest, -the hawk at first would not touch them, although she never dreamt that -these ugly things were the children of the crow, so much praised by -her for their beauty, and thought they must belong to some hideous -bird. But what is one to do when one is hungry? One eats what one -gets and not finding anything better, she sat down and gobbled them -up one by one, and then flew away. - -Not long after the hawk had left, the crow came in, feeling sure this -time to find her little ones unhurt; but how great was her dismay -when she found the nest empty! First she thought the little birds -had tried their wings and were flying about in the neighbourhood, -and she went in search of them. Not finding them, she began to be a -little more anxious, and hunting a little more closely, found on the -ground near some rushes some tufts of feathers with little bones and -blood. She knew at once that the hawk had again been there, feeding -on her children. - -Full of wrath and fury, she went to find the hawk. Meeting her, she -said, "A nice sister and godmother you are! After you had promised -most faithfully not to touch my children, no sooner had I turned my -back on them, than you come again and eat them." - -"I do not understand what you are saying," replied the hawk. "It is -your own fault. You told me your children were the most beautiful -in the world, and those which I have eaten were monsters of -hideousness. If I had not felt the pinch of hunger so strong, I -would not have touched them, not for anything, such ugly things they -were! They nearly made me sick." - -"Is that the way you keep your promise?" replied the angry crow; -"after having eaten them, you even have the impudence to tell lies -and insult me. Off with you! and woe betide you if I ever catch you, -I will teach you to behave properly." - -From that day on, the hawk, if it gets near the crows, attacks -them. And from that day on there is implacable hatred between the -crows and the hawks. - - - - - - - - -XLVII. A. - -CROW CHARMS. - - -It is said that the crow bathes its young in some waters between -frontiers. This water becomes poisonous, and is used by witches -for philtres and spells. If a man wants to obtain the water, he -must go to nine witches, who assemble on a Tuesday at midnight -at the fountain. Each one brings a stolen pot, or, in preference, -the skull of a dog. In each they take three drops of that water, and -they say their spell over it, waving over it a tuft of hair from a mad -wolf. This incantation they must repeat for nine weeks on each Tuesday -at midnight, and with the water thus obtained they make their philtres. - -The croaking of the crow is considered as evil an omen as that of the -raven. A very peculiar custom prevails among the people, who, when the -children lose their teeth, take them and throw them if possible on the -roofs of the houses and say: "Here, crow, I give you a tooth of bone, -bring me one more beautiful." Or, according to other versions, "bring -me one of gold. I give you a tooth of iron, bring me one of steel." - - - - - - - - -XLVIII. - -WHY DOES THE HERON DRINK ONLY RAIN-WATER? - -The Story of the Heron and the digging of Wells. - - -When God had created the world, there were no springs or wells. The -only water from which to satisfy the thirst of all the creatures was -rain-water. After a time the rain was not enough to satisfy them all; -the grass and trees were fading and withering, burnt up by the fiery -heat of the sun, and the animals were perishing from thirst. - -So God called all the birds together, and told them that they should -dig holes in the earth with their claws and beaks, in order that the -water from underneath should come up and water the earth and slake -the thirst of all the creatures. At the bidding of God all the birds -came together and started working with their beaks and claws. They -all worked together. The hawk worked side by side with the young -chickens, and the owl with the doves. Such a thing never happened -before or since. - -The heron alone flew about as if it did not affect her. She was quite -indifferent to see how hard the other birds worked. She cared not -for the sweat which stood out like beads, and ran down the neck of -the lark as it went scratching away at the earth with legs as thin -as two straws, nor did she care for the titmouse which hacked away -at the foot of a hillock. And God asked her: - -"Why dost thou not do anything?" - -"Why should I soil my feet with mud," she replied, "when the -rain-waters are not yet dried up?" - -And God said: - -"Because thou hast not hearkened to my command, thou shalt slake thy -thirst only from the rain, and then only by the water running down thy -wings." From that time onwards one hears the heron crying in time of -drought. She prays to God to send some rain to moisten her dry mouth. - - - - - - - - -XLIX. - -WHY DOES THE KITE CRY IN DRY WEATHER? - -The Story of the Kite and the making of Rivers. - - -The same story is told of the kite in the following version: - -When God made the world, he called all the birds together to help him -to dig wells for the water and beds for the rivers. All the birds -came except the kite, which, looking at its claws, said, "See how -beautiful and dainty they are! I am not going to soil them with the -mud of the rivers and wells." Then all the other birds cursed her, -that she might never be able to drink water out of wells and rivers, -and should slake her thirst only with the dew and rain from heaven, -nor should she be able to drink by lifting her beak and catching the -falling rain, but she would only be able to drink the rain-water -which was running down her wings. Therefore, in time of drought, -the kite flies high up to God and prays for rain and dew, for if she -drinks of the water of rivers and wells she dies. - - - -A remarkable parallel to this story has been given by Grimm in his -D. Mythologie, 4th ed. p. 561; and for a Russian parallel, v. Ralston, -Russian Folk Tales, p. 331. - -An oriental version substitutes the raven for the kite as the bird -whose piteous cries bring about the breaking of the drought. It is -said that when Adam beheld his dead son Abel, he did not know what -to do, for he was the first man to die. A raven dug a hole and put -into it his companion who had died. - -Adam saw this and followed his example. God therefore granted to the -raven that henceforth when there would be drought in the world, his -cry would bring about the breaking up of the drought and a downpour -of rain (Chapters of Eliezer, ch. xxi.). - - - - - - - - -L. - -WHY CAN THE MOLE NOT COME OUT ON THE HIGH ROAD? - -The Story of the Mole and the making of Roads. - - -When the world was made, there were no roads and no pathways. It was -very difficult to get about from one place to another. - -Seeing this, God ordered all the animals to come and work together and -straighten out paths and make roads. All the animals came and worked -as they were commanded. Only the mole stayed away, so God asked him -why he had not come, when all the others had? - -"I do not want any roads and ways, for they are of no use to me," -he replied; "I burrow under the earth and there I spend my life." - -"So shall it always be henceforth," said God, "and thou shalt not be -able to make thy little hills on roads or highways, and it shall not -be a sin to kill thee." - -And so it has remained to this day. No mole-hill has ever been seen -on any public road. The mole cannot make them except in fields and -meadows. - -Whoever destroys a mole-hill gets a peculiar wart on his hand. In -order to get rid of it he must pass over it seven times the paw -(the claws) of a mole. - - - - - - - - -LI. - -WHY HAS THE TORTOISE A ROUND BACK? - -The Story of the Tortoise, St. Peter and God. - - -When God and St. Peter were walking on the earth, one day they made a -very long journey, and grew very hungry. Coming to a little hut, they -found the woman in, and they asked her for something to eat. "Well," -she said, "I have very little flour in the house, but I am going to -bake two loaves, and when you come back in half an hour they will be -ready and you will be welcome to one." Taking the flour, she kneaded -it in the trough and made two loaves, one for herself and one for -the travellers. Meanwhile they went to church, but they said before -going that they would come back at the end of the service. - -The woman covered over the dough, and to her great astonishment, -when she lifted the cover, the dough of the loaf for the strangers -had risen much higher than the other. Then she put both loaves in the -oven. How great was her surprise, on taking out the loaves from the -oven, when she found that the one for the travellers had been baked -nicely and was a very big loaf, whilst the one for herself was half -burned and almost shrivelled to a pancake. When she saw the miracle -her greed overtook her, and she forgot the promise which she had -made to the travellers. She said to herself: "Why should I give my -best bread to strangers whom I do not know? Let them go elsewhere to -richer people than I am." - -So she took the pasteboard and put it on the floor, and crouching on -it, covered herself over with the trough. She told her little girl -to stand in front of the door, and if two old people should come -and ask for her she was to say that her mother had gone away and -that she did not know where she was. The travellers then, of course, -would not come in, and she would be able to enjoy the loaf. - -After a while God and St. Peter came back from church, and asked -the little girl where her mother was, to which the child replied as -she had been told. God said, "Where she is there shall she remain"; -and went away. The child came in and tried to lift the trough off -the back of her mother, who was lying hidden underneath, but try as -hard as she could the trough would not come off. It had grown on to -the back of her mother, and the pasteboard had grown underneath on -to her. The woman was only able to put out her little head with the -glistening, greedy eyes, and her tiny little hands and feet, and the -handle of the pasteboard had turned into a waggling tail. - -And that is how the tortoise was made, when the old woman became the -tortoise always carrying the trough and the pasteboard with her. - - - - - - - - -LII. - -WHY HAVE THE FISH NO FEET? - - -When God had made all the creatures, he gave every one the power of -walking and saving themselves from danger. - -Among others, came the fish, and God asked him what he would like, -and the fish replied: "If I am to have my choice I would ask you to -give me seven wings; I should fly much quicker than any other animal, -and no one would be able to catch me: but should I be caught I am -willing to die alive on the grill with my eyes open." And God shook -his head at the foolish request, for he knew that man would be able -to find out how to make the line and hook, and that all the wings of -the fish would not help him. So he is caught with his mouth open, -and that is why the fish takes his punishment without murmuring, -and dies quietly on the grill with his eyes open. - - - - - - - - -LIII. - -WHY DO THE PLOVER FLY SINGLY? - -The Story of the Plover and Lady Mary. - - -In the beginning the plover used to fly in large coveys. But one day, -when Our Lady was riding on a horse, they ran across the road and -frightened the horse so much that it threw the rider. Angry at the -mishap, St. Mary cursed the plover that they should no longer gather -in coveys but should go singly. And so it has remained to this very -day. The plover nest quite alone and never join others in their flight. - - - - - - - - -LIV. - -WHY DOES THE SPIDER HANG ON A THREAD? - -The Story of the Spider and Lady Mary. - - -One day a spider, meeting the Holy Mother, challenged her as to which -of the two could spin the finer thread. The Holy Mother accepted the -challenge, and started to spin a very fine thread indeed. But, however -fine her thread was, the yarn spun by the spider was much finer, -and then, to add to the discomfiture of the Holy Mother, the spider -let himself down on one of its threads and remained dangling, and, -turning to the Holy Mother, he said to her: "Can you do anything like -it?" And the Holy Mother replied, "No"; and being angry she cursed the -spider, and said, "Thy web shall be of no use to anyone, and because -of thy spite, whoever kills thee shall be forgiven three of his sins." - - - -We meet the spider again in controversy with the Holy Mother on a -more dramatic occasion. - - - -She was searching for her son, and going to St. John, she asked him -what had happened to him, as she had not seen him for some time. "The -cruel people have taken him and are torturing him." Going on her -way she met the carpenters, who said to her that instead of making -a light cross they had made a heavy cross. She cursed them, saying, -"May you work all the year and see no profit." - -Then she met the smiths, who, instead of making short nails, had made -long nails, and she cursed them likewise. She came to the gate of the -palace of Pilate, and on her touching the gate, it opened, and going -in, she saw all that happened. On her way, weeping and crying, she met -a flight of swallows, who asked her why she was crying and weeping, -and she replied, "My only son has been taken away from me." And they -replied, "Do not weep and do not cry, for three days hence thou shalt -see him alive, thou and thy friends." - -And the Holy Mother blessed them, that they should always be welcome -in the house of the people, that they should nest on the roofs, and -that no one should disturb them, and that whosoever should kill a -swallow should be guilty of three sins. - -Going further, she met the spider, and the spider asked her why she -was weeping and crying, and she replied, "My only son has been taken -away." And the spider replied, "You may cry till the day of doom; -what is gone is gone, and can never come back again." Next to the -spider was standing the mouse, and the mouse chimed in: so the Holy -Mother cursed him and went on her way, but finding that her way led -her nowhere, she came back the same road. - -When she had gone, the mouse said to the spider: "The Holy Mother -has not blessed us, so I think you had better make a rope and stretch -it from tree to tree, and I will dig a pit underneath, and when she -comes back we will hang her by the rope and throw her into the pit." - -But the Holy Mother knew what they were plotting, and when she came -back, she said: - -"Thou ugly and spiteful spider, worms shall settle on thee, and by thy -own rope shalt thou hang. All the days of thy life an unclean animal -shalt thou be. And thou, O mouse, who hast plotted against me, thy -habitation shall be henceforth in the pits and hollows of the earth, -and thou shalt be an unclean beast. Whatever thou touchest shall -be defiled, and whoever kills thee or the spider shall be forgiven -three sins." And so it has remained to this very day, the spider -hanging on its own rope, and the mouse lying hidden under the earth, -and both are killed by men and beasts. - -This same legend has become a carol which is also used as a charm. - - - - - - - - -LIV. A. - -WHY ARE THE SPIDER AND THE MOUSE ACCURSED? - -The Story of Lady Mary, the Mouse and the Spider (a Charm). - - -After the crucifixion, the Lady Mary went along crying and weeping in -pain and grief for that they had crucified her son. Wherever she went -all the creatures wept with her, and the flowers in the grass of the -field bent low in sign of mourning. A flight of swallows met her in -the beautiful meadow, and seeing her crying, comforted her, and said: -"Do not weep, for thy son will come to life again three days hence, -and will show himself to thee and to the Apostles." Then the Lady Mary -became more comforted, and said to the swallows: "Ye swallows from -this day on shall be the cleanest birds on the face of the earth, -and the house at which you build your nests will be a happy one, -and whoever destroys your nest shall be cursed." The Lady Mary went -on her way, and passing on her way she met a spider weaving his web, -and a mouse burrowing in the ground. When they saw her weeping they -mocked at her, and said: "In vain dost thou weep and cry. Know that -thy son is dead; he will never come to life again, although thou -mayest believe it." But the Lady Mary replied: "My child is the son of -God. He will do what he wills." And she went on her way. She went on -until she came to another forest. Fearing that she might lose her way -she returned the same way as she had gone. The spider and the mouse, -seeing that she had not blessed them, took counsel together to hang -her on a rope and to kill her the next time they met her again. And -the mouse said to the spider: "Now thou weave a rope and get it ready, -and upon that rope we will hang her as soon as we set our eyes on -her." A short time afterwards the Lady Mary returned, and came back -to the same spot. Meanwhile the spider had woven a strong rope, and -had tied one end to a branch of the tree, and the mouse had digged a -deep pit under that tree. But the Lady knew what they had intended, -and she said: "Thou, O spider, hast woven a rope for hanging me, -thou shalt always dangle on a rope. Thou shalt be unclean and full of -vermin, and whoever catches thee shall kill thee. And thou, O mouse, -thou shalt be so dirty from this day onwards, that wherever thou diest -that place shall become unclean, and whoever sees thee shall kill thee, -and whoever will kill a mouse or a spider God shall forgive him three -sins." And as she had said, so it has remained to this very day. From -that time on the mouse and the spider have remained accursed. - - - - - - - - -LV. - -WHY HAS THE SWALLOW A FORKED TAIL AND A RED SPOT ON ITS BREAST? - -The Story of Lady Mary and the Wicked Stepmother. - - -In Oriental folk-lore the swallow seems to be considered everywhere -as a sacred bird, of which many legends are related. We hear, that -when the Temple was burning in Jerusalem the swallows were the birds -which brought water in their beaks with which to quench the flame, -whilst the spider brought fiery coal to fan the flame. Hence he who -kills a swallow commits seven sins, whilst he who kills a spider is -forgiven seven sins. In the Appendix, No. III., a peculiar legend is -also told of the spider, the gnat and the swallow. As for the origin -of the swallow, which would account for the forked tail and for the -colour of the feathers, the Rumanians have the following tale. - - - -It is a story of a mother-in-law, who, like all mothers-in-law, treated -her daughter-in-law in a most cruel manner. Whatever the young woman -did was not right. Her mother-in-law persecuted her from morning -till evening, and gave her neither peace nor rest. One day, seeing -that she could not get rid of her by any other means, she killed her, -and cut her up in pieces. Her son, who had been away, came in just in -time to see the foul deed which his mother had done. Enraged, he made -a pile of wood, and dragging his mother on to it, he lit the wood, so -as to burn his mother on the fire. For reasons which we do not know, -St. Mary came down from heaven and pulled the old woman away from -the fire after her. Her clothes had already began to burn. She got -hold of her, changed her into a swallow, and pulled her through the -chimney. As soon as she saw herself saved, the wicked woman wanted -to fly away. But St. Mary said: "Stop, and do not fly away. Do not -imagine that because I have saved you from being burned on the fire, -I will let you go away like that: you just wait, for I must put a sign -on you, that everybody may know what a good mother-in-law you have -been, and that you have killed your daughter-in-law." And as she said -these words, she caused her tail to become like a pair of scissors, -or rather like two sharp knives joined in one point, like the knives -with which she had cut up her daughter-in-law. But this was not the -only sign. For when St. Mary pulled her through the chimney, a lot -of soot fell on her, and wherever it fell it made the feathers black, -and so they have remained to this very day. The red spot on the breast -of the swallow is the red blood of her daughter-in-law, and the white -spots are the remnants of the shirt which remained unburned when all -the other clothes had caught fire, but it has not kept white either, -for it was just a little singed. - - - -There are besides these a number of tales about the swallow. They -are told in Nos. 86, 87. - - - - - - - - -LVI. - -WHY DOES THE FROG SHRIVEL UP AT DEATH? - -The Story of the Frog and Lady Mary. - - -When Christ was being crucified, his mother went in search of him; -she did not know whither he had betaken himself. On her way she met -a band of carpenters. Weeping, she asked them, "Have you seen my -son?" "We have seen him," they said. "Nay, we have made the cross, -and instead of light timber, we have taken heavy timber." "So," she -said, "you shall henceforth work from morning till night and never -get any richer." - -Then she met a band of Gipsies, and she asked them, "Have you seen -my son?" "O yes," they replied, "we have seen him, and we were told -to make thick and blunt nails, but we have made them thin and pointed -so they should pass easily through and not give much pain." And Mary -replied, "May your work be light and your profit great." - -Going on her way she met a frog, and the frog asked her, "Dear -lady mine, what are you weeping and crying for?" And she replied, -"I am weeping and crying for my only son, whom they are killing now -in Jerusalem." And the frog replied, "What am I to say; I have had -ten children and nine were crushed to death by the wicked wheel of -the carts, only one is left to his mother, a sweet darling and pet, -a beauty." When Mary heard the frog lauding her child, she said, -"Let me see that beauty of yours, just come out, little froggie, -beloved darling of mother." And there came out of the lake behind a -little frog with its crooked legs and ungainly face, and with eyes -staring out of his head. And when Mary saw that beauty she could not -help laughing under her tears. And she said to the frog, "Because -thou hast made me smile in my grief, may thy body never rot when -thou diest, and the worm never have a share in it." And ever since, -when the frog dies, the body shrinks into nothingness and disappears. - - - - - - - - -LVII. - -WHY DOES THE SILKWORM SPIN A THIN THREAD? - -The Story of the Tortoise and Lady Mary. - - -The blessed Mary, great and glorious as she is--she must not take -it amiss--was one day too lazy to go out on behalf of her son to -distribute his gifts among the children of the village. So when she -left the house with the loaves of bread, some cake, and other gifts -which she was to distribute, under her arm, she met the tortoise. - -"Good morning," said the one. "Welcome, daughter," said the -other. St. Mary said, "Prithee, auntie, just give this bread as alms -for souls to the boys of the village." - -"That is not much, my daughter, I will willingly do it," and taking -the bread under her arms, there she went crawling along until she -came to the boys. - -The tortoise had scarcely left her, when St. Mary bethought herself -that it might have been better if she herself had given the alms away, -and not sent them through a stranger. So without more ado she followed -the way the tortoise had gone, and came to the school. - -What did she see there? Auntie tortoise performed her deed as she had -promised, and going from boy to boy gave everyone a bit. But when at -last she came to the youngest, who was her own child, she took out -the cake and gave it to him. "I should like to know," said St. Mary, -"how it happened that the last piece to be given away was a cake?" - -"Well, daughter, or rather mother, I had kept the cake for the most -beautiful child, and I could not find anyone more beautiful than -mine." St. Mary, who had heard many things, when she heard this, -could not help laughing aloud. - -When she stopped laughing she was rather sorry, for why should she have -laughed so loud? She said, "Verily, there is nothing more beautiful -in the eyes of a mother than her own child." - -Her beautiful face grew sad, and in order that her laughter should -not bewitch the little tortoise--as if struck by the evil eye for -being praised as beautiful--she spat out upon the ground, and out of -the spittle there grew the silkworm. St. Mary blessed it and said, -"Thou shalt live upon green leaves, and thou shalt draw out fine silk -threads" (like the thread of the spittle). It is therefore forbidden -to say anything evil of the silkworm, or to touch it whilst it is -spinning the cocoon, for no sooner is an evil word spoken or the worm -touched, than it stops drawing the silk. - - - -The variant from the Balkans is as follows: - -When Jesus went up to Golgotha, the Virgin Mother followed, -crying. There she saw in the procession also a tortoise, and she -could not help laughing. She then reproached herself, and said, "O -evil mouth, thou art only good for worms." There and then she spat on -the ground in disgust, and worms came out of the spittle. But having -come from a holy mouth the worms which grew out of the spittle became -the silkworms, which have remained so to this very day. - - - -A peculiar variant in which, however, the second part--the origin of -the silkworm--is omitted, is found among the Kutzovlachs of Macedonia -as "The Story of St. Mary and the Tortoise." - -Once upon a time the Virgin Mary sat sadly at the door of the school, -waiting for her son, who was learning within, to come out so that she -might give him a piece of cake which she had brought with her. Whilst -she was sitting there she said to herself, "I will wait and see whether -all the creatures recognise my son to be the most beautiful child in -the world." - -A tortoise just then came along. In order to put her to the test, -St. Mary said to her, "Would you like to give this cake to the most -beautiful child here in this school?" - -"Willingly," replied the tortoise, and taking the cake she went into -the school room. It so happened then that her own child was also -among the pupils. She went straight up to it, and without a moment's -hesitation gave it the cake destined for the most beautiful child in -the school. When St. Mary saw what the tortoise had done, instead of -being angry she laughed heartily, and said to her: - -"Thou hast acted as every mother would act, for to a mother no one -could be more beautiful than her own child. And because thou hast -driven away my sadness, the finest and softest grass shall henceforth -be thy food, and when thou diest thy bones shall not rot away." - -And so it has remained to this very day, and the shell of the tortoise -remains sound. - - - - - - - - -LVIII. - -WHY IS IT RIGHT TO KILL A SPARROW? - -The Story of the Sparrow and the Crucifixion. - - -Another legend brings us again to the same events. This time it is -in connection with the sparrow. It is said that the sparrows were -originally much bigger birds than they are now, but at the time of -the crucifixion they flew round the cross and cried half mockingly, -"Jiviu Jiviu," which means "Live, live." Christ, who was in pain, and -annoyed at their behaviour, cursed them and said, "May you live only -on the crumbs which you will pick up on the roadside, and henceforth, -becoming smaller, you will be snared by little boys and tormented -by them, and the passers-by shall hit at you with whips, and kill -you." And so it has remained to this very day. - -They live on crumbs wherever they can pick them up. They have become -very small birds. They are snared by children, who often play with them -cruelly, and the passers-by strike at them with a whip, and kill them. - - - -A Russian Legend, Afanasief, p. 13, is a close parallel to this -story, though it differs somewhat from it in detail; v. Ralston, -Russian Folk Tales, p. 331. - - - - - - - - -LIX. - -WHY SHOULD THE OAK TREE NOT BOAST? - -The Story of the Sparrow and the Oak Tree. - - -The people regard the sparrow as one of the greatest pests, for he -eats up the seeds and the crops. The people believe that the sparrows -reach an age of over nine hundred years, and they tell the following -tale about it: - - - -In a clearing of a huge oak forest, there grew up a tiny little -tree. All the other trees looked upon it with pleasure, it was so -green and so tender. Suddenly a sparrow flying over the trees came -down and settled on that little sapling, which bent under the weight -of the bird. Angrily, the little tree said to the sparrow, "It is a -great shame that thou shouldst have come and settled on me, I who am -so weak and tender and scarcely able to stand up, why didst thou not -go and settle on one of those huge trees of which the forest is full." - -The sparrow, feeling ashamed and angered at the words of the little -sapling, replied: "Very well, I am going, but when thou shalt be -on thy death-bed I will come back, and thou wilt have to render me -account for these offensive words which thou hast spoken to me." And -the sparrow went away. - -Now it is known that an oak lives for nine hundred years: for three -hundred years it grows in strength and might, the next three hundred -it rests quiet, and during the last three hundred it slowly decays and -dies. First the heart, that is, the core, dies, then the wood is slowly -eaten away, the branches fall off, and at the end of nine hundred years -the tree is changed into dust. And so it happened with that little -sapling. It grew for three hundred years, it stopped still for the -next three hundred years, and finally it decayed and died at the end -of the last three hundred years. When the last day of the nine hundred -years had come, and scarcely anything was left of the tree but dust, -the sparrow came back, and rolling about in the dust it said: "Dost -thou remember when thou wast a mere sapling, how thou didst insult me, -thou didst believe thou wouldst grow on and live for ever? Dost thou -see that my word has come true, thou proud tree of the forest, now -thy head is lying low and thou hast been changed into dust, thou hast -been humbled, whilst I am still living on in strength, and I am now as -I have then been." This longevity of the sparrow makes him the dread -of the peasants and farmers, and among the means taken to save the -crops from the inroads of this pest are magical practices and charms. - -I will only quote one or two. - - - -Charms against the Sparrow. - -On the first day of Lent the man must collect all the crumbs and -bones from his table after he has finished his meal, and, taking them -out in the table-cover, he must strew them upon the field, and say, -"O ye birds of heaven, here I have brought you of the food from my -table, eat this, and do not touch the food from off the field." Or, -taking a handful of corn and standing with one foot on his field and -with the other on the roadside, he must throw the corn on the road -outside the field and to say, "O St. Mary, here I have brought food -for the birds of heaven. Let them feed on this seed and not on the -seed which I sow in my field." - -There is still another charm. - -At the time when the sparrows begin to pick at the corn the youngest -of the household must go to the field. He must take off all his -garments, then, tying a kerchief over his eyes, he must hold in -his hand a candle, which has been burning at the head of a corpse, -and carrying also a tuft of hair cut off from the head of the dead, -he is to walk with the lighted candle in his hand over the four sides -of the field and say, "As I do not see now, and as the dead man does -not see, so shall the birds not see this field with the corn growing -in it. And the mind of the birds should be taken off from this field, -as the mind of the dead is off it." When he comes to the fourth -corner of the field he must tie the hair of the dead round some of -the ears of corn and say, "I do not tie up this crop, but I tie the -mouth of the birds, that they may not be able to eat it, as the dead -man is unable to eat it. And they shall not be able to see the corn, -as the dead man does not see the world." - - - - - - - - -LX. - -WHY DOES THE MOSQUITO LIVE IN THE WELL? - -The Story of King Pic, Lady Mary and the Sun. - - -Once upon a time St. Mary talked with the sun about the sins of -this world. They also talked about the wicked deeds of the Emperor -Pic among others, of whom an evil report had spread on account -of his cruelty. The sun talked to her about all that he had seen, -and St. Mary, weighing up all his sins, came to the decision that he -should be thrown into the depths of the sea, so that even his memory -should be lost to the end of days. - -But before she had time to pronounce her judgment, up came the Emperor -Pic himself in mighty wrath. He caught hold of St. Mary by the hair -of her head, for was he not the emperor, and was there anyone of whom -he should stand in awe? He feared no one, and cursing as fast as he -could fill his mouth with blasphemous words, he started fighting the -sun. When St. Mary wanted to remonstrate with him he gave her a blow -on her mouth, so as to stop her from speaking. The sun, seeing this -infamous conduct, got angry, and catching him by the throat, hurled -the Emperor Pic into a well with the intention of drowning him before -he could utter a single word. The only sound which he made before -sinking was Zi Zi Zi. St. Mary, having pity upon him, wanted to save -him from drowning, and tried to draw him out of the water. But she -looked in vain for him. Instead of finding Pic in the well, she only -found a little insect that was shivering with cold and was hiding -under one of the beams of the well. God had no doubt punished Pic -for his impudence. The mosquito (Culex pipiens) does not leave his -hiding place until the sun disappears, for he is frightened of him, -and this fear has remained with him. For this reason no mosquito will -come out during the daytime: he will wait until it gets dark, then he -will come out and, sitting on the edge of the well, sings Zi, Zi, Zi. - - - - - - - - -LXI. - -WHY DOES THE MOSQUITO FEED ON BLOOD? - -The Story of God and the Food of the Mosquito. - - -After God had made all the creatures, he called them together, to tell -them what they would have to do so that they might live. They all came, -and God gave every one its gift and the manner of its food. All had -come and gone, but the mosquito did not come until very late. When -asked why he had done so, he started telling tales, until God got -angry and, turning to him, said: - -"I have no time to waste with thee, hurry up and tell me quickly, -what kind of food dost thou wish?" - -The mosquito replied, "I wish to live by sucking." - -"So it shall be," replied God, "now go and suck the juice of trees -and plants." - -What was he to do? He went and sucked the trees and plants. After a -fortnight had passed he got weak and shrivelled from this kind of -food. His wife, seeing the state into which he had fallen by his -foolish demand, said to him: - -"See what has become of you! You are shrivelled up and weak, a few -days more and you are sure to die. You had better go to God and beg -him to give you another food." - -But he said, "I cannot go; if you have the impudence you had better -go." - -"Very well, then, I will go," replied the female mosquito, and up -she went to God. - -When he saw her he asked her, "What has brought you to me?" - -"The miserable food which my husband has got is killing us. We cannot -live by it. We are getting shrivelled up." - -"If so," said God, "I will give you the right to suck also blood -from man and beast, but as soon as you cannot get blood you must -die. Your husband, however, he may live on the blood and juice of -plants alike." And so it has remained, the female dies when she cannot -find blood to suck. - - - -According to some local tradition, the mosquito has been made out -of the smoke of the devil's pipe, and for that reason he hates the -smoke. According to another they are also the servants of the devil -and the enemies of the angels, who cannot come into a room where -there are many mosquitos - - - - - - - - -LXII. - -WHY DOES THE FLY EAT THE CHERRY? - -The Story of Lady Mary and the Cherries. - - -It is told that, once upon a time, the Lady Mary wanted to bring some -cherries to her son. So she went to a cherry tree and began to shake -it. But to her surprise, instead of coming down as she expected, -the cherries seemed to rise higher and higher. It was a cherry tree -dedicated to the devil, and it was not meet that such cherries should -be brought to God. So she went away full of wrath, and cursed the -cherries. And lo! they were changed into small black mites that flew -away. But the love of their sisters--the cherries--brings them back, -and they come and kiss them, and when they kiss them they leave their -eggs behind, which, growing into little white worms, eat the cherries. - - - - - - - - -LXIII. - -WHY HAS THE BUTTERFLY RINGS ON ITS WINGS? - -The Story of St. Anne and the Magician. - - -Once upon a time the rumour spread through Palestine that there was -a man who could perform greater miracles than God. St. Anne, hearing -of it, determined to go and see him, and so she did. - -When she approached the house where he lived, she washed her feet, -as it is customary in those parts of the world, and with meekness and -devotion she went in and asked the man to change a withered trunk into -a green tree. The man got very angry, and said he did not perform -miracles, and after insulting her before the assembled multitudes, -seized her hands and thrust her out of his house. - -When St. Anne saw what he had done she fell upon her knees and prayed -to God to punish him. As she was lifting up her hands in prayer she -suddenly noticed that the ring which she had from her dear mother had -gone. She remembered that the man had got hold of her by the hand, -and she understood that he then must have slipped the ring off her -finger. So she prayed that God would punish this impostor, thief, -and robber. - -And God heard her prayer. Of a sudden the man disappeared from amongst -the people, and a small ring appeared round one of the boughs of the -tree outside the house. Whilst the people were gazing upon this ring -into which the thief had been changed, it opened, and out of it came -a hundred of small butterflies with the mark of the ring on their -wings. This was the sign of the ring, which had been stolen from -St. Anne. - -The miracle which St. Anne asks the man to perform, namely, to change a -withered trunk into a green tree, belongs to the large cycle of similar -miracles starting from the rod of Aaron, the story of Lot and Abraham, -the Tannhäuser legend, etc. (v. Gaster, Literatura Populara Româna, -Bucharest 1883, p. 286 ff.). - -This ring of small insect eggs round the twigs of trees is also known -as the cuckoo's ring, and taken off from the tree is used for charms -by girls, who say "as men are pleased to hear me." This ring is also -called "Sleep," and it is therefore often put into the cradle of -restless children in order to cause them to sleep. - - - - - - - - -LXIV. - -WHY DOES THE CRICKET CHIRP? - -The Story of Lady Mary and the Yellow Bird. - - -It is said that at the time of the birth of Christ, there was a -beautiful little bird with feathers, yellow as gold and with a beak -shining like silver, and a thin, fine little body. Just as the bird -was beautiful, so she was insolent and disobedient. She was a friend -of St. Mary, who liked her singing. When she was sad, the bird would -come and comfort her with her sweet songs. And the Holy Mother also -helped the little bird when she was in trouble, and when the nest -was broken, she helped to mend it. - -But when the Holy Mother got Jesus, her friendship with the bird came -to an end. For the bird did not like children. It could not stand their -crying. The bird believed that the crying child mocked at her singing, -and therefore, whenever she saw Christ, she made faces at him and -mockingly chirped, Gri Gri Gri. Christ, hearing it, got frightened -and cried bitterly. When St. Mary saw the insolence of the bird, -she drove her away from the house, and, cursing her, said: "From -the beautiful bird which thou art, thou shalt become one of the most -hideous insects, and, living only in clefts and holes, thou shalt sing -only Gri Gri Gri, as a punishment for having mocked at God's child." - -Since then, that bird has entirely disappeared, and all of her kind -which were living at that time were turned into crickets chirping in -the hearths and mocking at the children of men, Gri Gri Gri. - - - - - - - - -LXV. - -WHY DO THE ANTS FEED THE CRICKET? - -The Story of Alexander and the Knight. - - -There is another legend of the origin of the cricket which leads us -to the cycle of the Alexander legends. - - - -It is told that in the time of Alexander there lived a young man who, -when he was sixteen years old, was more beautiful than any one had -been before him, or after him. The princesses were fighting for him, -calling one another as many names as the moon and stars, and each -one vowing that hers only he was to be, none other was worthy of -him. Still more beautiful was his singing, for when you heard him your -mind stopped still, so sweet was his voice. Even the mothers of the -maidens fell in love with him. And grey-haired old kings with long, -white beards and bushy eyebrows, would lift their brows to see him, -who was as beautiful as a wonder and dear as a ball of gold. But whilst -everyone liked him, Alexander could not suffer him. He must hate him, -for though Alexander was the mightiest emperor of the world, yet -none could please him, no not one even of those princesses. For this -reason there grew up an enmity between them, which became so strong -that even the sun, which used at that time to walk about on the earth, -could not make peace between them. Alexander might perhaps have made -peace, but he would do so only on the condition that the other would -not make love to his own favourite. - -But the young knight would not hear of any conditions, and in order to -spite him still more, he went more often than before to Alexander's -favourite wife, and sang to her as much as he could. When the sun -told how insolent he was, Alexander turned on him and drove him out of -the house. The sun chased him and burned him, so that from the white -that he was he turned as black as a coal, and from the big and tall -man that he was he shrivelled up and became as small as a hazelnut, -and hid himself away under the hearth of a poor woman's house, from -which he squeaked "Griji, Griji ( = take care) that the sun does not -catch me." When the sun heard it, he said, "Now thou shalt always live -here where thou art, and hungry and thirsty shalt thou cry Griji, -Griji without stopping." When the beautiful maidens heard what had -happened, they became very angry, and then, turning into ants, they -brought food to the poor cricket. To this very day they bring him food, -so that he may not die of hunger. - - - - - - - - -LXVI. - -WHY DO CATS AND DOGS FIGHT? - -The Story of the Dog, the Cat and the Mouse. - - -In the beginning there was no enmity between the cat and dog, and -they lived on friendly terms together and served their master (Adam) -faithfully, each one doing its own work. But as you know, it is very -much better to have a written agreement at the beginning than to have -a row afterwards, so they decided to draw up an agreement defining -the work which each had to do, and decided that the dog was to do -the work outside the house, and the cat the work inside. For greater -safety the dog agreed that the cat should take care of the agreement, -and the cat put it in the loft. - -After a time, the devil, who could not allow peace to last for a long -time, must needs set the dog up against the cat; so one day the dog -remarked to the cat that he was not fairly treated, he did not see -why he should have all the trouble outside the house, to watch for -thieves and protect the house and suffer from cold and rain, and -only have scraps and bones for food, and sometimes nothing at all, -whilst the cat had all the comfort, purring and enjoying herself, -and living near the hearth in warmth and safety. The cat said, -"An agreement is an agreement." The dog replied, "Let me see that -agreement." The cat went quickly up the loft to fetch the agreement, -but the agreement, which had been a little greasy, had been nibbled -by the mice who were living in the loft, and they went on nibbling -away until nothing was left of it but a heap of paper fluff, and as -it was as soft as down the mice made their home of it. When the cat -came up and saw what the mice had done, her fury knew no bounds, she -pursued them madly, killing as many as she could seize, and running -after the others with the intent of catching them. - -When she came down the dog asked her for the agreement, and as the -cat had not brought it, the dog, taking hold of her, shook her until -he got tired of shaking her. - -Since that time, whenever a dog meets a cat he asks her for the -agreement, and as she cannot show it to him he goes for her, and the -cat, knowing what the mice had done to her, runs after them when she -sees them. - - - -In the South Slavonic folk-lore (Krauss, No. 18) there is a parallel -to this story, but greatly changed from the original form. It is no -longer a "creation" legend. It runs as follows: - -The dogs used to receive all the meat that fell off the table. This -became a habit, and so he and the cat drew up a statement to that -effect, and made it a permanent rule. They wrote it on the hide -of an ass, and the king of the dogs gave it to the cat--the first -chancellor--to take care of it. The cat hid it away in the rafters -of the house. There the skin was found by the mice, who nibbled it -until there was scarcely anything left. One day a dog got badly beaten -because he picked up some meat that had fallen from the table. He went -and complained to the king, who sent the cat to find the document. The -cat could not find it, and saw that the mice had eaten it. Since then -there is a continual feud between the cat, the mice and the dog. - -In this version, the entire origin of the tale has been lost. It is -no longer referred to Adam, nor is there any question of a compact -between a cat and dog which was broken by the latter. In the Slavonic -tale there is no authority for this arrangement. - -The Rumanian version approximates much more closely to the Oriental, -and seems to have preserved much more faithfully the ancient form. The -oldest which can thus far be traced is that in the "Alphabet of Pseudo -Sirach," printed here in the Appendix (No. III.). - - - - - - - - -LXVII. - -WHY DO CATS EAT MICE? - -The Story of Adam and Eve and the Devil. - - -When Adam and Eve had lived for some time together, Adam suddenly -noticed a change in his wife's demeanour. Watching her narrowly, he -found that she had fallen in love with the devil. She had introduced -him into the house, which she had built close to the seashore. Adam, -as a wise man, kept his peace, but he thought day and night what was he -to do to get rid of the devil and to save his wife? At last he thought -that the only way would be to take his wife away into some distant -land across the sea, where the devil could not follow him. But how -were they to cross that sea? At last he discovered that the best way -to cross the sea would be to make a boat, and then, when it was ready, -he would take his wife quietly and they would both sail away. But the -devil has nothing to do but to watch other people's doings, and to -put a spoke into the wheel wherever he can. He was therefore not to -be outdone in as simple a manner as Adam thought. He saw that Adam was -cutting wood, and making timber and laths, and joining them together, -but whenever he asked Adam what he was doing he would not answer him. - -So at last he came to Eve and told her: "Look here, that husband -of yours is preparing some trick, and it is meant against you and -me. You better find out what is in Adam's mind. What is he doing, -and what is the meaning of it?" - -Eve, in order to please the devil, asked Adam what he was doing, but -he knew it was no good giving a secret into the keeping of a woman. So -he kept his counsel to himself. At last, when the devil saw the boat, -he told Eve: - -"I know what Adam means, he wants to take you away and leave me -here alone. That you must not allow, but when everything is ready -and he is coming to fetch you, you ask him to allow you to bring the -house-snake with you. He will not refuse you, and I will take the form -of the snake, and so you will carry me with you into the boat. Then -we shall see who will be the cleverer, Adam or I." - -So when Adam came to fetch Eve, she asked him to be allowed to bring -also the house-snake with her. Adam, good-hearted fellow as he was, -did not refuse her. What did the devil do? He took the form of the -snake, and to make sure of being carried into the boat, he coiled -himself round Eve's bosom, and so was carried by her into the boat, -chuckling all the while at the stupidity of Adam. Adam had no suspicion -who the passenger was, he had brought with him. - -One day, after he had sailed a long time, Adam, tired from his work, -laid himself down to rest, when he suddenly felt that the boat was -sinking. Up he jumped, trimmed the sail, and looked round to see -whether the boat had sprung a leak and was making water, for he could -not understand why the boat should suddenly sink and let the water -in. The devil, thinking that Adam was asleep and not able to watch -his tricks, had made himself heavy like lead in the hope of sinking -the ship and drowning Adam. But he had reckoned without his host, -for Adam woke up in the nick of time and caught the Wicked One at -his evil deeds. When the devil saw that Adam was awake, he changed -himself quickly into a mouse. Adam did not trouble, but thought his -time would come. The devil, who cannot keep quiet but must do mischief -whenever he can, was not content to be left in peace, and be carried -across the water, but he must needs start gnawing away at one of the -planks of the ship, and so make a hole and drown Adam. His misfortune -was that, just when the plank at which he was gnawing had got as thin -as a sheet of paper, Adam surprised the Black One at his work. What -did he do? He took off his fur glove and threw it at the mouse. - -The fur glove changed into a cat which, seizing the mouse, killed -it and ate it up. And thus the cat got the devil into it. And that -is why the cat's hair bristles and makes sparks, and the eyes of the -cat glisten in the dark. These are sparks of the devil in the cat. - - - - - - - - -LXVII. A. - -ANOTHER VERSION. - -The Story of the Devil, Noah and the Ark. - - -There is another version of this tale which transfers the origin of -the mouse to the ark of Noah. Noah would not allow the devil to get -into the ark which he had built. In order, therefore, to get in, -the devil transformed himself into a mouse, which, being surprised -at the same work of gnawing away the boards of the ark, was eaten up -by the cat--the fur glove which Noah threw at her. - -A legend concerning the cat and mouse is found in the so-called -"Alphabet of Pseudo Sirach," here in the Appendix, No. III. According -to a Bohemian legend, the devil created the mouse that it might -destroy "God's corn," whereupon the Lord created the cat. (Ralston, -p. 330 note.) - -The apocryphal interpretation of the temptation of Eve by the -serpent which has been identified with Satan is found in many ancient -biblical legends. This story of the temptation has been transformed -into a somewhat primitive love story between Eve and the devil--her -paramour--who assumes the form of the house-snake and then wishes to -drown poor unsophisticated Adam. - - - - - - - - -LXVIII. - -WHY DOES A CAT SIT ON THE DOORSTEP IN THE SUN? - -The Story of the Cat, the Mouse and Noah. - - -When Noah had built the ark, he kept the door wide open for the -animals to enter. After they had all gone in, his own family came, -and last of all his wife. - -Noah said to her "Come in." She obstinately said "No." Noah again said -"Come in." She again said "No." Noah, getting angry, said "Oh, you -devil, come in." That was just what the devil was waiting for. He knew -that Noah would not allow him to come in otherwise, and so he waited -for an invitation, of which he promptly availed himself. Getting into -the ark the devil changed himself into a mouse. - -When the devil has nothing to do he weighs his tail. But here he found -plenty to do, for, he thought, now is an opportunity of putting an end -to the whole of God's creatures. So he started gnawing on one of the -planks, trying to make a hole in it. When Noah surprised him at this -devilish work he threw his fur glove at him. It turned into a cat, -and, in the twinkling of an eye, the mouse was in the mouth of the cat. - -But Noah could not allow the peace of the ark to be broken, the animals -had to live in peace with one another. So he seized the cat, with -the mouse in her mouth, and flung her out of the ark into the water. - -The cat swam to the ark and, getting hold of the door step, climbed -on to the sill and lay down there to bask in the sun. - -There she remained until the water had subsided: and ever since then, -the cat likes to lie on the doorstep of the house and bask in the sun. - - - - - - - - -LXIX. - -WHY DOES THE FLY SETTLE ON THE DEAD? - -The Story of God and the Giants of the Flood. - - -In olden times, huge giants existed in this world. They were so big -that they could put one leg on the top of one mountain and the other -on the next one. They reached as high as the heavens, and getting -hold of the handles of the great gate would shake it as a man shakes a -kettle. They even rebelled against God, for they knew no fear. At last, -God, realising their nature, decided to destroy them, and he sent -a flood which covered the highest mountains, so that you could not -see of them as much as the black under the nail. So all the giants -died, except one, who was the biggest of them all. He stood with -one leg on the top of one mountain, and with the other on the next -mountain, and with his hands he got hold of the handles of the gate -of heaven. But God would not tolerate a single one of these giants, -for he had decided to make men, very similar creatures to giants -but smaller and more obedient. So he sent a fly to pick at his eyes, -and worms to gnaw at the soles of his feet. Feeling the pain in his -eyes, the giant let the gate of heaven go and wiped his eyes, with -his hand, but he could not stand the gnawing of his feet, and he, -falling down into the water, was drowned. From the gnawing of the -soles the instep in man's foot has come, and these flies (Sarcophaga -carnaria) and worms still eat up the human bodies and all the carcases. - -It is therefore a bad sign if such a fly settles on a sick man; -a sure sign of death. - - - - - - - - -LXX. - -WHY IS THE FOOT OF MAN ARCHED? - -The Pact between God and the Devil. - - -When God created the world, I do not know how it came about and why -it was done, enough that it was done, God made a pact with the devil -which they signed and sealed, and God kept the document in which -it was stated that they had divided the world between them. It was -settled that all the dead should go to the devil and all that was -living should belong to God. After a while, the devil repented himself -of this arrangement and tried to get hold of the contract. Taking -advantage of God's indulgence, he stole into heaven, and, taking the -document, he made off with it. Clever though he thinks himself to be, -the devil is a fool and remains a fool. So, going down from heaven, -he lost the document, and did not even notice his loss until after -he had plunged deep down to the bottom of the sea. The document which -had fallen out of his hands was lying on the sand of the seashore. - -When God noticed what the devil had done, he sent a frost so hard that -it split the stones and covered up all the waters with a thick crust -of ice, so that the devil could not get out. Then God sent St. Peter -to fetch the agreement where it lay. St. Peter descended and was about -to take it, when a magpie which watched his doings went to the sea, -and whack! whack! made a hole in the ice with its beak. That was just -what the devil was waiting for, and quick as lightning he came up from -the bottom of the sea. But quick as he was, St. Peter was quicker, -and picking up the pact he went up to heaven. The devil went after him, -but could not catch him up. - -When St. Peter got near the gate of heaven, the devil, seeing that he -had escaped him, threw his spear after him. He missed him; but not -entirely, for he hit St. Peter in the sole of his foot. St. Peter -cried out of pain. God asked him what had happened, and he replied, -"The devil has hit me in my foot with his venomous spear." - -"Cut that bit out and throw it away," said God. - -St. Peter did as he was told, and, cutting out the wounded part from -the sole of his foot, threw it at the devil. Since then the human -foot is short of that bit which St. Peter had cut out when the devil -had hit him with his spear. - - - -It is not quite clear from the story as it stands whether the magpie -acted as a confederate of the devil, and picked a hole in the ice -deliberately so as to free him from the imprisonment, or whether -the magpie quite innocently went and helped the devil against -St. Peter. There is no sequel here to its action. It is neither -punished nor rewarded. In this respect the story is imperfect. - -There exists another popular legend intended to explain the arch in the -sole of the human foot. According to the latter, it so happened that -the Archangel Michael was the foremost angel in the fight between -Satan and the heavenly hosts, which added to the discomfiture of -Satan. When he finally was hurled down from heaven he tried to get -hold of the archangel. But the angel was too quick for him. The devil -missed him, but not entirely, for he seized the archangel by the sole -of his foot and tore out a part of the flesh. Since then the sole -of the human foot is curved in the middle. That portion is missing, -which was torn out of the sole of the archangel. - - - - - - - - -LXXI. - -WHY HAS A SNAKE NO TAIL? AND WHY DO FLEAS SUCK HUMAN BLOOD? - -The Story of the Devil in Noah's Ark. - - -When God had brought the Flood, and Noah's ark was floating on the -face of the waters, the wretched good-for-nothing devil wanted to -destroy Noah with all those who were with him in the ark. So he fell -a-thinking for a while, and invented an iron tool called now gimlet, -with which he could bore holes in the wall of the ark. - -The murderous devil started on his work, and poor Noah and those with -him were in great danger of being drowned. They all worked hard to get -the water out, but who can get the better of the devil? He worked much -more quickly, and making many holes in the boards, the waters came in -fast. They all believed themselves lost. But God, who does not desire -the death of the sinner, and did not wish to see the work of his -hands destroyed, gave cunning to the snake, and it is possible that -since that day the snakes have remained wise, for does not Holy Writ -tell us to be wise as the serpent? The snake came to Noah and said, -"What wilt thou give me if I stop up the holes which the devil is -making by which the water enters the ark?" - -"What dost thou want?" replied Noah in despair. - -"After the Flood thou art to give me a human being every day to be -eaten by me and my seed." - -Noah, hard pressed by the imminent danger, promised to do so. No -sooner did the devil bore a hole than the snake stopped it up with -the tip of its tail, which it cut off, leaving it in the hole, and -that is why ever since the snakes have no tails. When the devil -saw that his plan had failed, he ran away and left Noah's ark in -peace and all those who were in it. As soon as the Flood had passed -away, Noah brought a thanksgiving sacrifice to God for having been -miraculously saved. In the midst of these rejoicings the snake took -courage and came up to Noah, asking for the human being of which he -had promised to give her one every day to be eaten by her and her -seed. When Noah heard it, he got very angry, for he said to himself, -"There are so few human beings now in the world, if I give her one -every day, the world will soon come to an end." So he took hold of -the beast which dared to speak to him in such a manner, and threw it -into the fire. God was greatly displeased with the evil smell which -arose from the fire in consequence, and sent a wind which scattered -the ashes all over the face of the earth. From these ashes the fleas -were born. If one considers the number of fleas that are in the world, -and the amount of human blood which they are sucking, then, taking -them all together, they eat up without doubt as much as a human being -every day. And thus the promise made by Noah is being fulfilled. - - - -A similar tale seems to be known among the Russians, as far as the -first part of this legend is concerned. According to Ralston, Russian -Folk Tales, p. 330, when the devil in the form of a mouse gnawed a -hole in the Ark, the snake stopped it up with its head. In the Russian -tale the two tales of the mouse and the snake are thus combined. - -An Oriental legend which seems to have retained some of the incidents -in the Rumanian legend is referred to in Hanauer, Folk Lore of the Holy -Land, p. 283. We are told that Iblis (the devil) promises the serpent -the sweetest food in the world, that is, human blood, if it helps to -deceive Eve. Adam protests, as no one knew yet which is the sweetest -blood. The mosquito is sent out to suck the blood of all the animals, -and find out which is the sweetest. The swallow shadows the mosquito, -and in the end plucks out its tongue so that it shall not be able to -tell. The serpent, enraged, darts after the swallow, but only gets -hold of the middle feathers of the swallow's tail, which it plucks -out, hence the forked tail of the swallow. The serpent still tries -to hurt man, but cannot do so in virtue of any claim. - -The flea is also called the devil's horse, for Satan rode upon a flea -when he started on his rebellious fight with God. - - - - - - - - -LXXII. - -CHARMS AGAINST FLEAS AND OTHER HOUSE VERMIN. - - -In the first quarter of the moon she who wishes to make the charm -must be told by a neighbour that the moon has just risen. She then -takes a glazed dish or bowl, which she has bought at the fair of the -Mummers (Mosii) at the Eastertide, or one that has been given to her -at that time. She fills it with "living" water taken from three wells -in three new jugs brought by three virgins, who must not look back -from the time they have drawn it. - -This bowl filled with water is put on the window facing the moon, -and she waits until the moon strikes the window and the bowl. When -she can see the moon well in the bowl and at the bottom of it, she -begins to charm (conjure) the fleas, etc., with three stalks taken -from a new broom, and says, "New moon in the house, bugs, vermin, -fleas, get ye out of the house, leave this house, be scattered--let -no one meet the other before mountain meets mountain--and hill top -knocks against hill top--then and then only may they meet, and not -even then." She repeats the charm three times, then she pours the -water into four vessels, places them in the inner four corners of the -house, and in the morning she is sure to find some of the house vermin -in the vessels. These she must take out, and put into an empty box, -stolen from somewhere. She must wait for a car that returns home after -everything brought in it has been sold at the market, and must throw -the box into that empty car, saying: "Yes, fleas, little fleas--from -the house have I taken you, into a stolen box have I put you, charmed, -drowned, cursed, thrown into a box, charmed at new moon now, may -you become the devil's own, may you become numbed and stiff--in the -nine countries--beyond the nine seas--for there they are waiting for -you--at spread tables--with torches lit up. Amen!" - -It is almost unnecessary to discuss at any length the charms against -fleas, etc., which were considered the special tools and associates -of the Evil One. The philtres in the Western countries consist mostly -of poisonous ingredients taken from toads, snakes, etc., and some -of the oldest charms are against flies, fleas, midges, etc. This is -now, perhaps, the only complete charm in which not only the formula -has been preserved, but also, what is of the highest importance, -a detailed description of the ceremonial used on that occasion. - -Every detail of this magical operation might be made the starting -point of a separate investigation. The symbolic character of some of -them is too clear to be gainsaid. We have here the crescent of the -moon as an operative factor: the bowl and the box must be stolen, -probably to bring down a curse upon the thief and upon him who -uses it. The living water, the three maidens, the three wells, -the curse of the vermin, the empty car carrying it, as it were, -away for ever, the inducement for those fleas to remain there in the -mythical nine countries for a feast that is awaiting them. Each and -all are found in other charms, but here we have the whole operation -minutely described. It is, moreover, typical of a large class of such -enchantments or binding by charms. For our purpose it must be deemed -quite sufficient. I have only introduced it as it is one affecting -the insects and throwing light on many more charms and conjurations -in which the Rumanian literature abounds. I may on another occasion -discuss the whole range of the Rumanian charms. They cover the whole -field of human ailments and physical troubles--a wide range indeed. - - - - - - - - -LXXIII. - -CHARMS AGAINST BUGS. - - -Curiously enough, there do not seem to be any special legends about -the origin of the bugs, but there are a good many charms which -are used for getting rid of these troublesome vermin. The charms -are of a symbolical nature. A suggestive action is performed which -the conjurer believes will be followed by the conjured bugs. Thus: -A woman in a complete state of nudity takes a mealie cake into one -hand, or a crust of bread, or some other flour, and a brush used -for whitewashing in the other. She nibbles at the cake or food, and -whitewashes the wall, and while she is doing it, she says: "As I am -eating my food and cleaning my walls so may you eat up one another -and leave my walls clean of you," after which the bugs will perish. - -It is advisable to do this when the moon wanes, and the whitewashing -should start from the wall which faces the door and then go on to -the right until the door is reached again. - -Another charm--A boy in a state of complete nudity takes bread and salt -into one hand, and in the other he holds his flute and also a number -of bugs, called the wedding party. Thus equipped, he goes into the high -road until he passes the boundary of his field. There he starts playing -the flute, and then he throws the bugs away into the road, saying: -"Here I have brought for you bread and salt, and I have been singing -to you with my flute, now go and have a merry wedding, and remain -where you are, never returning to my home." The bugs then never return. - -Another charm, like that of the fleas, is connected with the new moon. - -When the new moon appears, a man, coming outside his house and -seeing it, exclaims, "A new king in the land, a new king in the -land." To which one in the house standing by the window replies, -"All the bugs must now go out of the house one by one, so that none -remain behind." And after repeating these words three times he rides -on a besom, poker, or the oven-peel (with which the bread is shovelled -into the stove), and running through the house he begins sweeping the -rooms, and says whilst so doing, "Get out of the house, ye bugs, for -the new king is getting married, and he invites you to his banquet, -for he has no one to eat, to drink, or to dance there. Get ye out -and you will eat and drink and dance until you are satisfied." - -These words must be repeated three times, viz. at the beginnings of -three months. The bugs are then believed to leave the house in the -form of a swarm, and to go elsewhere. - - - - - - - - -LXXIV. - -WHY DOES THE CUCKOO CALL "CUCKOO"? - -The Story of the Little Boy and the Wicked Step-mother. - - -Once upon a time there was a poor man, who had a wife and two children, -a boy and a girl. He was so poor that he possessed nothing in the -world but the ashes on his hearth. His wife died, and after a time -he married another woman, who was cantankerous and bad-natured, and -from morning till evening, as long as the day lasted, she gave the -poor man no peace, but snarled and shouted at him. The woman said to -him, "Do away with these children. You cannot even keep me, how then -can you keep all these mouths?" for was she not a step-mother? The -poor man stood her nagging for a long time, but then, one night, she -quarrelled so much that he promised her that he would take the children -into the forest and leave them there. The two children were sitting -in the corner but held their peace and heard all that was going on. - -The next day, the man, taking his axe upon his shoulder, called to -the children and said to them, "Come with me into the forest, I am -going to cut wood." The little children went with him, but before they -left, the little girl filled her pocket with ashes from the hearth, -and as she walked along she dropped little bits of coal the way they -went. After a time they reached a very dense part of the forest, -where they could not see their way any longer, and there the man said -to the children, "Wait here for a while, I am only going to cut wood -yonder, when I have done I will come back and fetch you home," and -leaving the children there in the thicket he went away, heavy hearted, -and returned home. The children waited for a while, and seeing that -their father did not return, the girl knew what he had done. So they -slept through the night in the forest, and the next morning, taking -her brother by the hand, she followed the trace of the ashes which -she had left on the road, and thus came home to their own house. When -the step-mother saw them, she did not know what to do with herself, -she went almost out of her mind with fury. If she could, she would have -swallowed them in a spoonful of water, so furious was she. The husband, -who was a weakling, tried to pacify her, and to endeavour to get the -children away by one means or another, but did not succeed. When the -step-mother found that she could not do anything through her husband, -she made up her mind that she herself would get rid of them. So one -morning, when her husband had gone away, she took the little boy, -and without saying anything to anybody, she killed him and gave him -to his sister to cut him up, and prepare a meal for all of them. What -was she to do? If she was not to be killed like her brother, she had -to do what her step-mother told her. - -And so she cut him up and cooked him ready for the meal. But she took -the heart, and hid it away in a hollow of a tree. When the step-mother -asked her where the heart was, she said that a dog had come and taken -it away. In the evening, when the husband came home, she brought the -broth with the meat for the husband to eat, and she sat down and ate -of it and so did the husband, not knowing that he was eating the flesh -of his child. The little girl refused to eat it. She would not touch -it. After they had finished, she gathered up all the little bones and -hid them in the hollow of the tree where she had put the heart. The -next morning, out of that hollow of the tree there came a little bird -with dark feathers, and sitting on the branch of a tree, began to sing, -"Cuckoo! My sister has cooked me, and my father has eaten me, but I -am now a cuckoo and safe from my step-mother." When the step-mother, -who happened to be near the tree, heard what that little bird was -singing, in her fury and fright she took a heavy lump of salt which -lay near at hand, and threw it at the cuckoo, but instead of hitting -it, the lump fell down on her head and killed her on the spot. And -the little boy has remained a cuckoo to this very day. - -This tale is more or less a variant of a well-known type of fairy -tales. Nos. 43, 44 are tales of men with inordinate and foolish wishes, -who by constantly changing bring about their own undoing. This last is -a variant of the story of the bad step-mother and the two children. But -here the fairy tales assume a different character. - - - - - - - - -LXXV. - -WHY DOES A WAGTAIL WAG ITS TAIL? - -The Story of the Cuckoo and the Wagtail. - - -The wagtail did not have the tail from the beginning. This tail -originally belonged to the wren, but it happened in this manner. The -wagtail was one day invited to the wedding of the lark, and as -she felt ashamed to go there without any tail, as she had none, -she went to the wren and asked the wren to lend her her tail for a -few days. The wren, which had as now a small body but in addition a -long tail, did not wish to be churlish, and lent her the tail. When -the wagtail saw herself with a long tail, she did not know what to do -with herself for joy, she was dancing and prancing all the way to the -wedding. The wedding lasted some days. When it was over, the wren came -to the wagtail and asked for the tail, but the wagtail, finding that -the tail suited her so well, pretended not to hear and not to see, -and took no notice of the wren. And thus it came about, from the time -of the lark's wedding, that the wren has remained without a tail, -and the wagtail with one. But, fearing lest the wren would come one -day and steal it, the wagtail is wagging its tail continually to be -sure that she has it, and that it has not been taken away. - - - - - - - - -LXXVI. - -WHY HAS THE HOOPOE A TUFT? - -The Story of the Hoopoe and the Cuckoo. - - -The tuft of the hoopoe's head has given rise to a tale, similar to -some extent to the story of the tail of the wagtail, and yet not quite -identical. Like the wagtail, which originally had no tail, the hoopoe -had originally no tuft on its head. But when the lark had her wedding, -she invited all the birds. Among them also the hoopoe. She did not want -to come with her simple feathers, but went to the cuckoo and borrowed -them from him, for he had the tuft, promising to return it to him as -soon as she had come back from the wedding. The cuckoo, who was a good -natured and obliging fellow, trusted the hoopoe and lent her the tuft. - -She went to the wedding, and her beautiful ornament was greatly -admired by all the birds. Most of all was the lark pleased with -it. The hoopoe grew very elated, and thought she had better keep -it. And so she did. She came home, and entirely forgot the cuckoo -and her promise to return him his tuft. The cuckoo waited for a while -for the hoopoe to return to him the tuft which he had lent her. But -the hoopoe was nowhere to be found; she never showed herself. Seeing -this, the cuckoo went to her and asked her to return the tuft. She -pretended not to know what the cuckoo was saying, and coolly replied, -"I do not know what you are talking about." Enraged at her callous -conduct, the cuckoo called all the other birds together to lay his case -before them, and to ask them to pass judgment on the hoopoe. When the -birds came together, they appointed the lark to be the judge, but the -lark had taken a fancy to the hoopoe ever since the wedding day, so, -in spite of the protestations of the cuckoo, he decided that the tuft -must remain with the hoopoe, as it suited her so much better. And so -it has remained to this day. But since then there is no friendship -between the cuckoo and the lark, who delivered a wrong judgment. - - - -An Eastern popular tale, Hanauer, Folk-lore of the Holy Land, p. 254 -ff., explains the origin of the tuft on the head of the hoopoe as a -crown given by King Solomon to this bird for its wisdom in refusing -to pay homage to women. - - - - - - - - -LXXVII. - -WHY DOES THE EAGLE LIVE ON RAW MEAT? - -The Story of the Bewitched Brothers. - - -Let us pass to the story of the eagle. It is the largest bird of -prey known in Rumania, and lives on young animals, lambs, goats, -and so on. The story runs as follows. - - - -Once upon a time there was such a famine in the land that the people -lived on grass and even on sawdust, and were dying of hunger in untold -numbers. At that time there lived a widow who had managed to husband -a little flour. When she found that nothing else was left to her she -took that flour and mixing it with water kneaded it into dough. Then -she lit the furnace, and got a shovel to put the dough on it and thence -into the furnace to bake. This woman had two sons and one daughter. The -two boys came in just at the moment when the loaves of dough were on -the shovel. They were so hungry that they did not wait for the dough -to be baked, and before their mother had time to put the shovel into -the oven they got hold of the dough, raw and uncooked as it was, -and ate it up to the smallest bit. They did not leave even a little -piece for their mother and sister. When the mother saw the terrible -greediness of her children, and that they ate the raw stuff and did -not leave even a small piece for her or their sister, she cursed them -and said, "May you be cursed by God and be changed into two birds; -may you haunt the highest peaks of the mountains; may you never be -able to eat bread even when you see it, because you did not leave any -for me this day." No sooner had the boys gone out of the house than -they were changed into two huge eagles, who, spreading their wings, -flew away to the ends of the earth, no one knowing whither they had -gone. A short time afterwards their sister, who had not been at home -when all this had happened, came in, and she asked the mother where -her brothers were. Her mother did not tell her what had happened, -and said that the brothers, finding it was impossible for them to live -any longer here, had gone out into the wide world to live by their own -earnings. When the girl heard this she wept, and said, "If that be so, -then I will also go out into the wide world, and will seek my brothers -until I find them," and would not listen to the words of her mother, -who wanted to keep her back. She said good-bye and departed, and -travelled on and on for a long time, until she came to the ends of the -earth, where the sun and moon no longer shone and the days were dark. - -So she fell a-praying, and said, "I have gone in search of my brothers; -O God, help me," and as she turned round she saw a forest full of -high trees which she had not noticed before, and she said to herself, -"I will go into that forest; I am sure nothing will happen to me," -and so she did. She went into the forest not knowing where she was -going. In the midst of it she saw a beautiful meadow full of singing -birds, and there was a huge castle surrounded by thick walls and -closed by a gate with six locks. At the entrance of the gate there -were two huge monsters. She was very frightened. Still she watched -until these monsters had fallen asleep, and then slipping past them -she entered the gates. There she was met by a fox, who said to her, -"What has brought thee hither into this the other world from the world -outside? I fear our master will eat you up. As soon as he comes home -he will swallow you." Still she went on, and on entering the house -she met the mistress of the house, who asked her the same question, -and she told her what had happened to her from the beginning to the -end, and that she had gone out into the wide world to seek for her -lost brothers. When the mistress heard her tale she took pity on -her, and taking her into the innermost chamber she hid her there, -and then went to await the home-coming of the master. About midday, -when the sun stands on the cross-ways of heaven, there was a great -noise in the house; the place shook, for the master had come, and he -was none other than a huge lion. - -At table, the mistress said to him, "O my master, thou hast always -been so good to me; I ask you to be once more good and kind; promise -me." And he promised, and asked her her request. She told him what -had happened to that girl, and said that she had come there from -the other world in search of her brothers. The lion called the young -girl, who was greatly frightened, and she told him again all that had -happened to her. He then said, "I will call together all my subjects -and ask them whether they have seen your brothers passing by this way, -or whether meeting them they have eaten them." - -So he called from far and near all the animals who were in his -dominion, and he asked them about the brothers. But they all said -that these had never passed through the land, and they had neither -seen them nor eaten them. So the lion told her to go on. She went on -and came to another forest, very big and dark, and walking for a time -in it she came to another meadow full of birds singing so beautifully -that you could not hear enough of them, and there in the midst was -a house deep down in the ground with a thatched roof. The girl went -in the house, and there was an old woman sitting on the oven. [2] -"May God help you," said the young girl, and the old woman replied, -"Welcome, my daughter, what has brought you here into this part of the -world never yet trodden by human foot?" And the girl told her that she -had left her mother's house and gone in search of her brothers. The -woman said, "Your brothers are alive, but they are under a spell, -for they have been charmed into huge birds, and they live yonder in -the castle on that steep mountain. If you can reach that place you -will be able to see your brothers." - -Full of joy at these tidings, the girl went to the mountain and -found that it was a bare, steep, high cliff with little patches -of grass here and there, just the place for eagles' nests. Taking -courage, she started climbing up, and after endless toil reached -the top. There she saw a huge palace surrounded by iron walls, and -going inside she saw a room; the table was set and food was on the -table. As she was very hungry, she went round the table and took a -bit from every dish. Then she hid herself, watching to see what would -happen. She had not to wait very long, for soon two huge eagles came -from the depths of heaven. They entered and sat down at the table -and began to eat their meal. Suddenly one of them said to the other, -"Halloo, some one must have been here, for I see that my food has been -nibbled." The other said, "It is impossible for any one to come here," -and took no further notice of it. - -On the second day they noticed that once again some of their food had -been eaten again, and so on the third day, when more of it had been -eaten. So they started hunting through the house to find out who was -hidden there, for surely some one must have come to eat the food. After -a long search they found the girl huddled up in a small room. As soon -as they saw her they recognised her as their sister, and taking her -into the large hall they asked her what had happened and what had -brought her to them. She told them all that had happened to her, -and how she had been through the forest and climbed up the mountain, -and that she was now there with them. The brothers then said to her, -"We are under a spell; mother has cursed us. We have now been changed -into birds of prey; but if you will stay here for six years and not -speak a single word, that will save us; the spell will be broken, -and we shall again be human beings." The girl promised to do all they -wished, as the old woman whom she had met before had told her that -she was to do whatever her brothers would wish her to do. And there -she remained. Her brothers spread their wings and flew away. Five -years had past, the girl not seeing anything of them, and not speaking -all the time. After that time she said to herself, "What is the good -of my sitting here and keeping silent when none of them have come; -perchance they are dead, or who knows what has happened?" No sooner -had she opened her mouth and spoken a word when in came her two -brothers, and said to her mournfully, "Thou hast not kept thy vow, -thou hast broken thy promise, thou hast spoken! If thou wouldst have -waited one more year we would have become human beings, and the spell -would have been broken. Now we are cursed forever. We must remain -eagles and birds of prey." And so they have remained to this day, -preying on birds and beasts, living on raw meat, never being able -to touch bread, and even picking up children under six years of age, -the years which their sister had to wait in order to break the spell. - - - -In this story we find again well-known motives from fairy tales, -especially that of "Snow White and the Dwarfs," in which Snow White -comes into the house and nibbles at the food which is on the table, so -that her presence is thereby disclosed. But here the tale has been used -for the purpose of explaining the origin of the eagle. Other details -there are in that tale which are not clearly brought out in this, -for at the bottom of it lies the tale of the grateful animals. That -is the reason why the lion spares the girl and also the good fairy, -whom she serves faithfully, here represented by the old woman in the -house with the thatched roof, by whom she is rewarded by being shown -the way to her lost brothers. - -All these elements have here been combined in the bird tale. A close -parallel to this tale is to be found in Grimm, No. 25. - - - - - - - - -LXXVIII. - -WHY HAS THE LARK A TUFT? - -The Story of the Glass Mountain. - - -Once upon a time there was a man who was under a spell. He got married -to a woman, and after a time he suddenly disappeared. He was carried -away by the spell, no one knew whither. The poor woman waited for him -one day and another day and a third day, and seeing that he did not -return she went out into the world to search after him. And so, passing -through many a country, she came at last to the house where Holy -Thursday lived, a good old woman, who was the mistress of a third of -all the birds in the world. When she saw the traveller, she asked her -what had brought her there, and the poor woman, weeping, told her how -she had gone in search of her husband, who had suddenly disappeared, -and whom she had not been able to find anywhere in the world. - -Holy Mother Thursday said to her, "Wait, I will call all my birds -together, and I shall hear from them whether they know where your -husband is." In the evening she called all the birds who were under -her rule, and asked them whether they knew what had happened to the -man. They all replied that they had not seen him, and they did not -know whither he had gone. Sad at heart, the poor woman went away, -and came to Holy Mother Saturday, who ruled over half the birds in -the world. She asked the young woman how she had come to that part -of the world, and what had brought her thither. - -The poor woman told her tale, and also that Holy Mother Thursday could -not find where her husband was. So Mother Saturday called her birds, -and asked them whether they had seen anything of the poor woman's -husband. They all replied that they had not seen anything of him, -and did not know what had become of him. Greatly disappointed, the -poor woman went on her way, until she came to the house of the Holy -Mother Sunday, who ruled over all the birds. After hearing from the -woman what had brought her to her house, she called all the birds -together, and put the same question to them. None of the birds knew -where the husband was except the cock lark. He said he knew where -the husband was, a very long way off. Then Mother Sunday asked the -bird whether he could carry the woman to that place. - -"Willingly will I abide by your command, O mistress," said the bird; -and taking the woman on his back, he rose up high in the air, and -started flying to the place whither the husband had been carried. And -so flying, they came at last to a high mountain made all of glass. The -bird could not go up that mountain, so they shod his little feet -with iron, and slowly, slowly, they climbed up that mountain until -they came to the top. The woman, however, was so much frightened by -the flight that she clutched at the feathers on the top of the lark, -and held tightly to them, fearing to lose her hold. Since that time -the ruffled feathers have remained upstanding, and hence the tuft on -the head of the male lark. - - - -It is peculiar that the tale here ends abruptly without telling us -whether the woman met her husband, or whether she was able to break -the spell. It is probably tacitly assumed. - - - - - - - - -LXXIX. - -WHY IS THE TUFT OF THE LARK DISHEVELLED? - -The Story of the Helpful Lark. - - -Another story of the lark tells of one who went in search of his -sister, who had been stolen away from her home by Sila Samodiva. [3] -He was directed by a curious dream, in which he saw an old man with -a long white beard, who told him to go in search of her, for he was -sure to find her. On his way he came to a very old man, who turned -out to be the king of all the birds. In the evening all the birds -came to him to be fed, but one bird was missing. It came in rather -late, limping and tired, and when the king saw it he recognised it -to be the lark. And he asked the bird why it was so tired and what -had befallen it. The bird said, "Thou hast ordered me to live so far -away that it takes me a very long time to come to the court, and it -is with great difficulty that I have been able to come here to this -place in obedience to thy command." Then the king asked the lark where -he had his nest, and when he replied in the gardens of Sila Samodiva, -the brother was full of joy, for that was the place where his sister -had been taken. Then the king asked the bird whether he could lead -the man to that place. "Willingly will I do so," replied the lark. "I -will jump from tree to tree and from bush to bush, and flutter about -gently, and if he follows me I am sure to lead him to the place of his -desire." And so following the bird, he reached a golden palace in which -the fairy Sila Samodiva was living. He entered the palace by holding -on to the tuft of the lark, which has since remained dishevelled. A -fairy put him to various trials, which he successfully accomplished, -and thus was able to rescue his sister and to return home in safety. - - - -Needless to point out, that in these two tales we have parallels to -the famous legend of the hoopoe in the Solomonic cycle. In it Solomon -orders all the birds to come and render homage; only one bird does -not appear at the proper time. It comes in very late, limp, tired -and exhausted, and excuses itself by telling Solomon of its long -flight from the court of the Queen of Sheba, to whom King Solomon -then sends a message by means of the same bird. But we are not told -in this story anything of the origin of the bird, except that it is -described as one leading the travellers to the places in the other -world which they wish to reach. Another very elaborate fairy tale -gives us the origin of the lark. - - - - - - - - -LXXX. - -WHY DO LARKS FLY TOWARDS THE SUN? - -The Story of the Princess and her Love for the Sun. - - -A very long time ago, so long indeed that no one can remember when -it happened, there lived a king and queen. They had everything which -their heart desired, except that they had no children. They were good -and charitable people, and distributed alms and prayed, but all in -vain. At last, when they had given up every hope, they were suddenly -blessed with a child. It was a little girl, and she was so sweet and -so beautiful that they called her Little Light. The parents could not -see enough of her, and so they kept her in their palace all the time, -until one day her mother allowed her to go out into the garden. - -In the wall of the garden there was a small gate leading into a -beautiful meadow. The young princess opened the gate and went into -the meadow and looked around her, for she had never before been out -of her rooms. She rejoiced at the flowers and birds and animals, but -more than anything was she pleased with the sight of the sinking sun, -and with the golden rays which he sent through the heavens. She was so -pleased with that sight that she went every day in the afternoon to -watch for the glorious sun and his golden rays. Thus one day passed, -and again another day, and she fell deeply in love with the sun, and -being in love, she decided that she must go and find him. So great -was her love that she did not look at any young man, and grew thinner, -weaker and sadder every day, until she could not bear it any longer; -and going to her parents, she said that she could not stay any longer -at home, and that she must go out into the world. The parents tried -in vain to keep her at home, but, seeing that all their efforts were -of no avail, they let her go, and she went. She took money and food -with her, and went along not knowing the right way. - -So long as the money and the food lasted she felt quite happy, but a -time came when both had come to an end, and she was in a very sore -plight, not knowing what to do. Moreover, she was frightened to go -alone, for she was in woman's clothes. Suddenly she found herself -in the midst of a wide field full of dead bodies. A battle had been -fought there, and the field was strewn with the dead. So she took -one of the uniforms of the soldiers, dressed herself up in a man's -garb, and, finding a horse, mounted on it and rode along with her face -turned towards the sinking sun. On the way she found then an old woman -dressed all in black, sitting close to a well, and weaving gossamer -and cobweb. She addressed her as the Black One, which seemed to please -the old woman, who told her to turn towards the rising sun until she -would come to a glass mountain; she would have to reach the top of -the mountain, and then she was sure to find her way to the palace -of the sun. She rode on and came to the glass mountain. When she had -reached the top, after having had the horse shod again at the bottom -of the hill, she found a palace, but it was not that of the sun. It was -inhabited by three sisters, who received her in very friendly fashion, -and treated her with great hospitality. Thinking that she was a man, -they all fell in love with her; but she told them she was a woman, -and they left her to continue her quest. Before leaving they gave her -a magic sword, which, if drawn half out of its sheath, killed half -the number of an army, and if drawn entirely, killed the entire army -of the enemy. By this means she was able to vanquish the enemies of -a great king, who, discovering her to be a girl, wanted to marry her; -but she escaped and continued her journey towards the rising sun. - -On the way she met with a very old man, whose white hair had grown -down to his ankles, and who was so weak that he could scarcely open -his mouth. Little Light washed him and fed him and cut his hair. When -he had eaten and felt himself refreshed, he told her which way to go; -then he gave her a piece of bread, and told her that on her way to the -palace a wild dog would come out against her; she must give him that -bread and none other, and before entering the palace she must drink -of the water of the fountain at the gate of the palace. A three-headed -dog met her, she gave him the bread, and he suddenly disappeared after -having eaten it. Then she went and drank of the water in the well, -and was able to look at the golden palace in front of her, which -was so radiant and so luminous that no human eye could look at it -without being blinded. Then she went into the palace, and there, in -the middle of the hall, who should be sitting at the table and eating -but the glorious sun, beautiful and luminous as only the sun can be? - -When Little Light saw him, she almost fainted with joy, but he also, -turning to her and seeing her beautiful face, felt himself drawn to -her, for he had never yet seen such a wonderful human being. There in -the hall was also the mother of the sun. When she saw Little Light, -she turned fiercely on her, and cursing her said, "O thou wicked child -of man, born of sin, thou hast come here to defile the immaculate -purity of my son and to lead him on to sin and wickedness. Thou shalt -no longer remain a human being, thou shalt become a bird flying as -high as to get near the sun, and there, seeing the beloved who cannot -be thine, thou shalt cry plaintively for him whom thou hast won and -yet lost." At that moment Little Light was changed into the lark, -which at the break of dawn, before the sun rises, flies up into the -sky trying to get as near as possible to the sun, and there cries -plaintively at the loss of her beloved. - - - - - - - - -LXXX. A. - -THE STORY OF THE LARK. - -Another Version. - - -A variant of this story tells us that after the girl had left the -king's palace and had gone on seeking for the sun, she came to a -river, and did not know how to cross it. Whilst she was sitting there -at the bank of the river, not knowing what to do, there came out of -the river a girl dressed in white, who told her that she would reach -the palace and yet not reach it; and as she spoke these words, there -came a bridge and spanned the river. The girl went across the bridge, -and going on in her journey, she came to a field where an old woman -was watching a flock of geese. Curious as old women are, this one -asked the girl what had brought her hither, and whither she was going, -and who she was. The girl answered politely, and the old woman, being -touched by her beauty, gave her a twig in her right hand and placed -a ring on her left hand, and told her to cross herself with the twig, -and then she would see what would happen. She did so, and she suddenly -felt herself lifted up high in the air and carried as fast as a thought -to some distant land. When she found herself again on the ground, she -saw the palace of the sun facing her, but the palace was surrounded by -a river, over whose waters, clear as tears, there was no bridge. An -old man carried the passengers across, but he had to be paid with -a silver coin. Those who did not pay had to wander round that river -for a year. Remembering the ring which the old woman had given her, -she offered it to the old man instead of a coin; he accepted it and -carried her across. On the other side a two-headed dog came out and -barked at her furiously. At his barking an old woman came out, who was -none other than the mother of the sun. The poor girl did not know who -it was; she might have been careful with her answer if she had. The -woman asked her who she was and what she had come for. The girl, who -was truthfulness itself, said in her simplicity that she had come to -see the sun whom she loved so much. When the old woman heard this, -she cursed her, and thus she became the lark flying about high in -the air, and trying in vain to reach her beloved. - - - -It is evident that we have here reminiscences of ancient myths, -which have assumed a very peculiar shape in the mind of the people. It -would be difficult to say whether these are survivals of Greek myths, -of Charon, who ferries the dead across the river, and other legends -connected with Apollo, or whether we have here later stories which -have lingered on in the Balkans and have then been carried across the -Danube. Whatever the connection, one cannot deny that we are dealing -here with materials closely akin to those which form the substance of -some parts of ancient Greek mythology, but in a modified form. Charon -has survived to this very day in the legends and in the folk-lore -of modern Greece, no less than in that of Macedonia and the other -peoples of the Balkans. It is curious, however, that in this tale no -blending with Christianity has taken place. We find various layers of -religious belief which seem to have been superimposed upon one another, -each one as it were leading an independent life of its own, seldom -mixing to such an extent that the line of demarcation between what, -in the absence of another term, one might call heathen mythology and -Christian mythology or legendary lore. - - - - - - - - -LXXXI. - -THE WOOING OF THE SISTER OF THE SUN. - -A Christmas Carol. - - - White flowers, O Ler, [4] - What cloud appears on the horizon? - It is not a cloud, a black cloud, - But a young man - On a yellow charger. - The saddle glitters like gold; - The stirrups shine like silver; - The whip with a beautiful handle; - And bells tinkling on his reins. - He is gone to hunt-- - To hunt, to woo. - He met a beautiful maid, - The like of whom there is not in the world. - It was the queen of the fairies-- - Iana, the sister of the Sun. - He met her, - He took hold of her, - And in his cellar he hid her-- - In the cellar of the peacocks. - The Sun, as soon as he got wind of it, - Sent immediately after her - The morning dawn to search, - The twilight stars to seek. - But the young man, - What did he say? - "For what are you searching, - Dawn of the morning? - And what are you seeking, - Stars of the evening? - Go into every nook, - But beware of the cellar. - If a peacock will escape, - I will take one of the sun's steeds instead. - And if a hen will escape, - I will wed his sister. - For I have found her, - I have taken her, - And into my house I brought her." - This the young man-- - May he keep in good health, - With his brother, - And his parents, - And with all of us together. - - -This belongs to the series of the sun myths, curiously connected -here also with the peacock. I am not aware of any parallel to this -legend. Here a young man tries to woo the sister of the sun. In -the lark stories it is the young girl who wishes to marry the sun, -represented as a young man. They all belong to the same cycle, into -which apparently so far the Christian element is absent. The remarkable -part of it is, that this and the other songs are Christmas carols, -connected probably with the Festival of the Sun with which Christmas -was originally connected. It is the time of the winter solstice and -the birth of the new sun. This probably explains the part which the -sun legend plays in so many Rumanian Christmas carols. - - - - - - - - -LXXXII. - -THE WOOING OF A FAIRY. - -A Christmas Carol. - - - Here, O Lord; there, O Lord, - In these houses, in these palaces and yards, - There have grown, O Lord, - Grown two tall apple trees. - Wonderful they are, - Joined in their roots, - United and entwined in their tops - The tree reaches up to the sky, - The bark is of silver, - And the fruit of gold. - But the fruit - Could not be plucked, - Through the threat of the Black Sea, - For the Sea was boasting, - And with its mouth saying: - "Who is here in the world - Who would dare to shoot at my apples?" - No one was found; - No one dares. - But when he heard the boast of the Sea, - Went home quickly to his house, - Went up the stairs, - Took the bow from the nail-- - The bow with the arrows-- - Placed them in his bosom, - And riding on his black charger, - He came to the Sea. - Arrived at the Sea, - He put his hand into his bosom, - Drew forth - The bow with the arrows, - And pointed the arrow to the tree. - The tops of the apple-tree-- - The wonderful apples-- - Thus spake to him: - "Stop. Do not shoot, - For we will give thee - The sister of the sun, - The niece of the fairies, the beauty among the beauties," - He was persuaded, - And did not shoot the apples. - He mounted his charger, - Took his bow and arrow, - And turned back. - He had not gone a long way, - When he looked back, - And what he saw filled him with wonderment; - For there came, - There ran a pale-faced damsel. - She neither laughed - Nor rejoiced, - But wept bitterly, tearing her golden hair, - Scratching her white face. - But the knight said to her: - "Stop, O Princess. - Stop, O Queen. - I do not take thee - For a slave to me, - But my mistress shalt thou be, - A good mistress of the house, - A good ruler - Of the household, - A niece - To uncles, - A sister-in-law to brothers, - A daughter-in-law to parents, - Dispenser at the treasury, - Mistress of my wealth." - The girl, hearing his words, - Ceased from crying, - And joined him joyfully. - And ... the brave man, may he live in health with his brothers, - With his parents, - And with all of us together. - - -We have here again the intertwined trees of the Tristram and Isolde -legend; the special golden apples of Hesperides fame, and even since -of the fairy tales. In the latter, the golden apple represents often -the palace of the giant, with all the treasures that it contains, -and the possession of the apple brings with it the possession of the -princess. The Black Sea plays here a part, which reminds one of the -raging sea in the pilgrimage of the soul. But what is of importance -here is that the princess is called "the sister of the sun." - - - - - - - - -LXXXIII. - -WHERE DID THE SWAN COME FROM? - -The Story of the Swan Maiden and the King. - - -This is in its essence the well-known story of the swan-maidens, -but with a very marked difference. It is here used more or less to -describe the origin of the swan, whilst the tale of the swan-maiden -presupposes the existence and knowledge of such birds. - -The version, which I have been able to find is, however, not complete; -still it is clear enough for our purpose. It runs as follows: - - - -Once upon a time a king went out hunting, and after he had been -hunting in the forest for a long time without finding anything, he -found himself suddenly in an open plain, in which there was a huge -lake, and in the midst of the lake he saw there a bird swimming about, -the like of which he had never seen before. It was a swan. - -Drawing his bow, he wanted to shoot it. To his surprise it spoke to -him in a human voice, and said, "Do not kill me." So he tried his -best to catch it, and succeeded. Pleased with the capture of the bird, -he carried it home alive, and gave it to the cook to kill it to make -a meal of it for him. The cook was a Gipsy. She whetted her knife -and went to the bird to cut its throat, when, to her astonishment, -the bird turned three somersaults, and there stood before her a most -beautiful maiden, more beautiful than she had ever seen before. So -she ran to the king and told him what had happened. - -The king, who first thought that the cook was trying to play some -trickery with him, did not listen to her, but when she persisted -in her tale, the king, driven by curiosity, went into the kitchen, -and there he saw a girl more beautiful than any that he had ever yet -set his eyes upon. - -He asked her who she was, and she said she was the swan who was -swimming on the lake, that she had wilfully gone away from her mother, -who lived in the land of fairies, and that she had left two sisters -behind. So the king took her into the palace and married her. The -Gipsy, who was a pretty wench, had thought that the king would marry -her, and when she saw what had happened, she was very angry. But she -managed to conceal her anger, and tried to be kind to the new queen, -biding her time all the while. - -The king and queen lived on for a while in complete happiness, and -after a time a child was born unto her. - -It so happened that the king had to go on a long journey, leaving the -wife and child in the care of the Gipsy. One day the Gipsy came to the -queen, and said to her, "Why do you always sit in the palace? come, -let us walk a little in the garden, to hear the birds singing, -and to see the beautiful flowers." The queen, who had no suspicion, -took the advice of the Gipsy, and went with her for a walk into the -garden. In the middle of the garden there was a deep well, and the -Gipsy said artfully to the young queen, "Just bend over the well, -and look into the water below, and see whether your face has remained -so beautiful as it was on the first day when you turned into a maiden -from being a swan." - -The queen bent over the well to look down into the depths, and that -was what the Gipsy was waiting for, for no sooner did the queen bend -over the well, than, getting hold of her by her legs, she threw her -down head foremost into the well and drowned her. When the king came -home and did not find the queen, he asked what had happened, and where -she was. The Gipsy, who had meanwhile taken charge of the child, and -looked after it very carefully, said to the king that the young queen, -pining for her old home, had turned again into a swan and flown away. - -The king was deeply grieved when he heard this, but believing what -the Gipsy had told him, he thought that nothing could be done, and -resigned himself to the loss of his wife. - -The Gipsy woman looked after the child with great care, hoping -thereby that she might win the king's love, and that he would marry -her. A month, a year passed, and nothing was heard of the wife. And -the king, seeing the apparent affection of the Gipsy for the child, -decided at last to marry her, and fixed the day of the wedding. Out -of the fountain into which the queen had been thrown, there grew -a willow tree with three branches, one stem in the middle and two -branching out right and left. Not far from the garden there lived a -man who had a large flock of sheep. One day he sent his boy to lead -the sheep to the field. On his way the boy passed the king's garden -with the well in the middle of it. - -As the boy had left his flute at home, when he saw the willow he -thought he would cut one of the branches and make a flute. - -Going into the garden, he cut the middle stem, and made a flute of -it. When he put it to his lips, the flute by itself began to play as -follows: "O boy, do not blow too hard, for my heart is aching for -my little babe which I left behind in the cradle, and to suckle at -the black breast of a Gipsy." When the boy heard what the flute was -playing, not understanding what it meant, he was greatly astonished, -and ran home to tell his father what had happened with the flute. - -The father, angry that he had left the sheep alone, scolded him, and -took away the flute. Then he tried to see whether the boy had told the -truth. As soon as he put it to his mouth the flute started playing -the same tune as when the boy had tried to play it. The father said -nothing, and wondering at the meaning of