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diff --git a/43057-h/43057-h.htm b/43057-h/43057-h.htm index 90e36d5..71b9a39 100644 --- a/43057-h/43057-h.htm +++ b/43057-h/43057-h.htm @@ -2,7 +2,7 @@ "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd"> <html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" xml:lang="en" lang="en"> <head> - <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html;charset=iso-8859-1" /> + <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html;charset=UTF-8" /> <meta http-equiv="Content-Style-Type" content="text/css" /> <title> The Project Gutenberg eBook of History of the Jews, by Heinrich Graetz. @@ -216,45 +216,7 @@ span.locked {white-space:nowrap;} </style> </head> <body> - - -<pre> - -Project Gutenberg's History of the Jews, Vol. II (of 6), by Heinrich Graetz - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org - - -Title: History of the Jews, Vol. II (of 6) - -Author: Heinrich Graetz - -Release Date: June 29, 2013 [EBook #43057] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HISTORY OF THE JEWS, VOL. II *** - - - - -Produced by David Edwards, Charlie Howard, and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - - - - - - -</pre> - +<div>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 43057 ***</div> <hr /> @@ -312,16 +274,16 @@ printed in a magazine or newspaper.</i><br /> <tr> <td class="tdl chap smaller">JOHN HYRCANUS.</td></tr> <tr> - <td class="tdl">The Crowning Point of the Period​—​War with Antiochus Sidetes​—​Siege of Jerusalem​—​Treaty of Peace​—​The Parthian War​—​Hyrcanus joins Antiochus​—​Successful campaigns of Hyrcanus against the Samaritans and Idumans​—​The Idumans forced to embrace Judaism​—​Destruction of the Samaritan Temple at Gerizim and of the Capital, Samaria​—​Internal Affairs​—​The Parties: Pharisees, Sadducees and Essenes​—​Their Rise and Constitution​—​Their Doctrines and their Relations to one another​—​The Synhedrion​—​Strained Relations between Hyrcanus and the Pharisees​—​Death of Hyrcanus</td> + <td class="tdl">The Crowning Point of the Period​—​War with Antiochus Sidetes​—​Siege of Jerusalem​—​Treaty of Peace​—​The Parthian War​—​Hyrcanus joins Antiochus​—​Successful campaigns of Hyrcanus against the Samaritans and Idumæans​—​The Idumæans forced to embrace Judaism​—​Destruction of the Samaritan Temple at Gerizim and of the Capital, Samaria​—​Internal Affairs​—​The Parties: Pharisees, Sadducees and Essenes​—​Their Rise and Constitution​—​Their Doctrines and their Relations to one another​—​The Synhedrion​—​Strained Relations between Hyrcanus and the Pharisees​—​Death of Hyrcanus</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_1">1</a></td></tr> <tr> <td class="tdl chap smaller">135–106 <span class="smcap smaller">B. C. E.</span></td></tr> <tr> <td class="tdl chap"><a href="#CHAPTER_II">CHAPTER II.</a></td></tr> <tr> - <td class="tdl chap smaller">HYRCANUS'S SUCCESSORS, ARISTOBULUS I, ALEXANDER JANNUS, AND SALOME ALEXANDRA.</td></tr> + <td class="tdl chap smaller">HYRCANUS'S SUCCESSORS, ARISTOBULUS I, ALEXANDER JANNÆUS, AND SALOME ALEXANDRA.