the words he hid the flute -away in a cupboard. - -When the king's wedding-day drew near, all the musicians of the kingdom -were invited to come and play at the banquet. Some of them passed -the old man's house, and hearing from them that they were going to -play at the king's banquet, he remembered the marvellous flute, and -he asked whether he could not go also, as he could play the flute so -wonderfully well. His son--the young boy--had meanwhile gone into the -garden in the hope of getting another flute, as the willow had three -branches. So he cut one of the branches and made a flute of it. Now -this flute did not play at all. - -When the old man came to the palace, there was much rejoicing and -singing. At last his turn came to play. As soon as he put the flute -to his lips, the flute sang: "O man, do not blow so hard, for my -heart aches for my little babe left in the cradle to be suckled by -a black Gipsy." - -The Gipsy, who was the king's bride and sat at the head of the table, -at once understood the saying of the flute, although she did not know -what the flute had to do with the queen whom she had killed. - -The king, who marvelled greatly at the flute and at the tune which it -was singing, took a gold piece and gave it to the man for the flute, -and when he started blowing it, the flute began to sing: "O my dear -husband, do not blow so hard, for my heart aches for our little babe -whom I left in the cradle to be suckled by the black Gipsy. Quickly, -quickly, do away with this cruel Gipsy, as otherwise thou wilt lose -thy wife." - -The guests who were present marvelled at the song, and no one -understood its meaning. The Gipsy, however, who understood full well -what it meant, turning to the king, said, "Illustrious king, do not -blow this flute and make thyself ridiculous before thy guests, throw -it into the fire." But the king, who felt offended by the words of -the Gipsy, made her take up the flute and blow. With great difficulty -she submitted to the order of the king, and she was quite justified -in refusing to play it, for no sooner had she put the flute to her -lips when it sang: "You enemy of mine, do not blow hard, for my heart -aches for my little babe left in the cradle to be suckled by thee, -thou evil-minded Gipsy. Thou hast thrown me into the well, and there -put an end to my life, but God had pity on me, and he has preserved -me to be again the true wife of this illustrious king." - -Furious at these words, the Gipsy threw the flute away with so much -force that she thought it would break into thousands of splinters. But -it was not to be as she thought, for by this very throw the flute was -changed into a beautiful woman, more beautiful, indeed, than any had -ever seen before. She was the very queen whom the Gipsy had thrown -into the well. - -When the king saw her, he embraced her and kissed her, and asked her -where she had been such a long time. She told him that she had slept -at the bottom of the well into which she had been thrown by the Gipsy, -who had hoped to become the queen, and this would have come to pass -had it not been for the boy cutting a flute out of the stem of the -willow-tree. "And now, punish the Gipsy as she deserves, otherwise -thy wife must leave thee." - -When the king heard these words, he called the boy and asked him -whether he had cut himself a flute from the stem of the willow tree -which had grown out of the well in the garden. - -"It is so, O illustrious king;" said the boy, "and may I be forgiven -for the audacity of going into the king's garden. I went and cut for -myself a flute from the stem of the willow tree, and when I began -to blow it, it played, 'Do not blow so hard, O boy, for my heart is -aching within me,' etc." Then he told him he had gone back to his -father, who instead of praising him for the marvellous flute, gave -him a good shaking. He had then gone a second time into the garden, -and had cut off one of the branches to make a flute; but this did -not play like the first one. The king gave the boy a very rich gift, -and he ordered the Gipsy to be killed. - -Some time afterwards, the queen came to the king and asked leave to -go to her mother to tell her all that had happened to her, and to -say good-bye for ever now, as she henceforth would live among human -beings. The king reluctantly gave way. She then made three somersaults, -and again became a swan, as she had been when the king found her for -the first time on the waters of the lake. - -Spreading her wings she flew far away until she reached the house of -her mother, who was quite alone. Her two sisters were not there. They -had left her some time ago and no one knew whither they had gone. The -young queen did not go into the house, she was probably afraid lest her -mother would not let her go back again, so she settled on the roof, -and there she sang: "Remain in health, good mother mine, as the joy -is no longer granted thee to have me with thee in thine house, for -thou wilt only see me again when I lose my kingdom, dear mother mine, -not before, and not till then." And without waiting for the answer -of her mother she returned back again to her husband. Sitting on the -window sill, she sung again: "Rise up, O husband, open the doors, wake -up the servants and let them be a witness of my faithfulness to thee, -for since I have married thee I have left my mother, and my sisters -have gone away from me, and from a swan I have become a true wife to -live in happiness with thee. Henceforth I shall no longer be a swan, -but thou must take care of me that I do not go hence from thee. I -do not know whether my fate will be a better one by being a queen in -this world. O sweet water, how I long to bathe in thee! And my white -feathers, they will belong to my sisters. Since I am to leave them -for ever, and my mother with them, O Lord, what have I done? Shall I -be able to live upon the earth, and shall I keep the kingdom? Thou, O -Lord, O merciful, hearken unto me and grant that this kingdom may not -be in vain." And turning again head over heels, she became a woman as -before, and entering the palace she lived there with her husband--the -king--and if they have not died since they are still alive. - - - -Here we have the origin of the swans, for since that time the swans -have come to this world. - -It is a remarkable tale, in which the element of the swan-maiden -story has been mixed up with the type of the false wife. It claims, -however, special attention, for we have here what I believe to be -"the song of the dying swan." It is practically the song of the swan -before her death as a swan, and her rebirth as a fairy maiden, which -is contained in the concluding portion. - -I am not aware of any other parallel to this peculiar song, although -the fable that the swan sings a very beautiful song before his death -is well known from antiquity. - -Here follows another version of the swan legend in the form of -a ballad. - - - - - - - - -LXXXIV. - -THE SWAN MAIDEN, THE BIRD OF HEAVEN AND THE CROWN OF PARADISE. - -A Christmas Carol. - - - High up on the top of the mountains, - On the brow of the rocks, - At the gates of the fairies, - On the land of Neculea, - Appeared a white swan - Sent by God, - Selected by God. - She has been flying under the heavens, - And settled on the rock. - She turned off from her flight, - And fell near the brave, - For he is to wed - The little white swan. - The king's son, as soon as he saw her, - Was wounded at his heart, - And spake as follows: - "O thou white fairy, - O thou beautiful swan, - I will bathe thee in a bath of white milk, - So that thou shouldst not be able to depart." - The swan replied, and said: - "Young son of kings, - I will not be bathed, - For I am not a white swan, - But the fairy from heaven, - From the gate of Paradise." - The prince, when he heard her, - His love burned in him fiercely - And what did he say with his mouth? - "O thou white little swan, - O thou beautiful fairy, - Stay here and be my wife." - The swan answered and replied, - And thus spake with her mouth: - "I will wed thee, - And remain as wife to thee, - If thou wilt go, - If thou wilt bring me - The bird of heaven - And the crown of Paradise. - The bird which sings in heaven with sweet and beautiful speech, - To which God Almighty and the angels listen constantly, - Singing among the trees in bloom, - And some laden with ripe fruit; - And the crown of Paradise, - Of the Paradise of God, - Woven of jasmine, - With the fruits of virginity." - When the prince heard her words, - He went to his stable-yard of stone, - Brought forth his whole stud--a great company-- - And he started on his journey - On the road - Where the sun rises. - Nine horses he made lame, - Other nine horses he broke ere he arrived at the mansion of - the Lord, - At the gate of Paradise. - Who came there to meet him? - St. Basile came to meet him, - Came to try him, and to ask him - What might be his wish? - What might be in his mind? - The prince replied and said: - "The Holy God has selected for me, - The Holy God has sent to me - A wonderful swan to wed me, - But she will not marry me - Until she wears - The crown of Paradise, - The crown of our Lord, - Woven with jasmine, - With fruits of virgin maidens. - She will not marry me, - Unless at our wedding sings - The bird of heaven and the Lord's bird, - Which discourses here in Paradise, - With such sweet and charming speech, - In between the blooming trees-- - Some decked with flowers, - Others laden with fruit-- - And the Lord - And the angels listen constantly." - Thus spake the Prince, - Praying very deeply, - And shed tears all the while. - St. Basile had mercy on him. - He gave him the bird - And the crown. - He then returned to - The crest of the mountains, - The valley of Neculea. - There he set the bird free, - And placed the crown upon the altar, - And he spake thus: - "Come forth, my beautiful swan, - Come forth, my wonderful fairy. - Behold the crown, - And listen to the bird; - For the crown is that of Paradise, - From the mansions of the Lord; - And the bird is the bird of heaven, - From among the trees of Paradise." - When the swan came forth, it turned into a maiden fair; - The crown leapt on to her head; - The bird began to sing, - With sweet and beautiful song, - The song of heaven. - They went to church, - And the priest married them. - Who was his sponsor? - Who but St. John, - Who stood sponsor to Jesus. - He blessed them, - And gave them, - To each one gifts, - To her a small cross, - As well as a small Ikon; - To him a staff of silver, - To rule over the whole world, - To have power upon earth. - And this young bride - With golden tresses - That shone like the sun's rays, - Together with her groom, - Young and brave, - May they live - For many years - With happy cheer and with health, - Together with their brothers - And with their parents. - - -Here we have a remarkable "carol," full of mystical lore, in which the -swan-like maiden in the tale is really a fairy in disguise. The bird -of heaven, and the crown of paradise, and all the rest stand here for -the tests which often are found in fairy tales. The hero must first -win these mythical beings before he can obtain the love of the maiden, -or probably before she can turn from a swan into a human being, and -remain as such. We have here thus a version of the large cycle of the -Swan Maiden (v. Cosquin, ii. 16; Saineanu, p. 264 ff.). Such miraculous -birds occur very often in Rumanian (v. Saineanu, p. 410 ff.). - - - - - - - - -LXXXV. - -WHY DOES THE DUCK FEED ON REFUSE? - -The Story of the Cannibal Innkeeper. - - -This is more or less a fairy tale, but of a very complicated -character. Various elements are combined in it. It begins as do many -tales, with the fact that a couple had a child after many years: -that child is a beautiful girl, who, left as an orphan, dresses up in -a man's clothes, works at the house of a rich man, where she after a -time resumes her character as a girl: the chieftain of robbers falls -in love with her, but when he asks his companions to go and steal -her away from her master, everyone refuses. He then goes himself, -disguised as a servant: he stays for some time in the same house: -when he asks her to marry him, she refuses. His attempts at stealing -her are frustrated by a little dog which she had received from her -parents. One night he succeeds in catching the dog, and, assisted by -some of his comrades whom he had summoned for the purpose, he is able -to carry her away to his house. There she refuses again to marry him, -and when he finds that neither good words, nor threats, nor beating -make her change her mind, he gets so furious that he decides to sell -her to a wild and cruel innkeeper who lives some distance away. - -Now this innkeeper used to rob the travellers: then he used to kill -them, cut them in pieces, and, after having cooked them, he gave -their flesh to his customers to eat. When he received the girl he -took her first into a very large room, in which there was only a table -and chairs round it. That was the room where he used to feed all the -travellers who came to him. Then he took her into another apartment -which was full of gold and silver and vestments of silk, and round the -walls were hanging weapons of all kinds, all robbed from the people -who had lodged in that place, and whom he had murdered. Then he took -her into a third room. There was a pillar, and on it were hanging two -knives and an axe, with which he used to kill and cut up his victims; -and along the walls there were hooks, and on each hook a human head. He -showed all these things to the girl, who was greatly frightened, -and who expected now to be killed by this cruel man. But he somehow -seemed to have taken some pity on her, or perhaps he wanted to keep -her for some time longer; whatever the reason, he took her and pushed -her into another room, quite behind all these rooms, and locked the -door upon her; and he told her to wait until he came back, and she was -to do all that she was told. She had taken the little dog with her, -and that seemed to comfort her. Soon afterwards he brought in a boy -whom he had captured in the forest gathering berries, and taking him -into an inner apartment he cut his head off, and cut him in pieces, -and calling the girl in, he told her to take the meat and cook it and -get it ready for the customers whom he was expecting. When the people -came, he fed them in his usual way with human flesh. The people did -not know what manner of food it was they were getting, but they seemed -to like it; then he did with these guests what he had done with all -the others, and so it went on day after day, the poor girl was kept -there locked up and helping to prepare the food of the chopped-up men. - -One day a very old woman was brought in, whom the man had bought, -but she was so ugly and so wizened that one could scarcely recognise -a human countenance. Not knowing who she was, the wild man thrust her -into the chamber where the young girl was: very likely he wanted to -kill her later on, as he had killed all the others, but possibly he -wanted first to feed her up, as she was only skin and bones. When the -young girl saw that bag of bones, she was very frightened; but the old -woman spoke in friendly fashion to her, and asked her who she was and -how she came to be in that house, telling her at the same time that she -was a great witch, she could do anything, change everything, and that -she had cursed her son for his cruelty, when he was still a young boy, -and that she had come now to punish him. She had disguised herself in -this ugly form, for she knew that if her son recognised her he would -not wait long, but would kill her at once without mercy. The girl then -told her her pitiful tale, and begged of her to save her. She told her -what a terrible life she was leading, how she had been fed on human -flesh, and that he was probably only waiting for an opportunity to -kill her also and to give her flesh to others to be eaten. The old -woman took pity on her, and told her she need not fear; though her -son had put her in the innermost recess and there was no outlet, yet -she would be able to escape. She must kill the little dog, and taking -out a small bit from the heart was to swallow it. While she was doing -it, the old woman took out some ointment from her bosom and began to -rub her with it all over her body, when she suddenly became changed -into a duck. There she sat quietly in a corner, and when the wild man -came and opened the door she flew away and escaped into the open. The -man looked round, and not finding the girl he went all over the place -searching for her. At that moment the mother followed him out of that -room, and uttered a terrible curse, on which the whole house fell -down over him and killed him. When the duck had flown some distance -away, she turned back to see what had happened, for the old woman had -foretold her that she was going to destroy it. When she turned round -she saw the heap of ruins, but as the old woman had not told her how -she could again become a human being, the spell remained unbroken, -and she has remained a duck to this very day. - -It is for this reason that ducks are so fat, and they seek their food -among the dead bodies and dirty places. - - - -It will be seen that we have here a remarkable parallel of the -Bluebeard story, but in a much more primitive form, for this Bluebeard -does not kill only his wives, but he kills indiscriminately all those -upon whom he can lay his hands, and then he uses the flesh of his -victims for food. There are dim recollections of cannibalism in this -tale, which in a way also reminds us of Polyphemus, who keeps Ulysses -and his companions for the purpose of killing them and eating them, -and the same story is found in another form in the adventures of -Sindbad the Sailor. - - - - - - - - -LXXXVI. - -WHY HAS THE STORK NO TAIL? - -The Story of the Water of Life and Death. - - -This tale, though part of a longer fairy tale, is still complete -in itself. - - - -The hero of the tale, Floria, having shown some kindness to a stork, -who afterwards turns out to be the king of the storks, receives from -him a feather, which when taken up at any time of danger would bring -the stork to him and help him. And thus it came to pass that the hero, -finding himself at one time in danger, remembered the gift of the -stork. He took out the feather from the place where he had hidden it, -and waved it. At once the stork appeared and asked Floria what he -could do for him. He told him the king had ordered him to bring the -water of life and the water of death. [5] - -The stork replied that if it could possibly be got he would certainly -do it for him. Returning to his palace, the stork, who was the king -of the storks, called all the storks together, and asked them whether -they had seen or heard or been near the mountains that knock against -one another, at the bottom of which are the fountains of the water -of life and death. - -All the young and strong looked at one another, and not even the -oldest one ventured to reply. He asked them again, and then they -said they had never heard or seen anything of the waters of life and -death. At last there came from the rear a stork, lame on one foot, -blind in one eye, and with a shrivelled-up body, and with half of -his feathers plucked out. And he said, "May it please your majesty, -I have been there where the mountains knock one against the other, -and the proofs of it are my blinded eye and my crooked leg." When -the king saw him in the state in which he was, he did not even take -any notice of him. - -Turning to the other storks, he said: "Is there any one among you who, -for my sake, will run the risk and go to these mountains and bring the -water?" Not one of the young and strong, and not even any of the older -ones who were still strong replied. They all kept silence. But the lame -stork said to the king, "For your sake, O Master King, I will again -put my life in danger and go." The king again did not look at him, -and turning to the others repeated his question; but when he saw that -they all kept silence, he at last turned to the stork and said to him: - -"Dost thou really believe, crippled and broken as thou art, that thou -wilt be able to carry out my command?" - -"I will certainly try," he said. - -"Wilt thou put me to shame?" the king again said. - -"I hope not; but thou must bind on my wings some meat for my food, -and tie the two bottles for the water to my legs." - -The other storks, on hearing his words, laughed at what they thought -his conceit, but he took no notice of it. The king was very pleased, -and did as the stork had asked. He tied on his wings a quantity of -fresh meat, which would last him for his journey, and the two bottles -were fastened to his legs. He said to him, "A pleasant journey." The -stork, thus prepared for his journey, rose up into the heavens, and -away he went straight to the place where the mountains were knocking -against one another and prevented any one approaching the fountains of -life and death. It was when the sun had risen as high as a lance that -he espied in the distance those huge mountains which, when they knocked -against one another, shook the earth and made a noise that struck -fear and terror into the hearts of those who were a long distance away. - -When the mountains had moved back a little before knocking against -one another, the stork wanted to plunge into the depths and get the -water. But there came suddenly to him a swallow from the heart of -the mountain, and said to him, "Do not go a step further, for thou -art surely lost." - -"Who art thou who stops me in my way?" asked the stork angrily. - -"I am the guardian spirit of these mountains, appointed to save every -living creature that has the misfortune to come near them." - -"What am I to do then to be safe?" - -"Hast thou come to fetch water of life and death?" - -"Yes." - -"If that be so, then thou must wait till noon, when the mountains rest -for half an hour. As soon as thou seest that a short time has passed -and they do not move, then rise up as high as possible into the air, -and drop down straight to the bottom of the mountain. There, standing -on the ledge of the stone between the two waters, dip thy bottles into -the fountains and wait until they are filled. Then rise as thou hast -got down, but beware lest thou touchest the walls of the mountain or -even a pebble, or thou art lost." - -The stork did as the swallow had told him; he waited till noontide, -and when he saw that the mountains had gone to sleep, he rose up into -the air, and, plunging down into the depth, he settled on the ledge of -the stone and filled his bottles. Feeling that they had been filled, -he rose with them as he had got down, but when he had reached almost -the top of the mountains, he touched a pebble. No sooner had he done -so, when the two mountains closed furiously upon him; but they did -not catch any part of him, except the tail, which remained locked up -fast between the two peaks of the mountains. - -With a strong movement he tore himself away, happy that he had saved -his life and the two bottles with the waters of life and death, -not caring for the loss of his tail. - -And he returned the way he had come, and reached the palace of the king -of the storks in time for the delivery of the bottles. When he reached -the palace, all the storks were assembled before the king, waiting to -see what would happen to the lame and blind one who had tried to put -them to shame. When they saw him coming back, they noticed that he -had lost his tail, and they began jeering at him and laughing, for he -looked all the more ungainly, from having already been so ugly before. - -But the king was overjoyed with the exploit of his faithful messenger; -and he turned angrily on the storks and said, "Why are you jeering -and mocking? Just look round and see where are your tails. And you -have not lost them in so honourable a manner as this my faithful -messenger." On hearing this they turned round, and lo! one and all -of them had lost their tails. - -And this is the reason why they have remained without a tail to this -very day. - - - -Compare the story of the lark, No. 78, who alone of all the birds obeys -the king's command; for the story of the stork, the only bird that can -reach the fountains of life and death, v. Cosquin (i. No. 3, p. 48). - - - - - - - - -LXXXVII. - -WHY HAS THE SWALLOW A FORKED TAIL AND A RED SPOT ON ITS BREAST? - -The Story of the Young Maiden and her Husband the Demon. - - -Once upon a time there was a widow who had one only child. She had a -flock of sheep and a magic dog. The widow died, and the girl was left -quite alone. So she took the flock of sheep and went to feed them in -the mountain, accompanied only by her faithful little dog. After some -time, there came also to the same pastures a young shepherd leading -his flock. Before leaving, the girl had put on man's clothes, and -so when the other shepherd, who was the son of a she-demon, came, -they got very friendly, and the girl often went with her flock to -spend the night in the house of the demon. She did not know who the -other shepherd was, nor who was his mother. After a time, the young -man began to feel suspicious about his comrade, and he said to his -mother, "Methinks my friend is a girl, despite his man's clothes; -his gait and his speech are just like that of a maiden." The mother -would not listen; but after a time, when the son went on saying that he -believed his mate to be a maiden, she said to him, "Very well, then, -we will put him to the test, and we can easily find out what he is. I -will take a special flower and put it under his pillow, and if it is -faded in the morning he is for sure a maiden." The dog, who knew what -the old woman was up to, called the girl aside and told her: "Listen -to me, my mistress. Follow my advice, it will go well with thee. The -old dragon is going to put a flower under thy pillow as soon as thou -hast gone to bed; now keep awake, take it out from under the pillow -and put it on the pillow. Early in the morning, before any one else is -awake, put it back under the pillow, and nothing will happen to thee." - -The girl did as the dog had told her. She took the flower from under -her pillow, and kept it on her pillow all through the night, and put -it back again early in the morning. The old woman afterwards took the -flower out; she found it was even fresher than it had been the night -before. So she told her son that he must be mistaken. His companion -could not be a maiden. He persisted in his belief despite of it, -and so the woman said to him, "Go and ask your companion to bathe, -and if he is eager to do so, be sure it is not a girl; but if he -makes any difficulties, you will know that you are right." - -The dog, who knew of the plotting of the old woman, told the girl to -put on a pleasant face, and not to hesitate to go to the river with her -companion, "for," he said, "no sooner will you be near the water than I -will get among the flock, and so you will have to jump up and run after -the sheep, and there will be no more question of bathing." As the dog -said, so he did, and again the young man did not know what to make of -his companion. The mother then told him to go with his companion to -the forest, and to find a big tree, and to ask his companion what it -would be good for. If he replied for distaff and spindle, then it is -a girl; but if he answered it was good to make carts out of, then it -was a boy." So he took her into the forest, and, finding a big tree, -he asked her what could be best made out of the wood. The girl replied -"carts." When the girl saw that the boy troubled her too much, she went -to the sea-shore, and, smiting the waves with her shepherd's staff, -she rent the waters in twain, and passed dryshod with her flock and -dog to the other shore of the sea. The other shepherd--the demon--came -to the sea-shore just when she had already passed over to the other -side. She removed her fur cap, and her long golden hair fell down -to her knees. Then she moved her wand, and the waters again closed -up. When he saw that she had escaped him, he was very angry, and he -went to his mother and told her all that had happened. She said to him, -"Do not mind; I will help you to get her into your hands." So the old -woman went to the sea and built there a huge ship. This she filled -with all kinds of merchandise, and told the young man to sail in it -across the sea, and try and find his beloved; and she told him how -to get hold of her when he had found her. So sailing along in the -boat he got across, and anchored near a great town. The people came -out to look at the wares which he had brought. The last to come--led -by curiosity--was the girl. As soon as he saw that she had entered -the boat, he set sail, and off he went. When the girl saw what had -happened, she recognised him, and, finding herself in his power, she -offered no resistance. But when they were in the middle of the sea, -she took off the ring which she had on her finger, and, casting it -into the sea, she said to him, "From this day onward I shall remain -dumb. I shall not speak to thee until this ring is brought back to me"; -and she kept her word faithfully. For many a year she lived with him, -but never spoke a word. One day her mother-in-law thought that it -would be better to get rid of her. As she herself dared not kill her, -she sent the girl with a message to her elder sister to bring her -the sword and the threads, knowing full well that her sister would -kill her. When her husband heard the errand on which she was sent, -he came out quietly, and, meeting her outside the house, he whispered: - -"When you go to my mother's sister, she is sure to offer you some -food; take the first bite, and keep it under your tongue. Then -you may eat; otherwise you will be lost." The girl never replied, -but listened attentively to what he had said. So she came to the old -crone, who was ever so much worse than her own mother-in-law, and she -certainly was bad enough. As soon as she entered the house, the young -woman greeted her. Great was the surprise of the old woman, who said, -"Now who is to believe my sister; she made that girl out to be dumb, -and now she speaks so sweetly. Come in, my child." - -Then she went out, killed a cock, grilled it, and gave it to her -to eat. - -The young woman, remembering her husband's advice, took the first -bite and put it under her tongue; then she sat down and made a -hearty meal of the cock. When she had finished, the old woman said, -"I do not have the sword or the threads; they are with my younger -sister. She lives not very far from here; you just go to her." - -Taking leave, she went a little way further, and she came to the -second sister, who was worse than the other. She saluted her when -she came in, and this sister also said: - -"How is one to believe your mother-in-law? She made you out to be dumb, -and now you speak so sweetly and so nicely. What have you come for?" - -She said, "I have come for the sword and the threads." - -"Sit down and eat, my child," she said, and, going out, she took a -young lamb and killed it and prepared it for her. Remembering the -advice given to her, she put the first bite under her tongue, and -then she went on eating until she had satisfied her hunger. - -When she had finished eating, the old woman said, "I do not have that -sword; it is with my younger sister. You must go further; she lives -quite close by, and she will give it to you." - -So she went to the third sister, and greeting this third one, who was -the worst of all and the ugliest of all, said to her, "Sit down and -eat." Then she took out the hand of a dead man and gave it to her to -eat. But this the wife could not do. - -Meanwhile the old woman had gone up into the loft of the house, -saying she was going to fetch the spade, but in reality to watch the -young woman to see what she was doing. - -When she was left alone, she took the hand and threw it under -the hearth. Then came a voice from the loft crying. "Hand, hand, -where art thou?" and from under the hearth the hand replied, "Here -I am under the hearth." So she turned on the young woman and said, -"You eat this or something worse will happen to you; I am going to -eat you." She was very frightened; so she took it and put it in her -bosom under her girdle. And again the old woman cried, "Hand, hand, -where art thou?" and the hand replied, "I am under her heart." The old -witch thought that she had eaten it, and coming down, she brought the -sword and gave it to her together with the threads. Before she left, -the old witch asked her to give her back the hand; so she put her hand -in her bosom, and drew out the dead hand and gave it back to her. And -so she had to let her go in peace, as she had retained nothing. - -Then, coming to the other sister, this one said to her, "Give me back -my lamb." The young woman heaved, and out came the little lamb quite -alive and started frolicking through the house. It was because she had -kept the first bite under her tongue. She therefore had to let her -go unharmed. Then she came to the eldest one. And she said to her, -"Give me back my cock," and then the young woman spat, and out came -the cock, running and crowing through the house. And so she came back -to her own house with the sword and the threads. - -Shortly before she had come, some fishermen had caught a large number -of fish, among them a huge fish which her husband had bought. When -he opened that fish, he found the ring which his wife had cast into -the sea. So, full of joy, he ran out to meet her and to give her the -ring. He embraced her with one hand, and with the other, which was full -of the blood of the fish, he stroked her chin gently, saying to her, -"O my dear little girl, here is thy ring." No sooner had he spoken -these words, when the woman was changed into a bird with a red breast, -the mark of the blood stains on her chin; then, breaking a pane of the -window (lit. an eye of the window), she flew away. Her husband tried -to catch hold of her, but he only got hold of the middle feathers of -the tail, which remained in his hand. The bird flew away. The young -woman had become a swallow. For that reason the tail looks like two -prongs of a fork, for the middle part was plucked out by the husband -in his attempt to catch her. - - - -In this legend we have a combination of many tales. The central -incident of the magical ring recovered from the depth of the sea -inside the fish, upon which the whole future depended, is somewhat -obscure in this tale. It is part of the Polykrates tale, but still -more so of the Solomonic legend, where the recovery of the ring means -the recovery of power by King Solomon. It is a curious romance, -in which Solomon is married as a poor man, i.e. in disguise, to a -princess, for his ring by which he was able to rule all the spirits -and demons had been cast into the sea by a demon and swallowed by a -fish. From that fish Solomon recovered it later on, and with it his -kingdom and power. The incident of the sword and the threads is an -obscure episode. No doubt it is a magical sword, by which the power -of the ogre is to be broken, and the threads are magical threads, -by which he is to be tied and made powerless. - - - - - - - - -LXXXVIII. - -WHY DOES THE SWALLOW LIVE IN HOT PLACES? - -The Story of the Swallow and Holy Mother Sunday. - - -In another tale the swallow was originally a servant of Holy -Sunday. Holy Sunday, going to church, told her servant, whom she had -left at home, that she was to prepare the dinner for her, and that -she should take care that it should neither be too hot nor too cold, -but just as she liked it best. The servant remaining at home did as -she was told; she cooked the dinner, but forgot to take the food off -the hob in time to get it cool enough for Holy Sunday when she came -home from church. - -When Holy Sunday came home and began to eat the food burned her -mouth, as it was too hot, having been left on the fire so much -too long. So she got very angry, and cursed the servant, saying, -"As thou hast not done my will and hast burned me with the food, -so mayest thou now be henceforth a bird burned and frizzled up by -the great heat of the places and the countries where thou shalt dwell." - -No sooner had Holy Sunday spoken these words, when the servant girl was -changed into a swallow, and therefore it makes its nest in the lofts -of houses where it is hottest, and travels the countries where the -sun is burning like fire, frizzling up the inhabitants with its heat. - - - -Holy Sunday is here merely a Christianised form of some of the older -divinities, who did not scruple at the slightest provocation to vent -their feelings and to punish their sub-ordinates without pity and -without mercy. - -It is not here the place to discuss the personification of the -days of the week in the form of divinities. They occur very often -in Rumanian legends and tales, and are in most cases described as -choleric old women, spiteful and revengeful. On rare occasions they -are helpful. They resemble much more the three parcae, Moirai or -Fates of the Roman and Greek mythology and the Norns of the Teutonic -mythology, than Christian saints. That these divinities are identified -with special days of the week belongs to that process of heretical -teaching to which I have referred already, and in which certain days -of the week are endowed with a peculiar character of sanctity; and -the apotheosis has reached such a degree that they are looked upon -as real saints. And the swallow still is looked upon as a more or -less sacred bird. According to popular belief, swallows will not -build nests in bewitched or cursed houses; to kill a swallow is -considered a heinous sin, almost tantamount to killing one's wife -and children. As the people believe that the swallow was originally -a girl, they refrain from eating it. They consider it wrong to eat -a swallow. They are also called "God's hens," and are a sign of luck -to the people where they build their nests. - - - - - - - - -LXXXIX. - -WHY IS THE DOVE A HOMING BIRD? - -The Story of the Bewitched Calf and the Wicked Step-mother. - - -It is very curious that, so far, very few tales and legends have been -collected referring to the dove, a bird which plays so prominent a part -in Ancient Greek and heathen worship. I have not been able hitherto to -discover more than passing references to the dove in legendary tales, -nor is there anything in Rumanian folk-lore that would explain the -origin of the dove. There is only one legend, which is in a way a -distinct variant of the Cinderella cycle. - -I will give it here briefly. - -The beginning agrees on the whole with the usual type. There is -the bad step-mother, who has an ugly daughter, and persecutes the -beautiful daughter of her second husband. Among other trials, besides -keeping her unkempt and dirty and sending her out to feed the cattle, -she gives her one day a bag full of hemp, and tells her that in the -evening she is to bring it home carded, spun, woven into cloth and -bleached. The poor girl did not know what to do. Her father had given -her a calf. This calf was "a wise one." So the calf came to the girl -and said, "Do not fear; look after the other cows: by the evening it -will be all ready." So it was. - -When she brought the white cloth home, her step-mother did not know -what to say. The next day she gave her two bags full of hemp, and again -the little calf worked at it and got it ready by the evening. When -the woman saw what had happened, she said, "This is uncanny; no human -being can do such work in one day. I must find out what is happening." - -The next morning she gave her three bags full of hemp and followed her -stealthily to the field to see what she was doing. There, hidden in -a bush, she overheard the conversation between the little calf and -the girl. Straightway she went home, put herself to bed, and said -that she was very ill and was sure to die. - -Her husband, coming home and finding her in what he thought was a very -sorry plight, believed that she was really very ill. She called him -to her bedside, and said, "I know I am dying; there is only one way, -however, by which I can be saved, and that is to kill the little calf -and to give me some of its meat roasted." The poor man did not know -what to do, and he said to his wife, "Why, that is all that my little -girl has, and if that calf is killed she will remain with nothing." - -"Do as you like," she replied, "if you prefer a calf to my life." The -little calf, which was "wise," knew what was going to happen, and -told the girl that the step-mother was sure to have it killed, but -she must not grieve. The only thing the calf wanted her to do was to -gather up all the bones after the meal, and to hide them in a hollow -of a tree not far from the field. Everything happened as the calf -had foretold, and on the next day the woman ate as one who had been -starving for a week, as ravenously as if the wolves were fighting at -her mouth. The old man also ate of the calf, but the girl refused to -touch the meat. After the meal was over she took all the bones and -put them in the hollow of a tree as she was told. - -Soon afterwards, the step-mother again put her to a trial. Going with -her husband and her own daughter to church, she left her at home in -her dirty clothes, and giving her a bag full of linseed and poppy-seed -mixed, she told her that she must sweep the room, get the meal ready, -wash the plates, clean the pots and separate the linseed from the -poppy seed. - -Now the bones of the calf had turned into three white doves. These -came to her and did all the work, and told her at the same time to -go to the hollow tree; there she would find a carriage and pair and -beautiful clothes waiting for her. She did so, went to church in state, -left before the others, and was at home to meet her people coming -back from church and found the house swept and clean, and the linseed -separated from the poppy seed. They spoke of the beautiful girl who -had come to church, and chided their poor daughter for staying at home. - -The second week the same thing happened. This time there were two -sacks of poppy seed and linseed which she had to separate. And again -the doves helped. And so on the third Sunday. The son of the squire, -who had seen her on the former two Sundays, tried to stop her on -her way out of church, and trod on her slipper, which was knocked -off her foot. She did not wait to recover it, but returned home -as fast as she could. The young man went round with the slipper to -find the person whom it would fit. When he came near the house, the -step-mother, fearing lest he see her step-daughter, hid her under a -big trough behind the door. When the young man, after having tried -the slipper on her daughter, whom it did not fit, asked whether there -was another girl in the house, and she replied, "None," but a cock -who was standing by began to sing: "O that old crone is telling lies; -there is another girl hidden under the trough behind the door." - -The young man, hearing the words of the cock, which the old woman -tried in vain to drive away, sent his servant into the house to find -out whether it was so. He lifted the trough and found there the other -girl, clothed in dirty rags and huddled up. The woman, seeing that the -girl had been discovered, said to the man, "Do not take any notice of -her; she is a dirty slut and an idiot." But the cock again sang out, -"O that old crone is telling lies; it is the daughter of the old man, -and she is very wise." The young man, who was waiting outside, became -impatient, and calling for the servant, he told him to bring the girl -out. He tried the slipper, which fitted like a glove, and there and -then he married her. - -And this is the origin of the dove. - - - - - - - - -XC. - -WHY DOES THE RAVEN FEED ON CARRION? - -The Story of Noah and the Raven. - - -The Rumanian story about the raven is more or less the well-known -story of the raven in Noah's ark as told in the Bible. But it has -not reached the people in that simple ungarnished form. It has been -embellished with legends. Those found among the Rumanian peasants -agree in the main with those told by oriental writers and found in -"historiated" Bible's--that great treasure-house of legendary Biblical -lore and the depository of many of the legends of the past. - -It is important to see how stories, the literary origin of which -cannot be doubted, have penetrated among the people and have become -actual popular legends. We can almost trace the way which they have -come. And this lends a special value to such popular Biblical legends. - -The story runs as follows: - -The raven was originally a bird with white feathers. When Noah sent -out the raven to find out how things were in the world, the raven -espied the carcase of a horse floating on the waters which had begun -to subside. Forgetting his errand, the raven settled on the carcase -and started eating, and he continued eating for three days and three -nights. He could not get satisfied; only at the dawn of the fourth -morning did he remember the errand on which he had been sent, and -started on his return. When Noah saw him at some distance, he cried, -"Why hast thou tarried so long, and what is thy message, and how does -the world without look?" - -The raven, unabashed, replied, "I do not know anything about the -world and how things are going; I only know that I was very hungry, -and finding the dead body of a horse, I sat down and ate, and now -that I have had my fill, I have come back." - -When Noah heard this answer from the raven, he grew very angry, and -said, "Mayest thou turn as black as my heart is within me," for his -heart had turned black from anger and fury. And from that minute the -raven's feathers turned as black as coal. And Noah went on saying, -"As thou hast fed on carrion, so shalt thou feed henceforth only on -the dead bodies of animals and beasts." - -And in order that the ravens should not multiply too quickly, it was -ordained that they should lay their eggs in December and not hatch -them until February, for only then, when the frost is so strong that -even the stones burst, does the shell of the raven's eggs split, and -the young are able to come out and be fed by their parents, for they -are unable to hatch them unless they are aided also by a hard frost, -which causes the shells to break. Otherwise, if they had laid their -eggs in the summer and hatched them in the summer, like other birds, -they would grow so numerous that people would not have been able to -defend themselves from the raven. - -Moreover, the raven, when sent by Noah, saw only the peaks of the -mountains, and those have remained to this very day the real haunt of -the bird. They only nest in very high crags and peaks of mountains, -and never in villages. - - - -Thus far the legend, which occurs in many variants. The raven, whose -peculiar appearance is well known, has become the bird of oracle -par excellence. There are a large number of treatises on the augury -of the raven, notably in the Arabic literature, some of which are -traced back to Indian originals. As for the part which the raven has -played in Northern mythology, it is sufficient to mention the ravens -of Odin, not to speak of the Biblical legend according to which the -raven fed the prophet Elijah. (Another interpretation of the word in -the Bible changes the raven into Arabians, who fed the prophet in his -hiding-place.) There are some Rumanian popular beliefs connected with -the raven which I will mention here. - - - -If two or three ravens fly over a village and croak, it is a sure -sign that there will be death in the village. - -If two ravens, one coming from the north and one coming from the south, -meet over the roof of a house, it is a sure sign of the death of one -of the inmates of the house. - -It is an old saying that if ravens are seen flying in a great number -in one direction, it is a sure sign of plague or some death among -beasts and men. - -If ravens croak over a flock of sheep, the shepherds keep a double -watch, for they believe the ravens foretell an inroad by wolves or -other wild beasts. - -If a raven, meeting a herd of cattle, croaks, the Rumanian responds, -"May it be on thy head, thy feathers and thy bones," for he believes -that one of his animals will die and become food for the raven. - -And, if one raven is seen flying over the head of a man and continues -to do so for a while, it is a sign of the death of that man. - -It is generally assumed that the ravens fly in pairs, and the -appearance of one alone is therefore ominous. - -These few examples will suffice. They stamp the raven as the bird -of ill-omen. - - - - - - - - -XCI. - -WHY IS THE ANT CUT IN THE MIDDLE? - -The Story of the Young Maiden and her Step-mother the Demon. - - -Once upon a time there was a widow who had only one child, a girl, and -all her possessions (goods and chattels) consisted of a flock of sheep. - -When the girl grew up, the mother sent her with the flock, and told -her at the same time to put on a man's clothes and not to speak to -anyone in the manner of women. - -The girl did as she was told, and fed the flock for a long time. One -day, however, she was in the forest, where a young boy also fed his -flock. But he was not the son of man; he was the son cf the serpent -(dragon). How was she to know it? And even if she had known it, what -good would it be to her, seeing that she did not know what a dragon -or a she-dragon was? - -Regarding him as a shepherd like herself, she began talking to him, -and the whole day they went together with their flocks. When the young -dragon came home in the evening, he told his mother, "I think that -he with whom I spent the day is not a man in spite of the clothes -but a woman, but he does not seem to have a woman's voice. Would -it not be better if I brought him here, and you might then tell me -whether it is a man or a woman, for if she be a woman, I should like -to have her as my wife. I have not yet seen in the whole world one more -beautiful." "Go," said the mother, "bring him. If he be a man, he will -return safely from us, but if she be a woman, then thine shall she be." - -On the next day, meeting the daughter of the widow, they fed their -flocks together, and in the evening, when they were to separate, -he asked the girl to spend the night at his house. The girl, not -thinking aught evil, and being somewhat far away from her own house, -accepted his invitation and went with him. What did the she-dragon do -when she saw her coming? She went out to meet her and engaged her in -conversation. Then she turned to her son and spoke to him, but in a -foreign tongue. She told him to put a flower under the pillow of his -companion, and if in the morning the flower will be faded, for sure -then she is a girl; otherwise the flower would remain fresh. So he -did. The girl, seeing that they talked in a foreign tongue, understood -that they were talking about her, and determined to watch and see. No -sooner had she gone to bed than she began to snore, as if she had -fallen fast asleep, but she did not sleep. Her hosts, thinking her -fast asleep, got up, went on tip-toe into the garden, and, taking a -carnation in full flower, put it under her pillow and fell asleep. - -The girl, feeling that something had been put under her pillow, -understood that something was wrong. So she got up and took out of -her bag a charmed mirror by which to undo the sorcery of her hosts. No -sooner had she taken out her mirror, than the dragon-mother woke up, -and, running quickly to the bed, found the flower faded, to her own -great joy and that of her son. What was the girl to do now? She -could not deny that she was a girl. So she began to speak with a -woman's voice. The young dragon then insisted on her marrying him, -but she said, if he insisted on taking her she would neither speak -to him nor kiss him. The young dragon, more in a joke, took her in -his arms and squeezed her so tight that her face got swollen and her -eyes almost started out of her head. She then changed herself into an -insect and ran to the door to get out from under the threshold. But -the old dragon took a knife and slashed her across the body when she -had crept half-way out of the house, so that she nearly cut her in -twain. Her luck was that just a little flesh remained by which the -other part of the body was kept hanging on, and thus she has remained -to this very day, for she became the ant. - - - -The first part of this story agrees in the main with the first part of -the swallow story, No. 87. It is another example of the transfer of -a story from one object to another, like the story of the woodpecker -and the pelican. (Cf. also the slashing of the bee in the stories, -No. 1 ff.) - -Popular belief is that the ant is the grandchild (niece nepoata) -of God, and the handmaid of the Virgin, although I have not yet been -able to find the legend upon which this belief rests. The ant must -not be molested, for the Virgin sighs as often as an ant is killed. - -The red ant comes from the tears shed by St. Mary over the grave -of Christ. - -The ant is used as a remedy against toothache by boiling it together -with the earth of its nest and rinsing the mouth with the water -(which thus contains the well-known arnica of the pharmacopoeia). - - - - - - - - -XCII. - -WHY DOES THE CUCKOO CALL "CUCKOO"? - -The Story of the two Brothers and King Alexander. - - -In the time of Alexander the Great, King of Macedon, there lived a very -wealthy man who had two sons, each one more beautiful than the other, -and both more beautiful than any other living being. When they grew up -to be twelve years old, the fame of their beauty had reached the Court -of King Alexander. He was told that no young men so beautiful as they -were could be found over nine seas and nine countries. Alexander went -himself to see them, and no sooner had he seen them than he appointed -them captains in his army, for he was a high and mighty king, and he -liked to have in his army valiant knights like himself. - -At that time there lived the dog-headed people, who were human from the -waist down and dogs from their waist upward. Their kingdom stretched -far away to the north of Alexander's realms. Every year the king of -the dog-men and his people made incursions into the countries, and, -capturing many women, carried them away. The men they fattened, and, -after killing them, used to eat them, but the beautiful women they -brought to their king to become his wives. They treated the men just -as we treat our animals, which we fatten to kill and eat. - -When Alexander saw that these wild dog men would not give him peace, -he decided to make war upon them, and to free the world of such wild -creatures. But to fight with these dog-men was not an easy task, and he -therefore selected the best men among his host, all seasoned warriors, -and he put the best captains over them. Among these were also the two -brothers, one of whom was called Cuckoo and the other Mugur. Wherever -they went they did wonders. The heads of the dog-men fell before the -strokes of their swords like the grass cut by the scythe. The battle -lasted for three days and three nights. On the fourth, the two brothers -captured the king of the dog-men and brought him to Alexander. There -they killed him. Then they set fire to the land of the dog-men, and -the fire burnt for over a month. It was so wide a country that no one -has ever known the end of it, and so these dog-men were routed utterly -and none were left; only their name has remained behind. When Alexander -saw the valiant deeds of these two brothers, he appointed them leaders -of his army. They had to be always near him, and wherever they went -and drew their swords, the blood of the heathen ran like water. - -Alexander had many wars with kings and emperors, and he conquered -them all. No one dared to stand up against him, for God had given -him strength, and he marched on to the ends of the earth; he was to -become king over the whole world and then die. - -He went to the south with his army, passing through many desolate -countries, filled with wild animals and monsters, dragons and -serpents: wherever he went he burned them with fire so as to cleanse -the world. For months Alexander went on with his march, accompanied by -the two brothers and his army, for he had set his heart upon going to -the very ends of the earth. One day on their march they met a company -of women riding on white horses, one more beautiful than other, and -there was one who by her beauty outshone them all. She was dressed, -moreover, so radiantly that she shone like the sun. Alexander drew -near, and he asked them how it came about that they were riding such -beautiful horses, and where were the men? - -To this the women replied: "Ours is the country where the women -rule, the women take the place of the men and the men that of the -women." Alexander rested there for a while with his two companions -and his army, and they were well entertained by the women, who were -more beautiful than any known among men of this part of the world. - -Among these there was one who was like the moon among the stars. Cuckoo -fell in love with her, and they became inseparable. Cuckoo thought he -could not live without her. Mugur, who was of a more retiring nature, -restrained his love and kept aloof from the women. - -When the two weeks had elapsed which Alexander had appointed for him -to stay there, he broke up his camp and journeyed onward until the -army reached the gates of Paradise. These were guarded by angels with -flaming swords, who would allow access only to those who were pure -and sinless. When the soldiers beheld the beauty of Paradise they -wondered greatly at it, and some of them were desirous of entering -it, and went to the angel to ask his permission. Amongst these were -Mugur and his brother Cuckoo. Mugur went in front, Cuckoo followed -with his beautiful wife at his side. When Mugur drew near, the gate -of Paradise was flung open and he entered without hindrance. Cuckoo -wanted to follow him, but the door was shut in his face, and for his -audacity he and his fair companion were turned into birds, for no -man is allowed to enter Paradise with a companion. - -Since then Cuckoo is continually calling aloud his name in the hope -that his brother may look for him and thus find him. - - - -This story is remarkable for its origin. We have here the popular -reflex of the famous Romance of Alexander, which had reached -Rumania, as all the other countries of Europe, in a literary -form. The book has been read for at least three hundred years, -and it is extremely interesting to see how deeply it has influenced -the popular imagination. What we have here is not one incident only -from the "Romance," but practically an abridged recital of the famous -"Journey to Paradise," and "Alexander's Letter to Aristotle." We have -here his wars with the Kynokephaloi, or the people who were believed to -be human beings with dog's heads. The Eastern Church, and no less the -Rumanian, even venerates a saint with a dog's head, Christophorus. In -the Rumanian monastery of Neamtz there appeared a "Life" of that saint, -in which the woodcut picture of the saint represented him as having a -dog's head. We have, further, Alexander's war with the Amazons, and -even the fact that he reached the gates of Paradise. But what gives -to this tale importance is that the "Romance of Alexander" has become -the tale accounting for the origin of a bird. No doubt there must be -some more detailed account of this immediate fact, explaining a little -more clearly the sudden transformation of the cuckoo and his mate into -particular birds. Here it is described as a punishment for Cuckoo's -audacity in attempting to bring his female companion into Paradise. - -The only point of resemblance between this and the Albanian tale of -Hahn (No. 105), is that Cuckoo was originally a man by that name, -and he was the brother of Gion. - - - - - - - - -XCIII. - -WHY DOES THE ARMENIAN LOVE THE DIRTY HOOPOE? - -The Story of the Armenian, the Cuckoo and the Hoopoe. - - -A funny story about the hoopoe and the cuckoo is told by the Rumanians -at the expense of the Armenians. It is said that in olden times the -forefather of the Armenians had to flee for his life. So, taking all -his belongings with him, and mounting on a horse, he rode away as fast -as he could. He feared lest his enemies would overtake him. Riding on, -he came to a forest and, not being able to find the way, he got into -a bog. In vain did he try to get his horse up again. The more he tried -the further it sank; so, taking all his belongings, he dismounted, and -wading through the mud, he sat down at the edge of the bog and thought -all the time what was he to do to get his horse out. He could not carry -all his belongings, and, if he tarried much longer where he was, his -enemies were sure to overtake him. Where he sat, there was a cuckoo, -resting on the tree, and singing all the time, but the more he sang the -deeper the horse seemed to sink into the mire. He took some food out of -his bags, and, showing it to the horse, he tried to tempt it, but the -horse paid no attention to him. Whilst he was now in great despair, -there came a hoopoe and sat on another tree and began to cry "Hoop, -Hoop." No sooner did the horse hear the bird shouting "hoop, hoop," -than up it jumped as if stung by wasps. Overjoyed, the Armenian got -hold of it, and putting his food into his sack he mounted again and -went on his way. And out of gratitude the Armenians call the hoopoe -to this very day by the name of cuckoo, for he saved their ancestor -by his cry "up, up." The cuckoo had made it lie down by singing "coo, -coo," but the hoopoe made it jump up by singing "up, up." - -There are some beliefs attached to the cry of the hoopoe forming part -of that great section of prognostications by the cry of the birds. It -is not, however, considered as an ominous bird. It merely foretells -the fruitfulness or the barrenness of the coming year. - - - - - - - - -XCIV. - -THE STORY OF THE PARTRIDGE, THE FOX AND THE HOUND. - - -Once upon a time there was a partridge, and that partridge was sorely -troubled, for no one in this world is safe from trouble and worry. Her -trouble was that for some time back she was not able to rear her young, -because of AUNTIE FOX, who made a royal feast of the young brood. No -sooner did the fox find out that the partridge had hatched her young, -than she tied some brambles to her tail, and, dragging it along the -ground, pretended to plough the land, close to the place where the -partridge had her nest. Turning to the partridge, the fox would say: - -"How dare you trespass on my land. Off you go, lest I eat you up." The -partridge, frightened, would run away, and the fox would eat the -young. This had gone on for three years. On the fourth year it so -happened that, while the partridge was weeping, just as a man will -do out of worry and grief, she met a hound. - -"What is the matter with thee, friend; why dost thou weep so, what -ails thee, why art thou so inconsolable?" - -"Eh!" said the poor bird, "I am full of trouble." - -Then the hound said sympathetically, "What has happened unto thee?" - -"What has happened unto me? O! dear friend, so many years have I -tried to rear my young, and no sooner do I see God's blessing when -auntie fox, with the brambles and thorns trailing behind her tail, -comes and claims the land, and says, 'Hast thou again hatched young -on my land? Get thee off lest I eat thee.' And I am so frightened -that I run away, and the fox then takes the family and leaves me -childless." The bird stopped here and looked despairingly at the -hound. She wondered what he could do for her. But no one knows whence -help may come, and just when it is least expected it comes. And so -it happened to the bird. The dog who had been sitting all the time, -listening as it were with half-closed ears, suddenly shook himself -and said, "Is that the trouble which ails thee?" - -"Yes, that is my trouble." - -"Well, if that be so, let me come with thee, and may be that I shall -be of some help." - -And so they both went to the nest of the partridge. There the dog -crouched behind the bushes and waited for the fox to come. He had not -to wait very long until the fox came with the brambles tied to her -tail, and, pulling it along, made pretence of ploughing the land. "Now -then you partridge, are you trespassing again--" - -But the fox was not allowed to finish the sentence, for out of the -bushes sprang the dog. The fox took to her legs, running as fast as -they would carry her. Now, whether the hound ran or did not run I do -not know, but I certainly can say that the fox ran for all she was -worth and raised a cloud of dust behind her. And so she ran and ran -until she reached her lair, and she buried herself deep in the ground, -very thankful to have saved her skin from the jaws of death. The hound, -wearied, tired, and vexed that the fox had escaped, settled down at the -mouth of the lair waiting for the chance that the fox would come out -again, that he might set his eyes upon her, but it was all in vain, -for the fox, once safe, never dreamt of coming out again. But then -the fox, having nothing else to do, started talking to herself. - -"Clever fox, clever fox, I know that thou takest care of thy -skin. Well, thou didst well to save thyself, and to get safely away -from that hound. Now let me ask my eyes, 'What did you do when the -hound was after me?'" - -"Well, we, turning right and left, looked out to see which way we -could save thee and hide thee." - -"Dear eyes," said the fox, and full of satisfaction, she stroked them -with her paws. - -"Now I will ask my forelegs." - -"And ye, my forelegs, what did you do when the hound was chasing me?" - -"What did we do? We ran as fast as we could to carry thee safe to -the lair and to save thee." - -"Very good, then, my darlings," and she kissed them and stroked -them lovingly. - -Then she asked the hind legs. - -"What did you do when the hound was chasing me?" - -"What did we do? We raised the dust and threw it into his eyes to -save thee." - -"My darlings," again the fox said, and licked them and caressed them, -"so must you always do." - -The fox, having nothing else to do, said, "I must now ask thee, tail, -'What didst thou do, O my tail?'" - -"I, what was I to do? I waddled to the right and left and yet he -never caught me. If it were not for the legs, I am afraid I should -not see the sun any more, and neither wouldst thou, O fox." - -"As thou sayest, then, thou art the only one who did not help me, -thou art mine enemy, for if it were not for the blessed legs, none of -us would have seen the sun any more. All right, out thou goest, thou -fool. Thou must no longer be with me or with my darling eyes." And, -turning round, she crawled backwards and pushed it out of the lair. The -hound, who was sitting outside, was just waiting for this, and no -sooner did he see the bush of the tail coming out than he pounced on -it and, getting hold of it, he pulled with all his might and dragged -out tail and fox together. And that was the end of the fox. The fox -may have been very clever, but the old proverb is true. "Each animal -dies through his own tongue." And since that time the partridge hatches -her young unmolested, and the land of the fox has remained unploughed. - - - -This Rumanian tale belongs to a large cycle of similar tales, of -which the Rumanian seems to have preserved only the first part, -unless the second part has afterwards been tacked on to it. In the -extended tale the dog asks for the payment of the food, drink, and -merriment which the bird had promised. - -An almost identical story is found among the Slavonic Tales, Krauss, -No. 9. In this no mention is made of the fox claiming to be the -landowner. It is only out of pity for the partridge that the dog -attacks the fox, which runs away, and then the story continues exactly -like the Rumanian. The first part of No. 6 is another parallel to -the Rumanian tale, but it is greatly reduced and is only the first -part of a much longer tale of "The Starling, the Fox, and the Dog." - -The starling promises the dog food, drink, and merriment, if he -would avenge it against the fox, who, in spite of sworn friendship, -had taken advantage of the absent starling to eat the young birds. The -tale contains also the episode of the fox's undoing. But then the -Slavonic story goes on to detail the manner in which the starling -outwitted a boy who carried food to his people on the field, a man -who carried a wine cask, and a hewer of wood, all to provide for the -promised food, drink, and merriment of, the dog. - -This last part, as a tale by itself, quite independent of the story -of the dog and fox, is found in Haltrich, No. 81. Here the bird offers -food, drink and merriment to the fox who is to spare her young. - -In a more reduced form still, the first part having entirely -disappeared, the story appears in Grimm, iii. p. 100, who refers to a -similar episode in the French version of Reinecke and to an Esthonian -tale. Cf. also the Russian Tale in Afanasief, No. 32. - - - - - - - - -XCV. - -THE STORY OF THE PARTRIDGE AND HER YOUNG. - - -A partridge once built her nest in the furrows of a newly ploughed -cornfield, and hatched her young when the stalks of the corn had -grown tall and the corn began to ripen. There was food in plenty and -safety enough for them to play and to frolic about without fear of -any danger. But the good things in this world never stay long with -us, and this the partridge was soon to find out. The time came when -the corn was cut and hunters appeared followed by their dogs, whose -barking they could hear drawing nearer and nearer. The partridge now -began to be frightened for her young. She tried to cover them with -her wings, but they could not help hearing the reports of the guns and -the barking of the dogs. One day, not being able to stand the strain -any longer, she remembered a place of safety which she had known, in -the cleft of a mountain beyond the seas. Tucking her eldest under her -wing, she started one morning on her flight, intent on carrying it to -the mountain beyond the sea. When she reached the border of the sea -there stood a huge tree. Tired from her long flight, she settled on -one of the branches of the tree overhanging the water. And she said -to her young, "Little darling, see how great is the love of a mother -and what trouble I am taking. Nay, I am putting my life in danger in -order to save you." - -"Never mind, mother," replied the little one, "Wait till we grow up -and then we will take care of you when you grow old and weak." - -When the partridge heard these words she tilted her wing and -let the young bird fall into the water of the sea, where it was -drowned. Distressed, weary, and lost in thought, she returned to -her nest and took the middle one of her three young, and, putting it -on the wing, she started again on her flight to the mountain beyond -the sea. On the way she again alighted on the tree with the branches -overhanging the sea. And she spoke to this one in the same manner as -she had spoken to the first. And he replied, "Do not worry, mother, -when you get old we shall take care of you and show you our love." - -The partridge, grieving at the words of this one, again dipped her -wing and the young bird slid down into the bottom of the sea, where -it was drowned. Almost broken hearted, not knowing any more what to -do with herself, and heavy with sorrow and anxiety, her only hope -being the youngest one, she returned to her nest, and, taking the -youngest--the mother's pet--she tucked it under her wing and flew -again to the mountain beyond the sea. - -Tired from her continual flight hither and thither, she again alighted -on the tree with the branches overhanging the sea, and with her heart -trembling within her for fear and love, she said to the youngest, -"See, my beloved little pet, how much trouble mother is taking to save -her dear little ones, how willingly I am suffering pain and fatigue; -see how exhausted I am and wearied, but nothing is too much for a -mother if only she knows that her young will be safe." - -"Do not worry, mother dear, for we when we grow up will also take -care of our young children with the same love and devotion." - -At these words, the mother pressed the little one nearer to her heart, -and, full of joy, carried him across the sea to a place of safety, -for of all her children this alone had spoken the truth. And is it -not so in the world? - -This is the story of the partridge and her young. - - - - - - - - -XCVI. - -THE STORY OF THE LARK AND THE TAMING OF WOMEN. - - -A man was once ploughing his field. In the midst of it a lark had -made her nest and was hatching her young. When the cock lark saw -what the man was doing, and that he was coming nearer and nearer with -the plough, he feared that the nest would be destroyed. So he turned -to the man and said, "Prithee, spare my nest; go round it with your -plough and do not touch it, for I might also do you some good." - -The man, surprised at hearing the lark speak to him, said, "What good -can you do to me?" - -"Oh," replied the lark, "you never know what I can do. Just bide your -time, there might be a chance." - -"Well," said the man, "I do not mind going with my plough round that -piece of ground, it will not make much difference, but you see I have -a very bad-tempered wife, and should she come out and see what I have -done, and that I have left a part of the field without ploughing it, -I shall come in for a good hiding." - -"What," said the lark, "you a man, and your wife, a woman, beating you, -how can that be?" - -"Oh," replied the man, "you do not know her; from morning till evening -she does nothing but strike and beat me, I have not a minute's rest -and peace." - -"I can help you," replied the lark, "if only you will do what I -tell you." - -"If you will help me I shall be for ever grateful to you." - -"Well then, this is what you have to do. You get yourself a stout -stick, and should she come and start chiding you, you just lay out -and go for her without mercy. You will see it will be all right." - -Whilst they were thus speaking, the woman came out, with one jaw on -earth and the other in heaven, spitting fire and fury; and when she saw -that the man had left a part of the field not ploughed she started to -go for him with her fists and to give him a good beating. But before -she had time to get to him, remembering the advice which the lark had -given him, he got hold of the stick, and there was a great change. The -woman did not know what it was that happened to her; the blows fell -upon her fast and thick over her head, face, shoulders, hands. At last -she got frightened, and ran away vowing vengeance. After she had gone, -the lark said to the man: - -"Don't be a fool, I know she awaits you at home with a long stick, -but you get yourself a short, stout stick, and just slip into the -house before she has time to use her long rod, and then you go for -her, hitting as fast as you can and as hard as you can, for, being -in the house, the woman will not be able to use the long rod to -any advantage." - -The man did as the lark had taught him, and the woman came in for a -drubbing she never expected. The tables were now turned, and instead -of beating the husband the woman got it now, and twice over. - -That was the first case of the men beating their women, instead of the -men being beaten by the women, for the neighbours, seeing how things -had changed with this man, soon followed his example, and there was -yelling and shouting and cursing as never before, the women getting -the worst. - -When the women saw that the men got the upper hand, they all -gathered together in the market-place and held a conference under the -leadership of the head woman of the town. After a long consultation -and discussion, they all decided to leave their husbands alone and -to get across the Danube to the other side. - -So they did; they gathered themselves together and, led by the head -woman, left the town to go across the Danube. When the men saw what -the women were doing, and that they were in earnest, they turned on -the first man who had set the example and threatened to kill him, for -he had brought all that trouble upon them. And the man got frightened -and ran out into the field, and going to the lark told all that was -going on and that he was in danger of his life. - -The lark laughed and said, "Oh, you are worse than a set of old -women. Do not be afraid, nothing will happen to you; you just wait -and see, I am going to bring the women home again." - -So saying, the lark rose up in the air, and flying over the heads -of the women who were standing by the banks of the Danube waiting to -cross, it sang out, "Tsirli, tsirli, on the other side of the Danube -there are no men." - -One of the women, hearing the bird's song, said to her neighbour, -"Did you hear what that bird was singing?" - -"Oh, yes, we can all hear it saying that across the Danube there are -no men, and if that be true I think we had better return to our own -husbands, never mind whether they beat us or not." - -And they all returned home quite meekly to their houses, and ever -since then the men beat their wives, but the women never beat their -husbands. And you should know that if a woman does beat her husband, -he is not a man, but a donkey. - - - - - - - - -XCVII. - -THE STORY OF THE TURTLE DOVE AND ITS LOVE FOR ITS MATE. - - -Of the turtle-dove the Rumanian popular poetry relates that when she -loses her mate she never associates with any bird, but sits solitary on -the branches of trees, not on the green or the high bough, but on the -low, and on the withered branches of the tree. She no longer goes to -clear water, but she first stirs the mud and then drinks the troubled -water, and when she sees the hunter she goes to meet him cheerfully, -hoping that he will kill her. The tears of the turtle-dove are the -most powerful antidote against every spell and sorcery. - -An incident in one of the Rumanian Fairy Tales reminds us of the -story of the Shirt of Nessus given to Hercules. - -It is of a step-mother who tries to kill her daughter-in-law by -inducing her to buy such a poisoned shirt. As soon as she has put -one on she becomes very ill, and her illness grows with every day -that passes. - -Her father, who has been absent, comes home and sees what is the cause -of her illness, so he washes her in tears of the turtle-dove. The -spell is broken, the fire is driven out, and the young woman recovers -her health. - - - - - - - - -XCVIII. - -WHY DOES THE WREN HIDE HIMSELF? - -The Story of the Wren, the Eagle, and the Owl. - - -The wren is called by the Rumanians the little king. The reason for -it is that the birds once came together to elect a ruler. They were -all there, big and small, and after much wrangling and discussion -they agreed that he who flew highest of all should be king. It was -the eagle who suggested it, for he knew that no bird could fly so -high as he could, and he told them that the highest place they could -reach would be the region of the wild winds. They arranged that he -who would reach so high, should give them a sign and then they should -descend. They all started for the race. There was much fluttering -of wings and shrieking and boasting, for every bird believed that -he would be the winner. But they had not measured their strength, -for after a while the weakest stopped in their flight and began to -descend slowly. The stronger ones flew a little higher but they too -got tired and came down to the ground, until at last almost every -bird that had entered the race had given it up. Only one bird was -continuing the flight. It was the eagle, who was soaring higher and -higher. At a certain moment, the eagle signalled to them that he had -reached the wild wind, that is the wind which blows very high up in -the sky and is bitterly cold, much colder than ice and frost. But -the eagle was not to win the race. The little wren, a midget among -the birds, had crept stealthily under one of the outer feathers of -his wings; the eagle did not feel it, and so it was borne aloft to -the very high heavens. Now when the eagle stopped in his flight, and -began to descend, the little bird, not at all tired, came out from -under the wing, and he, flying higher, far above the eagle, shouted: - -"He! he! you thought you would be the king, that no one could fly -as high as you do! You see I have flown much higher, no one can -deny it, you can all see me, and though I am very small and light, -I am your king." The birds, hearing the little wren and seeing that -it had been flying far above the eagle, wondered greatly, but they -could not help themselves, they had to stand by their agreement, -and so the wren was proclaimed king. - -But the birds soon learnt the trick by which the wren had outwitted -them, and furious at the way in which they had been played, they -wanted to tear him to pieces. The little wren, knowing what was in -store for him from the enraged birds, ran away quickly, and hid -himself inside the hollow of a tree, slipping in by so narrow an -opening that no other bird could follow him. When the birds found -out the hiding-place of the wren, and that they could not get at it, -they decided to starve him out, and put some to watch over the opening -to prevent the wren escaping. The wren thought it better to starve -than to come out and be torn in pieces. "I will wait my chance," -he said to himself, and the chance came when they appointed the -owl to watch over the tree. The owl is a lazy bird, and sitting down -quietly soon fell asleep. That was just what the wren was waiting for, -and before the owl could have turned round, it was out and away in -the bushes and under the roots of the trees. When the owl awoke it -found that the prisoner had gone: catch him if you can! The birds, -full of wrath, turned on the owl for letting the wren escape and -the owl had to run for its life. It is for that reason that the owl -never shows itself in day-time. It is frightened of the birds, for -they bear it a grudge for not keeping careful watch over the wren, -and as the wren knows what the birds have in store for him, he hides -himself under the bushes and trees and has become a very furtive bird. - -Cf. Grimm, No. 171. - - - - - - - - -XCIX. - -WHY IS THERE NO KING OVER THE BIRDS? - -The Story of the Hawk and the Election of the King. - - -Once upon a time the birds came together to decide which was to rule -over them all, and in what order authority should be distributed -among them, who was to be the superior and who was to be inferior -among them. After a long discussion it was agreed that the eagle -should be the highest of all. The second in command should be the -falcon, the third in command the black vulture, under him the white -vulture, under him the vulture with the striped tail, under him the -lamb's vulture and under him the kite, under him the hen-harrier, -under him the blue heron, and under him the sparrow-hawk. All the -birds consented and accepted this arrangement without much demur or -contradiction. Only the sparrow-hawk, who though the smallest and -the weakest, yet knew himself to be quicker and cleverer than many -of them, objected to the arrangement, and said to them: - -"Do you expect that I should submit to you? or be frightened of you, -as if you were the strongest and mightiest creatures in the world? You -are greatly mistaken. There are other beings stronger and mightier -and greater than you. Of these I am frightened, but not of you. I do -not care for you." - -"But what creatures are stronger and more powerful than we?" asked -the other birds greatly surprised. - -"What!" said he, "you do not know who is greater and stronger than you -are? You all think yourselves to be the cleverest of created beings, -and you expect me, the smallest of you, to tell you that? Very well, -then, since you do not know even as much as this, hear it from -me. Stronger than all of you are the archers and the sportsmen." - -"Why," replied the birds, "how can that be?" - -"Well," he said, "if they meet you they can make an end of you, -and that, before you know where you are; you, who are so clever, -that you wanted to put me at the tip of your tail!" - -"What can we do to save ourselves?" - -The sparrow-hawk replied, "You must never gather together and fly in -large numbers, for thus we are sure to fall a prey to them. Our only -safety lies in our dispersion." - -As soon as the birds heard that, they dispersed quickly, and since -that time hawks are never found together in large numbers, except -when they see carrion. In such wise did the little sparrow-hawk free -himself from the domination of the other birds of his clan. - - - - - - - - -C. - -THE STORY OF KING LOG AND KING STORK. - -The Story of the Frogs. - - -This is the well-known story of King Log and King Stork. - - - -Once upon a time the frogs assembled and decided to ask God to appoint -a king who would guide them and rule over them, for they were like a -people scattered all over the waters and seas with no one to look after -them. God gratified their request, and taking a log of wood cast it -into the water and said to the frogs, "This is to be your king." When -the log fell into the water it made such a splash and such a noise, -that the poor frogs did not know where to hide themselves in their -fright. After a while the noise subsided, and the log lay still in the -place where it had fallen. Gaining a little courage, the frogs came out -of their hiding places and crept slowly on to the log of wood, which -they found lying quite still and motionless. They waited for a time -to see it move, but in vain. So they went again to God and said to him: - -"What is the good of a king who can neither guide us, nor rule over -us, and cannot even move about to look after us?" - -And God said, "You shall have one who will move about, and he will -guide you and rule you after the manner of kings." And he called the -stork and appointed him king over the frogs. He moves about amongst -them very fast indeed, and guides them and rules them in the proper -manner of kings, for he gobbles them up as soon as he sets eyes on -them in the proper manner of kings, who always go about and eat up -their subjects as fast as they can. - -Here, of course, a moral from modern life has been added to the old -tale, but this does not detract from its popularity. - - - - - - - - -CI. - -THE STORY OF THE STORK AND LITTLE TOMTIT. - - -Once upon a time there was a stork who could not rear any young. His -wife's eggs had become addled, or something else had happened to them, -and the long and short of it was that there were no young birds. Very -distressed, he was walking about in the forest when he noticed a little -tomtit on the ground. Seeing he was so small, he thought it was a young -bird, a chick that had fallen out from a stork's nest somewhere. So -he picked him up gently and carried him to his own nest, and there -he kept him and fed him most tenderly. He would fly about for miles -to get worms to feed the little bird. The days passed, and the stork -could not help wondering why that little bird of his did not grow: -it remained so small. One day there came a down-pour of cold rain -mixed with hailstones. In order to protect his little young, he put -the tomtit under his wing, and going into the forest placed himself -under the branches of a thick-leaved tree to shelter himself from the -rain and hail. In the trunk of that tree there was a little hollow. As -soon as tomtit espied it he glided into it, and from there he kept up -a conversation with the stork. Among other things, the stork said, -"What terrible weather that is, I cannot remember anything like it -all my life." - -"What," piped little tomtit, "you call this bad weather. You should -have seen what bad weather means, when the red snow fell." - -"Hush, you little thing," said the stork, "how do you come to speak -of red snow, you have never seen such a thing?" - -"Oh," replied tomtit, "I remember it quite well, although it was so -many years ago." - -"You remember it, you little cunning beast, who made yourself out to -be quite a little chicken!" and the sharp beak of the stork pierced -the hollow of the tree and spiked the insolent little tomtit, who -had made a fool of the stork. - - - - - - - - -CII. - -THE STORY OF THE FLEA AND THE GNAT. - - -The flea once upon a time meeting a gnat, said to her: - -"I say, sister, why is your back so bent, and why is your head so -low? What heavy care is worrying you?" - -"Oh, my sister," replied the gnat, "it is the heavy work which I have -to do that bends my back and pulls my head so low. I have to drive the -oxen to the plough, and make them do their work. I must sit between -the horns and prick them to urge them on. Their hide is so thick -that I have to bend my body and put my head very low to drive the -sting through it. But, then, tell me, why is your back so much bent, -sister flea? You have no heavy work like me." - -"You do not know what you are talking about. I have to keep mankind -to their duties. These men have such heavy clothing that it takes -all my strength to lift it up so that I can move about, to get at him." - - - - - - - - -CIII. - -THE STORY OF THE GNAT, THE LION, AND THE MAN. - - -The fable of the gnat and the lion is told in order to explain -the proverb, "The gnat, small as it is, proved stronger than the -lion." Once upon a time a lion sat himself down to rest under a -tree. Suddenly a gnat appeared and settled upon his nose. The lion, -feeling the tickle, struck out with his paw, but missed her. The -gnat then settled in his ear, and again the lion tried to strike her, -but failed. So he said to the gnat: - -"Who are you? and why do you come here and worry me? Who are you -that although so small can worry so much and give so much trouble, -and yet are one whom it is impossible to catch?" - -"I am the gnat, and I drink the blood of anyone I choose, and no one -can hurt me." - -"You may drink blood from whomever else you choose, but my blood you -shall not drink, for I am the stronger." - -"If you believe that I cannot drink your blood, very well then, -let us wait and see who is the stronger," said the gnat. - -"I am quite satisfied," said the lion, and they made the bet. Without -saying a single word, the gnat jumped on to the nose of the lion, -and digging its point into the flesh of the lion sucked the blood -until it was full, but the lion could not do anything to her. When -she had finished, she asked the lion: - -"What do you say now? have I not beaten you? Now it is your turn to -show me your strength." - -"I am so strong that if a man should happen to pass here I could eat -him up." - -He had scarcely finished speaking when a boy happened to pass. The -lion, as soon as he saw him, wanted to catch him and eat him. "Stop," -said the gnat, "this is not yet a man, wait until he grows to be a -man." The lion felt ashamed and let the boy pass. - -Soon afterwards a very old man happened to pass. Again the lion, -saying, "Now, a man is passing," wanted to get hold of him. And again -the gnat stopped him, saying, "This is no longer a man, he has been -so some long time ago. It is a pity to break your teeth on him." And -the lion left him also alone. - -Now there came riding along a hussar. - -"This is a man," said the gnat, "go for him and show your strength." - -The lion went for him, but when the hussar saw him he drew his sword -and smote him two or three times over his head. The lion, seeing that -this was not a joke, turned tail and ran away; there was his road -to safety. The gnat, following him, settled on his ear and asked him -how he felt. The lion, half-stunned, replied: - -"That foolish man drew a rib from his side and hacked lustily away -and had I not run away only bits of me would have been left." - -Hence the proverb, "However small, the gnat proved more powerful than -the lion." - - - -This is a parallel to the story of the "Gnat and the Lion." Among the -South Slavonic Tales, (Krauss, No. 12) we find another parallel to it, -though differing in some details. A lion was continually boasting of -its strength. One day a tiger, tired of his boasting, said to him: - -"You wait until you meet a man and see what strength is." - -One day, as they were walking, a young boy passed along, and the lion -asked whether that was a man. - -"No," replied the tiger, "that is a man that is to be." - -Shortly afterwards an old woman passed, and the lion asked whether that -was a man. "No," replied the tiger, "that is one who has made men." - -At last a hussar passed. The tiger said, "This is a man." - -The hussar drew near, shot at the lion, and, quite dazed, it ran away. - -The hussar overtook him, and drawing his sword wounded him in many -places. The lion escaped and said afterwards, "When he blew at me it -was bad enough, but how much worse was it, when he pricked me." - -Another version from the inhabitants of Transylvania is found in -Haltrich D. Volksmärchen a. d. Sachsenlande i. Siebbrgn, Wien 1877 -(No. 86). Here it is the wolf who boasts, and the fox tells him that -there is something much more powerful than he is and that is man. The -wolf asks the fox to show him man. An old man passes, the fox says, -"This was a man." - -A boy passes and the fox says, "This is not yet a man." - -A hunter comes, and from behind the bush the fox whispers, "That -is man." The hunter shoots at the wolf, then draws his knife and -slashes him. The wolf runs away and owns himself beaten by the man, -who makes thunder and lightning, throws stones in his face, and then -draws a shining rib and cuts away at him. - -Cf. also Grimm, 72. - - - - - - - - -CIV. - -THE STORY OF THE GNAT AND THE BUFFALO. - - -A man was driving his buffalo to market. On the way they passed a -marsh. The buffalo, in accordance with its habit, went into it and -started wallowing. The man tried to get him out of it and threatened -him with his stick, but the buffalo took no notice. - -There came a gnat buzzing by the man and saying to him: - -"What wilt thou say if I drive him out of the swamp?" - -"You," replied the man contemptuously, "what can a little midget like -you do, when the buffalo does not care even for me?" - -"Just so," said the gnat, "I will show you that I can do what you -cannot." - -"Try, then, if you can." So the gnat went and placed itself under the -fold of the buffalo's belly, and stung him just between the creases -of the skin where the flesh was softest. - -Up jumped the buffalo, and in a wink he had got out of the mire, and -was brought to the market by the man who owned shamefacedly that of -the two the gnat was the stronger. - -"Hi! hi!" hissed the gnat, "didst thou see that I could do with my -little tongue, what thou with thy mighty cudgel couldst not do?" - - - - - - - - -CV. - -THE STORY OF THE TOWN MOUSE AND THE FIELD MOUSE. - - -A mouse living in the town one day met a mouse which lived in the -field. - -"Whence do you come?" asked the latter when she saw the town-mouse. - -"I come from yonder town," replied the first mouse. - -"How is life going there with you?" - -"Very well, indeed. I am living in the lap of luxury. Whatever I want -of sweets or any other good things is to be found in abundance in my -master's house. But how are you living?" - -"I have nothing to complain of. You just come and see my stores. I -have grain and nuts, and all the fruits of the tree and field in -my storehouse." - -The town-mouse did not quite believe the story of her new friend, and, -driven by curiosity, went with her to the latter's house. How great -was her surprise when she found that the field-mouse had spoken the -truth; her garner was full of nuts and grain and other stores, and her -mouth watered when she saw all the riches which were stored up there. - -Then she turned to the field-mouse and said, "Oh, yes, you have here -a nice snug place and something to live upon, but you should come to -my house and see what I have there. Your stock is as nothing compared -with the riches which are mine." - - - -The field mouse, who was rather simple by nature and trusted her new -friend, went with her into the town to see what better things the -other could have. She had never been into the town and did not know -what her friend could mean when she boasted of her greater riches. So -they went together, and the town-mouse took her friend to her master's -house. He was a grocer, and there were boxes and sacks full of every -good thing the heart of a mouse could desire. When she saw all these -riches, the field mouse said she could never have believed it, had -she not seen it with her own eyes. - -Whilst they were talking together, who should come in but the cat. As -soon as the town-mouse saw the cat, she slipped quietly behind a box -and hid herself. Her friend, who had never yet seen a cat, turned to -her and asked her who that gentleman was who had come in so quietly? - -"Do you not know who he is? Why, he is our priest (popa), and he has -come to see me. You must go and pay your respects to him and kiss -his hand. See what a beautiful, glossy coat he has on, and how his -eyes sparkle, and how demurely he keeps his hands in the sleeves -of his coat." Not suspecting anything, the field-mouse did as she -was told and went up to the cat. He gave her at once his blessing, -and the mouse had no need of another after that: the cat gave her -extreme unction there and then. That was just what the town-mouse had -intended. When she saw how well stored the home of the field-mouse was, -she made up her mind to trap her and to kill her, so that she might -take possession of all that the field-mouse had gathered up. She had -learned the ways of the townspeople and had acted up to them. - - - -This story reminds one of the story of La Fontaine, yet the conclusion -here is quite different. The popular tale undoubtedly underwent a -definite change in the hands of La Fontaine, who used the fable for -driving home a totally different moral lesson, just in the style of -all the fables so used since Aesop downwards. The popular tale as -told here is perhaps more crude, but still much more true to nature--a -picture of life. - -Hahn (No. 90) tells an Albanian tale where the fox goes on a pilgrimage -and becomes a monk, just as the cat in the Rumanian story is a priest. - - - - - - - - -CVI. - -THE STORY OF THE HARE AND THE FROGS. - - -One day, the hare, thinking of his miserable life, decided to put an -end to it. "What is my life worth to me?" he said to himself, sighing -heavily. "The dogs tear me, the wolves cat me, the eagles claw me, -the man hunts me. I have no peace, no rest, everybody is against -me and wishes to take my life. I had better go and drown myself, -and then there will be an end to my miseries." So speaking, he got -up and went to the neighbouring lake to drown himself in the water. - -As he drew near he saw a number of frogs sitting by the water. When -they saw the hare coming up, they got frightened and jumped into the -water, some of them getting drowned in it. When the hare saw that he -had frightened the frogs to such an extent that he caused a number of -them to jump into the water and to get drowned, he stopped short and -said, "If there are creatures whom I can frighten, then surely even -I am not the weakest of all, as I had hitherto thought." Comforted -by this thought, he returned to his form. - - - - - - - - -CVII. - -WHY DOES THE BUFFALO WALK SLOWLY AND TREAD GENTLY? - -The Race of the Buffalo and the Hare. - - -In olden times, so we are told by those who know best, there was -constant strife between the hares and the buffaloes. Each of them -contended for the honour of being the most swift-footed. - -Both did run very fast and neither would give in to the other. So -it went on year after year, and there seemed to be no end to the -strife. Tired of this constant fight, one day the hare said to the -buffalo, "Let us try a race together and settle this quarrel once -for all." The buffalo was well contented with the proposal, and they -agreed to race one another. When the day came the hare, putting his -ears back, started the race. He ran so fast that you might have said -he was flying upon the ground. - -But the buffalo was a match for him. He went thundering away, his -hoofs splashing the mud and raising seas of mire. The earth shook -at his furious tread. He soon overtook the breathless hare which was -running panting as fast as its little legs could carry it. - -Then a thought struck the hare, and he cried to the buffalo, "Ho, -friend! Take heed how thou art thundering along. The earth is shaking, -and if thou art not careful, the earth will give way under thee. See -how it is rocking under thy feet." - -When the buffalo heard the hare's story, he stopped still for a while -bewildered, and then, being frightened, lest the earth should give -way under him and he sink beneath, he checked his pace and began to -walk slowly and tread gently. - -That was just what the hare had wanted, and pulling a long nose at the -buffalo, he ran swiftly by, leaving the buffalo a long way behind. Thus -he won the race, and there was no longer any strife between the hares -and the buffaloes. But ever since the buffalo walks slowly and treads -lightly upon the ground. - - - - - - - - -CVIII. - -THE STORY OF THE POINTER AND THE SETTER. - - -It is told that the pointer and the setter kept a public-house -together. All the animals would come and eat and drink and pay their -account, except the wolf and the hare who would come and eat and -drink very heavily, and regularly forget to pay. At last, the pointer -and setter could stand it no longer, and they went and lodged their -complaint before God. And God said, "As they have treated you so badly, -you are free to go for them whenever you see them. You must try and -catch them and make them pay." - -And that is the reason why these dogs will go for the wolf as soon as -they scent his track, and also that is the reason why, when they catch -a hare, he will squeak, "Miat, miat"--which sounds like mart (Tuesday -in Rumanian)--as if he were saying "Wait till next Tuesday when I am -going to pay." And they are still waiting for that Tuesday to come. - - - - - - - - -CIX. - -THE STORY OF THE RAT AND HIS JOURNEY TO GOD. - - -In a mill a rat once lived and prospered. It took after the miller, -and from day to day its paunch grew bigger. It became as round as -cucumber and as fat as a candle. - -One day, looking at his round, sleek figure, the rat said to itself, -"Behold I am so beautiful and strong. Why should I not go and pay a -visit to God? He is sure to receive me." - -No sooner said than done. Leaving the mill, he started on his journey -to God. After travelling a few days and not coming nearer to God, he -stopped and said, "Methinks that either God lives much farther away -than I believed, or I have lost my way. I will go to the sun and ask -where God is." Coming to the sun, the rat asked, "Where is God?" "Off -with thee," shouted the sun, "I have no time for idle talkers." - -The rat went to the clouds and asked them, "Where is God?" The clouds -stared at him and said, "We cannot stop to bandy words with the like -of you." Away the rat went and came to the wind. "Where is God?" asked -the rat. "There," replied the wind, whistling, and getting hold of -the rat hurled him down into an ant-heap, and there he found his level. - - - -This story is a curious parallel to another series of rat or mouse -tales. In these a rat wishes to marry the daughter of the mightiest -thing, and asked for the daughter of the sun. But he is not great -enough. The sun is covered by the clouds. The clouds are carried by the -wind, the wind is stopped by the mountain, the mountain is sapped by -the rat, thus he comes back to his own and finds his proper level. So -in the Rumanian Tale (Sevastos, Basme, Moldov. p. 236). (Cf. Benfey, -Pantschatantra, i. 375 ff.) - -In an ancient Biblical legend Abraham discusses with Nimrod, Who -might be God? The sun cannot be worshipped as God, for the sun sets -and is followed by darkness, the moon is eclipsed by the sun, the -fire is quenched by water, the clouds of rain are carried by the -wind, the wind is stopped by the mountains, and so on. (Cf. Gaster, -Chronicles of Jerahmeel, London 1899, chap. xxxiv. p. 72 ff.) - -The biblical setting of the legend is about two thousand years old. In -the Rumanian tale the comparison has disappeared, but the principal -elements have been preserved whilst invested with a different rôle. - - - - - - - - -CX. - -THE STORY OF THE SEVEN-WITTED FOX AND THE ONE-WITTED OWL. - - -One day the owl met a fox, and the latter bragged about his -intelligence and cleverness, and said that he was very cunning and -slim. The owl asked him, "Brother mine, how many minds (wits) have -you?" "Seven," he said, boastingly. "No wonder you are so clever, -I have only one," said the owl. - -A short time afterwards the owl again met the fox, but this time he -was running for his life. The hunters were after him, and the hounds -were trying to catch him. - -Running as fast as his legs could carry him, he at last managed to slip -into a hole. The owl followed him, and seeing him there, exhausted, -asked him, "How many minds (wits) have you?" And he replied, "Six, -I have lost one by the chase." - -Meanwhile the hunters and dogs came nearer and nearer, so they could -hear the baying of the dogs. The fox did not know what to do. The -owl asked him, "How many minds (wits) have you now, old fellow?" - -"Oh, I have lost all my minds (wits). I have none left." - -"Where is your cunning of which you bragged?" - -"It is not kind of you, now, to go for a poor fellow when the dogs -are at his heels and there is no escape for him." - -"Well," said the owl, "I have but one mind (wit), and I will see -whether I cannot save you with my one wit. It is my turn. I am going to -lie down here at the entrance as though dead. When the hunters come, -they will see me and get hold of me and talk about me. Meanwhile they -will forget you, and in the midst of the trouble you just dash out -and run for your life." - -It happened just as the owl had said. - -No sooner did the hunters come up and find the owl than they said, -"What is this ugly bird doing here? and a dead owl to boot"; and whilst -they were busy with the owl trying to get hold of it to throw it away, -off went the fox through them and escaped. - -Soon afterwards the owl met him again and she said, "How have your -seven minds (wits) helped you when in time of danger? It is like that -with people who have too much, they often have nothing when they want -it most, but you see I had only one mind (wit), but a strong one and -not a dissolute one like yours, and that saved both you and me." - - - - - - - - -CXI. - -THE STORY OF THE FOX AND HIS BAGFUL OF WITS AND THE ONE-WITTED -HEDGEHOG. - - -I do not know how he managed it, but a fox one day got into a -poultry-yard and there he ate his fill. Some time afterwards, going -along to the poultry-yard, the hedgehog met him. "Where are you going, -brother?" - -"I am going to eat my fill." - -"Surely you cannot get it just as you like." - -"Oh," he said, "you just come with me and I will show you. I know my -way, and there is plenty for me and for you, and some to leave behind -for another time." - -The hedgehog, who was a wise old fellow, said to the fox: - -"Now, be careful; are you sure that the owners of the poultry yard -will let you in again so easily?" - -"Don't you trouble," said the fox. "I know my business, you just come -with me." And the hedgehog went with him. - -But the people of the poultry-yard were not such fools as the fox had -taken them for, and just where the fox had got in last time they had -dug a deep pit, and into that the fox and the hedgehog tumbled. When -they found themselves at the bottom of the pit, the hedgehog turned -to the fox and said, "Well, you clever fellow, is that the proper -way to get into the poultry-yard? Did I not warn you?" - -"What is the good of talking?" replied the fox, "We are here now, -and we must see how to get out of it." - -"But you are so clever, and I am only a poor old fool." - -"Never mind, you were always a wise one. Can you help me?" - -"No," he said, "I cannot help you. This sudden fall has upset me, -and I feel queer and sick." - -"What," cried the fox, "you are not going to be sick here; that is -more than I can stand; out you go!" - -So he got hold of the hedgehog by the snout, and the hedgehog coiled -himself up with his little paws into a little ball round the fox's -mouth, the fox lifted up his head with a jerk and threw the little -fellow out of the pit. - -As soon as he saw himself safely out of the pit, the little hedgehog, -bending over the mouth of the pit, said, chuckling to the fox: - -"Where is your wisdom, you fool? You boast that you have a bagful of -wits, whilst it is I who get myself out of the pit though I have only -a little wit." - -"Oh," said the fox, whining, "do have pity on me! you are such a -clever old fellow, help me out of it too." - -"Well," said the hedgehog, "I will help you. Now, you pretend to be -dead, and when the people come and find you stiff and stark, and a -nasty smell about you, they will say, 'The fox has died and his carcase -is rotting; it is going to make all the poultry yard offensive.' They -will take you and throw you out. And then see whither your way lies." - -The fox did as the hedgehog had advised him, and when the people came -and found him in that state, they hauled him out and threw him out -of the yard on to the road. - -Quicker than you could clap your hands, the fox was on his legs, -and he ran as if the ground was burning under him. - -Since then the fox and the hedgehog are good friends. - - - -South Slavonic Tales, Krauss, No. 13. - -A fox meeting a hedgehog asked him, "How many wits have you?" And he -replied, "Only three. But how many have you?" "I," boasted the fox, -"have seventy-seven." - -As they were talking and walking along, not noticing whither they -were going, they fell into a deep hole which the peasants had -dug. The fox asked the hedgehog to save him. The hedgehog said, -"I have only three wits, perhaps you will save me first, then I -will see about you afterwards"; and he asked the fox to pitch him -out of the hole. The fox did so, and then asked the hedgehog whether -he could help him. The hedgehog said, "I cannot help you with three -if you cannot help yourself with seventy-seven." And so the fox was -caught in the morning by the peasants and killed. - -In the Rumanian version, the hedgehog saves the fox by one wit and -puts him to shame, which rounds off the story much better; in the -Slavonic tale there is scarcely any point. - -But this probably goes back to a more ancient legend referred to in -a Greek epigram, v. Benfey, Pantschatantra, i. 316. - -Compare the parallel story in Grimm (No. 75) of a fox with the hundred -wits, and also Hahn (91). - - - - - - - - -CXII. - -THE STORY OF THE PEASANT, THE SNAKE, AND KING SOLOMON. - - -Once upon a time, when King Solomon the wise ruled over the people, -some shepherds gathered under a tree and lit a fire, not for any -special reason, but just to pass their time, as they often do. When -they left, they did not take care to put the fire out; it was left -burning under the ashes. Spreading slowly, it caught the great tree, -which soon afterwards became a mass of living flames. A snake had crept -on to that tree before and found itself now in danger of perishing in -the flames. Creeping upwards to the very top of the tree, the snake -cried as loud as it could, for she felt her skin scorched by the -fire. At that moment a man passed by, and hearing the shrieking of the -snake, who begged him to save her from the flames, he took pity on her, -and cutting a long stick, he reached with it up to the top of the tree -for the snake to glide down on it. But he did not know the mind of the -cunning beast, which had aforetime deceived his forefather Adam, for, -instead of gliding down to the ground, no sooner did the snake reach -the neck of the good man than she coiled herself round and round his -neck. In vain did he remind her that he had saved her life, she would -not hear of anything, for she said, "My skin is dearer to me than to -you, and I remain where I am, you cannot shake me off." Finding that -he could not get rid of the snake, the man went from judge to judge, -from king to king, to decide between them, but no one could help him. - -At last, hearing of the wisdom of King Solomon, he came to him and laid -his case before him. But King Solomon said, "I am not going to judge -between you unless you both first promise to abide by my word." Both -did so. Turning to the snake, King Solomon then said, "You must uncoil -yourself and get down on the earth, for I cannot judge fairly between -one who is standing on the ground and one who is riding." - -Cunning though the snake may be, she did not understand the wisdom -of King Solomon, and therefore uncoiling herself she glided down -and rested on the ground. Turning to the man, King Solomon said, -"Do you not know that you must never trust a snake?" The man at once -understood what the king meant, and taking up a stone he bruised the -snake's head. And thus justice was done. - - - -Needless to point out, that we have here a variant of the widespread -tale of the man and the snake. At one time the judge is King Solomon, -who looms largely in the minds of the people as the very type of human -wisdom, at another time the judge is a child playing at justice, who -induces the snake to loosen her hold on the man and is then killed -by the man, who finds himself suddenly freed. - -In other parallels animals are appointed as judges and this leads to -the undoing of the snake. (v. Benfey, Pantschatantra, i. p. 113 ff.); -Hahn (87), and the literature given by him; Afanasief (No. 15). - - - - - - - - -CXIII. - -THE STORY OF THE DOG AND THE SNAKE AND THE CURE OF HEADACHE. - - -Once upon a time, I do not know how it came about, the dog had a -frightful headache, such a headache as he had never had before. It -nearly drove him mad, and he ran furiously hither and thither, not -knowing what to do to get rid of it. As he was running wildly over -a field, he met a snake that was lying there coiled up in the sun. - -"What is the matter that you are running about like a madman, -brother?" asked the snake. - -"Sister, I cannot stop to speak to you. I am clean mad with a splitting -headache, and I do not know how to be rid of it." - -"I know a remedy," said the snake, "it is excellent for the headache -of a dog, but it is of no good to me who am also suffering greatly -from a headache." - -"Never mind you, what am I to do?" - -"You go yonder and eat some of the grass, and you will be cured of -the headache." - -The dog did as the snake had advised him. He went and ate the grass, -and soon felt relieved of his pain. - -Now, do you think the dog was grateful? No such luck for the snake. On -the contrary, a dog is a dog, and a dog he remains. And why should he -be better than many people are? He did as they do, and returned evil -for good. Going to the snake, he said, "Now that my headache is gone, -I feel much easier; I remember an excellent remedy for the headache -of snakes." - -"And what might it be?" asked the snake eagerly. - -"It is quite simple. When you feel your head aching, go and stretch -full length across the high-road and lie still for a while, and the -pain is sure to leave you." - -"Thank you," said the simpleton of a snake, and she did as the dog had -advised her. She stretched herself full length across the high-road -and lay still, waiting for the headache to go. - -The snake had been lying there for some time, when it so happened that -a man came along with a stout cudgel in his hands. To see the snake -and to bruise her head was the work of an instant. And the snake had -no longer any headache. The cure proved complete. And ever since that -time, when a snake has a headache it goes and stretches across the -high-road. If its head is crushed, then no other remedy is wanted, -but if the snake escapes unhurt, it loses its headache. - - - - - - - - -CXIV. - -THE STORY OF THE HORSE, THE LION, AND THE WOLF. - - -There once lived a Sultan who had a charger. It had served him most -faithfully for a good number of years, carrying him in many battles -and on numerous other occasions. - -At last the horse grew old and was no longer fit to serve him as -before. The Sultan, remembering its faithful services, decided to -free it from every manner of work, and in token of recognition of -its faithfulness he set it free to roam about and to feed wherever -it liked. - -In order that it should not be molested, he ordered that a special -coating should be made for it of red cloth adorned with many coloured -stripes and patches. He also had it shod with steel shoes, which last -for a very long time. - -So, covered with the king's cloth, the horse went about from field -to field eating whatever and whenever it pleased. Being now at ease, -the horse got fat again and strong, and when it walked on the road, -it struck with its feet against the stones and pebbles, and made the -sparks fly from them. - -In a forest near by there lived a lion. One day, coming out to the -edge of the wood, he saw the horse in the distance, and as he had -never yet seen such a peculiar animal, he got frightened and started -running back into the thickest part of the forest. - -There he met a wolf, who, seeing the lion run, asked him why he -was running. - -"If your life is dear to you," he replied, "do not stop here talking, -for that terrible beast which I have seen yonder in the field is sure -to overtake us, and then good-bye to us." - -"What beast?" asked the wolf. "I know no beast that could frighten -a lion." - -"Well, then, thank God that you have never come across it." - -"How does it look?" - -"It is a huge beast with a head so big as I have never seen a head -before, and a mouth so large that it could devour us in one bite. As -to its skin, I have never yet seen any like it, all red with stripes -and patches of every colour. It stands on huge feet, and whenever it -walks it scatters fire right and left." - -"That may all be as you describe it," said the wolf, "but still it -might also be otherwise. I should like to see it myself, and I might -perhaps know what it is." - -"Very well then, let us go higher up the hill, where we can look down -on the field." - -"I would rather see it from here, if possible, near at hand." - -"As you please. I will squat down on my hind-legs and lift you up -with my fore-legs, so that you can see some distance from here." - -The lion did as he said, and taking the wolf in his fore-paws he lifted -him up. But whilst doing so he pressed the wolf so hard that he nearly -lost his breath, and his eyes began starting out of his head. When -the lion saw it, he said, "You cur, you talk bravely and laugh at -me who have been close to that terrible beast, and you, who are so -far away and scarcely able to get a glimpse of it, you are already -losing your breath, and your eyes are starting out of your head." - -With these words he threw the wolf down, and away he ran as fast as -his legs would carry him. - - - -This story reminds us of the framework of the famous Indian -Panchatantra, which had so successful a run through the literature of -East and West, becoming one of the most popular books of the Middle -Ages, better known as the story of Kalila and Dimna, or even falsely, -Syntipas. - -In Krauss (No. 2) the animal which frightens the lion, or rather -imposes on his credulity, is an ass. The ass makes the lion believe -that he, the ass, was the real king of beasts. The wolf, to whom -the lion says that he was not the real king but that another animal -claimed the right to rule, listens incredulously. The lion ties their -two tails together and takes the wolf to the summit of a hill, from -which they can see the ass. The lion, misunderstanding the exclamation -of the wolf and thinking that he said "there are six," runs away as -fast as he can, dragging the wolf behind him and killing him in his -mad flight. It is obviously the same tale but slightly varied in -the details. In the Rumanian the lion never gets so near the other -animal as to be undeceived by his own sight. He merely sees from a -distance an animal the like of which he had never seen before, and -he works himself up into a great fright. This seems to be the more -primitive form. In the South Slavonic, the lion is simply deceived -by an animal with which he ought to be familiar enough. - -A curious and corrupted version is found in Grimm (No. 132), where -only the tying of the tails has been retained. In this version the -horse is tied to the lion, and he drags the lion to his master's house. - -Similar is the story of the dib-dib (the name used by the woman for the -dropping rain), whom the leopard, who listens at the door, takes to be -a great monster. A man jumps on the back of the frightened leopard, -thinking it was an ass. The leopard carries him to the dib-dib, -and he runs away. He meets a fox, who laughs at his fear, and they -tie their tails together. The man, who had sought safety in the -branches of the trees, says that the fox had brought the leopard to be -killed. The leopard, who had distrusted the fox, runs away with him, -and as their tails are knotted together, both get killed. (Hanauer, -p. 278.) (Cf. also Afanasief, No. 19.) - - - - - - - - -CXV. - -THE MARRIAGE OF TOM AND THE VIXEN. - - -Once upon a time there lived a very poor man who had a wife and -family, and there was also a tomcat prowling about the house. One day -a neighbour took pity on them and gave the man a handful of flour -of maize. Overjoyed he went home, and mixing it with water made a -nice dish. Pouring it out on to the plates, he and his wife and the -children sat round eating as much as they could. - -Tom, smelling the dish, began to mew, and the father, taking pity on -Tom, said to the children: - -"Poor Tom is starving too, give him some of the mameliga" (maize -pudding). But they said, "He must have it in a better style. We will -gird him with a sword round his loins, and he will draw it and cut for -himself as big a slice as he likes." And so they did. But when Tom saw -himself girded with a sword, which clanked as he moved about, he said, -"I am much too good for this family," and off he went into the world. - -On his way he met a vixen, and she asked him: - -"Where are you going, Sir Knight?" - -He said, "I am going to get married." - -"Will you marry me?" - -Tom replied, "Yes, you are just as good as any other bride." - -So they went together to the vixen's lair, and a happy life began -for our friend. For the vixen went catching birds, rabbits, and other -animals, and bringing them home to feed her husband. - -One day the vixen met the wolf. "Hallo, sister," he cried, "have you -got a meal ready?" - -"I have and I have not. I am married now, and I have a soldier for -a husband." - -"I should like to see him," said the wolf; "show him to me." - -"Come, I will show him to you," said the vixen, and going to her lair -called Tom, who came out and met the wolf. Tom came out with his sword -clanking behind him, and when he saw that huge beast with his huge -head, his hair stood on end and he began to spit and to snarl for -very fear. The wolf, thinking that Tom was getting angry and ready -to draw his sword and cut him up, turned tail and ran away. - -Running very fast he met the bear, who asked him: - -"What is the matter with you that you run so fast? Who is running -after you?" The wolf told him all that had happened, and how the vixen -had got a mighty soldier for a husband, who killed anybody who came -near him. - -The bear began to get curious and ran to the vixen's lair, and the -same thing happened to him, for Tom came out with his hair standing -on end, and growled, and snarled, and spat, shaking all the time with -fear. The bear ran away as fast as he could and came to the wolf, -and they discussed between themselves how best to get rid of that -terrible Tom, as their lives were no longer safe. So they called the -hare and the lion into counsel. These decided to invite the vixen and -her Tom to a banquet at which they would all fall upon him and end his -career. So they spread a table-cloth under a huge tree, but none had -the courage to go and call the guests. The bear said, "Send the wolf," -but he replied he was too weak and they would catch him. The bear -said he was rather stout and heavy and they would catch him. So the -trouble fell upon the hare. He, poor fellow, could not help himself, -so he went with the message to invite them. But he did not venture -too near. From a distance he called out to them that they were invited -to a banquet, and off he went after he had delivered the message. - -When the vixen heard the message she told Tom, and together they went -to the banquet. On the way Tom saw a crow on the top of a tree, and, -as is the way with cats, before one could turn round Tom had climbed -to the top of the tree and had caught the crow. He then killed it, -and threw it down on the ground. - -The hosts, who were sitting at the table, saw what had happened, -and said to one another, "Just see what that knight is doing. Even -the people on the very top of the tree are not safe from him. He -catches them and kills them. How then can we fight him on the earth?" - -So the lion crawled under the table, the bear climbed up the tree, -and the wolf and the hare hid themselves in a bush. - -When the vixen and Tom came to the place, no one was there, and they -wondered where their hosts could be. Whilst they were looking round, -Tom saw the tip of the lion's tail, and, thinking it to be a rat, -he attacked it. When the lion felt someone tugging at his tail he did -not wait any longer, but ran away as fast as his legs could carry him. - -When Tom saw that huge lion he got frightened and ran up the tree. Now -the bear saw Tom running up the tree, and he got frightened and -tumbled head over heels down the tree on to the table with Tom after -him, who, being frightened, ran into the bush. There the wolf and the -hare were crouching, hidden away. No sooner did they see Tom than off -they dashed in a fright. Tom ran back to the vixen, who was sitting -at the table thinking with great satisfaction how they had all run -away out of fear of Tom. - -She embraced him, and they sat down alone to the banquet and enjoyed -themselves, no one disturbing them. - - - -In Krauss, No. 3, there is a story parallel yet not identical with -it. In the South Slavonic, a cat, together with a dog, a duck and a -gander, defeats the wolf, fox, bear and wild pig arrayed against them -in battle. Tom contributes most to the victory by sudden attacks on -the ear of the hidden pig, and frightening the bear in the tree by -climbing up in fear, etc. In other respects the stories disagree. - -The setting is entirely different. The wolf challenged to combat the -dog, who had betrayed him on two occasions, and each one brought his -contingent to the appointed place of battle. The dog brought his -friends of the courtyard, and the wolf his of the forest, and the -battle ended in the discomfiture of the latter as mentioned above. - -Another version is found in Haltrich (No. 82), in which a cat feeds on -the carcase of a horse. It is seen successively by the fox, the wolf, -the bear and the wild pig, who get frightened by the sight of a small, -wild beast, which had killed an animal many times their size and was -eating it. - -The cat runs after them by mere chance, and manages to bite the pig's -ear and frighten the others to such an extent that they are still -running, all except the wolf, who has fallen on a pointed stick and -got impaled. - -Among the Cossack Tales (W. Bain, London 1894, p. 130 ff.) there is -a story similar, not quite identical. - - - - - - - - -CXVI. - -THE STORY OF MAN AND HIS YEARS. - - -When God had created the world, he called all his creatures together -to grant them their span of life, and to tell them how long they -would live and what manner of life they would lead. - -The first to appear before God was man. And God said to him, "Thou, -man, shalt be king of the world, walking erect upon thy feet and -looking up to heaven. I give thee a noble countenance; the power of -thought and judgment shall be thine, and the capacity of disclosing -thy innermost thoughts by means of speech. All that lives and moves -and goes about the earth shall be under thy rule, the winged birds -and the creeping things shall obey thee, thine shall be all the fruits -of the tree and land, and thy life shall be thirty years." - -Then man turned away dissatisfied and grumbling. "What is the good -of living in pleasure and in might, if all the years of my life are -to be thirty only?" So did man speak and grumble, especially when he -heard of the years granted to other animals. - -The turn came to the ass. He stepped forward to hear what God had -decreed for him. The Creator said, "Thou shalt work hard; thou shalt -carry heavy burdens and be constantly beaten. Thou shalt always be -scolded and have very little rest, thy food shall be a poor one of -thistles and thorns, and thy life shall be fifty years." When the ass -heard what God had decreed for him he fell upon his knees and cried, -"All merciful Creator, am I indeed to lead such a miserable life, -and am I to have such poor food as thistles and thorns. Am I to work -so hard and carry such heavy burdens and then live on for fifty years -in such misery? Have pity on me and take off twenty years." Then man, -greedy of long life, stepped forward and begged for himself these -twenty years which the ass had rejected. And the Lord granted them -to him. - -Then came the dog. To him the Creator said, "Thou shalt guard the -house and the property of thy master; thou shalt cling to them as if -thou wast afraid of losing them; thou shalt bark even at the shadow -of the moon, and for all thy trouble thou shalt gnaw bones and eat -raw meat, and thy life shall be forty years." - -"All merciful Creator," cried the dog, "if my life is to be of worry -and trouble, and if I am to live on bones and raw stuff, take off, -I pray thee, twenty years." - -Again man, greedy of life, stepped forward and begged the Creator to -give him the twenty years rejected by the dog. And the Creator again -granted his request. - -Now, it was the turn of the monkey. The Creator said, "Thou shalt only -have the likeness of man, but not be man; thou shalt be stupid and -childish. Thy back shall be bent; thou shalt be an object of mockery -to the children and a laughing-stock of fools, and thy life shall be -sixty years." - -When the monkey heard what was decreed for him, he fell upon his -knees and said, "All merciful God, in thy wisdom thou hast decided -that I should be a man and not a man, that my back shall be bent, -that I shall be a laughing-stock for young and fools and I shall be -stupid. Take, in mercy, thirty years off my life." And God, the all -merciful, granted his request. - -And again, man, whose greed can never be satisfied, stepped forward and -asked also for these thirty years which the monkey had rejected. And -again God gave them to him. - -Then God dismissed all the animals and all his creatures, and each one -went to his appointed station and to the life that has been granted -to him. - -And as man has asked, so has it come to pass. - -Man lives as a king and ruler over all creatures for the thirty -years which the Lord had given to him, in joy and in happiness, -without care and without trouble. - -Then come the years from thirty to fifty, which are the years of -the ass; they are full of hard work, heavy burdens, and little food, -for man is anxious to gather and to lay up something for the years -to come. It could not be otherwise, for were not these the years -which he had taken over from the ass? Then come the years from fifty -to seventy, when man sits at home and guards with great trembling -and fear the little that he possesses, fearful of every shadow, -eating little, always keeping others away lest they rob him of that -which he has gathered, and barking at every one whom he suspects -of wanting to take away what belongs to him. And no wonder that he -behaves like that, for these are the dog's years, which man had asked -for himself. And if a man lives beyond seventy, then his back gets -bent, his face changes, his mind gets clouded, he becomes childish, -a laughing-stock for children, an amusement for the fool, and these -are the years which man had taken over from the monkey. - - - -Thus far the story which I found in some old Rumanian MSS., and which -may, therefore, not be quite of a popular origin. I have retold it here -because we have in it the animal in the man. It may be a caricature, -but it does not show up man to advantage in comparison with the animal -world. And yet, he is endeavouring to conquer the animal, to shake -off the fateful inheritance of greed, and to return to that rule and -kingdom which are his own by the grace of God to his thirtieth year, -and which he endeavours to carry even beyond that limited span of time. - - - - - - - - -CXVII. - -THE JUDGMENT OF THE SOUL OF MAN, ACCUSED AND DEFENDED BY BEAST -AND BIRDS. - - -When a man dies two angels appear, the good one and the evil one. The -good one walking on his right, and the evil on his left, each one holds -a book in his hand in which man's deeds are written. When the soul -appears before the divine judge, there comes first the cat accusing -the man, and the cat says, "He gave me no peace all my life through; -he put me to catch mice and I often remained hungry. Then man drives -me out of the house, and during daytime he never lets me in." - -"What are you talking of? you should be ashamed of yourself," is -the rejoinder of the dog, "you live in a warm house, you have food -in plenty, you have nothing to complain of. What am I to say, who -am kept out in the cold and rain, and have to watch day and night, -and if ever I get a bone thrown at me I think myself happy." The -judge replies: "That is your work; to that you have been appointed: -off with you." The evil angel writes it all down and puts the weight -of guilt on the one scale, and the good angel writes it in his book -and he puts a counter-weight in the other scale. - -Then come the birds. First the wild duck. He says, "O unfailing judge, -see how this man has ill-treated us, he comes to our resting-place -and shoots us down mercilessly." "It serves you right," is the reply -of the judge, "if you live as a wild bird, you must be treated like -a wild bird. You ought to be domesticated and no hurt will befall you." - -Then the sparrow comes, and he says, "O mighty Lord, this man here -snared us and killed us." And the judge replies, "You have stolen his -corn and destroyed his crop." And other birds, like the finch and the -thrush and the heron, come, and all bring accusations against the man, -and the evil angel enters them in his book. - -Then come the good witnesses. First the swallow, and she says, "O -Lord, this man has been kind to us. We built our nest in his house -and under his roof, and he never as much as molested us, and even -when my young spoil the food, which he is preparing under their nest, -he never hurts them." Then the stork comes, he says, "I build my nest -on the very roof of his house, and on his storehouses, and he never -interferes with us, and we hatch our young and feel no hurt. All -merciful father, have mercy on him, as he was full of pity for us." - -Then the cuckoo comes, and he said, "I who have been thy servant pray -thee to forgive his sins, for even to me he does no hurt, and though -I often announce death to him, he none the less listens with pleasure -to my call. Have mercy on him and forgive his sins." And so the other -birds come and ask the forgiveness of sin. And the good angel writes -it all down in his book and puts it as counter-weights in his balance, -and often the pleading of the birds opens the gates of heaven to the -human soul. - - - - - - - - -CXVIII. - -THE PILGRIMAGE OF THE SOUL AFTER DEATH. - - - O rosebush, O rosebush, - Thou art evil tempered! - Why hast thou tarried - And not budded - Since yester-morning - Until this morning? - It was bitter enough to watch, - How they became separated, - The soul from the body. - Going away from the beautiful world, - From the world with the sun shining, - From the blowing wind, - From the flowing waters. - O rosebush, why hast thou hastened not to bud? - I have budded quickly, - For my time also has come, - To go away like thee, - To travel to the setting of the sun, - Where the sun is hiding, - Where the flowers dwell - With all their sisters, - And where the flower of the sun - Sits at the gate of Paradise - To judge the flowers, - Where they have left their scent. - In the evening the rain did fall. - In the night the sky cleared up. - In the dawn the dew has fallen, - And the scent has gone astray. - The soul divided from the body, - Full of grief and sorrow, - Journeys far away. - It reaches the sea. - The sea is raging furiously. - It comes howling and foaming, - Frightening the whole world. - The wave rose up high, - To swallow the world. - It brings in its sweep blackberry trees, elder-trees, - Pines torn from the roots. - On the border of the sea, - Where the pine tree of the fairies stands, - The way across the waters, - The soul stood praying to the pine. - O pine, - Be a brother unto me. - Stretch, oh stretch - Thy boughs, - That I may lay hold of them, - And thus pass across - That wide sea - Which divides me from the world. - I may not stretch my boughs - For thee to lay hold of them, - And to pass across by them, - For on my crest a red hawk has hatched its young, - With a cursed heart - And a proud eye. - Ere thou art aware, - The young will see thee. - They will whistle, - And frighten thee, - And thou art sure to drop into the sea beneath, - And be engulfed there. - Let it be so! - The sea was raging furiously. - It came howling and storming, - Frightening the whole world. - The wave rose, - To swallow the world, - And brought in its sweep, - Blackberry trees, - Elder trees, - Pines torn from their roots. - On the shore of the seas, - Where the pine tree of the fairies stands, - The passage across the water, - The soul stood praying to the pine: - O pine tree, - Be a brother unto me. - Stretch, I pray thee, - Thy trunk, - That I may pass across the seas - Which separate one world from the other. - I may not stretch my trunk - For thee to pass, - For in it the barking otter has laid her young, - Which lie in wait for men. - Before thou art ware, - The young ones will find thee. - They will bark at thee, - And frighten thee, - And thou art sure to drop into the sea beneath, - And be engulfed by it. - Let it be so! - The sea was raging furiously. - It came howling and foaming, - Frightening the whole world. - The waves rose high up to swallow the world. - It brought in its sweep, - Blackberry trees, - Elder trees, - Pine trees torn from the roots. - On the shore of the sea, - Where the pine tree of the fairies stands, - The passage across the waters, - The soul stood praying. - O pine tree, - Be a brother unto me. - Stretch thy roots, - That I may lay hold of them, - And pass across the seas - To the other part, - From which the sea separates me. - I may not stretch my roots - For thee to lay hold of them, - To pass across, - For in it the yellow dragon has hatched its young, - And they are starving. - Ere thou art aware, - They will discover thee, - And they will hiss. - Thou wilt be frightened, - And art sure to drop into the sea, - Which will engulf thee. - Let it be so. - And now, pine tree, - Pine tree, - Long enough have I prayed of thee, - But I have a brother, - A fine shepherd. - He has a small axe, - And he has two cousins, - Two strong boys. - They will come and cut thee down, - And throw thee down. - The carpenters will come, - And cut thee to measure, - And they will make out of thee - A bridge over the sea, - To give peace to all, - For the souls to have a passage, - The tried souls, - That journey on the way to Paradise. - The pine tree considered, - It stretched out its boughs, - And the soul passed across the nameless sea, - To go where its desire carried it, - To the other world. - Pass on, O soul; - Pass on unharmed, - Until thou hast gained in mercy - The seven heavy toll-houses. - Then go on straight, O dear soul, - Until thou reachest a place - Where the road divides. - Stop there and consider - Which road to take, - Until thou seest - A tall acacia tree, - Bent and with broad leaves. - Take good care - Not to turn to the left, - For it is the narrow way-- - Narrow and a blind alley, - Watered with tears. - And there are also fields badly ploughed, - And covered with briars and thistle. - There dwells the old fay, - Who takes thy passport out of thy hand. - But turn to the right. - Thy own desire leads thee, - For there thou shalt find - Delightful fields, - With choice flowers, - Fields well tilled, sown with flowers. - Thou wilt pick flowers, - And the longing for this world will vanish. - Take further good care, - For thou shalt find - In two beds, - Only one flower in each, - Flower close upon the ground - Not touched by the wind; - Flower in the shade - Never seen by the sun. - Pick them, - For these are the flowers of Paradise. - Journey on, - Until thou reachest that apple tree - Which belongs to St. Peter. - It is a high and mighty tree, - And somewhat bent - On its side. - The top reaches the heavens. - The sides go down to the seas. - The top is full of bloom, - And the boughs are full of fruit; - And down at the roots trickles a gentle fountain. - There sits St. Mary. - May her mercy be with us! - Whoever passes by - She takes pity on them, - And gives them all to drink, - And guides them into the right path. - The soul drinks of the water, - And forgets this world. - Go on thy journey - Until thou reachest the noble willow tree - Covered with bloom. - But it is not a noble willow covered with bloom. - It is St. Mary - In a beautiful garment, - A garment of silk. - She sits at a table, - Adorned with flowers. - There she sits and writes-- - She the holy Mary-- - The dead and the living. - And she writes down the fate of each of them. - Pray to her - To take the page of the living. - Perchance she will have compassion on thee, - And will write thee among the living. - But she will not have pity on thee, - And will not write thee among the living, - For her sheet is full up, - And she has lost her pen. - Pray her, however, very much - That she take thee with her into the Paradise, - If thou hast not prayed, - When the call has reached thee - In thine own village. - Go then further - Upon beaten tracks, until thou comest - To the very gate of Paradise, - Where there stands the flower of the sun. - There stop. - There take shelter, - And wait patiently - The hour of quickening, - For it is sure to come, - And thou wilt return, - When the stags will draw the plough, - And the hinds will scatter the seeds. - O earth, - From this day on - Be thou my father. - Do not hurry - To eat me up, - For I am giving thee now, - Without ever taking them back, - My shoulders in thy arms, - And my face under thy green sward. - - -The conception which is here revealed is totally unlike popular -apocryphal Christian tales like the Visions of St. Peter, Paul, -and the Lady Mary, all well known in Rumanian literature. Nor are -there traces of the other set of ideas, originating probably in Egypt, -according to which the soul has to pass through many toll-houses where -angels and devils are waiting for it, and through which it can only -pass with extreme difficulty, if and when the good deeds outweigh the -evil deeds. The poem of the "Pilgrimage of the Soul" has almost an -heathen aspect. Noteworthy are the huge trees, at the shore of the -boundless sea, which must bend across it so as to form a bridge for -the soul to pass, and the three animals living in it which threaten -the soul with destruction. It reminds one strongly of the Northern -Ygdrasil, and almost the same beasts which inhabit it. This is not -the place to discuss at any length this tree upon which the world -rests, which no doubt goes back to, or is somehow connected with, -the tree of life in Paradise and the legends which have clustered -round that tree. This conception of the "Pilgrimage of the Soul," -with its allegorical and mystical meaning, is certainly not a product -of the Orthodox Church. It reminds one forcibly of the fantastical -and poetical conceptions of the heterodox sects. - - - - - - - - -CXIX. - -THE REWARD OF THE GOOD MAN. - -A Christmas Carol of the Lord's Justice. - - - Lord, O Lord, - In this house, - In this yard, - This place, - Two tall apple trees have grown, - Two trees tall and wonderful, - Their tops intertwined. - High above, - In their very tops, - Two candles are burning, - And from these two candles - Three drops are falling, - And from these three drops - Three rivers have grown-- - One of wine, - One of balsam, - And one of pure water. - Who bathes in the river of wine? - God himself, the good God, - Bathes himself, - Washes, - Cleanses himself in pure limpid water, - Changes his clothes, - And anoints himself with balsam. - Further down the river John-- - St. John-- - And old Christmas [6] bathe and wash, - And in limpid water cleanse themselves, - Change their raiment, - Anoint themselves with balsam. - And further down, along the river, - Other saints bathe and wash, - And rinse themselves in pure limpid water, - And put on white clothes. - Still much further down, - This good man bathes, - Washes, - Rinses himself, - In clean water, - And puts on clean garments. - The good God said: - "To whom, O man, doest thou liken thyself? - To me? - To the saints? - To St. John? - Or to old Christmas?" - "No, O Lord. - I do not liken myself - Neither to Thee, - Nor to the Saints, - Nor to St. John, - Nor to old Christmas, - But to the good deeds which I have performed. - I married as a young man, - I have built a house - On the highroad, - I have kept a decked table - On the high road. - Whosoever passed - Sat down at my table. - All ate and drank at my table, - And all thanked me. - I have further built - Bridges in dangerous paths. - Whosoever passed - Thanked me. - I have further digged wells - In dry lands. - Whosoever drank of the water - Blessed me." - The good God then replied: - "May thou therefore be blessed. - Thou hast done good deeds - In that world. - Blessing shalt thou find in this. - Enter Paradise without trial. - Sit at table not invited, - And drink the cup unasked." - We wish health to this house, - To these beautiful courts, - To all of us a happy life - For many years. - - - - - - - - -APPENDIX I. - -RUMANIAN INCANTATIONS AGAINST THE ILLNESSES OF ANIMALS. - - -I am adding here a number of incantations or charms, which are used -by the Rumanians to ward off evil from animals and to save from hurt -and disease such victims of witchcraft. In the mind of the people, -the old conception is still strong that every sickness is caused by -some malignant spirit, and that the most potent remedy is the magical -word of incantation or conjuration. And what holds good for the cure -of the Evil Eye holds good similarly in the case of a snake bite or -any other apparently incurable disease. - -The Rumanians resort to magical performances of a peculiarly -symbolical and sympathetic nature. Those practices are accompanied by -"incantations" or rather "disenchantments," i.e. chants used for the -purpose of destroying the spell. This is not the place to discuss at -any length the history and origin of these charms and the mechanism -of their composition. I have dealt with them largely in my history -of Rumanian Folk-Lore (Lit. pop. Româna, 1883, p. 406 ff.). I have -shown there the similarity between some of these "incantations" or -"conjurations" with some Byzantine and mediæval Latin charms, and -not a few ancient oriental incantations of Babylon and Palestine. In -connection with the foregoing Tales and Legends, it is of no small -importance now to find that similar conjurations are used for the -protection of animals. The same procedure is followed as in the case -of human beings, and practically the same words and images are used -to free the cattle from sickness. In one or two instances (Nos. 2, -3) the cow is being bewitched and loses her milk, or the calf does -not suck. The "virtue" (Rum. mana), the "abundance" or "blessing," -is being taken by some witch, or is waning on account of the Evil -Eye. Even in these cases the formula is almost identical with that -used in a stereotyped form in human "incantations." Each of these given -here could be made the starting-point of discursive explanations. But -this must be reserved for a special study of the Rumanian charms and -incantations. For our purpose here the translation accompanied only -by a few explanatory foot-notes, is quite sufficient. It proves that -to the Rumanian peasant, there is no essential difference between -man and beast. They are both treated alike, and even the Lady Mary -knows no difference between them. She helps the beast in the same -manner as she descends the "silver ladder" to help the man. And -the evil spirits, who attack man and beast with the same virulence, -are driven out by precisely the same method: charms and incantations. - - - - - - -I. - -AGAINST THE ILLNESS OF POULTRY. - - - "Good one" (Dobritza) went with the broom to sweep the poultry - yards, the hens, and the geese runs, with the geese, - The turkey yard, with the turkeys, - The gardens and the orchards, - The hills with the vineyards, - The mountains with the forests. - Then, Good One! do not go to sweep the gardens and the orchards, - the hills and vineyards, - The mountains with the forests, - The run with the poultry, but come and sweep away the sickness - of the hens, - The ducks, and the geese of Mr. N. N. Sweep away the sickness - with thy broom, - And I with my mouth will say the charm (disenchantment). - With my hand I will seize it, - And beyond the Black Sea I will throw it, - That it may perish, truly perish, there, - As the foam of the sea, - As the dew before the sun, - And the birds of Mr. N. N. shall become pure, sweet, clean and - shining, - As made by God. - - -This charm is said whilst stirring the "virgin water" with a broom. - - - - - - -II. - -CHARM FOR A COW AGAINST THE EVIL EYE. - - - The Monday cow has gone on her way, on her pathway, - On to untrodden grass, - With the virtue (Mana) not taken away, - And with the dew not yet shaken off, - To the field with butter, - To the well with cream. - She was met by nine evil-eyed ones, - Nine witches, - And nine takers-away of blessing (abundance mana). - The cow lowed and roared; - She turned back. - The Holy Mother heard her. - She came to her with dew under her feet and with "abundance" - on her back. - She took hold of her by the right horn, - And led her to green reeds, - And sprinkled her with (the branches) of the willow tree and basil. - The cream thickened, - The eyes sparkled, - The hair became smooth, - And the milk started running. - It spurted like a vein, - It issued forth like a well, and ran like a river. - - - - - - -III. - -CHARM FOR A SUCKLING CALF. - - - I rose up early in the morning. - I took the sickle (scythe) - In my hand. - I went up to the hill of love. - I went down into the valley of affection. - I cut nine handfuls of flowers, - I cut (gathered) love from nine jolly widows, - From nine beautiful girls, - From nine kings and nine rulers. - With the same zest as kings hasten to their kingdom, - Rulers to their rule, - Ministers to their ministration, - Knights to their knighthood, - And merchants to their business, - So shall the "Thursday [7] one" - Hasten to the calf, - And the calf to her. - As the tongue is fast in the mouth, - So shall "Thursday one" stick to her calf, - And the calf on to her. - I burnt it (the spell) with fire, - I singed it with the flame, - I enveloped it with love, - With affection I kindled it. - As the honey is sweet, - So shall the calf long for "Thursday one." - - - - - - -IV. - -CHARM FOR A COW AGAINST SNAKE-BITE. - - - N. N. rose up, - Got up very early, - And met the accursed on the way, - And he poisoned him as one bitten by the poisoned fly. - The Lady Mother heard it from heaven. - She took the staff in her hand, - And came down upon a silver ladder. - Do not cry, and do not low, O "Thursday one." - Come with me to that old woman, that she may say the charm - (disenchantment) for thee, - With water from the well, - With three stalks of elder-tree, - With twigs of hazelnut tree, - With a knife that has been found and with silver coins. - - -These charms were told in the year 1913 by a woman who was believed -to be in her 109th year. - - - - - - -V. - -CHARM AGAINST EVIL EYE. - - - Fly away, evil eye, from the White one. - Do not wonder at her. - Do not stare at her admiringly - Of the milk that is milked, - Of the calf that is sucking - Her sweet body, - That it is sweet to me as honey and yellow as wax; but wonder at, - And stare admiringly - At that green bush, - That it is as green as the ivy, - And white as the lily. - Fly away, yawn, - Fly away, shout, - Of the great evil eye. - - - - - - -VI. - -CHARM AGAINST EVIL EYE. - - - The mistress has gone on her way with Joyana (Thursday one) - To feed her on the green field. - Well she did feed her, - Well did she satisfy her, - Well did she slake her thirst. - She turned her back. - In the middle of the way - She met an old woman - Dressed in a shirt of nettles, - With sandals of a black sow on her feet. - She broke Joyana's horns, - Her eyes she caused to shed tears, - Her hair she ruffled (bristled), - The tail she cut off, - The breasts she squeezed (flattened), - The udders she emptied. - The cow lowed and the cow moaned. - No one saw her; - No one heard her; - But the Holy Mother saw her. - Only she heard. - She said to her: - "Thursday one, do not low, do not moan." - "How am I not to low? - How am I not to moan? - As I went with my mistress to feed in pastures green, - She fed me well. - She slaked my thirst well. - Back she did turn me. - When in the middle of the way, - An old woman met me, - Dressed in a shirt of nettles, - With sandals of a black sow on her feet. - She lopped my horns, - She caused my eyes to run over, - My hair she made to bristle, - My tail she has cut off, - She has flattened my breasts, - She has emptied my udders." - "(Joyana) 'Thursday one,' do not low, do not moan. - Go to N. N. - He will disenchant thee with the nettle in flour, - From the little horns - To the little tail, - From the little tail to the little horns. - The horns will become sharp again. - The hair will be smooth, - The breasts will be strong, - The udder will be full again. - Go to thy mistress, - And she will milk thee from the pail into the can, - From the can into the pail." - - - -This disenchantment is made with nettles in flour. - - - - - - -VII. - -CHARM AGAINST WORMS IN BEASTS. - -Take three stalks of madwort. Go to the beast that has worms, touching -the wound with the madwort, say: - - - May there be as many maggots in the wound as there are (popi) - priests in Paradise. - As many and not even as many. - - -Say it three times, and the worms will fall off. - -The implication is obvious. - - - - - - -VIII. - -AGAINST WORMS. - -On a day of Lent, before sunrise, take the beast, which has worms -outside the village to a place where reeds are growing. Get nine bushes -of reeds, each with three reeds (stalks) in one root. Stop still at -each bush, cut the middle reed, shake it three times over the wound, -and say: - - - "Ye three reeds are three brothers, - And ye all three are to join together, - And drive away the worms from Joyana; - For, if not, - I come to-morrow at the same time, - To cut you off from the root, - To take away your peace, - And dust and ashes shall you become." - - -Then spit aside. Repeat this with each of the reed-bushes. At mid-day, -when the sun stands in "the balance" (noontide), repeat the whole -incantation, and yet a third time shortly before sunset. The cut -reeds must be tied together by their roots, and you will see the -worms dropping off when you finish the charm. - -This cure can also be effected when the beast is not present. In this -case, go alone, and remember the animal whilst making the operation. It -will be found quite effective. - - - - - - -IX. - -CHARM AGAINST SNAKE-BITE. - - - Above it is thundering, - Lightning, - Speckling, clinging to the skin, - Skin to bone, - Bone to flesh. - The flesh has been bitten, - Bitten by a snake. - God, send the cure. - Holy Mother, overshadow him. - - -This charm is made with "virgin water," using a hazelnut twig, -especially if a snake has been killed with it. The bite is washed -with the water, and a mouthful is taken three times. - - - - - - -X. - -CHARM IF BITTEN BY A WEASEL. - - - Weasel, beautiful girl, - There are nine boils. - Nine boils have gone down; - Eight boils have grown, - Eight boils have gone down; - Seven boils have grown, - Seven boils have gone down; - And so on until one boil has grown, - And one has gone down. - And the cow N. N. shall now remain clean and sweet (strong), - as she was made by God. - - -This charm is said three times over a pail with "virgin water"; -a cross is made over with the skin of a weasel, or with the twig of -hazel-nut, or with a found knife. - -The cow is washed with the water, and the rest is poured into running -water. - -The charm must be repeated three times daily, and for three consecutive -days, if the bite is a bad one and the swelling does not go down. - - - - - - - - -APPENDIX II. - -THREE STORIES FROM ARKIR, THE RUMANIAN VERSION OF THE STORY OF AHIKAR. - - -I. - -And Anadan said: "Forgive me, my father, and let me be the meanest -of swineherds, only let me live." But Arkirie said: "No, my son, thou -hast acted towards me in the same manner as the wolf acted when he went -to the teacher to be taught; for whilst the teacher said A B C D, the -wolf said: 'For the lambs' and 'for the sheep' and 'for the goats' and -'for the kids'; in the same manner hast thou acted towards me, my son." - - - - - - -II. - -And he began to beat him. And Anadan said: "Have mercy on me, and I -will be a shepherd." And Arkirie said: "Thou hast acted towards me as -the wolf who followed the sheep and met the shepherd, who said to him: -'Thank thee.' And he asked him: 'Whither art thou going so fast?' And -the wolf said: 'I follow the track of the sheep, for an old woman -told me that the dust of the sheep was wholesome for the eyes.' In -the same manner hast thou acted against me." - - - - - - -III. - -And he began again to beat him, but Anadan said: "Have pity on me, -and I will groom thy horses." But Arkirie said: "No, my son, thou hast -acted towards me like a man who, leading an ass on the road, tied it -with a loose rope. The ass broke the rope and ran away. On his way he -met the wolf, and the wolf said unto him: 'Happy journey unto thee, -ass!' And the ass replied: 'Unhappy it will be, for the man tied me -up with a rotten rope, so that I broke it and ran away, and he did -not tie me with a good rope.'" And Arkirie continued to beat him -until he died (M. Gaster, Jrnl. Royal Asiatic Society, 1900, p. 309). - -A larger number of animal fables are found in the other versions -of Ahikar, thus in the Armenian (Story of Ahikar, edited by Rendel -Harris Conybeare, etc., second edition, Cambridge, 1913, p. 51), -and in the Slavonic (ibid. pp. 21 and 22). - - - - - - - - -APPENDIX III. - -ANIMAL STORIES FROM THE HEBREW ALPHABET OF BEN SIRA. - - -This seems to be the oldest collection of animal tales which agree -most closely with some of the Rumanian. They are of a purely oriental -origin, and are therefore invaluable in helping to determine that of -the latter. They are taken from the Venice edition, 1544, reprinted -page by page by Steinschneider, Berlin 1858 (f. 24a ff.). - - - - - - -I. - -WHY WERE FLIES CREATED WHICH LIVE ONLY ONE DAY? - -Q. Why were the flies created which live only one day? - -Reply. For the sake of the fly which in the future will torture Titus -the wicked, and also for the sake of the fledglings of the raven. When -they are hatched they are white and the parents fly away and leave -them. Then they cry to God, as it is written, "The young of the raven -which cry unto Him and He brings to them these flies and they are fed -thereby." After three days they become dark; then the parents return -to them. Thus the Lord, blessed be He, prepares the cure before the -illness (f. 24a). - - - - - - -II. - -WHY DID GOD CREATE WASPS AND SPIDERS WHICH ARE OF NO USE? - -Q. Why did God create wasps and spiders which are of no use? - -R. Once upon a time David was sitting in his garden and he saw a wasp -eating a spider, and there came a fool with a stick in his hand, and -he drove them away. Then David said, "O Lord of the Universe, what -benefit is there in these creatures? The wasp eats up the honey and -is destructive; the spider weaves the whole year and there is nothing -with which to clothe oneself; the fool only hurts people, and he does -not know thy unity and thy greatness, the world has no benefit from -him." The Lord replied and said, "David, thou dost scoff at these -creatures now, but a time is sure to come when they will be of use -to thee, and then thou wilt recognise the reason of their creation." - -It happened thereafter, when he hid in the cave, being pursued by Saul, -a spider came and made his web across the mouth of the cavern. Saul -coming up, saw the web and said, "Certainly no man has entered this -cave, as otherwise that web would have been torn to pieces." So he went -away without searching the cave. When David came out, and beheld the -spider, he kissed it and blessed it and said, "Lord of the Universe, -who can accomplish works like any of thy works? For all thy deeds -are beautiful." - -When he came to Achish, David simulated the fool before him and his -men. The daughter of Achish also was foolish and mad. When they -brought David before him, he said to his men, "Are ye mocking at -me, considering that my daughter is a fool, or am I in want of -lunatics?" So they left him and he fled. When he found himself -in safety he thanked God for all that he had made, for it was all -beautiful. - -When David (had entered the cave) he found Saul sleeping his noon-day -sleep. Abner slept across the opening with his legs bent. David tried, -slipped through the legs, and went in and took the jug of water. When -he returned Abner suddenly stretched out and kept David as in a hedge, -as if two heavy pillars had come down upon him. Then David prayed for -God's mercy and said, "My God, my God, why hast thou forsaken me?" In -that hour a miracle was performed for him, for a wasp came and stung -Abner in his leg. He lifted it up and David was able to escape. Then -David praised and thanked God. - -It is not fit for man to mock or scoff at God's works (f. 24 a-b). - - - - - - -III. - -WHY HAS THE OX NO HAIR ON HIS NOSE? - -Q. Why has the ox no hair on his nose? - -R. When the Israelites were going round Jericho with Joshua in order -to destroy it, they brought him successively a horse, an ass, and -a mule to ride upon, but they all died, for Joshua was a very heavy -man. Then they brought an ox and he carried him on his back. When he -saw this Joshua kissed the ox on his nose, and for this reason the -ox has no hair on that spot (f. 25a). - - - - - - -IV. - -WHY DOES THE CAT EAT MICE MORE THAN ANY OTHER CREEPING THING? - -Q. Why does the cat eat mice more than any other creeping thing? - -R. In the beginning the cat and the mouse were friends. At one time -the mouse went and accused the cat falsely before God, and said, -"Lord of the Universe, the cat and I are companions and we have now -nothing to eat." God replied, "Thou hast brought a false accusation -against thy friend in order to be able to eat him. Now the reverse is -to happen, the cat will eat thee and thou shalt serve her as food." The -mouse replied, "Lord of the Universe, what have I done?" And God said, -"O thou unclean creature! Hast thou not heard what happened to the -sun and moon which originally were of equal size, but because the -moon brought a false accusation against (slandered) the sun, I have -reduced its size and made it smaller than the sun? So also hast thou -slandered thy companion in order to eat him, and he therefore will -eat thee." "If that be so," the mouse replied, "then the cat will -surely utterly destroy me." And God replied, "I will leave thee a -remnant as I have done to the moon." - -Then the mouse went, and springing on the head of the cat began to -bite it. The cat then threw the mouse on the ground and killed it. - -From that time on, the fear of the cat fell upon the mice, and for -this reason does the cat eat the mouse (f. 25b). - -(The Hebrew word used for cat is khatool which originally means -weasel!) - - - - - - -V. - -WHY DOES THE ASS MIX HIS WATER WITH THAT OF OTHER ASSES, AND SMELL -THE DUNG? - -Q. Why does the ass mix his water with that of other asses and smell -the dung? - -R. When God had created all the beings, the ass said to the horse -and mule, "Every creature has some time of rest, but we are destined -to work on continuously without any rest. Let us pray to God to give -us also some time of respite, and if our prayer be not heard let us -decide no longer to procreate so that we may die out." So they prayed, -but their prayer was not heard. But God said, "When your water becomes -rivers to drive mills thereby, and when your dung has the smell of -perfume, then you will obtain your respite." And this is the answer -to the question (f. 25b). - - - - - - -VI. - -WHY DOES THE DOG FIGHT THE CAT? - -Q. Why is there enmity between the cat and the dog? - -R. When the cat (weasel) was created it became the companion of the -dog. Both hunted together and ate together of the prey. It so happened -at one time that two or three days had passed and they had not got -anything to eat. Then the dog said to the cat, "Why are we sitting -here a hungered? Go to Adam and sit in his house and be fed there, -and we will go after the creeping things and reptiles and will feed -upon them, and we shall both be kept alive." The cat then replied -to the dog, "Let it be so, but we must take an oath that we will -not go both together to one master." He replied, "Thou hast spoken -well." There and then they both took an oath, and the cat went to -the house of Adam, where she found mice, which she caught and ate: -the rest ran away from her. When Adam saw what had happened, he said, -"A great salvation ("cure") has God sent me." - -Then he took the cat into his house and fed it and gave it to drink. - -The dog went to the wolf and said unto him, "Let me come and spend -the night with thee." He replied, "Very well." Both went to a cave to -sleep there. In the night the dog heard the footsteps of the various -animals, so he woke the wolf and told him, "I heard the steps of -thieves." The wolf replied, "Go out to them and drive them away." - -The beasts turned upon him to kill him. The dog fled away and went to -the ape, but the ape drove him away. Then he went to the sheep. The -sheep received him and allowed him to sleep there. He heard the -noise of feet and he said to the sheep, "I hear the footsteps of -robbers." The sheep replied, "Go out." The dog went out, and began to -bark. The wolves said, "Surely sheep are there." So they went thither -and ate the sheep. - -The dog fled away and went from place to place trying to find some -shelter, but could not find any. At last he came to Adam, who took -him in and allowed him to sleep there. In the middle of the night the -dog said to Adam, "I hear the noise of footsteps." Adam rose at once, -took his spear, and going out with the dog drove the wild beasts -away and returned home with the dog. Then Adam said to the dog, -"Come into my house, dwell with me, eat of my food and drink of my -water." And the dog went with him. When the cat heard the voice of -the dog she came out to him and said, "Why dost thou come thither to -my place?" And he replied, "Adam has brought me hither." Adam said -to the cat, "Why dost thou quarrel with him? I have brought him in, -for I found him clever and full of courage. Thou needst not grieve, -thou shalt be kept also as before." The cat replied, "My Lord, he -is a thief, is it right to dwell in one place with a thief?" And the -cat went on to say to the dog, "Why hast thou broken (transgressed) -thy oath?" He replied, "I will not enter thy dwelling place, I will -not eat of anything that belongs to thee, I will not cause thee the -least harm." But the cat did not listen and began to quarrel. - -When the dog saw this, he went away from the house of Adam, and going -to that of Seth, dwelt there. And the dog tried all the time to make -peace with the cat, but it was all in vain. In that state they have -remained to this very day, in constant enmity, for the children follow -the example of their forebears: as the proverb has it: sheep follow -sheep (f. 25b, 26a). - - - - - - -VII. - -WHY IS IT THAT THE DOG RECOGNISES HIS MASTER AND THE CAT DOES NOT? - -Q. Why is it that the dog recognises his master and the cat does not? - -R. Whoever eats of anything at which mice have nibbled forgets what -he has been taught. It is only natural that he who eats the mouse -itself should forget his master (f. 26b). - - - - - - -VIII. - -WHY IS THERE A SEAM IN THE MOUTH OF THE MOUSE? - -Q. Why is there a seam in the mouth of the mouse? - -R. At the time of the Flood, all kinds of creeping things and reptiles -had come into the Ark, male and female. Once upon a time the mouse -and its mate were sitting by the cat, when the cat suddenly said, -"I remember that in former times my forefathers used to eat yours, -and what they did then I might as well do now." With these words the -cat sprang at the mouse wishing to eat it. The mouse fled and sought -for a hole to hide itself, but could not find any. A miracle happened, -and a hole appeared which the mouse entered and hid itself. The cat -came to the hole and tried to follow the mouse, but could not, as the -hole was very narrow. So she put her paw into it with the intention -of dragging it out. The mouse opened its mouth. So the cat cut its -lower chin open with its nail about half the length of a span. When -the cat had gone away the mouse crept out of the hole and running to -Noah said to him, "O thou righteous man, do me an act of charity and -sew up the chin, which my enemy the cat has torn open." Noah replied, -"Go to the pig and bring me one of the bristles of its tail." He went -and brought it to Noah, who sewed up the chin. To this very day the -seam can be seen (f. 26b). - - - - - - -IX. - -WHY DOES THE RAVEN HOP IN ITS WALK? - -Q. Why does the raven hop in its walk? - -R. Once upon a time the raven saw how beautiful was the stepping (walk) -of the dove, more beautiful than that of all the other birds. He liked -the walk of the doves very much, and he said to himself, "I will also -put my feet in the same step." And he nearly broke his bones in the -attempt to imitate the dove. The other birds laughed and mocked at -him. The raven felt ashamed and he said, "Let me return to my former -walk." So he tried to walk as before, but he could not, for he had -forgotten it. Thus he remained with a halting step, like one who is -jumping, neither walking as before, nor being able to walk as the dove -(f. 26b). - - - - - - -X. - -WHY DOES THE RAVEN MATE DIFFERENTLY FROM ANY OTHER BIRD? - -Q. Why does the raven mate differently from any other bird? - -R. There are various explanations. One is that he has been punished -for his lewdness in the Ark, and for the same reason also the dog -has been punished. - -Others say, because he is wicked, a thief, and froward. There is one -answer which combines and explains it more satisfactorily. When Noah -wanted to send the raven to see whether the waters were falling, the -raven fled and hid himself under the eagle's wing. Noah searched after -him and found him there under the wing of the eagle. He said to him, -"Go, thou wicked one, and see whether the waters are falling." The -raven replied, "Hast thou not found any other bird but me." Noah -replied, "I can only send one of the two birds whose first letter -is either Ain or Yod." The raven replied, "Why not the eagle and -dove"? (Nun, Yod). Noah said, "Because there will be a town in -existence called Ai whose inhabitants will kill Yair, who will -forbid the raven and permit the dove (to eat)." Then the raven -replied impudently to Noah, "The reason why thou hast chosen to -send me out is that thou wishest to kill me in order to marry my -mate, as I belong to those birds of which thou hast introduced into -the Ark only one pair." - -When Noah heard these words, he cursed the raven that he should -mate differently from any other bird, and all the birds in the Ark -replied Amen. Then the raven replied, "Why hast thou cursed me? I -have a legal complaint against thee." Noah replied, "Because thou -art lewd and foolish and dost suspect innocent people. If I do not -approach my own wife, who is like unto me, whilst we are in the Ark, -how can I approach thy wife, who is so different from a human being, -and moreover is forbidden unto me as a married female?" - -The raven said, "Why dost thou call me lewd (fornicator)?" Noah -replied, "Thine own words prove thine immorality, I have not made -thee an evil name." And thus it has remained according to Noah's curse -(f. 26b-27a). - - - - - - -XI. - -WHY ARE THERE NO COUNTERPART TO THE FOX AND THE WEASEL AMONG THE -CREATURES OF THE SEA? AND THE STORY OF THE FOX'S HEART AND THE FISHES. - - -Q. Why are there no counterpart to the fox and weasel in the sea? -The story of the fox's heart and the fishes. - -R. Because they were cunning. When God had created the angel of death, -he saw the creatures, and he said to God, "Lord of the Universe, -grant me permission to kill them." God replied, "Thou shalt have -power over all the creatures of the earth except the descendants of -the bird Milham, who are not to taste the taste of death." He said, -"O Lord, separate them from the rest if they are so pious, so that -they do not learn the evil ways of the others and come to sin." God -at once granted him his request. He built for them a great town -and he placed them therein, and he sealed up the gate of that town, -and he said, "It has been decreed (by God) that neither my sword, -nor that of anyone else should have power over you unto the end of -all generations." The angel of death returned then to God, who said -to him, "Throw the pair of each created being into the sea and over -the rest thou shalt have power." The angel did as he was told, and -he threw into the sea a pair of each created being. When the fox saw -what he was doing, he began crying and weeping. The angel asked him, -"Why art thou weeping?" The fox replied, "I cry for my friend whom -thou hast thrown into the sea." The angel asked him, "Where is thy -friend?" The fox then went and stood close to the edge of the water -and the angel saw his shadow in the water, and he believed that he -had indeed thrown a pair of his friends into the sea, and he said to -the fox, "Get thee hence." The fox ran quickly away and was thus saved. - -On his way he met the weasel, and he told her all that had happened -and what he had done. The weasel did likewise and escaped also from -being thrown into the sea. - -After the lapse of one year since these things had happened, did -Leviathan gather together before him all the creatures of the sea, -and it was found that neither fox nor weasel was among them. So he -sent for them, but he was told what the fox had done to escape from -being thrown into the sea. Moreover, they told Leviathan that the -fox was very cunning. When Leviathan heard of his great intelligence, -he became jealous of him. He sent large fishes to go and fetch him, -by deceiving him and luring him away, and then to bring the fox to -him. They went and found him walking leisurely along the seashore. When -the fox saw the fishes approach and play about close to him, he -entered into conversation with them. When they saw him, they asked him, -"Who art thou?" He answered, "I am the fox." They said to him, "Dost -thou not know that great honour is awaiting thee and it is for this -purpose that we have come hither. He said, "What is it?" They replied, -"Leviathan is sick unto death, and has left the command that no one -else is to rule after him as king but the fox, for he is the most -cunning of all the beasts. Thereafter, you now come with us, for we -have been sent to offer thee this honour." He said to them, "How can -I go into the sea and not be drowned?" They replied, "Ride on the back -of one of us and we will carry thee safely over the waters of the sea, -so that not even a drop of water shall touch the tip of thy nose until -thou reachest the kingly palace. Then we will lower thee down into -it and there thou wilt rule over all of us, and thou wilt rejoice all -the days of thy life, and thou wilt no longer have to search for food, -and be exposed to be hunted by mighty beasts and to be eaten by them." - -When the fox heard these words, he believed them, and mounting on the -back of a mighty fish started with them on a journey on the sea. When -the waves began to play round him he began to be anxious. His wit -had forsaken him. Then he recovered himself and said, "Woe unto me, -what have I done? The fishes have tricked me worse than I have ever -tricked all the other beasts. Now that I have fallen into their hands -how can I escape?" - -He then said to them, "I have come with you and I am now at your -mercy. You may tell me what is it that you really want of me." They -replied, "We will tell thee the truth. Leviathan had heard of thy -reputation, that thou art very cunning, so he said to himself, I will -cut his belly open and will eat his heart, and thus shall I become -also very wise." - -The fox said to them, "Why did you not tell me the truth, for I would -then have brought my heart with me. I would have given it to the -king Leviathan and he would have shown me honour. You are now going -to your own destruction." They said to him, "Hast thou not thy heart -with thee?" He replied, "No, for such is our habit that we leave our -heart behind and we walk about without it; whenever we want it we -fetch it, and if there is no necessity for it we leave it where it -is." So they said to him, "What shall we do now?" - -He replied, "My place and my dwelling is close to the seashore, -if you are willing to do it, bring me back to the place whence you -have taken me. I will go and fetch my heart and return with you to -Leviathan, who is sure to honour me greatly. If you, however, will -bring me to him without my heart, he will be very angry with you and -eat you up. For I will tell him that you had not told me anything -before you took me away, and that when I heard from you the reason -of your errand, I told you to carry me back and that you refused to -do so." The fishes then said at once, "Thou speakest well," and they -returned to the place at the seashore whence they had taken him. He -went down from the back of the fishes, and jumping and frolicking -about he rolled over and over in the sand. The fishes said to him, -"Haste thee, do not tarry, for we must depart quickly." He replied, -"Ye fools, get yourselves away. If I had not had my heart I could not -have gone with you into the sea. Is there any creature in existence -moving about and not having a heart within?" They replied, "Thou hast -mocked at us." He replied, "If I got the best of the angel of death, -how much more likely am I to get it of you?" They returned full of -shame to the Leviathan and told him all that had happened. He replied, -"He is truly cunning, and ye have proved to be fools. About such as -you it is said, 'The stupidity of the fools is the cause of their -death,'" and so he ate them up. - -Thus it has remained that although there are creatures in the sea -corresponding to those on land, there are none like unto the fox and -the weasel. - - - THE END. - - - - - - - - -NOTES - - -[1] The Rumanian word used here is "ariciu," literally hedgehog, -but no doubt the mole who burrows under the ground is meant. It is -for this reason that I have substituted mole for hedgehog. In the -Bulgarian legend it is the hedgehog, where probably the two animals -are also confused with one another. - -[2] The Rumanian oven. - -[3] Sila Samodiva, one of the fairies of the Rumanian popular tales. - -[4] Probably a reminiscence of Ler, the old Slavonic God of Love. - -[5] The water of death means a water which, poured over a body which -has been cut in pieces, causes all these pieces to join together, -and the wounds to heal. The water of life restores to life the bodies -thus joined. - -[6] Christmas is here taken as a person. - -[7] The cows are often called by the names of the days on which they -were born. Of these Monday and Thursday seem to be the lucky ones. - - - - - - -End of Project Gutenberg's Rumanian Bird and Beast Stories, by Anonymous - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK RUMANIAN BIRD AND BEAST STORIES *** - -***** This file should be named 43059-8.txt or 43059-8.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/4/3/0/5/43059/ - -Produced by Jeroen Hellingman and the Online Distributed -Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net/ for Project -Gutenberg (This file was produced from images generously -made available by The Internet Archive/Canadian Libraries) - - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions -will be renamed. - -Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no -one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation -(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without -permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org/license - - -Title: Rumanian Bird and Beast Stories - Rendered into English - -Author: Anonymous - -Translator: Moses Gaster - -Release Date: June 29, 2013 [EBook #43059] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ASCII - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK RUMANIAN BIRD AND BEAST STORIES *** - - - - -Produced by Jeroen Hellingman and the Online Distributed -Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net/ for Project -Gutenberg (This file was produced from images generously -made available by The Internet Archive/Canadian Libraries) - - - - - - - - - RUMANIAN BIRD AND BEAST STORIES - RENDERED INTO ENGLISH - - BY - - M. GASTER, Ph.D. - - VICE-PRESIDENT AND SOMETIME PRESIDENT OF THE FOLK-LORE SOCIETY - VICE-PRESIDENT OF THE ROYAL ASIATIC SOCIETY - VICE-PRESIDENT AND SOMETIME PRESIDENT OF THE JEWISH HISTORICAL SOCIETY - ETC., ETC. - - - - "But ask now the beasts, and they shall teach thee; - And the fowls of the air, and they shall tell thee." - - Job xii. 7. - - - LONDON - Published for the Folk-Lore Society by - SIDGWICK & JACKSON, LTD., 3 ADAM ST., ADELPHI, W.C. - 1915 - - - - - - - - - To - HER MAJESTY QUEEN ELISABETH OF RUMANIA - "Carmen Sylva" - To Whom the Soul of the Rumanian People is as an Open Book - A Page of that Book - Is - By Gracious Permission - Dedicated - - - - - - - - -PREFACE. - - -"Neither can men hear the voice of the cattle; both the fowl of the -heavens and the beast are fled, they are gone." The forests are silent, -over hill and dale hangs a black pall; beast and bird are in hiding; -the voices are hushed. But before they have disappeared, following -in the track of others, I have endeavoured to catch the hum of the -bee, the twitter of the bird, the chirp of the cricket, the song of -the dying swan, and all the tales which beasts and birds and little -beetles tell their young before they go to sleep ere the flash of -the glow-worm flits across the darkness of the forest. - -I have followed up to their lairs the ferocious wolf, the cantankerous -dog, the sly fox and the wise hedgehog, have listened to the lark and -to the nightingale, and paid homage to little king wren. Who knows how -much longer they will disport themselves in the fields and forests of -Rumania, where the hoofs of the horses, the feet of the marching men, -the shout of battle and the thunder of the guns have silenced--let -us hope only for a while--the voice of the dumb creatures, who still -speak so eloquently to him who knows their language and understands -the cunning spell of their hidden wisdom. It is as if I had gathered -flowers from the field of the Rumanian popular imagination. They are -fresh from the field, and the dew still hangs upon them like so many -diamonds, flashing in the light of popular poetry; nay, sometimes a -few specks of the original soil are still clinging to the roots. I -have not pressed them between the leaves of this book. I have handled -them tenderly. It has been a work of love, the dreamy fancies of youth, -the solace of maturer age. Peradventure one or the other may be taken -out and planted anew in the nurseries of the West, where they may -blossom and grow afresh. They might bring with them the breath of the -open field, the perfume of the forest. They might conjure up the time -when the nations were still young and lived in the great Nursery of -Nature. If one could only bring to the nations of the West for awhile -a glimpse of the time of their youth! In my wanderings through these -enchanted fields I have tried to find whence the seeds have come, -whose hands have sown them, and what spiritual wind and weather have -fostered their growth, whether the rain of heaven or the fountains -of the deep have watered the roots, what sun has shone upon them, -what fiery blast has made these flowers wither and die. - -Such as they are, then, they are offered in love to the English people. - -I have to thank Mr. S. L. Bensusan, who in true friendship, with -admirable skill and with untiring zeal has helped me to remove the -boulders, to level the ground, to plan the beds and to trim the edges; -Miss C. S. Burne, whose keen sympathy, unerring eye and deft hand have -helped to weed the tares and group the flowers; my son Vivian, who -with loving care and gentle touch has brushed away the dead leaves that -had fallen on the green sward, and last, but not least, the Folk-Lore -Society, which has granted me a niche in its great Pantheon. It is -indeed no small honour to be in the company of the gods. - - -M. G. - - In the month when - "smale fowles maken melodie." - - - - - - - - -CONTENTS. - - -Introduction - - I. - - Why is the Bee black, and why is it making Honey? How did the Bee - outwit the Devil? - - I. B. - - How did the Bee outwit the Mole? - - II. - - Why is the Bee busy and the Spider sullen? - - III. - - Why is the Bee black, and why has it a Narrow Waist? - - IV. - - Why does the Little Worm glow? - - V. - - Why does the Little Worm glow? - - VI. - - Why does the Little Worm glow? - - VII. - - Why is the Wolf ferocious? - - VIII. - - Why do the Eyes of the Wolf glow and his Hair bristle? - - IX. - - Why does the Wolf run after the Devil? - - X. - - Why the Goat's Knees are bare - - XI. - - Why did Noah get drunk? - - XII. - - God and the Lamb - - XIII. - - The Hart and the making of the World - - XIV. - - Why is the Fly called the Devil's Horse? - - XV. - - The Devil stealing the Sun - - XVI. - - Why is it called the Bull-Fly? - - XVII. - - Why is the Saw-Fly red? - - XVIII. - - Why does the Saw-Fly live in Stables? - - XIX. - - Why is the Lady-Bird dainty? - - XX. - - Why does the Gad-Fly sting the Cattle? - - XXI. - - Why does the Fly of Kolumbatsh poison the Cattle? - - XXII. - - Why is there a Worm in the Apple? - - XXIII. - - Why are the Locusts voracious? - - XXIV. - - Why does the Grasshopper run to and fro? - - XXV. - - Another Story of the Grasshopper - - XXVI. - - Why does the Nun Beetle cover its Face? - - XXVII. - - Why is the Beetle called the Nun? - - XXVIII. - - Why is the Wasp the Gipsies' Bee? - - XXVIII. A. - - Another Version of the Wasp Legend - - XXIX. - - Why does the Hornet live in Smoky Places? - - XXX. - - Why is the Hornet so spiteful? - - XXX. A. - - Hornet Charm - - XXXI. - - Why has the Woodpecker such a Long Beak and why does it peck at - the Trees? - - XXXII. - - Why has the Pelican a Big Pouch under its Beak? - - XXXIII. - - Why does the Titmouse get into the Pumpkin? - - XXXIV. - - Why has the Nightingale a Drab Colour? - - XXXV. - - Why has the Nightingale Twelve Tunes and why does the Turtle-Dove coo? - - - XXXVI. - - Why is the Nightingale the Songster of the King? - - XXXVII. - - Why does the Thrush hide in the Tree? - - XXXVIII. - - Why has the Partridge a Mottled Colour? - - XXIX. - - Why has the Thistle-Finch Ruffled Feathers? - - XL. - - Why has the Bullfinch a Red Breast and a Big Mouth? - - XLI. - - Why does the Hoopoe feed on Droppings? - - XLII. - - Why is the Wagtail called the Gipsies' Bird? - - XLIII. - - Why is the Hoopoe such a Dirty Bird? - - XLIV. - - Why does the Cuckoo lead a Restless Life? - - XLV. - - Why is the Cuckoo silent in the Winter? - - XLVI. - - The Story of the Crow and its Ugly Fledglings - - XLVII. - - Why is there enmity between the Crow and the Hawk? - - XLVII. A. - - Crow Charms - - XLVIII. - - Why does the Heron drink only Rain-Water? - - XLIX. - - Why does the Kite cry in Dry Weather? - - L. - - Why can the Mole not come out on the High Road? - - LI. - - Why has the Tortoise a Round Back? - - LII. - - Why have the Fish no Feet? - - LIII. - - Why do the Plover fly singly? - - LIV. - - Why does the Spider hang on a Thread? - - LIV. A. - - Why are the Spider and the Mouse accursed? - - LV. - - Why has the Swallow a Forked Tail and a Red Spot on its Breast? - - - LVI. - - Why does the Frog shrivel up at Death? - - LVII. - - Why does the Silkworm spin a Thin Thread? - - LVIII. - - Why is it right to kill a Sparrow? - - LIX. - - Why should the Oak Tree not boast? - - LX. - - Why does the Mosquito live in the Well? - - LXI. - - Why does the Mosquito feed on Blood? - - LXII. - - Why does the Fly eat the Cherry? - - LXIII. - - Why has the Butterfly Rings on its Wings? - - LXIV. - - Why does the Cricket chirp? - - LXV. - - Why do the Ants feed the Cricket? - - LXVI. - - Why do Cats and Dogs fight? - - LXVII. - - Why do Cats eat Mice? - - LXVII. A. - - Another Version - - LXVIII. - - Why does a Cat sit on the Doorstep in the Sun? - - LXIX. - - Why does the Fly settle on the Dead? - - LXX. - - Why is the Foot of Man arched? - - LXXI. - - Why has a Snake no Tail? and why do Fleas suck Human Blood? - - LXXII. - - Charms against Fleas and other House Vermin - - LXXIII. - - Charms against Bugs - - LXXIV. - - Why does the Cuckoo call "Cuckoo"? - - LXXV. - - Why does a Wagtail wag its Tail? - - LXXVI. - - Why has the Hoopoe a Tuft? - - LXXVII. - - Why does the Eagle live on Raw Meat? - - LXXVIII. - - Why has the Lark a Tuft? - - LXXIX. - - Why is the Tuft of the Lark dishevelled? - - LXXX. - - Why do Larks fly towards the Sun? - - LXXX. A. - - The Story of the Lark - - LXXXI. - - The Wooing of the Sister of the Sun - - LXXXII. - - The Wooing of a Fairy - - LXXXIII. - - Where did the Swan come from? - - LXXXIV. - - The Swan Maiden, the Bird of Heaven and the Crown of Paradise - - LXXXV. - - Why does the Duck feed on Refuse? - - LXXXVI. - - Why has the Stork no Tail? - - LXXXVII. - - Why has the Swallow a Forked Tail and a Red Spot on its Breast? - - - LXXXVIII. - - Why does the Swallow live in Hot Places? - - LXXXIX. - - Why is the Dove a Homing Bird? - - XC. - - Why does the Raven feed on Carcases? - - XCI. - - Why is the Ant cut in the Middle? - - XCII. - - Why does the Cuckoo call "Cuckoo"? - - XCIII. - - Why does the Armenian love the Dirty Hoopoe? - - XCIV. - - The Story of the Partridge, the Fox and the Hound - - XCV. - - The Story of the Partridge and her Young - - XCVI. - - The Story of the Lark and the taming of Women - - XCVII. - - The Story of the Turtle Dove and its love for its Mate - - XCVIII. - - Why does the Wren hide himself? - - XCIX. - - Why is there no King over the Birds? - - C. - - The Story of King Log and King Stork - - CI. - - The Story of the Stork and Little Tomtit - - CII. - - The Story of the Flea and the Gnat - - CIII. - - The Story of the Gnat, the Lion, and the Man - - CIV. - - The Story of the Gnat and the Buffalo - - CV. - - The Story of the Town Mouse and the Field Mouse - - CVI. - - The Story of the Hare and the Frogs - - CVII. - - Why does the Buffalo walk slowly and tread gently? - - CVIII. - - The Story of the Pointer and the Setter - - CIX. - - The Story of the Rat and his Journey to God - - CX. - - The Story of the Seven-Witted Fox and the One-Witted Owl - - CXI. - - The Story of the Fox and his Bagful of Wits and the One-Witted - Hedgehog - - CXII. - - The Story of the Peasant, the Snake, and King Solomon - - CXIII. - - The Story of the Dog and the Snake and the cure of Headache - - CXIV. - - The Story of the Horse, the Lion, and the Wolf - - CXV. - - The Marriage of Tom and the Vixen - - CXVI. - - The Story of Man and his Years - - CXVII. - - The Judgment of the Soul of Man, accused and defended by Beast - and Birds - - CXVIII. - - The Pilgrimage of the Soul after Death - - CXIX. - - The Reward of the Good Man - - -APPENDIX I. - -RUMANIAN INCANTATIONS AGAINST THE ILLNESSES OF ANIMALS. - - I. - - Against the Illness of Poultry - - II. - - Charm for a Cow against the Evil Eye - - III. - - Charm for a Suckling Calf - - IV. - - Charm for a Cow against Snake-Bite - - V. - - Charm against Evil Eye - - VI. - - Charm against Evil Eye - - VII. - - Charm against Worms in Beasts - - VIII. - - Against Worms - - IX. - - Charm against Snake-Bite - - X. - - Charm if bitten by a Weasel - - -APPENDIX II. - -THREE STORIES FROM ARKIR. - - The Rumanian Version of the Story of Ahikar - - -APPENDIX III. - -ANIMAL STORIES FROM THE HEBREW ALPHABET OF BEN SIRA. - - I. - - Why were Flies created which live only One Day? - - II. - - Why did God create Wasps and Spiders which are of no use? - - III. - - Why has the Ox no Hair on his Nose? - - IV. - - Why does the Cat eat Mice more than any other Creeping Thing? - - V. - - Why does the Ass mix his Water with that of other Asses, and smell - the Dung? - - VI. - - Why does the Dog fight the Cat? - - VII. - - Why is it that the Dog recognises his Master and the Cat does not? - - - VIII. - - Why is there a Seam in the Mouth of the Mouse? - - IX. - - Why does the Raven hop in its Walk? - - X. - - Why does the Raven mate differently from any other Bird? - - XI. - - Why are there no Counterpart to the Fox and the Weasel among the - Creatures of the Sea? and the Story of the Fox's Heart and the - Fishes - - - - - - - - -INTRODUCTION. - - -The Rumanian animal tales, which appear here for the first time -outside Rumania, are so weird, so different from any known to the -folk-lore of the West, that they arrest our attention and invite -close examination. They are, for the most part, not only beautiful -in themselves, but by reason of a peculiar flight of fancy and a -powerful imagination are so unlike anything known in other collections -of folk-lore that they raise problems far reaching, and, I venture to -think, of the highest importance to the study of popular literature. We -are moving in a religious atmosphere. Many of the tales start, as -it were, from the beginning of creation. God, the Apostles, the Evil -One seem to take a hand in the work and to rejoice more or less in the -labour of their hands. We have, besides, animal fables pure and simple, -tales designed for enjoyment, tales of fancy in which the nimble and -small creatures outwit the burly and heavy ones. We have also fairy -tales like those known to us in the West and made familiar to us -by numerous collections. A prominent characteristic is the childlike -simplicity of all the stories, the absence of any dualistic element. No -"moral" has been tacked on to these tales, and probably they were not -even intended to teach one. The questions which the study of folk-lore -has raised, whether anthropological, psychological, or historical will -be raised with a renewed force. I shall endeavour, however briefly, -to deal with some of the problems in the light which this collection -of Rumanian tales is able to shed upon the study of folk-lore. - -The anthropological, historical and psychological problems underlying -our studies must be attacked--I venture to think--from a fresh point of -view. The view I hold is that the European nations form one spiritual -unit, and that within that unit the various degrees of development -through which one or the other has passed are still preserved. I -believe that we must study the manifestations of the human spirit -from a geographical angle of vision, that this development has spread -directly from one group of men to another, and that, before going -to the extreme ends of the earth for doubtful clues, we must first -try to find them, and perhaps we shall succeed in finding them more -easily and satisfactorily, among some of the European nations whose -folk-lore has not yet been sufficiently investigated. We can find -in Europe various stages of "culture," and these we must trace by -slow descent to the lowest rung of the ladder. At a certain stage of -our descent we may strike the stratum of Asiatic folk-lore which may -lead us further in our comparative study. Let me give some practical -examples of my meaning. The relation between man and animal has been -the subject of numerous highly speculative but none the less extremely -interesting and acute investigations. We have had Totemism, we have -had Animism and many other explanations, which by their number became -simply bewildering. Students have gone to the Bushmen of Australia, -and to the Red Indians of America for parallels and explanations, -or for proofs of their highly ingenious theories. But are there no -animal and bird stories in Europe which would show us how, to this -day, the people understand the relations between man and other living -creatures, what views they hold of birds and beasts and insects? Are -the animals humanised--using the word in the sense of impersonating -a human being? Do the people see any fundamental difference between -the created things? In the fairy tale, at any rate, no such definite -clear-cut distinction between man and animal can be discerned. - -But at the root of many anthropological myths the animal is only a -disguised human being. The worth of these Rumanian stories--culled -as they are from the mouth of the people--is their ability to show -how to this very day the people look upon the animal world. Perhaps -another view will ultimately find its way among the students of -folk-lore. What I am anxious to emphasise is the fact that there are, -for the investigation of folk-lore students, mines of untold wealth -that have hitherto not been sufficiently worked. - -These tales represent one or more of the earlier stages of European -folk-lore. The elements, not yet quite closely moulded together, -allow us at times to lay bare the sources and thus trace the inner -history of this part of folk-lore. The people are confronted by -a world filled with weird and mysterious animals, birds, insects, -each with their own peculiarities to invite question. - -Almost everything that is not of daily occurrence excites the people's -curiosity, and they ask for an explanation of it; where does this -or that animal come from, and why has it this or that peculiarity -in its habits, colours, form and other matters? They are very -grateful for instruction. But it must be of a kind adapted to their -understanding. It must be plausible, even if it puts some strain on -their imagination. The more wonderful and weird that explanation, -the more easily it is accepted by the people, and the more firmly -is it believed. This question of "belief" has often been raised in -connection with fairy tales. It is asked whether the people believe -in the existence of fairies, monsters, marvellous and wonder-working -animals, in short, in all the mechanism of the fairy tale. - -To this an unhesitating answer can be given in so far as these Rumanian -tales and legends are concerned. They are believed in implicitly. They -form an integral part--I feel almost inclined to say they form an -exclusive part--of the popular religious beliefs of the folk. The -people are neither too squeamish, nor too sophistical in their faith, -nor do they enquire too closely into the dogmatic character of such -beliefs or into the sources from which they have come. - -In the East too the people, as a rule, are good-natured, and a good -story remains a good story, whether told by a believer or an infidel. - -The study of these tales promises to exceed by far in interest the -study of mere "fairy tales." We are moving in a spiritual world, -which appears to be much more primitive in the animal tale than in -the fairy tale. We are getting much nearer to the very soul of the -people, to its power of imagination and abstraction. We can see more -clearly the manner of its working. - -The comparative study of fairy lore has led to the surprising -recognition of the world-wide range of these tales. In spite of -investigations carried on for close upon a century, no satisfactory -solution has yet been found which would explain the appearance of one -and the same fairy tale at such widely separate parts of the world -as India and England. Various answers have been advanced in order -to explain this surprising similarity. And the same problem arises -here. This collection of tales, as already mentioned, contains two -groups. The larger group consists of the legend or creation stories--in -which, however, one section contains fairy tales though used also -as creation stories--and the other group consists of fables pure -and simple. It would be unscientific, I hold, to treat these groups -on one plane as if they were all contemporary in their origin. They -may represent various degrees either of local evolution, and if so, -that may be found to be the best solution, or they may have come -in various stages of transmission. The theory of migration has been -applied hitherto to the fairy tale. I am not aware that the history of -the popular fable has been attempted, still less that of the creation -legends, which have remained almost unknown until quite recently. I -will deal with each of these groups as far as possible separately, -and the conclusions drawn from each group will afterwards be merged -into one final conclusion established by the fact of their actual -presence in Rumanian popular lore. - -Migration, no doubt, offers the best solution of the riddle set by -the fairy tale. No one, unless he solves the riddle of the heroine -in the fairy tale, can win her. But still the opinion of scholars is -divided. The mistake, I venture to think, has been that all the tales -called by this title, and even culled from the mouth of the people, -have been treated on one general principle, without recognising -the possibility that there may be divers layers, some older, some -of a more recent date. This probability seems to have been entirely -overlooked. That which holds good for one cycle need not hold equally -good for all the rest. But the question of the central origin of tales -must not be confused with that of their transmission. Thus a tale may -originate in India or Egypt, but once it has started on a journey of -its own it will be carried, chiefly by word of mouth, from country -to country. And as its structure is loose, a mere framework with -a very simple plot, it will assimilate other elements and undergo -those manifold changes, the investigation of which is the delight -and despair of the folk-lorist. - -We are now faced by a new set of stories, some of which are mere tales, -while others are of a more legendary character. I class under the -latter heading all those in which the religious element stands out -prominently. They have assumed their actual form no doubt probably -under the powerful sway of some religious influence. The peculiar -shade of religious teaching which has moulded the actual form of -these legendary stories, and which is of decisive importance in our -investigation, will be discussed more fully later on, after we have -been able to dispose of other solutions offered by the explanation -of the origin of these tales. It will then be possible to approach -the question of the fairy tales from the coign of vantage gained. - -Within this class of tales there are some in which the legendary -character is not so pronounced, where the tale is intended to -explain certain peculiarities of animals. These seem to be of so -primitive a character that the closest parallels can only be found -among primitive nations. Here a new problem sets in--the problem of -origins. For curiously enough a striking similarity cannot be denied -to the Rumanian, Indian, African and possibly American tales. But -the similarity is only in the aim. The other nations ask precisely -the same questions about the animals with which they are familiar, -and they endeavour to give an answer to their query. The parallelism -is in the question. Are we, then, to treat these tales in the same -manner as the "fairy tales" and account for that similarity in the -same manner as that of fairy tales gathered from distant regions? Or, -in other words, have we here another set of tales which have been -carried chiefly by word of mouth from one country to another? Are these -stories also new witnesses to the process of "migration"? And are we, -then, to assume that this theory of migration should be applied to -these animal tales, as it has been to the fairy tale? Or, are we to -assume that the unity of the human soul works on parallel lines in -divers countries among divers nations not otherwise connected with -one another? If not, how is this similarity to be explained? True, -the parallelism between Rumanian and Indian tales is not so close as -it is between the "fairy tales." For the animals are often not the -same. They are everywhere local beasts. This change in the animals -chosen may be due to different circumstances and local assimilation. It -is quite natural that for a tiger and jackal, a wolf and a fox might -have been substituted when the animal tale reached Europe, for the -tale had to be localised in order to preserve its interest in a new -atmosphere. One need not go very far to find the same change taking -place even in written literature. The jackals in the frame story of -the Panchatantra become "foxes" in Kalila Wa Dimna in the European -versions. Or, to take another example, in the famous parable of the -"man in the pit" in the Barlaam Josaphat legend the furious elephant -becomes a camel, however incongruous the substitution may appear. If -such changes could take place in the written literature in which the -incidents are fixed, how much more easily could it take place when -a story is carried only by word of mouth? Then the substitution of -a familiar animal for one unknown would be quite natural. The people -want to know the reason for the peculiarities of those animals that -they know. They are not likely to care much for unknown fauna. Unless -those other animals are of a purely mythical and fantastical character, -and as such appeal to the universal imagination, there is no room in -the popular mythology for animals of foreign countries. - -If, then, we admit that these animal fables have been brought to Europe -in the same manner as the fairy tales, by means of oral transmission, -then they have preserved their original character and their primitive -form less modified than has happened in the case of the fairy tale, -for reasons which would have to be explained. The only other suggestion -is that these legends and animal tales are of a local origin, the -product of the poetical imagination of the Rumanian peasant, and as -such quite independent of any other source. If this is not acceptable -we must admit a continuous stream of popular tradition, setting in -at a time not yet determined and spreading from East to West or from -South to North, the direction of the stream having been determined -by the presumable centre of origin in Asia, before or contemporary -with the spread of the real fairy tales. - -But, it might be argued, as has been also done in the case of the fairy -tales, that these stories are the product of individual efforts of -local myth-makers and popular poets, that they are purely indigenous in -origin. One cannot deny that the people could invent such stories. Some -one must have invented them, and why could they not have been invented -by the Rumanian peasant independently of the Indian story teller? - -The cosmogonic setting invalidates this suggestion. Such a setting -presupposes a definite set of ideas about the beginnings of things -which are neither spontaneous nor indigenous. All that can be said is -that, once the impulse had been given, the imagination of the people -followed the lead and worked in its own way on the given lines. This is -the general trend of real popular lore. Each nation mints in its own -fashion the gold brought from elsewhere, and places its own imprint -upon it. - -This view I find myself unable to accept. It could be entertained -only and solely if no parallels whatsoever could be found anywhere to -some at least of the more important and characteristic creation tales, -fairy tales and fables. - -The question then remains, Where do these tales come from? Are they -indeed the expression of the primitive mind, and if so, have we to -recognise these specific Rumanian beast tales as so many indigenous -products of the primitive Rumanian mind? - -Tylor, in his Primitive Culture (i. 3 ed. 410 ff.), discusses at -some length the beast tales found among primitive peoples, tales -that as yet are not the excuse for a moral and have not been reduced -to the background of an allegory. He takes his examples from the -North Indians of America, from the Kamtchadals of Kamtchatka and -from the inhabitants of Guinea. These stories are thus, as it were, -the primitive expression of the myth-making imagination of peoples in -which the animal stands in as close a relation as any human being. Be -this as it may, the conclusions drawn by Tylor rest on this evidence -gathered only from so-called dark ages. He is not aware of any such -tales among the nations of Europe, who certainly cannot be classed -among the primitive peoples. And on the other hand he is fully alive to -the fact that a number of such beast tales have been worked up in the -eleventh and twelfth centuries in the famous epic of Reynard the Fox. - -The question arises, Whence came some of the incidents believed -to be more ancient? They lead us straight to the supposition that -such animal tales in a primitive form must have existed among the -peoples of Europe, even as far west as Flanders and France. They -were afterwards woven into one consecutive narrative, conceived -in a spirit of satire on existing social and clerical conditions. A -"moral" has thus been introduced into a set of more ancient tales. But -of this anon. In view of these Rumanian tales we can no longer be -content to leave the question of the compilation of Reynard where -Tylor has left it. The new materials now at our disposal allow us to -follow it much further and to arrive at conclusions differing from -those of Tylor. From the moment that we find in Europe similar beast -tales to those found among primitive peoples in other parts of the -world, we are confronted by a new problem. We may recognise the same -spiritual agency at work: we may see the same action of the mind, -asking everywhere for an explanation of the phenomena from beast and -bird, from sky and sea. Thus far the minds of all the nations run on -parallel lines. The differentiation begins with the answer, and here, -then, the problem sets in. How many nations give the same answer, and -in so doing form, as it were, a group by themselves? How old is this -or that answer or the tale that contains it? And what is the form in -which it is given? Is it a fable or has it a religious colouring? In -endeavouring to reply to these queries we find ourselves face to -face with the problems of indigenous character, primitive origin, -independent evolution and question of survival. We are thus brought -face to face with yet another theory--the theory of survivals--the -most important of all, which sways the trend of the study of modern -folk-lore. I must deal with it here at some greater length. I mean, -of course, the theory that sees in every manifestation of the popular -spirit, in every story, in every ballad or song, a survival from -hoary antiquity, a remnant of prehistoric times, to which the people -have clung with a marvellous tenacity, although they have entirely -forgotten its meaning. Out of an unconscious antiquarian weakness -they are supposed to have preserved every fossil even if and when it -had become burdensome to them. But it must not be forgotten that the -people retain only those practices and beliefs by means of which they -hope to obtain health, wealth and power, and they will take care not -to jeopardise such benefits by any neglect. So long as these results -are expected, the people will cling tenaciously to the beliefs which -promise them the greater gifts. It is not impossible that such beliefs, -being too deeply rooted, might survive local political changes. - -But in order to survive, two conditions are essential, continuity of -place and continuity of ethnical unity. The religious continuity is -also an important condition, though not by any means so essential. The -clash of two or more religious doctrines causes on the one hand -the destruction of the official system of religious ceremonies -and practices, and on the other drives to the bottom that mass of -ceremonies from the observance of which benefits to health and wealth -are expected. In the moment when the belief in their efficacy has gone -they disappear without leaving a trace. Very little, if anything, -survives. It is a fallacy to believe, as is now the fashion, that -without such continuity any real survival can take place. This -theory has been carried to extreme lengths, without the slightest -justification. It all rests on finely spun hypotheses in which time -and space have entirely disappeared. - -No connecting link has been brought forward to bind the present to -the past. However plausible some aspects of the "vegetation god" -may appear, one must remember the essential fact, that there is now -not a single nation in Europe living on the soil where such practices -as the slaying of an annual king god has been practised, if, indeed, -they have ever been practised, beyond a very strictly limited area -in Asia Minor and possibly in Sicily or Italy. With whom could such -practices survive, for example, in Bulgaria or even in Thrace? It is -known that the population there has changed its character many times, -even within the last eight hundred years. There is such a medley of -races, some old, some new, that it would be impossible to expect -survivals from the Pelasgian or Dacian past. Nor would they have -anything in common. The Rumanians of Latin origin are certainly not -the oldest inhabitants of Rumania. If, then, each of these ethnical -unities had separate practices or, to come nearer to our subject, -separate tales and stories marked with its own individuality, it -might perhaps be argued that these stories and popular beliefs are -survivals from prehistoric times, remnants of a past long forgotten, -embodying a folk-lore and popular psychology which date back to remote -antiquity. None of these nations, and, in fact, none of the modern -nations of Europe, reach back to any extreme antiquity, nor are they -homogeneous in their ethnical character nor the descendants of the -autochthonous inhabitants. There may be a few rare strains of other -blood in the modern admixture, but not of any decisive character, -certainly it is not strong enough to have preserved any survivals. - -True, many of the modern practices are no more of yesterday than -these tales and stories are, but again, they are certainly not so old -as a modern school of thought endeavours to make out. Comparatively -modern nations, often alien to the soil which they inhabit, none of -them of a pure unmixed origin, cannot have retained beliefs, tales, -etc., of which their forefathers knew nothing. They could not have -laid stress on things which had disappeared with the nations whom -their successors or victors had destroyed. If, then, we find that -these nations of diverse origins and of diverse times possess a -certain stock of folk-lore in common, it follows naturally that -they must have obtained it in common at a certain definite period, -when in spite of their ethnical and possibly political differences -they were all subjected together to one pervading influence. A great -spiritual force moulded them at one and the same time, and this -produced one common result, which, in spite of its genetic unity, -would have allowed a certain latitude for individual development. If, -as I assume, it was the all-pervading influence of religious sects -which stretched from far East to extreme West and embraced all the -cultured nations of Europe, impressing them with the same seal--a -certain popularly modified Christianity embellished with legends and -tales appealing to the imagination, containing a strong didactic and -ethical strain, propounding a new solution of the world's problem -suited to the understanding of the people, accounting satisfactorily -for the evil in the world, warding off the effects of these spirits -of evil--then it is small wonder that their teaching sunk deeper into -the heart of the people and brought about that surprising spiritual -unification in the religion of the masses which survives in folk-lore. - -They would thus date from more or less the same period, when the -whole of Europe felt the influence of teachings which lasted two to -three centuries at least, quite long enough to leave indelible traces. - -It is not to be denied that among these tales some may belong to an -anterior period. The newer facts had in some cases been grafted on -older ones. Some remnants of ancient myths had survived the first -process of forcible Christianisation. But only there where ancient -paganism can be shown to have flourished when this new wave of -proselytism set in, only there might one be able to discover such -traces. These are the local incidents, the local colouring, which -give to each tale its own popular character without changing its -substance. Such process of assimilation is akin to the other before -mentioned, viz. the substitution of the European fauna for Asiatic or -Indian animals. Though references to ancient Greek myths occur in these -stories, yet in spite of that the Rumanian versions approximate more -closely to the later Byzantine than the ancient classical forms. The -transformation sets in practically where the Middle Ages part from -antiquity. Here is yet another proof for the more recent phase of -this popular literature. - -A grave danger threatens the scientific character of folk-lore, if -a wrong method of investigation be persisted in much longer. I refer -to the system of haphazard comparisons arising out of the view that -everything done and every rite kept by the folk must of necessity be a -survival from extreme antiquity and belong to a period anterior to our -modern civilization--a fossil from the age of man's childhood embedded -in layers of more recent date. For proof of this theory parallels are -sought and found among primitive nations, or those who we believe have -not yet left the rude stage of primitive culture. If, then, something -is found among them which resembles closely or remotely any of the -customs, tales, and beliefs, in our own midst, we are convinced that -these customs, tales or beliefs are really remnants of an older stage, -through which the modern nations have passed before they reached the -present stage of development, and which they have cherished and kept -unchanged throughout the ages. The history of comparative philology -offers the best analogy for the demonstration of the futility of -such reasoning. Nothing contributed so much to make the study of -comparative philology a laughing-stock as this endeavour to build up -theories of the origin of the language on such arbitrary foundations. - -How deceptive such haphazard similarities can be is best demonstrated -by the endeavours to derive all the European languages from the -Hebrew. This was believed to have been the original language which -Adam spoke. Nothing more natural, then, than to trace all the languages -back to the Hebrew, which moreover was a holy language. Much ingenuity -and immense learning were spent--nay wasted--for centuries in this -undertaking. The most trifling incident, the most superficial identity -in sound or meaning was looked upon as complete evidence. It has taken -close upon half a century to demolish this fabric of philological -fallacy, and to place comparative philology on a sound basis. We -know now that similarities in different languages may be the result -of independent evolution. - -The similarities are often quite superficial. No one would, for -example, compare a modern English word with an old Latin or Greek stem -or with any archaic dialect of these languages, without showing the -gradual development of our modern word. He would take it back step by -step, and then compare the oldest English form with a contemporary -form. Most of the European languages, as we now see, are derived -from one common stock, more archaic than any of them. No one would -now trace a French word directly to that old Indo-European root, -without going first to the Latin; and so with every other language -belonging to the same group. Each nation has put the seal of its -own individuality on its language, which it has moulded and shaped -according to its own physiological and psychical faculties. The -one will have retained more primitive forms; for example, local and -historical as well as ethnical continuity have kept the Italian much -closer to the Latin than Spanish or Portuguese. No one dreams to-day -of reducing a French word to a Hebrew root, despite any similarity -of form which they might have in common. - -We can go now one step further and suggest a common origin for the -Indo-European and Semitic groups of languages, a unity which lies -beyond the time of their separation, and it is the dream and aim of -comparative philology to attain this goal. - -Returning now to our science of folk-lore, we have a perfect analogy -in the study of comparative philology briefly sketched above. The -analogy is so complete that it is almost unnecessary to elaborate -it in detail. It is obvious that safety and scholarship lie in the -following line of investigation. A European group of folk-lore must -first be established, and the dependence on an earlier common stock -demonstrated. But the historical connection stands foremost, and the -fixing, more or less definitely, of the time of its appearance in the -form in which it now exists. In adopting this line of investigation, -it will then become unscientific to postulate early survivals -for elements that may date from a comparatively recent period, -and for which an explanation can be found by this historical and -comparative study. And just as it has happened in the case of the -study of comparative philology, so it will happen that we shall be in -a much better position to separate and to appreciate the individual -character of the folk-lore of each nation, the form which the common -stock assumes under the psychical and cultural conditions which -characterise its spiritual life. This method will give us also the -key to the ethno-psychology, the ultimate aim and goal of folk-lore -studies. No doubt some higher unity may possibly emerge out of this -historical investigation, for which again the study of comparative -philology offers us the best parallel. Separate groups may be formed of -European and Asiatic folk-lore. The artificial geographical division -need not form the separating barrier either in folk-lore, or, as has -been proved, in the study of language. But to continue the method of -haphazard parallelism and indiscriminate comparison between old and -new will be indefensible. It will be found that even in the so-called -immutable East continual changes have taken place which do not allow us -to assume favourable conditions of continuity and "survivals." Still -less is this the case with the peoples who concern us more directly, -the inhabitants of the south-eastern part of Europe. One has only to -cast a glance at the medley of nationalities inhabiting the Balkan -Peninsula and the neighbourhood to realise the profound differences -of faith, origin and language of Greeks and Albanians, Slavs and -Rumanians, Hungarians and Saxons, and one is forced to the conclusion -that whatever these may possess in common is not a survival from olden -times, but must have come to them at a time when they were all living -together in that part of Europe, subject to one common influence -strong enough to leave an indelible impression on their imagination. - -This result is unavoidable if we remember also the past history of -these countries. They have been swept over by nations, one more -barbarous than another, one more ruthless than another, and none -remaining there long enough to become a decisive factor in the -formation of the existing nationalities. Dacians and Pelasgians, -Romans and Goths, Petchenegs and Cumans, Alans and Huns, Tartars and -Hungarians, Bulgars, Slavs and Turks have succeeded one another with -great rapidity, not to mention the numerous colonies of Armenians, -Syrians and Gipsies planted in the heart of the Byzantine Empire by -the foreign rulers on the throne of Byzantium. It would be a sheer -miracle if anything of ancient times could have survived. Assuming -even the theoretical possibility of such a miracle--and those who -hold strongly to such a theory of unqualified survivals evidently -do believe in such miracles--even then it will remain to be shown, -with whom these ancient beliefs and tales originated and survived. The -romantic legend may have, and practically has, been forgotten in its -entirety. Out of one of the episodes have grown the popular Rumanian -poems of the Wanderer. - -If folk-lore is to become an exact science I venture to think that the -problem of survivals will have to undergo a serious re-examination. We -shall have to revise our views and try to define more precisely -the method according to which we ought to label certain practices, -customs and tales as survivals, and also to determine the period to -which such survivals may be ascribed. A primary condition consists -in establishing historical continuity and ethnical unity. - -If nations of diverse origin and of different ages possess the same -tales and practices, it follows that this common property cannot be a -survival, but each must have received all these at a certain fixed date -simultaneously, quite independent of their own ethnical or historical -and local past. All of them must have been standing under one and -the same levelling influence. This new influence may have brought -with it some older elements belonging to different traditions and -to a different past, and introduced them among these nations, as in -the case of the Barlaam legend or that of the legend of St. George -and the Dragon; but though locally accepted and assimilated they are -not original constituent elements of the local folk-lore of these -nations. These were only adopted and assimilated materials brought -from elsewhere. They are not local survivals. - -The analogy between the study of folk-lore and that of comparative -philology can be pursued profitably much further. It may prove of -decisive importance. It is not an indifferent question as to whether -language and ethnic character are interchangeable terms. Russified -Tartars, Magyarised Rumanians, Anglicised Hindoos will speak Russian, -Hungarian or English as the case may be, but this will not change -their ethnical character. They will remain what they were: Tartars, -Rumanians or Hindoos. Thus also nothing can be proved for the specific -origins of folk-lore if found among any one of these nations; it -may be just as much Tartar as Russian, Rumanian or Hungarian, etc., -for it can easily have been taken over with the language. - -The fact that these tales are found in Rumania and are told by -Rumanian peasants is in itself not yet sufficient proof of their -indigenous origin. We are taken out of the region of hypothetical -speculation into that of concrete facts by modern philology. In the -first place, it is put on record, on the irrefutable evidence of the -modern languages themselves, that there is no nation in Europe which -speaks a language of its own so pure as to be free from admixture with -foreign elements. All owe their very origin, in fact, to this clash -of languages, which was the determining factor in their creation and -form. English is typical in that respect in the west, and Rumanian -in the east of Europe. Both languages have been born through the -combined forces of at least two different languages. In England, -through the violent Norman conquest, French was superimposed upon -Anglo-Saxon. In Rumania, through peaceful penetration and religious -influence, Slavonic became part of the Rumanian language. - -If, then, we should examine each of the European languages to find -the various elements of which they are composed, we should be able -to trace the origin of much that is also the spiritual property of -these nations. Every word borrowed from another language represents -a new idea, a fresh notion taken from elsewhere and embodied. We -can study the history of nations from their vocabulary. We can -trace the migrations of the Gipsies by the foreign words now in -their language. The proportion of these alien elements helps us to -determine the period which elapsed since they went from one nation -to another. The large number of Rumanian words in the Gipsy language -shows that the Gipsies must have lived a long time peaceably among the -Rumanians, and the Rumanian words in all the dialects of the Gipsy, -from Spain to Siberia, are conclusive evidence for the fact that -Rumania was a centre of diffusion for the European Gipsy. And yet -step by step one can follow up a modification; small at the confines -of the Balkans, it grows greater the further it is carried westwards. - -The conclusion is obvious. In Rumanian, the language is preponderantly -of a Latin origin, but other tongues come in to make up its -present character. A comparatively large proportion of the popular -language--which alone is of importance--is Slavonic; then follow in -decreasing proportions Hungarian, modern Greek, Turkish and Albanian -elements, but scarcely any trace of a more ancient local language. In -the Hungarian language there is a large proportion of Slavonic, -then of Rumanian and German elements. The other languages of the -Balkans show a similar mixture of heterogeneous influences. So -thorough has been this process of assimilation that the original -Tartarian language of the Bulgars, who hailed from the Volga--hence -their name--has entirely disappeared. The same has happened with the -Cumans in Hungary. If there is anything tenacious it is undoubtedly -the human language, the means of satisfying one's daily wants. And -yet there is constant change and assimilation going on all the time, -one nation borrows freely from its neighbour and enriches its own -treasury with the possessions of the others. How easily, then, could -a philologist of the eighteenth century, who wanted to compare these -languages among themselves, by collecting similar words haphazard -prove that Rumanian was Turkish, that Hungarian was Slavonic and -that Bulgarian was Greek, or on finding some Albanian words in -Rumanian and Bulgarian how easily could he declare these languages -to be survivals of the ancient mythical Pelasgians with whom the -Albanians were connected. Thanks to our modern comparative science -these languages are placed on their proper basis, and the words and -elements are sifted and separated from one another. Each one by the -form in which it appears in the other languages yields to the scholar -the secret of the time when it was adopted. Having got thus far, -we may now apply these results to the question which is before us, -viz. the origin of these tales and apologues. - -It is obvious that where new words went, stories could also go, and -very likely did go. It is clear that the presence of a large number of -foreign elements in the language denotes a peaceful intercourse between -these nations, long enough and intimate enough to make them borrow -freely from one another and to become fixed into one spiritual unity. - -If a language contains a large number of foreign elements, no one -can deny the direct influence which the latter has exercised upon the -former. Words, then, are not a mere combination of sounds, they are -the outward expression of the mind. They are the materialised spirit -of the nation, and whither they go that spirit also goes. Spirit -communes thus with spirit. There is and there has always been such -a give and take. And it is for us to follow up this constant barter, -in which the richer unhesitatingly parted with their treasures to the -poor, for the more they gave the more was left with them, as is meet -in the charmed realm of folk-lore. - -These nations learn from one another not only words, but the thoughts -and ideas expressed in words. The proportion of these linguistic -elements in the vocabulary connotes the proportion of influence upon -the other people. It must not be forgotten that we are dealing with -illiterate nations, and with "oral" literature. It takes less time and -it requires less influence to disseminate a tale than to disseminate -a language and cause it to be acquired. The difficulty of borrowing -is thus obviously eliminated. We have the fact that even the language -had been borrowed and thoroughly assimilated. No archaic linguistic -element has been found in these languages. And it is therefore not -possible to postulate for the tales and apologues survivals of such -antiquity as is now so often assumed. - -Two more points stand out clearly from this investigation into the -history of the language: First, the existence of numerous layers in the -modern languages, some elements being older, others of a more recent -origin. There is no uniformity either in language or in literature, -no contemporary unity of all the elements, but as far as can be seen -none are very old, except a few stray elements of an older period which -may have survived, always subject to the two fundamental conditions, -ethnical and geographical continuity. - -The second point is the principle of concentric investigation. If tales -and apologues are borrowed, then those nearest the centre will preserve -the original form less changed; and the further a tale travels--always -by word of mouth--the more it will lose of its original character and -the more it will become mixed up and contaminated with other tales -which have undergone a similar emaciating and attenuating process. - -Following up, then, this line of investigation, our first endeavour -is to find out whether there are parallels to these Rumanian animal -tales among the nations round about, and if so, how far they agree -with the Rumanian, and how far they differ. The fact itself that -parallels exist would be an additional proof that we are dealing -here with matter introduced from elsewhere, matter that has been -transmitted from nation to nation and possibly may have also reached -the west of Europe, although very few traces have been preserved to -this day. This is not yet a question of origin, but the next step -towards the solution of the problem. For obviously, if these tales -had been imported, their origin must be sought elsewhere. If we then -compare Rumanian tales with those of the ancient Byzantine Empire -and especially with those of the modern Greeks, then, in our case, -it might be argued that the Greeks were the repositories of ancient -folk-lore. The logical conclusion would be that these tales must be -found most profusely and in a more archaic form in the folk-lore -of modern Greece, and that the variants and parallels among the -other nations must show a distinct falling away from the original -types. Literary tradition or written folk-lore is, of course, excluded -from this investigation, for once folk-lore becomes fixed by being -written in a book it is no longer subject to any appreciable change. - -We are dealing here exclusively with the oral folk-lore of illiterate -peoples. The relation between written and oral folk-lore and the -mutual influence of one upon another will be incidentally touched -upon in connection with the tales themselves. But, curiously enough, -a comparison of these stories with the known and published tales -of modern Greece is thoroughly disappointing. Only very few bird -tales--no insect or beast tales--seem to have been preserved, and -these mostly in Macedonia, the population of which is overwhelmingly -Slavonic, but scarcely any from among the Greeks proper inhabiting -European Greece. On the other hand, those few tales, which have been -mentioned by Abbott and Hahn, are very significant. They show the -profound difference which separates these modern bird tales from the -"Metamorphoses" known in ancient Greek mythology. A goodly number of -changes into animals are recorded in ancient Greek literature.