</td></tr> <tr> - <td class="tdl">Character of Aristobulus​—​Antigonus​—​Mythical Account of his Death​—​Alexander Jannus: his Character and Enterprises​—​His Support of the Pharisees​—​Simon ben Shetach​—​Alexander's Breach with the Pharisees, and its Consequences​—​His last Wars and Death​—​Salome Alexandra's Relations to the Opposing Parties​—​The Synhedrion​—​Judah ben Tabbai and Simon ben Shetach​—​Institutions against the Sadducees​—​Party Hatred​—​Diogenes​—​Persecution of the Sadducees​—​Death of Alexandra</td> + <td class="tdl">Character of Aristobulus​—​Antigonus​—​Mythical Account of his Death​—​Alexander Jannæus: his Character and Enterprises​—​His Support of the Pharisees​—​Simon ben Shetach​—​Alexander's Breach with the Pharisees, and its Consequences​—​His last Wars and Death​—​Salome Alexandra's Relations to the Opposing Parties​—​The Synhedrion​—​Judah ben Tabbai and Simon ben Shetach​—​Institutions against the Sadducees​—​Party Hatred​—​Diogenes​—​Persecution of the Sadducees​—​Death of Alexandra</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_35">35</a></td></tr> <tr> <td class="tdl chap smaller">106–69 <span class="smcap smaller">B. C. E.</span></td></tr> @@ -330,7 +292,7 @@ printed in a magazine or newspaper.</i><br /> <tr> <td class="tdl chap smaller">HYRCANUS II. ARISTOBULUS II.</td></tr> <tr> - <td class="tdl">Brothers contend for the throne​—​Arrangement between the Brothers​—​The Iduman Antipater​—​Hyrcanus's weakness​—​Aretas besieges Jerusalem​—​Interference of Rome​—​Pompey at Jerusalem​—​The Judan colony in Rome​—​Flaccus in Asia Minor​—​Cicero's oration against the Judans​—​Weakening of the power of the Synhedrion​—​Shemaya and Abtalion​—​Violent <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_iv" id="Page_iv">iv</a></span>death of Aristobulus and his son Alexander​—​Julius Csar and the Judans​—​Antipater's sons Phasael and Herod​—​Herod before the Synhedrion​—​Operations of Cassius in Juda​—​Malich​—​Antigonus as King​—​Herod escapes to Rome</td> + <td class="tdl">Brothers contend for the throne​—​Arrangement between the Brothers​—​The Idumæan Antipater​—​Hyrcanus's weakness​—​Aretas besieges Jerusalem​—​Interference of Rome​—​Pompey at Jerusalem​—​The Judæan colony in Rome​—​Flaccus in Asia Minor​—​Cicero's oration against the Judæans​—​Weakening of the power of the Synhedrion​—​Shemaya and Abtalion​—​Violent <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_iv" id="Page_iv">iv</a></span>death of Aristobulus and his son Alexander​—​Julius Cæsar and the Judæans​—​Antipater's sons Phasael and Herod​—​Herod before the Synhedrion​—​Operations of Cassius in Judæa​—​Malich​—​Antigonus as King​—​Herod escapes to Rome</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_57">57</a></td></tr> <tr> <td class="tdl chap smaller">69–40 <span class="smcap smaller">B. C. E.</span></td></tr> @@ -339,7 +301,7 @@ printed in a magazine or newspaper.</i><br /> <tr> <td class="tdl chap smaller">ANTIGONUS AND HEROD.</td></tr> <tr> - <td class="tdl">Weakness of Antigonus and Herod's Strength of Character​—​Contest for the Throne​—​Herod becomes King​—​Proscriptions and Confiscations​—​Herod's Policy​—​Abolition of the Hereditary Tenure of the High Priesthood​—​Death of the High Priest Aristobulus​—​War with the Arabians​—​The Earthquake​—​Death of the last of the Hasmonans​—​Hillel becomes the Head of the Synhedrion​—​His System of Tradition​—​Menahem the Essene​—​Shammai and his School​—​Mariamne​—​Herod's Magnificence and Passion for Building​—​Herod rebuilds the Temple​—​Herod executes his Sons Alexander and Aristobulus​—​Antipater and his Intrigues​—​The Pharisees under Herod​—​The Destruction of the Roman Eagle​—​Execution of Antipater and Death of Herod</td> + <td class="tdl">Weakness of Antigonus and Herod's Strength of Character​—​Contest for the