--The -story of Philomela and Halcyon is sufficiently well known.--All these -are, with perhaps a few exceptions, the results of the wrath of an -offended god, rewards for acts of personal kindness or for steps -taken to assuage physical pain. They are all strictly individual in -character, and while none of them is intended to explain the origin -of bird, beast or insect, still less are they of the "creation" type, -in which each animal stands as the beginning of its species. And even -in those few tales in which supernatural beings are mentioned, very -little of the "Moirai" or goddesses of fate appears in the Greek form, -though the belief in them is now very strong among modern Greeks. Even -then these "Moirai" differ considerably from those of ancient Greek -mythology. Their attributes differ and their appearance and shape have -nothing in common with those of classical antiquity. The name also -has assumed a peculiar significance, different from that of ancient -times. This, then, is all which the modern Greeks have retained of -the ancient goddesses of fate; none of the other neighbouring nations -knows the "Moirai" by name. They have other goddesses of fate, Vilas or -Zanas, etc. Charon, who is now the angel of death among modern Greeks, -is remembered by them also as the boatman who carries the souls over -the waters of forgetfulness. The boatman alone may still be found in -one tale or another retaining something of the Greek local colour. But -no other direct parallels are found among the animal tales of modern -Greece. Much greater, on the contrary, is the approximation with the -Slavonic nations south and north of Rumania. - -Turning, then, from the Greek to the Slavonic tales, we shall find -a much larger number of parallels between them and the Rumanian. In -the collection of South Slavonic tales and fables published by Krauss -only one or two real "creation" tales are found, and others are pure -and simple animal tales of the type of the "Gnat and the Lion," -"The Wedding Feast of Tom," etc., agreeing more or less with the -Rumanian versions. They prove thereby the popular character of the -Rumanian tales; yet they differ sufficiently from them--as is shown -later on,--when they are quoted in connection with the above. One -of the creation stories is that of the sheep which, according to the -South Slavonic tale, was made by the Evil One, when he boasted that -he could improve on God's creation. - -Incidentally I may mention the collection of tales from the Saxon -colony in Transylvania, collected by Haltrich. There is not one single -"creation" tale among them. Only two of the Rumanian animal fables -find their parallels in that collection. Turning to the Russian -tales, notably the great collection of Afanasiev, we shall find a -large number of animal tales, including also a number of "creation" -tales. In the former the central figures are, as in the South -Slavonic, Rumanian, Saxon, etc., the fox, the bear, the wolf, the -hedgehog and sometimes domestic animals, the dog, the cock, the hen, -the duck, etc. The same can be said also of tales collected from the -Lithuanians, Letts and Ruthenians, and to a smaller degree of those -from the Poles and Czechs. All, however, have retained definite -traces of such animal tales and legends. The animal character has -been thoroughly preserved. The fox is generally the "clever" animal, -but is, as often as not, outwitted by smaller animals or by man. The -general trend of these animal tales is to pit the cunning of the -smaller and weaker against that of the more powerful animal and to -secure the victory for the former. It is so natural for the people, -who live under the despotism of the mighty and powerful, to rejoice -in seeing the discomfiture of the great and stupid brought about by -the wit and cunning of the small and despised, and answers so aptly -to their feelings. - -In these tales, which belong to the group of animal fables, we are -in a different atmosphere, far removed from that of the creation -legend. We are approaching that phase in the evolution in which the -animal stands for a disguised human being, which, in spite of its -appellation, speaks and acts entirely in accordance with human ways -and notions. These have not yet been found among the Rumanians and -those nations whose folk-lore shows close affinity with theirs. - -Having thus far established that these animal tales, fables and -creation legends are neither of a local nor an indigenous origin, -nor survivals from a remote past, and also that the Rumanian tales -do not stand isolated, but form part of a group of tales and legends -common to most of the nations surrounding Rumania in a more or less -complete degree, it behoves us to endeavour to trace these tales to -their probable origin, and also to account for the shape which they -have assumed, as shown in the course of this investigation. These tales -among the Eastern nations of Europe are so much akin to one another -that they must have reached these nations almost simultaneously. All -must have stood under the same influence, which must have been powerful -and lasting enough to leave such indelible traces in the belief and -in the imagination of the people. - -A great difficulty arises, when we attempt to define the influence -which brought these stories and fables to the nations of the near -East and thence to the West. Some have connected them with the -invasion of the Mongols. If similar tales could be found among them, -such a date might fit also the introduction of the animal tales -into Eastern Europe, especially if they had originally a Buddhist -background. Nothing, in fact, could apparently harmonise better with -the Buddhist teaching of Metempsychosis and the principle of man's -transformation into beast in order to expiate for sins committed -than some of these tales.--Of course, Egyptian influences cannot be -overlooked in this connection. I may refer to them later on.--The -burden of the majority is indeed that the birds and insects are, -in fact, nothing else than human beings transformed into ungainly -shapes for some wrong which they have done. - -Many theories have been put forward on the mediation, among them also -the theory of transmission by the Gipsies. These came first to Thrace, -and lived long enough among the nations of the Balkans, in Rumania -and Russia, to have exercised a possible influence upon them. But this -theory can be dismissed briefly. The Gipsies are not likely carriers -of folk-tales. They came too late, and their march through Europe is -nothing if not a long-drawn agony of suspicion, hatred, persecution. - -Some occult practices may have been taken over by some adepts of -the lower forms of magic, and possibly Playing Cards, originally an -oracle of divining the future, may have been brought by the Gipsies -to Europe, but popular tales, though they possess a good number, have -certainly not been communicated to Europe by them. They never had the -favourable occasion for meeting the people on a footing of equality, -or of entering with them into any intimate intercourse. - -The Gipsy of the Rumanian fairy tale is mostly a villain, and is -merely the local substitute for the Arab or Negro of the Eastern -parallels. In the Rumanian popular jests the Gipsy is always the -fool. From such as these the people would have nothing to learn. - -Next the Mongolian theory has long been put forward as a plausible -explanation, for it has been believed that Russia formed one of the -channels of transmission. This latter assumption, however, rests -on a geographical misconception, and also on a want of historical -knowledge. Up to comparatively modern times, the whole of the South -of Russia was inhabited by Tartars, and the Mongolian influence upon -Russia could not pass the border of the so-called White Russia. Nor -can a temporary invasion of Europe by the Mongolians, who left ruin -and desolation behind them, have been the means by which such tales -could be introduced. They are told at the peaceful fireside or in the -spinning-rooms, and are not carried by the wings of the arrow sped -from the enemy's bow, nor are they accepted if presented on the point -of the sword. They are frightened away by the din of battle. Years -must pass ere the blood is staunched, the wounds healed, and only -after peaceable concord and social harmony have been established, -can a spiritual interchange take place; this was impossible between -Russians or Mongols. We must look elsewhere, then, for a possible -channel of transmission, always subject to the theory of "migration." - -Besides, to Kieff, the centre of Russian inspiration, the place -hallowed by the minstrels and poets, the Mongols never came. The only -influence which prevailed there was that of Byzance, and to that we -shall have to look as the channel of transmission and the centre of -dissemination of these tales and legends. These had come from Asia, -carried on the crest of the wave of that religious movement known -as Manichaeism and Bogomilism, and from there they started their -triumphant course throughout Europe. They came along with other -religious legends, carried by the current of thought which also taught -the doctrine of Dualism and Metempsychosis. This is the only possible -source for most of the legends and tales found among the Rumanians -and Slavs, and, as will be seen, it must have been the primary source -for such tales in the West of Europe. - -A dualistic heterodox teaching with such a background reached from -the confines of India far into the South of France across central -Europe. It was probably the same agency which transformed the life -of Buddha into the legends of the saints Barlaam and Josaphat. - -Nor is this the only legend invented, manipulated and circulated by -the numerous Gnostic sects. Those who have studied the history of the -apocryphal literature are fully aware of the apocryphal Gospels, Acts -of the Apostles and of the rest of the apocryphal tales which were -already put on the "Index," in the first centuries of the common era. - -Some of the cosmogonic tales of the dualistic origin of the world, -of the influence of the Evil Spirit, of the origin of the Bee, the -Glow-worm, the Wolf and others show unmistakably such a Gnostic origin. - -It is therefore not too much to assume that they have been brought to -Europe and disseminated by the same agency. These sectaries alone came -into direct contact with the masses of the people. They preached their -doctrines to the lowly and the poor. They were known themselves as -the pure (Cathars) and the poor (Pobres). They alone reached the heart -of the people, and were able to influence them to a far higher degree -than the murderous Mongols, or other nations that ravaged the country. - -The dualistic tales connected with the story of the Creation are found -also among other nations, especially among those in Russia and in the -countries which belonged to the ancient Persian Empire. Daehnhardt, -who has made the investigation of such legends and tales the object -of special study (Natursagen, i.; Berlin 1907), comes to the same -conclusion that they rest ultimately on the Iranian dualism of the -Avesta. He believes that Zoroastrian teaching has penetrated far -into the North and West, and has produced these peculiar dualistic -cosmogonic legends. - -The point to bear in mind in this investigation of the origin of the -Rumanian tales and legends is not so much to trace the remote possible -source of dualism, but the immediate influences which have been -brought to bear upon the shape which these legends have taken. This -is the salient problem. Daehnhardt, of course, discusses the further -development of the dualistic conception, through Manichaeism and -Bogomilism, and thus far is helpful in establishing the connection -between Iran and Thrace, and in strengthening the argument that we -must trace a number of these "creation" legends to the propaganda of -these sects. - -It must be remembered that these tales in the European versions have -a thoroughly Christian aspect. They presuppose the existence of God -and His saints; nay, they show a close acquaintance with apocryphal -narratives, which have gathered round the canonical biblical stories -and episodes. The Evil Spirit is a clearly-defined personality, and -his antagonism to God is not of the pronounced acute controversial -type as is the Angromainya who, in the teaching of the Avesta, is -the direct opponent and almost negative of God. - -A complete transformation had taken place ere these tales became -the property of the Rumanian peasants, and for that, also, of the -Russian and other North-Eastern peoples, who also have similar -tales akin to certain of the cosmogonic legends--to which reference -will be made at the proper place in the short notes to the stories -themselves. It will not be disputed that some of them are imported, -i.e. belong to the circulating stock of popular literature. Mongolian -influence--as already remarked above--is entirely excluded, in spite -of Daehnhardt. The Mongols never came in direct contact either with -the Rumanians or with the nations of the Balkans, who also possess -a number of similar tales, and must have derived them from another -source, more direct and, as will be seen, more complete than the -versions published by Daehnhardt from Russia, Lithuania, Finland and -Esthonia, not to speak of Northern Asiatic nations. Of real animal -tales there are only a few among those studied by Daehnhardt, such as -a peculiar version of "the Bee and Creation," very much shorter than -the Rumanian version; then a version of the creation of the Wolf and -the Lamb, and of the Goat's knees. These are all taken by Daehnhardt -from South-Slavonic and Albanian collections, again corroborating the -view that we have to look to the Balkans as the immediate centre of -this class of "creation" tales, and then further back to Asia Minor. - -The appearance of the "Creation" legends in a compilation of the -seventh or eighth century is not to be taken as the date of their -origin. They may be very much older, and no doubt are, and may -have formed part of a primitive Physiologus in which the origin -as well as the peculiarities of the various birds and beasts were -described. This is not the place to discuss the remarkable history of -the Physiologus. The only point to be noted is that the symbolical and -allegorical interpretation of the tales contained in the Physiologus -is of a strictly religious Christian character. - -The absence from the popular literature of such bird and beast tales -as are found in the Physiologus--the Bestiaires of the West--is not -surprising, for the Physiologus deals mostly with animals and birds -which are of an outlandish character. Very few have any reference to -the animals with which the people are familiar, and in which alone -they take an interest. - -Though the book was known also among the Rumanians, only a faint -trace of it could be detected among the popular tales in the -present collection. The oldest Fathers of the Church made use of this -Physiologus in their homilies, and the other sects have no doubt done -the same. Some of the creation legends may have found their way into -the old legendary homiletical interpretation of the creation, like -the Hexameron of Basil, and other kindred compilations. All these -tales form part of a wider cycle of allegorised animal fables. In -Jewish literature a collection of Fox fables is mentioned as early -as the second or third century. - -Indian literature is full of such animal tales, approximating often -to some of the Rumanian fables. The collections of Frere, Temple, -Steele, Skeat, and Parker abound in such animal tales, in which -the more nimble and quick-witted, though small and weak, animal -regularly gets the best of the bigger and stronger, yet duller and -slower rival. No moral lesson is squeezed out of the tales, and the -animal is not a thinly-disguised human being. Yet there can be no -greater fallacy than, guided by this similarity, to assume a direct -Indian origin for the Rumanian fables. - -None of these animal tales finish with the usual "moral," known to -us from Aesop onward. Nor do the people seem to be influenced by -these artificial fables. In the literary European fable the animal -is merely a disguised human being. The animals are performing acts -which have nothing of the animal in them. The Indian and Oriental -fable differs in this respect from the European, inasmuch as in a -good number of them the animal character of the performing beasts -is faithfully preserved. Exactly the same happens with the Rumanian -animal fables. The cat does not play the role of the queen, and the -fox is not a sly courtier. Cat is cat, and fox is fox. And yet they -were not unaware of the fables of Aesop. I have found these fables in -many old Rumanian manuscripts, and one of the first printed popular -books of the country was the Collection of Aesop. - -Unquestionably a good many proverbs are intimately connected with -tales. The "moral" in Aesop has often dwindled down to a simple -proverb, or has expanded out of it. These proverbs are, as it were, -succinct conclusions drawn out by the people. Anton Pann (in the -middle of the last century)--to whom the Rumanian popular literature -will for ever remain indebted--therefore calls his Collection of -Proverbs and Tales "Povestea vorbii," i.e. "The tale which hangs by -the Proverb." One and all of the hundred tales found in the second and -last edition of this book are mostly of a purely popular origin. The -process throughout is not to invent a story for the moral, but the -"moral," such as it is, is to flow naturally from the story. - -This is not the place to discuss the origin of the animal fable -in general. But one cannot overlook the fact that all the Indian -fables--with the exception of some embodied in the Panchatantra--are -found in modern collections. All that we know of them is that they -live actually in the mouth of the modern people. They may be old, -they may be of more recent date. - -Against these modern collections must be set now the story of Ahikar, -which carries us back at least to the fifth century B.C., and is -thus far the oldest record of animal tales. It has become one of the -popular stories which circulated in a written form, and became the -source of many a quaint proverb, as probably also of some animal tales. - -The recent discovery among the Papyri of Elephantine in Southern Egypt -of the Story of Ahikar has carried back the knowledge of allegorical -beast fables to at least the fifth century B.C. For not only do we find -in that story the prototype of the life of Aesop, but also a number -of maxims and saws, and not a few beast tales, which are mentioned by -Ahikar in order to teach his ungrateful nephew Nadan. We find there, -e.g. the prototype of "pious" wolf, who appears in the Ahikar story as -an innocent student, but who cannot take in the lesson given to him, -his mind wandering to the sheep. There are other wolf, fox, rat and -bird fables in the Rumanian and, still more so, in the Oriental and -other versions. Ahikar himself relates the beast tales, allowing Nadan -to draw the lesson. By the manner in which these tales are referred -to, it is obvious that they must have been well known tales current -among the people. - -The real importance of this discovery lies in the fact that we have -here a number of cleverly-used popular animal tales, more than two -thousand years old, whose home was in all probability Syria or Egypt, -embedded in a collection which has deeply influenced the apocryphal -Book of Tobit, and to a certain degree even the writers of the New -Testament, as shown by Professors Rendel Harris and Conybeare in -the Introduction to their edition of the Story of Ahikar (second -edition). The claim for an Indian origin of these fables will -have to be abandoned, unless someone could show older writings -from India, and the possible road by which these fables could have -reached the Western shore of Asia Minor and been taken up by the -peoples of Syria and Egypt at such an early date. It is not at all -unlikely that some of the fables, just as they travelled westwards, -also travelled eastwards and found a home in India as they found a -home in Rumania and Russia. If one remembers now that the fabulous -"Life" of Aesop ascribed to Planudes is almost identical with part of -that of Ahikar, as I have shown, as far back as 1883 in my History -of the Rumanian Popular Literature (Bucharest 1883, p. 104 ff.), -it will not be difficult to account for the West-Asiatic origin of -the fables themselves. - -From a Rumanian MS. of the eighteenth century, I have since published -the fuller narrative of that version in an English translation -(the Journal of the Royal As. Soc., 1900, pp. 301-319). The two -tales contained therein have also been reprinted here at the end -of the collection, especially as they vary somewhat from the other -ancient and mediaeval recensions of the Story of Ahikar. This story -has become one of the Rumanian popular chap-books in the shortened -version of Anton Pann. The practical application of the fable, the -"moralisation," is a second stage, limited, as it seems, to the purely -literary composition. The people put their own interpretations upon -the fables and often dispensed with any such interpretations. - -We are brought back again to the same centre, Syria and Byzance, -for the dissemination of these fables. Such tales were then within -the reach of the teaching of the various sects, such as Manichaeans, -Bogomils, Cathars, etc., and travelled with them from East to West, -where they met the other current of the Aesopian fables transmitted to -the West through Latin and Arabic sources. According to this theory -the religious sectarians made deft use also of animal tales, for the -purpose of inculcating a moral, of drawing a lesson, of holding up the -Church and State to the ridicule and contempt of the masses, and thus -creating the animal satire, the best type of which is the cycle of -Reynard the Fox. I am not oblivious of the fact that an allegorical -use has been made of animal tales in the Arabic literature, such as -the "Judgment of the Animals," under the title of Hai ben Yokdhan, -written in Arabic by Ibn Tophail, translated into English by Simon -Ockley in 1711, in which the lion holds a court, and animal after -animal appears to accuse man; or the collection of Sahula (thirteenth -cent.) in his ancient apologue Mashal ha-kadmoni. But there is no -real connection between this cycle and that of Reynard the Fox. - -Any reference to the epic of Reynard the Fox must be incidental. It can -only be alluded to here, and not followed up in detail. A real Western -origin for these tales, taking them separately or as "branches," -as they appear in the old French versions, has not been found, -nor any explanation for their sudden appearance in the eleventh or -twelfth century. - -There are two or three points in connection with this cycle which have -to be kept steadily in view. In the first place its almost complete -independence of the purely Aesopian fable with its polished form, -with its thinly-disguised human attributes, and with its stilted -and stiff "moral." Though modified somehow in Babrius, Avianus, even -Marie de France and Berachya, this latter cycle belongs more to the -literary class. The "clerks" could not take umbrage at them. Not so the -tales in the Reynard cycle. They are thoroughly popular. The animals -retain their natural attributes, they act as they are expected to do, -and they are utilised in the same manner as "political broadsides" -were in later times. The human beings represented in these "satirical -sheets" are disguised as animals, and not the animals disguised as -human beings. There lies the profound difference between these two -sets of beast tales. - -And because of their animal propensity, the human beings are ridiculed -and lampooned in the form of animals and held up to the scorn and -laughter of the reader. The bad man, as in the old story of Ahikar, is -likened to the beast, and chastised accordingly. The popular origin -and character of this kind of satire is self-evident. Courtiers -and clerks would not attempt such persiflage of their superiors, -and certainly not in so sustained a manner. - -Of the men thus ridiculed none are so virulently assailed as the -Clergy. People do not mind occasionally a slight skit on priests and -other privileged classes, and there are abundant fabliaux which leave -very little to be desired from the point of view of ridicule. But to -have singled out the Clergy for such unmeasured vituperation shows a -deliberate attempt to lower and destroy the influence and authority -of the Church in general and of its ministers in particular. Only -partisans of heterodox teaching could find pleasure and profit in -applying the beast tales to break down the walls of the Church. Only -men in contact with the masses could throw that leaven of critical -examination into the hearts of the people and open their eyes by -means of animal tales to the weaknesses and vices of their official -clergy. Such outspoken criticism seldom comes from within. It is -often imported wholesale from without, or at least comes from an -opposing quarter. In their polemical propaganda these heterodox -teachers brought and used also some of those fox tales for which, -significantly enough, parallels are to be found mostly in Slavonic -tales from Russia and the Balkans. - -If such be the partial origin of these Reynard tales, one can easily -understand why they appeared in the eleventh or twelfth century, -and notably in the countries then the very centres of such heterodox -teaching: South of France, Flanders and elsewhere. A very remarkable -fact seems to corroborate this hypothesis. One of the presumed authors -of a "branch" of the French Reynard cycle, Pierre Cloot, was burnt in -Paris in 1208 for heresy. Here we have a man who paid with his life -for his heretic faith, actually working on these tales. It may be a -mere coincidence, still some connection between the Reynard poem and -"heretics" cannot be denied. - -With the victory of the Church, Reynard nearly disappeared, yet that -satirical leaven has continued to work in those political animal -broadsides, which stretch from the "Who killed Cock Robin?" in England -to "Who killed the Cat?" in Russia among the Russian broadsides. - -There remains now still one section of these Rumanian tales to be -considered, that in which the origin of the animal is closely connected -with what is commonly known as the fairy tale. It is just in this fact -that the pre-eminence of these tales can be found. It is like a window -through which the East is looking westwards. It is noteworthy that the -"fairy tales" found here connected with the origin of the birds and -beasts do not stand so isolated as the legends. To more than one of -them parallels may be adduced from other than Eastern collections. In -spite of similarity, they differ, however, in many points so profoundly -that they lead to a very serious question. It cannot be passed over, -though it cannot be treated here at such length as the problem raised -would demand. To put it briefly, the difference between these fairy -tales and those of the West, is that in these versions of the former -a "moral" or perhaps a plausible reason is given to the fairy tale -which is often missing in the general form of the fairy tales. - -The question has been asked repeatedly, "What is the meaning of such -and such a tale," e.g. the "Cinderella" tales or "Bluebeard"? To -Miss Cox's indefatigable labour we owe a monumental investigation of -the first-mentioned tale, and yet for all that the main question has -remained unanswered. This is but one example out of many. - -Every collection of fairy tales teems with them. Of course, the -aesthetic pleasure of seeing innocence triumphant and virtue rewarded -might be a sufficient motive, and no doubt often is. The people -like to see, in the imaginary tale, a vindication of the justice -which they often miss in real life. The adventurous hero will also -appeal to the chivalrous instincts of the people, and especially to -the young. Such tales as the epic romances of old require no further -explanation. Still there are a good many fairy tales the reason and -meaning of which are anything but clear. If it can now be shown that -there is a cosmogonic background, or one which gives the clue to -it, inasmuch as it tells the "origin" of certain creatures, such a -tale is at once its own explanation and justification: if e.g. the -final development of "Cinderella" is not that she becomes the wife -of a prince, but that she becomes the "dove" or the "sparrow," then -"Cinderella" assumes a definite meaning. Under other influences, -when such heterodox teachings cannot be tolerated by the powers that -be, obviously the creation tales, with this specific character, had -to lose their "tail," as the stork does in the story, and hence the -fairy tale became partly meaningless. Thus, if the "Bluebeard" could -no longer be "a cannibal," as in the tale No. 83, such a person not -being tolerated in a modern state, except as a wizard, lycanthropos, -or werwolf, he had to be changed into what he is now. The modern -"Bluebeard" is a mere pale reflex of the original monster. He does -not even make the flesh creep sufficiently. This watering down may -have taken place also in other tales which appear to us without any -sense. They have lost that decisive part which gave point to the story. - -I am fully aware of the objection which could be raised against this -view of the original character of some of our fairy tales. It might -be urged with some show of plausibility that the process might have -been an inverse one, that the popular story-teller used a fairy tale -to tack on his moral, that the question of the origin of the bird or -insect was an "after-thought," and did not belong originally to the -tale. Theoretically, such an objection could be urged, and it might -even gain in force if applied to the fairy tales of the West. Andersen, -not to speak of minor poets, would supply a proof of it. But we must -bear in mind that we are dealing with the unsophisticated people, -who would not use the folk-lore material in the manner of the -literary artist. They have no preconceived idea to which a tale -or legend is made artificially to fit. Moreover, these tales and -legends are believed in implicitly. They bear the stamp of their -primitiveness. They do not represent a later degree of development, -such as the parallels from the West often show. The existence side by -side with them of other creation tales of animals is an additional -support of the view that the fairy tales have not been "edited" or -adapted to cosmogonic purposes to explain the origin of beast and bird. - -Fairy tales are, as a rule, taken out of the range of the survival -theory. The similarity of fairy tales, so striking among a large -number of nations, precludes the possibility of seeing in them local -survivals, and yet it appears unscientific to separate one section -of oral literature from the other. The line of demarcation between -creation legend and creation fairy tale is so thin that it is often -indistinguishable. Both spring from the same root, and the theory that -endeavours to explain the origin of the one must also be applicable -to the other. - -In the theory of survivals, however, no attempt is made to deal at -the same time with the question of origins. It has not yet been made -clear, by any of the more prominent representatives of the theory -of survivals, how the similarity in customs and ceremonies is to -be explained, in tales and fables, between the most diverse nations -living separated from one another. If these survivals represent local -tradition, which has persisted throughout the ages, how, then, does it -come to pass that they should resemble so closely other ceremonies and -customs observed by different nations also as local traditions? Is it -to be inferred that at some distant time, far back in the prehistoric -ages, some such ceremonies were used, that, in spite of evolution -and separation, they have survived everywhere almost unchanged, in -spite of the profound modifications of the nations in their ethnical, -political and religious status? Either they are local inventions, -in which case they could not resemble any other, or they all go back -to one common stock, and have survived in such a miraculous manner -contrary to every law of human nature. The only explanation feasible -and satisfactory is, I believe, the theory of transmission from nation -to nation; those resembling one another closely in modern Europe are -not of so early an age as has hitherto been assumed, but have come at -a certain time from one definite centre, and were propagated among the -nations, and disseminated by means of a great religious movement at -a time when the political and national consolidation of the peoples -of Europe had already assumed a definite shape. - -To this conclusion we are forced by the examination of these Rumanian -animal tales in their manifold aspect, "creation" tales, fables, fairy -tales. They are all more or less of comparatively recent origin. They -owe their actual shape to the dualistic teaching of the Manichaeans -and Bogomils. They have come by these intermediaries of the religious -sects from Syria and the Balkans. These tales stopped first among the -nations in the Near East, and then by the same agency were carried to -the extreme West. Only in such wise can we explain the appearance of -these tales--whatever their archaic character may be--among nations -of comparatively recent origin like those now under consideration, -Rumanians, Bulgars, Russians and even Saxons and Hungarians. This -is the only possible explanation of the very remarkable dualistic -character, and of the peculiar teachings embodied in these tales. For, -whatever these nations have in common, there cannot be any question -of survivals, for the reasons advanced above. All the nations are -comparatively modern. It is impossible to assume that what might be -a Latin survival among the Rumanians could be so closely connected -with what might be a Turanian survival among the Bulgars or a -Pelasgian survival among the Albanians. There might be found among -these tales traces of more ancient beliefs, myths and customs, just -as it is possible to find similar traces among the folk-lore of the -nations of the West. But what I contend is that these are not local -survivals--that, whatever their primitive character may be, they -need not originally belong to the nations among whom they are found -now. They were brought by the same movement that brought the tales -and legends, customs and ceremonies. The new and the old were carried -along by the same stream of tradition and religious influence. An -adjustment and readjustment of materials, the placing of layer upon -layer, localisation and assimilation then took place. But these are -rocks swept along by the stream and deposited far away from the place -of origin, or, to take another simile, that of the insect and the -amber. The amber has been carried from the North Sea many centuries -ago, nay, thousands of years ago, along the trade routes from North -to South, and has found its way also to ancient Egypt. Embedded in the -amber we have here and there a North European insect which was caught -at the time when the amber was still a liquid, and, imprisoned in it, -became fossilised, and was carried a long distance. If found, then, -among the beads in the tombs of the ancient Pharaohs, no one could -say that that insect was of Egyptian origin, or that fly a remnant -of the local fauna. It had come thither together with the amber that -carried it, and may have remained there if the amber had decayed. - -In the same manner ancient customs, ancient beliefs and ancient -tradition have been caught in the liquid tales, apologues and legends, -like the fly in the amber, and carried along with them from East -to West. In this manner they may perhaps be termed survivals, but -survivals of a different kind than has been assumed hitherto. They have -survived only as long as they were tolerated in the lore of the people. - -Hand in hand with dissemination go the assimilation and localisation of -these diverse elements. It is impossible to do more within the compass -of this introduction than merely touch the fringe of a far-reaching -problem which arises from the examination of these peculiar beast and -bird tales. One of the most instructive examples of this religious -syncretism, of the manner in which it has influenced the people, and -the form in which it has been preserved, localised, and assimilated, -among them, is shown to advantage in the stories of the origin of -the Glow-worm and in the stories of the Bee. Some of the cosmogonic -legends of the Rumanians are also found among the Balkan people. They -are a fragmentary reflex of a great conception of the world. If I -may use the mystical and symbolical language of the legends, they are -also sparks from a great light that had fallen down from heaven. The -creation of man, the fall of the angels, are here curiously blended -together. They represent part of the teaching that went under many -names but, in essence, was one. That is, of course, the belief in -the dualism of the creative powers, the good God and the wicked one, -styled Satan. - -From these tales and legends, which are derived from well-known -apocryphal writings, we can see how deeply the latter have entered the -life of nations which have not yet fallen under the unifying sway of -strict dogmatism, and how unable the people are to grasp the higher -spiritual interpretations of the dogmas and practices of the Church. - -From a purely dogmatic point of view, all these tales are rank heresy; -but who among the simple folk knows the distinction between orthodox -and heretical teaching? The people are more easily disposed towards -a simple philosophy which explains satisfactorily the phenomena of -life. They listen with pleasure to tales of imagination. One of the -fundamental theories of Gnosticism or, rather later, of dualism, -is this peculiar conception of the creation. The world is divided -between the power of light and the power of darkness. The latter is -anxious to participate in the possession of light, and for that reason -steals some, which it breaks up into sparks and covers over with -thick matter so that it may not escape. These sparks are the human -soul deeply embedded in human clay, anxious always to be reunited -with the ancient glory. - -In this Gnostic teaching we have the very source of the legend of these -angelic sparks now relegated to glow-worms, originally placed in other -"earthly worms"--the human race. We hear, moreover, the faint echo of -the fall of the angels and of the angels of a lower rank inhabiting -(and ruling) the planets and the stars. We even have the legend, found -in the Book of Enoch, of the angels who fell in love with a woman and -remain upon earth as evil spirits, whilst she is translated to heaven -and becomes a star. The interest lies not only in the fact that these -ancient religious conceptions have been so faithfully preserved among -the people, but also in the manner of their preservation. They have -been adapted to the understanding of the folk, and, from dogmatic -teachings, they have become beautiful popular legends. But the inner -meaning has been entirely lost. The old sparks have been embedded in -very thick clay indeed, as can be seen in the treatment meted out to -God, Christ, the Virgin, the Apostles and Saints. They are greeted -with an apparent lack of reverence and respect that must disturb the -equanimity of people of a Puritanic mind. The gods could not have been -put on a footing of greater familiarity; it almost borders on the -burlesque. Primitive nations show the same apparent want of respect -to their gods, idols or fetishes, and we are inclined to put them on -a lower scale of faith and reverence than the peoples of Europe. - -A better knowledge of the life and religion of the peoples in the East -and of the Eastern part of Europe would soon change such a view. In -fact, I believe, that if we could descend to the lower depths of -the masses of Western Europe, and especially of those in Catholic -countries, and get a peep into their innermost soul, we should not find -it very different from that of the Slav and the Rumanian. The Saints -are not treated differently in Spain and in Italy on the one hand, or -in Rumania and in Bulgaria, or even Russia, on the other. They have all -the same essential conditions in common, viz. all have a Pantheon of -Saints of various degrees and of both sexes. In Protestant countries -the people have been impoverished. All the saints have been driven -away; a cold abstract spirituality has taken their place, and yet depth -of fervour and strength of belief cannot be denied to these Eastern -peoples. There is, moreover, a sufficient fund of humour and innate -rectitude to keep them at a certain level of morality and albeit free -from the hypocrisy of the so-called higher civilization. So that, if -the Rumanians take liberties with God and the Church and the Saints, -and pay homage to the Devil by mocking and laughing at the jokes -which God performs for his confusion, it is all done more in the -spirit of good-natured banter, not in that of polemical or fanatical -intolerance. Why should the poor Devil not also occasionally have a -good time? He is always sure to be outwitted in the long run. - -I am fully aware of the objection that may be raised against -attributing so much influence to the activity and propaganda of the -heretical sects. It may be argued, that their influence was not in -any way commensurate with the results ascribed to them, that they -did not carry the masses with them to such an extent as to leave -indelible traces on their religious life and popular imagery. Some -may go so far as to look upon their activity as similar to that -of some of the mendicant friars during the Middle Ages. Yet the -mendicant friars were able to exercise a tremendous influence upon -the people and, helped by other political powers, they were able to -create a movement which led up to the Crusades. It seized upon the -masses of Europe with an irresistible force. In a minor, yet no less -effective manner, the same agencies were able to arm the Kings of -France against the Albigenses in Provence. Church history, however, -shows very clearly that the power of the Manichaeans was so great -that it has taken the Church many centuries to bring the fight to a -satisfactory close.--The Cathars (pure) have given the name Ketzer to -the German heretics, and every language in Europe shows traces of this -heretic nomenclature.--The struggle was a terrible and a long one, -and if it had not been for the secular arm which placed itself at -the service of the Church for political reasons, who knows whether -the Romish Church would have come out victorious in the struggle? - -The question may be asked, How did it come about, that the teaching -of an obscure sect could be propagated from the Black Sea to the -Atlantic and could win the support of so many peoples? The answer lies -in a fact which has hitherto been entirely ignored. The connection -between Arianism and Manichaeism in Europe has to my mind not yet been -even hinted at; yet there must have been a very close and intimate -one. Arianism, in fact, prepared the ground for the new wave of -heretical teaching which, a few centuries after the former's official -extinction, followed in its wake. No one has, as yet, endeavoured to -trace the effect which the Arian teaching has had in Europe when it -became the national faith of the Goths. In them we have a nation which, -from the third century to the end of the sixth, practically dominated -central Europe. It established more than one kingdom between the Black -Sea and the Atlantic, in Illyricum, in Northern Italy, one of might and -strength in the South of France in Provence, with its headquarters in -Toulouse. It had overflowed into Spain, and broke down only after the -invasion of the Arabs. These Goths are described as rude barbarians, -because they differed in their life, and probably in their original -forms of faith, from the Greeks and the Romans. The modern idea is -that their original home was somewhere in the North-West of Europe, -that they came along the Vistula, and then migrated to the country -between the Don and the Ural. - -This is not the place to discuss the question of their original home, -yet the whole history of the migration of the nations shows that -the movement came also from the same direction as that of the other -nations which followed upon one another from east to west, and that -these migrations were prompted by tremendous political changes among -the nations of Central Asia. It is therefore probable that the Goths -migrated from the western shore of the Caspian Sea, somewhere near -Lake Ascanius--hence the confusion--then to the countries between the -Ural and Don, and thence by slow degrees southwards and westwards. This -would explain many obscure points in the migration of the Goths. Be it -as it may, we find them in the second century settled in those very -countries in which we now find the Ruthenians and the Rumanians, and -stretching further into Pannonia. The Goths are said to have adopted -Christianity towards the end of the third century, as it is alleged, -by priests and lay Christians brought as captives from Cappadocia -and other parts of Asia Minor. As early as the Council of Nicaea, 325, -a Gothic bishop is mentioned among the signatories to the decrees. An -outstanding figure of the Gothic Christians was Ulfilas, who, owing -to pressure from the non-converted section of the Goths, crossed the -Danube and settled at the foot of Mount Haemus (the Balkans) in the -middle of the fourth century. He had become converted to the Arian -doctrine, and took part in the Council under the Emperor Valens, -which was held in Constantinople in 358. - -Theodosius, who became the Great after his recantation of Arianism, -towards the end of the fourth century, promulgated decree after decree, -one more drastic than the other, for the persecution and extirpation of -this heresy; in fact, he was the very first to establish an inquisition -of faith. The example set by Theodosius was followed afterwards by the -Catholic Emperors and Kings of the West, even down to the Holy Office, -as the Inquisition was afterwards called. But, in spite of this, -Arianism spread among the Goths, and, whatever were their political -vicissitudes, they kept staunch to this peculiar form of Christianity, -the greatest and most powerful enemy of the orthodox and Catholic -Church. They spread eastwards and westwards, partly as vassals of the -Huns and partly acting quite independently under their own kings and -rulers. They overran the Balkan peninsula, destroying every heathen -temple, and not sparing Catholic churches. They then sacked Rome, -entered Gaul, and occupied the South of France, with Toulouse as -the capital. They spread into Burgundy and conquered Spain. It -took many battles and many centuries to break the political power -of the Goths. It was rather the subtle influences of the Catholic -women than religious conviction that brought about the conversion -to Catholicism of the Gothic rulers in Spain and Italy. The Catholic -Church, in the year 507, armed the Frankish King Clovis--who adopted -Catholicism--against the Gothic Arian King Alaric, and thus brought -about the first "crusade" between Catholics and heretics in the country -north of the Pyrenees. A crusade was to be renewed hereafter for a -second time against the Albigenses in the very same country and against -the very same cities. Unfortunately very little is known of the beliefs -and practices of the half-heathen, half-Christian Goths. The fact, -however, remains that they held on to their faith for many centuries -in spite of the official conversion of the leaders. In Burgundy, -Arianism persisted down to the sixth century, and among the Lombards -(merely another tribal name for Goths) in Northern Italy, it persisted -to the eighth century. - -Meanwhile, other nations poured into the Balkans. Whether they -entirely annihilated the Goths, or whether they assimilated with -them, will remain a problem unsolved. Very few Gothic words can, -however, be traced among the nations of the Balkans. The Slavs, -probably coming from Pannonia, are first noticed in large numbers in -the fifth and the sixth centuries. The Bulgars from the old haunts -of the Goths near the Volga came in the seventh century. The last -heathen king was Boris, who was converted to Christianity in the -middle of the ninth century. No sooner has Christianity an official -status among the Bulgars than we hear of the heresy of the Bogomils -and Cathars spreading among them to such an extent that they almost -overthrew the orthodox Church. The break between the eastern and -western Churches--between Constantinople and Rome--at the end of the -ninth century also contributed, in a way, to weaken the allegiance -of the faithful to the orthodox Church, and the manner in which the -Orthodox vilified the Catholics must have been quite sufficient to -reconcile the people to heterodox doctrines. Manichaeans and Bogomils -took advantage of the schism and the violence of the two parties to win -the people over to their tenets. Bogomilism in a slightly varied form, -as Cathars and Albigenses, etc., spread henceforth from east to west, -following exactly the same course as that taken by the Goths in their -migration from east to west. The ground had been prepared for them, -the seed had been sown, and the work was made easy for them by the -preceding Arians. - -There is one feature in this schismatic movement, the importance -of which cannot be appraised too highly. The Word of God was -taught in the vernacular, the Bible and, along with it, uncanonical -writings, were translated into the vernacular. While the Orthodox and -Catholic Churches kept strictly to Greek and Latin as the language -of Scripture and Service, the Arians no doubt, on the contrary, -allowed the people to pray and to learn in their own language. It -was the outstanding merit of Ulfilas that he translated the Bible -into Gothic. This practice of translating the word of God into the -vernacular remained a distinctive characteristic of the schismatic -Arians and other sectaries. They were thus able to reach the heart -of the people much more easily than the Catholic and Greek clergy, -and to exercise a lasting influence upon the masses, far deeper -than that of the representatives of a creed taught in a foreign -tongue. This also continued to keep the Arian-Goths away from the -Catholic Church for many centuries. The change, which came later on, -was due to two causes--the conversion of the kings and rulers, and, -to a far larger degree than has hitherto been recognised, the loss of -the Teutonic language. The Goths slowly forgot their own language and -adopted that of the nations in whose midst they lived as a minority. - -This explains much more satisfactorily than has hitherto been attempted -the mysterious disappearance of the Goths after the official conversion -of Recared in Spain, and the overthrow of Alaric by Clovis in the -beginning of the sixth century in the South of France. In Italy -they kept to their Arianism under the name of Lombards, down to -the eighth century. It must not, however, be assumed that with the -public disappearance of Arianism and that of the Goths as a ruling -nation, the Arian heresy and all that it brought to the people had -also disappeared. That teaching could not easily be uprooted. It was -merely driven underground. The Catholic Church was satisfied with -having obtained an official public victory. Then followed a slow -process of extirpation. The writings of the schismatics were hunted -up and destroyed, and thus the wells of heresy were dried up. The -people were weaned from their errors by the convincing power of sword -and faggot. But so long as these sinners did not belong to the higher -classes, the Church winked at their aberrations, especially when they -kept quiet and were not aggressive in their action. - -Thus the fire of heresy smouldered on under the ashes of the -autos-da-fe until it was fanned again into a mighty blaze through the -Cathars and Albigenses. The ground was prepared for their reception by -the Arianism of the Goths, and by the Manichaean propaganda, which had -penetrated into Europe from the West as early as the fourth century. - -It is important in this connection to refer, however briefly, to -the Priscillianites in Spain, who flourished from the middle of -the fourth to the second half of the sixth century, close upon two -hundred years. The founder was Priscillianus (d. 385) a man of noble -birth and great achievement. He was a great scholar, and had become -acquainted with Gnostic and Manichaean doctrines. He was accused of -heresy, and was the first Christian who was executed by Christians for -preaching a different form of creed. The accusations made against him -and his followers were precisely the same which were raised centuries -afterwards against the Cathars and Albigenses, and no doubt just -as false. From them we learn, however, that he had apocryphal books -and mystical oriental legends, which he used for his teaching, and -which were believed by his followers. It took two, or close upon three -centuries, before the public traces of Priscillianism disappeared from -Spain and Gaul. The followers, probably, shared the fate of the Gothic -Arians settled in these countries. Then the conquest of Spain by the -Arabs or Moors prevented the Catholic Church from further sifting the -chaff from the grain. No doubt a good number of so-called heretics, -who could not enter the bosom of the Catholic Church, embraced Islam, -just as a good number of prominent Cathars in Dalmatia and Bosnia -preferred to become Mohammedans after the conquest of the country by -the Turks rather than become united with the Orthodox Church. When -the Cathars started their propaganda, they followed, as it were, -in the track of the Goths. They occupy exactly the same tracts of -land as those held for so many centuries by the former, and without -a doubt they found there remnants of the old heresy, popular legends -and beliefs, even tales and mystical as well as mythical songs, all -so many welcome pegs on which to hang their own teaching. It may in a -way have been a kind of revival, in which what had been preserved by -the descendants from the Goths of old was blended with the new matter -brought afresh from the East. Unfortunately--as already remarked--too -little is known of the beliefs and practices of the Goths in their -pagan state and afterwards as Arian Christians. That they, in spite -of being "rude barbarians," had also some theological treatises is -evident from Anathema No. 16 of the Council of Toledo (589), when -Recared forswore his Arianism and became a fervent Catholic. The -anathema runs against "the abominable treatises which we composed to -seduce the provincials into the Arian heresy." Many such compositions, -especially in the vernacular, must be meant here; they all fell under -the ban. - -The Cathars followed the same practice and were zealous propagators and -translators of the Bible and Apocrypha into the vernacular. They knew -the Bible so well that in disputations with the Catholic clergy the -latter were easily beaten. Almost every one of the "forbidden" books, -i.e. forbidden by the Orthodox and Catholic Church, was preserved in -old Slavonian (and Rumanian) translations, and some are to be found -this very day among the holy books of the Russian schismatics. Nay, -even the oldest French translation of the Bible was the work of -Albigenses. So much did this affect the Catholic Church that she -excommunicated it, and forbade the people to read the Bible at the -Council of Toulouse in 1229; the Bible in the vernacular having before -been ordered to be burned publicly by the decree of the Church. - -No wonder, therefore, at the popularity of these sectaries and -the immense influence they wielded upon the popular mind and -imagination. And if it be true that Arius set forth his religious -views in doggerel rhymes to be sung to popular tunes by the sailors -and labourers, then he initiated a movement which has continued ever -since in religious minstrelsy, and is practised amongst others, by the -Russian blind beggar-minstrels and other popular ballad singers on -festive occasions among the Rumanians and southern Slavs. Nothing, -in fact, could better serve the purpose of propaganda than such -songs. They would appeal at once to the primitive, unlettered nations, -specially amongst those who had such mythological epics of their -own. The rude barbarians would be deeply impressed, and they would very -easily adopt such songs and the teaching they contained. We can then -easily understand a Volsunga Saga or a similar saga originating under -such influences, or moulded in accordance with such new models. Neither -the Orthodox nor the Catholic Church knows of such popular religious -songs of an epic character, filled with the mysteries of the Holy -Writ, much less of any filled with mysteries from the apocryphal and -legendary writings. They have no more than Church hymns sung in the -Church, only on special occasions, together with a certain psalmody -chanted by the officiating clergy. And when these Greek (or Syriac) -hymns were translated into Slavonic or Rumanian, they practically -lost their tune and their inspiration, and they were recited with a -peculiar monotonous cantilation. Quite otherwise were the popular -carols, and the popular epic ballads with a distinctive religious -background and full of wonderful incidents from the life of the -saints. Unlike the former, they are not congregational litanies, but -purely popular songs and ballads, devoid of any official or liturgical -character. This may also explain the origin of the so-called Ambrosian -chant as an attempt on the part of St. Ambrose of Milan to counteract -the other popular chants by introducing, as it were, congregational -singing into the Church. But there it remained, whilst the other -spread and has retained its original popular character. Thus, through -Gothic Arianism, a certain continuity of the dualistic and peculiar -schismatic form of religious teaching has been established. - -Moreover, an historic explanation has been found for the origin and -spread of these doctrines, tales and fables. Put to the test, these -beast tales yield a dogmatic system which approximates in many points -to such heterodox teaching. The old Ebionite conception of Jesus, -taken up by Arius and afterwards adopted by the Manichaeans, sees in -him only a deified human being, and very little more can be found in -these tales. Jesus is seldom mentioned, and even then is more like -a deified all-powerful human being. God Himself is often treated as -a simple human being, almost like the Ialdabaoth of the Gnostics or -the inferior God of the Manichaean doctrine. With this, agrees also -the notion of the dualism in the creation of the world, i.e. that the -evil creatures, wolves, poisonous snakes, etc., are the work of the -Evil One. This was also the view held by the Priscillianites. There -seem to be, also, reminiscences of such myths as "the world tree," -the wolf, etc., which are found in Teutonic mythology and which -may also be of an Oriental origin. The Rumanian tales are almost a -running commentary on Grimm's German Mythology (Germ. 4th ed. 1876, -ch. xxiii. pp. 539-581), which ought to be read in conjunction with -the present volume. The legend of the Cuckoo, the hoopoe referred to -by Grimm, can be read here under No. 43. - -It is significant that there is not a trace of Mariolatry in these -tales and fables. If anything, St. Mary appears in a character far -from loveable. She is easily offended, she does not spare her curses, -she takes umbrage easily at the slightest mishap. She is altogether -very disagreeable, just as in the apocryphal literature, where there -is not much room for her. Her intercession is invoked only in some -Rumanian charms and spells in a peculiar stereotyped form. But of real -worship there is scarcely any trace. Quite different is the position -which the Catholic Church assigned afterwards to St. Mary. She has -become there second to none outside the Trinity. - -More prominently almost than any of these points, stands out the fact -that, underlying these creation and other tales, is the belief in the -transmigration of the human soul into an animal body--the well-known -belief in Metempsychosis, or change of human beings into animals, -so important a feature of Manichaean teaching, in which all the -heretical sects seem to have shared. - -It is impossible now to follow this question further. I am satisfied -to have indicated the role which the Goths may have played in the -preparation for the dissemination of special myths and legends, -branded as heretical, which other sectaries had brought from the East -and propagated in the West of Europe. - -As to possible ethnical and geographical continuity, it may be -remarked that the places where these tales are found were also the -homesteads of the Goths, in which they dwelt for at least two or -three hundred years. They were then after a short interval almost -supplanted by the Slavs. It is a moot point how long the Rumanians -have dwelt there, and when they were converted to Christianity. Not -a single old Teutonic word has hitherto been found in the Rumanian -language. Any direct contact or convivium of any length of time is -thus excluded. The tales may have been remnants carried along from -Illyricum across the Danube by the new missionaries of the dualistic -doctrine. The problem would be less intricate if we only knew anything -definite about Gothic heathen and Christian mythology. - -With the Cathars and Bogomils we are on more solid ground. This -new stream of similar traditions was brought by a similar religious -movement and was propagated by identical means--viz. writings and -songs in the language of the people, legends and tales and a simple -creed understood by all. - -It may be asked, if this theory is correct, if these tales and legends -were brought first into Thrace and then spread from that country to -the other nations, how does it come to pass that so few traces of -them can be found in Greek folk-lore? Paradoxical as it may sound, -the absence of such creation and other legends and tales from the -Greek folk-lore is, if anything, a further proof of the accuracy of the -theory advanced. It must be remembered that there was no more ruthless -persecution of ancient paganism, idolatry, ceremonies and legends than -that carried out by the Greek Church against anything that reminded -them of the Hellenic or pagan past. Nothing was spared, neither -shrines nor books. The Greek's subtle mind devised the first thorough -system of heresy-hunting and persecution. It ranged from polemical -and harmless dialogues to the handing over of the so-called heretics -to fire and sword. The secular power was there more than anywhere -else the representative of the religious power, and justified its -existence, as it were, only as the executor of the Church's mandate. - -One has only to read about the innumerable decrees of councils and -synods, to see the way in which Manichaeism, Arianism and Gnosticism -in every shape and form were mercilessly uprooted, and to understand -that this fight did not stop at Bogomilism. The polemics were carried -out even down to the time of Eutemios Zygabenos and even the Emperors -on the throne of Byzance did not consider it below their dignity -to combat heretical teaching, the followers of which were given no -pardon. There was also another factor which militated against the -success of the Gnostic teaching--the literary past of the Greeks. To -the circulation of apocryphal books and legendary tales, the Greeks -were able to oppose a vast literary array. In Greece the Bogomils did -not deal with simple-minded, illiterate folk at the beginning of whose -literature they stood; on the contrary, they had to fight against -an ancient influential literature, and against minds trained in the -subtlest dialectics. They could not, therefore, succeed so easily, -if at all. - -Quite different were the conditions of the other nations with which -they came in contact. None of these had yet more than the very -beginnings of a literature. They were rude, simple-minded folk, -and wherever the Greek Church or Greek Emperors did not wield any -influence at all, as it happened in the Bulgaro-Vallachian kingdom -established by Peter and Asan (1185 to 1257), the Bogomils had an easy -task. For centuries, then, the Rumanians formed with the Bulgarians not -only a religious, but also a political unity. The Bulgaro-Vallachian -kingdom stretched from the Haemus to the Carpathians, and down to the -end of the seventeenth century Slavonic was the official language of -State and Church in Rumania. There could not have been a more close -intimacy than between these two nations, despite the difference of the -language which each of them spoke. They had their literature in common, -and no doubt shared the same traditions. Bogomilism was just as rife -in Vallachia as it was in Bulgaria. Even the written literature of -Rumania shows how profound its influence has been: still more so does -the oral literature of tales and legends, of fables and beliefs. Though -the Bogomils did not bring Christianity to these peoples, for they were -Christians, they brought at any rate a kind of religion to the mass of -the folk. It was one of their own making and in their own image. It -was clothed in beautiful tales, and answered the expectations of the -rank and file, satisfied their curiosity, and gave them a glimpse of -the moral beauty underlying the work of creation. In a way, it tended -to purify the heart and to elevate the soul by allegories, parables -and apologues, and thus it found ready acceptance, and struck deep -root in the heart of the people, unaffected by decrees of Councils -and by the fanatical intolerance of the established Church. - -Not so successful, therefore, if successful at all, was the fight -of the Greek Church against the heretical sects even in the Balkan -Peninsula, where they were so numerous and so powerful. They persisted -down to the time of the capture of Constantinople and the Turkish -rule. A large number of the aristocracy in Bosnia and Dalmatia -still adhered to the teaching of the Cathars, and when the Turks -occupied the country in the sixteenth century, the majority of them -embraced Islam, instead of entering either the Catholic or the Greek -Church. A whole mass of apocryphal and spurious literature placed -on the Index, has been preserved in Slavonic and Rumanian texts -with outspoken dualistic views. Many of them have found their way -into the Lucidaria, or "Questions and Answers," a kind of catechism, -very popular among the nations of the Balkans, the Rumanians and the -Russians. Similar Lucidaria were known in the West, but there they have -been thoroughly expurgated, whilst, in the above-mentioned "questions," -many an answer is found to which no orthodox Church would subscribe, -but which form now a popular living belief among these nations. The -political lethargy which settled upon most of these nations after -the Turkish conquest created a happy brooding-place for such tales, -and thus it can easily be understood why they have lived to this very -day practically undisturbed and little changed. - -To those who have followed the history of the religious development -of the Russians, it will therefore not be surprising to find among -their popular tales a number of variants closely allied to the -Rumanian animal tales, and, what is of the utmost importance in -this connection, not a few of the "creation" tales. No country -perhaps has been so much torn by religious discussions and sects -as Russia. The number of sects is legion. The most extraordinary -notions, extreme views on dogma and practice, heterodox principles -expressed in worship, belief and popular song or tale are all found -in Russia: unadulterated Dualism, Bogomilism, Manichaean teaching are -openly professed by a number of the sects persecuted and condemned -by the Orthodox Church. Almost all the books condemned as heretical -in the early Indices Expurgatoria put forth by Councils and Church -Assemblies, have been preserved almost intact in the old Slavonic -and Russian language, and the religious and epic songs of the "blind" -minstrels of Russia are full of the legendary lore of those heterodox -sects. This fact has been established beyond doubt by the researches -of Russian scholars, and notably by Wesselofsky. Among the Russians, -then, we find the nearest parallels to the Rumanian "creation" -stories; a clear evidence of common origin, both drawing upon the -same source of information; the religious in the form of apologues, -legends and tales, so prominent a feature of heterodox propaganda. - -The weapons used by the Catholic Church in its persecution of -heretical sects are, almost every one of them, borrowed from the -Greek armoury. One learns to know this fact more and more from a -closer enquiry into the inner history of Byzance, its laws, decrees, -administration and practice. And, precisely the same influence -destroyed later the heretical teaching in the West as it destroyed it -among the Greeks. The power of the Church and the secular arm were -both used ruthlessly for exterminating any idea or any belief that -ran counter to the doctrines taught by the established Church. The -Cathars had also a much more difficult task in converting the East of -Europe, inasmuch as they were also confronted there by some amount of -literary tradition. Illiterate as were the masses, there were still -among them and among their clerics, men of ability, men of learning, -men trained in the scholastic schools, able, if not to refute, at -any rate to confuse, the strange doctrine. - -All these forces combined, produced in the East the same result -as they have produced among the Greeks. We are thus on the track -of one of the most important sources of Western European folk-lore, -always remembering that the medium in which this propaganda flourished -differed considerably in the West from that in the East. In the former -such propaganda met with a more ancient layer of well-established -literary tradition. The Catholic Church, as mentioned above, was first -in possession. It was not a tabula rasa on which the new teaching -could be written, but yet that which existed was profoundly modified -and a new fund of highly poetic yet popular material was added to the -small store of knowledge possessed by the common people. But in time -the Church took up the challenge, and remorselessly hunted down the -apostles of popular heterodox teaching, just as the Greeks had done, -going even further. It punished with sword and fire the followers of -unauthorised practices, and branded every deviation from the strait -path as rank heresy. The books containing legends and tales were burnt, -and their possessors were often treated in like fashion. - -Inquisition, Church and other influences helped, as already mentioned, -to destroy them. In the tragedy of heresy-hunting and burning -of witches, the charge of devil worship was the basic principle, -the chief head of accusation. It was clearly devised against the -followers of the dualistic teaching. To tell a tale like any of these -Rumanian "creation" tales, would have been inviting the heaviest -punishment--to believe in it would have meant sure death. No wonder -that they disappeared quickly, or were changed into harmless satires, -as in the Reynard Cycle, or were even used for political cartoons, -in broadsides, like the Cock Robin Cycle in the time of Charles II., -which, when transplanted to Russia, became a political lampoon on -Peter and his Court. - -Heresy-hunting becomes a popular distraction only when the official -clergy find it profitable to make it so, and when the people are made -to trace their own ills and troubles, their losses in field and stable, -to the evil machinations of these tools of the devil. So long as they -are not suffering in body or purse, the folk are absolutely indifferent -to dogmas, and they will eagerly accept anything that pleases them. It -will therefore not come as a surprise, in view of what has been stated, -if we find some weird conceptions among the Rumanian peasantry. - -Studied from the point of view of heresiology or rather of popular -psychology, some of these tales will appear to us as so many living -records of the great spiritual movement, which for centuries dominated -Europe, and which has since died out. - -Too little attention has been given hitherto to the influence of those -numerous sects, which stretched from Asia Minor to the south of France, -and overflowed even into England. Their dualism, the strong belief -in the Power of Evil, Satan and his host, the consequent duty of the -faithful to banish him or to subdue him, thus developed into belief in -sorcery and witchcraft, with the attending horrors of the Inquisition. - -Then came a period of wider education still less tolerant of old -women's superstition and nursery tales. What was left still standing -has been, and is being, finally destroyed by our modern schools and -schoolmasters. From this dire fate, the folk-lore of the nearer East -has as yet been preserved. The importance of the study of folk-lore -has happily been recognised in those countries, early enough to stop -the blight which had set in and which threatened to destroy it more -ruthlessly than even in the West. The modern "man of science" is a -more relentless iconoclast than the religious fanatic. He starts -from the mind in his attempt to destroy folk-lore, using to this -end cold reasoning, logical conclusions, spiritual prepossession -and intolerance. The religious fanatic starts from the heart, with -overwhelming passion, fiery zeal, unreasoning hatred, from which -there is a possible escape for mysticism and mythical lore, whilst -from the former there is none. Happily, our science of folk-lore with -its deep sympathy and profound appreciation of these manifestations -of the popular psyche has come in the nick of time to rescue from -total extinction what the schoolmaster and the heresy-hunter have -not yet annihilated. - -I turn now to another aspect of these bird and beast tales. If, as I -believe, they show us what is at the back of the mind of the people, -they are of invaluable service to the student of anthropology, above -all to him who seeks enlightenment in the grave problems of education -and civilization; and they are not without importance for the solution -of political problems. - -Attempts are made--well meant, no doubt--to foist that state of culture -which the West calls "modern civilization," or "civilization" pure -and simple, upon the reluctant people of the Near and Far East. We -are forgetful of the fact that these nations have had a civilization -of their own, and that something more important is included in this -forcible change than the change of a dress. - -As the outcome of a long-drawn battle between feudalism and modern -society, as a result of political and economic evolutions, the -civilization of the West, when introduced among nations that have not -gone through the same experience, acts like the Juggernaut car, which -crushes under its wheels the worshippers of this new god and destroys -at the same time the foundations of the old order of things. Only -students of folk-lore, those who try to reach the hidden depths, nay, -to penetrate the inner soul of the people, are in a position to judge -of the results of these civilizing attempts. They can compare the past -with the present, and draw a proper balance between gain and loss. Are -the people happier, more contented, more moral, and even more religious -after the change, than they were before it? Surely not. And if not, -why not? The answer is very simple: because in this violent change no -tenderness is shown to those beliefs and practices which are dear to -the people and which help to lighten the burden of life by innocent -mirth and the wholesome play of fancy. Wire brooms may sweep well; but -they may do it too well, and they can sweep everything away, leaving -the home bare and the gardens stripped of every leaf and flower. - -A few words concerning the order and grouping of these tales. They -have been arranged in three main groups. The first comprises those -tales which I have characterised as creation legends. In them the -origin of birds, beasts and insects is explained as the result of -some direct act of God, or the Saints, or the Devil. An attempt has -been made to follow a certain chronological order. Those tales stand -first in which God is acting at the beginning of the creation. Then, -following the Biblical order, the legends connected with the persons -of sacred history from Adam to the Apostles, including St. Mary -and St. Anne. Mystical Christmas carols or rather epic ballads, -in which similar subjects are treated, have been inserted between -the legends. The second section comprises such legends as are more -like fairy tales. The mythical personages are no longer those known -through the Scriptures. On the contrary, there are in these tales -reminiscences of ancient heathen gods and heroes, chief among them -being Alexander the Great. - -In the third section the animal fables are grouped together. It -is the literature of the apologues without any framework or moral -setting. The parallels, as far as could be found, are given briefly at -the end of each legend, tale or fable. I have striven to be concise in -my references to the best-known collections of tales, such as Grimm, -Hahn, Cosquin, and Gonzenbach, where the student of fairy tales can -easily find the whole comparative literature. - -For the genuine and unadulterated popular origin of these tales I -can vouch absolutely. Some I have heard in my early youth, but the -majority have been culled from the works of S. Fl. Marian (Ornitologia -poporana Romana, 2 vols., Cernauti 1883; and Insectele, Bucharest -1903), than whom a more painstaking trustworthy collector could -not be imagined. Some have been taken from the Folk-lore reviews, -Sezatoarea, ed. by A. Gorovei (i.-xii., Falticeni 1892 to 1912), -and Ion Creanga, published by the Society of that name (i.-viii., -Barlad 1908-1915). Anton Pann (Poveste si istoriaire, Bucharest 1836) -has given us a few stories, as well as A. and A. Schott (Walachische -Maehrchen, Stuttgart and Tuebingen 1845). The Pilgrimage of the Soul is -from S. Mangiuca, Calindariu, pe. 1882, Brasiovu 1881 and the Story -of Man and his Years, No. 113, from M. Gaster, Chrestomatie Romana, -vol. ii., Bucharest 1891. These tales have been collected from every -country where Rumanians live, not only in the Kingdom of Rumania, -but also from the Rumanians of Transylvania and Bukovina, as well as -from the Kutzo-Vlachs of Macedonia. - -I have added a few charms and also a few more mystical religious -songs and carols, which throw light on some of the beliefs underlying -the tales and legends, taken mostly from the great collection of -G. Dem. Teodorescu (Poesii Popularare Romane, Bucharest 1885). - -In some cases I have given also variants of the same tale. - -I have endeavoured to render the stories as faithfully as the spirit -of the Rumanian and English languages allows, and I fear that I have -on sundry occasions forced the latter in my desire to preserve as far -as possible the quaintness and the flavour of the Rumanian original. - -There is one characteristic feature in the collection of animal tales -and legends given here, upon which I should like to lay great stress, -and that is the complete purity which pervades them all. There is -no playing with moral principles. No double meaning is attached to -any story: and this, to my mind, is the best proof of their popular -origin. These tales are not sullied by a morbid imagination, nor -contaminated by sexual problems. The people are pure at heart and in -the stories their simplicity and purity appear most beautifully. - -In these tales and legends we have syncretism in full swing. It is -not a picture of the past which we have to piece laboriously together -from half-forgotten records, from writing half obliterated by the -action of time and by changes which have swept over those nations of -the past, whose life and thought we are endeavouring to conjure up -and to understand. In our midst, at our door, under our own eyes, -this process of mixing and adjusting, of change and evolution, of -differentiation, combination and assimilation is still going on. It -is a wonderful picture for any one who is able to discover the forces -that are at work, who can trace every strand of the webbing, every -thread in the woof and warp, to its immediate and to its remoter -source. We see the shuttle of human imagination, of human belief, -flying busily through the loom, charged at one time with one thread, -at another with a different one. Many of the ways of the human mind -meet here, cross one another, and new roads are thus created by busy -wayfarers. And thus paganism sustains a busy and robust life. The old -Pantheon is still peopled with the old gods, or, shall we better say, -the Pandaemonium in its highest and best sense is displaying itself -with unexpected vigour. The heathen gods, the Christian saints, God and -the devil legends, fairy tales, oriental imagery, mystical traditions -and astrological lore are all inextricably blended together. The line -of demarcation between man and animal has not been clearly drawn, or -it has not yet been attempted. These multifarious elements have not -yet been combined into one homogeneous structure. The problem arises -whether other nations have also passed through a similar mental and -psychical process; whether they have had a similar Pandaemonic mixture, -out of which their more colourless folk-lore had been distilled in -the crucible of "civilization." - -Primitive people can often hear the footfall of men by putting the -ear to the ground. We may, by putting an ear to the ground, hear the -footfalls of the Past, and listen to the echo before it dies away -into eternity. - - - - - - - - -BIRD AND BEAST STORIES - - -I. - -WHY IS THE BEE BLACK, AND WHY IS IT MAKING HONEY? HOW DID THE BEE -OUTWIT THE DEVIL? - - -In the beginning only water and God and the devil existed. These two -were all the time moving about upon the surface of the waters. After -some time God, feeling rather tired of this flitting about without -rest or peace, said to the devil, "Go down to the bottom of the sea -and bring up in my name a handful of the seed of the earth." The devil -did as he was told, but whilst he was plunging in the depths he said -to himself, "Why shall I bring up the seed in his name? I will take -it in my own." And so he did. When he came up God asked him, "Hast -thou brought the seed?" The devil replied, "Yes, here it is." But -when he opened his hand to show the seed to God, lo, it was quite -empty. The water had wasted the seed away. - -Then God told him to plunge again and bring up the seed of the earth -in his name. The devil, however, again took the seed from the bottom -of the sea in his own name, and when he opened his hand to give -the seed to God the waters had again washed his hand clean. For a -third time God sent him down to the bottom of the sea to bring up -seed. This time the devil bethought himself, and instead of taking -the seed in his own name as he had determined, now took it in God's -name and in his own. He would not do it in God's name alone. When he -came up the waters had this time also washed everything away that he -had taken in his hand. Only a few grains, however, remained under the -nails of his fingers. God asked him whether he had brought the seed -up, and he replied "To be sure." But when he opened his hand it was -again empty. Still, there were the few grains which had stuck under -the nails. God greatly rejoiced at these few, which he carefully -scraped out from under the nails, and made of them a small cake -which he put upon the water, where it floated, and God sat upon it -to rest. Being now very tired, God fell asleep on that little cake -of earth. When the devil saw God fast asleep, what did the unclean -one think? "What a lucky thing that is for me," he said to himself, -"I can now drown him." And so he tried to turn the cake over, so -that God should fall into the water. But what happened? In whatever -direction God rolled, the cake of earth expanded and stretched -under him. He first rolled him towards the east, and the earth grew -under God. The devil then tried to upset the cake towards the west, -and again the earth stretched under God. Now, said the devil, "Now -there is also room for me to rest," and he sat down on the opposite -side where the earth had grown bigger. There again he endeavoured -with all his weight to press down the earth, so as to make the earth -turn turtle, once towards the north, once towards the south; and God -rolled towards them and the earth grew in all directions. - -Now by this continual rolling the earth grew so big that it became -wider and larger than the waters. When God awoke and saw what the -devil had done he did not know what to do with this huge earth, -which had become far too big. The devil, seeing what he had done, -and being afraid of God's wrath, ran away and hid himself in one of -the clefts of the earth. God then decided to ask the devil what he -was to do with this earth, which had become so big. - -Now, of all the beasts and creatures which God had made, none was more -pleasing in his sight than the bee, which was then playing in Paradise. - -The bee was white, and not black as she is now, and I will tell you -presently how it came about that she changed her colour. - -God sent the bee to ask the devil what he was to do and what good -advice he could give him. The bee, at once, went as she was commanded, -and came to the place where the devil lived. - -"Good morning, uncle," said the bee. - -"Good morning, sister," said the devil. "What has brought thee to me?" - -"Well, you see, God has sent me to ask what he was to do with this -huge earth." - -But the devil grumpily and sneeringly replied, "If he is God he ought -to know better than to ask a poor devil for advice. I am not going -to tell him. Let him find it out for himself." - -The bee, who was a clever little thing--it was not for nothing that -God's choice had fallen upon her--pretended to fly away. But she soon -crept back quite stealthily and settled noiselessly on the upper -beam of the door. She knew that the devil cannot keep any secrets, -and he would surely speak out. So, indeed, it happened. No sooner -did he believe himself alone, than he started muttering to himself, -chuckling all the time. - -"A clever man that God really is. He asks me what to do. Why does -he not think of mountains and valleys?" You must know that the earth -when first made was quite flat, like a pancake. - -"Let him take the earth in his arms and squeeze it a bit, and it will -fit all right." - -The bee overheard what he said, for he spoke loud enough, and rejoicing -that she had got the answer, spread out her wings and started flying -away. The buzzing of her wings betrayed her, and the devil, hearing -the noise, rushed out of his cave with his whip in his hand and said: -"O you thief! So that is the way you have cheated me. Mayst thou feed -on what comes out of thy body." And he struck the bee with his whip. - -This changed her white colour into black. Moreover, he hit her so -badly that he nearly cut her in two. That is why the bee has such -a narrow waist, that she looks as if she were cut in two and barely -hanging together by a thread. - -Limping and sore, the bee came back to God and told him what she -had overheard from the devil. God was greatly pleased and, squeezing -the earth in his arms, he made mountains and valleys, and the earth -grew smaller. - -Then turning to the bee he said, "Out of thy body henceforth shall -come only honey to sweeten the life of man and he shall bless thee for -that gift; also shalt thou bring forth wax for candles on the altar." - -And God went on to ask the bee what reward she would claim for the -errand which she had so well fulfilled. The bee, impudent and greedy, -replied: "Why should man share in my gift and have my honey? Give me -the power to kill with my sting." - -And God was angry at the impudence of the bee, and replied: "All the -honey shall be thine alone, if thou art able to make a gallon of it -during the summer: if not, man may share it with thee. And because -thou hast asked for the power of killing with thy sting, meaning to -kill man by it, thine own death shall be by thy sting." - -This is the reason why the bees work so industriously and indefatigably -during the summer. Each hopes to make a gallon of honey, but they can -never succeed. And this, too, is the reason why the bee dies when it -stings anyone. - -There is another variant of the cosmogonic part. - -The place of the devil is taken by the mole [1] whom the Rumanians -believe to be a very deep fellow. - - - -The story then runs as follows: - -When God had made the heavens there was as yet no earth. So God took -a ball of string and measured the span of heaven. Then he called -the mole and told him to keep the ball whilst he was busy making the -earth, according to the measure which he had taken. But whilst God -went on measuring by the string which he had rolled off the ball, -the mole very slyly let the ball roll on whilst God was tugging at -the string. And so it came to pass that the earth made thus by God -was larger than the span of heaven, and could not be got under it. - -The mole, seeing what he had done, went away and hid himself in his -earth. Hither the bee was sent to get the secret from him how the -earth could be made smaller. - -The story then runs on like the one just told, without the explanation -of the dark colour and of the narrow waist. Nor is any reference made -in that version to the sting and the gallon of honey. - -The dualistic conception of the creation of the world is here clearly -set out. The people believe in it. In the formation of the earth the -devil has his full, nay an equal share, though he always is fooled -in the end and is cheated even by a little bee. - -To this creation story a few variants can be found among the -Bulgarians and Letts, but they are neither so full nor so complete -as the Rumanian version. - -They are given by Daehnhardt, Natursagen, i. pp. 127-128 (Leipzig and -Berlin 1907). The first part of the story of the devil being sent -down to bring up seed from the bottom, and only that part, is found -among the Gipsy tales from Transylvania, published by Wlislocki, -Zigeuner-maerchen aus Transylvania, p. 1, No. 1. - -Among the Russians, Ralston gives a short variant in which only God -and the devil are mentioned, nothing of the bee, and even the first -part is extremely short. (Russian Folk Tales, p. 329, London 1873.) - -The existence of hills is accounted for by legendary lore in this -wise. When the Lord was about to fashion the face of the earth he -ordered the devil to dive into the watery depths and bring thence -a handful of the soil he found at the bottom. The devil obeyed, -but when he filled his hand he filled his mouth also. The Lord -took the soil, sprinkled it around, and the earth appeared, all -perfectly flat. The devil, whose mouth was quite full, looked on -for some time in silence. At last he tried to speak, but choked, -and fled in terror. After him followed the thunder and lightning, -and so he rushed over the whole face of the earth, hills springing -up where he coughed, and sky-cleaving mountains where he leaped. - - - - - - - - -I. B. - -HOW DID THE BEE OUTWIT THE MOLE? - -Another Version. - - -When the Lord made the heavens he took a ball and spanned the heavens, -and after he had finished spanning the heavens he started making -the earth. The mole, cunning little beast, came to him and said: -"O Lord, let me help thee in making the earth"; and the Lord, who is -always good, said in the goodness of his heart: "Very well," and he -gave the ball to the mole to keep it. - -The Lord started working, and was busy weaving and working making -the earth. But the sly mole let just a little bit of the thread go -from time to time, and the Lord worked on without noticing it. When -he had finished, how great was his astonishment when he found that -the earth was greater than the heavens. What was he to do? how could -he fit them together? He turned to the mole, but the mole was not -there; he knew what was coming and had buried himself deep down in -the earth. So the Lord walked up and down the earth, but could not -find him. What was he to do? At last he sent the bee to discover the -mole and to find out from him what was to be done. The bee flew away -alone, and, buzzing about, at last came to the hole where the mole -was sitting buried in the earth. - -The bee came to him and said, "Good morning, uncle." - -"What brings thee to me, my sister?" - -"Well," she said, "the Lord God has sent me to ask thee what is to -be done. The earth is so big and the heavens so small." - -The mole, a sly beast, chuckled and said to himself, "The Lord ought -to know better than I. I am not going to tell him, though I know what -ought to be done." - -The bee would not take this answer. She pretended to fly away, and -then went stealthily and settled herself in a flower which was near -to the mole's burrow. She knew that the mole would talk to himself, -and hoped to overhear what he would say. - -So in sooth it happened. The bee overheard him chuckling and laughing -and saying to himself: "Oh what a clever fellow I am! if I had to -do it, I would take the earth in my arms and squeeze it tightly, -and then mountains would be pressed out and valleys would be sunk, -and then the earth would get small enough to fit under the heavens." - -No sooner had the bee heard what the mole had said, than she started -flying away. The mole, who heard her buzzing, ran after her and said: -"O sister, is that the way thou art dealing with me? Very well then, -now take my curse. Henceforth thou shalt feed on thyself." - -But the bee never listened, and flew straight to the Lord and told -him what she had heard when the mole muttered to himself. And the -Lord took the earth in his hands and squeezed it, and from the flat -that it was, mountains rose up and valleys were cut, and it fitted -the heavens which God had spanned. And God, hearing of the curse with -which the mole has cursed the bee, turned it into a blessing. That is -why the bee makes honey and feeds on itself, whilst the mole always -lives underground and is frightened to see the sky. - - - - - - - - -II. - -WHY IS THE BEE BUSY AND THE SPIDER SULLEN? - -The Story of the Widow and her two Children. - - -There is still another story about the origin of the bee, totally -different from those told hitherto. - - - -Once upon a time there lived a very poor widow. She had only two -children, a son and a daughter. When they had grown up, seeing that -their mother could no longer provide for them, they left her house -and went each one his or her way to find work. The girl went to a -place where they were building houses, and there she worked day and -night carrying bricks and mortar to the builders. The son went to a -weaver and learnt there to weave clothes. - -Not long after that, the mother grew very ill, and knowing that her -end was approaching, she sent for her children to come to her. When -the message reached the daughter, she was carrying a heavy load of -bricks in her apron. - -She did not hesitate for a moment, and saying, "I must not leave my -poor mother alone," she dropped the load of bricks and ran home as fast -as she could, and there she found her mother on the point of death. - -When the message reached the son, he was sitting at his weaving. He -said, "Let her die. I cannot give up my work. Here I am, and here -I stay." - -And there he stayed quite alone, working away, surly and grumbling -all the time. - -When the mother saw her daughter, who had left everything and had -come to her, she raised herself on her bed and, kissing her on the -forehead, blessed her, saying: "Daughter, thou hast been sweet to me -and a joy in my last hour. Mayst thou always be sweet to all." - -When she heard what her son had said, and why he had not come, she -cursed him and said: "As thou hast said so shall it go with thee. Day -and night shalt thou be weaving incessantly and never see the joy of -it: what thou doest, others shall destroy. In a corner shalt thou sit, -far away from everybody, and hated by everybody." - -And with these words she died, and her blessing and curse both came -true. The girl was changed into the busy active bee, whose honey -sweetens everything, and of whose wax candles are made to be lit before -the ikons of the saints and in the churches, and put by the head of -the dying and the dead. The brother was changed into the spider, who -sits alone and sullen and spiteful in the corner and weaves his webs, -never finishing: whoever sees a web brushes it away, and whoever can, -kills the spider. - - - -To this story I have not been able to find a parallel. A different -kind of curse seems to rest on the spider, according to the legend -of the "Lady Mary and the Spider," No. 54. - - - - - - - - -III. - -WHY IS THE BEE BLACK, AND WHY HAS IT A NARROW WAIST? - -The Story of the Bee and the Devil. - - -When God created the bee she was white of colour, hence her name -albina, the white one. One day, however, God sent the bee to the -Evil One to ask him for his advice, whether God should make one -sun or several. The bee went to the Evil One and told him God's -message. Then she slyly hid herself in his bushy hair, for the bee -knew that he would talk to himself aloud, and she would be able to -find out his true thought. And so it happened: for no sooner did he -think that the bee was not within earshot, than he started talking -aloud to himself and said: - -"One sun is better than a number of suns, for if there were a number -of suns the heat would be much greater than my fire and I should not -be able to torture and to burn. Then, too, if there were several suns, -they would shine all day and all night, and the people would not be -able to fall into my power. One sun would be best." - -When the bee had heard his reasoning and the conclusion to which he -had come, she started flying back to God. As she started, the Evil One -heard her buzz and, filled with anger at the trick which the bee had -played him, he struck her across the body with his whip. The white -colour was then turned black and the body of the bee nearly cut in -twain. The waist became as thin as a thread. In the beginning it was -white, and hence the name. It is due to the merit of the bee that -there is only one sun now in the heavens and not many. - -In the Bulgarian parallel it is not a question as to how many suns -were to be created but whether the sun is to get married. The story is -as follows (Daehnhardt, Natursagen, Leipzig u. Berlin 1907, i. p. 127): - -When God grew old he wanted to marry the sun. He invited all the -creatures. Among them also the devil, but he saddled his ass and rode -away angrily. Then God sent the bee to find out the thought of the -devil. The bee settled on his head and heard him mumble to himself: - -"Oh yes, it is a long time since God had remembered me, who helped -him in the making of the world, but he does not know what he is -doing now. If he marries the sun he will destroy mankind and burn up -the world." - -The bee heard it, and flying away went to God. The devil noticed her -and, thinking that she had overheard what he was saying, wanted to -kill her. He ran after her and shot at her. The bee hid herself in a -willow tree. After trying many times, he at last hit her and cut her -in two. With difficulty she reached God and told him what had happened. - -The Lord blessed her and said, "The lower part shall be thy best -and the upper part may remain as it is;" and he joined the two parts -together. God thereupon stopped the wedding, and the sun has remained -an unmarried maiden to this very day, whilst the bee is making honey -even now. - - - -The story of the marriage of the sun does not concern us here. In -a different form it occurs in Rumanian Fairy Tales, where we are -told that sun and moon were a brother and sister. They wished to woo -one another, but God forbade it, and therefore God put them in the -heavens and changed them into sun and moon, which never meet. When -one rises the other sets. (L. Saineanu, Basmele Romane, Bucur 1895, -p. 398.) Other mythical references to sun and moon, and the way in -which the devil tries to steal them from Paradise, will be found in -the Carol given below, No. 15. - - - - - - - - -IV. - -WHY DOES THE LITTLE WORM GLOW? - -The Story of the Fallen Angel and the Maiden. - - -When God had created the world, men multiplied. There were then towns -and hamlets and gardens and fields. So one day a band of angels came -to the Lord and said: "O Lord, let us see the world which we now see -only from afar. Grant us in thy infinite mercy that we may go down -and see it more closely." - -And the Lord in his infinite love granted their request, although he -who knows everything knew what would happen to them hereafter. And -the angels came down and mixed with the men and women and rejoiced at -everything they saw. After a time God Almighty came down to them and -told them that the time for their return to heaven had come. The angels -gathered together in a joyful band and went up to heaven. But there was -one angel who did not share in their joy. He walked sadly and alone. - -God asked every one of the angels what they had seen. And one told -him of the flowers and their sweet smell, and another one told of the -fruit and a third of the singing birds. Everyone had a pleasant tale to -tell. When the turn came of that angel who was walking sadly in that -joyful company, the Lord asked him whether he had anything to tell, -and whether he would like to return to heaven as his companions did, -to which he replied that he would prefer to remain on earth, for he -would not like to go back to heaven. And the good God asked him why -he was so sad and why he would prefer to remain in this world. The -angel hesitated for a while, and then he said that he had looked too -far into the eyes of a girl, eyes which were as the blue of heaven, -and he could not bear to go away from her. And the Lord asked who -she was, and the angel replied, "A shepherdess feeding her flock on -a mountain." And the Lord asked him, "Hast thou spoken to her?" and -he said, "I could not forbear doing so." And the Lord asked him, -"What didst thou tell her?" and he replied, "I said I would forego -my angelic station rather than leave her." - -The Lord, who had up till then looked very young, suddenly turned -very old and careworn, and, after looking at him for a long time, -walked on slowly and silently with the band of angels. When they -reached the Gates of Heaven the Lord stopped short and, turning to -the angels, said: - -"You can no longer enter the heavenly abode. You are bringing -tidings of the ways of the world which must not be heard by the other -angels. And as you liked the world, you shall continue to look at the -soul's doings." Thereupon the Lord changed the angels and made them -into stars, which he scattered all over the heavens, and from there -they smile joyfully and kindly upon the earth. - -But the angel who wished to return did not turn into a pleasant, -twinkling little star. He turned into a fiery star that, always -blazing and unsteady, looked angrily at the other stars. At last -the Lord, fearing that there would be strife between them, cast the -red star down to the earth, and it came down on the meadow where the -shepherdess was; it came down as a shower over the whole field. But -the sparks never died out. The glow-worms carry them still. - - - - - - - - -V. - -WHY DOES THE LITTLE WORM GLOW? - -The Story of the Devil hurled down from Heaven. - - -Another legend about the origin of the glow-worm is of a similar -character. I will discuss later the possible origin, which will lead -us to the same remarkable results. - - - -The time of separation between the good and the evil angels had -come. The good ones gathered to the right, and the evil ones, under -the leadership of the devil, gathered to the left. You can imagine -what a confusion and uproar there was, for they could not easily -disentangle themselves. - -Whilst that confusion went on, there was a little devil who, after -all, did not like parting with the bliss of heaven. So what did he -do? He stole away from his own companions and hid himself among the -good angels, hoping that, by one way or another, he would get into -heaven. But he had not reckoned with St. Peter, who stands at the -gate of heaven and examines and searches every one asking leave of -entrance. Each angel had to present his pass, duly signed. St. Peter -examined the signature, and when he found it correct he allowed the -angel to enter heaven. So, one by one, they passed on, until the turn -of the little devil came. In vain did he protest that he was a good -angel. He had to produce his papers, and when St. Peter came to the -end, there was no proper signature. So St. Peter got very angry, and -without much ado, got hold of the little devil and cast him down to -earth. He came down with such violence that he broke up in millions -of luminous sparks, and these are the lights of the glow-worm. - - - - - - - - -VI. - -WHY DOES THE LITTLE WORM GLOW? - -The Story of St. Peter and the Cuckoo. - - -The tale of the glow-worm tells us that in olden times the people -were better and the earth cleaner than to-day. It was on this account -that God's saints used to walk about upon the earth. The saints and -the apostles had also their establishments just as we have them now, -house, table, cattle, children and everything that appertains to the -house of man. The most important of the saints was St. Peter. He used -to walk about with God more than any of the others, but, like every -Rumanian, he also had his house and all that belongs to it, just -as beseems one of God's saints. The tale from our forefathers tells -us that, among other things, he also had a stable full of beautiful -horses; black of skin like the raven's wing, and quick as the flame, -they were eating up the clouds, so fleet were they. In those times, -unfortunately, as in our times, besides saints, there were also -wicked people, thieves and the like, for the devil has had and will -always have his share in this world. But in those times there were -only a very few thieves, and they were very much ashamed of their -doings. They used to live in forests to which no one else went except -evil spirits. To-day--for our sins--the thieves are so numerous that -there is not a spot which is free of them. They rob you everywhere; -in the very midst of the town and in the open light of day. - -In those days, there lived a great thief, whose name was Cuckoo. I -do not know how it came to pass, but he heard of St. Peter's horses -and made up his mind to steal them. One day St. Peter had gone on -one of his usual journeys to a distant part of the country. Cuckoo, -who had learned of it, came in the night and stole the horses -and drove them into the forest. On the morrow, by a mere chance, -St. Peter came home from his journey and asked about the horses. They -were nowhere to be found. Do what he might, he could not find them; -they were gone. But who had taken them, and whither had he gone with -them? St. Peter asked God to give him some powerful dogs to go with -him to the forest. God gave him the wolves, and from that time they -have remained St. Peter's dogs. - -He went with them into the forest and searched high and low, but all -in vain. All through the day they hunted, but could find no trace of -the thief or of the horses. Night fell, and it was one of those dark -nights in which you can put your finger into your eye and yet not -see it. It was blacker and darker than the blackness and darkness -of hell. St. Peter did not know which way to turn, and he asked God -to perform some miracle for him to light up his way. God heard his -prayer, and before one could wipe one's eyes the whole forest was -full of glow-worms. St. Peter greatly rejoiced, and by the light -of the glow-worms he searched the forest all the night through, -but returned home with empty hands. Then St. Peter cursed the thief -Cuckoo, that he should be changed into a black, ill-omened bird, and -wherever he should find himself he was to call out his name. Since -then the cuckoo became a black and accursed bird, and when it sings -(calls) at the back of the house or in the courtyard it betokens -death. It speaks nothing else, but calls its own name, Cuckoo. The -cuckoo is frightened of the glow-worms, and, as soon as he sees them -in the forest he stops calling, for he thinks St. Peter is looking -out for him to catch him for stealing his horses. At the same time -the glow-worms were blessed by St. Peter and made the guides of -the wanderers through the forest. They come out about St. Peter's -day. Then the cuckoo keeps silence. - - - -In these glow-worm stories, much of the apocryphal literature -concerning the fall of the angels has been preserved. It is not, -however, the pride of Satan that causes his downfall, but it is -the love of the earthly woman which causes the angel to fall. The -story in this form is found in the Hebrew versions preserved in the -Chronicles of Jerahmeel (my ed. London 1899, ch. xxv. p. 52 ff.), -and in other kindred books, from which it has passed through the Greek -into the Slavonic apocryphal literature. The contest between the devil -and angels is, however, not unknown. It is referred to here rather -humorously in the story of the little devil who wanted to steal slily -into heaven in the rush and is detected by the wily Peter. It is also -referred to in the Dragon-fly story, No. 14. Curiously enough, very -little of it seems to have been preserved in Slavonic literature. In -Albanian literature a faint trace is recorded by Hahn (ii. No. 107), -where the connection with the Wolf story is entirely missing, and -therefore inexplicable there. But the fragmentary Albanian tale is -fully set out here in the Rumanian version about the creation of the -wolf, Nos. 7, 8, 9. - - - - - - - - -VII. - -WHY IS THE WOLF FEROCIOUS? - -The Story of God, St. Peter and the Devil. - - -Once upon a time God was walking with St. Peter. On the way they met a -dog who came close to them and frolicked round them, and God stroked -the animal. St. Peter looked at God questioningly, and God said, -"I know what is in thy mind, but since thou art he who keeps the key -of heaven it is meet that thou shouldst know everything, and I will -therefore tell thee the story of the dog and the wolf, for thou must -know whom to let into heaven and whom to shut out. Thou seest, Peter, -what that brother of mine--" - -"You mean the devil?" interposed St. Peter. - -"Yes," said God, "I mean him. You see what he has done to me with -Adam and Eve, and how he made me drive them out of Paradise. What was -I to do? When the poor man was starving I had to help him, so I gave -him the sheep to feed him and to clothe him. But dost thou think the -devil will give them peace?--no, not he!" - -"Yes," said Peter, "all very well, but what about the dog? I know -all that about Adam and Eve." - -"Do not be in such a hurry," replied God, "I will tell thee everything; -bide thy time." - -"Now, where was I? It was when I made the sheep, and the devil then -must again try and do something to hurt Adam, so he is now making the -wolf, who will destroy the sheep and bring Adam and Eve to grief. For -that reason I have made the dog, and he will drive the wolf away -and protect the flocks of sheep, and will be friendly to man, whose -property he will guard with faithfulness." - -St. Peter said, "I know that in thy goodness thou art going again to -help the devil, as thou hast done aforetime." - -The devil had made many things aforetime, but could not give them -life or movement, and it was always God who helped and completed -the work. Thus the devil made a car, but built it inside the house, -and did not know how to take it out and use it until God widened the -door and took it out, and as the devil was pulling away at it he broke -the hind wheels, so God took the first part of the car and put it in -the heavens, and it forms the constellation known as the Great Bear -(in Rumanian, the Great Car). - -Then the devil made the mill, but he could not start it, so God -did. Then he made a house, but put no light into it, so God had to -make the windows. Then the devil made a fire, but did not know how -to kindle it. - -He was now working away at moulding the wolf from clay. He worked so -hard that the perspiration ran down his face. Scratching his head, -he pulled out three hairs, but would not throw anything away--they -were much too precious--so he stuck them in the head of the wolf -between the eyes. - -When he thought he had finished, he turned to God and said, "See what -I have done." - -"Yes," replied God, "I see, but what is it?" - -"Thou shalt know more about it soon," replied the devil; and, turning -to the wolf, which lay there lifeless, he said, "Up, wolf, and go -for him." But the wolf never stirred. - -Then God turned to St. Peter and said, "Just wait and see how I will -pay him out," and, waving his hand over the wolf, he said, "Up, wolf, -and go for the devil." - -The devil can run fast, but never ran faster than on that day when -the wolf jumped up and ran after him. In running he jumped into the -lake. He dipped under the waters and saved himself from the fangs -of the wolf. And ever since that time, the wolf has power over the -devil: when he catches him, he eats him up. All the year round the -devils are hiding in pools and bogs, but, from the night of St. Basil -(1st January) until the Feast of Epiphany, the waters are holy, being -sanctified through the Baptism. The devil can no longer stay in the -water, and he must get on to the land, where the wolf lies in wait -for him, and woe unto the devils who get too near the wolf. - -When God and St. Peter saw the flight of the devil, they laughed -until the tears ran down their cheeks. Then God turned to St. Peter -and said to him, "I give these wolves now into thy care." Poor -St. Peter trembled from head to foot when he heard the charge that -was given to him, but God reassured him and said, "Never fear, Peter, -they will not harm thee; on the contrary, they will follow thee and -listen to thy command, as if they were friendly dogs." And so it has -remained. Once every year, on the day of the Feast of St. Peter, in -the winter-time, all the wolves come together to an appointed place -to meet St. Peter. Thither he comes with a huge book in his hand, in -which are written the names of all the persons who had given themselves -over to the devil, and he tells the wolves whom they are to eat. - -The three hairs which the devil had put on the wolf are of a green -colour, and make the wolf look ferocious, for they are the devil's -hairs, and it is from them that the devil's fire got into the wolves' -eyes, which are lit up by it. - - - - - - - - -VIII. - -WHY DO THE EYES OF THE WOLF GLOW AND HIS HAIR BRISTLE? - -The Story of the Wolf, God and the Devil. - - -When God had finished the creation of the world, and had made all the -good animals and beasts, the devil thought he would also make some -creatures. He took some of the clay and made the wolf. When he had -finished God came to see what he had done. When he saw the brute he -asked the devil what it was. - -"Ho, thou wilt soon see what it is. Up, wolf, and go for him." But -the wolf did not stir. There he lay where the devil had fashioned -him. When the devil saw that the wolf did not move, that there was -no life in him, he turned to God and said: - -"Just make him go." - -And God said, "Very well." - -But before he made him go, he chipped the wolf about, and moulded -him and fashioned him a bit better than the devil had done. Out of -these chippings came the snakes and the toads. When he had finished -shaping him, God cried: - -"Up, wolf, and go for him." - -Up jumped the wolf and went for the devil, who got so frightened that -he ran away as fast as his feet would carry him. - -When the devil saw that the wolf was running him close he pulled -out three hairs from his body and threw them behind him on to the -wolf. The wolf, who up to that time was hairless and smooth, was -suddenly covered with thick bristles, which, in one way or another, -were to prevent him from running so fast after the devil. It is -for that reason that the wolf has such thick bristles, and his eyes -glisten in the dark. They are the hair of the devil and the sparks -which have got into him through the devil's hair. And since that -time when he hears the wolves howling the devil takes to his heels, -lest they catch him as God commanded them to do. - -Polish, Lettish and other Slavonic variations of the legend -concerning the creation of the wolf by the devil are given by Daehnhardt -(l.c. pp. 147 ff.), yet none so full as the Rumanian version. According -to one, the devil had made the wolf so as to have a creature of his -own. But he endeavoured in vain to call his creature to life, for he -would persistently say to it, "Arise, for I have made thee." Only, -however, when he whispered into his ear, "Arise, God has made thee," -did the wolf spring to his feet. Then he attacked the devil, who ran -away and escaped with difficulty. - - - - - - - - -IX. - -WHY DOES THE WOLF RUN AFTER THE DEVIL? - -The Story of God, the Devil and the Stone. - - -According to a curious Rumanian version from Transylvania (in -Archiv. f. Siebenburg Landeskunde, 23, pp. 4-8, abbreviated by -Daehnhardt, pp. 152-3), the devil went to God and said to him, "O Lord, -thou hast created man and so many other creatures, but thou hast not -yet created the wolf." And God replied, "Very well," and, showing him -a huge boulder near a forest, told him to go and say to the stone, -"Devil, eat the stone." The devil went and said, "Stone, eat the -wolf." The boulder did not move. The devil went to God and said, -"The stone does not move." "What didst thou say?" "Stone, eat the -wolf." "But thou must say, 'Devil, eat the stone.'" The devil went -again to the stone and said, "Stone, eat the devil." Whereupon the -stone moved and ate the devil, and in its place there stood a wolf -with the face of the devil. Since then there are no more devils in -the world, but wolves too many. - - - -This story, as here abbreviated, is undoubtedly corrupted. The real -form must have been at the beginning, "Stone, eat the devil," but -the devil changed it into, "Devil, eat the stone," until he spoke -exactly as he was told, and the stone turned into a wolf. - -The wolf is dreaded as the most savage beast, and could therefore only -be conceived by the popular imagination as the creation of the devil. - -In the northern mythology there occurs the wolf Fenrir, whose father -is Loki, the God of Fire, who will play such a decisive role at -Doomsday. Hahn (No. 105) contains the following version: - -After the creation of man, the devil boasted that he could create -something better. God allowed him to do so. He took some clay and -moulded it and made the wolf. Then God said to him, "Give him life, -as I have done." The devil started blowing into the wolf until he -got red and blue in the face, but all in vain. Then God took a cane -and smote the wolf on his back, and that is why the back of the wolf -looks broken in the middle, and he said, "Creature, eat thy maker." Up -jumped the wolf and ate the devil. (Cf. Grimm, 148.) - - - - - - - - -X. - -WHY THE GOAT'S KNEES ARE BARE. - -The Story of God, the Fire and the Devil. - - -In the beginning the goats had wings, and used to fly about eating up -the tops of the trees. They did it so thoroughly that they left no -leaf or bud, and never allowed a tree to grow up. When God saw what -mischief they were doing, and how they were destroying all the trees, -he cursed them, and, taking away their wings, he said that henceforth -they should only be able to climb up crooked trees. And so they do. - -When they came down upon earth, finding themselves without wings, -they went and made a pact with the devil, that they should henceforth -help one another. The devil willingly entered into an agreement with -them. It so happened that the devil's fire went out, and he was not -able to rekindle it himself, so he sent the two goats to God to steal -the fire from him. God had lit his fire, he had put the tripod over -the fire, and had hung on it the bowl to cook his food in. Then he -sat down quietly, watching the wood crackle and burn up. When the -goats came they started a conversation with God, speaking of this and -speaking of that, so that God should not see that they had come for -the purpose of stealing fire. When they saw they could not get on, they -decided to make a rush upon the fire, and to snatch a brand from it. - -So they ran towards the tripod trying to snatch the fire. God, who -knew what they were bent upon, took the ladle which was sticking in -the food, and with the hot stuff on it he smote the goats on their -knees. The goats started running, and they shrieked from the pain of -the burning food on their knees, which burned the skin so that all -the hair fell out, and from that time the goats have no hair on their -knees, and the devil's beasts they have remained to this very day. - - - -In other South-Slavonian versions (Daehnhardt, i. 142 f.) it is the -Evil One who invents the fire, and God is anxious to obtain it from -him in order to give it to mankind. The Evil One had deprived them -of it. God sends St. Peter to the Evil One with an iron rod in his -hands. This he was to poke in the fire until it got white hot; then -he was to touch some wood and the fire would leap up. Pursued by the -Evil One, who perceived the ruse, St. Peter struck the flint before -the rod had got cold, and thus got the spark inside the flint. Thus -it is that sparks fly when the flint is struck by iron. - - - -As for the goats, the following variants and parallels are of interest: - -According to an Armenian legend of Transylvania (Daehnhardt, 154; -Wlislocki, 12), the goat is the very work of the Evil One. Jealous of -God, who has made all the creatures, he boasted that he also would -make a creature of his own. When he saw how God fashioned the lamb, -one of the last of God's creatures, he set to work to make an animal in -the likeness of the lamb. So he made a goat. But he wanted to make it -more beautiful, so he added a beard and planted some pointed horns on -its head. Then he asked God to give life to his creation. God did so, -and thus made for man two new animals, the good, useful and meek lamb, -and the mischievous goat. God then took a vase, in which he had put -the intelligence of the animals, and, finding in it only a few drops -of the liquid at the bottom of the vase, he said to the devil that he -must be careful in the use of these drops. So he dropped a few on the -head of the lamb, but when he was going to pour some on that of the -goat the devil shook the vase, and thus many more drops fell on the -head of the goat than on that of the lamb. The devil laughed and said, -"My creature is cleverer than thine." To which God replied, "That -may be, but thy creature shall play the fool and live on scanty food." - -In a Polish version (Daehnhardt, i. 162), the goat is made by the devil -almost in the same manner as he made the wolf in the tales Nos. 8, -9. And the goat comes to life only when, after saying "get up," he -whispers, "by the power of God." When the goat rises, the devil in -his fury gets hold of its tail and pulls it off; and ever since the -goats have had no tails. - -In the South-Slavonic tale, curiously enough, the sheep take the -place of the goat and are made by the devil, which, in the light of -the above version, is due to some confusion made by the story-teller -between the ram and the goat. (Krauss, Sud-slav. Sagen, Leipzig 1883, -No. 29, p. 109.) - -In a modern Greek legend, the devil made the goat, but he made the -knees stiff, and the goats perished from hunger. One day Christ was -walking upon earth, and he met the devil, who showed him the goats, -and said to him: "I have also made something, but I cannot make it sit -down; its knees are so stiff; so the goats die off." Whereupon Christ -took his seal and placed it upon the goats' knees. Afterwards they -could easily bend them. Hence the sign of the seal upon the goats' -knees. (Politis, No. 842; Daehnhardt, pp. 153-4.) - -In these two tales we have peculiar variants to some of the incidents -in the Rumanian version, only so far as the connection of the goat -with the Evil One and the bareness of the goats' knees are concerned, -though the explanation is totally different from--nay, opposite -to--that given in the Rumanian version, where the bareness is the -sign of God's punishment of the goats. - -A German tale (Grimm, 148) tells us: God made all the animals, even -the wolves, which were his dogs. The devil made the goats, which -destroyed the vines, the young trees, etc. The wolves then went and -killed the goats, and God offered to pay the devil the price of his -destroyed creatures, but only when all the oaks should lose their -leaves. But the devil was told that one oak in Constantinople keeps -its leaves all the year. He went in search of it for six months, -and could not find it. When he returned, the other oaks had got their -leaves again, and he got nothing. He poked out the eyes of the goats, -and put his own in instead, and therefore they have the devil's eyes, -and so the devil sometimes assumes their form. - -These stories of the goat and the devil are probably one chapter of -the larger and yet unwritten book on the goat-devil in popular beliefs -and customs. It must suffice merely to mention the "scape-goat," the -goat-demons (seirim of the Bible), the Greek fauns and satyrs. Satan, -worshipped under the guise of a goat in the alleged orgies of the -witches, is found in the record of the Inquisition in medieval -accusations against the heretics. Is not the devil himself depicted -in medieval imagery with the cloven hoof--of the goat and with the -horns of the goat? The why and wherefore is another story. It is not -here and now the place to enter upon it. The mischievous character -of the goat, the amorous inclinations, the offensive smell, may to a -certain extent have contributed later on to justify this equation of -goat and devil, but there must be some other reason for making the -goat, if not a type, at least the friend of Satan. - - - - - - - - -XI. - -WHY DID NOAH GET DRUNK? - -The Story of the Goat, Noah and the Vine. - - -It is said that the vine did not exist before the flood, and of -course, therefore, there was no wine. The giants, whatever mischief -they may have done, and however wicked may have been their ways, -at any rate were never drunk. They only drank water, which is the -eternal beverage for man and beast. When the flood came the giants and -all the living creatures, except those whom Noah saved in the ark, -were destroyed. When the flood had subsided, the animals went out, -spread themselves over the earth, and multiplied very quickly. - -Thus from the few head of cattle, sheep and goats there grew up soon -a large number, and Noah was able to live by his cattle and his goats. - -Of all these animals, Noah loved the goats best, especially when he -saw them climbing about everywhere up the trees and up the rocks, -going freely in all directions. One day Noah saw that one of the -he-goats left the rest alone and went his own way, and when the -evening came he came down dancing and jumping, quite jolly; this he -repeated many days, and every evening he came home jumping and dancing, -and frolicking like a madman. Noah, anxious to find out what was the -reason of this peculiar behaviour of the goat, followed him quietly -one day, and he found out what it was. There, on one of the hillsides, -he saw a tree with very huge grapes, each one as big as a bucket. The -goat went straight to these and ate his fill. Getting drunk, he laid -himself down to sleep. When he woke up he started the game again, -and so until the evening, when he returned home quite jolly. - -Old Noah was greatly surprised at this sight, for he had never seen -before any grapes; and so, climbing up as best he could, he plucked -a bunch in order to take it home and show his family. - -On his way home the heat grew unbearable, and he got very thirsty. He -turned to the right, he turned to the left; nowhere a drop of water to -be seen. I do not know what he thought; but, having the grapes in his -hand, he put one in his mouth, and sucked at it. He found the juice -very sweet and refreshing, so he took the other grapes and squeezed -the juice into his mouth. Not satisfied with that, as his thirst was -not yet quenched, he went back to the vine tree, and taking a whole -cluster, he sucked it dry. When he returned, he felt somehow that his -head had got rather heavier than usual, and his legs, on the contrary, -were much lighter than before. Altogether he felt in a merry mood, and -though old and advanced in years, he started singing a song. Getting -near his house, the goat overtook him, frolicking and jumping as it -had done every day. - -What should enter Noah's head but to follow the example of the goat, -frolicking and jumping, and in that state of high merriment both -reached the house. When Noah got near the house, he looked at himself, -and he could not make out what had happened to him, for he had lost -almost all his clothes. They had fallen off him on the way. He -could not get into the house, but, dropping down in front of it, -he fell fast asleep. There his sons found him, and thinking that he -was dangerously ill, put him on his bed and began wailing over him, -for they were sure he was at death's door. - -The next morning, to their astonishment, he woke hale and hearty, -and there and then he told them all about the goat and the vine and -the grape and the sweet juice. Then Noah gave orders that the vine -should be taken from the hills and planted in his garden. Before -he did so, he killed the goat and poured the blood of it on to the -roots in remembrance of the fact that it was through the goat that -he discovered the vine. - -Thus far the Rumanian story, which, however, requires completion. As -far as it goes it agrees almost verbatim with a story found in a very -ancient Hebrew collection of legends (Midrash Abkhir); the sequel -there is as follows: When Noah started planting the vine, the devil -came and asked to be allowed to take a part in it. Noah willingly -agreed. After killing the goat, the devil brought a lion, whose blood -was also used to water the roots of the vine, and finally brought a -swine, and his blood was also poured over the roots of the vine. - -For this reason it comes to pass that, when a man drinks a little -wine he gets merry and jumps and frolics like a young kid; and if -he drinks a little more, he becomes hot and roars like the lion; and -his last stage is reached when he wallows in the mire like the pig, -for he has drunk the blood of all of them. - -Here, then, we have a tale which shows how a man can become a beast -without changing his human form, not like all the other tales, in -which he remains a bird or a beetle to the end of his days. - -A peculiar transformation of this legend is found in the following -variant, in which the bones of the animals are substituted for their -blood. The whole setting is different from the more primitive type -preserved in the Rumanian. - - - -When Saint Dionysios was still young, he once made a journey through -Greece, in order to go to Naxia (the isle of Naxos), but the way -being very long, he got tired and sat down on a stone to rest. While -he was sitting, and looking down in front of himself, he saw at his -feet a little plant sprouting from the earth, which seemed to him so -beautiful that he resolved at once to take it with him and to plant -it. He took the plant out of the ground and carried it away; but, -as the sun was very hot just then, he feared that it might dry up -before his arrival in Naxia. Then he found the small bone of a bird, -and put the plant into it and went on. In his holy hand, however, -the plant grew so quickly that it peeped forth from both sides of -the bone. Then he again feared that it would dry up, and thought of -a remedy. He found the bone of a lion, which was thicker than the -bird's bone, and he put the bird's bone, together with the plant, -into the bone of the lion. But the plant quickly grew, even out of -the lion's bone. Then he found the bone of a donkey, which was still -thicker, and he put the plant, together with the bird's and lion's -bones, into the donkey's bone, and so he came to Naxia. When he was -planting it, he saw that the roots had wound thickly round the bones -of the bird, the lion and the donkey; and, as he could not take it -out without injuring the roots, he planted it in the ground as it -was, and it quickly grew up and produced, to his delight, the finest -grapes, from which he made the first wine, which he gave to men to -drink. But what a wonder did he see now! When men drank of it, they -sang in the beginning like merry little birds; drinking more of it, -they became strong as lions; and drinking still more, they became -stupid like donkeys. (Hahn, Albn. Maerchen, ii. 76; v. also Thumb, -Bulletin of the John Rylands Library, Manchester, vol. ii. No. 1, -Oct. 1914, p. 38 and note 50). - -I add here a Christmas carol about the shepherd and the sheep, -for it seems that at the basis of it lies the idea of God giving a -special blessing to the sheep. It is a second stage after the idea -of creation of the sheep by God. - - - - - - - - -XII. - -GOD AND THE LAMB. - -A Christmas Carol. - - - On the flowery mountain, - O Lord, good Lord, - Nica feeds his flock. - He feeds them, - He drives them, - He touches the foremost, - He gathers the hindmost, - And leads them into the pasture. - But where has he fixed the pasture? - On the top of the mountains, - Under the yellow plane tree. - A summer breeze is blowing, - Shaking the leaves, - And scattering them over the plain. - The sheep grew excited, - And they made a great noise. - They bleated, and the bleating reached the heaven and the earth. - The Holy God heard them, - And he came down to them, - And thus he spake with his mouth: - "Halloo, brave Nica, whose are these sheep, - Which bleat so beautifully, - So beautifully and devoutly?" - Nica the brave replied: - "O dear merciful God, - As thou hast come and askest me, - I will answer truly - To whom these sheep belong: - They are thine, - As well as mine. - I feed them; - Thou guardest them. - I milk them; - Thou multipliest them. - I shear them; - Thou makest them grow." - The good God replied - And said to Nica the brave: - "May they be given to thee - From me as a gift-- - From a good father - To a clever son-- - For thou art sweet of tongue. - But thou shalt give me, - On St. John's day, - Two lambs; - On St. George's day - One suckling lamb; - And on Ascension day - A cake of cheese." - Nica the brave - May live in health, - He and his brothers - And his parents. - May God keep you all. - - -This refers no doubt to the creation of the sheep by God--as mentioned -before--and the manner in which the sheep were expected to help Adam -after the fall. (v. Wolf Story No. 7.) - - - - - - - - -XIII. - -THE HART AND THE MAKING OF THE WORLD. - -A Christmas Carol. - - - Slowly, slowly, O Lord, - The little river Olt - Has grown big, - So big - That the borders cannot be seen. - But what is coming - Down the Olt? - Tall pines - And dry fir trees. - Among the pines, - Among the fir trees, - A three-year-old stag - Is swimming. - The stag swims, - And lifts up its horns. - On the top of his horns - A cradle is hanging and swinging, - A green cradle made of silk, - Woven in six strands. - But who sits in the cradle? - The maiden, the young girl, - With her tresses hanging down the back, - Shining - Like the holy sun. - She sits and sews, - And embroiders - A collar for her father, - A kerchief for her brother. - But she stops and does not sew, - Nor does her mouth keep quiet, - For she is singing: - "Slowly, slowly, - Old stag, - Slowly, slowly be thou swimming. - Do not hinder my work. - And the waves are rising; - They might wash me off and carry me off thy horns. - Slowly, slowly, - Dear old stag, - For I have three brothers at court, - Where they learn many things. - All the three are noted hunters, - And good falconers. - They will discover thee, - And run after me. - With their falcons they will pursue thee. - With their dogs they will worry thee. - With their lances they will prick thee. - Slowly, slowly, - Dear old stag-- - For if my brothers find thee, - They will make my wedding feast - With thy poor flesh. - With thy bones - They will build - My little house. - With thy skin - They will cover - My little home. - With thy blood - They will paint - My little courts. - And with thy head - They will celebrate - The holy feast. - They will place it - Over the gate, - At the entrance of the little garden. - Of thy hoofs - They will make - Crystal cups, - Out of which - Nobles drink. - On rare occasions-- - On Christmas day and Epiphany-- - When the whole world rejoices, - I drink to the health of these houses - For many years. - - -The mythical stag carrying on his horns a girl who is like the sun -is similar to the bull of Mithras and to the bull in the Avesta, -out of which the world was created. The stag provides here all the -elements for the building of a house and for the merriment of the -nobles. Each part of its body is accounted for. - - - - - - - - -XIV. - -WHY IS THE FLY CALLED THE DEVIL'S HORSE? - -The Fight of St. George and the Devil. - - -In Rumania, the dragon-fly is known as the devil's horse or perhaps the -dragon's horse. It is also known as St. George's horse. The following -legends explain this peculiar name. - - - -We are told that in olden times there was continual strife between God -and the devil. God, however, who is peacefully inclined, let the devil -play his game as long as possible. He thought that perhaps after some -time the devil might become better behaved. But what can you expect -of the devil? He is what he is, and neither good nor bad treatment -will change him. And so it proved even to God. He waited a very long -time to see him quiet down and become more satisfied. But no sooner -had God granted him one thing, than the devil asked for another, and -so he went on asking continually. When at last God saw that nothing -could be done with Satan, he armed his host of angels and gave each -one a beautiful horse to ride on. One morning, at early dawn, they -all mounted their horses and, led by St. George, who was riding at -the head of the host, they started the fight with the devil. - -After a time St. George--who rode a horse, which was like unto none -of the others, wondrously beautiful--felt suddenly that his horse was -backing instead of going ahead. So St. George found himself involved -among his own host, and some other horses following his example, -started moving backwards and hitting those who were riding behind -them. He then suddenly heard the voice of God telling him to dismount, -for his horse had been bewitched by the devil. "If that is the case," -said St. George, "then be it the devil's own," and he let it go. And -so it happened. Scarcely had it made three steps when it was changed -into a flying insect, which we, upon this earth, call the devil's horse -(libellula depressa). - - - -A similar legend must have been current in West Europe and in England, -as otherwise the English name of Dragon-fly could not be explained. At -the root of it there must be some legend of St. George and the Dragon, -in addition to the fight between the hosts of heaven and the army of -Satan. This part must have entirely dropped out, and the knowledge and -recollection of the part which St. George played was connected either -with the worm, i.e. dragon probably transformed into an insect, or the -horse of St. George, believed to have been a winged horse. To us here, -however, the first part of the legend is of the utmost interest, -for it is nothing less than the Biblical legend of the rebellion -of Satan which led to the combat and to the fall. Satan had lost -Paradise, and ever since then he had been yearning for the light -of Paradise, either by attempting to steal the heavenly fire, as in -the Goat stories, or by stealing the sun and moon as in some of the -Christmas carols. Thereby he entered into a contest with the heavenly -power. Though these variants do not contain much of the legendary -fauna, they form an important part in the mythological conception -which lies at the root of many of these creation-tales and legends. - - - - - - - - -XV. - -THE DEVIL STEALING THE SUN. - -A Christmas Carol. - - - In the glory of the heavens, - On the outskirts of Paradise, - Close to the throne of God-- - The throne of Judgment-- - Where the whole world gathers, - Tables are decked, - And the saints sit round the table. - John St. John, - Ilie St. Ilie, - Peter St. Peter, - With all the other saints, - Are feasting joyously. - The Lord came then to the table, - Sat down at the table, - Blessed the bread, - And began - To eat. - They were eating, - Or not eating, - For on a sudden - They lifted their eyes, - And whom should they see from afar? - The archangel Gabriel - And the angel Michael, - Who were coming, always coming, - Drawing nearer and nearer, and then they reached the table. - They bent their knees before the Lord, - Bent their knees and prayed. - And said the following: - "Dost thou know, O Lord, or dost thou not know, - What has happened in Paradise? - What we have seen and what has been done? - No sooner had St. Peter gone, - And Ilie followed suit, - And St. John had left us, - When the heathen gods, realising it, - Stormed Paradise, - Entered inside, - Robbed it and - Have taken away the crown of Paradise. - They have taken the moon, - With its light. - They have taken the twilight, - With its glimmer. - They have taken the stars, - With their flowers. - They have taken the sun, - With its treasures. - The heathen gods have further taken away - The throne of judgment, - Before which the whole world must appear. - They have carried it all away into hell. - Paradise is darkened, - Whilst hell is lit up. - We have fought as much as we could fight, - But they overpowered us. - They refuse to give up the spoil. - We have now come to tell you, - To bring our prayer as a sacrifice, - That you may render us help, - And come back with us to Paradise." - When the Lord heard it, - He made a sign to the saints, - And turned his eyes upon the angels, - And went with them - To bear them company. - First St. Ilie, - Who is the most powerful saint; - And second to him St. Peter, - To smite the heathen gods with drought. - They followed him. - They started, - John baptising, - St. Ilie striking with his lightning flashes, - St. Peter drenching with rains and downpours. - When they arrived at hell - St. Ilie struck with his lightning; - St. Peter cursed them; - St. John baptised them. - The idols were seized with trembling. - They fell on their knees, - And submitted to St. John. - The archangel Gabriel, - Together with the angel Michael, - Entered hell, - Took everything - In their arms, - And brought them back to Paradise. - Holy moon with its light, - The twilight - With its rays, - The stars - With their flowers, - The sun - With its treasures, - The throne of judgment, - Before which all men must appear, - They brought them back to Paradise, - And Paradise again shone brightly. - Hell was darkened. - They turned to the Lord, - And prayed: - "May, O Lord, thy will - And thy kingdom last forever. - To your health for many years to come." - - -This carol is full of apocryphal reminiscences and mythical -elements. The contest between Satan and God, and between the evil and -good powers is here described under the form of Satan, stealing the -sun from heaven and plunging the world into darkness, but the angels, -with the prophet Ilie (Elijah) at their head, are able to defeat the -machinations of Satan, and to restore the sun to Paradise. Cf. among -others the English poem, "The Harrowing of Hell," and the literature -connected with the Gospel of Nicodemus. Wesselofsky has studied the -transformation of the prophet Elijah into the Ilie of the popular -faith, who rides the heavens with a thunderbolt in his hands, and -smites the devil wherever he finds him. It is a combination of the -prophet Elijah with a modified form of the Greek Helias. The archangels -Gabriel and Michael are here in their proper place, whilst in the -story of the dragon-fly they have been supplanted by St. George. We -shall find the same saint disguised as a knight and almost forgotten -as a saint in the legend of the Fly of Kolumbatsh, No. 21. - - - - - - - - -XVI. - -WHY IS IT CALLED THE BULL-FLY? - -The Story of God, the Sun and the Bulls. - - -In those days when God used to walk through fields and lanes carrying -his knapsack on his back and feeding his herds and flocks, his oxen -and cows, his sheep and goats, it is told that, once upon a time, -feeling very tired, he went to sleep with his head upon a hillock -of earth. He slept for a long while, and woke up very late. Before -lying down, he told the older and stronger oxen to take care to -behave themselves well, and also to look after the younger ones, -so that there should not be any fight or trouble among them. But no -sooner had he closed his eyes, when such a shouting and bellowing -was started that one might think that the hills were falling and the -earth was breaking up. The Lord sprang upon his feet as if he had -been touched by fire, for the holy sun had come to him, and waking -him up had said:--"O Lord, these creatures of yours have bellowed all -night long so loud and so vigorously that you might have thought that -they intended driving me away from the face of the earth. Look and -see what they have done to me. They have fought against me so long -that they have well-nigh torn my clothes into shreds and tatters, -and with great difficulty I saved myself behind that flower-bed." - -"What beetles are you speaking of?" asked the Lord. - -"I mean your oxen which have behaved so badly. They are not worthy -to be anything else but horned beetles." - -"Let it be so! But I must first look into the matter, and if I find -them guilty, I will punish them just as you wish." - -And as the Lord had said, so he did. For, finding them guilty, he drove -them away into the forest. There they climbed up the oak-trees, and -suddenly they all became horned beetles, bull-flies, with larger and -smaller horns, viz. the cows became cow-flies with smaller horns and -the oxen bull-flies with larger horns, through God's punishment. That -is why they are called the Lord's bulls and cows (Lucanus cervus). - - - -According to another legend, the bull-flies were originally the angels -who refused to help St. Elias in fastening the felloes to his fiery -chariot. Therefore their mouths have been closed as with a vice, -for ever, so that they be no longer able to speak, and that is why -they are also called wheelwrights. - -The horns of these bull-flies are used by women, who tie them into -their hair against the evil eye. The sharp points of these horns -have the same magical properties as the sharp points of the coral, -or of the horns, fingers, etc., which figure so largely in the magical -charms and amulets against the workings of the evil eye. - - - - - - - - -XVII. - -WHY IS THE SAW-FLY RED? - -The Story of Ileana, Voinic and the Archangel Gabriel. - - -The following legend is told of this little beetle. - -I do not know how long ago it was that Ileana Cosinziana (Ileana the -fay) walked about with her young, beautiful, and brave hero (Voinic -inflorit), and, singing with a loud voice, they filled mountain and -valleys with their music. It must have been long ago, for at that time -the archangel Gabriel also walked the earth in the form of a very -old man, leaning on iron crutches. He went about warning the people -that God would send upon them a new flood of foreign tongues and -wild nations, if they would not stop their quarrels and put an end -to their curses. After having travelled through many countries and -empires, St. Gabriel found himself one day at the top of a cliff, -so high that it made your head turn when you looked down. There -he met Ileana Cosinziana, who was weeping and singing a doleful -tune. With her was Voinic inflorit, whom she had met in the land of -the fairies, just as God makes men meet in their journeys. "How far -art thou going?" asked Voinic, seeing the old man. "Much farther than -thou wilt go," replied the archangel Gabriel. The young man looked up, -feeling wroth with the answer. And quite naturally so, when he heard a -very old man boasting that he was going much farther than he. Was he -not a young sturdy man, and more likely to walk ever so much further -than a bent-down old fellow grey of hair? "O old man, you must take -me for a weakling, when you say that I cannot walk as far as you do." - -"Young man, your sweet, strong voice will not be heard any more a -year hence." - -"And why?" - -"Because such is the will of God." - -"Yes, that might be so if you were the brother of Christ," replied -the young man, sneering. - -"I may not be the brother of Christ, but that of St. Peter I may well -be. If you do not believe me, let us enter a wager that a year hence -we will meet here again. But you will be weak and broken, much more -so than you think me to be now." - -"Well, be it so, but woe betide thee if I win the wager." - -"So it shall be." - -And wishing one another good-bye, each went his own way, bent on -winning the wager. - -"Who was that daring old man?" asked the Ileana; "it seems to me that -he is not so old as his grey hair betokens. He is a valiant man. God -knows who he may be, but one thing is certain, he is not an old man." - -"How did you know it?" - -"Well, when he put out his hand, he gripped mine with so much strength -that he very nigh burnt my soul out of me with the fire of his hand." - -When the young Voinic heard it, he got so angry that he was more like -a wild beast than a human being, and being overpowered by his fury, -got hold of her by the hair of her head and hurled her down the cliff -so that she broke into a thousand pieces. He then began to run away -so fast that the earth seemed to fly away under his feet. And thus -he continued running through many lands and many countries, until -the year had come round when he was to meet the old man again. On -the last day of the year, Voinic remembered the wager, and looking -into the water at the bottom of a well, he saw himself much weaker -and older than the old man had looked a year ago. In his anger he -threw himself into the well. But, in accordance with the will of God, -the water would not keep him, and cast him out. He had got very old -indeed, for the thoughts and worries had cut deep furrows into his -face; his hair from black, turned white as the snow. This was because -in his fury and in an unlucky hour he had killed his beloved Ileana -by throwing her down the cliff. - -The archangel Gabriel, who knew all that had happened, changed into -a young man beautiful as the sun, valiant as a king and brave as a -lion. He was mounted on a charger black as the night and swift as the -wind. Thus arrayed, he came to the cliff where they had arranged to -meet. Voinic noticed that against his will he had also come to that -spot. How great then was his fright when, instead of a decrepit old -man, he found there so valiant a knight. - -"Good morning, Voinic." - -"All hail! I am no longer a hero full of sap; I am now an old weak -man." - -"He, he, seest thou now that what I had told thee has come to pass? I -have grown young and thou hast grown old. So it is, for who can -alter the will of God? He can do what he likes, and man must submit -to his decrees. So it is, indeed, but how now about our wager? Where -is that beautiful maiden of thine, in whom thou didst believe more -than in God?" - -"She died soon after we met." - -"True, she is dead, for thou, O wretch, hast killed her." - -"I assuredly did not; she died by the will of God." - -"Oh no, thou hast thrown her down the cliff. I know it well, for I -have seen the rut on the cliff she fell down." - -"That is not true, for I have buried her with the assistance of the -priest of the next village. If thou dost not believe, come with me, -and I will show thee the grave." - -"This is an infamous lie. Thou hast murdered her. Thou come and I -will show thee her real grave and her blood." - -And, getting hold of him, he took him down and showed him a place -which seemed covered with red blood. But it was no blood. It was -a vast number of small red beetles. "Out of the blood of Ileana, -seest thou, have come these little flies." - -When Voinic heard this, he was seized with such a great fright that -he became changed from the old bent man that he was into a small -black insect, which unto this very day cries for his lost beloved -Ileana. The people call it the little cricket, or rather the bull -or cow of the Lord (Lygaeus equestris). The little red beetles which -come out of the blood of Ileana they also call Easter beetle, for it -was on Easter Day that she was thrown down the cliff. - - - - - - - - -XVIII. - -WHY DOES THE SAW-FLY LIVE IN STABLES? - -The Story of St. Mary and the Miserly Farmer. - - -Another legend of a totally different character is also told of this -little beetle. - - - -When the Holy Mother gave birth to Jesus, she had not enough milk -in her breasts to suckle the child. Next to her on the right lived a -very rich farmer who had a large number of cows. So the mother Mary -sent to him, and asked him to give her a little milk, as much as was -necessary to feed her little baby. But rich farmers are, as a rule, -very stingy. So he replied, "I am not going to give my good milk to -a witch to bewitch my cows and take away their gift." - -The Holy Mother, on hearing his words, got very angry, especially when -she heard that he had called her a witch. But she kept her counsel, -and went to the neighbour on the left, who had only one cow. He was -a kind-hearted man, and gave her at once a bowl full of milk. When -she left, she blessed him and said: "On the morrow thou shalt not -know what to do with the milk," i.e. he would have so much milk that -he would not know how to handle it. And so it happened. When, on the -next morning, he entered the stables he found them full of beautiful -fat kine, from which the milk was running, so rich were they. - -But the stingy neighbour the Holy Mother cursed, and said: "On the -morrow thy stable shall be empty, and in lieu of cows, beetles shall -be there." And so also it happened. When he entered the stables the -next morning, he found them empty, and instead of the cows, which -were no longer there, the stables were full of little red flies with -black spots on their backs, crawling up the walls and filling the -manger. And that is why they are called the cows and oxen of the Lord. - - - -To obtain abundance of milk peasant women in the Bukovina go on -a Tuesday evening to a place where there are a number of these -insects. The next morning, before sunrise, they go there again and, -taking a number of them, bring them home, chop them up with their -choppers and, mixing them with the food, give them to the cows to -eat. The cows will then yield much milk. - - - - - - - - -XIX. - -WHY IS THE LADY-BIRD DAINTY? - -The Story of the Wicked Maiden and the Archangel Michael. - - -In olden times, when the men were not yet so wicked and bad, there -was no hell, for the good God saw that it would remain empty, as there -would be no one to go there. The people were happy and grateful, and -satisfied with whatever God gave them. It did not enter their minds to -complain of God's wisdom and love. After a time the people multiplied -so much that they could no longer have enough of anything. So they -began to quarrel with one another. Those who had nothing, without -knowing that they were doing anything wrong, began to demand whatever -they wanted from the wealthy ones. They did not know that it was -forbidden to take another man's property. For up till then no one knew -what sin was. The Allmerciful God, who sees and knows everything, -noting that strife and quarrels increased more and more among men, -sent his trusty servant, the archangel Michael, to awaken mankind -to the sense of sin, and to train them to good deeds. The archangel -went among the people, enlightened their minds, and told them all -about sin and wrong-doing, and what they had to do in order to avoid -sin. That was just the knowledge that the people were lacking; but -no sooner did they know what evil was, than, curiously enough, they -took to wrong-doing. Jealousy, greed, strife, and murder were born -among them. When God saw the obstinacy and perverseness of mankind, -he let them go their own way to do whatever they liked, even if they -acted against his wishes. In order to punish them, however, he decided -not to allow them to get into Paradise. At the edge of the garden he -made a deep well; so deep that it was very dark, almost black. He then -took a fiery morning star, and cast him into the depth of the well, -thus filling it with burning coals. And then he turned every wicked -man into that fire so that he might repent. He called that place -Hell: and so it has remained to this day. In order that men should -know that God knows how to reward them, he at times left the gate of -Paradise open, so that everyone, if he liked, could enter into it -and see how beautiful it was. He also opened the gates of Hell, so -that they might also see the tortures and hear the cries of the wicked. - -Many people went and looked, and when they looked into Paradise, their -hearts swelled with joy; but when they went and looked into Hell, -their hearts got as small as a flea on account of the great fright -they got, when they saw how severely God punished the sinner. They -all repented of their evil ways, all of them, great and small, except -one single person, who on no account would repent. This one was a -girl as beautiful as an angel, and clever beyond comparison. She was -strong, with a fine body, round and sleek as no other, and she had a -head so beautiful that you might believe it was a picture. Her long -black hair, soft like silk, shone like the feathers of a raven. Her -eyes were black and sparkling--she could almost burn you up with her -look--her mouth had lips as red as the berries of the field--her cheeks -were white and smooth as snow lit up with two blood-red roses. I do -not know--by God I do not--where there is anyone who would not have -fallen in love with her. God sent the archangel Michael to take her -out of this world and put her in Hell, there to repent of her sins -of obstinacy and perversity. He went, but when he looked at her, -he could not utter a single word. He felt as though he had a knot -in his throat when he was to tell her that she must prepare for the -journey. For he knew how terrible it is in Hell. So he returned to -Heaven without taking the girl with him to throw her into the abysmal -depths. When God saw him so sad, he asked him what was the cause of it. - -"O Lord," said the archangel, "I have fulfilled all thy commands -except one, which I could not fulfil; I had pity on the beauty of -that girl. She is so beautiful that you cannot help feeling full -of pity, and to feel a sweet shiver passing through you when you -behold her. If it be possible, O Lord, let her live on for a while, -perchance she will repent." - -"O my son Michael, thou dost not know that thy pity will cause me much -trouble and worry. Just look down and see. Since thou hast left her, -she has increased the number of the wicked and sinful. For whoever -looks at her is seized with lust. Everyone thinks only of her eyes and -her face. When I sent thee, she was the only one left who was wicked, -for she alone was possessed of pride, obstinacy and perverseness. Now -the number has grown." - -"O, Lord, if it be only possible, do not uproot that example of -womankind, for she is beautiful, and it is not likely that another -like her will ever be born." - -"Very well, then, I will let her live on, perchance she will repent and -get better; but if she does not grow better at the end of one year, -I will send thee again, and then thou wilt throw her down into the -depths of Hell." - -"Well, let thy will be done." - -And with these words they separated, God going to mend the hinges of -the world, and the archangel to teach and to enlighten the mortals. So, -going through many countries, walking on foot or riding in a car, -when a year had past he came at last again to the house of the -beautiful maiden. There was a vast multitude assembled before her -house. He pushed his way among the people to see at what they were -looking. The beautiful maiden was enticing the people to follow only -pleasure and pride. - -"It is not good," so she spoke, "to believe only in what God and his -counsellors tell us. We must do what we think best, for no evil will -happen to us." - -When the archangel Michael heard these words, he grew very furious, -and, with a mighty effort, he got near her, so as to seize her and -hurl her into the fire of Hell. - -"Do not carry her to Hell," said the voice of God; "for she might -start fresh mischief and wickedness there also, and engender strife: -she had better be changed into some insignificant insect." - -When the archangel heard the command, he got hold of her by the hair -of her head, and he whirled her round so many times that she became -as small as a speck; and then, throwing her away, she turned into -a small red insect with black points on her wings, which was called -Bubureaza (Coccinella septempundata). To this very day, when you put -her on your finger, she will show you the way you are to go, but it -is better for men to do the reverse and go in the opposite direction; -for she leads one only to evil. - - - - - - - - -XX. - -WHY DOES THE GAD-FLY STING THE CATTLE? - -The Story of God, St. Peter and the Lazy Shepherd. - - -In olden times God and St. Peter used to walk about in the world, to -see what was happening, and how the world was going on. And after they -had seen what happened in one province, they used to go to another. - -Once upon a time, after leaving a certain village, they got into -a deep and dark forest. Walking along for a while, they lost their -way, and did not know how to get out of it. Tired and hungry, they -walked on, lost in that thick and gloomy wood, when suddenly before -them they saw a field, in which grass and flowers were growing and -herds of cattle were feeding. The cowherd lay fast asleep under the -shadow of a tree. He could take it easily, for the cattle were not -suffering from flies, and were wandering quietly about the field. God -and St. Peter rejoiced greatly when they saw a man lying there. They -went up to him and woke him, and asked him to tell them the way which -would take them out of the forest. The cowherd, being asked by God -which was the quickest road, did not even lift up his head to give a -polite answer. But lying outstretched on the grass, he merely moved -his right leg and, half asleep and lazy as he was, and pointing in -one direction, said, "If you wish to get out to the world of men, -just go that way and you will get there." Then, turning over on the -other side, he again fell asleep. - -God and St. Peter, resenting the rudeness of the cowherd, said, "Are -these, then, thy manners? Very well, thou wilt no longer be lazy from -this day onwards. Thy cattle will no longer feed quietly; the gad-fly, -which I am sending, will sting them, and they will run like mad whither -their feet and their eyes will carry them." And so it happened. The -gad-fly came and the cows and oxen suddenly started running like mad -in all directions, and so it has remained to this very day. - -The cowherd, when he saw the cattle running like mad things with their -tails in the air, jumped up like one stung to madness, and started -running after them to bring them back. But in vain, for the cattle, -which had run away as quickly as you strike a spark from the flint, -entered into a swamp. - -After they had thus punished the cowherd, God and St. Peter went on -walking without knowing whither they were going. So again, after a -long walk in that same forest, they came to another meadow, where a -shepherd tended his flock of sheep. But the sheep were running all -the time so fast that you could not see their legs. Hither and thither -they went, and the shepherd after them, out of breath, and the sweat -running down his face, hoping that he might get them together. But the -sheep were as if they had been bewitched, so fast did they run. And -whilst the shepherd could scarcely keep on his legs, and the sweat was -standing on his forehead like beads, God and St. Peter approached him -and asked him which was the way they were to go to come back to this -world. Although he was dead tired and hot, the shepherd none the less -stopped still and, wiping his face with the sleeve of his shirt, said: - -"Please, take that way, for if you follow that road, you will soon -get to the end of the forest." - -They took the way he showed them, and soon they found themselves in -this world. And God said to his companion: - -"From this day onward, the flock of this shepherd, who has given us -good advice, so courteously, shall no longer suffer from the gad-fly -(and the running madness), and they shall only run at times of rain and -wind. They will henceforth feed quietly, and the shepherd also will be -able to sit down and play his pipe." And from that day on the sheep -feed quietly, and the shepherd can tend them in peace and comfort, -for the sheep do not suffer from the gad-fly (Hypoderma bovis), -whilst the cowherds must weary their legs, as otherwise their cattle -would disappear. - - - -There is a Macedonian variation: - -Once upon a time God changed into a very old man. Walking one day in -a terrific heat, he met a cowherd and asked him for a drop of water, -for he said he would die of thirst. "Die," replied the cowboy, and -would neither give him a drop of water nor tell him where to find it. - -God found afterwards a shepherd hotly pursuing his sheep, and the -perspiration running down him. "Give me a drop of water, for I die," -said God. - -"I give you willingly, but my sheep have run away and I do not know -how to gather them"; and going to a fountain at the foot of a hill -he took some in his fur cap and gave him to drink. God gathered the -sheep, and blessed them to be God's flock, who should never henceforth -separate on the road or be scattered. Remembering the cowherd, he -cursed him and said: "The gad-fly is always to scatter his herd just -when the heat is greatest, so that he may run like mad." - -Therefore the sheep always walk together in flocks, and gather together -in hot summer weather in the shade. And for that reason the oxen are -driven mad by the fly in the hot season, and they run like mad as -if they were ridden by devils. The cowherd has to run after them, -and there are but few fountains in Thessaly from which to slacken -his thirst. - - - - - - - - -XXI. - -WHY DOES THE FLY OF KOLUMBATSH POISON THE CATTLE? - -The Ballad of the Knight and the Dragon. - - -Numerous ballads recount the same story of the origin of the Poison-fly -of Kolumbatsh, with slight variations, of which the most complete is -the following: - - - High up in the green forest - What does appear? - High up in the forest of Cerna, - At the ford of Rushava, - Have gone forth, verily gone forth, - From some village nigh, - Very early in the morning, - Through dew and mist, - Three sisters, - Beautiful maidens. - The elder sister, - Dressed sweetly, - Fair like a pink flower, - Surpassing a fairy, - When you espy her breast, - White like a lily. - The younger sister, - Darling Maria, - Full of pride - In her eyebrows, - In her eyes and lashes, - And when you look into her eyes, - You are like one smitten by the evil eye. - The youngest sister, - Like unto a dove, - Ana Ghirosana, - Like the fairy Sanziana, - Surpassed them all. - She is like the evening star, - And the star of morn, - The flower of flowers. - They played and frolicked, - And gathered flowers. - They made wreaths, - And while they twisted them they sang. - Through the forest the singing was heard. - Thus they went on, - Until, overcome, - The youngest lay down, - And went to sleep. - The elder two, - The sisters twain, - When night arrived, - To their home they turned. - They left the youngest behind, - Who was fast asleep, - Until the dawn appeared, - When she called for them. - But none heard her, - Except the little cuckoo, - Beautiful and brave, - Who flitted among the trees, - And sang with a loud voice. - "Dear Cuckoo mine, - Listen to me, you brave one! - Lead me out into the open, - To the road of carriages, - That I find my sisters, - For I will be unto thee a cousin!" - "My sweet one! - I do not know - Whether I will lead thee into the open or not, - For I have many cousins, - As many as there are flowers on the mountain!" - "Cuckoo, cuckoo, listen, O brave one! - Lead me into the open, - To the road of cars. - I will be a sister unto thee." - The cuckoo replied: - "No, my child, no, - For I have sisters as many - As flowers that bloom in spring." - "Cuckoo, cuckoo, listen, O brave one! - Lead me into the open, - That I may find my sisters, - For I will be a wife unto thee - As long as I live." - "O no, for I am not a young man - Able to wed. - I am only a little bird, - And I know not of a beloved one." - Then suddenly appeared from a rock - The most horrible fright, - Gruesome and cruel-- - Twisting and crawling across the path-- - A terrible dragon. - Running after her, - He coiled himself round her, - Twisted his tail - Round her waist; he encircled her. - She was seized with terror, - And shrieked aloud. - The forest resounded. - High up the Cerna, - Very high up the river, - Many a brave has passed, - And all were laid low. - A valiant Ruman, - Ioan Iorgovan, - Whose arms were like clubs, - Was riding upon a horse, - Swift as the eagle, - Followed by two little dogs, - Keen and quick. - He was riding gaily, - Walking up the Cerna - Quite quickly, - His horse prancing, - Encouraging his dogs, - And waving his lance. - He suddenly heard a noise, - But he did not understand, - However much he strained, - Whether it was the voice of a man - Or that of a woman. - For the waves of the Cerna raged, - Sounding loud through the forest. - So he turned himself back, - And said to the Cerna: - "O my clean Cerna, - Stop, I pray thee, stop, - For I will throw - Into thy bed, - And I will give thee a silver lamprey, - And a golden distaff, - With dragon's eyes, - Which will spin and turn by itself." - The Cerna heard him, - And at once stood still. - Then Ioan Iorgovan, - With arms like clubs, - At once heard - And knew the voice, - That it was not that of a man, - But that of a woman. - Then he got angry, - Spurred on his horse, - And, striking it hard, - He roared like a lion, - Splitting the air. - The dragon got sight of him, - And, seized with fear, it ran away. - But he followed it, - And jumped across the Cerna, - And approached it. - The dragon waited for him, - And asked him: - "Ioan Iorgovan, - With arms like clubs. - With what kind of a good message - Dost thou come this day to me? - Or hast thou the thought - To destroy me? - I pray thee, grant me peace, - And turn back to thy home. - I swear on my head - That, dead, I shall be worse. - For, if thou killest me, - My head will rot. - Worms will breed; - Flies will swarm, - Who will bite thy horse. - It will burst of the poison, - The oxen will run mad, - The plough will come to a standstill!" - "Accursed snake! - Thou still bandiest words. - I will teach the country, - And the people will hearken to me. - They will raise the smoke, - And thy flies they will choke. - My horse will not die, - But thou shalt perish, - For I have heard - That thou hast killed - A beautiful maid - With thy robber's jaw." - "Ioan Iorgovan, - When I heard thy approach, - Thy horse's trot, - Roaring like a dragon, - I at once left the maid - Safe and unhurt. - I pray thee, - Leave me alone, - And turn back to thy home. - I swear on my head, - Worse shall I be dead." - Ioan Iorgovan, - With arms like clubs, - Brandished his sword, - Hit the snake, - And cut it up in pieces. - The maid looked on - Until he had finished it, - Then she showed herself, - And thus she spake: - "Ioan Iorgovan, - With arms like clubs, - Lead me out in the open, - To the carriage road, - That I may meet my sisters, - For I shall be unto thee a wife - As long as I be alive." - When he beheld her, - Wonder seized him - Of her beauty and of her youth. - "Ho, my beautiful flower, - Who art like a young fairy, - Be then to me a wife - As long as you be alive." - He then embraced her - And kissed her. - He then looked on-- - May it burst-- - There was the dragon's head - Running away, - Painting the Cerna red with his blood. - And it ran across the Danube, - Until it hid itself in the dark cave. - There it rotted. - The worms bred - And flies swarmed. - And so it is to this very day; - When the fly comes out - It bites the horses, - It poisons the oxen, - And stops the plough. - - -Thus far this, the most complete version. - -There are a number of other variants, but the central idea is the -same, that the poison-fly (Musca Columbaca) comes from the head of -the dragon, slain by the knight Ioan Iorgovan. - -The people show the imprint of the hoofs and the traces of Iorgovan's -dogs on the high cliff overhanging the banks of the Danube. - -This legend, localised in Rumania on the borders of Servia, is of -special interest for hagiography. It is nothing else but a variant of -the legend of St. George and the Dragon. It has assumed a peculiar -form, differing greatly from the other versions of that fight, -which is known all over the East and West, and lives in many forms -and versions. In the Rumanian hagiography there are at least two or -three versions of the legend as found in the Vitae Sanctorum and the -Synaxarium of the Greek and Slavonic Church. Thus it is found in one -of the oldest Rumanian prints, the Homiliary of 1646, the very first -book printed at Jasi, in Moldavia, in the Rumanian language. It occurs -also in part in the Lives of the Saints by the Archbishop Dositheus, -who used MS. collections for his book, printed also in Jasi, in -1682. An elaborate version is to be found in the great collection -of the Lives of the Saints in twelve volumes, by Bishop Benjamin -of Moldavia, and then reprinted in Bucharest in 1836. All these -collections are full of apocryphal matter, and the Life of St. George -makes no exception. There is one point more to which attention must -be drawn in this connection, viz. the influence of the Genoese and -Venetian traders who had established emporia along the Danube and -the Black Sea, among them one which to this very day has retained -the name of St. George. Along the Danube, on the left bank, on what -is now Rumania, stands that place, called Giurgiu in honour of the -patron saint of the Genoese who found it. Thus, from many quarters, -one or the other version became known to the folk, and was localised -at that point where the Carpathian mountains seem to dip into the -Danube, to emerge again on the other side and continue rising and -forming the chain of the Balkans. From a philological point of view -the name Iorgu Iorgovan denotes Servian influences. - - - - - - - - -XXII. - -WHY IS THERE A WORM IN THE APPLE? - -The Story of God and the False Teachers. - - -Before God came upon the earth there were a number of men who were -very clever, and who followed the rule of the devil. They claimed -that they could change themselves into dogs and cats, for the devil, -who took much pleasure in his clever people, helped them. Those who -saw them, believed them to be gods, and worshipped them and brought -them gifts. The devil almost jumped out of his skin with delight, for -he hoped that all the nations would do likewise, and soon God would be -forgotten. But God was watching the doings of the devil quietly from -above, until at last, seeing to what lengths he was going, he said: - -"By God! it is no good sitting here with my hands in my lap. I must -go down and put matters straight." - -So God took on the form of man, and went down among the people, going -from country to country and from village to village. At last, one day, -he made it known through all the land that all the clever men should -come together at a certain place to perform their arts, and whoever -would win in that competition, he would give him a sackful of gold. - -On the appointed day, all the clever men came together in a big hall -which God had prepared. It was surrounded by numerous apple-trees on -all sides. The clever men did what they could, each one more clever -than the other. They changed themselves into cats and dogs. At last -God said to them: - -"You have all done very well, but I would ask you to make me an apple -like those on the trees here around." - -In vain did they try to make an apple, but they could not succeed. So -God sent lightning among them, which so terrified them that they -crawled into the apples to hide themselves there. And God turned them -into caterpillars that can only live in apples. This is the origin of -the worm (Carpocapsa pomonella) which infests the orchards of apples -and pears. In order to protect them from this pest the Rumanians of -Bukovina keep a special Day of the worms, on the Tuesday in the first -week of the month of May. On it, it is strictly forbidden to work, -and it is good to give away a cake and other good things in alms for -the benefit (of the souls) of these men turned into flies. It is also -good to bring into the orchard a red Easter egg, which has been taken -to Church. - -Whoever catches an orchard worm and spits on its head, he spits on -the devil between the horns. - -Whoever throws any of these worms into the fire throws into it the -devil's servant. - - - -If we should call the "clever" men by the name of "Perfecti," of -which the former is an excellent translation, we might find in this -legend a slightly changed report of an act of accusation raised by -the Inquisition against the Albigenses and Cathars whose teachers -went by the name of "Perfecti." These men were accused of being -the servants and tools of the devil, and of possessing the power of -changing themselves into animals, the cat being the special animal -of the devil. It was said, moreover, that they enticed the world -to the worship of the devil, and that they had almost succeeded in -turning whole nations away from the true worship of God, so that it -required his own interposition in order to save the world from the -machinations of these men. He turned them into worms, which at any -rate continued to exist in apples and pears--the Inquisition has -turned them into dust and ashes. And yet their memory is preserved, -in spite of persecution and lives on in the memory of the people. - - - - - - - - -XXIII. - -WHY ARE THE LOCUSTS VORACIOUS? - -The Story of the Arrogant King and the Monks. - - -It is related that when the Emperor Por married his daughter he made -a great banquet, as big as had never been done before, for he called -all the kings and governors, and so many guests came together that -one might have thought that they would eat up even Por's ears. - -But Por the emperor knew what he had to do, and he prepared food for -all. He opened casks of wine, which had been kept closed for a thousand -years, and he spread tables in a field as large as a country, and he -brought musicians who were so skilled that one would have liked to -listen to them for ever. - -Everything had he prepared, only one thing had he forgotten. He -did not call the priests and the nuns. The priests he left out just -because he wanted to insult them, and he did not think of having the -marriage service performed in a Church. - -"What do I want them for?" he said, "all this can be done without their -blessing, and to have popas (priests) always about you in your house, -by God, is not quite a lucky thing, for it is well known if you meet -a popa in your way you are sure to have no luck, for you have met -the devil." - -The priests, seeing that Por had mocked at them, and the mothers of -the Church (the nuns) got very angry. They began ringing the bells -and praying, and they fasted three days on end, hoping that God -would hearken to their prayer and would punish the Emperor Por in -such signal manner as God alone in his wisdom could do. - -And God, as it seems, hearkened to their prayer, for while the tables -were laden with meat and drink, and all the guests had sat themselves -down to eat and drink, suddenly the heavens grew dark, a mighty wind -arose, and out of the sky came down a thick black cloud of winged -things with large mouths, voracious and hungry. - -They settled on the tables and devoured every bit of food that could -be found, and drank every drop of wine. The guests turned sick at this -horrible sight, and, falling ill, they all died there and then. From -a wedding feast it became a huge burial, the fame of which spread -throughout the lands. No one knew why this misfortune had befallen -them, only Por understood what had happened, and before his death -he said: - -"Nothing can be done without the mercy and grace of God. And this -has been my punishment." - -These were the locusts (Pachytylus migratorius) which God sends upon -men when they forget the true God. - - - -The role assigned here to the official priests, the "popa" of the -orthodox religion, is in perfect harmony with that sectarian teaching -which could not find words strong and opprobrious enough against the -"official" Church and its ministers. The belief is still alive in -Rumania that to meet a "popa," as he is called, is an evil omen, -and the people will often desist from some enterprise if a popa has -met them. There are practices by which the evil consequences of such -a meeting could be averted; but they belong to those of primitive -society. This story seems also to have been originally a satire against -these popas. They were the original locusts who descended upon the -tables of the rich and mighty, but now the point has been blunted and -the lesson deliberately turned round, making the locusts the means of -punishment for ignoring the priests. The man who told this tale must -have had a mischievous twinkle in his eye, not lost on his hearers, -but evidently lost upon him who wrote it down afterwards. - -The Emperor Por is none else than the Indian King Porus who plays so -important a part in the legendary history of Alexander the Great. This -is one of the most popular Rumanian chap-books--probably the oldest -in Rumanian folk-lore. There are a number of traces of this legendary -history in the Rumanian popular literature. We shall meet another -reference to it in the history of the cricket, No. 65, and of the -cuckoo, No. 91. - -This story evidently belongs to the cycle of legends in which an -emperor tries to invite God and his host to dine with him, boasting -that he would be able to feed them. He decks tables along the sea -shore and waits for God to come to the banquet. But a wind rises and -blows everything into the sea. A sage explains to the emperor that -thus far only one of the servants of God--the wind--has partaken of -his banquet. (v. Gaster, Exempla of the Rabbis, No. 12.) - - - - - - - - -XXIV. - -WHY DOES THE GRASSHOPPER RUN TO AND FRO? - -The Story of Jesus and the Unkind Reaper. - - -Another large kind of locust or grasshopper is also known by the name -of "little horse" or "mower." For the explanation of the last name -the following legend is told: - - - -Once upon a time when Jesus and St. Joseph hid themselves for fear -of the heathen in some very high grass which reached to their waist, -it is told that a giant came there to cut the grass, and he carried a -huge scythe, and with each stroke he cut down a large swath. Christ and -St. Joseph, seeing the work of that man and fearing lest they should -be discovered by the heathen if all the grass were cut down, asked him -not to cut any more. But when he heard that Christ begged him to stop, -he just went on with his work more furiously, full of spite, for was -not he also a heathen who wanted to catch him? When Christ saw this he -prayed to God to put as many obstacles in the giant's way as possible, -for it was still some time before the sun would set, and he would -otherwise quickly finish the cutting of the whole field. God heard -him, and he sent a heat so fierce that it dried up even the tongue -in the man's mouth. The mower, however, did not care. He only cast -off all his clothes and went on with his work in his shirt. When God -saw that the giant would not stop he changed the weather and made it -so bad that you would not have allowed a dog to leave the house. But -the mower went on with his work undisturbed. The only thing which he -did was to pick up the clothes which he had cast off and to put them -on again, and he made swaths as wide as the high road. - -When Christ saw the progress which he made he trembled like a reed. He -feared lest the heathen would catch him. Angrily, he knelt down, and -cursing the giant, he said: "Cursed shalt thou be, thou disobedient -and callous mower, all thy life henceforth thou shalt be always -only mowing and never gain any benefit from it. As long as the world -stands thou shalt always be running to and fro among the reapers, who -will cut thy legs as a punishment for not having listened to me." No -sooner was this curse uttered, when the giant was turned into a small -green insect with long legs, which to this very day is seen hopping -between the blades of grass on meadows and fields, running in front -of the scythes of cutters of grass. This insect is called the mower -(Locusta viridissima). - - - - - - - - -XXV. - -ANOTHER STORY OF THE GRASSHOPPER. - -St. Mary and the Wicked Innkeeper. - - -There is another legend of the origin of the grasshopper. - - - -When Christ was born in the stable, the animals which were there were -starved to death by the owner. There was no one who would as much as -put a handful of hay into the manger. The Holy Mother, full of pity -for the poor animals, asked the master of the house to give them at -least a forkful of hay. The master, however, shrugging his shoulders -said that all that he had, was gone and he could not give her even -as little as a handful. "If that be so, why did not you provide more -hay last summer?" asked the Holy Mother. - -"Why? just because I was too lazy to cut more." - -"If that be so," replied the Holy Mother, angrily, "then thou shalt -become a mower, and all thy life thou shalt not do anything else, -but from early morning to late at night thou shalt cut grass and yet -have no benefit therefrom." - -No sooner had she uttered these words than the master was turned into -the grasshopper called the "mower," and such has he remained to this -very day. - - - - - - - - -XXVI. - -WHY DOES THE NUN BEETLE COVER ITS FACE? - -The Story of St. Peter and the Girl Messenger. - - -In the time of the Holy Apostles, there was great trouble among the -heathen giants, as they did not know whom to elect as ruler. The -heathen then came in large numbers to the Christians, asking for -their vote, and came even to St. Peter, who was then the headman of -the Apostles. St. Peter, realising the importance of this election, -took counsel with his brothers the Apostles. They decided to call -together all the Christians in an Assembly to decide which part they -were to take. A good number came together. But as at that time the -Christians were scattered far and wide, and lived a good way distant -one from another, and also were afraid of the heathen, the greater -number stayed at home. - -For in such troublous times who would have liked to leave his wife -and children alone at home? Moreover, at that time Christians were -not permitted to meet, for when the heathen caught them speaking -to one another, they poured oil upon them and burned them like -torches. Still, when St. Peter had got a few counsellors together, -they discussed what was best to be done. The one said one thing, -the other another, as people do even to-day when talking in council, -but if you think you are getting on any further, you are waiting in -vain, for nothing comes out of it. - -St. Peter, who was more learned than the rest, saw that no good -was coming out of their deliberations, and as he was the headman, -he got up from his seat and said, "If we are to give our people good -and sound advice, we all know that as for battle, good and strong men -are wanted, so we must also have clever men. Unfortunately, however, -there are no such men in our midst. We also know that if the heathen -see us going from house to house, and find out our intentions, it -might go very ill with us. We must therefore find out other means, -so that our enemies should not even suspect our action. I, as the -oldest among you, have come to the conclusion that we must get some -very clever women. We might then possibly win our case. Let us make a -list of all such women and instruct them carefully. We can then send -them to the houses of the Christians to advise them what to do." - -"Excellent," replied the other learned men, and they called out all -the clever women from the list which they had made, and by teaching -them day and night, they fitted them for their work and sent them to -the houses of the Christians. Before they left, however, they were -told that they were neither to turn back and look at anything, nor -were they to look straight into the eyes of strangers, for their eyes -were bewitched by the devil, nor should they speak to strangers, who -would pour poison into their souls. After receiving these instructions, -they all covered their faces and left only holes for their eyes. Then -they took food for the journey, taking care to fast regularly for -two days and eating only on the third. One of them, called "Nun," -going into a town where the people were dressed up more richly than -in any other town, met a young man, tall as a reed, white as foam, -with a crisp upturned moustache, a small well-proportioned mouth, -and eyes glittering like those of a snake. He stood quite alone! The -young man, cunning as the young men of our days are, no sooner set -eyes on the young woman, when he began to tell her of all that is -in the heavens and upon earth, and made her forget her errand and -the instructions which she had received. So she unveiled her face, -and began to talk in such a manner that no man would have stopped her -from going on. In the end she told him even of the intentions of the -Christians and of the teaching of St. Peter. As soon as he had heard -all she had to tell him, the young man disappeared, for he was none -else than the son of Satan. St. Peter, who knew all that had happened, -for the angel of God had told him, started after the young woman in -order that he might stop her from revealing to others the intentions -of the Christians. He found her in a meadow playing with some children. - -"Thy name is nun, thy name shall remain nun (Mantissa religiosa), -but thou shalt not have any longer a human shape, as thou hast thrown -away the veil, and has denied thy beautiful face." - -When the nun beheld St. Peter she got frightened, and tried to pull -the veil over her face, which was uncovered, but she could not do it, -for God had changed her into a little green beetle which to this very -day joins its front legs, and it looks as if it intended to cover -its face with them. - - - -This legend has been turned into a charm against a bad wife. Put the -nun under her head at night, and say three nights consecutively the -following charm: - - - "Faithless Nun, St. Peter had taught thee; - St. Peter has sent thee to do good to the Christians, to give - them good teaching; to the ignorant thou hast given instruction. - But thy conduct was bad, - For thou hast spoken to the enemies, - And hast shown thy uncovered face; - And God has punished thee. - I now have also a wife, like unto a spark, with bad tongue and - evil speech-- - Evil in every way-- - Bad, envious, cheating, - Restless, - Always in motion, with a heart full of sin. - Thou, O faithless Nun, smitten by God, - Condemned by men, - Make my wife to become good. - From bad and faithless, make her good and faithful. - From cheating and envious, make her good and loving. - Otherwise, woe unto her. - Woe unto thy kind, - For I will set upon it and utterly destroy it. - I will fall upon it and annihilate it. - - -She will then repent of her evil ways. This charm is only to be used -in the case when the wife is younger than the husband. - - - -In the charm we have the "historical" or narrative element, -in the legend we have the symbolical in the application which is -assumed to run on parallel lines--the woman must also be faithful, -obedient, chaste, must not look into other people's eyes nor talk to -strangers--a grave danger for her soul. And finally the "threat" that -unless the "nun" will do the bidding, she will be severely chastised, -just like the demons in older conjurations, who are first cajoled -and then threatened. It is thoroughly typical, and shows the depths -of belief in the power of even the little insect which is, however, -still seen as a "nun" in a human form well instructed and powerful, -in spite of its actual "disguise." No real line of demarcation is -drawn between the human being and the meanest creature. In popular -belief and imagination they all live and move on the same plane. - -There is another tale told about this insect, which seems to be -another attempt to explain its name Nun. - - - - - - - - -XXVII. - -WHY IS THE BEETLE CALLED THE NUN? - -The Story of the Devil's Daughter in the Cloister. - - -It is said that the devil--may he go into the wild desert and remain -there--had a very bad-tempered daughter. She was so bad that in -the whole world there was none other like her to make a couple of -them. When the devil saw that, devil though he was, he was yet no -match for his daughter, he slyly got her into a convent and made a -nun of her, in the hope that she might perchance repent and change -for the better. But the daughter remained what she was; ill-tempered -and bad. She kept making mischief without end. God, who could not -tolerate a daughter of the devil in a convent, and seeing also that -the daughter of the unclean was doing all kinds of mischief, changed -her into an insect. The other sisters, seeing what had happened, -called it Nun, and this has remained its name to our very days. - -It is curious that this insect should bear the name "nun" in almost -all European languages. I am not aware, however, of any legend except -the Rumanian explaining the name. - - - - - - - - -XXVIII. - -WHY IS THE WASP THE GIPSIES' BEE? - -The Story of the Wasp, the Gipsies and the Rumanians. - - -In the beginning the wasp belonged to the Rumanians, and the bee -to the Gipsies. When the former saw how useless, nay, dangerous, -the wasps were, and how useful the bees, they cheated the Gipsies -into changing with them. - -Those of aforetime tell us that when God made the living creatures -which move with the sun, he made the bee first. The Gipsy, impudent -and greedy, as he has remained to this very day, stole the bee from -the hand of God saying, "Give it to me, O Lord, that I may eat of -its honey, I and my little ones. And of the wax--I will make candles -to light them up for thee in the Church." God did not say anything, -but kept silent and looked angrily at the Gipsy, for he was annoyed at -the Gipsy's impudence. He made up his mind to punish him. He therefore -at once made the big wasp, and, after he had made it, he gave it to -the Rumanians, saying, "Take this, for the bee has been ordained for -the Gipsy, and he has taken his share." The Rumanian took the wasp, -and thanked God. Sometime afterwards the Gipsy met the Rumanian, -and he asked him whether his bee had brought him much honey. The -Rumanian, smart as ever, replied, "My bee has filled many barrels, -for this bee carries the honey in bagfuls, as it was big and strong." - -"Oh," cried the Gipsy, "I see that he has deceived me; my bee has not -filled a cup with honey, and my duckies have not even rubbed their -lips with honey. Let us exchange our bees, my little Rumanian." - -"But what do you give in addition?" - -"What shall I give you? By God, I have nothing. I will make an axe -of my iron and give it to you." - -"Well, then, let it be so. Bring here your hive and I will bring -you mine." - -"I will do so," and the Gipsy went with the Rumanian to the hut and -gave him the hive. The Rumanian took it home, and when they reached -the forest the Rumanian showed him a big tree, as thick as a barrel -and high as the heavens, where the Rumanian had put before the wasps -and where they had grown to a very large number. - -"Here, you Gipsy, are my bees in this hollow tree. It is full of -honey enough to satisfy your whole nation of Gipsies and some to -remain over." - -"Thank you. May God bless you," replied the Gipsy. - -The Rumanian went home to look after the bees. The Gipsy gathered his -whole nation together. They brought copper pans and pots and ladders, -and came to the tree to eat of the honey to their fill. Arrived there, -they leaned the ladder just against the hole by which the wasps went -out and came in. Full of courage, as the Gipsy is by nature, he took -a pot for the honey and climbed up the ladder. No sooner had he got -there when a wasp thrust its sting into him. Another stung him on the -nose, and another, and again another, and the Gipsy could not see -out of his eyes because of the pain, and he began howling there on -the top of the tree. He forgot the honey and everything, and cried, -"Keep the ladder, keep the pot, keep me also, for we are falling," -and down he came with a thud. How long he lay there with broken -bones I do not know, but I do know that he had had enough of wasps' -honey to last him to the end of his days. Since then the bees belong -to the Rumanians, and the wasps are the Gipsies' bees. - - - - - - - - -XXVIII. A. - -ANOTHER VERSION OF THE WASP LEGEND. - - -Another legend which omits the first part of the story does not mention -anything about the Gipsy stealing the bee from God, but simply tells of -a Gipsy who found a hive in the forest, and taking it home, went about -bragging of his wonderful hive and of the honey. A clever Rumanian, -finding a wasp nest, told the Gipsy that his bees were making gold, -and induced him to change with him. Since then the bees belong to -the Rumanians. - - - - - - - - -XXIX. - -WHY DOES THE HORNET LIVE IN SMOKY PLACES? - -The Story of God and the Odd Present. - - -When God had finished making the trees and grass, the sun and moon, -and all that lives and moves, he sat down on his seat and ordered -all the creatures to come to him that he might bless them. Every one -came and brought a gift according to its best, and God blessed each -one according to its nature. The sheep brought wool and milk, and the -Lord blessed it, and bade it clothe the house of the Rumanians with -its wool and feed the babies with its milk. The bee brought sweet -honey and wax with the perfume of all the flowers. God blessed it, -so that with the honey man's food should be sweetened, and the wax -should light the Church at the Holy Office. Thus each creature got the -blessing according to its ways. Now came the turn of the hornet, by -nature lazy and accustomed to live by theft. What could she bring? and -again, how could she come with empty hands before the throne of the -Almighty? So, finding a piece of cardboard, she picked it up and -brought it to God. The Lord understood the trick which the hornet -wanted to play on him, and how lazy she was. He, therefore, cursed -her that all her work should be as brittle as bits of cardboard, and -she should live only by theft. Her habitation should be the chimney, -and her nest should be broken by everybody. So has it remained to -this very day. The nests look as if they had been made of cardboard, -they hang down from the smoky chimneys of houses, as if they were to -be smoked; she lives by theft and even upon dead bodies, and her nest -is always broken up. - - - - - - - - -XXX. - -WHY IS THE HORNET SO SPITEFUL? - -The Story of the Children of Cain. - - -It is told that one of the descendants of Cain had many children, one -worse than the other. When sent on an errand to bring one thing, out of -spite they would bring another; they were of no good to anyone. Their -mother, who was a wicked and stingy bird (eagle), did nothing else -from morning to evening but curse and shout and peck at them. The -youngest, who was the worst, finding his mother in a violent temper, -started quarrelling with her so loudly that the noise could be heard -at the other end of the country. They even went so far as to fight -one another. The mother, who was a strong woman, got the best of her -son at first, but the youngster, biting her in the throat, drank all -her blood until she died. Before dying, however, the mother cursed -him that none of his children should ever be prosperous, though they -should be very numerous. They should live in the hollows of trees and -feed on dead human bodies. They should become flies with poisonous -stings, and their blood should change into poison. When he heard his -mother's curse the youth ran into the forest, and the quicker he ran -the more it appeared to him that he became smaller and lighter, until -one morning he found himself changed into a hornet with a yellow body. - - - - - - - - -XXX. A. - -HORNET CHARM. - - -The hornet is used for the following charm: - -If people wish a dog to become savage, they take some hornets, and -mixing them with the food, give it to the puppies to eat, and say -the following words: "Just as the hornet is burning and unbearable, -so shalt thou become hot and savage and intolerable, and thou shalt -not tolerate any one else besides me and those of this household...." - - - -The hornet's nest in the stubble indicates the strength of the winter -and the depth of the snow, according as it is built high or low. - - - - - - - - -XXXI. - -WHY HAS THE WOODPECKER SUCH A LONG BEAK AND WHY DOES IT PECK AT -THE TREES? - -The Story of God and the Inquisitive Woman. - - -Know that the woodpecker was originally not a bird but an old woman -with a very long nose, which she put into everybody's pots and pans, -sniffing about, eavesdropping, inquisitive and curious about everything -whether it belonged to her or not, adding a little in her tale-bearing -and taking off a bit from another tale, and so making mischief -among her neighbours. When God saw her doings, he took a huge sack -and filled it with midges, beetles, ants, and all kinds of insects, -and, tying it tightly, gave it to the old woman, and said to her: -"Now take this sack and carry it home, but beware of opening it, -for if your curiosity makes you put your nose into it you will find -more than you care for, and you will have trouble without end." - -"Heaven forbid," replied the old hag, "that I should do such a thing; -I am not going against the will of God. I shall be careful." So she -took the sack on her back and started trotting home, but whilst she -was carrying it her fingers were already twitching, and she could -scarcely restrain herself, so no sooner did she find herself a short -distance away than she sat down in a meadow and opened the sack. That -was just what the insects wanted, for no sooner did she open it than -they started scrambling out and scampered about the field, each one -running his own way as fast as its little legs would carry it. Some -hid themselves in the earth, others scrambled under the grass, others, -again, went up the trees, and all ran away as fast as they could. - -When the old woman saw what had happened, she got mightily frightened, -and tried to gather the insects to pack them up again, and put -them back into the sack. But the insects did not wait for her. They -knew what to do, and a good number escaped into the field. Some she -was able to catch, and these she packed into the sack, and tied it -up. Then came the Voice of God, who asked her what she had done, -and if that was the way she kept her promise. - -"Where are the insects, beetles and midges, which I gave you to -carry? From this moment you shall change into a bird and go about -picking up all these insects until you get my sack full again, and -only then can you become a human being again." - -And so she changed into a woodpecker; the long beak is the long nose -of the old woman, and she goes about hunting for these midges, beetles -and ants in the hope of filling up the sack, when she would again -resume her human shape. But to this very day she has not completed -her task, and has remained the woodpecker. - - - - - - - - -XXXII. - -WHY HAS THE PELICAN A BIG POUCH UNDER ITS BEAK? - -The Story of God and the Disobedient Man. - - -The story of the woodpecker finds its closest parallel in the story of -the pelican. It is difficult to say which of the two is the original, -and which has been borrowed from the other. Certain legends have been -adapted to more than one subject, in the same manner as ballads and -tales and legends are often transferred from one hero or another. It -is that elasticity of adaptation, which to a certain extent gives -them the popularity which they enjoy. It is the very essence of the -tale not to be too much localised, but on the contrary to be able -to pass from one country to another, and to be fitted to the most -diverse circumstances and persons, so long as the general framework -has been retained. Popular imagination has no patience, and, in fact, -no room, for rigid forms or for mathematical formulae. The material -which it handles must be soft as wax to be moulded and kneaded, -and thin like gossamer to be woven into many strands. Of course, -the work of it can be seen in the variations in the theme and in its -adaptation to the new purpose. Thus in the following story: - -God and St. Peter were once upon a time walking upon the earth. There -came a great swarm of creeping things like rats, snakes, scorpions and -other vermin of this kind, as well as beetles, insects, ants and so -on. They crowded round them, and with great impudence worried them, -nay, even tried to bite them. St. Peter, who felt annoyed by the -constant worry of the vermin, said at last to God: - -"What is the good of keeping all these vermin upon the earth? see how -impudent, how aggressive they are! They molest even us, and try to bite -us, what then must the poor human beings be suffering through them?" - -"Very well," said God, "if it is thy wish, and thou thinkest to save -mankind of the attacks and molestations of these animals, I will try -to do as thou desirest." - -So he gathered them all together and put them in a huge sack, and -tied it carefully by the mouth, and he said to St. Peter, "Let us go -and throw it into the sea." - -On the way they fell in with a man, who was going in the same -direction. And God said to him, "Whither art thou going?" - -"I am going to the sea for fishing." - -"I will pay thee well," said God, "if you will take this sack and -take it to the sea and empty it into it. But mind, you must not open -it before you reach the shore; there, turning the sack upside down, -loosen it gently and let everything fall straight into the water. Be -careful and carry out my orders exactly, otherwise instead of obtaining -a reward you will get yourself into serious trouble." - -"For sure," replied the man, "I know how to carry out orders, you may -rely on me, I will do exactly as I am bidden." Then, shouldering the -sack, he went on his way to the sea. The sack was somewhat heavy and -the way to the sea rather long. Tired by the weight of the sack, he -sat down in the midst of his journey and rested. Then he asked himself: - -"What can be in that sack? why should those old men want me to empty -it into the sea? I will just loosen it a little and see." And so he -did. But no sooner had he loosened it a little when the animals, which -were all squeezed by God into the sack, pressed forward, and, before -the man could count two, out they were running, each one wherever his -eyes would lead him and his legs would carry him. Before he had time -to recover from his astonishment, he saw the two old men standing by -his side, and, pointing to the sack, God said to him: - -"Is that the way thou hast kept thy promise? As a punishment thou -shalt no longer be a human being, but a bird with long legs to be -able to run quickly after all these animals, and with a long beak to -pick them up, and under thy throat I will fasten the empty sack to -fill it with the animals caught." - -And thus he has remained to this very day, walking about on his long -legs, looking round with his keen eyes, and trying to pick up all -possible vermin which he espies crawling upon the earth. - - - - - - - - -XXXIII. - -WHY DOES THE TITMOUSE GET INTO THE PUMPKIN? - -The Story of God and the Food of the Titmouse. - - -When God had made all the creatures, he called every one of them -and told them what their food should be. Among the birds was the -titmouse. To her God turned and said, "Thy food shall be the seed of -the pumpkin." - -The titmouse, knowing that the seed of the pumpkin was very sweet, -did not wait to hear whether God said anything more, but, greedy -and impatient, ran as fast as she could, relishing beforehand the -delightful food which God had given her. So coming down to the earth, -she alighted on a field in which maize was growing, and among it a -large number of pumpkins. - -"Here, now, I have the food ready for me, and I am going to have a -good time." But she had made a wrong calculation. When she got up to -the pumpkins, she found to her dismay that the skin of the pumpkin -was as hard as bone. So she tried to pick a hole in it. She went -round and round, but wherever she tapped it with her little beak, -she found the shell too hard for her. - -Bitterly disappointed, she went away and tried to feed as best she -could by catching flies and beetles. So she eked out a miserable -livelihood only and solely because she was greedy, and had not waited -to hear what God had to say to her when he gave her that food. - -The time came when God was walking upon the earth. The titmouse heard -of it, and knowing the loving-kindness and mercy of God, and that he -would have pity if he heard of her miserable life, she took courage -and went to meet him, and told him how hard it was for her, that after -having had a gift from God, she could not enjoy it. She asked God, -therefore, that he would at least make a soft part in the skin of -the pumpkin that would become a hole, by which she could get inside -the pumpkin and eat the pips which were given to her for food. God -took pity on the little creature, who begged so piteously, and so, -taking a pumpkin, God made a hole in it. The titmouse got into it, -and did not leave the pumpkin until she had picked all the seeds. From -that time onwards the titmouse, whenever she sees a field of pumpkins, -will go round and round each pumpkin trying to find one with a hole, -by which to get into it and eat the pips. - -The titmouse was too quick again this time, for it did not ask God -to make two holes, to get in by one and out by the other, so now the -pumpkin often becomes a snare and a prison. Boys have only to make -a hole in the pumpkin for the titmouse to get into it and then they -catch it without any trouble. - - - - - - - - -XXXIV. - -WHY HAS THE NIGHTINGALE A DRAB COLOUR? - - -When God created the world he made all the living creatures of one -colour, or rather with none, for no one had any colouring on its -wings, feathers, or skin. So, one day, God called all his creatures -to paint them with different colours as he chose. All the birds and -beasts and creeping things came, and God gave every one a different -coat to wear. Only the nightingale did not come, as she had not heard -of God's command. At last some birds, seeing her, told her what had -happened. So she hastened to come to God. But when the nightingale -appeared before God, the paint-pot was quite empty, and no trace of any -paint (colour) was left. It had all been spent on those who had come -before. Thus nothing could be done, and the nightingale remained with -her drab colour. God, however, wanted to compensate the nightingale -for the lack of any colour, so he gave her a very beautiful voice. - - - - - - - - -XXXV. - -WHY HAS THE NIGHTINGALE TWELVE TUNES AND WHY DOES THE TURTLE-DOVE COO? - - -Once upon a time the nightingale met the turtle-dove. After greeting -one another, the nightingale said, "Sister, let us keep awake during -the night and learn some tunes to sing." - -"Quite agreeable," said the turtle-dove, "and in the morning we shall -see what each one of us has learned." - -In the following night the nightingale kept awake and listened -attentively to all the sounds that could be heard. She heard the -shepherd playing on his pipe, and the wind whistling, and the dogs -barking, and lambs calling, and many more sounds, and thus learned no -less than twelve tunes. The turtle-dove, lazy as she is by nature, did -not keep awake, but went to sleep as soon as the night grew dark. She -slept almost the whole night through, and awoke only at the break -of dawn. There was no sound to be heard. It was all quiet. Suddenly -she heard a man driving his horses to the fields shouting "trr, -trr." This sound she picked up, and no other. In the morning she -went to find her sister the nightingale, and asked her whether she -had heard anything, and whether she had learned any tunes. If so, -would she mind singing to her? - -The nightingale replied, "Oh, I have heard many songs, and have -learned many tunes." And without waiting any longer, she began to -warble her songs. The turtle-dove sat listening, lost in admiration -at the beautiful singing of the nightingale. When the latter had -finished her songs, she asked the turtle-dove: "And what have you -learned, sister mine?" - -The turtle-dove, full of shame over her laziness, owned that she had -not kept awake, but had gone to sleep, and that the only sound and song -she had learned was "trr, trr," which she had picked up from the man -who was driving his horses to the field. And so it has remained to this -very day. The nightingale sings all the night through and stops towards -the morning, when the turtle-dove awakens and starts its "trr, trr." - - - - - - - - -XXXVI. - -WHY IS THE NIGHTINGALE THE SONGSTER OF THE KING? - -The Story of the Nightingale, the Blackbird and the Thrush. - - -The king of the birds, feeling one day in a good humour, wanted to find -out which of his subjects could sing best. So he sent an order to his -birds to select from amongst themselves those whom they thought to be -the best singers. All the birds came together, and, after having heard -many of the birds who said they could sing, they selected three from -amongst them and sent up, as the best singers for the king to choose -from, the yellow thrush, the blackbird, and the nightingale. The -thrush, with his beautiful golden feathers which glow in the light -of the sun, was allowed to go first as the most beautiful of them; -nay, he put himself at the head and walked first. The blackbird, -which has a yellow beak, and whose feathers are shining like silk, -walked immediately behind, whilst the little nightingale, small -of build, with the drab-coloured feathers, followed meekly in the -rear. When they reached the palace, the king, seeing how beautiful -the thrush looked with his golden feathers, received him affably and -placed him at the head of the table. The thrush, swelling with pride, -began its song. The king listened attentively, and being pleased with -the song he praised the thrush very much. Then came the turn of the -blackbird; when the king saw it, he welcomed it and ordered a chair to -be brought near the table. The blackbird took its place and started -singing. It sang much more beautifully than the thrush. The king was -very pleased, and he expressed his delight. The last to come in was -the nightingale. When it entered the hall, it bowed down meekly to the -earth before the king, touching the floor with its little beak. When -the king saw that little ungainly bird, so small and meek and skinny -and of no appearance, he wondered what that bird wanted at the court, -and somewhat angrily he asked: - -"What do you want?" without even offering her a seat, as he had done -to the other guests. - -"May it please your majesty, do not be angry with your servant; I have -been selected by the other birds to sing here before your majesty." - -"Very well then; sing, I will just see what you can do." - -The nightingale, which did not even dare to look at the king, just -cleared her voice and started singing as she alone knows how to sing, -not like the others. When the king heard her singing, he was quite -taken aback with the beauty and sweetness of her voice; he was full -of admiration, for the nightingale had thrown the other birds into -the shade (lit. had put them under the bushel). - -When the nightingale had finished her song, the king did not allow -her to stop in the doorway where she had been standing any longer, -but called her up to the head of the table, and gave her the seat of -the thrush, and, when the meal was over and all the guests rose from -the table, it was the nightingale who walked first, and the blackbird, -which sang better than the thrush, walked immediately behind, whilst -the thrush, in spite of his grand array, now came third, feeling -abashed and ashamed by his failure. And from that time onward the -nightingale has been recognised as the best singer amongst them all, -and all the birds must bow their heads before her. - - - -There are a few more tales about the origin of the nightingale, but -they are somewhat confused. They do not seem to account either for -the beauty of its voice or for the simplicity of its appearance. - - - - - - - - -XXXVII. - -WHY DOES THE THRUSH HIDE IN THE TREE? - -The Story of the Boastful Thrush and St. Peter. - - -It was in the month of March, when Christ was walking on the earth -with St. Peter. Going through a forest they saw a thrush strutting -about on the top of a tree. - -"Good morning, Mr. Thrush," said St. Peter. - -"I have no time for you," replied the thrush. - -"And why not, prithee?" - -"Oh, you see, I am just now making summer, and I am busy. To-day I am -going to be married, and to-morrow a brother of mine has a wedding," -he said, turning his back upon them proudly. - -St. Peter and Christ said nothing, but went on their way. In that -afternoon there came a cold and heavy rain. It came down in torrents -all the afternoon, and during the night there came a frost from God -which made the stones crack, and it snowed heavily also. The next -morning, after they had done what they had to do, Christ and St. Peter -came again through the forest, and they found the thrush sitting -now on one of the lowest branches of the tree, huddled together and -trembling, with no more thoughts of marriage. - -"Good morning, Mr. Thrush," said St. Peter, when he saw him sitting -there huddled together and trembling. - -"Thank you," he replied angrily. - -"But what are you doing now? Why are you sitting so huddled up?" - -"To-day I am dying, and to-morrow a brother of mine is dying," he -answered, letting his beak down and ruffling his feathers to protect -himself a little more against the frost which had struck him to -the heart. - -From that time on the thrush does not boast any more that he is making -summer, and that he is going to marry; but he cries anxiously: "Socks -and sandals, for to-morrow it snows, good socks of cloth and sandals -of leaves to go in them to my beloved." This he sings because of the -fear of being caught again in snow and frost, and of not being able -to walk about in safety. - - - - - - - - -XXXVIII. - -WHY HAS THE PARTRIDGE A MOTTLED COLOUR? - - -In the beginning the partridge had red feathers. God had painted her -so when he painted all the other creatures, but for one reason or -another the partridge was not very pleased with this colour. After -a time she thought she would go to God and ask him to change her -colour. When she came to God, he asked her, "What ails thee?" - -"Well," she said, "I do not like the dye of my feathers." And God -asked her what was the reason for it. - -"Well," she said, "I do not like it." Upon which God, getting hold -of her, threw her into a box filled with ashes. When the partridge -recovered her senses--for she was dazed by the fall--she was mightily -indignant at the disgrace, and, climbing out of the box, she went as -fast as she could to the nearest brook, wishing to wash away the ashes -in which she was smothered. She wished to avoid being seen in that -state by the other birds. So she started dipping her beak into the -water and trying to wash off the ashes on her back. But, instead of -washing the ashes completely off, she managed to carry the ashes with -her wet beak under her wings also and along her sides. And that is why -she has remained to this very day mottled and freckled, the grey of the -ashes being mixed with the red--the original colour of her feathers. - - - - - - - - -XXXIX. - -WHY HAS THE THISTLE-FINCH RUFFLED FEATHERS? - - -When God created the world, he made all the creatures to be of one -colour, or rather none of them of any colour at all. You see, God was -too busy to bother about these little things. When he had finished -making everything that he intended to make, he called all the birds -together and said, "Now, I am going to paint you with nice colours." - -When the birds heard that message, they came all overjoyed to God, who -took his brush and dipped in various pots filled with paint and painted -them one by one. When he had almost finished, who would come but the -thistle-finch, with his feathers all ruffled and out of breath. When -God saw the little bird, he said to him, "Well, little master, how do -you look, where have you been, have you not heard my command, why did -you not come in time? Now all the paint is gone, I cannot do anything -for you, and it serves you right, you should have come in time like -the others did." And the little bird began to weep and said, "O God, -I am quite innocent, just look at me and see what a state I am in; -I was very hungry and tried to find something to eat, but could not -find anything for a long time, until I espied at last a few grains of -millet in a bush of thistles. So I got in and started picking. But, as -soon as I moved, the thistles got hold of me and would not let me go, -and the more I tried to get out, the more strongly did they hold me, -and tore my feathers and dishevelled my hair, and it was only after -a long tussle that I was able to get myself free and come here." - -When God saw that the little bird had told the truth, and that -it looked torn about and ruffled, he took pity on it and said, -"Wait a little and I will see what I can do," and taking his brush -he endeavoured to pick up the drops of paint which were left at -the bottom of the various pots. Taking them all on the tip of his -brush, he sprinkled the little bird all over with the drops of the -various colours which he had picked up from the bottom of the pots, -and that is the reason why the thistle-finch has so many spots and so -many colours. His name has remained to this very day "little master" -(domnisor in Rumanian) and also thistle-finch, because the thistles -ruffled his feathers and tore at him. - - - - - - - - -XL. - -WHY HAS THE BULLFINCH A RED BREAST AND A BIG MOUTH? - -The Story of the Brutish Innkeeper. - - -There lived in a town a brutish man, a grocer, who had only one care, -and that was how to cheat and rob in the quickest fashion the people -who came to deal with him. But this was not all, for, bad as it is, -one might let it pass, as there are so many others who do likewise, -cheating their customers right and left. But this man was also a -usurious moneylender, and he managed it so well that, instead of -helping people, he took the last shirt off their backs and sent them -out to die in misery. He sucked the blood of everyone who fell into -his clutches. - -But everything comes to an end. But no man is likely to repent -unless he has first come to grief. So it happened also to this -wicked man. Instead of being satisfied with what he had been able -to get by draining the very blood of his Christian fellow-men, he -persisted in his evil doings, robbing and fleecing right and left, -without mercy and without pity. When the cries of his victims came up -to God, he decided to punish him, and for his wickedness he changed -him into the bullfinch, which has still kept some of the features of -the man, when he was a human being. For he had a head like a melon, -and a wide mouth, and that is why the bullfinch has such a big head -and such a broad beak. The black feathers on its head are the black -cap of lambskin which he used to wear. The red breast is the blood -of the victims whom he had sucked dry, and the big body is the big -belly of the voracious fellow. - -Now when a bullfinch is caught, remembering its evil deeds, it will -bite out its tongue and die rather than become a mockery to the people -whom he had ill-treated in his former life. - - - - - - - - -XLI. - -WHY DOES THE HOOPOE FEED ON DROPPINGS? - -The Story of the Hoopoe and its Greed. - - -When God had created all the creatures, he gave everyone the food -which he thought best for them. When the turn of the hoopoe came, -God said to her, "Thy food shall be millet seed." The hoopoe was not -satisfied. She did not think it was good enough for her. So God in his -goodness gave her barley grains for food, but the hoopoe cannot easily -be satisfied. So she went on asking for better food. And God said, -"Let wheat be thy food." And still the hoopoe was not satisfied. So -God got angry, and said, "Thou impudent and greedy thing, I have -given thee the best food that is in this world, and in which even man -rejoices and is satisfied, but as this is not good enough for thee, -thou shalt find thy food henceforth in the droppings of other animals." - -The same happened when God arranged the dwelling-places of birds, -where they should build their nests. He had at first given to the -hoopoe sweet-smelling bushes and flowering trees to build her nest -in. But she wanted something better, and she was punished in the -same way as with the food. She now makes her nest in places which -are anything but clean and sweet-smelling. - - - - - - - - -XLII. - -WHY IS THE WAGTAIL CALLED THE GIPSIES' BIRD? - - -When God had made the world and all the creatures and man, he gave to -each one the food from which they should eat and be satisfied. All -the creatures thanked God, and whenever they eat their food they -are satisfied, except only the wagtail and the Gipsy who are never -satisfied. When God saw the greed of these two, he grew very angry and -said to the wagtail, "You shall not be allowed to go near any village -unless the Gipsies, after having eaten, say with their full heart that -they are quite satisfied." And to the Gipsy he said, "When the wagtail -will come into the villages, only then shall you be satisfied." But -the Gipsies, even when they are invited to the meals freely given in -honour of the dead, however much they may eat and stuff and fill, will -say as soon as they have got up from the table and gone a few steps, -"I am starving; I am dying of hunger." And therefore the wagtails -never come near the village. And it is also called the Gipsies' bird, -because it can only come near the village, when the Gipsy says he -has eaten enough and is satisfied. But as such a thing never happens, -this bird cannot approach the houses of men like other birds. Also it -is called "half a bird," for all the other birds get into the village -except the wagtail. - - - - - - - - -XLIII. - -WHY IS THE HOOPOE SUCH A DIRTY BIRD? - -The Story of the Hoopoe, the Cuckoo and God. - - -There are a good many stories told about the hoopoe, some of them -in connection with the cuckoo. These two birds seem to be found very -often together, and the people believe them to be a pair, the cuckoo -being the male and the hoopoe the female bird. The following story -is told of them: - -The cuckoo had married the hoopoe, and they lived happily together -for a time. But after a time the hoopoe grew ambitious, and told -the cuckoo that if he wanted to have peace in the house, he must go -to God and ask that the hoopoe should become the head woman of the -village. God, who listens patiently to the weakness of his creatures, -received the cuckoo affably and said to him, "Go home in peace, the -wish of your wife shall be fulfilled." So it came to pass. After a -while the hoopoe grew more ambitious, and she sent the cuckoo again -to God, and told him to go and ask God to make her the mayoress. And -God again listened to the cuckoo's pleading and made his wife a -mayoress. But a woman can never be satisfied. So, after a while, -she sent the cuckoo again to God to ask him to make her the queen -over all the birds. God again listened to his prayer, and he made her -queen over all the birds. Moreover, as sign of her queenly station, -God gave her the tuft of feathers on her head, which were to be like a -crown. But also this did not satisfy the foolish hoopoe, although God -had told the cuckoo, "Mind, this is the last time thou comest to me to -trouble me for thy wife's sake; there are many more things in the world -for me to do, than to listen to her wishes." Still she insisted on the -cuckoo going again to God, and to ask him that he should allow her to -sit next to him on his throne in heaven. When God heard these words, -he said, "As thy wife has had the temerity and impudence to make such -a demand and to send such a request to me, she shall now be the least -considered of all the birds. She may whoop henceforth as much as she -likes, no one is to take any notice of her. She is to hatch her eggs -in dung, whilst thou, O cuckoo, shall be singing for as many months -in the year as thou hast spent in coming to me with these messages, -and everyone shall be pleased to hear thy song." - -And so it has remained as God said. The people like the cuckoo, -whilst the hoopoe is detested by everybody. - - - - - - - - -XLIV. - -WHY DOES THE CUCKOO LEAD A RESTLESS LIFE? - -The Story of the Cuckoo and the Wonderful Bush. - - -Many a tale is told about the origin of the cuckoo. Curiously enough, -they generally agree in seeing in the cuckoo a man punished for his -wickedness and cruelty, or for his faithlessness against his companion -or brother whom he is now seeking in vain. - -There are, however, also other tales and legends in which the cuckoo -is the victim of the cruelty of others; one is the preceding one, -and others now follow: in the first place, one which tells also of -the greed of the wife--The Story of the Cuckoo and Hoopoe. - - - -Once upon a time there lived in a village a man who was so poor that -sometimes days passed and he could not get a crumb of bread. So one -day he said to his wife, "What is the good of my stopping here any -longer. We are both dying of hunger; I will go away into the wide -world and see what luck may bring." So he took up his axe and went -along. Before he left, his wife said to him: "Do not go far away, and -do not forsake me and the children, for we have no one else to look -to for help." So he went away. Walking alone, he came to a forest. At -the edge of the forest he saw a beautiful bush with shining leaves, -and all the twigs of equal length. It was so beautiful that the man -thought, "I will just cut it up." When he drew near, how great was -his astonishment when he saw the bush bending its boughs towards him, -and speaking with a human voice, it said, "Do not touch me, do not -hurt me, for I will do you much good." - -"What good can you do me?" enquired the man. - -"Go back to the village and they will appoint you headman. Just go -and try." - -Amazed as he was on hearing the bush speak, he said to himself, "I -lose nothing if I go back; I shall see whether the bush is speaking -the truth. If not, woe unto it," and so he returned. No sooner had he -come near the village, when he saw the people coming out to meet him, -and without asking him any questions, they, for reasons of their own, -appointed him to be their headman. His poverty was now a thing of the -past, and he lived in cheer and comfort. This went on for three years, -and then, for the same reasons unknown to him, the people changed -their minds, and without saying anything to him one day he was the -headman, the next he was so no longer. They had put another man in his -stead. So he returned to his want, and again began to feel the pinch of -poverty. For a time he went on as best he could, but not being able to -stand it any longer, he again took his axe, and going into the forest -he went to the bush and said, "Now I am going to cut you down." The -bush again began to speak, and said to the man, "Do not touch me; -I will do you much good. You have seen what I have done before. You -go now to that and that town and they will appoint you to be judge." - -Believing the words of the bush, the man continued his journey, -and came to the town of which the bush had spoken to him; and -there, as had been foretold, without asking him a single question, -the people appointed him mayor over the place. The man now lived in -affluence and comfort, forgetting his time of poverty and suffering -he had gone through. Here, again, after three years, just as he -was appointed without a question, so he was dismissed by the people -without a question. - -The evil days came back, and he was looking about for a crust of bread, -but could not find any for himself and his family. He bethought himself -again of the bush, and, taking his axe upon his shoulder, he went away -to find it. The bush said to him: "Don't touch me; much good will -I do you, still more than I have done hitherto. You go to such and -such a kingdom, and there they will appoint you to be their emperor." - -He did as he was bid, and as he came near the town, all the people came -out to meet him, and they appointed him to be their emperor. He took -his wife and children with him, and there he lived in great state, -great power and riches. The law of that land was that no man could -be emperor for more than three years, so when the three years came -round he lost his position and another emperor was appointed in his -stead. He had meanwhile amassed great fortune and no longer feared -poverty. But his wife was ambitious, and was not satisfied at living -in affluence and wealth. Envious of the other emperor, she nagged -the man and worried him and sneered at him for being so meek and -being satisfied with his lowly state, and made him go to the bush -to ask for something more. She wanted him to be even better treated -than any emperor. The poor man, what was he to do? he could not stand -the trouble in his house, so again taking his axe upon his shoulder, -he came for a fourth time to the bush. When the bush saw him, it said: - -"What has brought you hither? You are no longer in want of -anything." "Well," he said, "my wife has sent me to you. She says -you must make me as great as God, greater than all emperors." - -The bush grew angry, and said to him: "O miserable wretch, always -dissatisfied! I have made thee headman and judge and emperor, and thou -lackest nothing. Thou art not in want of anything. Now, because thou -hast become impudent and insolent, for thy impious wishes thou shalt -be punished. From the man thou hast been thou shalt henceforth be a -bird, restless, without peace, and without quiet, flitting from tree -to tree, and from branch to branch, always dissatisfied, without a -home, without a family, and thy name shall be Cuckoo. Tell thy wife, -who, because she had been urging thee on and driving thee to do this -impious thing, that she shall become the hoopoe; puffing herself -up she shall cry whoop, whoop." And so it has remained to this very -day. (Cf. Story in Grimm, No. 19.) - - - - - - - - -XLV. - -WHY IS THE CUCKOO SILENT IN THE WINTER? - -The Story of the Cuckoo and the Palace of the Goldfinch. - - -After the creation of all the birds, God called them together and -told them they should elect a king to rule over them. - -The birds, like human beings, would chatter and chirrup, and talk -and fight, and never come to any decision. - -When God saw that it was going on without an end, and that it was -no good waiting for them to make their choice, he picked out the -goldfinch and said, "This is to be your king." The birds submitted, -as they were bound to do, and making their obeisance to the new king, -each one departed to its own place. Although the gathering had lasted -for some time, the cuckoo was still missing, and who was the last to -come but the cuckoo. When all the birds had departed, he turned up -and made his obeisance to the new king. The goldfinch looked at him -and said, "Hallo, cuckoo, where have you been?" - -"Oh, I lost my way in the forest, and it took me a long time to -come here." - -"I will forgive you," said the goldfinch, "but on one condition; -you know the forest so well. Go and make me a nice palace out of the -bast of the trees." - -The cuckoo, glad to have got off so cheaply, said, "Willingly will -I do so," and went away. - -You know the cuckoo, how light-headed and unstable he is: he says one -thing one day and forgets it the next, so, light-heartedly he flew -from tree to tree and allowed the summer to pass without remembering -the promise which he had made to the goldfinch. - -When autumn drew near he suddenly recollected that the goldfinch -expected him to build him a palace out of the bast of the tree, for -the goldfinch wanted to live in a shining palace. And that was just -what the cuckoo never intended to do. - -Fearing the wrath of the king, he stopped singing and hid himself in -the thickest part of the forest. The goldfinch waited month after -month to see the palace, and seeing the cuckoo flitting from tree -to tree and hearing him singing, thought he was busily at work. But -when the autumn came, and no trace of any palace could be seen, he -looked round to see where the cuckoo was. But catch him if you can, -for he had disappeared. - -And that is why the goldfinch never had the palace which he -desired. And that is also the reason why the cuckoo stops singing -from the feast of St. John, lest he be discovered by the goldfinch -and taken to task for his broken promise. - - - - - - - - -XLVI. - -THE STORY OF THE CROW AND ITS UGLY FLEDGLINGS. - - -Let us turn now to the crow, with which the raven is often confused -in the popular mind. - - - -Of all the birds, this is considered the ugliest, especially its young -fledglings. The legend tells that sometime after God had created -all the living beings, he called everyone to see them and their -offspring. He wanted to see how the young birds and animals looked, -and then to give them suitable gifts, and food for their little ones. - -They came one by one, and God looked at them, patted some and stroked -others, and was very pleased with every one of them, for each one had -something of beauty in it. And so he blessed them and gave them food -by which to live. The last to come was the crow, bringing her little -brood with her, very proud of them. When God cast his eyes upon the -young crows, he spat in astonishment, and said: - -"Surely these are not my creatures. I could not have made such ugly -things. Every one of my creatures has such beautiful young ones that -they are a pleasure to look at, but thine are so ugly that it makes -one sick to look at them. Whence hast thou got this one?" "Where -should I get them from?" replied the crow; "it is my very own young -child," she added with pride. "You had better go back and bring me -another one, this is much too ugly, I cannot look at it." Annoyed at -the words of God, the crow went away, and flew all over the earth -to search for another young one that would be more beautiful than -the one she had brought to God. But no other young bird appeared so -beautiful in her eyes as her own. So she returned back to God and said, -"I have been all over the world, and I have searched high and low, -but young birds more beautiful and more dainty than mine I have not -been able to find." Then God smilingly replied, "Quite right, just -so are all mothers; no other child is so beautiful in their eyes as -their own." Then he blessed the little crows and sent them away into -the world with his gifts. - - - - - - - - -XLVII. - -WHY IS THERE ENMITY BETWEEN THE CROW AND THE HAWK? - - -The Rumanians tell another tale about the ugliness of young crows. It -is the story of the crow and the hawk. - - - -The crow was in very great distress, for however she tried and whatever -she did, she could not rear a family. No sooner were the young hatched, -than the hawk would come and pick them up. In vain did she try to -hide her nest in the hollows of a tree or in the thickets of a bush, -as sure as death would the hawk find them and eat them. - -Not knowing what to do, she bethought herself and said, "How would it -do if I try and get the hawk to be godmother, for then, being a near -relation, she is sure to spare my little ones?" Said and done. She went -out of her place to search for the hawk, and finding her, she said, -"Good morning, sister." - -"Good morning," replied the hawk. - -"How pleased I should feel," said the crow, "if you would become -godmother to my children." - -"With pleasure," replied the hawk, "why not?" And so they made up a -covenant of friendship and of good-fellowship between them. - -Before leaving the hawk, the crow said to her, "Now, sister, I have -one request to make." - -"Granted," replied the hawk, "what is it?" - -"I only beg of you to spare my children, do not eat them when you -have found them." - -"All right," replied the hawk, "I shall certainly not touch them, but -tell me how they look so that in case I meet them I may spare them." - -"O," replied the crow, "mine are the most beautiful creatures in the -world, they are more lovely than any other bird can boast of." - -"Very well, rest assured. Go in peace." And they parted. - -The crow, being quite satisfied with the hawk's promise, began flying -about the next day trying to find something with which to feed her -children. The hawk the next morning went about her own business -and tried to find some nice little young ones to eat. Flying about, -she saw the young ones of the thrush, the blackbird, and of other -beautiful birds, and she said to herself, "Surely these are the -children of the crow; look how lovely and beautiful they are, I am -not going to touch them." - -She went all day, without finding any little birds but these; and -she said to herself: - -"I must keep my word to my sister, I am not going to touch them." And -she went to bed hungry. The next day the same thing happened, and -still the hawk kept her word and would not touch them. - -On the third day she was so hungry that she could scarcely see out -of her eyes. Roaming about, the hawk suddenly lighted upon the nest -of the crow. Seeing the little, miserable, ugly things in the nest, -the hawk at first would not touch them, although she never dreamt that -these ugly things were the children of the crow, so much praised by -her for their beauty, and thought they must belong to some hideous -bird. But what is one to do when one is hungry? One eats what one -gets and not finding anything better, she sat down and gobbled them -up one by one, and then flew away. - -Not long after the hawk had left, the crow came in, feeling sure this -time to find her little ones unhurt; but how great was her dismay -when she found the nest empty! First she thought the little birds -had tried their wings and were flying about in the neighbourhood, -and she went in search of them. Not finding them, she began to be a -little more anxious, and hunting a little more closely, found on the -ground near some rushes some tufts of feathers with little bones and -blood. She knew at once that the hawk had again been there, feeding -on her children. - -Full of wrath and fury, she went to find the hawk. Meeting her, she -said, "A nice sister and godmother you are! After you had promised -most faithfully not to touch my children, no sooner had I turned my -back on them, than you come again and eat them." - -"I do not understand what you are saying," replied the hawk. "It is -your own fault. You told me your children were the most beautiful -in the world, and those which I have eaten were monsters of -hideousness. If I had not felt the pinch of hunger so strong, I -would not have touched them, not for anything, such ugly things they -were! They nearly made me sick." - -"Is that the way you keep your promise?" replied the angry crow; -"after having eaten them, you even have the impudence to tell lies -and insult me. Off with you! and woe betide you if I ever catch you, -I will teach you to behave properly." - -From that day on, the hawk, if it gets near the crows, attacks -them. And from that day on there is implacable hatred between the -crows and the hawks. - - - - - - - - -XLVII. A. - -CROW CHARMS. - - -It is said that the crow bathes its young in some waters between -frontiers. This water becomes poisonous, and is used by witches -for philtres and spells. If a man wants to obtain the water, he -must go to nine witches, who assemble on a Tuesday at midnight -at the fountain. Each one brings a stolen pot, or, in preference, -the skull of a dog. In each they take three drops of that water, and -they say their spell over it, waving over it a tuft of hair from a mad -wolf. This incantation they must repeat for nine weeks on each Tuesday -at midnight, and with the water thus obtained they make their philtres. - -The croaking of the crow is considered as evil an omen as that of the -raven. A very peculiar custom prevails among the people, who, when the -children lose their teeth, take them and throw them if possible on the -roofs of the houses and say: "Here, crow, I give you a tooth of bone, -bring me one more beautiful." Or, according to other versions, "bring -me one of gold. I give you a tooth of iron, bring me one of steel." - - - - - - - - -XLVIII. - -WHY DOES THE HERON DRINK ONLY RAIN-WATER? - -The Story of the Heron and the digging of Wells. - - -When God had created the world, there were no springs or wells. The -only water from which to satisfy the thirst of all the creatures was -rain-water. After a time the rain was not enough to satisfy them all; -the grass and trees were fading and withering, burnt up by the fiery -heat of the sun, and the animals were perishing from thirst. - -So God called all the birds together, and told them that they should -dig holes in the earth with their claws and beaks, in order that the -water from underneath should come up and water the earth and slake -the thirst of all the creatures. At the bidding of God all the birds -came together and started working with their beaks and claws. They -all worked together. The hawk worked side by side with the young -chickens, and the owl with the doves. Such a thing never happened -before or since. - -The heron alone flew about as if it did not affect her. She was quite -indifferent to see how hard the other birds worked. She cared not -for the sweat which stood out like beads, and ran down the neck of -the lark as it went scratching away at the earth with legs as thin -as two straws, nor did she care for the titmouse which hacked away -at the foot of a hillock. And God asked her: - -"Why dost thou not do anything?" - -"Why should I soil my feet with mud," she replied, "when the -rain-waters are not yet dried up?" - -And God said: - -"Because thou hast not hearkened to my command, thou shalt slake thy -thirst only from the rain, and then only by the water running down thy -wings." From that time onwards one hears the heron crying in time of -drought. She prays to God to send some rain to moisten her dry mouth. - - - - - - - - -XLIX. - -WHY DOES THE KITE CRY IN DRY WEATHER? - -The Story of the Kite and the making of Rivers. - - -The same story is told of the kite in the following version: - -When God made the world, he called all the birds together to help him -to dig wells for the water and beds for the rivers. All the birds -came except the kite, which, looking at its claws, said, "See how -beautiful and dainty they are! I am not going to soil them with the -mud of the rivers and wells." Then all the other birds cursed her, -that she might never be able to drink water out of wells and rivers, -and should slake her thirst only with the dew and rain from heaven, -nor should she be able to drink by lifting her beak and catching the -falling rain, but she would only be able to drink the rain-water -which was running down her wings. Therefore, in time of drought, -the kite flies high up to God and prays for rain and dew, for if she -drinks of the water of rivers and wells she dies. - - - -A remarkable parallel to this story has been given by Grimm in his -D. Mythologie, 4th ed. p. 561; and for a Russian parallel, v. Ralston, -Russian Folk Tales, p. 331. - -An oriental version substitutes the raven for the kite as the bird -whose piteous cries bring about the breaking of the drought. It is -said that when Adam beheld his dead son Abel, he did not know what -to do, for he was the first man to die. A raven dug a hole and put -into it his companion who had died. - -Adam saw this and followed his example. God therefore granted to the -raven that henceforth when there would be drought in the world, his -cry would bring about the breaking up of the drought and a downpour -of rain (Chapters of Eliezer, ch. xxi.). - - - - - - - - -L. - -WHY CAN THE MOLE NOT COME OUT ON THE HIGH ROAD? - -The Story of the Mole and the making of Roads. - - -When the world was made, there were no roads and no pathways. It was -very difficult to get about from one place to another. - -Seeing this, God ordered all the animals to come and work together and -straighten out paths and make roads. All the animals came and worked -as they were commanded. Only the mole stayed away, so God asked him -why he had not come, when all the others had? - -"I do not want any roads and ways, for they are of no use to me," -he replied; "I burrow under the earth and there I spend my life." - -"So shall it always be henceforth," said God, "and thou shalt not be -able to make thy little hills on roads or highways, and it shall not -be a sin to kill thee." - -And so it has remained to this day. No mole-hill has ever been seen -on any public road. The mole cannot make them except in fields and -meadows. - -Whoever destroys a mole-hill gets a peculiar wart on his hand. In -order to get rid of it he must pass over it seven times the paw -(the claws) of a mole. - - - - - - - - -LI. - -WHY HAS THE TORTOISE A ROUND BACK? - -The Story of the Tortoise, St. Peter and God. - - -When God and St. Peter were walking on the earth, one day they made a -very long journey, and grew very hungry. Coming to a little hut, they -found the woman in, and they asked her for something to eat. "Well," -she said, "I have very little flour in the house, but I am going to -bake two loaves, and when you come back in half an hour they will be -ready and you will be welcome to one." Taking the flour, she kneaded -it in the trough and made two loaves, one for herself and one for -the travellers. Meanwhile they went to church, but they said before -going that they would come back at the end of the service. - -The woman covered over the dough, and to her great astonishment, -when she lifted the cover, the dough of the loaf for the strangers -had risen much higher than the other. Then she put both loaves in the -oven. How great was her surprise, on taking out the loaves from the -oven, when she found that the one for the travellers had been baked -nicely and was a very big loaf, whilst the one for herself was half -burned and almost shrivelled to a pancake. When she saw the miracle -her greed overtook her, and she forgot the promise which she had -made to the travellers. She said to herself: "Why should I give my -best bread to strangers whom I do not know? Let them go elsewhere to -richer people than I am." - -So she took the pasteboard and put it on the floor, and crouching on -it, covered herself over with the trough. She told her little girl -to stand in front of the door, and if two old people should come -and ask for her she was to say that her mother had gone away and -that she did not know where she was. The travellers then, of course, -would not come in, and she would be able to enjoy the loaf. - -After a while God and St. Peter came back from church, and asked -the little girl where her mother was, to which the child replied as -she had been told. God said, "Where she is there shall she remain"; -and went away. The child came in and tried to lift the trough off -the back of her mother, who was lying hidden underneath, but try as -hard as she could the trough would not come off. It had grown on to -the back of her mother, and the pasteboard had grown underneath on -to her. The woman was only able to put out her little head with the -glistening, greedy eyes, and her tiny little hands and feet, and the -handle of the pasteboard had turned into a waggling tail. - -And that is how the tortoise was made, when the old woman became the -tortoise always carrying the trough and the pasteboard with her. - - - - - - - - -LII. - -WHY HAVE THE FISH NO FEET? - - -When God had made all the creatures, he gave every one the power of -walking and saving themselves from danger. - -Among others, came the fish, and God asked him what he would like, -and the fish replied: "If I am to have my choice I would ask you to -give me seven wings; I should fly much quicker than any other animal, -and no one would be able to catch me: but should I be caught I am -willing to die alive on the grill with my eyes open." And God shook -his head at the foolish request, for he knew that man would be able -to find out how to make the line and hook, and that all the wings of -the fish would not help him. So he is caught with his mouth open, -and that is why the fish takes his punishment without murmuring, -and dies quietly on the grill with his eyes open. - - - - - - - - -LIII. - -WHY DO THE PLOVER FLY SINGLY? - -The Story of the Plover and Lady Mary. - - -In the beginning the plover used to fly in large coveys. But one day, -when Our Lady was riding on a horse, they ran across the road and -frightened the horse so much that it threw the rider. Angry at the -mishap, St. Mary cursed the plover that they should no longer gather -in coveys but should go singly. And so it has remained to this very -day. The plover nest quite alone and never join others in their flight. - - - - - - - - -LIV. - -WHY DOES THE SPIDER HANG ON A THREAD? - -The Story of the Spider and Lady Mary. - - -One day a spider, meeting the Holy Mother, challenged her as to which -of the two could spin the finer thread. The Holy Mother accepted the -challenge, and started to spin a very fine thread indeed. But, however -fine her thread was, the yarn spun by the spider was much finer, -and then, to add to the discomfiture of the Holy Mother, the spider -let himself down on one of its threads and remained dangling, and, -turning to the Holy Mother, he said to her: "Can you do anything like -it?" And the Holy Mother replied, "No"; and being angry she cursed the -spider, and said, "Thy web shall be of no use to anyone, and because -of thy spite, whoever kills thee shall be forgiven three of his sins." - - - -We meet the spider again in controversy with the Holy Mother on a -more dramatic occasion. - - - -She was searching for her son, and going to St. John, she asked him -what had happened to him, as she had not seen him for some time. "The -cruel people have taken him and are torturing him." Going on her -way she met the carpenters, who said to her that instead of making -a light cross they had made a heavy cross. She cursed them, saying, -"May you work all the year and see no profit." - -Then she met the smiths, who, instead of making short nails, had made -long nails, and she cursed them likewise. She came to the gate of the -palace of Pilate, and on her touching the gate, it opened, and going -in, she saw all that happened. On her way, weeping and crying, she met -a flight of swallows, who asked her why she was crying and weeping, -and she replied, "My only son has been taken away from me." And they -replied, "Do not weep and do not cry, for three days hence thou shalt -see him alive, thou and thy friends." - -And the Holy Mother blessed them, that they should always be welcome -in the house of the people, that they should nest on the roofs, and -that no one should disturb them, and that whosoever should kill a -swallow should be guilty of three sins. - -Going further, she met the spider, and the spider asked her why she -was weeping and crying, and she replied, "My only son has been taken -away." And the spider replied, "You may cry till the day of doom; -what is gone is gone, and can never come back again." Next to the -spider was standing the mouse, and the mouse chimed in: so the Holy -Mother cursed him and went on her way, but finding that her way led -her nowhere, she came back the same road. - -When she had gone, the mouse said to the spider: "The Holy Mother -has not blessed us, so I think you had better make a rope and stretch -it from tree to tree, and I will dig a pit underneath, and when she -comes back we will hang her by the rope and throw her into the pit." - -But the Holy Mother knew what they were plotting, and when she came -back, she said: - -"Thou ugly and spiteful spider, worms shall settle on thee, and by thy -own rope shalt thou hang. All the days of thy life an unclean animal -shalt thou be. And thou, O mouse, who hast plotted against me, thy -habitation shall be henceforth in the pits and hollows of the earth, -and thou shalt be an unclean beast. Whatever thou touchest shall -be defiled, and whoever kills thee or the spider shall be forgiven -three sins." And so it has remained to this very day, the spider -hanging on its own rope, and the mouse lying hidden under the earth, -and both are killed by men and beasts. - -This same legend has become a carol which is also used as a charm. - - - - - - - - -LIV. A. - -WHY ARE THE SPIDER AND THE MOUSE ACCURSED? - -The Story of Lady Mary, the Mouse and the Spider (a Charm). - - -After the crucifixion, the Lady Mary went along crying and weeping in -pain and grief for that they had crucified her son. Wherever she went -all the creatures wept with her, and the flowers in the grass of the -field bent low in sign of mourning. A flight of swallows met her in -the beautiful meadow, and seeing her crying, comforted her, and said: -"Do not weep, for thy son will come to life again three days hence, -and will show himself to thee and to the Apostles." Then the Lady Mary -became more comforted, and said to the swallows: "Ye swallows from -this day on shall be the cleanest birds on the face of the earth, -and the house at which you build your nests will be a happy one, -and whoever destroys your nest shall be cursed." The Lady Mary went -on her way, and passing on her way she met a spider weaving his web, -and a mouse burrowing in the ground. When they saw her weeping they -mocked at her, and said: "In vain dost thou weep and cry. Know that -thy son is dead; he will never come to life again, although thou -mayest believe it." But the Lady Mary replied: "My child is the son of -God. He will do what he wills." And she went on her way. She went on -until she came to another forest. Fearing that she might lose her way -she returned the same way as she had gone. The spider and the mouse, -seeing that she had not blessed them, took counsel together to hang -her on a rope and to kill her the next time they met her again. And -the mouse said to the spider: "Now thou weave a rope and get it ready, -and upon that rope we will hang her as soon as we set our eyes on -her." A short time afterwards the Lady Mary returned, and came back -to the same spot. Meanwhile the spider had woven a strong rope, and -had tied one end to a branch of the tree, and the mouse had digged a -deep pit under that tree. But the Lady knew what they had intended, -and she said: "Thou, O spider, hast woven a rope for hanging me, -thou shalt always dangle on a rope. Thou shalt be unclean and full of -vermin, and whoever catches thee shall kill thee. And thou, O mouse, -thou shalt be so dirty from this day onwards, that wherever thou diest -that place shall become unclean, and whoever sees thee shall kill thee, -and whoever will kill a mouse or a spider God shall forgive him three -sins." And as she had said, so it has remained to this very day. From -that time on the mouse and the spider have remained accursed. - - - - - - - - -LV. - -WHY HAS THE SWALLOW A FORKED TAIL AND A RED SPOT ON ITS BREAST? - -The Story of Lady Mary and the Wicked Stepmother. - - -In Oriental folk-lore the swallow seems to be considered everywhere -as a sacred bird, of which many legends are related. We hear, that -when the Temple was burning in Jerusalem the swallows were the birds -which brought water in their beaks with which to quench the flame, -whilst the spider brought fiery coal to fan the flame. Hence he who -kills a swallow commits seven sins, whilst he who kills a spider is -forgiven seven sins. In the Appendix, No. III., a peculiar legend is -also told of the spider, the gnat and the swallow. As for the origin -of the swallow, which would account for the forked tail and for the -colour of the feathers, the Rumanians have the following tale. - - - -It is a story of a mother-in-law, who, like all mothers-in-law, treated -her daughter-in-law in a most cruel manner. Whatever the young woman -did was not right. Her mother-in-law persecuted her from morning -till evening, and gave her neither peace nor rest. One day, seeing -that she could not get rid of her by any other means, she killed her, -and cut her up in pieces. Her son, who had been away, came in just in -time to see the foul deed which his mother had done. Enraged, he made -a pile of wood, and dragging his mother on to it, he lit the wood, so -as to burn his mother on the fire. For reasons which we do not know, -St. Mary came down from heaven and pulled the old woman away from -the fire after her. Her clothes had already began to burn. She got -hold of her, changed her into a swallow, and pulled her through the -chimney. As soon as she saw herself saved, the wicked woman wanted -to fly away. But St. Mary said: "Stop, and do not fly away. Do not -imagine that because I have saved you from being burned on the fire, -I will let you go away like that: you just wait, for I must put a sign -on you, that everybody may know what a good mother-in-law you have -been, and that you have killed your daughter-in-law." And as she said -these words, she caused her tail to become like a pair of scissors, -or rather like two sharp knives joined in one point, like the knives -with which she had cut up her daughter-in-law. But this was not the -only sign. For when St. Mary pulled her through the chimney, a lot -of soot fell on her, and wherever it fell it made the feathers black, -and so they have remained to this very day. The red spot on the breast -of the swallow is the red blood of her daughter-in-law, and the white -spots are the remnants of the shirt which remained unburned when all -the other clothes had caught fire, but it has not kept white either, -for it was just a little singed. - - - -There are besides these a number of tales about the swallow. They -are told in Nos. 86, 87. - - - - - - - - -LVI. - -WHY DOES THE FROG SHRIVEL UP AT DEATH? - -The Story of the Frog and Lady Mary. - - -When Christ was being crucified, his mother went in search of him; -she did not know whither he had betaken himself. On her way she met -a band of carpenters. Weeping, she asked them, "Have you seen my -son?" "We have seen him," they said. "Nay, we have made the cross, -and instead of light timber, we have taken heavy timber." "So," she -said, "you shall henceforth work from morning till night and never -get any richer." - -Then she met a band of Gipsies, and she asked them, "Have you seen -my son?" "O yes," they replied, "we have seen him, and we were told -to make thick and blunt nails, but we have made them thin and pointed -so they should pass easily through and not give much pain." And Mary -replied, "May your work be light and your profit great." - -Going on her way she met a frog, and the frog asked her, "Dear -lady mine, what are you weeping and crying for?" And she replied, -"I am weeping and crying for my only son, whom they are killing now -in Jerusalem." And the frog replied, "What am I to say; I have had -ten children and nine were crushed to death by the wicked wheel of -the carts, only one is left to his mother, a sweet darling and pet, -a beauty." When Mary heard the frog lauding her child, she said, -"Let me see that beauty of yours, just come out, little froggie, -beloved darling of mother." And there came out of the lake behind a -little frog with its crooked legs and ungainly face, and with eyes -staring out of his head. And when Mary saw that beauty she could not -help laughing under her tears. And she said to the frog, "Because -thou hast made me smile in my grief, may thy body never rot when -thou diest, and the worm never have a share in it." And ever since, -when the frog dies, the body shrinks into nothingness and disappears. - - - - - - - - -LVII. - -WHY DOES THE SILKWORM SPIN A THIN THREAD? - -The Story of the Tortoise and Lady Mary. - - -The blessed Mary, great and glorious as she is--she must not take -it amiss--was one day too lazy to go out on behalf of her son to -distribute his gifts among the children of the village. So when she -left the house with the loaves of bread, some cake, and other gifts -which she was to distribute, under her arm, she met the tortoise. - -"Good morning," said the one. "Welcome, daughter," said the -other. St. Mary said, "Prithee, auntie, just give this bread as alms -for souls to the boys of the village." - -"That is not much, my daughter, I will willingly do it," and taking -the bread under her arms, there she went crawling along until she -came to the boys. - -The tortoise had scarcely left her, when St. Mary bethought herself -that it might have been better if she herself had given the alms away, -and not sent them through a stranger. So without more ado she followed -the way the tortoise had gone, and came to the school. - -What did she see there? Auntie tortoise performed her deed as she had -promised, and going from boy to boy gave everyone a bit. But when at -last she came to the youngest, who was her own child, she took out -the cake and gave it to him. "I should like to know," said St. Mary, -"how it happened that the last piece to be given away was a cake?" - -"Well, daughter, or rather mother, I had kept the cake for the most -beautiful child, and I could not find anyone more beautiful than -mine." St. Mary, who had heard many things, when she heard this, -could not help laughing aloud. - -When she stopped laughing she was rather sorry, for why should she have -laughed so loud? She said, "Verily, there is nothing more beautiful -in the eyes of a mother than her own child." - -Her beautiful face grew sad, and in order that her laughter should -not bewitch the little tortoise--as if struck by the evil eye for -being praised as beautiful--she spat out upon the ground, and out of -the spittle there grew the silkworm. St. Mary blessed it and said, -"Thou shalt live upon green leaves, and thou shalt draw out fine silk -threads" (like the thread of the spittle). It is therefore forbidden -to say anything evil of the silkworm, or to touch it whilst it is -spinning the cocoon, for no sooner is an evil word spoken or the worm -touched, than it stops drawing the silk. - - - -The variant from the Balkans is as follows: - -When Jesus went up to Golgotha, the Virgin Mother followed, -crying. There she saw in the procession also a tortoise, and she -could not help laughing. She then reproached herself, and said, "O -evil mouth, thou art only good for worms." There and then she spat on -the ground in disgust, and worms came out of the spittle. But having -come from a holy mouth the worms which grew out of the spittle became -the silkworms, which have remained so to this very day. - - - -A peculiar variant in which, however, the second part--the origin of -the silkworm--is omitted, is found among the Kutzovlachs of Macedonia -as "The Story of St. Mary and the Tortoise." - -Once upon a time the Virgin Mary sat sadly at the door of the school, -waiting for her son, who was learning within, to come out so that she -might give him a piece of cake which she had brought with her. Whilst -she was sitting there she said to herself, "I will wait and see whether -all the creatures recognise my son to be the most beautiful child in -the world." - -A tortoise just then came along. In order to put her to the test, -St. Mary said to her, "Would you like to give this cake to the most -beautiful child here in this school?" - -"Willingly," replied the tortoise, and taking the cake she went into -the school room. It so happened then that her own child was also -among the pupils. She went straight up to it, and without a moment's -hesitation gave it the cake destined for the most beautiful child in -the school. When St. Mary saw what the tortoise had done, instead of -being angry she laughed heartily, and said to her: - -"Thou hast acted as every mother would act, for to a mother no one -could be more beautiful than her own child. And because thou hast -driven away my sadness, the finest and softest grass shall henceforth -be thy food, and when thou diest thy bones shall not rot away." - -And so it has remained to this very day, and the shell of the tortoise -remains sound. - - - - - - - - -LVIII. - -WHY IS IT RIGHT TO KILL A SPARROW? - -The Story of the Sparrow and the Crucifixion. - - -Another legend brings us again to the same events. This time it is -in connection with the sparrow. It is said that the sparrows were -originally much bigger birds than they are now, but at the time of -the crucifixion they flew round the cross and cried half mockingly, -"Jiviu Jiviu," which means "Live, live." Christ, who was in pain, and -annoyed at their behaviour, cursed them and said, "May you live only -on the crumbs which you will pick up on the roadside, and henceforth, -becoming smaller, you will be snared by little boys and tormented -by them, and the passers-by shall hit at you with whips, and kill -you." And so it has remained to this very day. - -They live on crumbs wherever they can pick them up. They have become -very small birds. They are snared by children, who often play with them -cruelly, and the passers-by strike at them with a whip, and kill them. - - - -A Russian Legend, Afanasief, p. 13, is a close parallel to this -story, though it differs somewhat from it in detail; v. Ralston, -Russian Folk Tales, p. 331. - - - - - - - - -LIX. - -WHY SHOULD THE OAK TREE NOT BOAST? - -The Story of the Sparrow and the Oak Tree. - - -The people regard the sparrow as one of the greatest pests, for he -eats up the seeds and the crops. The people believe that the sparrows -reach an age of over nine hundred years, and they tell the following -tale about it: - - - -In a clearing of a huge oak forest, there grew up a tiny little -tree. All the other trees looked upon it with pleasure, it was so -green and so tender. Suddenly a sparrow flying over the trees came -down and settled on that little sapling, which bent under the weight -of the bird. Angrily, the little tree said to the sparrow, "It is a -great shame that thou shouldst have come and settled on me, I who am -so weak and tender and scarcely able to stand up, why didst thou not -go and settle on one of those huge trees of which the forest is full." - -The sparrow, feeling ashamed and angered at the words of the little -sapling, replied: "Very well, I am going, but when thou shalt be -on thy death-bed I will come back, and thou wilt have to render me -account for these offensive words which thou hast spoken to me." And -the sparrow went away. - -Now it is known that an oak lives for nine hundred years: for three -hundred years it grows in strength and might, the next three hundred -it rests quiet, and during the last three hundred it slowly decays and -dies. First the heart, that is, the core, dies, then the wood is slowly -eaten away, the branches fall off, and at the end of nine hundred years -the tree is changed into dust. And so it happened with that little -sapling. It grew for three hundred years, it stopped still for the -next three hundred years, and finally it decayed and died at the end -of the last three hundred years. When the last day of the nine hundred -years had come, and scarcely anything was left of the tree but dust, -the sparrow came back, and rolling about in the dust it said: "Dost -thou remember when thou wast a mere sapling, how thou didst insult me, -thou didst believe thou wouldst grow on and live for ever? Dost thou -see that my word has come true, thou proud tree of the forest, now -thy head is lying low and thou hast been changed into dust, thou hast -been humbled, whilst I am still living on in strength, and I am now as -I have then been." This longevity of the sparrow makes him the dread -of the peasants and farmers, and among the means taken to save the -crops from the inroads of this pest are magical practices and charms. - -I will only quote one or two. - - - -Charms against the Sparrow. - -On the first day of Lent the man must collect all the crumbs and -bones from his table after he has finished his meal, and, taking them -out in the table-cover, he must strew them upon the field, and say, -"O ye birds of heaven, here I have brought you of the food from my -table, eat this, and do not touch the food from off the field." Or, -taking a handful of corn and standing with one foot on his field and -with the other on the roadside, he must throw the corn on the road -outside the field and to say, "O St. Mary, here I have brought food -for the birds of heaven. Let them feed on this seed and not on the -seed which I sow in my field." - -There is still another charm. - -At the time when the sparrows begin to pick at the corn the youngest -of the household must go to the field. He must take off all his -garments, then, tying a kerchief over his eyes, he must hold in -his hand a candle, which has been burning at the head of a corpse, -and carrying also a tuft of hair cut off from the head of the dead, -he is to walk with the lighted candle in his hand over the four sides -of the field and say, "As I do not see now, and as the dead man does -not see, so shall the birds not see this field with the corn growing -in it. And the mind of the birds should be taken off from this field, -as the mind of the dead is off it." When he comes to the fourth -corner of the field he must tie the hair of the dead round some of -the ears of corn and say, "I do not tie up this crop, but I tie the -mouth of the birds, that they may not be able to eat it, as the dead -man is unable to eat it. And they shall not be able to see the corn, -as the dead man does not see the world." - - - - - - - - -LX. - -WHY DOES THE MOSQUITO LIVE IN THE WELL? - -The Story of King Pic, Lady Mary and the Sun. - - -Once upon a time St. Mary talked with the sun about the sins of -this world. They also talked about the wicked deeds of the Emperor -Pic among others, of whom an evil report had spread on account -of his cruelty. The sun talked to her about all that he had seen, -and St. Mary, weighing up all his sins, came to the decision that he -should be thrown into the depths of the sea, so that even his memory -should be lost to the end of days. - -But before she had time to pronounce her judgment, up came the Emperor -Pic himself in mighty wrath. He caught hold of St. Mary by the hair -of her head, for was he not the emperor, and was there anyone of whom -he should stand in awe? He feared no one, and cursing as fast as he -could fill his mouth with blasphemous words, he started fighting the -sun. When St. Mary wanted to remonstrate with him he gave her a blow -on her mouth, so as to stop her from speaking. The sun, seeing this -infamous conduct, got angry, and catching him by the throat, hurled -the Emperor Pic into a well with the intention of drowning him before -he could utter a single word. The only sound which he made before -sinking was Zi Zi Zi. St. Mary, having pity upon him, wanted to save -him from drowning, and tried to draw him out of the water. But she -looked in vain for him. Instead of finding Pic in the well, she only -found a little insect that was shivering with cold and was hiding -under one of the beams of the well. God had no doubt punished Pic -for his impudence. The mosquito (Culex pipiens) does not leave his -hiding place until the sun disappears, for he is frightened of him, -and this fear has remained with him. For this reason no mosquito will -come out during the daytime: he will wait until it gets dark, then he -will come out and, sitting on the edge of the well, sings Zi, Zi, Zi. - - - - - - - - -LXI. - -WHY DOES THE MOSQUITO FEED ON BLOOD? - -The Story of God and the Food of the Mosquito. - - -After God had made all the creatures, he called them together, to tell -them what they would have to do so that they might live. They all came, -and God gave every one its gift and the manner of its food. All had -come and gone, but the mosquito did not come until very late. When -asked why he had done so, he started telling tales, until God got -angry and, turning to him, said: - -"I have no time to waste with thee, hurry up and tell me quickly, -what kind of food dost thou wish?" - -The mosquito replied, "I wish to live by sucking." - -"So it shall be," replied God, "now go and suck the juice of trees -and plants." - -What was he to do? He went and sucked the trees and plants. After a -fortnight had passed he got weak and shrivelled from this kind of -food. His wife, seeing the state into which he had fallen by his -foolish demand, said to him: - -"See what has become of you! You are shrivelled up and weak, a few -days more and you are sure to die. You had better go to God and beg -him to give you another food." - -But he said, "I cannot go; if you have the impudence you had better -go." - -"Very well, then, I will go," replied the female mosquito, and up -she went to God. - -When he saw her he asked her, "What has brought you to me?" - -"The miserable food which my husband has got is killing us. We cannot -live by it. We are getting shrivelled up." - -"If so," said God, "I will give you the right to suck also blood -from man and beast, but as soon as you cannot get blood you must -die. Your husband, however, he may live on the blood and juice of -plants alike." And so it has remained, the female dies when she cannot -find blood to suck. - - - -According to some local tradition, the mosquito has been made out -of the smoke of the devil's pipe, and for that reason he hates the -smoke. According to another they are also the servants of the devil -and the enemies of the angels, who cannot come into a room where -there are many mosquitos - - - - - - - - -LXII. - -WHY DOES THE FLY EAT THE CHERRY? - -The Story of Lady Mary and the Cherries. - - -It is told that, once upon a time, the Lady Mary wanted to bring some -cherries to her son. So she went to a cherry tree and began to shake -it. But to her surprise, instead of coming down as she expected, -the cherries seemed to rise higher and higher. It was a cherry tree -dedicated to the devil, and it was not meet that such cherries should -be brought to God. So she went away full of wrath, and cursed the -cherries. And lo! they were changed into small black mites that flew -away. But the love of their sisters--the cherries--brings them back, -and they come and kiss them, and when they kiss them they leave their -eggs behind, which, growing into little white worms, eat the cherries. - - - - - - - - -LXIII. - -WHY HAS THE BUTTERFLY RINGS ON ITS WINGS? - -The Story of St. Anne and the Magician. - - -Once upon a time the rumour spread through Palestine that there was -a man who could perform greater miracles than God. St. Anne, hearing -of it, determined to go and see him, and so she did. - -When she approached the house where he lived, she washed her feet, -as it is customary in those parts of the world, and with meekness and -devotion she went in and asked the man to change a withered trunk into -a green tree. The man got very angry, and said he did not perform -miracles, and after insulting her before the assembled multitudes, -seized her hands and thrust her out of his house. - -When St. Anne saw what he had done she fell upon her knees and prayed -to God to punish him. As she was lifting up her hands in prayer she -suddenly noticed that the ring which she had from her dear mother had -gone. She remembered that the man had got hold of her by the hand, -and she understood that he then must have slipped the ring off her -finger. So she prayed that God would punish this impostor, thief, -and robber. - -And God heard her prayer. Of a sudden the man disappeared from amongst -the people, and a small ring appeared round one of the boughs of the -tree outside the house. Whilst the people were gazing upon this ring -into which the thief had been changed, it opened, and out of it came -a hundred of small butterflies with the mark of the ring on their -wings. This was the sign of the ring, which had been stolen from -St. Anne. - -The miracle which St. Anne asks the man to perform, namely, to change a -withered trunk into a green tree, belongs to the large cycle of similar -miracles starting from the rod of Aaron, the story of Lot and Abraham, -the Tannhaeuser legend, etc. (v. Gaster, Literatura Populara Romana, -Bucharest 1883, p. 286 ff.). - -This ring of small insect eggs round the twigs of trees is also known -as the cuckoo's ring, and taken off from the tree is used for charms -by girls, who say "as men are pleased to hear me." This ring is also -called "Sleep," and it is therefore often put into the cradle of -restless children in order to cause them to sleep. - - - - - - - - -LXIV. - -WHY DOES THE CRICKET CHIRP? - -The Story of Lady Mary and the Yellow Bird. - - -It is said that at the time of the birth of Christ, there was a -beautiful little bird with feathers, yellow as gold and with a beak -shining like silver, and a thin, fine little body. Just as the bird -was beautiful, so she was insolent and disobedient. She was a friend -of St. Mary, who liked her singing. When she was sad, the bird would -come and comfort her with her sweet songs. And the Holy Mother also -helped the little bird when she was in trouble, and when the nest -was broken, she helped to mend it. - -But when the Holy Mother got Jesus, her friendship with the bird came -to an end. For the bird did not like children. It could not stand their -crying. The bird believed that the crying child mocked at her singing, -and therefore, whenever she saw Christ, she made faces at him and -mockingly chirped, Gri Gri Gri. Christ, hearing it, got frightened -and cried bitterly. When St. Mary saw the insolence of the bird, -she drove her away from the house, and, cursing her, said: "From -the beautiful bird which thou art, thou shalt become one of the most -hideous insects, and, living only in clefts and holes, thou shalt sing -only Gri Gri Gri, as a punishment for having mocked at God's child." - -Since then, that bird has entirely disappeared, and all of her kind -which were living at that time were turned into crickets chirping in -the hearths and mocking at the children of men, Gri Gri Gri. - - - - - - - - -LXV. - -WHY DO THE ANTS FEED THE CRICKET? - -The Story of Alexander and the Knight. - - -There is another legend of the origin of the cricket which leads us -to the cycle of the Alexander legends. - - - -It is told that in the time of Alexander there lived a young man who, -when he was sixteen years old, was more beautiful than any one had -been before him, or after him. The princesses were fighting for him, -calling one another as many names as the moon and stars, and each -one vowing that hers only he was to be, none other was worthy of -him. Still more beautiful was his singing, for when you heard him your -mind stopped still, so sweet was his voice. Even the mothers of the -maidens fell in love with him. And grey-haired old kings with long, -white beards and bushy eyebrows, would lift their brows to see him, -who was as beautiful as a wonder and dear as a ball of gold. But whilst -everyone liked him, Alexander could not suffer him. He must hate him, -for though Alexander was the mightiest emperor of the world, yet -none could please him, no not one even of those princesses. For this -reason there grew up an enmity between them, which became so strong -that even the sun, which used at that time to walk about on the earth, -could not make peace between them. Alexander might perhaps have made -peace, but he would do so only on the condition that the other would -not make love to his own favourite. - -But the young knight would not hear of any conditions, and in order to -spite him still more, he went more often than before to Alexander's -favourite wife, and sang to her as much as he could. When the sun -told how insolent he was, Alexander turned on him and drove him out of -the house. The sun chased him and burned him, so that from the white -that he was he turned as black as a coal, and from the big and tall -man that he was he shrivelled up and became as small as a hazelnut, -and hid himself away under the hearth of a poor woman's house, from -which he squeaked "Griji, Griji ( = take care) that the sun does not -catch me." When the sun heard it, he said, "Now thou shalt always live -here where thou art, and hungry and thirsty shalt thou cry Griji, -Griji without stopping." When the beautiful maidens heard what had -happened, they became very angry, and then, turning into ants, they -brought food to the poor cricket. To this very day they bring him food, -so that he may not die of hunger. - - - - - - - - -LXVI. - -WHY DO CATS AND DOGS FIGHT? - -The Story of the Dog, the Cat and the Mouse. - - -In the beginning there was no enmity between the cat and dog, and -they lived on friendly terms together and served their master (Adam) -faithfully, each one doing its own work. But as you know, it is very -much better to have a written agreement at the beginning than to have -a row afterwards, so they decided to draw up an agreement defining -the work which each had to do, and decided that the dog was to do -the work outside the house, and the cat the work inside. For greater -safety the dog agreed that the cat should take care of the agreement, -and the cat put it in the loft. - -After a time, the devil, who could not allow peace to last for a long -time, must needs set the dog up against the cat; so one day the dog -remarked to the cat that he was not fairly treated, he did not see -why he should have all the trouble outside the house, to watch for -thieves and protect the house and suffer from cold and rain, and -only have scraps and bones for food, and sometimes nothing at all, -whilst the cat had all the comfort, purring and enjoying herself, -and living near the hearth in warmth and safety. The cat said, -"An agreement is an agreement." The dog replied, "Let me see that -agreement." The cat went quickly up the loft to fetch the agreement, -but the agreement, which had been a little greasy, had been nibbled -by the mice who were living in the loft, and they went on nibbling -away until nothing was left of it but a heap of paper fluff, and as -it was as soft as down the mice made their home of it. When the cat -came up and saw what the mice had done, her fury knew no bounds, she -pursued them madly, killing as many as she could seize, and running -after the others with the intent of catching them. - -When she came down the dog asked her for the agreement, and as the -cat had not brought it, the dog, taking hold of her, shook her until -he got tired of shaking her. - -Since that time, whenever a dog meets a cat he asks her for the -agreement, and as she cannot show it to him he goes for her, and the -cat, knowing what the mice had done to her, runs after them when she -sees them. - - - -In the South Slavonic folk-lore (Krauss, No. 18) there is a parallel -to this story, but greatly changed from the original form. It is no -longer a "creation" legend. It runs as follows: - -The dogs used to receive all the meat that fell off the table. This -became a habit, and so he and the cat drew up a statement to that -effect, and made it a permanent rule. They wrote it on the hide -of an ass, and the king of the dogs gave it to the cat--the first -chancellor--to take care of it. The cat hid it away in the rafters -of the house. There the skin was found by the mice, who nibbled it -until there was scarcely anything left. One day a dog got badly beaten -because he picked up some meat that had fallen from the table. He went -and complained to the king, who sent the cat to find the document. The -cat could not find it, and saw that the mice had eaten it. Since then -there is a continual feud between the cat, the mice and the dog. - -In this version, the entire origin of the tale has been lost. It is -no longer referred to Adam, nor is there any question of a compact -between a cat and dog which was broken by the latter. In the Slavonic -tale there is no authority for this arrangement. - -The Rumanian version approximates much more closely to the Oriental, -and seems to have preserved much more faithfully the ancient form. The -oldest which can thus far be traced is that in the "Alphabet of Pseudo -Sirach," printed here in the Appendix (No. III.). - - - - - - - - -LXVII. - -WHY DO CATS EAT MICE? - -The Story of Adam and Eve and the Devil. - - -When Adam and Eve had lived for some time together, Adam suddenly -noticed a change in his wife's demeanour. Watching her narrowly, he -found that she had fallen in love with the devil. She had introduced -him into the house, which she had built close to the seashore. Adam, -as a wise man, kept his peace, but he thought day and night what was he -to do to get rid of the devil and to save his wife? At last he thought -that the only way would be to take his wife away into some distant -land across the sea, where the devil could not follow him. But how -were they to cross that sea? At last he discovered that the best way -to cross the sea would be to make a boat, and then, when it was ready, -he would take his wife quietly and they would both sail away. But the -devil has nothing to do but to watch other people's doings, and to -put a spoke into the wheel wherever he can. He was therefore not to -be outdone in as simple a manner as Adam thought. He saw that Adam was -cutting wood, and making timber and laths, and joining them together, -but whenever he asked Adam what he was doing he would not answer him. - -So at last he came to Eve and told her: "Look here, that husband -of yours is preparing some trick, and it is meant against you and -me. You better find out what is in Adam's mind. What is he doing, -and what is the meaning of it?" - -Eve, in order to please the devil, asked Adam what he was doing, but -he knew it was no good giving a secret into the keeping of a woman. So -he kept his counsel to himself. At last, when the devil saw the boat, -he told Eve: - -"I know what Adam means, he wants to take you away and leave me -here alone. That you must not allow, but when everything is ready -and he is coming to fetch you, you ask him to allow you to bring the -house-snake with you. He will not refuse you, and I will take the form -of the snake, and so you will carry me with you into the boat. Then -we shall see who will be the cleverer, Adam or I." - -So when Adam came to fetch Eve, she asked him to be allowed to bring -also the house-snake with her. Adam, good-hearted fellow as he was, -did not refuse her. What did the devil do? He took the form of the -snake, and to make sure of being carried into the boat, he coiled -himself round Eve's bosom, and so was carried by her into the boat, -chuckling all the while at the stupidity of Adam. Adam had no suspicion -who the passenger was, he had brought with him. - -One day, after he had sailed a long time, Adam, tired from his work, -laid himself down to rest, when he suddenly felt that the boat was -sinking. Up he jumped, trimmed the sail, and looked round to see -whether the boat had sprung a leak and was making water, for he could -not understand why the boat should suddenly sink and let the water -in. The devil, thinking that Adam was asleep and not able to watch -his tricks, had made himself heavy like lead in the hope of sinking -the ship and drowning Adam. But he had reckoned without his host, -for Adam woke up in the nick of time and caught the Wicked One at -his evil deeds. When the devil saw that Adam was awake, he changed -himself quickly into a mouse. Adam did not trouble, but thought his -time would come. The devil, who cannot keep quiet but must do mischief -whenever he can, was not content to be left in peace, and be carried -across the water, but he must needs start gnawing away at one of the -planks of the ship, and so make a hole and drown Adam. His misfortune -was that, just when the plank at which he was gnawing had got as thin -as a sheet of paper, Adam surprised the Black One at his work. What -did he do? He took off his fur glove and threw it at the mouse. - -The fur glove changed into a cat which, seizing the mouse, killed -it and ate it up. And thus the cat got the devil into it. And that -is why the cat's hair bristles and makes sparks, and the eyes of the -cat glisten in the dark. These are sparks of the devil in the cat. - - - - - - - - -LXVII. A. - -ANOTHER VERSION. - -The Story of the Devil, Noah and the Ark. - - -There is another version of this tale which transfers the origin of -the mouse to the ark of Noah. Noah would not allow the devil to get -into the ark which he had built. In order, therefore, to get in, -the devil transformed himself into a mouse, which, being surprised -at the same work of gnawing away the boards of the ark, was eaten up -by the cat--the fur glove which Noah threw at her. - -A legend concerning the cat and mouse is found in the so-called -"Alphabet of Pseudo Sirach," here in the Appendix, No. III. According -to a Bohemian legend, the devil created the mouse that it might -destroy "God's corn," whereupon the Lord created the cat. (Ralston, -p. 330 note.) - -The apocryphal interpretation of the temptation of Eve by the -serpent which has been identified with Satan is found in many ancient -biblical legends. This story of the temptation has been transformed -into a somewhat primitive love story between Eve and the devil--her -paramour--who assumes the form of the house-snake and then wishes to -drown poor unsophisticated Adam. - - - - - - - - -LXVIII. - -WHY DOES A CAT SIT ON THE DOORSTEP IN THE SUN? - -The Story of the Cat, the Mouse and Noah. - - -When Noah had built the ark, he kept the door wide open for the -animals to enter. After they had all gone in, his own family came, -and last of all his wife. - -Noah said to her "Come in." She obstinately said "No." Noah again said -"Come in." She again said "No." Noah, getting angry, said "Oh, you -devil, come in." That was just what the devil was waiting for. He knew -that Noah would not allow him to come in otherwise, and so he waited -for an invitation, of which he promptly availed himself. Getting into -the ark the devil changed himself into a mouse. - -When the devil has nothing to do he weighs his tail. But here he found -plenty to do, for, he thought, now is an opportunity of putting an end -to the whole of God's creatures. So he started gnawing on one of the -planks, trying to make a hole in it. When Noah surprised him at this -devilish work he threw his fur glove at him. It turned into a cat, -and, in the twinkling of an eye, the mouse was in the mouth of the cat. - -But Noah could not allow the peace of the ark to be broken, the animals -had to live in peace with one another. So he seized the cat, with -the mouse in her mouth, and flung her out of the ark into the water. - -The cat swam to the ark and, getting hold of the door step, climbed -on to the sill and lay down there to bask in the sun. - -There she remained until the water had subsided: and ever since then, -the cat likes to lie on the doorstep of the house and bask in the sun. - - - - - - - - -LXIX. - -WHY DOES THE FLY SETTLE ON THE DEAD? - -The Story of God and the Giants of the Flood. - - -In olden times, huge giants existed in this world. They were so big -that they could put one leg on the top of one mountain and the other -on the next one. They reached as high as the heavens, and getting -hold of the handles of the great gate would shake it as a man shakes a -kettle. They even rebelled against God, for they knew no fear. At last, -God, realising their nature, decided to destroy them, and he sent -a flood which covered the highest mountains, so that you could not -see of them as much as the black under the nail. So all the giants -died, except one, who was the biggest of them all. He stood with -one leg on the top of one mountain, and with the other on the next -mountain, and with his hands he got hold of the handles of the gate -of heaven. But God would not tolerate a single one of these giants, -for he had decided to make men, very similar creatures to giants -but smaller and more obedient. So he sent a fly to pick at his eyes, -and worms to gnaw at the soles of his feet. Feeling the pain in his -eyes, the giant let the gate of heaven go and wiped his eyes, with -his hand, but he could not stand the gnawing of his feet, and he, -falling down into the water, was drowned. From the gnawing of the -soles the instep in man's foot has come, and these flies (Sarcophaga -carnaria) and worms still eat up the human bodies and all the carcases. - -It is therefore a bad sign if such a fly settles on a sick man; -a sure sign of death. - - - - - - - - -LXX. - -WHY IS THE FOOT OF MAN ARCHED? - -The Pact between God and the Devil. - - -When God created the world, I do not know how it came about and why -it was done, enough that it was done, God made a pact with the devil -which they signed and sealed, and God kept the document in which -it was stated that they had divided the world between them. It was -settled that all the dead should go to the devil and all that was -living should belong to God. After a while, the devil repented himself -of this arrangement and tried to get hold of the contract. Taking -advantage of God's indulgence, he stole into heaven, and, taking the -document, he made off with it. Clever though he thinks himself to be, -the devil is a fool and remains a fool. So, going down from heaven, -he lost the document, and did not even notice his loss until after -he had plunged deep down to the bottom of the sea. The document which -had fallen out of his hands was lying on the sand of the seashore. - -When God noticed what the devil had done, he sent a frost so hard that -it split the stones and covered up all the waters with a thick crust -of ice, so that the devil could not get out. Then God sent St. Peter -to fetch the agreement where it lay. St. Peter descended and was about -to take it, when a magpie which watched his doings went to the sea, -and whack! whack! made a hole in the ice with its beak. That was just -what the devil was waiting for, and quick as lightning he came up from -the bottom of the sea. But quick as he was, St. Peter was quicker, -and picking up the pact he went up to heaven. The devil went after him, -but could not catch him up. - -When St. Peter got near the gate of heaven, the devil, seeing that he -had escaped him, threw his spear after him. He missed him; but not -entirely, for he hit St. Peter in the sole of his foot. St. Peter -cried out of pain. God asked him what had happened, and he replied, -"The devil has hit me in my foot with his venomous spear." - -"Cut that bit out and throw it away," said God. - -St. Peter did as he was told, and, cutting out the wounded part from -the sole of his foot, threw it at the devil. Since then the human -foot is short of that bit which St. Peter had cut out when the devil -had hit him with his spear. - - - -It is not quite clear from the story as it stands whether the magpie -acted as a confederate of the devil, and picked a hole in the ice -deliberately so as to free him from the imprisonment, or whether -the magpie quite innocently went and helped the devil against -St. Peter. There is no sequel here to its action. It is neither -punished nor rewarded. In this respect the story is imperfect. - -There exists another popular legend intended to explain the arch in the -sole of the human foot. According to the latter, it so happened that -the Archangel Michael was the foremost angel in the fight between -Satan and the heavenly hosts, which added to the discomfiture of -Satan. When he finally was hurled down from heaven he tried to get -hold of the archangel. But the angel was too quick for him. The devil -missed him, but not entirely, for he seized the archangel by the sole -of his foot and tore out a part of the flesh. Since then the sole -of the human foot is curved in the middle. That portion is missing, -which was torn out of the sole of the archangel. - - - - - - - - -LXXI. - -WHY HAS A SNAKE NO TAIL? AND WHY DO FLEAS SUCK HUMAN BLOOD? - -The Story of the Devil in Noah's Ark. - - -When God had brought the Flood, and Noah's ark was floating on the -face of the waters, the wretched good-for-nothing devil wanted to -destroy Noah with all those who were with him in the ark. So he fell -a-thinking for a while, and invented an iron tool called now gimlet, -with which he could bore holes in the wall of the ark. - -The murderous devil started on his work, and poor Noah and those with -him were in great danger of being drowned. They all worked hard to get -the water out, but who can get the better of the devil? He worked much -more quickly, and making many holes in the boards, the waters came in -fast. They all believed themselves lost. But God, who does not desire -the death of the sinner, and did not wish to see the work of his -hands destroyed, gave cunning to the snake, and it is possible that -since that day the snakes have remained wise, for does not Holy Writ -tell us to be wise as the serpent? The snake came to Noah and said, -"What wilt thou give me if I stop up the holes which the devil is -making by which the water enters the ark?" - -"What dost thou want?" replied Noah in despair. - -"After the Flood thou art to give me a human being every day to be -eaten by me and my seed." - -Noah, hard pressed by the imminent danger, promised to do so. No -sooner did the devil bore a hole than the snake stopped it up with -the tip of its tail, which it cut off, leaving it in the hole, and -that is why ever since the snakes have no tails. When the devil -saw that his plan had failed, he ran away and left Noah's ark in -peace and all those who were in it. As soon as the Flood had passed -away, Noah brought a thanksgiving sacrifice to God for having been -miraculously saved. In the midst of these rejoicings the snake took -courage and came up to Noah, asking for the human being of which he -had promised to give her one every day to be eaten by her and her -seed. When Noah heard it, he got very angry, for he said to himself, -"There are so few human beings now in the world, if I give her one -every day, the world will soon come to an end." So he took hold of -the beast which dared to speak to him in such a manner, and threw it -into the fire. God was greatly displeased with the evil smell which -arose from the fire in consequence, and sent a wind which scattered -the ashes all over the face of the earth. From these ashes the fleas -were born. If one considers the number of fleas that are in the world, -and the amount of human blood which they are sucking, then, taking -them all together, they eat up without doubt as much as a human being -every day. And thus the promise made by Noah is being fulfilled. - - - -A similar tale seems to be known among the Russians, as far as the -first part of this legend is concerned. According to Ralston, Russian -Folk Tales, p. 330, when the devil in the form of a mouse gnawed a -hole in the Ark, the snake stopped it up with its head. In the Russian -tale the two tales of the mouse and the snake are thus combined. - -An Oriental legend which seems to have retained some of the incidents -in the Rumanian legend is referred to in Hanauer, Folk Lore of the Holy -Land, p. 283. We are told that Iblis (the devil) promises the serpent -the sweetest food in the world, that is, human blood, if it helps to -deceive Eve. Adam protests, as no one knew yet which is the sweetest -blood. The mosquito is sent out to suck the blood of all the animals, -and find out which is the sweetest. The swallow shadows the mosquito, -and in the end plucks out its tongue so that it shall not be able to -tell. The serpent, enraged, darts after the swallow, but only gets -hold of the middle feathers of the swallow's tail, which it plucks -out, hence the forked tail of the swallow. The serpent still tries -to hurt man, but cannot do so in virtue of any claim. - -The flea is also called the devil's horse, for Satan rode upon a flea -when he started on his rebellious fight with God. - - - - - - - - -LXXII. - -CHARMS AGAINST FLEAS AND OTHER HOUSE VERMIN. - - -In the first quarter of the moon she who wishes to make the charm -must be told by a neighbour that the moon has just risen. She then -takes a glazed dish or bowl, which she has bought at the fair of the -Mummers (Mosii) at the Eastertide, or one that has been given to her -at that time. She fills it with "living" water taken from three wells -in three new jugs brought by three virgins, who must not look back -from the time they have drawn it. - -This bowl filled with water is put on the window facing the moon, -and she waits until the moon strikes the window and the bowl. When -she can see the moon well in the bowl and at the bottom of it, she -begins to charm (conjure) the fleas, etc., with three stalks taken -from a new broom, and says, "New moon in the house, bugs, vermin, -fleas, get ye out of the house, leave this house, be scattered--let -no one meet the other before mountain meets mountain--and hill top -knocks against hill top--then and then only may they meet, and not -even then." She repeats the charm three times, then she pours the -water into four vessels, places them in the inner four corners of the -house, and in the morning she is sure to find some of the house vermin -in the vessels. These she must take out, and put into an empty box, -stolen from somewhere. She must wait for a car that returns home after -everything brought in it has been sold at the market, and must throw -the box into that empty car, saying: "Yes, fleas, little fleas--from -the house have I taken you, into a stolen box have I put you, charmed, -drowned, cursed, thrown into a box, charmed at new moon now, may -you become the devil's own, may you become numbed and stiff--in the -nine countries--beyond the nine seas--for there they are waiting for -you--at spread tables--with torches lit up. Amen!" - -It is almost unnecessary to discuss at any length the charms against -fleas, etc., which were considered the special tools and associates -of the Evil One. The philtres in the Western countries consist mostly -of poisonous ingredients taken from toads, snakes, etc., and some -of the oldest charms are against flies, fleas, midges, etc. This is -now, perhaps, the only complete charm in which not only the formula -has been preserved, but also, what is of the highest importance, -a detailed description of the ceremonial used on that occasion. - -Every detail of this magical operation might be made the starting -point of a separate investigation. The symbolic character of some of -them is too clear to be gainsaid. We have here the crescent of the -moon as an operative factor: the bowl and the box must be stolen, -probably to bring down a curse upon the thief and upon him who -uses it. The living water, the three maidens, the three wells, -the curse of the vermin, the empty car carrying it, as it were, -away for ever, the inducement for those fleas to remain there in the -mythical nine countries for a feast that is awaiting them. Each and -all are found in other charms, but here we have the whole operation -minutely described. It is, moreover, typical of a large class of such -enchantments or binding by charms. For our purpose it must be deemed -quite sufficient. I have only introduced it as it is one affecting -the insects and throwing light on many more charms and conjurations -in which the Rumanian literature abounds. I may on another occasion -discuss the whole range of the Rumanian charms. They cover the whole -field of human ailments and physical troubles--a wide range indeed. - - - - - - - - -LXXIII. - -CHARMS AGAINST BUGS. - - -Curiously enough, there do not seem to be any special legends about -the origin of the bugs, but there are a good many charms which -are used for getting rid of these troublesome vermin. The charms -are of a symbolical nature. A suggestive action is performed which -the conjurer believes will be followed by the conjured bugs. Thus: -A woman in a complete state of nudity takes a mealie cake into one -hand, or a crust of bread, or some other flour, and a brush used -for whitewashing in the other. She nibbles at the cake or food, and -whitewashes the wall, and while she is doing it, she says: "As I am -eating my food and cleaning my walls so may you eat up one another -and leave my walls clean of you," after which the bugs will perish. - -It is advisable to do this when the moon wanes, and the whitewashing -should start from the wall which faces the door and then go on to -the right until the door is reached again. - -Another charm--A boy in a state of complete nudity takes bread and salt -into one hand, and in the other he holds his flute and also a number -of bugs, called the wedding party. Thus equipped, he goes into the high -road until he passes the boundary of his field. There he starts playing -the flute, and then he throws the bugs away into the road, saying: -"Here I have brought for you bread and salt, and I have been singing -to you with my flute, now go and have a merry wedding, and remain -where you are, never returning to my home." The bugs then never return. - -Another charm, like that of the fleas, is connected with the new moon. - -When the new moon appears, a man, coming outside his house and -seeing it, exclaims, "A new king in the land, a new king in the -land." To which one in the house standing by the window replies, -"All the bugs must now go out of the house one by one, so that none -remain behind." And after repeating these words three times he rides -on a besom, poker, or the oven-peel (with which the bread is shovelled -into the stove), and running through the house he begins sweeping the -rooms, and says whilst so doing, "Get out of the house, ye bugs, for -the new king is getting married, and he invites you to his banquet, -for he has no one to eat, to drink, or to dance there. Get ye out -and you will eat and drink and dance until you are satisfied." - -These words must be repeated three times, viz. at the beginnings of -three months. The bugs are then believed to leave the house in the -form of a swarm, and to go elsewhere. - - - - - - - - -LXXIV. - -WHY DOES THE CUCKOO CALL "CUCKOO"? - -The Story of the Little Boy and the Wicked Step-mother. - - -Once upon a time there was a poor man, who had a wife and two children, -a boy and a girl. He was so poor that he possessed nothing in the -world but the ashes on his hearth. His wife died, and after a time -he married another woman, who was cantankerous and bad-natured, and -from morning till evening, as long as the day lasted, she gave the -poor man no peace, but snarled and shouted at him. The woman said to -him, "Do away with these children. You cannot even keep me, how then -can you keep all these mouths?" for was she not a step-mother? The -poor man stood her nagging for a long time, but then, one night, she -quarrelled so much that he promised her that he would take the children -into the forest and leave them there. The two children were sitting -in the corner but held their peace and heard all that was going on. - -The next day, the man, taking his axe upon his shoulder, called to -the children and said to them, "Come with me into the forest, I am -going to cut wood." The little children went with him, but before they -left, the little girl filled her pocket with ashes from the hearth, -and as she walked along she dropped little bits of coal the way they -went. After a time they reached a very dense part of the forest, -where they could not see their way any longer, and there the man said -to the children, "Wait here for a while, I am only going to cut wood -yonder, when I have done I will come back and fetch you home," and -leaving the children there in the thicket he went away, heavy hearted, -and returned home. The children waited for a while, and seeing that -their father did not return, the girl knew what he had done. So they -slept through the night in the forest, and the next morning, taking -her brother by the hand, she followed the trace of the ashes which -she had left on the road, and thus came home to their own house. When -the step-mother saw them, she did not know what to do with herself, -she went almost out of her mind with fury. If she could, she would have -swallowed them in a spoonful of water, so furious was she. The husband, -who was a weakling, tried to pacify her, and to endeavour to get the -children away by one means or another, but did not succeed. When the -step-mother found that she could not do anything through her husband, -she made up her mind that she herself would get rid of them. So one -morning, when her husband had gone away, she took the little boy, -and without saying anything to anybody, she killed him and gave him -to his sister to cut him up, and prepare a meal for all of them. What -was she to do? If she was not to be killed like her brother, she had -to do what her step-mother told her. - -And so she cut him up and cooked him ready for the meal. But she took -the heart, and hid it away in a hollow of a tree. When the step-mother -asked her where the heart was, she said that a dog had come and taken -it away. In the evening, when the husband came home, she brought the -broth with the meat for the husband to eat, and she sat down and ate -of it and so did the husband, not knowing that he was eating the flesh -of his child. The little girl refused to eat it. She would not touch -it. After they had finished, she gathered up all the little bones and -hid them in the hollow of the tree where she had put the heart. The -next morning, out of that hollow of the tree there came a little bird -with dark feathers, and sitting on the branch of a tree, began to sing, -"Cuckoo! My sister has cooked me, and my father has eaten me, but I -am now a cuckoo and safe from my step-mother." When the step-mother, -who happened to be near the tree, heard what that little bird was -singing, in her fury and fright she took a heavy lump of salt which -lay near at hand, and threw it at the cuckoo, but instead of hitting -it, the lump fell down on her head and killed her on the spot. And -the little boy has remained a cuckoo to this very day. - -This tale is more or less a variant of a well-known type of fairy -tales. Nos. 43, 44 are tales of men with inordinate and foolish wishes, -who by constantly changing bring about their own undoing. This last is -a variant of the story of the bad step-mother and the two children. But -here the fairy tales assume a different character. - - - - - - - - -LXXV. - -WHY DOES A WAGTAIL WAG ITS TAIL? - -The Story of the Cuckoo and the Wagtail. - - -The wagtail did not have the tail from the beginning. This tail -originally belonged to the wren, but it happened in this manner. The -wagtail was one day invited to the wedding of the lark, and as -she felt ashamed to go there without any tail, as she had none, -she went to the wren and asked the wren to lend her her tail for a -few days. The wren, which had as now a small body but in addition a -long tail, did not wish to be churlish, and lent her the tail. When -the wagtail saw herself with a long tail, she did not know what to do -with herself for joy, she was dancing and prancing all the way to the -wedding. The wedding lasted some days. When it was over, the wren came -to the wagtail and asked for the tail, but the wagtail, finding that -the tail suited her so well, pretended not to hear and not to see, -and took no notice of the wren. And thus it came about, from the time -of the lark's wedding, that the wren has remained without a tail, -and the wagtail with one. But, fearing lest the wren would come one -day and steal it, the wagtail is wagging its tail continually to be -sure that she has it, and that it has not been taken away. - - - - - - - - -LXXVI. - -WHY HAS THE HOOPOE A TUFT? - -The Story of the Hoopoe and the Cuckoo. - - -The tuft of the hoopoe's head has given rise to a tale, similar to -some extent to the story of the tail of the wagtail, and yet not quite -identical. Like the wagtail, which originally had no tail, the hoopoe -had originally no tuft on its head. But when the lark had her wedding, -she invited all the birds. Among them also the hoopoe. She did not want -to come with her simple feathers, but went to the cuckoo and borrowed -them from him, for he had the tuft, promising to return it to him as -soon as she had come back from the wedding. The cuckoo, who was a good -natured and obliging fellow, trusted the hoopoe and lent her the tuft. - -She went to the wedding, and her beautiful ornament was greatly -admired by all the birds. Most of all was the lark pleased with -it. The hoopoe grew very elated, and thought she had better keep -it. And so she did. She came home, and entirely forgot the cuckoo -and her promise to return him his tuft. The cuckoo waited for a while -for the hoopoe to return to him the tuft which he had lent her. But -the hoopoe was nowhere to be found; she never showed herself. Seeing -this, the cuckoo went to her and asked her to return the tuft. She -pretended not to know what the cuckoo was saying, and coolly replied, -"I do not know what you are talking about." Enraged at her callous -conduct, the cuckoo called all the other birds together to lay his case -before them, and to ask them to pass judgment on the hoopoe. When the -birds came together, they appointed the lark to be the judge, but the -lark had taken a fancy to the hoopoe ever since the wedding day, so, -in spite of the protestations of the cuckoo, he decided that the tuft -must remain with the hoopoe, as it suited her so much better. And so -it has remained to this day. But since then there is no friendship -between the cuckoo and the lark, who delivered a wrong judgment. - - - -An Eastern popular tale, Hanauer, Folk-lore of the Holy Land, p. 254 -ff., explains the origin of the tuft on the head of the hoopoe as a -crown given by King Solomon to this bird for its wisdom in refusing -to pay homage to women. - - - - - - - - -LXXVII. - -WHY DOES THE EAGLE LIVE ON RAW MEAT? - -The Story of the Bewitched Brothers. - - -Let us pass to the story of the eagle. It is the largest bird of -prey known in Rumania, and lives on young animals, lambs, goats, -and so on. The story runs as follows. - - - -Once upon a time there was such a famine in the land that the people -lived on grass and even on sawdust, and were dying of hunger in untold -numbers. At that time there lived a widow who had managed to husband -a little flour. When she found that nothing else was left to her she -took that flour and mixing it with water kneaded it into dough. Then -she lit the furnace, and got a shovel to put the dough on it and thence -into the furnace to bake. This woman had two sons and one daughter. The -two boys came in just at the moment when the loaves of dough were on -the shovel. They were so hungry that they did not wait for the dough -to be baked, and before their mother had time to put the shovel into -the oven they got hold of the dough, raw and uncooked as it was, -and ate it up to the smallest bit. They did not leave even a little -piece for their mother and sister. When the mother saw the terrible -greediness of her children, and that they ate the raw stuff and did -not leave even a small piece for her or their sister, she cursed them -and said, "May you be cursed by God and be changed into two birds; -may you haunt the highest peaks of the mountains; may you never be -able to eat bread even when you see it, because you did not leave any -for me this day." No sooner had the boys gone out of the house than -they were changed into two huge eagles, who, spreading their wings, -flew away to the ends of the earth, no one knowing whither they had -gone. A short time afterwards their sister, who had not been at home -when all this had happened, came in, and she asked the mother where -her brothers were. Her mother did not tell her what had happened, -and said that the brothers, finding it was impossible for them to live -any longer here, had gone out into the wide world to live by their own -earnings. When the girl heard this she wept, and said, "If that be so, -then I will also go out into the wide world, and will seek my brothers -until I find them," and would not listen to the words of her mother, -who wanted to keep her back. She said good-bye and departed, and -travelled on and on for a long time, until she came to the ends of the -earth, where the sun and moon no longer shone and the days were dark. - -So she fell a-praying, and said, "I have gone in search of my brothers; -O God, help me," and as she turned round she saw a forest full of -high trees which she had not noticed before, and she said to herself, -"I will go into that forest; I am sure nothing will happen to me," -and so she did. She went into the forest not knowing where she was -going. In the midst of it she saw a beautiful meadow full of singing -birds, and there was a huge castle surrounded by thick walls and -closed by a gate with six locks. At the entrance of the gate there -were two huge monsters. She was very frightened. Still she watched -until these monsters had fallen asleep, and then slipping past them -she entered the gates. There she was met by a fox, who said to her, -"What has brought thee hither into this the other world from the world -outside? I fear our master will eat you up. As soon as he comes home -he will swallow you." Still she went on, and on entering the house -she met the mistress of the house, who asked her the same question, -and she told her what had happened to her from the beginning to the -end, and that she had gone out into the wide world to seek for her -lost brothers. When the mistress heard her tale she took pity on -her, and taking her into the innermost chamber she hid her there, -and then went to await the home-coming of the master. About midday, -when the sun stands on the cross-ways of heaven, there was a great -noise in the house; the place shook, for the master had come, and he -was none other than a huge lion. - -At table, the mistress said to him, "O my master, thou hast always -been so good to me; I ask you to be once more good and kind; promise -me." And he promised, and asked her her request. She told him what -had happened to that girl, and said that she had come there from -the other world in search of her brothers. The lion called the young -girl, who was greatly frightened, and she told him again all that had -happened to her. He then said, "I will call together all my subjects -and ask them whether they have seen your brothers passing by this way, -or whether meeting them they have eaten them." - -So he called from far and near all the animals who were in his -dominion, and he asked them about the brothers. But they all said -that these had never passed through the land, and they had neither -seen them nor eaten them. So the lion told her to go on. She went on -and came to another forest, very big and dark, and walking for a time -in it she came to another meadow full of birds singing so beautifully -that you could not hear enough of them, and there in the midst was -a house deep down in the ground with a thatched roof. The girl went -in the house, and there was an old woman sitting on the oven. [2] -"May God help you," said the young girl, and the old woman replied, -"Welcome, my daughter, what has brought you here into this part of the -world never yet trodden by human foot?" And the girl told her that she -had left her mother's house and gone in search of her brothers. The -woman said, "Your brothers are alive, but they are under a spell, -for they have been charmed into huge birds, and they live yonder in -the castle on that steep mountain. If you can reach that place you -will be able to see your brothers." - -Full of joy at these tidings, the girl went to the mountain and -found that it was a bare, steep, high cliff with little patches -of grass here and there, just the place for eagles' nests. Taking -courage, she started climbing up, and after endless toil reached -the top. There she saw a huge palace surrounded by iron walls, and -going inside she saw a room; the table was set and food was on the -table. As she was very hungry, she went round the table and took a -bit from every dish. Then she hid herself, watching to see what would -happen. She had not to wait very long, for soon two huge eagles came -from the depths of heaven. They entered and sat down at the table -and began to eat their meal. Suddenly one of them said to the other, -"Halloo, some one must have been here, for I see that my food has been -nibbled." The other said, "It is impossible for any one to come here," -and took no further notice of it. - -On the second day they noticed that once again some of their food had -been eaten again, and so on the third day, when more of it had been -eaten. So they started hunting through the house to find out who was -hidden there, for surely some one must have come to eat the food. After -a long search they found the girl huddled up in a small room. As soon -as they saw her they recognised her as their sister, and taking her -into the large hall they asked her what had happened and what had -brought her to them. She told them all that had happened to her, -and how she had been through the forest and climbed up the mountain, -and that she was now there with them. The brothers then said to her, -"We are under a spell; mother has cursed us. We have now been changed -into birds of prey; but if you will stay here for six years and not -speak a single word, that will save us; the spell will be broken, -and we shall again be human beings." The girl promised to do all they -wished, as the old woman whom she had met before had told her that -she was to do whatever her brothers would wish her to do. And there -she remained. Her brothers spread their wings and flew away. Five -years had past, the girl not seeing anything of them, and not speaking -all the time. After that time she said to herself, "What is the good -of my sitting here and keeping silent when none of them have come; -perchance they are dead, or who knows what has happened?" No sooner -had she opened her mouth and spoken a word when in came her two -brothers, and said to her mournfully, "Thou hast not kept thy vow, -thou hast broken thy promise, thou hast spoken! If thou wouldst have -waited one more year we would have become human beings, and the spell -would have been broken. Now we are cursed forever. We must remain -eagles and birds of prey." And so they have remained to this day, -preying on birds and beasts, living on raw meat, never being able -to touch bread, and even picking up children under six years of age, -the years which their sister had to wait in order to break the spell. - - - -In this story we find again well-known motives from fairy tales, -especially that of "Snow White and the Dwarfs," in which Snow White -comes into the house and nibbles at the food which is on the table, so -that her presence is thereby disclosed. But here the tale has been used -for the purpose of explaining the origin of the eagle. Other details -there are in that tale which are not clearly brought out in this, -for at the bottom of it lies the tale of the grateful animals. That -is the reason why the lion spares the girl and also the good fairy, -whom she serves faithfully, here represented by the old woman in the -house with the thatched roof, by whom she is rewarded by being shown -the way to her lost brothers. - -All these elements have here been combined in the bird tale. A close -parallel to this tale is to be found in Grimm, No. 25. - - - - - - - - -LXXVIII. - -WHY HAS THE LARK A TUFT? - -The Story of the Glass Mountain. - - -Once upon a time there was a man who was under a spell. He got married -to a woman, and after a time he suddenly disappeared. He was carried -away by the spell, no one knew whither. The poor woman waited for him -one day and another day and a third day, and seeing that he did not -return she went out into the world to search after him. And so, passing -through many a country, she came at last to the house where Holy -Thursday lived, a good old woman, who was the mistress of a third of -all the birds in the world. When she saw the traveller, she asked her -what had brought her there, and the poor woman, weeping, told her how -she had gone in search of her husband, who had suddenly disappeared, -and whom she had not been able to find anywhere in the world. - -Holy Mother Thursday said to her, "Wait, I will call all my birds -together, and I shall hear from them whether they know where your -husband is." In the evening she called all the birds who were under -her rule, and asked them whether they knew what had happened to the -man. They all replied that they had not seen him, and they did not -know whither he had gone. Sad at heart, the poor woman went away, -and came to Holy Mother Saturday, who ruled over half the birds in -the world. She asked the young woman how she had come to that part -of the world, and what had brought her thither. - -The poor woman told her tale, and also that Holy Mother Thursday could -not find where her husband was. So Mother Saturday called her birds, -and asked them whether they had seen anything of the poor woman's -husband. They all replied that they had not seen anything of him, -and did not know what had become of him. Greatly disappointed, the -poor woman went on her way, until she came to the house of the Holy -Mother Sunday, who ruled over all the birds. After hearing from the -woman what had brought her to her house, she called all the birds -together, and put the same question to them. None of the birds knew -where the husband was except the cock lark. He said he knew where -the husband was, a very long way off. Then Mother Sunday asked the -bird whether he could carry the woman to that place. - -"Willingly will I abide by your command, O mistress," said the bird; -and taking the woman on his back, he rose up high in the air, and -started flying to the place whither the husband had been carried. And -so flying, they came at last to a high mountain made all of glass. The -bird could not go up that mountain, so they shod his little feet -with iron, and slowly, slowly, they climbed up that mountain until -they came to the top. The woman, however, was so much frightened by -the flight that she clutched at the feathers on the top of the lark, -and held tightly to them, fearing to lose her hold. Since that time -the ruffled feathers have remained upstanding, and hence the tuft on -the head of the male lark. - - - -It is peculiar that the tale here ends abruptly without telling us -whether the woman met her husband, or whether she was able to break -the spell. It is probably tacitly assumed. - - - - - - - - -LXXIX. - -WHY IS THE TUFT OF THE LARK DISHEVELLED? - -The Story of the Helpful Lark. - - -Another story of the lark tells of one who went in search of his -sister, who had been stolen away from her home by Sila Samodiva. [3] -He was directed by a curious dream, in which he saw an old man with -a long white beard, who told him to go in search of her, for he was -sure to find her. On his way he came to a very old man, who turned -out to be the king of all the birds. In the evening all the birds -came to him to be fed, but one bird was missing. It came in rather -late, limping and tired, and when the king saw it he recognised it -to be the lark. And he asked the bird why it was so tired and what -had befallen it. The bird said, "Thou hast ordered me to live so far -away that it takes me a very long time to come to the court, and it -is with great difficulty that I have been able to come here to this -place in obedience to thy command." Then the king asked the lark where -he had his nest, and when he replied in the gardens of Sila Samodiva, -the brother was full of joy, for that was the place where his sister -had been taken. Then the king asked the bird whether he could lead -the man to that place. "Willingly will I do so," replied the lark. "I -will jump from tree to tree and from bush to bush, and flutter about -gently, and if he follows me I am sure to lead him to the place of his -desire." And so following the bird, he reached a golden palace in which -the fairy Sila Samodiva was living. He entered the palace by holding -on to the tuft of the lark, which has since remained dishevelled. A -fairy put him to various trials, which he successfully accomplished, -and thus was able to rescue his sister and to return home in safety. - - - -Needless to point out, that in these two tales we have parallels to -the famous legend of the hoopoe in the Solomonic cycle. In it Solomon -orders all the birds to come and render homage; only one bird does -not appear at the proper time. It comes in very late, limp, tired -and exhausted, and excuses itself by telling Solomon of its long -flight from the court of the Queen of Sheba, to whom King Solomon -then sends a message by means of the same bird. But we are not told -in this story anything of the origin of the bird, except that it is -described as one leading the travellers to the places in the other -world which they wish to reach. Another very elaborate fairy tale -gives us the origin of the lark. - - - - - - - - -LXXX. - -WHY DO LARKS FLY TOWARDS THE SUN? - -The Story of the Princess and her Love for the Sun. - - -A very long time ago, so long indeed that no one can remember when -it happened, there lived a king and queen. They had everything which -their heart desired, except that they had no children. They were good -and charitable people, and distributed alms and prayed, but all in -vain. At last, when they had given up every hope, they were suddenly -blessed with a child. It was a little girl, and she was so sweet and -so beautiful that they called her Little Light. The parents could not -see enough of her, and so they kept her in their palace all the time, -until one day her mother allowed her to go out into the garden. - -In the wall of the garden there was a small gate leading into a -beautiful meadow. The young princess opened the gate and went into -the meadow and looked around her, for she had never before been out -of her rooms. She rejoiced at the flowers and birds and animals, but -more than anything was she pleased with the sight of the sinking sun, -and with the golden rays which he sent through the heavens. She was so -pleased with that sight that she went every day in the afternoon to -watch for the glorious sun and his golden rays. Thus one day passed, -and again another day, and she fell deeply in love with the sun, and -being in love, she decided that she must go and find him. So great -was her love that she did not look at any young man, and grew thinner, -weaker and sadder every day, until she could not bear it any longer; -and going to her parents, she said that she could not stay any longer -at home, and that she must go out into the world. The parents tried -in vain to keep her at home, but, seeing that all their efforts were -of no avail, they let her go, and she went. She took money and food -with her, and went along not knowing the right way. - -So long as the money and the food lasted she felt quite happy, but a -time came when both had come to an end, and she was in a very sore -plight, not knowing what to do. Moreover, she was frightened to go -alone, for she was in woman's clothes. Suddenly she found herself -in the midst of a wide field full of dead bodies. A battle had been -fought there, and the field was strewn with the dead. So she took -one of the uniforms of the soldiers, dressed herself up in a man's -garb, and, finding a horse, mounted on it and rode along with her face -turned towards the sinking sun. On the way she found then an old woman -dressed all in black, sitting close to a well, and weaving gossamer -and cobweb. She addressed her as the Black One, which seemed to please -the old woman, who told her to turn towards the rising sun until she -would come to a glass mountain; she would have to reach the top of -the mountain, and then she was sure to find her way to the palace -of the sun. She rode on and came to the glass mountain. When she had -reached the top, after having had the horse shod again at the bottom -of the hill, she found a palace, but it was not that of the sun. It was -inhabited by three sisters, who received her in very friendly fashion, -and treated her with great hospitality. Thinking that she was a man, -they all fell in love with her; but she told them she was a woman, -and they left her to continue her quest. Before leaving they gave her -a magic sword, which, if drawn half out of its sheath, killed half -the number of an army, and if drawn entirely, killed the entire army -of the enemy. By this means she was able to vanquish the enemies of -a great king, who, discovering her to be a girl, wanted to marry her; -but she escaped and continued her journey towards the rising sun. - -On the way she met with a very old man, whose white hair had grown -down to his ankles, and who was so weak that he could scarcely open -his mouth. Little Light washed him and fed him and cut his hair. When -he had eaten and felt himself refreshed, he told her which way to go; -then he gave her a piece of bread, and told her that on her way to the -palace a wild dog would come out against her; she must give him that -bread and none other, and before entering the palace she must drink -of the water of the fountain at the gate of the palace. A three-headed -dog met her, she gave him the bread, and he suddenly disappeared after -having eaten it. Then she went and drank of the water in the well, -and was able to look at the golden palace in front of her, which -was so radiant and so luminous that no human eye could look at it -without being blinded. Then she went into the palace, and there, in -the middle of the hall, who should be sitting at the table and eating -but the glorious sun, beautiful and luminous as only the sun can be? - -When Little Light saw him, she almost fainted with joy, but he also, -turning to her and seeing her beautiful face, felt himself drawn to -her, for he had never yet seen such a wonderful human being. There in -the hall was also the mother of the sun. When she saw Little Light, -she turned fiercely on her, and cursing her said, "O thou wicked child -of man, born of sin, thou hast come here to defile the immaculate -purity of my son and to lead him on to sin and wickedness. Thou shalt -no longer remain a human being, thou shalt become a bird flying as -high as to get near the sun, and there, seeing the beloved who cannot -be thine, thou shalt cry plaintively for him whom thou hast won and -yet lost." At that moment Little Light was changed into the lark, -which at the break of dawn, before the sun rises, flies up into the -sky trying to get as near as possible to the sun, and there cries -plaintively at the loss of her beloved. - - - - - - - - -LXXX. A. - -THE STORY OF THE LARK. - -Another Version. - - -A variant of this story tells us that after the girl had left the -king's palace and had gone on seeking for the sun, she came to a -river, and did not know how to cross it. Whilst she was sitting there -at the bank of the river, not knowing what to do, there came out of -the river a girl dressed in white, who told her that she would reach -the palace and yet not reach it; and as she spoke these words, there -came a bridge and spanned the river. The girl went across the bridge, -and going on in her journey, she came to a field where an old woman -was watching a flock of geese. Curious as old women are, this one -asked the girl what had brought her hither, and whither she was going, -and who she was. The girl answered politely, and the old woman, being -touched by her beauty, gave her a twig in her right hand and placed -a ring on her left hand, and told her to cross herself with the twig, -and then she would see what would happen. She did so, and she suddenly -felt herself lifted up high in the air and carried as fast as a thought -to some distant land. When she found herself again on the ground, she -saw the palace of the sun facing her, but the palace was surrounded by -a river, over whose waters, clear as tears, there was no bridge. An -old man carried the passengers across, but he had to be paid with -a silver coin. Those who did not pay had to wander round that river -for a year. Remembering the ring which the old woman had given her, -she offered it to the old man instead of a coin; he accepted it and -carried her across. On the other side a two-headed dog came out and -barked at her furiously. At his barking an old woman came out, who was -none other than the mother of the sun. The poor girl did not know who -it was; she might have been careful with her answer if she had. The -woman asked her who she was and what she had come for. The girl, who -was truthfulness itself, said in her simplicity that she had come to -see the sun whom she loved so much. When the old woman heard this, -she cursed her, and thus she became the lark flying about high in -the air, and trying in vain to reach her beloved. - - - -It is evident that we have here reminiscences of ancient myths, -which have assumed a very peculiar shape in the mind of the people. It -would be difficult to say whether these are survivals of Greek myths, -of Charon, who ferries the dead across the river, and other legends -connected with Apollo, or whether we have here later stories which -have lingered on in the Balkans and have then been carried across the -Danube. Whatever the connection, one cannot deny that we are dealing -here with materials closely akin to those which form the substance of -some parts of ancient Greek mythology, but in a modified form. Charon -has survived to this very day in the legends and in the folk-lore -of modern Greece, no less than in that of Macedonia and the other -peoples of the Balkans. It is curious, however, that in this tale no -blending with Christianity has taken place. We find various layers of -religious belief which seem to have been superimposed upon one another, -each one as it were leading an independent life of its own, seldom -mixing to such an extent that the line of demarcation between what, -in the absence of another term, one might call heathen mythology and -Christian mythology or legendary lore. - - - - - - - - -LXXXI. - -THE WOOING OF THE SISTER OF THE SUN. - -A Christmas Carol. - - - White flowers, O Ler, [4] - What cloud appears on the horizon? - It is not a cloud, a black cloud, - But a young man - On a yellow charger. - The saddle glitters like gold; - The stirrups shine like silver; - The whip with a beautiful handle; - And bells tinkling on his reins. - He is gone to hunt-- - To hunt, to woo. - He met a beautiful maid, - The like of whom there is not in the world. - It was the queen of the fairies-- - Iana, the sister of the Sun. - He met her, - He took hold of her, - And in his cellar he hid her-- - In the cellar of the peacocks. - The Sun, as soon as he got wind of it, - Sent immediately after her - The morning dawn to search, - The twilight stars to seek. - But the young man, - What did he say? - "For what are you searching, - Dawn of the morning? - And what are you seeking, - Stars of the evening? - Go into every nook, - But beware of the cellar. - If a peacock will escape, - I will take one of the sun's steeds instead. - And if a hen will escape, - I will wed his sister. - For I have found her, - I have taken her, - And into my house I brought her." - This the young man-- - May he keep in good health, - With his brother, - And his parents, - And with all of us together. - - -This belongs to the series of the sun myths, curiously connected -here also with the peacock. I am not aware of any parallel to this -legend. Here a young man tries to woo the sister of the sun. In -the lark stories it is the young girl who wishes to marry the sun, -represented as a young man. They all belong to the same cycle, into -which apparently so far the Christian element is absent. The remarkable -part of it is, that this and the other songs are Christmas carols, -connected probably with the Festival of the Sun with which Christmas -was originally connected. It is the time of the winter solstice and -the birth of the new sun. This probably explains the part which the -sun legend plays in so many Rumanian Christmas carols. - - - - - - - - -LXXXII. - -THE WOOING OF A FAIRY. - -A Christmas Carol. - - - Here, O Lord; there, O Lord, - In these houses, in these palaces and yards, - There have grown, O Lord, - Grown two tall apple trees. - Wonderful they are, - Joined in their roots, - United and entwined in their tops - The tree reaches up to the sky, - The bark is of silver, - And the fruit of gold. - But the fruit - Could not be plucked, - Through the threat of the Black Sea, - For the Sea was boasting, - And with its mouth saying: - "Who is here in the world - Who would dare to shoot at my apples?" - No one was found; - No one dares. - But when he heard the boast of the Sea, - Went home quickly to his house, - Went up the stairs, - Took the bow from the nail-- - The bow with the arrows-- - Placed them in his bosom, - And riding on his black charger, - He came to the Sea. - Arrived at the Sea, - He put his hand into his bosom, - Drew forth - The bow with the arrows, - And pointed the arrow to the tree. - The tops of the apple-tree-- - The wonderful apples-- - Thus spake to him: - "Stop. Do not shoot, - For we will give thee - The sister of the sun, - The niece of the fairies, the beauty among the beauties," - He was persuaded, - And did not shoot the apples. - He mounted his charger, - Took his bow and arrow, - And turned back. - He had not gone a long way, - When he looked back, - And what he saw filled him with wonderment; - For there came, - There ran a pale-faced damsel. - She neither laughed - Nor rejoiced, - But wept bitterly, tearing her golden hair, - Scratching her white face. - But the knight said to her: - "Stop, O Princess. - Stop, O Queen. - I do not take thee - For a slave to me, - But my mistress shalt thou be, - A good mistress of the house, - A good ruler - Of the household, - A niece - To uncles, - A sister-in-law to brothers, - A daughter-in-law to parents, - Dispenser at the treasury, - Mistress of my wealth." - The girl, hearing his words, - Ceased from crying, - And joined him joyfully. - And ... the brave man, may he live in health with his brothers, - With his parents, - And with all of us together. - - -We have here again the intertwined trees of the Tristram and Isolde -legend; the special golden apples of Hesperides fame, and even since -of the fairy tales. In the latter, the golden apple represents often -the palace of the giant, with all the treasures that it contains, -and the possession of the apple brings with it the possession of the -princess. The Black Sea plays here a part, which reminds one of the -raging sea in the pilgrimage of the soul. But what is of importance -here is that the princess is called "the sister of the sun." - - - - - - - - -LXXXIII. - -WHERE DID THE SWAN COME FROM? - -The Story of the Swan Maiden and the King. - - -This is in its essence the well-known story of the swan-maidens, -but with a very marked difference. It is here used more or less to -describe the origin of the swan, whilst the tale of the swan-maiden -presupposes the existence and knowledge of such birds. - -The version, which I have been able to find is, however, not complete; -still it is clear enough for our purpose. It runs as follows: - - - -Once upon a time a king went out hunting, and after he had been -hunting in the forest for a long time without finding anything, he -found himself suddenly in an open plain, in which there was a huge -lake, and in the midst of the lake he saw there a bird swimming about, -the like of which he had never seen before. It was a swan. - -Drawing his bow, he wanted to shoot it. To his surprise it spoke to -him in a human voice, and said, "Do not kill me." So he tried his -best to catch it, and succeeded. Pleased with the capture of the bird, -he carried it home alive, and gave it to the cook to kill it to make -a meal of it for him. The cook was a Gipsy. She whetted her knife -and went to the bird to cut its throat, when, to her astonishment, -the bird turned three somersaults, and there stood before her a most -beautiful maiden, more beautiful than she had ever seen before. So -she ran to the king and told him what had happened. - -The king, who first thought that the cook was trying to play some -trickery with him, did not listen to her, but when she persisted -in her tale, the king, driven by curiosity, went into the kitchen, -and there he saw a girl more beautiful than any that he had ever yet -set his eyes upon. - -He asked her who she was, and she said she was the swan who was -swimming on the lake, that she had wilfully gone away from her mother, -who lived in the land of fairies, and that she had left two sisters -behind. So the king took her into the palace and married her. The -Gipsy, who was a pretty wench, had thought that the king would marry -her, and when she saw what had happened, she was very angry. But she -managed to conceal her anger, and tried to be kind to the new queen, -biding her time all the while. - -The king and queen lived on for a while in complete happiness, and -after a time a child was born unto her. - -It so happened that the king had to go on a long journey, leaving the -wife and child in the care of the Gipsy. One day the Gipsy came to the -queen, and said to her, "Why do you always sit in the palace? come, -let us walk a little in the garden, to hear the birds singing, -and to see the beautiful flowers." The queen, who had no suspicion, -took the advice of the Gipsy, and went with her for a walk into the -garden. In the middle of the garden there was a deep well, and the -Gipsy said artfully to the young queen, "Just bend over the well, -and look into the water below, and see whether your face has remained -so beautiful as it was on the first day when you turned into a maiden -from being a swan." - -The queen bent over the well to look down into the depths, and that -was what the Gipsy was waiting for, for no sooner did the queen bend -over the well, than, getting hold of her by her legs, she threw her -down head foremost into the well and drowned her. When the king came -home and did not find the queen, he asked what had happened, and where -she was. The Gipsy, who had meanwhile taken charge of the child, and -looked after it very carefully, said to the king that the young queen, -pining for her old home, had turned again into a swan and flown away. - -The king was deeply grieved when he heard this, but believing what -the Gipsy had told him, he thought that nothing could be done, and -resigned himself to the loss of his wife. - -The Gipsy woman looked after the child with great care, hoping -thereby that she might win the king's love, and that he would marry -her. A month, a year passed, and nothing was heard of the wife. And -the king, seeing the apparent affection of the Gipsy for the child, -decided at last to marry her, and fixed the day of the wedding. Out -of the fountain into which the queen had been thrown, there grew -a willow tree with three branches, one stem in the middle and two -branching out right and left. Not far from the garden there lived a -man who had a large flock of sheep. One day he sent his boy to lead -the sheep to the field. On his way the boy passed the king's garden -with the well in the middle of it. - -As the boy had left his flute at home, when he saw the willow he -thought he would cut one of the branches and make a flute. - -Going into the garden, he cut the middle stem, and made a flute of -it. When he put it to his lips, the flute by itself began to play as -follows: "O boy, do not blow too hard, for my heart is aching for -my little babe which I left behind in the cradle, and to suckle at -the black breast of a Gipsy." When the boy heard what the flute was -playing, not understanding what it meant, he was greatly astonished, -and ran home to tell his father what had happened with the flute. - -The father, angry that he had left the sheep alone, scolded him, and -took away the flute. Then he tried to see whether the boy had told the -truth. As soon as he put it to his mouth the flute started playing -the same tune as when the boy had tried to play it. The father said -nothing, and wondering at the meaning of the words he hid the flute -away in a cupboard. - -When the king's wedding-day drew near, all the musicians of the kingdom -were invited to come and play at the banquet. Some of them passed -the old man's house, and hearing from them that they were going to -play at the king's banquet, he remembered the marvellous flute, and -he asked whether he could not go also, as he could play the flute so -wonderfully well. His son--the young boy--had meanwhile gone into the -garden in the hope of getting another flute, as the willow had three -branches. So he cut one of the branches and made a flute of it. Now -this flute did not play at all. - -When the old man came to the palace, there was much rejoicing and -singing. At last his turn came to play. As soon as he put the flute -to his lips, the flute sang: "O man, do not blow so hard, for my -heart aches for my little babe left in the cradle to be suckled by -a black Gipsy." - -The Gipsy, who was the king's bride and sat at the head of the table, -at once understood the saying of the flute, although she did not know -what the flute had to do with the queen whom she had killed. - -The king, who marvelled greatly at the flute and at the tune which it -was singing, took a gold piece and gave it to the man for the flute, -and when he started blowing it, the flute began to sing: "O my dear -husband, do not blow so hard, for my heart aches for our little babe -whom I left in the cradle to be suckled by the black Gipsy. Quickly, -quickly, do away with this cruel Gipsy, as otherwise thou wilt lose -thy wife." - -The guests who were present marvelled at the song, and no one -understood its meaning. The Gipsy, however, who understood full well -what it meant, turning to the king, said, "Illustrious king, do not -blow this flute and make thyself ridiculous before thy guests, throw -it into the fire." But the king, who felt offended by the words of -the Gipsy, made her take up the flute and blow. With great difficulty -she submitted to the order of the king, and she was quite justified -in refusing to play it, for no sooner had she put the flute to her -lips when it sang: "You enemy of mine, do not blow hard, for my heart -aches for my little babe left in the cradle to be suckled by thee, -thou evil-minded Gipsy. Thou hast thrown me into the well, and there -put an end to my life, but God had pity on me, and he has preserved -me to be again the true wife of this illustrious king." - -Furious at these words, the Gipsy threw the flute away with so much -force that she thought it would break into thousands of splinters. But -it was not to be as she thought, for by this very throw the flute was -changed into a beautiful woman, more beautiful, indeed, than any had -ever seen before. She was the very queen whom the Gipsy had thrown -into the well. - -When the king saw her, he embraced her and kissed her, and asked her -where she had been such a long time. She told him that she had slept -at the bottom of the well into which she had been thrown by the Gipsy, -who had hoped to become the queen, and this would have come to pass -had it not been for the boy cutting a flute out of the stem of the -willow-tree. "And now, punish the Gipsy as she deserves, otherwise -thy wife must leave thee." - -When the king heard these words, he called the boy and asked him -whether he had cut himself a flute from the stem of the willow tree -which had grown out of the well in the garden. - -"It is so, O illustrious king;" said the boy, "and may I be forgiven -for the audacity of going into the king's garden. I went and cut for -myself a flute from the stem of the willow tree, and when I began -to blow it, it played, 'Do not blow so hard, O boy, for my heart is -aching within me,' etc." Then he told him he had gone back to his -father, who instead of praising him for the marvellous flute, gave -him a good shaking. He had then gone a second time into the garden, -and had cut off one of the branches to make a flute; but this did -not play like the first one. The king gave the boy a very rich gift, -and he ordered the Gipsy to be killed. - -Some time afterwards, the queen came to the king and asked leave to -go to her mother to tell her all that had happened to her, and to -say good-bye for ever now, as she henceforth would live among human -beings. The king reluctantly gave way. She then made three somersaults, -and again became a swan, as she had been when the king found her for -the first time on the waters of the lake. - -Spreading her wings she flew far away until she reached the house of -her mother, who was quite alone. Her two sisters were not there. They -had left her some time ago and no one knew whither they had gone. The -young queen did not go into the house, she was probably afraid lest her -mother would not let her go back again, so she settled on the roof, -and there she sang: "Remain in health, good mother mine, as the joy -is no longer granted thee to have me with thee in thine house, for -thou wilt only see me again when I lose my kingdom, dear mother mine, -not before, and not till then." And without waiting for the answer -of her mother she returned back again to her husband. Sitting on the -window sill, she sung again: "Rise up, O husband, open the doors, wake -up the servants and let them be a witness of my faithfulness to thee, -for since I have married thee I have left my mother, and my sisters -have gone away from me, and from a swan I have become a true wife to -live in happiness with thee. Henceforth I shall no longer be a swan, -but thou must take care of me that I do not go hence from thee. I -do not know whether my fate will be a better one by being a queen in -this world. O sweet water, how I long to bathe in thee! And my white -feathers, they will belong to my sisters. Since I am to leave them -for ever, and my mother with them, O Lord, what have I done? Shall I -be able to live upon the earth, and shall I keep the kingdom? Thou, O -Lord, O merciful, hearken unto me and grant that this kingdom may not -be in vain." And turning again head over heels, she became a woman as -before, and entering the palace she lived there with her husband--the -king--and if they have not died since they are still alive. - - - -Here we have the origin of the swans, for since that time the swans -have come to this world. - -It is a remarkable tale, in which the element of the swan-maiden -story has been mixed up with the type of the false wife. It claims, -however, special attention, for we have here what I believe to be -"the song of the dying swan." It is practically the song of the swan -before her death as a swan, and her rebirth as a fairy maiden, which -is contained in the concluding portion. - -I am not aware of any other parallel to this peculiar song, although -the fable that the swan sings a very beautiful song before his death -is well known from antiquity. - -Here follows another version of the swan legend in the form of -a ballad. - - - - - - - - -LXXXIV. - -THE SWAN MAIDEN, THE BIRD OF HEAVEN AND THE CROWN OF PARADISE. - -A Christmas Carol. - - - High up on the top of the mountains, - On the brow of the rocks, - At the gates of the fairies, - On the land of Neculea, - Appeared a white swan - Sent by God, - Selected by God. - She has been flying under the heavens, - And settled on the rock. - She turned off from her flight, - And fell near the brave, - For he is to wed - The little white swan. - The king's son, as soon as he saw her, - Was wounded at his heart, - And spake as follows: - "O thou white fairy, - O thou beautiful swan, - I will bathe thee in a bath of white milk, - So that thou shouldst not be able to depart." - The swan replied, and said: - "Young son of kings, - I will not be bathed, - For I am not a white swan, - But the fairy from heaven, - From the gate of Paradise." - The prince, when he heard her, - His love burned in him fiercely - And what did he say with his mouth? - "O thou white little swan, - O thou beautiful fairy, - Stay here and be my wife." - The swan answered and replied, - And thus spake with her mouth: - "I will wed thee, - And remain as wife to thee, - If thou wilt go, - If thou wilt bring me - The bird of heaven - And the crown of Paradise. - The bird which sings in heaven with sweet and beautiful speech, - To which God Almighty and the angels listen constantly, - Singing among the trees in bloom, - And some laden with ripe fruit; - And the crown of Paradise, - Of the Paradise of God, - Woven of jasmine, - With the fruits of virginity." - When the prince heard her words, - He went to his stable-yard of stone, - Brought forth his whole stud--a great company-- - And he started on his journey - On the road - Where the sun rises. - Nine horses he made lame, - Other nine horses he broke ere he arrived at the mansion of - the Lord, - At the gate of Paradise. - Who came there to meet him? - St. Basile came to meet him, - Came to try him, and to ask him - What might be his wish? - What might be in his mind? - The prince replied and said: - "The Holy God has selected for me, - The Holy God has sent to me - A wonderful swan to wed me, - But she will not marry me - Until she wears - The crown of Paradise, - The crown of our Lord, - Woven with jasmine, - With fruits of virgin maidens. - She will not marry me, - Unless at our wedding sings - The bird of heaven and the Lord's bird, - Which discourses here in Paradise, - With such sweet and charming speech, - In between the blooming trees-- - Some decked with flowers, - Others laden with fruit-- - And the Lord - And the angels listen constantly." - Thus spake the Prince, - Praying very deeply, - And shed tears all the while. - St. Basile had mercy on him. - He gave him the bird - And the crown. - He then returned to - The crest of the mountains, - The valley of Neculea. - There he set the bird free, - And placed the crown upon the altar, - And he spake thus: - "Come forth, my beautiful swan, - Come forth, my wonderful fairy. - Behold the crown, - And listen to the bird; - For the crown is that of Paradise, - From the mansions of the Lord; - And the bird is the bird of heaven, - From among the trees of Paradise." - When the swan came forth, it turned into a maiden fair; - The crown leapt on to her head; - The bird began to sing, - With sweet and beautiful song, - The song of heaven. - They went to church, - And the priest married them. - Who was his sponsor? - Who but St. John, - Who stood sponsor to Jesus. - He blessed them, - And gave them, - To each one gifts, - To her a small cross, - As well as a small Ikon; - To him a staff of silver, - To rule over the whole world, - To have power upon earth. - And this young bride - With golden tresses - That shone like the sun's rays, - Together with her groom, - Young and brave, - May they live - For many years - With happy cheer and with health, - Together with their brothers - And with their parents. - - -Here we have a remarkable "carol," full of mystical lore, in which the -swan-like maiden in the tale is really a fairy in disguise. The bird -of heaven, and the crown of paradise, and all the rest stand here for -the tests which often are found in fairy tales. The hero must first -win these mythical beings before he can obtain the love of the maiden, -or probably before she can turn from a swan into a human being, and -remain as such. We have here thus a version of the large cycle of the -Swan Maiden (v. Cosquin, ii. 16; Saineanu, p. 264 ff.). Such miraculous -birds occur very often in Rumanian (v. Saineanu, p. 410 ff.). - - - - - - - - -LXXXV. - -WHY DOES THE DUCK FEED ON REFUSE? - -The Story of the Cannibal Innkeeper. - - -This is more or less a fairy tale, but of a very complicated -character. Various elements are combined in it. It begins as do many -tales, with the fact that a couple had a child after many years: -that child is a beautiful girl, who, left as an orphan, dresses up in -a man's clothes, works at the house of a rich man, where she after a -time resumes her character as a girl: the chieftain of robbers falls -in love with her, but when he asks his companions to go and steal -her away from her master, everyone refuses. He then goes himself, -disguised as a servant: he stays for some time in the same house: -when he asks her to marry him, she refuses. His attempts at stealing -her are frustrated by a little dog which she had received from her -parents. One night he succeeds in catching the dog, and, assisted by -some of his comrades whom he had summoned for the purpose, he is able -to carry her away to his house. There she refuses again to marry him, -and when he finds that neither good words, nor threats, nor beating -make her change her mind, he gets so furious that he decides to sell -her to a wild and cruel innkeeper who lives some distance away. - -Now this innkeeper used to rob the travellers: then he used to kill -them, cut them in pieces, and, after having cooked them, he gave -their flesh to his customers to eat. When he received the girl he -took her first into a very large room, in which there was only a table -and chairs round it. That was the room where he used to feed all the -travellers who came to him. Then he took her into another apartment -which was full of gold and silver and vestments of silk, and round the -walls were hanging weapons of all kinds, all robbed from the people -who had lodged in that place, and whom he had murdered. Then he took -her into a third room. There was a pillar, and on it were hanging two -knives and an axe, with which he used to kill and cut up his victims; -and along the walls there were hooks, and on each hook a human head. He -showed all these things to the girl, who was greatly frightened, -and who expected now to be killed by this cruel man. But he somehow -seemed to have taken some pity on her, or perhaps he wanted to keep -her for some time longer; whatever the reason, he took her and pushed -her into another room, quite behind all these rooms, and locked the -door upon her; and he told her to wait until he came back, and she was -to do all that she was told. She had taken the little dog with her, -and that seemed to comfort her. Soon afterwards he brought in a boy -whom he had captured in the forest gathering berries, and taking him -into an inner apartment he cut his head off, and cut him in pieces, -and calling the girl in, he told her to take the meat and cook it and -get it ready for the customers whom he was expecting. When the people -came, he fed them in his usual way with human flesh. The people did -not know what manner of food it was they were getting, but they seemed -to like it; then he did with these guests what he had done with all -the others, and so it went on day after day, the poor girl was kept -there locked up and helping to prepare the food of the chopped-up men. - -One day a very old woman was brought in, whom the man had bought, -but she was so ugly and so wizened that one could scarcely recognise -a human countenance. Not knowing who she was, the wild man thrust her -into the chamber where the young girl was: very likely he wanted to -kill her later on, as he had killed all the others, but possibly he -wanted first to feed her up, as she was only skin and bones. When the -young girl saw that bag of bones, she was very frightened; but the old -woman spoke in friendly fashion to her, and asked her who she was and -how she came to be in that house, telling her at the same time that she -was a great witch, she could do anything, change everything, and that -she had cursed her son for his cruelty, when he was still a young boy, -and that she had come now to punish him. She had disguised herself in -this ugly form, for she knew that if her son recognised her he would -not wait long, but would kill her at once without mercy. The girl then -told her her pitiful tale, and begged of her to save her. She told her -what a terrible life she was leading, how she had been fed on human -flesh, and that he was probably only waiting for an opportunity to -kill her also and to give her flesh to others to be eaten. The old -woman took pity on her, and told her she need not fear; though her -son had put her in the innermost recess and there was no outlet, yet -she would be able to escape. She must kill the little dog, and taking -out a small bit from the heart was to swallow it. While she was doing -it, the old woman took out some ointment from her bosom and began to -rub her with it all over her body, when she suddenly became changed -into a duck. There she sat quietly in a corner, and when the wild man -came and opened the door she flew away and escaped into the open. The -man looked round, and not finding the girl he went all over the place -searching for her. At that moment the mother followed him out of that -room, and uttered a terrible curse, on which the whole house fell -down over him and killed him. When the duck had flown some distance -away, she turned back to see what had happened, for the old woman had -foretold her that she was going to destroy it. When she turned round -she saw the heap of ruins, but as the old woman had not told her how -she could again become a human being, the spell remained unbroken, -and she has remained a duck to this very day. - -It is for this reason that ducks are so fat, and they seek their food -among the dead bodies and dirty places. - - - -It will be seen that we have here a remarkable parallel of the -Bluebeard story, but in a much more primitive form, for this Bluebeard -does not kill only his wives, but he kills indiscriminately all those -upon whom he can lay his hands, and then he uses the flesh of his -victims for food. There are dim recollections of cannibalism in this -tale, which in a way also reminds us of Polyphemus, who keeps Ulysses -and his companions for the purpose of killing them and eating them, -and the same story is found in another form in the adventures of -Sindbad the Sailor. - - - - - - - - -LXXXVI. - -WHY HAS THE STORK NO TAIL? - -The Story of the Water of Life and Death. - - -This tale, though part of a longer fairy tale, is still complete -in itself. - - - -The hero of the tale, Floria, having shown some kindness to a stork, -who afterwards turns out to be the king of the storks, receives from -him a feather, which when taken up at any time of danger would bring -the stork to him and help him. And thus it came to pass that the hero, -finding himself at one time in danger, remembered the gift of the -stork. He took out the feather from the place where he had hidden it, -and waved it. At once the stork appeared and asked Floria what he -could do for him. He told him the king had ordered him to bring the -water of life and the water of death. [5] - -The stork replied that if it could possibly be got he would certainly -do it for him. Returning to his palace, the stork, who was the king -of the storks, called all the storks together, and asked them whether -they had seen or heard or been near the mountains that knock against -one another, at the bottom of which are the fountains of the water -of life and death. - -All the young and strong looked at one another, and not even the -oldest one ventured to reply. He asked them again, and then they -said they had never heard or seen anything of the waters of life and -death. At last there came from the rear a stork, lame on one foot, -blind in one eye, and with a shrivelled-up body, and with half of -his feathers plucked out. And he said, "May it please your majesty, -I have been there where the mountains knock one against the other, -and the proofs of it are my blinded eye and my crooked leg." When -the king saw him in the state in which he was, he did not even take -any notice of him. - -Turning to the other storks, he said: "Is there any one among you who, -for my sake, will run the risk and go to these mountains and bring the -water?" Not one of the young and strong, and not even any of the older -ones who were still strong replied. They all kept silence. But the lame -stork said to the king, "For your sake, O Master King, I will again -put my life in danger and go." The king again did not look at him, -and turning to the others repeated his question; but when he saw that -they all kept silence, he at last turned to the stork and said to him: - -"Dost thou really believe, crippled and broken as thou art, that thou -wilt be able to carry out my command?" - -"I will certainly try," he said. - -"Wilt thou put me to shame?" the king again said. - -"I hope not; but thou must bind on my wings some meat for my food, -and tie the two bottles for the water to my legs." - -The other storks, on hearing his words, laughed at what they thought -his conceit, but he took no notice of it. The king was very pleased, -and did as the stork had asked. He tied on his wings a quantity of -fresh meat, which would last him for his journey, and the two bottles -were fastened to his legs. He said to him, "A pleasant journey." The -stork, thus prepared for his journey, rose up into the heavens, and -away he went straight to the place where the mountains were knocking -against one another and prevented any one approaching the fountains of -life and death. It was when the sun had risen as high as a lance that -he espied in the distance those huge mountains which, when they knocked -against one another, shook the earth and made a noise that struck -fear and terror into the hearts of those who were a long distance away. - -When the mountains had moved back a little before knocking against -one another, the stork wanted to plunge into the depths and get the -water. But there came suddenly to him a swallow from the heart of -the mountain, and said to him, "Do not go a step further, for thou -art surely lost." - -"Who art thou who stops me in my way?" asked the stork angrily. - -"I am the guardian spirit of these mountains, appointed to save every -living creature that has the misfortune to come near them." - -"What am I to do then to be safe?" - -"Hast thou come to fetch water of life and death?" - -"Yes." - -"If that be so, then thou must wait till noon, when the mountains rest -for half an hour. As soon as thou seest that a short time has passed -and they do not move, then rise up as high as possible into the air, -and drop down straight to the bottom of the mountain. There, standing -on the ledge of the stone between the two waters, dip thy bottles into -the fountains and wait until they are filled. Then rise as thou hast -got down, but beware lest thou touchest the walls of the mountain or -even a pebble, or thou art lost." - -The stork did as the swallow had told him; he waited till noontide, -and when he saw that the mountains had gone to sleep, he rose up into -the air, and, plunging down into the depth, he settled on the ledge of -the stone and filled his bottles. Feeling that they had been filled, -he rose with them as he had got down, but when he had reached almost -the top of the mountains, he touched a pebble. No sooner had he done -so, when the two mountains closed furiously upon him; but they did -not catch any part of him, except the tail, which remained locked up -fast between the two peaks of the mountains. - -With a strong movement he tore himself away, happy that he had saved -his life and the two bottles with the waters of life and death, -not caring for the loss of his tail. - -And he returned the way he had come, and reached the palace of the king -of the storks in time for the delivery of the bottles. When he reached -the palace, all the storks were assembled before the king, waiting to -see what would happen to the lame and blind one who had tried to put -them to shame. When they saw him coming back, they noticed that he -had lost his tail, and they began jeering at him and laughing, for he -looked all the more ungainly, from having already been so ugly before. - -But the king was overjoyed with the exploit of his faithful messenger; -and he turned angrily on the storks and said, "Why are you jeering -and mocking? Just look round and see where are your tails. And you -have not lost them in so honourable a manner as this my faithful -messenger." On hearing this they turned round, and lo! one and all -of them had lost their tails. - -And this is the reason why they have remained without a tail to this -very day. - - - -Compare the story of the lark, No. 78, who alone of all the birds obeys -the king's command; for the story of the stork, the only bird that can -reach the fountains of life and death, v. Cosquin (i. No. 3, p. 48). - - - - - - - - -LXXXVII. - -WHY HAS THE SWALLOW A FORKED TAIL AND A RED SPOT ON ITS BREAST? - -The Story of the Young Maiden and her Husband the Demon. - - -Once upon a time there was a widow who had one only child. She had a -flock of sheep and a magic dog. The widow died, and the girl was left -quite alone. So she took the flock of sheep and went to feed them in -the mountain, accompanied only by her faithful little dog. After some -time, there came also to the same pastures a young shepherd leading -his flock. Before leaving, the girl had put on man's clothes, and -so when the other shepherd, who was the son of a she-demon, came, -they got very friendly, and the girl often went with her flock to -spend the night in the house of the demon. She did not know who the -other shepherd was, nor who was his mother. After a time, the young -man began to feel suspicious about his comrade, and he said to his -mother, "Methinks my friend is a girl, despite his man's clothes; -his gait and his speech are just like that of a maiden." The mother -would not listen; but after a time, when the son went on saying that he -believed his mate to be a maiden, she said to him, "Very well, then, -we will put him to the test, and we can easily find out what he is. I -will take a special flower and put it under his pillow, and if it is -faded in the morning he is for sure a maiden." The dog, who knew what -the old woman was up to, called the girl aside and told her: "Listen -to me, my mistress. Follow my advice, it will go well with thee. The -old dragon is going to put a flower under thy pillow as soon as thou -hast gone to bed; now keep awake, take it out from under the pillow -and put it on the pillow. Early in the morning, before any one else is -awake, put it back under the pillow, and nothing will happen to thee." - -The girl did as the dog had told her. She took the flower from under -her pillow, and kept it on her pillow all through the night, and put -it back again early in the morning. The old woman afterwards took the -flower out; she found it was even fresher than it had been the night -before. So she told her son that he must be mistaken. His companion -could not be a maiden. He persisted in his belief despite of it, -and so the woman said to him, "Go and ask your companion to bathe, -and if he is eager to do so, be sure it is not a girl; but if he -makes any difficulties, you will know that you are right." - -The dog, who knew of the plotting of the old woman, told the girl to -put on a pleasant face, and not to hesitate to go to the river with her -companion, "for," he said, "no sooner will you be near the water than I -will get among the flock, and so you will have to jump up and run after -the sheep, and there will be no more question of bathing." As the dog -said, so he did, and again the young man did not know what to make of -his companion. The mother then told him to go with his companion to -the forest, and to find a big tree, and to ask his companion what it -would be good for. If he replied for distaff and spindle, then it is -a girl; but if he answered it was good to make carts out of, then it -was a boy." So he took her into the forest, and, finding a big tree, -he asked her what could be best made out of the wood. The girl replied -"carts." When the girl saw that the boy troubled her too much, she went -to the sea-shore, and, smiting the waves with her shepherd's staff, -she rent the waters in twain, and passed dryshod with her flock and -dog to the other shore of the sea. The other shepherd--the demon--came -to the sea-shore just when she had already passed over to the other -side. She removed her fur cap, and her long golden hair fell down -to her knees. Then she moved her wand, and the waters again closed -up. When he saw that she had escaped him, he was very angry, and he -went to his mother and told her all that had happened. She said to him, -"Do not mind; I will help you to get her into your hands." So the old -woman went to the sea and built there a huge ship. This she filled -with all kinds of merchandise, and told the young man to sail in it -across the sea, and try and find his beloved; and she told him how -to get hold of her when he had found her. So sailing along in the -boat he got across, and anchored near a great town. The people came -out to look at the wares which he had brought. The last to come--led -by curiosity--was the girl. As soon as he saw that she had entered -the boat, he set sail, and off he went. When the girl saw what had -happened, she recognised him, and, finding herself in his power, she -offered no resistance. But when they were in the middle of the sea, -she took off the ring which she had on her finger, and, casting it -into the sea, she said to him, "From this day onward I shall remain -dumb. I shall not speak to thee until this ring is brought back to me"; -and she kept her word faithfully. For many a year she lived with him, -but never spoke a word. One day her mother-in-law thought that it -would be better to get rid of her. As she herself dared not kill her, -she sent the girl with a message to her elder sister to bring her -the sword and the threads, knowing full well that her sister would -kill her. When her husband heard the errand on which she was sent, -he came out quietly, and, meeting her outside the house, he whispered: - -"When you go to my mother's sister, she is sure to offer you some -food; take the first bite, and keep it under your tongue. Then -you may eat; otherwise you will be lost." The girl never replied, -but listened attentively to what he had said. So she came to the old -crone, who was ever so much worse than her own mother-in-law, and she -certainly was bad enough. As soon as she entered the house, the young -woman greeted her. Great was the surprise of the old woman, who said, -"Now who is to believe my sister; she made that girl out to be dumb, -and now she speaks so sweetly. Come in, my child." - -Then she went out, killed a cock, grilled it, and gave it to her -to eat. - -The young woman, remembering her husband's advice, took the first -bite and put it under her tongue; then she sat down and made a -hearty meal of the cock. When she had finished, the old woman said, -"I do not have the sword or the threads; they are with my younger -sister. She lives not very far from here; you just go to her." - -Taking leave, she went a little way further, and she came to the -second sister, who was worse than the other. She saluted her when -she came in, and this sister also said: - -"How is one to believe your mother-in-law? She made you out to be dumb, -and now you speak so sweetly and so nicely. What have you come for?" - -She said, "I have come for the sword and the threads." - -"Sit down and eat, my child," she said, and, going out, she took a -young lamb and killed it and prepared it for her. Remembering the -advice given to her, she put the first bite under her tongue, and -then she went on eating until she had satisfied her hunger. - -When she had finished eating, the old woman said, "I do not have that -sword; it is with my younger sister. You must go further; she lives -quite close by, and she will give it to you." - -So she went to the third sister, and greeting this third one, who was -the worst of all and the ugliest of all, said to her, "Sit down and -eat." Then she took out the hand of a dead man and gave it to her to -eat. But this the wife could not do. - -Meanwhile the old woman had gone up into the loft of the house, -saying she was going to fetch the spade, but in reality to watch the -young woman to see what she was doing. - -When she was left alone, she took the hand and threw it under -the hearth. Then came a voice from the loft crying. "Hand, hand, -where art thou?" and from under the hearth the hand replied, "Here -I am under the hearth." So she turned on the young woman and said, -"You eat this or something worse will happen to you; I am going to -eat you." She was very frightened; so she took it and put it in her -bosom under her girdle. And again the old woman cried, "Hand, hand, -where art thou?" and the hand replied, "I am under her heart." The old -witch thought that she had eaten it, and coming down, she brought the -sword and gave it to her together with the threads. Before she left, -the old witch asked her to give her back the hand; so she put her hand -in her bosom, and drew out the dead hand and gave it back to her. And -so she had to let her go in peace, as she had retained nothing. - -Then, coming to the other sister, this one said to her, "Give me back -my lamb." The young woman heaved, and out came the little lamb quite -alive and started frolicking through the house. It was because she had -kept the first bite under her tongue. She therefore had to let her -go unharmed. Then she came to the eldest one. And she said to her, -"Give me back my cock," and then the young woman spat, and out came -the cock, running and crowing through the house. And so she came back -to her own house with the sword and the threads. - -Shortly before she had come, some fishermen had caught a large number -of fish, among them a huge fish which her husband had bought. When -he opened that fish, he found the ring which his wife had cast into -the sea. So, full of joy, he ran out to meet her and to give her the -ring. He embraced her with one hand, and with the other, which was full -of the blood of the fish, he stroked her chin gently, saying to her, -"O my dear little girl, here is thy ring." No sooner had he spoken -these words, when the woman was changed into a bird with a red breast, -the mark of the blood stains on her chin; then, breaking a pane of the -window (lit. an eye of the window), she flew away. Her husband tried -to catch hold of her, but he only got hold of the middle feathers of -the tail, which remained in his hand. The bird flew away. The young -woman had become a swallow. For that reason the tail looks like two -prongs of a fork, for the middle part was plucked out by the husband -in his attempt to catch her. - - - -In this legend we have a combination of many tales. The central -incident of the magical ring recovered from the depth of the sea -inside the fish, upon which the whole future depended, is somewhat -obscure in this tale. It is part of the Polykrates tale, but still -more so of the Solomonic legend, where the recovery of the ring means -the recovery of power by King Solomon. It is a curious romance, -in which Solomon is married as a poor man, i.e. in disguise, to a -princess, for his ring by which he was able to rule all the spirits -and demons had been cast into the sea by a demon and swallowed by a -fish. From that fish Solomon recovered it later on, and with it his -kingdom and power. The incident of the sword and the threads is an -obscure episode. No doubt it is a magical sword, by which the power -of the ogre is to be broken, and the threads are magical threads, -by which he is to be tied and made powerless. - - - - - - - - -LXXXVIII. - -WHY DOES THE SWALLOW LIVE IN HOT PLACES? - -The Story of the Swallow and Holy Mother Sunday. - - -In another tale the swallow was originally a servant of Holy -Sunday. Holy Sunday, going to church, told her servant, whom she had -left at home, that she was to prepare the dinner for her, and that -she should take care that it should neither be too hot nor too cold, -but just as she liked it best. The servant remaining at home did as -she was told; she cooked the dinner, but forgot to take the food off -the hob in time to get it cool enough for Holy Sunday when she came -home from church. - -When Holy Sunday came home and began to eat the food burned her -mouth, as it was too hot, having been left on the fire so much -too long. So she got very angry, and cursed the servant, saying, -"As thou hast not done my will and hast burned me with the food, -so mayest thou now be henceforth a bird burned and frizzled up by -the great heat of the places and the countries where thou shalt dwell." - -No sooner had Holy Sunday spoken these words, when the servant girl was -changed into a swallow, and therefore it makes its nest in the lofts -of houses where it is hottest, and travels the countries where the -sun is burning like fire, frizzling up the inhabitants with its heat. - - - -Holy Sunday is here merely a Christianised form of some of the older -divinities, who did not scruple at the slightest provocation to vent -their feelings and to punish their sub-ordinates without pity and -without mercy. - -It is not here the place to discuss the personification of the -days of the week in the form of divinities. They occur very often -in Rumanian legends and tales, and are in most cases described as -choleric old women, spiteful and revengeful. On rare occasions they -are helpful. They resemble much more the three parcae, Moirai or -Fates of the Roman and Greek mythology and the Norns of the Teutonic -mythology, than Christian saints. That these divinities are identified -with special days of the week belongs to that process of heretical -teaching to which I have referred already, and in which certain days -of the week are endowed with a peculiar character of sanctity; and -the apotheosis has reached such a degree that they are looked upon -as real saints. And the swallow still is looked upon as a more or -less sacred bird. According to popular belief, swallows will not -build nests in bewitched or cursed houses; to kill a swallow is -considered a heinous sin, almost tantamount to killing one's wife -and children. As the people believe that the swallow was originally -a girl, they refrain from eating it. They consider it wrong to eat -a swallow. They are also called "God's hens," and are a sign of luck -to the people where they build their nests. - - - - - - - - -LXXXIX. - -WHY IS THE DOVE A HOMING BIRD? - -The Story of the Bewitched Calf and the Wicked Step-mother. - - -It is very curious that, so far, very few tales and legends have been -collected referring to the dove, a bird which plays so prominent a part -in Ancient Greek and heathen worship. I have not been able hitherto to -discover more than passing references to the dove in legendary tales, -nor is there anything in Rumanian folk-lore that would explain the -origin of the dove. There is only one legend, which is in a way a -distinct variant of the Cinderella cycle. - -I will give it here briefly. - -The beginning agrees on the whole with the usual type. There is -the bad step-mother, who has an ugly daughter, and persecutes the -beautiful daughter of her second husband. Among other trials, besides -keeping her unkempt and dirty and sending her out to feed the cattle, -she gives her one day a bag full of hemp, and tells her that in the -evening she is to bring it home carded, spun, woven into cloth and -bleached. The poor girl did not know what to do. Her father had given -her a calf. This calf was "a wise one." So the calf came to the girl -and said, "Do not fear; look after the other cows: by the evening it -will be all ready." So it was. - -When she brought the white cloth home, her step-mother did not know -what to say. The next day she gave her two bags full of hemp, and again -the little calf worked at it and got it ready by the evening. When -the woman saw what had happened, she said, "This is uncanny; no human -being can do such work in one day. I must find out what is happening." - -The next morning she gave her three bags full of hemp and followed her -stealthily to the field to see what she was doing. There, hidden in -a bush, she overheard the conversation between the little calf and -the girl. Straightway she went home, put herself to bed, and said -that she was very ill and was sure to die. - -Her husband, coming home and finding her in what he thought was a very -sorry plight, believed that she was really very ill. She called him -to her bedside, and said, "I know I am dying; there is only one way, -however, by which I can be saved, and that is to kill the little calf -and to give me some of its meat roasted." The poor man did not know -what to do, and he said to his wife, "Why, that is all that my little -girl has, and if that calf is killed she will remain with nothing." - -"Do as you like," she replied, "if you prefer a calf to my life." The -little calf, which was "wise," knew what was going to happen, and -told the girl that the step-mother was sure to have it killed, but -she must not grieve. The only thing the calf wanted her to do was to -gather up all the bones after the meal, and to hide them in a hollow -of a tree not far from the field. Everything happened as the calf -had foretold, and on the next day the woman ate as one who had been -starving for a week, as ravenously as if the wolves were fighting at -her mouth. The old man also ate of the calf, but the girl refused to -touch the meat. After the meal was over she took all the bones and -put them in the hollow of a tree as she was told. - -Soon afterwards, the step-mother again put her to a trial. Going with -her husband and her own daughter to church, she left her at home in -her dirty clothes, and giving her a bag full of linseed and poppy-seed -mixed, she told her that she must sweep the room, get the meal ready, -wash the plates, clean the pots and separate the linseed from the -poppy seed. - -Now the bones of the calf had turned into three white doves. These -came to her and did all the work, and told her at the same time to -go to the hollow tree; there she would find a carriage and pair and -beautiful clothes waiting for her. She did so, went to church in state, -left before the others, and was at home to meet her people coming -back from church and found the house swept and clean, and the linseed -separated from the poppy seed. They spoke of the beautiful girl who -had come to church, and chided their poor daughter for staying at home. - -The second week the same thing happened. This time there were two -sacks of poppy seed and linseed which she had to separate. And again -the doves helped. And so on the third Sunday. The son of the squire, -who had seen her on the former two Sundays, tried to stop her on -her way out of church, and trod on her slipper, which was knocked -off her foot. She did not wait to recover it, but returned home -as fast as she could. The young man went round with the slipper to -find the person whom it would fit. When he came near the house, the -step-mother, fearing lest he see her step-daughter, hid her under a -big trough behind the door. When the young man, after having tried -the slipper on her daughter, whom it did not fit, asked whether there -was another girl in the house, and she replied, "None," but a cock -who was standing by began to sing: "O that old crone is telling lies; -there is another girl hidden under the trough behind the door." - -The young man, hearing the words of the cock, which the old woman -tried in vain to drive away, sent his servant into the house to find -out whether it was so. He lifted the trough and found there the other -girl, clothed in dirty rags and huddled up. The woman, seeing that the -girl had been discovered, said to the man, "Do not take any notice of -her; she is a dirty slut and an idiot." But the cock again sang out, -"O that old crone is telling lies; it is the daughter of the old man, -and she is very wise." The young man, who was waiting outside, became -impatient, and calling for the servant, he told him to bring the girl -out. He tried the slipper, which fitted like a glove, and there and -then he married her. - -And this is the origin of the dove. - - - - - - - - -XC. - -WHY DOES THE RAVEN FEED ON CARRION? - -The Story of Noah and the Raven. - - -The Rumanian story about the raven is more or less the well-known -story of the raven in Noah's ark as told in the Bible. But it has -not reached the people in that simple ungarnished form. It has been -embellished with legends. Those found among the Rumanian peasants -agree in the main with those told by oriental writers and found in -"historiated" Bible's--that great treasure-house of legendary Biblical -lore and the depository of many of the legends of the past. - -It is important to see how stories, the literary origin of which -cannot be doubted, have penetrated among the people and have become -actual popular legends. We can almost trace the way which they have -come. And this lends a special value to such popular Biblical legends. - -The story runs as follows: - -The raven was originally a bird with white feathers. When Noah sent -out the raven to find out how things were in the world, the raven -espied the carcase of a horse floating on the waters which had begun -to subside. Forgetting his errand, the raven settled on the carcase -and started eating, and he continued eating for three days and three -nights. He could not get satisfied; only at the dawn of the fourth -morning did he remember the errand on which he had been sent, and -started on his return. When Noah saw him at some distance, he cried, -"Why hast thou tarried so long, and what is thy message, and how does -the world without look?" - -The raven, unabashed, replied, "I do not know anything about the -world and how things are going; I only know that I was very hungry, -and finding the dead body of a horse, I sat down and ate, and now -that I have had my fill, I have come back." - -When Noah heard this answer from the raven, he grew very angry, and -said, "Mayest thou turn as black as my heart is within me," for his -heart had turned black from anger and fury. And from that minute the -raven's feathers turned as black as coal. And Noah went on saying, -"As thou hast fed on carrion, so shalt thou feed henceforth only on -the dead bodies of animals and beasts." - -And in order that the ravens should not multiply too quickly, it was -ordained that they should lay their eggs in December and not hatch -them until February, for only then, when the frost is so strong that -even the stones burst, does the shell of the raven's eggs split, and -the young are able to come out and be fed by their parents, for they -are unable to hatch them unless they are aided also by a hard frost, -which causes the shells to break. Otherwise, if they had laid their -eggs in the summer and hatched them in the summer, like other birds, -they would grow so numerous that people would not have been able to -defend themselves from the raven. - -Moreover, the raven, when sent by Noah, saw only the peaks of the -mountains, and those have remained to this very day the real haunt of -the bird. They only nest in very high crags and peaks of mountains, -and never in villages. - - - -Thus far the legend, which occurs in many variants. The raven, whose -peculiar appearance is well known, has become the bird of oracle -par excellence. There are a large number of treatises on the augury -of the raven, notably in the Arabic literature, some of which are -traced back to Indian originals. As for the part which the raven has -played in Northern mythology, it is sufficient to mention the ravens -of Odin, not to speak of the Biblical legend according to which the -raven fed the prophet Elijah. (Another interpretation of the word in -the Bible changes the raven into Arabians, who fed the prophet in his -hiding-place.) There are some Rumanian popular beliefs connected with -the raven which I will mention here. - - - -If two or three ravens fly over a village and croak, it is a sure -sign that there will be death in the village. - -If two ravens, one coming from the north and one coming from the south, -meet over the roof of a house, it is a sure sign of the death of one -of the inmates of the house. - -It is an old saying that if ravens are seen flying in a great number -in one direction, it is a sure sign of plague or some death among -beasts and men. - -If ravens croak over a flock of sheep, the shepherds keep a double -watch, for they believe the ravens foretell an inroad by wolves or -other wild beasts. - -If a raven, meeting a herd of cattle, croaks, the Rumanian responds, -"May it be on thy head, thy feathers and thy bones," for he believes -that one of his animals will die and become food for the raven. - -And, if one raven is seen flying over the head of a man and continues -to do so for a while, it is a sign of the death of that man. - -It is generally assumed that the ravens fly in pairs, and the -appearance of one alone is therefore ominous. - -These few examples will suffice. They stamp the raven as the bird -of ill-omen. - - - - - - - - -XCI. - -WHY IS THE ANT CUT IN THE MIDDLE? - -The Story of the Young Maiden and her Step-mother the Demon. - - -Once upon a time there was a widow who had only one child, a girl, and -all her possessions (goods and chattels) consisted of a flock of sheep. - -When the girl grew up, the mother sent her with the flock, and told -her at the same time to put on a man's clothes and not to speak to -anyone in the manner of women. - -The girl did as she was told, and fed the flock for a long time. One -day, however, she was in the forest, where a young boy also fed his -flock. But he was not the son of man; he was the son cf the serpent -(dragon). How was she to know it? And even if she had known it, what -good would it be to her, seeing that she did not know what a dragon -or a she-dragon was? - -Regarding him as a shepherd like herself, she began talking to him, -and the whole day they went together with their flocks. When the young -dragon came home in the evening, he told his mother, "I think that -he with whom I spent the day is not a man in spite of the clothes -but a woman, but he does not seem to have a woman's voice. Would -it not be better if I brought him here, and you might then tell me -whether it is a man or a woman, for if she be a woman, I should like -to have her as my wife. I have not yet seen in the whole world one more -beautiful." "Go," said the mother, "bring him. If he be a man, he will -return safely from us, but if she be a woman, then thine shall she be." - -On the next day, meeting the daughter of the widow, they fed their -flocks together, and in the evening, when they were to separate, -he asked the girl to spend the night at his house. The girl, not -thinking aught evil, and being somewhat far away from her own house, -accepted his invitation and went with him. What did the she-dragon do -when she saw her coming? She went out to meet her and engaged her in -conversation. Then she turned to her son and spoke to him, but in a -foreign tongue. She told him to put a flower under the pillow of his -companion, and if in the morning the flower will be faded, for sure -then she is a girl; otherwise the flower would remain fresh. So he -did. The girl, seeing that they talked in a foreign tongue, understood -that they were talking about her, and determined to watch and see. No -sooner had she gone to bed than she began to snore, as if she had -fallen fast asleep, but she did not sleep. Her hosts, thinking her -fast asleep, got up, went on tip-toe into the garden, and, taking a -carnation in full flower, put it under her pillow and fell asleep. - -The girl, feeling that something had been put under her pillow, -understood that something was wrong. So she got up and took out of -her bag a charmed mirror by which to undo the sorcery of her hosts. No -sooner had she taken out her mirror, than the dragon-mother woke up, -and, running quickly to the bed, found the flower faded, to her own -great joy and that of her son. What was the girl to do now? She -could not deny that she was a girl. So she began to speak with a -woman's voice. The young dragon then insisted on her marrying him, -but she said, if he insisted on taking her she would neither speak -to him nor kiss him. The young dragon, more in a joke, took her in -his arms and squeezed her so tight that her face got swollen and her -eyes almost started out of her head. She then changed herself into an -insect and ran to the door to get out from under the threshold. But -the old dragon took a knife and slashed her across the body when she -had crept half-way out of the house, so that she nearly cut her in -twain. Her luck was that just a little flesh remained by which the -other part of the body was kept hanging on, and thus she has remained -to this very day, for she became the ant. - - - -The first part of this story agrees in the main with the first part of -the swallow story, No. 87. It is another example of the transfer of -a story from one object to another, like the story of the woodpecker -and the pelican. (Cf. also the slashing of the bee in the stories, -No. 1 ff.) - -Popular belief is that the ant is the grandchild (niece nepoata) -of God, and the handmaid of the Virgin, although I have not yet been -able to find the legend upon which this belief rests. The ant must -not be molested, for the Virgin sighs as often as an ant is killed. - -The red ant comes from the tears shed by St. Mary over the grave -of Christ. - -The ant is used as a remedy against toothache by boiling it together -with the earth of its nest and rinsing the mouth with the water -(which thus contains the well-known arnica of the pharmacopoeia). - - - - - - - - -XCII. - -WHY DOES THE CUCKOO CALL "CUCKOO"? - -The Story of the two Brothers and King Alexander. - - -In the time of Alexander the Great, King of Macedon, there lived a very -wealthy man who had two sons, each one more beautiful than the other, -and both more beautiful than any other living being. When they grew up -to be twelve years old, the fame of their beauty had reached the Court -of King Alexander. He was told that no young men so beautiful as they -were could be found over nine seas and nine countries. Alexander went -himself to see them, and no sooner had he seen them than he appointed -them captains in his army, for he was a high and mighty king, and he -liked to have in his army valiant knights like himself. - -At that time there lived the dog-headed people, who were human from the -waist down and dogs from their waist upward. Their kingdom stretched -far away to the north of Alexander's realms. Every year the king of -the dog-men and his people made incursions into the countries, and, -capturing many women, carried them away. The men they fattened, and, -after killing them, used to eat them, but the beautiful women they -brought to their king to become his wives. They treated the men just -as we treat our animals, which we fatten to kill and eat. - -When Alexander saw that these wild dog men would not give him peace, -he decided to make war upon them, and to free the world of such wild -creatures. But to fight with these dog-men was not an easy task, and he -therefore selected the best men among his host, all seasoned warriors, -and he put the best captains over them. Among these were also the two -brothers, one of whom was called Cuckoo and the other Mugur. Wherever -they went they did wonders. The heads of the dog-men fell before the -strokes of their swords like the grass cut by the scythe. The battle -lasted for three days and three nights. On the fourth, the two brothers -captured the king of the dog-men and brought him to Alexander. There -they killed him. Then they set fire to the land of the dog-men, and -the fire burnt for over a month. It was so wide a country that no one -has ever known the end of it, and so these dog-men were routed utterly -and none were left; only their name has remained behind. When Alexander -saw the valiant deeds of these two brothers, he appointed them leaders -of his army. They had to be always near him, and wherever they went -and drew their swords, the blood of the heathen ran like water. - -Alexander had many wars with kings and emperors, and he conquered -them all. No one dared to stand up against him, for God had given -him strength, and he marched on to the ends of the earth; he was to -become king over the whole world and then die. - -He went to the south with his army, passing through many desolate -countries, filled with wild animals and monsters, dragons and -serpents: wherever he went he burned them with fire so as to cleanse -the world. For months Alexander went on with his march, accompanied by -the two brothers and his army, for he had set his heart upon going to -the very ends of the earth. One day on their march they met a company -of women riding on white horses, one more beautiful than other, and -there was one who by her beauty outshone them all. She was dressed, -moreover, so radiantly that she shone like the sun. Alexander drew -near, and he asked them how it came about that they were riding such -beautiful horses, and where were the men? - -To this the women replied: "Ours is the country where the women -rule, the women take the place of the men and the men that of the -women." Alexander rested there for a while with his two companions -and his army, and they were well entertained by the women, who were -more beautiful than any known among men of this part of the world. - -Among these there was one who was like the moon among the stars. Cuckoo -fell in love with her, and they became inseparable. Cuckoo thought he -could not live without her. Mugur, who was of a more retiring nature, -restrained his love and kept aloof from the women. - -When the two weeks had elapsed which Alexander had appointed for him -to stay there, he broke up his camp and journeyed onward until the -army reached the gates of Paradise. These were guarded by angels with -flaming swords, who would allow access only to those who were pure -and sinless. When the soldiers beheld the beauty of Paradise they -wondered greatly at it, and some of them were desirous of entering -it, and went to the angel to ask his permission. Amongst these were -Mugur and his brother Cuckoo. Mugur went in front, Cuckoo followed -with his beautiful wife at his side. When Mugur drew near, the gate -of Paradise was flung open and he entered without hindrance. Cuckoo -wanted to follow him, but the door was shut in his face, and for his -audacity he and his fair companion were turned into birds, for no -man is allowed to enter Paradise with a companion. - -Since then Cuckoo is continually calling aloud his name in the hope -that his brother may look for him and thus find him. - - - -This story is remarkable for its origin. We have here the popular -reflex of the famous Romance of Alexander, which had reached -Rumania, as all the other countries of Europe, in a literary -form. The book has been read for at least three hundred years, -and it is extremely interesting to see how deeply it has influenced -the popular imagination. What we have here is not one incident only -from the "Romance," but practically an abridged recital of the famous -"Journey to Paradise," and "Alexander's Letter to Aristotle." We have -here his wars with the Kynokephaloi, or the people who were believed to -be human beings with dog's heads. The Eastern Church, and no less the -Rumanian, even venerates a saint with a dog's head, Christophorus. In -the Rumanian monastery of Neamtz there appeared a "Life" of that saint, -in which the woodcut picture of the saint represented him as having a -dog's head. We have, further, Alexander's war with the Amazons, and -even the fact that he reached the gates of Paradise. But what gives -to this tale importance is that the "Romance of Alexander" has become -the tale accounting for the origin of a bird. No doubt there must be -some more detailed account of this immediate fact, explaining a little -more clearly the sudden transformation of the cuckoo and his mate into -particular birds. Here it is described as a punishment for Cuckoo's -audacity in attempting to bring his female companion into Paradise. - -The only point of resemblance between this and the Albanian tale of -Hahn (No. 105), is that Cuckoo was originally a man by that name, -and he was the brother of Gion. - - - - - - - - -XCIII. - -WHY DOES THE ARMENIAN LOVE THE DIRTY HOOPOE? - -The Story of the Armenian, the Cuckoo and the Hoopoe. - - -A funny story about the hoopoe and the cuckoo is told by the Rumanians -at the expense of the Armenians. It is said that in olden times the -forefather of the Armenians had to flee for his life. So, taking all -his belongings with him, and mounting on a horse, he rode away as fast -as he could. He feared lest his enemies would overtake him. Riding on, -he came to a forest and, not being able to find the way, he got into -a bog. In vain did he try to get his horse up again. The more he tried -the further it sank; so, taking all his belongings, he dismounted, and -wading through the mud, he sat down at the edge of the bog and thought -all the time what was he to do to get his horse out. He could not carry -all his belongings, and, if he tarried much longer where he was, his -enemies were sure to overtake him. Where he sat, there was a cuckoo, -resting on the tree, and singing all the time, but the more he sang the -deeper the horse seemed to sink into the mire. He took some food out of -his bags, and, showing it to the horse, he tried to tempt it, but the -horse paid no attention to him. Whilst he was now in great despair, -there came a hoopoe and sat on another tree and began to cry "Hoop, -Hoop." No sooner did the horse hear the bird shouting "hoop, hoop," -than up it jumped as if stung by wasps. Overjoyed, the Armenian got -hold of it, and putting his food into his sack he mounted again and -went on his way. And out of gratitude the Armenians call the hoopoe -to this very day by the name of cuckoo, for he saved their ancestor -by his cry "up, up." The cuckoo had made it lie down by singing "coo, -coo," but the hoopoe made it jump up by singing "up, up." - -There are some beliefs attached to the cry of the hoopoe forming part -of that great section of prognostications by the cry of the birds. It -is not, however, considered as an ominous bird. It merely foretells -the fruitfulness or the barrenness of the coming year. - - - - - - - - -XCIV. - -THE STORY OF THE PARTRIDGE, THE FOX AND THE HOUND. - - -Once upon a time there was a partridge, and that partridge was sorely -troubled, for no one in this world is safe from trouble and worry. Her -trouble was that for some time back she was not able to rear her young, -because of AUNTIE FOX, who made a royal feast of the young brood. No -sooner did the fox find out that the partridge had hatched her young, -than she tied some brambles to her tail, and, dragging it along the -ground, pretended to plough the land, close to the place where the -partridge had her nest. Turning to the partridge, the fox would say: - -"How dare you trespass on my land. Off you go, lest I eat you up." The -partridge, frightened, would run away, and the fox would eat the -young. This had gone on for three years. On the fourth year it so -happened that, while the partridge was weeping, just as a man will -do out of worry and grief, she met a hound. - -"What is the matter with thee, friend; why dost thou weep so, what -ails thee, why art thou so inconsolable?" - -"Eh!" said the poor bird, "I am full of trouble." - -Then the hound said sympathetically, "What has happened unto thee?" - -"What has happened unto me? O! dear friend, so many years have I -tried to rear my young, and no sooner do I see God's blessing when -auntie fox, with the brambles and thorns trailing behind her tail, -comes and claims the land, and says, 'Hast thou again hatched young -on my land? Get thee off lest I eat thee.' And I am so frightened -that I run away, and the fox then takes the family and leaves me -childless." The bird stopped here and looked despairingly at the -hound. She wondered what he could do for her. But no one knows whence -help may come, and just when it is least expected it comes. And so -it happened to the bird. The dog who had been sitting all the time, -listening as it were with half-closed ears, suddenly shook himself -and said, "Is that the trouble which ails thee?" - -"Yes, that is my trouble." - -"Well, if that be so, let me come with thee, and may be that I shall -be of some help." - -And so they both went to the nest of the partridge. There the dog -crouched behind the bushes and waited for the fox to come. He had not -to wait very long until the fox came with the brambles tied to her -tail, and, pulling it along, made pretence of ploughing the land. "Now -then you partridge, are you trespassing again--" - -But the fox was not allowed to finish the sentence, for out of the -bushes sprang the dog. The fox took to her legs, running as fast as -they would carry her. Now, whether the hound ran or did not run I do -not know, but I certainly can say that the fox ran for all she was -worth and raised a cloud of dust behind her. And so she ran and ran -until she reached her lair, and she buried herself deep in the ground, -very thankful to have saved her skin from the jaws of death. The hound, -wearied, tired, and vexed that the fox had escaped, settled down at the -mouth of the lair waiting for the chance that the fox would come out -again, that he might set his eyes upon her, but it was all in vain, -for the fox, once safe, never dreamt of coming out again. But then -the fox, having nothing else to do, started talking to herself. - -"Clever fox, clever fox, I know that thou takest care of thy -skin. Well, thou didst well to save thyself, and to get safely away -from that hound. Now let me ask my eyes, 'What did you do when the -hound was after me?'" - -"Well, we, turning right and left, looked out to see which way we -could save thee and hide thee." - -"Dear eyes," said the fox, and full of satisfaction, she stroked them -with her paws. - -"Now I will ask my forelegs." - -"And ye, my forelegs, what did you do when the hound was chasing me?" - -"What did we do? We ran as fast as we could to carry thee safe to -the lair and to save thee." - -"Very good, then, my darlings," and she kissed them and stroked -them lovingly. - -Then she asked the hind legs. - -"What did you do when the hound was chasing me?" - -"What did we do? We raised the dust and threw it into his eyes to -save thee." - -"My darlings," again the fox said, and licked them and caressed them, -"so must you always do." - -The fox, having nothing else to do, said, "I must now ask thee, tail, -'What didst thou do, O my tail?'" - -"I, what was I to do? I waddled to the right and left and yet he -never caught me. If it were not for the legs, I am afraid I should -not see the sun any more, and neither wouldst thou, O fox." - -"As thou sayest, then, thou art the only one who did not help me, -thou art mine enemy, for if it were not for the blessed legs, none of -us would have seen the sun any more. All right, out thou goest, thou -fool. Thou must no longer be with me or with my darling eyes." And, -turning round, she crawled backwards and pushed it out of the lair. The -hound, who was sitting outside, was just waiting for this, and no -sooner did he see the bush of the tail coming out than he pounced on -it and, getting hold of it, he pulled with all his might and dragged -out tail and fox together. And that was the end of the fox. The fox -may have been very clever, but the old proverb is true. "Each animal -dies through his own tongue." And since that time the partridge hatches -her young unmolested, and the land of the fox has remained unploughed. - - - -This Rumanian tale belongs to a large cycle of similar tales, of -which the Rumanian seems to have preserved only the first part, -unless the second part has afterwards been tacked on to it. In the -extended tale the dog asks for the payment of the food, drink, and -merriment which the bird had promised. - -An almost identical story is found among the Slavonic Tales, Krauss, -No. 9. In this no mention is made of the fox claiming to be the -landowner. It is only out of pity for the partridge that the dog -attacks the fox, which runs away, and then the story continues exactly -like the Rumanian. The first part of No. 6 is another parallel to -the Rumanian tale, but it is greatly reduced and is only the first -part of a much longer tale of "The Starling, the Fox, and the Dog." - -The starling promises the dog food, drink, and merriment, if he -would avenge it against the fox, who, in spite of sworn friendship, -had taken advantage of the absent starling to eat the young birds. The -tale contains also the episode of the fox's undoing. But then the -Slavonic story goes on to detail the manner in which the starling -outwitted a boy who carried food to his people on the field, a man -who carried a wine cask, and a hewer of wood, all to provide for the -promised food, drink, and merriment of, the dog. - -This last part, as a tale by itself, quite independent of the story -of the dog and fox, is found in Haltrich, No. 81. Here the bird offers -food, drink and merriment to the fox who is to spare her young. - -In a more reduced form still, the first part having entirely -disappeared, the story appears in Grimm, iii. p. 100, who refers to a -similar episode in the French version of Reinecke and to an Esthonian -tale. Cf. also the Russian Tale in Afanasief, No. 32. - - - - - - - - -XCV. - -THE STORY OF THE PARTRIDGE AND HER YOUNG. - - -A partridge once built her nest in the furrows of a newly ploughed -cornfield, and hatched her young when the stalks of the corn had -grown tall and the corn began to ripen. There was food in plenty and -safety enough for them to play and to frolic about without fear of -any danger. But the good things in this world never stay long with -us, and this the partridge was soon to find out. The time came when -the corn was cut and hunters appeared followed by their dogs, whose -barking they could hear drawing nearer and nearer. The partridge now -began to be frightened for her young. She tried to cover them with -her wings, but they could not help hearing the reports of the guns and -the barking of the dogs. One day, not being able to stand the strain -any longer, she remembered a place of safety which she had known, in -the cleft of a mountain beyond the seas. Tucking her eldest under her -wing, she started one morning on her flight, intent on carrying it to -the mountain beyond the sea. When she reached the border of the sea -there stood a huge tree. Tired from her long flight, she settled on -one of the branches of the tree overhanging the water. And she said -to her young, "Little darling, see how great is the love of a mother -and what trouble I am taking. Nay, I am putting my life in danger in -order to save you." - -"Never mind, mother," replied the little one, "Wait till we grow up -and then we will take care of you when you grow old and weak." - -When the partridge heard these words she tilted her wing and -let the young bird fall into the water of the sea, where it was -drowned. Distressed, weary, and lost in thought, she returned to -her nest and took the middle one of her three young, and, putting it -on the wing, she started again on her flight to the mountain beyond -the sea. On the way she again alighted on the tree with the branches -overhanging the sea. And she spoke to this one in the same manner as -she had spoken to the first. And he replied, "Do not worry, mother, -when you get old we shall take care of you and show you our love." - -The partridge, grieving at the words of this one, again dipped her -wing and the young bird slid down into the bottom of the sea, where -it was drowned. Almost broken hearted, not knowing any more what to -do with herself, and heavy with sorrow and anxiety, her only hope -being the youngest one, she returned to her nest, and, taking the -youngest--the mother's pet--she tucked it under her wing and flew -again to the mountain beyond the sea. - -Tired from her continual flight hither and thither, she again alighted -on the tree with the branches overhanging the sea, and with her heart -trembling within her for fear and love, she said to the youngest, -"See, my beloved little pet, how much trouble mother is taking to save -her dear little ones, how willingly I am suffering pain and fatigue; -see how exhausted I am and wearied, but nothing is too much for a -mother if only she knows that her young will be safe." - -"Do not worry, mother dear, for we when we grow up will also take -care of our young children with the same love and devotion." - -At these words, the mother pressed the little one nearer to her heart, -and, full of joy, carried him across the sea to a place of safety, -for of all her children this alone had spoken the truth. And is it -not so in the world? - -This is the story of the partridge and her young. - - - - - - - - -XCVI. - -THE STORY OF THE LARK AND THE TAMING OF WOMEN. - - -A man was once ploughing his field. In the midst of it a lark had -made her nest and was hatching her young. When the cock lark saw -what the man was doing, and that he was coming nearer and nearer with -the plough, he feared that the nest would be destroyed. So he turned -to the man and said, "Prithee, spare my nest; go round it with your -plough and do not touch it, for I might also do you some good." - -The man, surprised at hearing the lark speak to him, said, "What good -can you do to me?" - -"Oh," replied the lark, "you never know what I can do. Just bide your -time, there might be a chance." - -"Well," said the man, "I do not mind going with my plough round that -piece of ground, it will not make much difference, but you see I have -a very bad-tempered wife, and should she come out and see what I have -done, and that I have left a part of the field without ploughing it, -I shall come in for a good hiding." - -"What," said the lark, "you a man, and your wife, a woman, beating you, -how can that be?" - -"Oh," replied the man, "you do not know her; from morning till evening -she does nothing but strike and beat me, I have not a minute's rest -and peace." - -"I can help you," replied the lark, "if only you will do what I -tell you." - -"If you will help me I shall be for ever grateful to you." - -"Well then, this is what you have to do. You get yourself a stout -stick, and should she come and start chiding you, you just lay out -and go for her without mercy. You will see it will be all right." - -Whilst they were thus speaking, the woman came out, with one jaw on -earth and the other in heaven, spitting fire and fury; and when she saw -that the man had left a part of the field not ploughed she started to -go for him with her fists and to give him a good beating. But before -she had time to get to him, remembering the advice which the lark had -given him, he got hold of the stick, and there was a great change. The -woman did not know what it was that happened to her; the blows fell -upon her fast and thick over her head, face, shoulders, hands. At last -she got frightened, and ran away vowing vengeance. After she had gone, -the lark said to the man: - -"Don't be a fool, I know she awaits you at home with a long stick, -but you get yourself a short, stout stick, and just slip into the -house before she has time to use her long rod, and then you go for -her, hitting as fast as you can and as hard as you can, for, being -in the house, the woman will not be able to use the long rod to -any advantage." - -The man did as the lark had taught him, and the woman came in for a -drubbing she never expected. The tables were now turned, and instead -of beating the husband the woman got it now, and twice over. - -That was the first case of the men beating their women, instead of the -men being beaten by the women, for the neighbours, seeing how things -had changed with this man, soon followed his example, and there was -yelling and shouting and cursing as never before, the women getting -the worst. - -When the women saw that the men got the upper hand, they all -gathered together in the market-place and held a conference under the -leadership of the head woman of the town. After a long consultation -and discussion, they all decided to leave their husbands alone and -to get across the Danube to the other side. - -So they did; they gathered themselves together and, led by the head -woman, left the town to go across the Danube. When the men saw what -the women were doing, and that they were in earnest, they turned on -the first man who had set the example and threatened to kill him, for -he had brought all that trouble upon them. And the man got frightened -and ran out into the field, and going to the lark told all that was -going on and that he was in danger of his life. - -The lark laughed and said, "Oh, you are worse than a set of old -women. Do not be afraid, nothing will happen to you; you just wait -and see, I am going to bring the women home again." - -So saying, the lark rose up in the air, and flying over the heads -of the women who were standing by the banks of the Danube waiting to -cross, it sang out, "Tsirli, tsirli, on the other side of the Danube -there are no men." - -One of the women, hearing the bird's song, said to her neighbour, -"Did you hear what that bird was singing?" - -"Oh, yes, we can all hear it saying that across the Danube there are -no men, and if that be true I think we had better return to our own -husbands, never mind whether they beat us or not." - -And they all returned home quite meekly to their houses, and ever -since then the men beat their wives, but the women never beat their -husbands. And you should know that if a woman does beat her husband, -he is not a man, but a donkey. - - - - - - - - -XCVII. - -THE STORY OF THE TURTLE DOVE AND ITS LOVE FOR ITS MATE. - - -Of the turtle-dove the Rumanian popular poetry relates that when she -loses her mate she never associates with any bird, but sits solitary on -the branches of trees, not on the green or the high bough, but on the -low, and on the withered branches of the tree. She no longer goes to -clear water, but she first stirs the mud and then drinks the troubled -water, and when she sees the hunter she goes to meet him cheerfully, -hoping that he will kill her. The tears of the turtle-dove are the -most powerful antidote against every spell and sorcery. - -An incident in one of the Rumanian Fairy Tales reminds us of the -story of the Shirt of Nessus given to Hercules. - -It is of a step-mother who tries to kill her daughter-in-law by -inducing her to buy such a poisoned shirt. As soon as she has put -one on she becomes very ill, and her illness grows with every day -that passes. - -Her father, who has been absent, comes home and sees what is the cause -of her illness, so he washes her in tears of the turtle-dove. The -spell is broken, the fire is driven out, and the young woman recovers -her health. - - - - - - - - -XCVIII. - -WHY DOES THE WREN HIDE HIMSELF? - -The Story of the Wren, the Eagle, and the Owl. - - -The wren is called by the Rumanians the little king. The reason for -it is that the birds once came together to elect a ruler. They were -all there, big and small, and after much wrangling and discussion -they agreed that he who flew highest of all should be king. It was -the eagle who suggested it, for he knew that no bird could fly so -high as he could, and he told them that the highest place they could -reach would be the region of the wild winds. They arranged that he -who would reach so high, should give them a sign and then they should -descend. They all started for the race. There was much fluttering -of wings and shrieking and boasting, for every bird believed that -he would be the winner. But they had not measured their strength, -for after a while the weakest stopped in their flight and began to -descend slowly. The stronger ones flew a little higher but they too -got tired and came down to the ground, until at last almost every -bird that had entered the race had given it up. Only one bird was -continuing the flight. It was the eagle, who was soaring higher and -higher. At a certain moment, the eagle signalled to them that he had -reached the wild wind, that is the wind which blows very high up in -the sky and is bitterly cold, much colder than ice and frost. But -the eagle was not to win the race. The little wren, a midget among -the birds, had crept stealthily under one of the outer feathers of -his wings; the eagle did not feel it, and so it was borne aloft to -the very high heavens. Now when the eagle stopped in his flight, and -began to descend, the little bird, not at all tired, came out from -under the wing, and he, flying higher, far above the eagle, shouted: - -"He! he! you thought you would be the king, that no one could fly -as high as you do! You see I have flown much higher, no one can -deny it, you can all see me, and though I am very small and light, -I am your king." The birds, hearing the little wren and seeing that -it had been flying far above the eagle, wondered greatly, but they -could not help themselves, they had to stand by their agreement, -and so the wren was proclaimed king. - -But the birds soon learnt the trick by which the wren had outwitted -them, and furious at the way in which they had been played, they -wanted to tear him to pieces. The little wren, knowing what was in -store for him from the enraged birds, ran away quickly, and hid -himself inside the hollow of a tree, slipping in by so narrow an -opening that no other bird could follow him. When the birds found -out the hiding-place of the wren, and that they could not get at it, -they decided to starve him out, and put some to watch over the opening -to prevent the wren escaping. The wren thought it better to starve -than to come out and be torn in pieces. "I will wait my chance," -he said to himself, and the chance came when they appointed the -owl to watch over the tree. The owl is a lazy bird, and sitting down -quietly soon fell asleep. That was just what the wren was waiting for, -and before the owl could have turned round, it was out and away in -the bushes and under the roots of the trees. When the owl awoke it -found that the prisoner had gone: catch him if you can! The birds, -full of wrath, turned on the owl for letting the wren escape and -the owl had to run for its life. It is for that reason that the owl -never shows itself in day-time. It is frightened of the birds, for -they bear it a grudge for not keeping careful watch over the wren, -and as the wren knows what the birds have in store for him, he hides -himself under the bushes and trees and has become a very furtive bird. - -Cf. Grimm, No. 171. - - - - - - - - -XCIX. - -WHY IS THERE NO KING OVER THE BIRDS? - -The Story of the Hawk and the Election of the King. - - -Once upon a time the birds came together to decide which was to rule -over them all, and in what order authority should be distributed -among them, who was to be the superior and who was to be inferior -among them. After a long discussion it was agreed that the eagle -should be the highest of all. The second in command should be the -falcon, the third in command the black vulture, under him the white -vulture, under him the vulture with the striped tail, under him the -lamb's vulture and under him the kite, under him the hen-harrier, -under him the blue heron, and under him the sparrow-hawk. All the -birds consented and accepted this arrangement without much demur or -contradiction. Only the sparrow-hawk, who though the smallest and -the weakest, yet knew himself to be quicker and cleverer than many -of them, objected to the arrangement, and said to them: - -"Do you expect that I should submit to you? or be frightened of you, -as if you were the strongest and mightiest creatures in the world? You -are greatly mistaken. There are other beings stronger and mightier -and greater than you. Of these I am frightened, but not of you. I do -not care for you." - -"But what creatures are stronger and more powerful than we?" asked -the other birds greatly surprised. - -"What!" said he, "you do not know who is greater and stronger than you -are? You all think yourselves to be the cleverest of created beings, -and you expect me, the smallest of you, to tell you that? Very well, -then, since you do not know even as much as this, hear it from -me. Stronger than all of you are the archers and the sportsmen." - -"Why," replied the birds, "how can that be?" - -"Well," he said, "if they meet you they can make an end of you, -and that, before you know where you are; you, who are so clever, -that you wanted to put me at the tip of your tail!" - -"What can we do to save ourselves?" - -The sparrow-hawk replied, "You must never gather together and fly in -large numbers, for thus we are sure to fall a prey to them. Our only -safety lies in our dispersion." - -As soon as the birds heard that, they dispersed quickly, and since -that time hawks are never found together in large numbers, except -when they see carrion. In such wise did the little sparrow-hawk free -himself from the domination of the other birds of his clan. - - - - - - - - -C. - -THE STORY OF KING LOG AND KING STORK. - -The Story of the Frogs. - - -This is the well-known story of King Log and King Stork. - - - -Once upon a time the frogs assembled and decided to ask God to appoint -a king who would guide them and rule over them, for they were like a -people scattered all over the waters and seas with no one to look after -them. God gratified their request, and taking a log of wood cast it -into the water and said to the frogs, "This is to be your king." When -the log fell into the water it made such a splash and such a noise, -that the poor frogs did not know where to hide themselves in their -fright. After a while the noise subsided, and the log lay still in the -place where it had fallen. Gaining a little courage, the frogs came out -of their hiding places and crept slowly on to the log of wood, which -they found lying quite still and motionless. They waited for a time -to see it move, but in vain. So they went again to God and said to him: - -"What is the good of a king who can neither guide us, nor rule over -us, and cannot even move about to look after us?" - -And God said, "You shall have one who will move about, and he will -guide you and rule you after the manner of kings." And he called the -stork and appointed him king over the frogs. He moves about amongst -them very fast indeed, and guides them and rules them in the proper -manner of kings, for he gobbles them up as soon as he sets eyes on -them in the proper manner of kings, who always go about and eat up -their subjects as fast as they can. - -Here, of course, a moral from modern life has been added to the old -tale, but this does not detract from its popularity. - - - - - - - - -CI. - -THE STORY OF THE STORK AND LITTLE TOMTIT. - - -Once upon a time there was a stork who could not rear any young. His -wife's eggs had become addled, or something else had happened to them, -and the long and short of it was that there were no young birds. Very -distressed, he was walking about in the forest when he noticed a little -tomtit on the ground. Seeing he was so small, he thought it was a young -bird, a chick that had fallen out from a stork's nest somewhere. So -he picked him up gently and carried him to his own nest, and there -he kept him and fed him most tenderly. He would fly about for miles -to get worms to feed the little bird. The days passed, and the stork -could not help wondering why that little bird of his did not grow: -it remained so small. One day there came a down-pour of cold rain -mixed with hailstones. In order to protect his little young, he put -the tomtit under his wing, and going into the forest placed himself -under the branches of a thick-leaved tree to shelter himself from the -rain and hail. In the trunk of that tree there was a little hollow. As -soon as tomtit espied it he glided into it, and from there he kept up -a conversation with the stork. Among other things, the stork said, -"What terrible weather that is, I cannot remember anything like it -all my life." - -"What," piped little tomtit, "you call this bad weather. You should -have seen what bad weather means, when the red snow fell." - -"Hush, you little thing," said the stork, "how do you come to speak -of red snow, you have never seen such a thing?" - -"Oh," replied tomtit, "I remember it quite well, although it was so -many years ago." - -"You remember it, you little cunning beast, who made yourself out to -be quite a little chicken!" and the sharp beak of the stork pierced -the hollow of the tree and spiked the insolent little tomtit, who -had made a fool of the stork. - - - - - - - - -CII. - -THE STORY OF THE FLEA AND THE GNAT. - - -The flea once upon a time meeting a gnat, said to her: - -"I say, sister, why is your back so bent, and why is your head so -low? What heavy care is worrying you?" - -"Oh, my sister," replied the gnat, "it is the heavy work which I have -to do that bends my back and pulls my head so low. I have to drive the -oxen to the plough, and make them do their work. I must sit between -the horns and prick them to urge them on. Their hide is so thick -that I have to bend my body and put my head very low to drive the -sting through it. But, then, tell me, why is your back so much bent, -sister flea? You have no heavy work like me." - -"You do not know what you are talking about. I have to keep mankind -to their duties. These men have such heavy clothing that it takes -all my strength to lift it up so that I can move about, to get at him." - - - - - - - - -CIII. - -THE STORY OF THE GNAT, THE LION, AND THE MAN. - - -The fable of the gnat and the lion is told in order to explain -the proverb, "The gnat, small as it is, proved stronger than the -lion." Once upon a time a lion sat himself down to rest under a -tree. Suddenly a gnat appeared and settled upon his nose. The lion, -feeling the tickle, struck out with his paw, but missed her. The -gnat then settled in his ear, and again the lion tried to strike her, -but failed. So he said to the gnat: - -"Who are you? and why do you come here and worry me? Who are you -that although so small can worry so much and give so much trouble, -and yet are one whom it is impossible to catch?" - -"I am the gnat, and I drink the blood of anyone I choose, and no one -can hurt me." - -"You may drink blood from whomever else you choose, but my blood you -shall not drink, for I am the stronger." - -"If you believe that I cannot drink your blood, very well then, -let us wait and see who is the stronger," said the gnat. - -"I am quite satisfied," said the lion, and they made the bet. Without -saying a single word, the gnat jumped on to the nose of the lion, -and digging its point into the flesh of the lion sucked the blood -until it was full, but the lion could not do anything to her. When -she had finished, she asked the lion: - -"What do you say now? have I not beaten you? Now it is your turn to -show me your strength." - -"I am so strong that if a man should happen to pass here I could eat -him up." - -He had scarcely finished speaking when a boy happened to pass. The -lion, as soon as he saw him, wanted to catch him and eat him. "Stop," -said the gnat, "this is not yet a man, wait until he grows to be a -man." The lion felt ashamed and let the boy pass. - -Soon afterwards a very old man happened to pass. Again the lion, -saying, "Now, a man is passing," wanted to get hold of him. And again -the gnat stopped him, saying, "This is no longer a man, he has been -so some long time ago. It is a pity to break your teeth on him." And -the lion left him also alone. - -Now there came riding along a hussar. - -"This is a man," said the gnat, "go for him and show your strength." - -The lion went for him, but when the hussar saw him he drew his sword -and smote him two or three times over his head. The lion, seeing that -this was not a joke, turned tail and ran away; there was his road -to safety. The gnat, following him, settled on his ear and asked him -how he felt. The lion, half-stunned, replied: - -"That foolish man drew a rib from his side and hacked lustily away -and had I not run away only bits of me would have been left." - -Hence the proverb, "However small, the gnat proved more powerful than -the lion." - - - -This is a parallel to the story of the "Gnat and the Lion." Among the -South Slavonic Tales, (Krauss, No. 12) we find another parallel to it, -though differing in some details. A lion was continually boasting of -its strength. One day a tiger, tired of his boasting, said to him: - -"You wait until you meet a man and see what strength is." - -One day, as they were walking, a young boy passed along, and the lion -asked whether that was a man. - -"No," replied the tiger, "that is a man that is to be." - -Shortly afterwards an old woman passed, and the lion asked whether that -was a man. "No," replied the tiger, "that is one who has made men." - -At last a hussar passed. The tiger said, "This is a man." - -The hussar drew near, shot at the lion, and, quite dazed, it ran away. - -The hussar overtook him, and drawing his sword wounded him in many -places. The lion escaped and said afterwards, "When he blew at me it -was bad enough, but how much worse was it, when he pricked me." - -Another version from the inhabitants of Transylvania is found in -Haltrich D. Volksmaerchen a. d. Sachsenlande i. Siebbrgn, Wien 1877 -(No. 86). Here it is the wolf who boasts, and the fox tells him that -there is something much more powerful than he is and that is man. The -wolf asks the fox to show him man. An old man passes, the fox says, -"This was a man." - -A boy passes and the fox says, "This is not yet a man." - -A hunter comes, and from behind the bush the fox whispers, "That -is man." The hunter shoots at the wolf, then draws his knife and -slashes him. The wolf runs away and owns himself beaten by the man, -who makes thunder and lightning, throws stones in his face, and then -draws a shining rib and cuts away at him. - -Cf. also Grimm, 72. - - - - - - - - -CIV. - -THE STORY OF THE GNAT AND THE BUFFALO. - - -A man was driving his buffalo to market. On the way they passed a -marsh. The buffalo, in accordance with its habit, went into it and -started wallowing. The man tried to get him out of it and threatened -him with his stick, but the buffalo took no notice. - -There came a gnat buzzing by the man and saying to him: - -"What wilt thou say if I drive him out of the swamp?" - -"You," replied the man contemptuously, "what can a little midget like -you do, when the buffalo does not care even for me?" - -"Just so," said the gnat, "I will show you that I can do what you -cannot." - -"Try, then, if you can." So the gnat went and placed itself under the -fold of the buffalo's belly, and stung him just between the creases -of the skin where the flesh was softest. - -Up jumped the buffalo, and in a wink he had got out of the mire, and -was brought to the market by the man who owned shamefacedly that of -the two the gnat was the stronger. - -"Hi! hi!" hissed the gnat, "didst thou see that I could do with my -little tongue, what thou with thy mighty cudgel couldst not do?" - - - - - - - - -CV. - -THE STORY OF THE TOWN MOUSE AND THE FIELD MOUSE. - - -A mouse living in the town one day met a mouse which lived in the -field. - -"Whence do you come?" asked the latter when she saw the town-mouse. - -"I come from yonder town," replied the first mouse. - -"How is life going there with you?" - -"Very well, indeed. I am living in the lap of luxury. Whatever I want -of sweets or any other good things is to be found in abundance in my -master's house. But how are you living?" - -"I have nothing to complain of. You just come and see my stores. I -have grain and nuts, and all the fruits of the tree and field in -my storehouse." - -The town-mouse did not quite believe the story of her new friend, and, -driven by curiosity, went with her to the latter's house. How great -was her surprise when she found that the field-mouse had spoken the -truth; her garner was full of nuts and grain and other stores, and her -mouth watered when she saw all the riches which were stored up there. - -Then she turned to the field-mouse and said, "Oh, yes, you have here -a nice snug place and something to live upon, but you should come to -my house and see what I have there. Your stock is as nothing compared -with the riches which are mine." - - - -The field mouse, who was rather simple by nature and trusted her new -friend, went with her into the town to see what better things the -other could have. She had never been into the town and did not know -what her friend could mean when she boasted of her greater riches. So -they went together, and the town-mouse took her friend to her master's -house. He was a grocer, and there were boxes and sacks full of every -good thing the heart of a mouse could desire. When she saw all these -riches, the field mouse said she could never have believed it, had -she not seen it with her own eyes. - -Whilst they were talking together, who should come in but the cat. As -soon as the town-mouse saw the cat, she slipped quietly behind a box -and hid herself. Her friend, who had never yet seen a cat, turned to -her and asked her who that gentleman was who had come in so quietly? - -"Do you not know who he is? Why, he is our priest (popa), and he has -come to see me. You must go and pay your respects to him and kiss -his hand. See what a beautiful, glossy coat he has on, and how his -eyes sparkle, and how demurely he keeps his hands in the sleeves -of his coat." Not suspecting anything, the field-mouse did as she -was told and went up to the cat. He gave her at once his blessing, -and the mouse had no need of another after that: the cat gave her -extreme unction there and then. That was just what the town-mouse had -intended. When she saw how well stored the home of the field-mouse was, -she made up her mind to trap her and to kill her, so that she might -take possession of all that the field-mouse had gathered up. She had -learned the ways of the townspeople and had acted up to them. - - - -This story reminds one of the story of La Fontaine, yet the conclusion -here is quite different. The popular tale undoubtedly underwent a -definite change in the hands of La Fontaine, who used the fable for -driving home a totally different moral lesson, just in the style of -all the fables so used since Aesop downwards. The popular tale as -told here is perhaps more crude, but still much more true to nature--a -picture of life. - -Hahn (No. 90) tells an Albanian tale where the fox goes on a pilgrimage -and becomes a monk, just as the cat in the Rumanian story is a priest. - - - - - - - - -CVI. - -THE STORY OF THE HARE AND THE FROGS. - - -One day, the hare, thinking of his miserable life, decided to put an -end to it. "What is my life worth to me?" he said to himself, sighing -heavily. "The dogs tear me, the wolves cat me, the eagles claw me, -the man hunts me. I have no peace, no rest, everybody is against -me and wishes to take my life. I had better go and drown myself, -and then there will be an end to my miseries." So speaking, he got -up and went to the neighbouring lake to drown himself in the water. - -As he drew near he saw a number of frogs sitting by the water. When -they saw the hare coming up, they got frightened and jumped into the -water, some of them getting drowned in it. When the hare saw that he -had frightened the frogs to such an extent that he caused a number of -them to jump into the water and to get drowned, he stopped short and -said, "If there are creatures whom I can frighten, then surely even -I am not the weakest of all, as I had hitherto thought." Comforted -by this thought, he returned to his form. - - - - - - - - -CVII. - -WHY DOES THE BUFFALO WALK SLOWLY AND TREAD GENTLY? - -The Race of the Buffalo and the Hare. - - -In olden times, so we are told by those who know best, there was -constant strife between the hares and the buffaloes. Each of them -contended for the honour of being the most swift-footed. - -Both did run very fast and neither would give in to the other. So -it went on year after year, and there seemed to be no end to the -strife. Tired of this constant fight, one day the hare said to the -buffalo, "Let us try a race together and settle this quarrel once -for all." The buffalo was well contented with the proposal, and they -agreed to race one another. When the day came the hare, putting his -ears back, started the race. He ran so fast that you might have said -he was flying upon the ground. - -But the buffalo was a match for him. He went thundering away, his -hoofs splashing the mud and raising seas of mire. The earth shook -at his furious tread. He soon overtook the breathless hare which was -running panting as fast as its little legs could carry it. - -Then a thought struck the hare, and he cried to the buffalo, "Ho, -friend! Take heed how thou art thundering along. The earth is shaking, -and if thou art not careful, the earth will give way under thee. See -how it is rocking under thy feet." - -When the buffalo heard the hare's story, he stopped still for a while -bewildered, and then, being frightened, lest the earth should give -way under him and he sink beneath, he checked his pace and began to -walk slowly and tread gently. - -That was just what the hare had wanted, and pulling a long nose at the -buffalo, he ran swiftly by, leaving the buffalo a long way behind. Thus -he won the race, and there was no longer any strife between the hares -and the buffaloes. But ever since the buffalo walks slowly and treads -lightly upon the ground. - - - - - - - - -CVIII. - -THE STORY OF THE POINTER AND THE SETTER. - - -It is told that the pointer and the setter kept a public-house -together. All the animals would come and eat and drink and pay their -account, except the wolf and the hare who would come and eat and -drink very heavily, and regularly forget to pay. At last, the pointer -and setter could stand it no longer, and they went and lodged their -complaint before God. And God said, "As they have treated you so badly, -you are free to go for them whenever you see them. You must try and -catch them and make them pay." - -And that is the reason why these dogs will go for the wolf as soon as -they scent his track, and also that is the reason why, when they catch -a hare, he will squeak, "Miat, miat"--which sounds like mart (Tuesday -in Rumanian)--as if he were saying "Wait till next Tuesday when I am -going to pay." And they are still waiting for that Tuesday to come. - - - - - - - - -CIX. - -THE STORY OF THE RAT AND HIS JOURNEY TO GOD. - - -In a mill a rat once lived and prospered. It took after the miller, -and from day to day its paunch grew bigger. It became as round as -cucumber and as fat as a candle. - -One day, looking at his round, sleek figure, the rat said to itself, -"Behold I am so beautiful and strong. Why should I not go and pay a -visit to God? He is sure to receive me." - -No sooner said than done. Leaving the mill, he started on his journey -to God. After travelling a few days and not coming nearer to God, he -stopped and said, "Methinks that either God lives much farther away -than I believed, or I have lost my way. I will go to the sun and ask -where God is." Coming to the sun, the rat asked, "Where is God?" "Off -with thee," shouted the sun, "I have no time for idle talkers." - -The rat went to the clouds and asked them, "Where is God?" The clouds -stared at him and said, "We cannot stop to bandy words with the like -of you." Away the rat went and came to the wind. "Where is God?" asked -the rat. "There," replied the wind, whistling, and getting hold of -the rat hurled him down into an ant-heap, and there he found his level. - - - -This story is a curious parallel to another series of rat or mouse -tales. In these a rat wishes to marry the daughter of the mightiest -thing, and asked for the daughter of the sun. But he is not great -enough. The sun is covered by the clouds. The clouds are carried by the -wind, the wind is stopped by the mountain, the mountain is sapped by -the rat, thus he comes back to his own and finds his proper level. So -in the Rumanian Tale (Sevastos, Basme, Moldov. p. 236). (Cf. Benfey, -Pantschatantra, i. 375 ff.) - -In an ancient Biblical legend Abraham discusses with Nimrod, Who -might be God? The sun cannot be worshipped as God, for the sun sets -and is followed by darkness, the moon is eclipsed by the sun, the -fire is quenched by water, the clouds of rain are carried by the -wind, the wind is stopped by the mountains, and so on. (Cf. Gaster, -Chronicles of Jerahmeel, London 1899, chap. xxxiv. p. 72 ff.) - -The biblical setting of the legend is about two thousand years old. In -the Rumanian tale the comparison has disappeared, but the principal -elements have been preserved whilst invested with a different role. - - - - - - - - -CX. - -THE STORY OF THE SEVEN-WITTED FOX AND THE ONE-WITTED OWL. - - -One day the owl met a fox, and the latter bragged about his -intelligence and cleverness, and said that he was very cunning and -slim. The owl asked him, "Brother mine, how many minds (wits) have -you?" "Seven," he said, boastingly. "No wonder you are so clever, -I have only one," said the owl. - -A short time afterwards the owl again met the fox, but this time he -was running for his life. The hunters were after him, and the hounds -were trying to catch him. - -Running as fast as his legs could carry him, he at last managed to slip -into a hole. The owl followed him, and seeing him there, exhausted, -asked him, "How many minds (wits) have you?" And he replied, "Six, -I have lost one by the chase." - -Meanwhile the hunters and dogs came nearer and nearer, so they could -hear the baying of the dogs. The fox did not know what to do. The -owl asked him, "How many minds (wits) have you now, old fellow?" - -"Oh, I have lost all my minds (wits). I have none left." - -"Where is your cunning of which you bragged?" - -"It is not kind of you, now, to go for a poor fellow when the dogs -are at his heels and there is no escape for him." - -"Well," said the owl, "I have but one mind (wit), and I will see -whether I cannot save you with my one wit. It is my turn. I am going to -lie down here at the entrance as though dead. When the hunters come, -they will see me and get hold of me and talk about me. Meanwhile they -will forget you, and in the midst of the trouble you just dash out -and run for your life." - -It happened just as the owl had said. - -No sooner did the hunters come up and find the owl than they said, -"What is this ugly bird doing here? and a dead owl to boot"; and whilst -they were busy with the owl trying to get hold of it to throw it away, -off went the fox through them and escaped. - -Soon afterwards the owl met him again and she said, "How have your -seven minds (wits) helped you when in time of danger? It is like that -with people who have too much, they often have nothing when they want -it most, but you see I had only one mind (wit), but a strong one and -not a dissolute one like yours, and that saved both you and me." - - - - - - - - -CXI. - -THE STORY OF THE FOX AND HIS BAGFUL OF WITS AND THE ONE-WITTED -HEDGEHOG. - - -I do not know how he managed it, but a fox one day got into a -poultry-yard and there he ate his fill. Some time afterwards, going -along to the poultry-yard, the hedgehog met him. "Where are you going, -brother?" - -"I am going to eat my fill." - -"Surely you cannot get it just as you like." - -"Oh," he said, "you just come with me and I will show you. I know my -way, and there is plenty for me and for you, and some to leave behind -for another time." - -The hedgehog, who was a wise old fellow, said to the fox: - -"Now, be careful; are you sure that the owners of the poultry yard -will let you in again so easily?" - -"Don't you trouble," said the fox. "I know my business, you just come -with me." And the hedgehog went with him. - -But the people of the poultry-yard were not such fools as the fox had -taken them for, and just where the fox had got in last time they had -dug a deep pit, and into that the fox and the hedgehog tumbled. When -they found themselves at the bottom of the pit, the hedgehog turned -to the fox and said, "Well, you clever fellow, is that the proper -way to get into the poultry-yard? Did I not warn you?" - -"What is the good of talking?" replied the fox, "We are here now, -and we must see how to get out of it." - -"But you are so clever, and I am only a poor old fool." - -"Never mind, you were always a wise one. Can you help me?" - -"No," he said, "I cannot help you. This sudden fall has upset me, -and I feel queer and sick." - -"What," cried the fox, "you are not going to be sick here; that is -more than I can stand; out you go!" - -So he got hold of the hedgehog by the snout, and the hedgehog coiled -himself up with his little paws into a little ball round the fox's -mouth, the fox lifted up his head with a jerk and threw the little -fellow out of the pit. - -As soon as he saw himself safely out of the pit, the little hedgehog, -bending over the mouth of the pit, said, chuckling to the fox: - -"Where is your wisdom, you fool? You boast that you have a bagful of -wits, whilst it is I who get myself out of the pit though I have only -a little wit." - -"Oh," said the fox, whining, "do have pity on me! you are such a -clever old fellow, help me out of it too." - -"Well," said the hedgehog, "I will help you. Now, you pretend to be -dead, and when the people come and find you stiff and stark, and a -nasty smell about you, they will say, 'The fox has died and his carcase -is rotting; it is going to make all the poultry yard offensive.' They -will take you and throw you out. And then see whither your way lies." - -The fox did as the hedgehog had advised him, and when the people came -and found him in that state, they hauled him out and threw him out -of the yard on to the road. - -Quicker than you could clap your hands, the fox was on his legs, -and he ran as if the ground was burning under him. - -Since then the fox and the hedgehog are good friends. - - - -South Slavonic Tales, Krauss, No. 13. - -A fox meeting a hedgehog asked him, "How many wits have you?" And he -replied, "Only three. But how many have you?" "I," boasted the fox, -"have seventy-seven." - -As they were talking and walking along, not noticing whither they -were going, they fell into a deep hole which the peasants had -dug. The fox asked the hedgehog to save him. The hedgehog said, -"I have only three wits, perhaps you will save me first, then I -will see about you afterwards"; and he asked the fox to pitch him -out of the hole. The fox did so, and then asked the hedgehog whether -he could help him. The hedgehog said, "I cannot help you with three -if you cannot help yourself with seventy-seven." And so the fox was -caught in the morning by the peasants and killed. - -In the Rumanian version, the hedgehog saves the fox by one wit and -puts him to shame, which rounds off the story much better; in the -Slavonic tale there is scarcely any point. - -But this probably goes back to a more ancient legend referred to in -a Greek epigram, v. Benfey, Pantschatantra, i. 316. - -Compare the parallel story in Grimm (No. 75) of a fox with the hundred -wits, and also Hahn (91). - - - - - - - - -CXII. - -THE STORY OF THE PEASANT, THE SNAKE, AND KING SOLOMON. - - -Once upon a time, when King Solomon the wise ruled over the people, -some shepherds gathered under a tree and lit a fire, not for any -special reason, but just to pass their time, as they often do. When -they left, they did not take care to put the fire out; it was left -burning under the ashes. Spreading slowly, it caught the great tree, -which soon afterwards became a mass of living flames. A snake had crept -on to that tree before and found itself now in danger of perishing in -the flames. Creeping upwards to the very top of the tree, the snake -cried as loud as it could, for she felt her skin scorched by the -fire. At that moment a man passed by, and hearing the shrieking of the -snake, who begged him to save her from the flames, he took pity on her, -and cutting a long stick, he reached with it up to the top of the tree -for the snake to glide down on it. But he did not know the mind of the -cunning beast, which had aforetime deceived his forefather Adam, for, -instead of gliding down to the ground, no sooner did the snake reach -the neck of the good man than she coiled herself round and round his -neck. In vain did he remind her that he had saved her life, she would -not hear of anything, for she said, "My skin is dearer to me than to -you, and I remain where I am, you cannot shake me off." Finding that -he could not get rid of the snake, the man went from judge to judge, -from king to king, to decide between them, but no one could help him. - -At last, hearing of the wisdom of King Solomon, he came to him and laid -his case before him. But King Solomon said, "I am not going to judge -between you unless you both first promise to abide by my word." Both -did so. Turning to the snake, King Solomon then said, "You must uncoil -yourself and get down on the earth, for I cannot judge fairly between -one who is standing on the ground and one who is riding." - -Cunning though the snake may be, she did not understand the wisdom -of King Solomon, and therefore uncoiling herself she glided down -and rested on the ground. Turning to the man, King Solomon said, -"Do you not know that you must never trust a snake?" The man at once -understood what the king meant, and taking up a stone he bruised the -snake's head. And thus justice was done. - - - -Needless to point out, that we have here a variant of the widespread -tale of the man and the snake. At one time the judge is King Solomon, -who looms largely in the minds of the people as the very type of human -wisdom, at another time the judge is a child playing at justice, who -induces the snake to loosen her hold on the man and is then killed -by the man, who finds himself suddenly freed. - -In other parallels animals are appointed as judges and this leads to -the undoing of the snake. (v. Benfey, Pantschatantra, i. p. 113 ff.); -Hahn (87), and the literature given by him; Afanasief (No. 15). - - - - - - - - -CXIII. - -THE STORY OF THE DOG AND THE SNAKE AND THE CURE OF HEADACHE. - - -Once upon a time, I do not know how it came about, the dog had a -frightful headache, such a headache as he had never had before. It -nearly drove him mad, and he ran furiously hither and thither, not -knowing what to do to get rid of it. As he was running wildly over -a field, he met a snake that was lying there coiled up in the sun. - -"What is the matter that you are running about like a madman, -brother?" asked the snake. - -"Sister, I cannot stop to speak to you. I am clean mad with a splitting -headache, and I do not know how to be rid of it." - -"I know a remedy," said the snake, "it is excellent for the headache -of a dog, but it is of no good to me who am also suffering greatly -from a headache." - -"Never mind you, what am I to do?" - -"You go yonder and eat some of the grass, and you will be cured of -the headache." - -The dog did as the snake had advised him. He went and ate the grass, -and soon felt relieved of his pain. - -Now, do you think the dog was grateful? No such luck for the snake. On -the contrary, a dog is a dog, and a dog he remains. And why should he -be better than many people are? He did as they do, and returned evil -for good. Going to the snake, he said, "Now that my headache is gone, -I feel much easier; I remember an excellent remedy for the headache -of snakes." - -"And what might it be?" asked the snake eagerly. - -"It is quite simple. When you feel your head aching, go and stretch -full length across the high-road and lie still for a while, and the -pain is sure to leave you." - -"Thank you," said the simpleton of a snake, and she did as the dog had -advised her. She stretched herself full length across the high-road -and lay still, waiting for the headache to go. - -The snake had been lying there for some time, when it so happened that -a man came along with a stout cudgel in his hands. To see the snake -and to bruise her head was the work of an instant. And the snake had -no longer any headache. The cure proved complete. And ever since that -time, when a snake has a headache it goes and stretches across the -high-road. If its head is crushed, then no other remedy is wanted, -but if the snake escapes unhurt, it loses its headache. - - - - - - - - -CXIV. - -THE STORY OF THE HORSE, THE LION, AND THE WOLF. - - -There once lived a Sultan who had a charger. It had served him most -faithfully for a good number of years, carrying him in many battles -and on numerous other occasions. - -At last the horse grew old and was no longer fit to serve him as -before. The Sultan, remembering its faithful services, decided to -free it from every manner of work, and in token of recognition of -its faithfulness he set it free to roam about and to feed wherever -it liked. - -In order that it should not be molested, he ordered that a special -coating should be made for it of red cloth adorned with many coloured -stripes and patches. He also had it shod with steel shoes, which last -for a very long time. - -So, covered with the king's cloth, the horse went about from field -to field eating whatever and whenever it pleased. Being now at ease, -the horse got fat again and strong, and when it walked on the road, -it struck with its feet against the stones and pebbles, and made the -sparks fly from them. - -In a forest near by there lived a lion. One day, coming out to the -edge of the wood, he saw the horse in the distance, and as he had -never yet seen such a peculiar animal, he got frightened and started -running back into the thickest part of the forest. - -There he met a wolf, who, seeing the lion run, asked him why he -was running. - -"If your life is dear to you," he replied, "do not stop here talking, -for that terrible beast which I have seen yonder in the field is sure -to overtake us, and then good-bye to us." - -"What beast?" asked the wolf. "I know no beast that could frighten -a lion." - -"Well, then, thank God that you have never come across it." - -"How does it look?" - -"It is a huge beast with a head so big as I have never seen a head -before, and a mouth so large that it could devour us in one bite. As -to its skin, I have never yet seen any like it, all red with stripes -and patches of every colour. It stands on huge feet, and whenever it -walks it scatters fire right and left." - -"That may all be as you describe it," said the wolf, "but still it -might also be otherwise. I should like to see it myself, and I might -perhaps know what it is." - -"Very well then, let us go higher up the hill, where we can look down -on the field." - -"I would rather see it from here, if possible, near at hand." - -"As you please. I will squat down on my hind-legs and lift you up -with my fore-legs, so that you can see some distance from here." - -The lion did as he said, and taking the wolf in his fore-paws he lifted -him up. But whilst doing so he pressed the wolf so hard that he nearly -lost his breath, and his eyes began starting out of his head. When -the lion saw it, he said, "You cur, you talk bravely and laugh at -me who have been close to that terrible beast, and you, who are so -far away and scarcely able to get a glimpse of it, you are already -losing your breath, and your eyes are starting out of your head." - -With these words he threw the wolf down, and away he ran as fast as -his legs would carry him. - - - -This story reminds us of the framework of the famous Indian -Panchatantra, which had so successful a run through the literature of -East and West, becoming one of the most popular books of the Middle -Ages, better known as the story of Kalila and Dimna, or even falsely, -Syntipas. - -In Krauss (No. 2) the animal which frightens the lion, or rather -imposes on his credulity, is an ass. The ass makes the lion believe -that he, the ass, was the real king of beasts. The wolf, to whom -the lion says that he was not the real king but that another animal -claimed the right to rule, listens incredulously. The lion ties their -two tails together and takes the wolf to the summit of a hill, from -which they can see the ass. The lion, misunderstanding the exclamation -of the wolf and thinking that he said "there are six," runs away as -fast as he can, dragging the wolf behind him and killing him in his -mad flight. It is obviously the same tale but slightly varied in -the details. In the Rumanian the lion never gets so near the other -animal as to be undeceived by his own sight. He merely sees from a -distance an animal the like of which he had never seen before, and -he works himself up into a great fright. This seems to be the more -primitive form. In the South Slavonic, the lion is simply deceived -by an animal with which he ought to be familiar enough. - -A curious and corrupted version is found in Grimm (No. 132), where -only the tying of the tails has been retained. In this version the -horse is tied to the lion, and he drags the lion to his master's house. - -Similar is the story of the dib-dib (the name used by the woman for the -dropping rain), whom the leopard, who listens at the door, takes to be -a great monster. A man jumps on the back of the frightened leopard, -thinking it was an ass. The leopard carries him to the dib-dib, -and he runs away. He meets a fox, who laughs at his fear, and they -tie their tails together. The man, who had sought safety in the -branches of the trees, says that the fox had brought the leopard to be -killed. The leopard, who had distrusted the fox, runs away with him, -and as their tails are knotted together, both get killed. (Hanauer, -p. 278.) (Cf. also Afanasief, No. 19.) - - - - - - - - -CXV. - -THE MARRIAGE OF TOM AND THE VIXEN. - - -Once upon a time there lived a very poor man who had a wife and -family, and there was also a tomcat prowling about the house. One day -a neighbour took pity on them and gave the man a handful of flour -of maize. Overjoyed he went home, and mixing it with water made a -nice dish. Pouring it out on to the plates, he and his wife and the -children sat round eating as much as they could. - -Tom, smelling the dish, began to mew, and the father, taking pity on -Tom, said to the children: - -"Poor Tom is starving too, give him some of the mameliga" (maize -pudding). But they said, "He must have it in a better style. We will -gird him with a sword round his loins, and he will draw it and cut for -himself as big a slice as he likes." And so they did. But when Tom saw -himself girded with a sword, which clanked as he moved about, he said, -"I am much too good for this family," and off he went into the world. - -On his way he met a vixen, and she asked him: - -"Where are you going, Sir Knight?" - -He said, "I am going to get married." - -"Will you marry me?" - -Tom replied, "Yes, you are just as good as any other bride." - -So they went together to the vixen's lair, and a happy life began -for our friend. For the vixen went catching birds, rabbits, and other -animals, and bringing them home to feed her husband. - -One day the vixen met the wolf. "Hallo, sister," he cried, "have you -got a meal ready?" - -"I have and I have not. I am married now, and I have a soldier for -a husband." - -"I should like to see him," said the wolf; "show him to me." - -"Come, I will show him to you," said the vixen, and going to her lair -called Tom, who came out and met the wolf. Tom came out with his sword -clanking behind him, and when he saw that huge beast with his huge -head, his hair stood on end and he began to spit and to snarl for -very fear. The wolf, thinking that Tom was getting angry and ready -to draw his sword and cut him up, turned tail and ran away. - -Running very fast he met the bear, who asked him: - -"What is the matter with you that you run so fast? Who is running -after you?" The wolf told him all that had happened, and how the vixen -had got a mighty soldier for a husband, who killed anybody who came -near him. - -The bear began to get curious and ran to the vixen's lair, and the -same thing happened to him, for Tom came out with his hair standing -on end, and growled, and snarled, and spat, shaking all the time with -fear. The bear ran away as fast as he could and came to the wolf, -and they discussed between themselves how best to get rid of that -terrible Tom, as their lives were no longer safe. So they called the -hare and the lion into counsel. These decided to invite the vixen and -her Tom to a banquet at which they would all fall upon him and end his -career. So they spread a table-cloth under a huge tree, but none had -the courage to go and call the guests. The bear said, "Send the wolf," -but he replied he was too weak and they would catch him. The bear -said he was rather stout and heavy and they would catch him. So the -trouble fell upon the hare. He, poor fellow, could not help himself, -so he went with the message to invite them. But he did not venture -too near. From a distance he called out to them that they were invited -to a banquet, and off he went after he had delivered the message. - -When the vixen heard the message she told Tom, and together they went -to the banquet. On the way Tom saw a crow on the top of a tree, and, -as is the way with cats, before one could turn round Tom had climbed -to the top of the tree and had caught the crow. He then killed it, -and threw it down on the ground. - -The hosts, who were sitting at the table, saw what had happened, -and said to one another, "Just see what that knight is doing. Even -the people on the very top of the tree are not safe from him. He -catches them and kills them. How then can we fight him on the earth?" - -So the lion crawled under the table, the bear climbed up the tree, -and the wolf and the hare hid themselves in a bush. - -When the vixen and Tom came to the place, no one was there, and they -wondered where their hosts could be. Whilst they were looking round, -Tom saw the tip of the lion's tail, and, thinking it to be a rat, -he attacked it. When the lion felt someone tugging at his tail he did -not wait any longer, but ran away as fast as his legs could carry him. - -When Tom saw that huge lion he got frightened and ran up the tree. Now -the bear saw Tom running up the tree, and he got frightened and -tumbled head over heels down the tree on to the table with Tom after -him, who, being frightened, ran into the bush. There the wolf and the -hare were crouching, hidden away. No sooner did they see Tom than off -they dashed in a fright. Tom ran back to the vixen, who was sitting -at the table thinking with great satisfaction how they had all run -away out of fear of Tom. - -She embraced him, and they sat down alone to the banquet and enjoyed -themselves, no one disturbing them. - - - -In Krauss, No. 3, there is a story parallel yet not identical with -it. In the South Slavonic, a cat, together with a dog, a duck and a -gander, defeats the wolf, fox, bear and wild pig arrayed against them -in battle. Tom contributes most to the victory by sudden attacks on -the ear of the hidden pig, and frightening the bear in the tree by -climbing up in fear, etc. In other respects the stories disagree. - -The setting is entirely different. The wolf challenged to combat the -dog, who had betrayed him on two occasions, and each one brought his -contingent to the appointed place of battle. The dog brought his -friends of the courtyard, and the wolf his of the forest, and the -battle ended in the discomfiture of the latter as mentioned above. - -Another version is found in Haltrich (No. 82), in which a cat feeds on -the carcase of a horse. It is seen successively by the fox, the wolf, -the bear and the wild pig, who get frightened by the sight of a small, -wild beast, which had killed an animal many times their size and was -eating it. - -The cat runs after them by mere chance, and manages to bite the pig's -ear and frighten the others to such an extent that they are still -running, all except the wolf, who has fallen on a pointed stick and -got impaled. - -Among the Cossack Tales (W. Bain, London 1894, p. 130 ff.) there is -a story similar, not quite identical. - - - - - - - - -CXVI. - -THE STORY OF MAN AND HIS YEARS. - - -When God had created the world, he called all his creatures together -to grant them their span of life, and to tell them how long they -would live and what manner of life they would lead. - -The first to appear before God was man. And God said to him, "Thou, -man, shalt be king of the world, walking erect upon thy feet and -looking up to heaven. I give thee a noble countenance; the power of -thought and judgment shall be thine, and the capacity of disclosing -thy innermost thoughts by means of speech. All that lives and moves -and goes about the earth shall be under thy rule, the winged birds -and the creeping things shall obey thee, thine shall be all the fruits -of the tree and land, and thy life shall be thirty years." - -Then man turned away dissatisfied and grumbling. "What is the good -of living in pleasure and in might, if all the years of my life are -to be thirty only?" So did man speak and grumble, especially when he -heard of the years granted to other animals. - -The turn came to the ass. He stepped forward to hear what God had -decreed for him. The Creator said, "Thou shalt work hard; thou shalt -carry heavy burdens and be constantly beaten. Thou shalt always be -scolded and have very little rest, thy food shall be a poor one of -thistles and thorns, and thy life shall be fifty years." When the ass -heard what God had decreed for him he fell upon his knees and cried, -"All merciful Creator, am I indeed to lead such a miserable life, -and am I to have such poor food as thistles and thorns. Am I to work -so hard and carry such heavy burdens and then live on for fifty years -in such misery? Have pity on me and take off twenty years." Then man, -greedy of long life, stepped forward and begged for himself these -twenty years which the ass had rejected. And the Lord granted them -to him. - -Then came the dog. To him the Creator said, "Thou shalt guard the -house and the property of thy master; thou shalt cling to them as if -thou wast afraid of losing them; thou shalt bark even at the shadow -of the moon, and for all thy trouble thou shalt gnaw bones and eat -raw meat, and thy life shall be forty years." - -"All merciful Creator," cried the dog, "if my life is to be of worry -and trouble, and if I am to live on bones and raw stuff, take off, -I pray thee, twenty years." - -Again man, greedy of life, stepped forward and begged the Creator to -give him the twenty years rejected by the dog. And the Creator again -granted his request. - -Now, it was the turn of the monkey. The Creator said, "Thou shalt only -have the likeness of man, but not be man; thou shalt be stupid and -childish. Thy back shall be bent; thou shalt be an object of mockery -to the children and a laughing-stock of fools, and thy life shall be -sixty years." - -When the monkey heard what was decreed for him, he fell upon his -knees and said, "All merciful God, in thy wisdom thou hast decided -that I should be a man and not a man, that my back shall be bent, -that I shall be a laughing-stock for young and fools and I shall be -stupid. Take, in mercy, thirty years off my life." And God, the all -merciful, granted his request. - -And again, man, whose greed can never be satisfied, stepped forward and -asked also for these thirty years which the monkey had rejected. And -again God gave them to him. - -Then God dismissed all the animals and all his creatures, and each one -went to his appointed station and to the life that has been granted -to him. - -And as man has asked, so has it come to pass. - -Man lives as a king and ruler over all creatures for the thirty -years which the Lord had given to him, in joy and in happiness, -without care and without trouble. - -Then come the years from thirty to fifty, which are the years of -the ass; they are full of hard work, heavy burdens, and little food, -for man is anxious to gather and to lay up something for the years -to come. It could not be otherwise, for were not these the years -which he had taken over from the ass? Then come the years from fifty -to seventy, when man sits at home and guards with great trembling -and fear the little that he possesses, fearful of every shadow, -eating little, always keeping others away lest they rob him of that -which he has gathered, and barking at every one whom he suspects -of wanting to take away what belongs to him. And no wonder that he -behaves like that, for these are the dog's years, which man had asked -for himself. And if a man lives beyond seventy, then his back gets -bent, his face changes, his mind gets clouded, he becomes childish, -a laughing-stock for children, an amusement for the fool, and these -are the years which man had taken over from the monkey. - - - -Thus far the story which I found in some old Rumanian MSS., and which -may, therefore, not be quite of a popular origin. I have retold it here -because we have in it the animal in the man. It may be a caricature, -but it does not show up man to advantage in comparison with the animal -world. And yet, he is endeavouring to conquer the animal, to shake -off the fateful inheritance of greed, and to return to that rule and -kingdom which are his own by the grace of God to his thirtieth year, -and which he endeavours to carry even beyond that limited span of time. - - - - - - - - -CXVII. - -THE JUDGMENT OF THE SOUL OF MAN, ACCUSED AND DEFENDED BY BEAST -AND BIRDS. - - -When a man dies two angels appear, the good one and the evil one. The -good one walking on his right, and the evil on his left, each one holds -a book in his hand in which man's deeds are written. When the soul -appears before the divine judge, there comes first the cat accusing -the man, and the cat says, "He gave me no peace all my life through; -he put me to catch mice and I often remained hungry. Then man drives -me out of the house, and during daytime he never lets me in." - -"What are you talking of? you should be ashamed of yourself," is -the rejoinder of the dog, "you live in a warm house, you have food -in plenty, you have nothing to complain of. What am I to say, who -am kept out in the cold and rain, and have to watch day and night, -and if ever I get a bone thrown at me I think myself happy." The -judge replies: "That is your work; to that you have been appointed: -off with you." The evil angel writes it all down and puts the weight -of guilt on the one scale, and the good angel writes it in his book -and he puts a counter-weight in the other scale. - -Then come the birds. First the wild duck. He says, "O unfailing judge, -see how this man has ill-treated us, he comes to our resting-place -and shoots us down mercilessly." "It serves you right," is the reply -of the judge, "if you live as a wild bird, you must be treated like -a wild bird. You ought to be domesticated and no hurt will befall you." - -Then the sparrow comes, and he says, "O mighty Lord, this man here -snared us and killed us." And the judge replies, "You have stolen his -corn and destroyed his crop." And other birds, like the finch and the -thrush and the heron, come, and all bring accusations against the man, -and the evil angel enters them in his book. - -Then come the good witnesses. First the swallow, and she says, "O -Lord, this man has been kind to us. We built our nest in his house -and under his roof, and he never as much as molested us, and even -when my young spoil the food, which he is preparing under their nest, -he never hurts them." Then the stork comes, he says, "I build my nest -on the very roof of his house, and on his storehouses, and he never -interferes with us, and we hatch our young and feel no hurt. All -merciful father, have mercy on him, as he was full of pity for us." - -Then the cuckoo comes, and he said, "I who have been thy servant pray -thee to forgive his sins, for even to me he does no hurt, and though -I often announce death to him, he none the less listens with pleasure -to my call. Have mercy on him and forgive his sins." And so the other -birds come and ask the forgiveness of sin. And the good angel writes -it all down in his book and puts it as counter-weights in his balance, -and often the pleading of the birds opens the gates of heaven to the -human soul. - - - - - - - - -CXVIII. - -THE PILGRIMAGE OF THE SOUL AFTER DEATH. - - - O rosebush, O rosebush, - Thou art evil tempered! - Why hast thou tarried - And not budded - Since yester-morning - Until this morning? - It was bitter enough to watch, - How they became separated, - The soul from the body. - Going away from the beautiful world, - From the world with the sun shining, - From the blowing wind, - From the flowing waters. - O rosebush, why hast thou hastened not to bud? - I have budded quickly, - For my time also has come, - To go away like thee, - To travel to the setting of the sun, - Where the sun is hiding, - Where the flowers dwell - With all their sisters, - And where the flower of the sun - Sits at the gate of Paradise - To judge the flowers, - Where they have left their scent. - In the evening the rain did fall. - In the night the sky cleared up. - In the dawn the dew has fallen, - And the scent has gone astray. - The soul divided from the body, - Full of grief and sorrow, - Journeys far away. - It reaches the sea. - The sea is raging furiously. - It comes howling and foaming, - Frightening the whole world. - The wave rose up high, - To swallow the world. - It brings in its sweep blackberry trees, elder-trees, - Pines torn from the roots. - On the border of the sea, - Where the pine tree of the fairies stands, - The way across the waters, - The soul stood praying to the pine. - O pine, - Be a brother unto me. - Stretch, oh stretch - Thy boughs, - That I may lay hold of them, - And thus pass across - That wide sea - Which divides me from the world. - I may not stretch my boughs - For thee to lay hold of them, - And to pass across by them, - For on my crest a red hawk has hatched its young, - With a cursed heart - And a proud eye. - Ere thou art aware, - The young will see thee. - They will whistle, - And frighten thee, - And thou art sure to drop into the sea beneath, - And be engulfed there. - Let it be so! - The sea was raging furiously. - It came howling and storming, - Frightening the whole world. - The wave rose, - To swallow the world, - And brought in its sweep, - Blackberry trees, - Elder trees, - Pines torn from their roots. - On the shore of the seas, - Where the pine tree of the fairies stands, - The passage across the water, - The soul stood praying to the pine: - O pine tree, - Be a brother unto me. - Stretch, I pray thee, - Thy trunk, - That I may pass across the seas - Which separate one world from the other. - I may not stretch my trunk - For thee to pass, - For in it the barking otter has laid her young, - Which lie in wait for men. - Before thou art ware, - The young ones will find thee. - They will bark at thee, - And frighten thee, - And thou art sure to drop into the sea beneath, - And be engulfed by it. - Let it be so! - The sea was raging furiously. - It came howling and foaming, - Frightening the whole world. - The waves rose high up to swallow the world. - It brought in its sweep, - Blackberry trees, - Elder trees, - Pine trees torn from the roots. - On the shore of the sea, - Where the pine tree of the fairies stands, - The passage across the waters, - The soul stood praying. - O pine tree, - Be a brother unto me. - Stretch thy roots, - That I may lay hold of them, - And pass across the seas - To the other part, - From which the sea separates me. - I may not stretch my roots - For thee to lay hold of them, - To pass across, - For in it the yellow dragon has hatched its young, - And they are starving. - Ere thou art aware, - They will discover thee, - And they will hiss. - Thou wilt be frightened, - And art sure to drop into the sea, - Which will engulf thee. - Let it be so. - And now, pine tree, - Pine tree, - Long enough have I prayed of thee, - But I have a brother, - A fine shepherd. - He has a small axe, - And he has two cousins, - Two strong boys. - They will come and cut thee down, - And throw thee down. - The carpenters will come, - And cut thee to measure, - And they will make out of thee - A bridge over the sea, - To give peace to all, - For the souls to have a passage, - The tried souls, - That journey on the way to Paradise. - The pine tree considered, - It stretched out its boughs, - And the soul passed across the nameless sea, - To go where its desire carried it, - To the other world. - Pass on, O soul; - Pass on unharmed, - Until thou hast gained in mercy - The seven heavy toll-houses. - Then go on straight, O dear soul, - Until thou reachest a place - Where the road divides. - Stop there and consider - Which road to take, - Until thou seest - A tall acacia tree, - Bent and with broad leaves. - Take good care - Not to turn to the left, - For it is the narrow way-- - Narrow and a blind alley, - Watered with tears. - And there are also fields badly ploughed, - And covered with briars and thistle. - There dwells the old fay, - Who takes thy passport out of thy hand. - But turn to the right. - Thy own desire leads thee, - For there thou shalt find - Delightful fields, - With choice flowers, - Fields well tilled, sown with flowers. - Thou wilt pick flowers, - And the longing for this world will vanish. - Take further good care, - For thou shalt find - In two beds, - Only one flower in each, - Flower close upon the ground - Not touched by the wind; - Flower in the shade - Never seen by the sun. - Pick them, - For these are the flowers of Paradise. - Journey on, - Until thou reachest that apple tree - Which belongs to St. Peter. - It is a high and mighty tree, - And somewhat bent - On its side. - The top reaches the heavens. - The sides go down to the seas. - The top is full of bloom, - And the boughs are full of fruit; - And down at the roots trickles a gentle fountain. - There sits St. Mary. - May her mercy be with us! - Whoever passes by - She takes pity on them, - And gives them all to drink, - And guides them into the right path. - The soul drinks of the water, - And forgets this world. - Go on thy journey - Until thou reachest the noble willow tree - Covered with bloom. - But it is not a noble willow covered with bloom. - It is St. Mary - In a beautiful garment, - A garment of silk. - She sits at a table, - Adorned with flowers. - There she sits and writes-- - She the holy Mary-- - The dead and the living. - And she writes down the fate of each of them. - Pray to her - To take the page of the living. - Perchance she will have compassion on thee, - And will write thee among the living. - But she will not have pity on thee, - And will not write thee among the living, - For her sheet is full up, - And she has lost her pen. - Pray her, however, very much - That she take thee with her into the Paradise, - If thou hast not prayed, - When the call has reached thee - In thine own village. - Go then further - Upon beaten tracks, until thou comest - To the very gate of Paradise, - Where there stands the flower of the sun. - There stop. - There take shelter, - And wait patiently - The hour of quickening, - For it is sure to come, - And thou wilt return, - When the stags will draw the plough, - And the hinds will scatter the seeds. - O earth, - From this day on - Be thou my father. - Do not hurry - To eat me up, - For I am giving thee now, - Without ever taking them back, - My shoulders in thy arms, - And my face under thy green sward. - - -The conception which is here revealed is totally unlike popular -apocryphal Christian tales like the Visions of St. Peter, Paul, -and the Lady Mary, all well known in Rumanian literature. Nor are -there traces of the other set of ideas, originating probably in Egypt, -according to which the soul has to pass through many toll-houses where -angels and devils are waiting for it, and through which it can only -pass with extreme difficulty, if and when the good deeds outweigh the -evil deeds. The poem of the "Pilgrimage of the Soul" has almost an -heathen aspect. Noteworthy are the huge trees, at the shore of the -boundless sea, which must bend across it so as to form a bridge for -the soul to pass, and the three animals living in it which threaten -the soul with destruction. It reminds one strongly of the Northern -Ygdrasil, and almost the same beasts which inhabit it. This is not -the place to discuss at any length this tree upon which the world -rests, which no doubt goes back to, or is somehow connected with, -the tree of life in Paradise and the legends which have clustered -round that tree. This conception of the "Pilgrimage of the Soul," -with its allegorical and mystical meaning, is certainly not a product -of the Orthodox Church. It reminds one forcibly of the fantastical -and poetical conceptions of the heterodox sects. - - - - - - - - -CXIX. - -THE REWARD OF THE GOOD MAN. - -A Christmas Carol of the Lord's Justice. - - - Lord, O Lord, - In this house, - In this yard, - This place, - Two tall apple trees have grown, - Two trees tall and wonderful, - Their tops intertwined. - High above, - In their very tops, - Two candles are burning, - And from these two candles - Three drops are falling, - And from these three drops - Three rivers have grown-- - One of wine, - One of balsam, - And one of pure water. - Who bathes in the river of wine? - God himself, the good God, - Bathes himself, - Washes, - Cleanses himself in pure limpid water, - Changes his clothes, - And anoints himself with balsam. - Further down the river John-- - St. John-- - And old Christmas [6] bathe and wash, - And in limpid water cleanse themselves, - Change their raiment, - Anoint themselves with balsam. - And further down, along the river, - Other saints bathe and wash, - And rinse themselves in pure limpid water, - And put on white clothes. - Still much further down, - This good man bathes, - Washes, - Rinses himself, - In clean water, - And puts on clean garments. - The good God said: - "To whom, O man, doest thou liken thyself? - To me? - To the saints? - To St. John? - Or to old Christmas?" - "No, O Lord. - I do not liken myself - Neither to Thee, - Nor to the Saints, - Nor to St. John, - Nor to old Christmas, - But to the good deeds which I have performed. - I married as a young man, - I have built a house - On the highroad, - I have kept a decked table - On the high road. - Whosoever passed - Sat down at my table. - All ate and drank at my table, - And all thanked me. - I have further built - Bridges in dangerous paths. - Whosoever passed - Thanked me. - I have further digged wells - In dry lands. - Whosoever drank of the water - Blessed me." - The good God then replied: - "May thou therefore be blessed. - Thou hast done good deeds - In that world. - Blessing shalt thou find in this. - Enter Paradise without trial. - Sit at table not invited, - And drink the cup unasked." - We wish health to this house, - To these beautiful courts, - To all of us a happy life - For many years. - - - - - - - - -APPENDIX I. - -RUMANIAN INCANTATIONS AGAINST THE ILLNESSES OF ANIMALS. - - -I am adding here a number of incantations or charms, which are used -by the Rumanians to ward off evil from animals and to save from hurt -and disease such victims of witchcraft. In the mind of the people, -the old conception is still strong that every sickness is caused by -some malignant spirit, and that the most potent remedy is the magical -word of incantation or conjuration. And what holds good for the cure -of the Evil Eye holds good similarly in the case of a snake bite or -any other apparently incurable disease. - -The Rumanians resort to magical performances of a peculiarly -symbolical and sympathetic nature. Those practices are accompanied by -"incantations" or rather "disenchantments," i.e. chants used for the -purpose of destroying the spell. This is not the place to discuss at -any length the history and origin of these charms and the mechanism -of their composition. I have dealt with them largely in my history -of Rumanian Folk-Lore (Lit. pop. Romana, 1883, p. 406 ff.). I have -shown there the similarity between some of these "incantations" or -"conjurations" with some Byzantine and mediaeval Latin charms, and -not a few ancient oriental incantations of Babylon and Palestine. In -connection with the foregoing Tales and Legends, it is of no small -importance now to find that similar conjurations are used for the -protection of animals. The same procedure is followed as in the case -of human beings, and practically the same words and images are used -to free the cattle from sickness. In one or two instances (Nos. 2, -3) the cow is being bewitched and loses her milk, or the calf does -not suck. The "virtue" (Rum. mana), the "abundance" or "blessing," -is being taken by some witch, or is waning on account of the Evil -Eye. Even in these cases the formula is almost identical with that -used in a stereotyped form in human "incantations." Each of these given -here could be made the starting-point of discursive explanations. But -this must be reserved for a special study of the Rumanian charms and -incantations. For our purpose here the translation accompanied only -by a few explanatory foot-notes, is quite sufficient. It proves that -to the Rumanian peasant, there is no essential difference between -man and beast. They are both treated alike, and even the Lady Mary -knows no difference between them. She helps the beast in the same -manner as she descends the "silver ladder" to help the man. And -the evil spirits, who attack man and beast with the same virulence, -are driven out by precisely the same method: charms and incantations. - - - - - - -I. - -AGAINST THE ILLNESS OF POULTRY. - - - "Good one" (Dobritza) went with the broom to sweep the poultry - yards, the hens, and the geese runs, with the geese, - The turkey yard, with the turkeys, - The gardens and the orchards, - The hills with the vineyards, - The mountains with the forests. - Then, Good One! do not go to sweep the gardens and the orchards, - the hills and vineyards, - The mountains with the forests, - The run with the poultry, but come and sweep away the sickness - of the hens, - The ducks, and the geese of Mr. N. N. Sweep away the sickness - with thy broom, - And I with my mouth will say the charm (disenchantment). - With my hand I will seize it, - And beyond the Black Sea I will throw it, - That it may perish, truly perish, there, - As the foam of the sea, - As the dew before the sun, - And the birds of Mr. N. N. shall become pure, sweet, clean and - shining, - As made by God. - - -This charm is said whilst stirring the "virgin water" with a broom. - - - - - - -II. - -CHARM FOR A COW AGAINST THE EVIL EYE. - - - The Monday cow has gone on her way, on her pathway, - On to untrodden grass, - With the virtue (Mana) not taken away, - And with the dew not yet shaken off, - To the field with butter, - To the well with cream. - She was met by nine evil-eyed ones, - Nine witches, - And nine takers-away of blessing (abundance mana). - The cow lowed and roared; - She turned back. - The Holy Mother heard her. - She came to her with dew under her feet and with "abundance" - on her back. - She took hold of her by the right horn, - And led her to green reeds, - And sprinkled her with (the branches) of the willow tree and basil. - The cream thickened, - The eyes sparkled, - The hair became smooth, - And the milk started running. - It spurted like a vein, - It issued forth like a well, and ran like a river. - - - - - - -III. - -CHARM FOR A SUCKLING CALF. - - - I rose up early in the morning. - I took the sickle (scythe) - In my hand. - I went up to the hill of love. - I went down into the valley of affection. - I cut nine handfuls of flowers, - I cut (gathered) love from nine jolly widows, - From nine beautiful girls, - From nine kings and nine rulers. - With the same zest as kings hasten to their kingdom, - Rulers to their rule, - Ministers to their ministration, - Knights to their knighthood, - And merchants to their business, - So shall the "Thursday [7] one" - Hasten to the calf, - And the calf to her. - As the tongue is fast in the mouth, - So shall "Thursday one" stick to her calf, - And the calf on to her. - I burnt it (the spell) with fire, - I singed it with the flame, - I enveloped it with love, - With affection I kindled it. - As the honey is sweet, - So shall the calf long for "Thursday one." - - - - - - -IV. - -CHARM FOR A COW AGAINST SNAKE-BITE. - - - N. N. rose up, - Got up very early, - And met the accursed on the way, - And he poisoned him as one bitten by the poisoned fly. - The Lady Mother heard it from heaven. - She took the staff in her hand, - And came down upon a silver ladder. - Do not cry, and do not low, O "Thursday one." - Come with me to that old woman, that she may say the charm - (disenchantment) for thee, - With water from the well, - With three stalks of elder-tree, - With twigs of hazelnut tree, - With a knife that has been found and with silver coins. - - -These charms were told in the year 1913 by a woman who was believed -to be in her 109th year. - - - - - - -V. - -CHARM AGAINST EVIL EYE. - - - Fly away, evil eye, from the White one. - Do not wonder at her. - Do not stare at her admiringly - Of the milk that is milked, - Of the calf that is sucking - Her sweet body, - That it is sweet to me as honey and yellow as wax; but wonder at, - And stare admiringly - At that green bush, - That it is as green as the ivy, - And white as the lily. - Fly away, yawn, - Fly away, shout, - Of the great evil eye. - - - - - - -VI. - -CHARM AGAINST EVIL EYE. - - - The mistress has gone on her way with Joyana (Thursday one) - To feed her on the green field. - Well she did feed her, - Well did she satisfy her, - Well did she slake her thirst. - She turned her back. - In the middle of the way - She met an old woman - Dressed in a shirt of nettles, - With sandals of a black sow on her feet. - She broke Joyana's horns, - Her eyes she caused to shed tears, - Her hair she ruffled (bristled), - The tail she cut off, - The breasts she squeezed (flattened), - The udders she emptied. - The cow lowed and the cow moaned. - No one saw her; - No one heard her; - But the Holy Mother saw her. - Only she heard. - She said to her: - "Thursday one, do not low, do not moan." - "How am I not to low? - How am I not to moan? - As I went with my mistress to feed in pastures green, - She fed me well. - She slaked my thirst well. - Back she did turn me. - When in the middle of the way, - An old woman met me, - Dressed in a shirt of nettles, - With sandals of a black sow on her feet. - She lopped my horns, - She caused my eyes to run over, - My hair she made to bristle, - My tail she has cut off, - She has flattened my breasts, - She has emptied my udders." - "(Joyana) 'Thursday one,' do not low, do not moan. - Go to N. N. - He will disenchant thee with the nettle in flour, - From the little horns - To the little tail, - From the little tail to the little horns. - The horns will become sharp again. - The hair will be smooth, - The breasts will be strong, - The udder will be full again. - Go to thy mistress, - And she will milk thee from the pail into the can, - From the can into the pail." - - - -This disenchantment is made with nettles in flour. - - - - - - -VII. - -CHARM AGAINST WORMS IN BEASTS. - -Take three stalks of madwort. Go to the beast that has worms, touching -the wound with the madwort, say: - - - May there be as many maggots in the wound as there are (popi) - priests in Paradise. - As many and not even as many. - - -Say it three times, and the worms will fall off. - -The implication is obvious. - - - - - - -VIII. - -AGAINST WORMS. - -On a day of Lent, before sunrise, take the beast, which has worms -outside the village to a place where reeds are growing. Get nine bushes -of reeds, each with three reeds (stalks) in one root. Stop still at -each bush, cut the middle reed, shake it three times over the wound, -and say: - - - "Ye three reeds are three brothers, - And ye all three are to join together, - And drive away the worms from Joyana; - For, if not, - I come to-morrow at the same time, - To cut you off from the root, - To take away your peace, - And dust and ashes shall you become." - - -Then spit aside. Repeat this with each of the reed-bushes. At mid-day, -when the sun stands in "the balance" (noontide), repeat the whole -incantation, and yet a third time shortly before sunset. The cut -reeds must be tied together by their roots, and you will see the -worms dropping off when you finish the charm. - -This cure can also be effected when the beast is not present. In this -case, go alone, and remember the animal whilst making the operation. It -will be found quite effective. - - - - - - -IX. - -CHARM AGAINST SNAKE-BITE. - - - Above it is thundering, - Lightning, - Speckling, clinging to the skin, - Skin to bone, - Bone to flesh. - The flesh has been bitten, - Bitten by a snake. - God, send the cure. - Holy Mother, overshadow him. - - -This charm is made with "virgin water," using a hazelnut twig, -especially if a snake has been killed with it. The bite is washed -with the water, and a mouthful is taken three times. - - - - - - -X. - -CHARM IF BITTEN BY A WEASEL. - - - Weasel, beautiful girl, - There are nine boils. - Nine boils have gone down; - Eight boils have grown, - Eight boils have gone down; - Seven boils have grown, - Seven boils have gone down; - And so on until one boil has grown, - And one has gone down. - And the cow N. N. shall now remain clean and sweet (strong), - as she was made by God. - - -This charm is said three times over a pail with "virgin water"; -a cross is made over with the skin of a weasel, or with the twig of -hazel-nut, or with a found knife. - -The cow is washed with the water, and the rest is poured into running -water. - -The charm must be repeated three times daily, and for three consecutive -days, if the bite is a bad one and the swelling does not go down. - - - - - - - - -APPENDIX II. - -THREE STORIES FROM ARKIR, THE RUMANIAN VERSION OF THE STORY OF AHIKAR. - - -I. - -And Anadan said: "Forgive me, my father, and let me be the meanest -of swineherds, only let me live." But Arkirie said: "No, my son, thou -hast acted towards me in the same manner as the wolf acted when he went -to the teacher to be taught; for whilst the teacher said A B C D, the -wolf said: 'For the lambs' and 'for the sheep' and 'for the goats' and -'for the kids'; in the same manner hast thou acted towards me, my son." - - - - - - -II. - -And he began to beat him. And Anadan said: "Have mercy on me, and I -will be a shepherd." And Arkirie said: "Thou hast acted towards me as -the wolf who followed the sheep and met the shepherd, who said to him: -'Thank thee.' And he asked him: 'Whither art thou going so fast?' And -the wolf said: 'I follow the track of the sheep, for an old woman -told me that the dust of the sheep was wholesome for the eyes.' In -the same manner hast thou acted against me." - - - - - - -III. - -And he began again to beat him, but Anadan said: "Have pity on me, -and I will groom thy horses." But Arkirie said: "No, my son, thou hast -acted towards me like a man who, leading an ass on the road, tied it -with a loose rope. The ass broke the rope and ran away. On his way he -met the wolf, and the wolf said unto him: 'Happy journey unto thee, -ass!' And the ass replied: 'Unhappy it will be, for the man tied me -up with a rotten rope, so that I broke it and ran away, and he did -not tie me with a good rope.'" And Arkirie continued to beat him -until he died (M. Gaster, Jrnl. Royal Asiatic Society, 1900, p. 309). - -A larger number of animal fables are found in the other versions -of Ahikar, thus in the Armenian (Story of Ahikar, edited by Rendel -Harris Conybeare, etc., second edition, Cambridge, 1913, p. 51), -and in the Slavonic (ibid. pp. 21 and 22). - - - - - - - - -APPENDIX III. - -ANIMAL STORIES FROM THE HEBREW ALPHABET OF BEN SIRA. - - -This seems to be the oldest collection of animal tales which agree -most closely with some of the Rumanian. They are of a purely oriental -origin, and are therefore invaluable in helping to determine that of -the latter. They are taken from the Venice edition, 1544, reprinted -page by page by Steinschneider, Berlin 1858 (f. 24a ff.). - - - - - - -I. - -WHY WERE FLIES CREATED WHICH LIVE ONLY ONE DAY? - -Q. Why were the flies created which live only one day? - -Reply. For the sake of the fly which in the future will torture Titus -the wicked, and also for the sake of the fledglings of the raven. When -they are hatched they are white and the parents fly away and leave -them. Then they cry to God, as it is written, "The young of the raven -which cry unto Him and He brings to them these flies and they are fed -thereby." After three days they become dark; then the parents return -to them. Thus the Lord, blessed be He, prepares the cure before the -illness (f. 24a). - - - - - - -II. - -WHY DID GOD CREATE WASPS AND SPIDERS WHICH ARE OF NO USE? - -Q. Why did God create wasps and spiders which are of no use? - -R. Once upon a time David was sitting in his garden and he saw a wasp -eating a spider, and there came a fool with a stick in his hand, and -he drove them away. Then David said, "O Lord of the Universe, what -benefit is there in these creatures? The wasp eats up the honey and -is destructive; the spider weaves the whole year and there is nothing -with which to clothe oneself; the fool only hurts people, and he does -not know thy unity and thy greatness, the world has no benefit from -him." The Lord replied and said, "David, thou dost scoff at these -creatures now, but a time is sure to come when they will be of use -to thee, and then thou wilt recognise the reason of their creation." - -It happened thereafter, when he hid in the cave, being pursued by Saul, -a spider came and made his web across the mouth of the cavern. Saul -coming up, saw the web and said, "Certainly no man has entered this -cave, as otherwise that web would have been torn to pieces." So he went -away without searching the cave. When David came out, and beheld the -spider, he kissed it and blessed it and said, "Lord of the Universe, -who can accomplish works like any of thy works? For all thy deeds -are beautiful." - -When he came to Achish, David simulated the fool before him and his -men. The daughter of Achish also was foolish and mad. When they -brought David before him, he said to his men, "Are ye mocking at -me, considering that my daughter is a fool, or am I in want of -lunatics?" So they left him and he fled. When he found himself -in safety he thanked God for all that he had made, for it was all -beautiful. - -When David (had entered the cave) he found Saul sleeping his noon-day -sleep. Abner slept across the opening with his legs bent. David tried, -slipped through the legs, and went in and took the jug of water. When -he returned Abner suddenly stretched out and kept David as in a hedge, -as if two heavy pillars had come down upon him. Then David prayed for -God's mercy and said, "My God, my God, why hast thou forsaken me?" In -that hour a miracle was performed for him, for a wasp came and stung -Abner in his leg. He lifted it up and David was able to escape. Then -David praised and thanked God. - -It is not fit for man to mock or scoff at God's works (f. 24 a-b). - - - - - - -III. - -WHY HAS THE OX NO HAIR ON HIS NOSE? - -Q. Why has the ox no hair on his nose? - -R. When the Israelites were going round Jericho with Joshua in order -to destroy it, they brought him successively a horse, an ass, and -a mule to ride upon, but they all died, for Joshua was a very heavy -man. Then they brought an ox and he carried him on his back. When he -saw this Joshua kissed the ox on his nose, and for this reason the -ox has no hair on that spot (f. 25a). - - - - - - -IV. - -WHY DOES THE CAT EAT MICE MORE THAN ANY OTHER CREEPING THING? - -Q. Why does the cat eat mice more than any other creeping thing? - -R. In the beginning the cat and the mouse were friends. At one time -the mouse went and accused the cat falsely before God, and said, -"Lord of the Universe, the cat and I are companions and we have now -nothing to eat." God replied, "Thou hast brought a false accusation -against thy friend in order to be able to eat him. Now the reverse is -to happen, the cat will eat thee and thou shalt serve her as food." The -mouse replied, "Lord of the Universe, what have I done?" And God said, -"O thou unclean creature! Hast thou not heard what happened to the -sun and moon which originally were of equal size, but because the -moon brought a false accusation against (slandered) the sun, I have -reduced its size and made it smaller than the sun? So also hast thou -slandered thy companion in order to eat him, and he therefore will -eat thee." "If that be so," the mouse replied, "then the cat will -surely utterly destroy me." And God replied, "I will leave thee a -remnant as I have done to the moon." - -Then the mouse went, and springing on the head of the cat began to -bite it. The cat then threw the mouse on the ground and killed it. - -From that time on, the fear of the cat fell upon the mice, and for -this reason does the cat eat the mouse (f. 25b). - -(The Hebrew word used for cat is khatool which originally means -weasel!) - - - - - - -V. - -WHY DOES THE ASS MIX HIS WATER WITH THAT OF OTHER ASSES, AND SMELL -THE DUNG? - -Q. Why does the ass mix his water with that of other asses and smell -the dung? - -R. When God had created all the beings, the ass said to the horse -and mule, "Every creature has some time of rest, but we are destined -to work on continuously without any rest. Let us pray to God to give -us also some time of respite, and if our prayer be not heard let us -decide no longer to procreate so that we may die out." So they prayed, -but their prayer was not heard. But God said, "When your water becomes -rivers to drive mills thereby, and when your dung has the smell of -perfume, then you will obtain your respite." And this is the answer -to the question (f. 25b). - - - - - - -VI. - -WHY DOES THE DOG FIGHT THE CAT? - -Q. Why is there enmity between the cat and the dog? - -R. When the cat (weasel) was created it became the companion of the -dog. Both hunted together and ate together of the prey. It so happened -at one time that two or three days had passed and they had not got -anything to eat. Then the dog said to the cat, "Why are we sitting -here a hungered? Go to Adam and sit in his house and be fed there, -and we will go after the creeping things and reptiles and will feed -upon them, and we shall both be kept alive." The cat then replied -to the dog, "Let it be so, but we must take an oath that we will -not go both together to one master." He replied, "Thou hast spoken -well." There and then they both took an oath, and the cat went to -the house of Adam, where she found mice, which she caught and ate: -the rest ran away from her. When Adam saw what had happened, he said, -"A great salvation ("cure") has God sent me." - -Then he took the cat into his house and fed it and gave it to drink. - -The dog went to the wolf and said unto him, "Let me come and spend -the night with thee." He replied, "Very well." Both went to a cave to -sleep there. In the night the dog heard the footsteps of the various -animals, so he woke the wolf and told him, "I heard the steps of -thieves." The wolf replied, "Go out to them and drive them away." - -The beasts turned upon him to kill him. The dog fled away and went to -the ape, but the ape drove him away. Then he went to the sheep. The -sheep received him and allowed him to sleep there. He heard the -noise of feet and he said to the sheep, "I hear the footsteps of -robbers." The sheep replied, "Go out." The dog went out, and began to -bark. The wolves said, "Surely sheep are there." So they went thither -and ate the sheep. - -The dog fled away and went from place to place trying to find some -shelter, but could not find any. At last he came to Adam, who took -him in and allowed him to sleep there. In the middle of the night the -dog said to Adam, "I hear the noise of footsteps." Adam rose at once, -took his spear, and going out with the dog drove the wild beasts -away and returned home with the dog. Then Adam said to the dog, -"Come into my house, dwell with me, eat of my food and drink of my -water." And the dog went with him. When the cat heard the voice of -the dog she came out to him and said, "Why dost thou come thither to -my place?" And he replied, "Adam has brought me hither." Adam said -to the cat, "Why dost thou quarrel with him? I have brought him in, -for I found him clever and full of courage. Thou needst not grieve, -thou shalt be kept also as before." The cat replied, "My Lord, he -is a thief, is it right to dwell in one place with a thief?" And the -cat went on to say to the dog, "Why hast thou broken (transgressed) -thy oath?" He replied, "I will not enter thy dwelling place, I will -not eat of anything that belongs to thee, I will not cause thee the -least harm." But the cat did not listen and began to quarrel. - -When the dog saw this, he went away from the house of Adam, and going -to that of Seth, dwelt there. And the dog tried all the time to make -peace with the cat, but it was all in vain. In that state they have -remained to this very day, in constant enmity, for the children follow -the example of their forebears: as the proverb has it: sheep follow -sheep (f. 25b, 26a). - - - - - - -VII. - -WHY IS IT THAT THE DOG RECOGNISES HIS MASTER AND THE CAT DOES NOT? - -Q. Why is it that the dog recognises his master and the cat does not? - -R. Whoever eats of anything at which mice have nibbled forgets what -he has been taught. It is only natural that he who eats the mouse -itself should forget his master (f. 26b). - - - - - - -VIII. - -WHY IS THERE A SEAM IN THE MOUTH OF THE MOUSE? - -Q. Why is there a seam in the mouth of the mouse? - -R. At the time of the Flood, all kinds of creeping things and reptiles -had come into the Ark, male and female. Once upon a time the mouse -and its mate were sitting by the cat, when the cat suddenly said, -"I remember that in former times my forefathers used to eat yours, -and what they did then I might as well do now." With these words the -cat sprang at the mouse wishing to eat it. The mouse fled and sought -for a hole to hide itself, but could not find any. A miracle happened, -and a hole appeared which the mouse entered and hid itself. The cat -came to the hole and tried to follow the mouse, but could not, as the -hole was very narrow. So she put her paw into it with the intention -of dragging it out. The mouse opened its mouth. So the cat cut its -lower chin open with its nail about half the length of a span. When -the cat had gone away the mouse crept out of the hole and running to -Noah said to him, "O thou righteous man, do me an act of charity and -sew up the chin, which my enemy the cat has torn open." Noah replied, -"Go to the pig and bring me one of the bristles of its tail." He went -and brought it to Noah, who sewed up the chin. To this very day the -seam can be seen (f. 26b). - - - - - - -IX. - -WHY DOES THE RAVEN HOP IN ITS WALK? - -Q. Why does the raven hop in its walk? - -R. Once upon a time the raven saw how beautiful was the stepping (walk) -of the dove, more beautiful than that of all the other birds. He liked -the walk of the doves very much, and he said to himself, "I will also -put my feet in the same step." And he nearly broke his bones in the -attempt to imitate the dove. The other birds laughed and mocked at -him. The raven felt ashamed and he said, "Let me return to my former -walk." So he tried to walk as before, but he could not, for he had -forgotten it. Thus he remained with a halting step, like one who is -jumping, neither walking as before, nor being able to walk as the dove -(f. 26b). - - - - - - -X. - -WHY DOES THE RAVEN MATE DIFFERENTLY FROM ANY OTHER BIRD? - -Q. Why does the raven mate differently from any other bird? - -R. There are various explanations. One is that he has been punished -for his lewdness in the Ark, and for the same reason also the dog -has been punished. - -Others say, because he is wicked, a thief, and froward. There is one -answer which combines and explains it more satisfactorily. When Noah -wanted to send the raven to see whether the waters were falling, the -raven fled and hid himself under the eagle's wing. Noah searched after -him and found him there under the wing of the eagle. He said to him, -"Go, thou wicked one, and see whether the waters are falling." The -raven replied, "Hast thou not found any other bird but me." Noah -replied, "I can only send one of the two birds whose first letter -is either Ain or Yod." The raven replied, "Why not the eagle and -dove"? (Nun, Yod). Noah said, "Because there will be a town in -existence called Ai whose inhabitants will kill Yair, who will -forbid the raven and permit the dove (to eat)." Then the raven -replied impudently to Noah, "The reason why thou hast chosen to -send me out is that thou wishest to kill me in order to marry my -mate, as I belong to those birds of which thou hast introduced into -the Ark only one pair." - -When Noah heard these words, he cursed the raven that he should -mate differently from any other bird, and all the birds in the Ark -replied Amen. Then the raven replied, "Why hast thou cursed me? I -have a legal complaint against thee." Noah replied, "Because thou -art lewd and foolish and dost suspect innocent people. If I do not -approach my own wife, who is like unto me, whilst we are in the Ark, -how can I approach thy wife, who is so different from a human being, -and moreover is forbidden unto me as a married female?" - -The raven said, "Why dost thou call me lewd (fornicator)?" Noah -replied, "Thine own words prove thine immorality, I have not made -thee an evil name." And thus it has remained according to Noah's curse -(f. 26b-27a). - - - - - - -XI. - -WHY ARE THERE NO COUNTERPART TO THE FOX AND THE WEASEL AMONG THE -CREATURES OF THE SEA? AND THE STORY OF THE FOX'S HEART AND THE FISHES. - - -Q. Why are there no counterpart to the fox and weasel in the sea? -The story of the fox's heart and the fishes. - -R. Because they were cunning. When God had created the angel of death, -he saw the creatures, and he said to God, "Lord of the Universe, -grant me permission to kill them." God replied, "Thou shalt have -power over all the creatures of the earth except the descendants of -the bird Milham, who are not to taste the taste of death." He said, -"O Lord, separate them from the rest if they are so pious, so that -they do not learn the evil ways of the others and come to sin." God -at once granted him his request. He built for them a great town -and he placed them therein, and he sealed up the gate of that town, -and he said, "It has been decreed (by God) that neither my sword, -nor that of anyone else should have power over you unto the end of -all generations." The angel of death returned then to God, who said -to him, "Throw the pair of each created being into the sea and over -the rest thou shalt have power." The angel did as he was told, and -he threw into the sea a pair of each created being. When the fox saw -what he was doing, he began crying and weeping. The angel asked him, -"Why art thou weeping?" The fox replied, "I cry for my friend whom -thou hast thrown into the sea." The angel asked him, "Where is thy -friend?" The fox then went and stood close to the edge of the water -and the angel saw his shadow in the water, and he believed that he -had indeed thrown a pair of his friends into the sea, and he said to -the fox, "Get thee hence." The fox ran quickly away and was thus saved. - -On his way he met the weasel, and he told her all that had happened -and what he had done. The weasel did likewise and escaped also from -being thrown into the sea. - -After the lapse of one year since these things had happened, did -Leviathan gather together before him all the creatures of the sea, -and it was found that neither fox nor weasel was among them. So he -sent for them, but he was told what the fox had done to escape from -being thrown into the sea. Moreover, they told Leviathan that the -fox was very cunning. When Leviathan heard of his great intelligence, -he became jealous of him. He sent large fishes to go and fetch him, -by deceiving him and luring him away, and then to bring the fox to -him. They went and found him walking leisurely along the seashore. When -the fox saw the fishes approach and play about close to him, he -entered into conversation with them. When they saw him, they asked him, -"Who art thou?" He answered, "I am the fox." They said to him, "Dost -thou not know that great honour is awaiting thee and it is for this -purpose that we have come hither. He said, "What is it?" They replied, -"Leviathan is sick unto death, and has left the command that no one -else is to rule after him as king but the fox, for he is the most -cunning of all the beasts. Thereafter, you now come with us, for we -have been sent to offer thee this honour." He said to them, "How can -I go into the sea and not be drowned?" They replied, "Ride on the back -of one of us and we will carry thee safely over the waters of the sea, -so that not even a drop of water shall touch the tip of thy nose until -thou reachest the kingly palace. Then we will lower thee down into -it and there thou wilt rule over all of us, and thou wilt rejoice all -the days of thy life, and thou wilt no longer have to search for food, -and be exposed to be hunted by mighty beasts and to be eaten by them." - -When the fox heard these words, he believed them, and mounting on the -back of a mighty fish started with them on a journey on the sea. When -the waves began to play round him he began to be anxious. His wit -had forsaken him. Then he recovered himself and said, "Woe unto me, -what have I done? The fishes have tricked me worse than I have ever -tricked all the other beasts. Now that I have fallen into their hands -how can I escape?" - -He then said to them, "I have come with you and I am now at your -mercy. You may tell me what is it that you really want of me." They -replied, "We will tell thee the truth. Leviathan had heard of thy -reputation, that thou art very cunning, so he said to himself, I will -cut his belly open and will eat his heart, and thus shall I become -also very wise." - -The fox said to them, "Why did you not tell me the truth, for I would -then have brought my heart with me. I would have given it to the -king Leviathan and he would have shown me honour. You are now going -to your own destruction." They said to him, "Hast thou not thy heart -with thee?" He replied, "No, for such is our habit that we leave our -heart behind and we walk about without it; whenever we want it we -fetch it, and if there is no necessity for it we leave it where it -is." So they said to him, "What shall we do now?" - -He replied, "My place and my dwelling is close to the seashore, -if you are willing to do it, bring me back to the place whence you -have taken me. I will go and fetch my heart and return with you to -Leviathan, who is sure to honour me greatly. If you, however, will -bring me to him without my heart, he will be very angry with you and -eat you up. For I will tell him that you had not told me anything -before you took me away, and that when I heard from you the reason -of your errand, I told you to carry me back and that you refused to -do so." The fishes then said at once, "Thou speakest well," and they -returned to the place at the seashore whence they had taken him. He -went down from the back of the fishes, and jumping and frolicking -about he rolled over and over in the sand. The fishes said to him, -"Haste thee, do not tarry, for we must depart quickly." He replied, -"Ye fools, get yourselves away. If I had not had my heart I could not -have gone with you into the sea. Is there any creature in existence -moving about and not having a heart within?" They replied, "Thou hast -mocked at us." He replied, "If I got the best of the angel of death, -how much more likely am I to get it of you?" They returned full of -shame to the Leviathan and told him all that had happened. He replied, -"He is truly cunning, and ye have proved to be fools. About such as -you it is said, 'The stupidity of the fools is the cause of their -death,'" and so he ate them up. - -Thus it has remained that although there are creatures in the sea -corresponding to those on land, there are none like unto the fox and -the weasel. - - - THE END. - - - - - - - - -NOTES - - -[1] The Rumanian word used here is "ariciu," literally hedgehog, -but no doubt the mole who burrows under the ground is meant. It is -for this reason that I have substituted mole for hedgehog. In the -Bulgarian legend it is the hedgehog, where probably the two animals -are also confused with one another. - -[2] The Rumanian oven. - -[3] Sila Samodiva, one of the fairies of the Rumanian popular tales. - -[4] Probably a reminiscence of Ler, the old Slavonic God of Love. - -[5] The water of death means a water which, poured over a body which -has been cut in pieces, causes all these pieces to join together, -and the wounds to heal. The water of life restores to life the bodies -thus joined. - -[6] Christmas is here taken as a person. - -[7] The cows are often called by the names of the days on which they -were born. Of these Monday and Thursday seem to be the lucky ones. - - - - - - -End of Project Gutenberg's Rumanian Bird and Beast Stories, by Anonymous - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK RUMANIAN BIRD AND BEAST STORIES *** - -***** This file should be named 43059.txt or 43059.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/4/3/0/5/43059/ - -Produced by Jeroen Hellingman and the Online Distributed -Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net/ for Project -Gutenberg (This file was produced from images generously -made available by The Internet Archive/Canadian Libraries) - - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions -will be renamed. - -Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no -one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation -(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without -permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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