Throne​—​Herod becomes King​—​Proscriptions and Confiscations​—​Herod's Policy​—​Abolition of the Hereditary Tenure of the High Priesthood​—​Death of the High Priest Aristobulus​—​War with the Arabians​—​The Earthquake​—​Death of the last of the Hasmonæans​—​Hillel becomes the Head of the Synhedrion​—​His System of Tradition​—​Menahem the Essene​—​Shammai and his School​—​Mariamne​—​Herod's Magnificence and Passion for Building​—​Herod rebuilds the Temple​—​Herod executes his Sons Alexander and Aristobulus​—​Antipater and his Intrigues​—​The Pharisees under Herod​—​The Destruction of the Roman Eagle​—​Execution of Antipater and Death of Herod</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_84">84</a></td></tr> <tr> <td class="tdl chap smaller">40–3 <span class="smcap smaller">B. C. E.</span></td></tr> @@ -348,7 +310,7 @@ printed in a magazine or newspaper.</i><br /> <tr> <td class="tdl chap smaller">THE HERODIANS.</td></tr> <tr> - <td class="tdl">The Family of Herod​—​Partition of the Kingdom of Juda​—​Revolt against Archelaus​—​Sabinus and Varus​—​The Adventurer-Chief Judas the Galilan​—​Confirmation of Herod's Will​—​Archelaus as Ruler​—​His brief Reign and his Banishment​—​Juda becomes a Roman Province​—​The Revolt against the Census​—​The Schools of Hillel and Shammai​—​Judas Founder of the Party of Zealots​—​Onerous Taxation​—​Fresh Hostility of the Samaritans​—​Expulsion of the Judans from Rome by Tiberius​—​Pontius Pilate</td> + <td class="tdl">The Family of Herod​—​Partition of the Kingdom of Judæa​—​Revolt against Archelaus​—​Sabinus and Varus​—​The Adventurer-Chief Judas the Galilæan​—​Confirmation of Herod's Will​—​Archelaus as Ruler​—​His brief Reign and his Banishment​—​Judæa becomes a Roman Province​—​The Revolt against the Census​—​The Schools of Hillel and Shammai​—​Judas Founder of the Party of Zealots​—​Onerous Taxation​—​Fresh Hostility of the Samaritans​—​Expulsion of the Judæans from Rome by Tiberius​—​Pontius Pilate</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_118">118</a></td></tr> <tr> <td class="tdl chap smaller">3 <span class="smcap smaller">B. C. E.</span>–37 <span class="smcap smaller">C. E.</span></td></tr> @@ -357,7 +319,7 @@ printed in a magazine or newspaper.</i><br /> <tr> <td class="tdl chap smaller">MESSIANIC EXPECTATIONS AND ORIGIN OF CHRISTIANITY.</td></tr> <tr> - <td class="tdl">The Messianic Hope​—​Various Conceptions of the Expected Messiah​—​The Essene Idea of the Kingdom of Heaven​—​John the Baptist, his Work and Imprisonment​—​Jesus of Nazareth continues John's Labors​—​Story of his Birth​—​His <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_v" id="Page_v">v</a></span>Success​—​His Relations to Judaism and the Sects​—​His Miraculous Healing of the Sick and Exorcism of Demons​—​His Secret Appearance as the Messiah​—​His Journey to Juda​—​Accusations against him, and his Condemnation​—​The First Christian Community and its Chiefs​—​The Ebionites​—​Removal of Pilate from Juda​—​Vitellius, Governor of Syria, favors the Judans</td> + <td class="tdl">The Messianic Hope​—​Various Conceptions of the Expected Messiah​—​The Essene Idea of the Kingdom of Heaven​—​John the Baptist, his Work and Imprisonment​—​Jesus of Nazareth continues John's Labors​—​Story of his Birth​—​His <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_v" id="Page_v">v</a></span>Success​—​His Relations to Judaism and the Sects​—​His Miraculous Healing of the Sick and Exorcism of Demons​—​His Secret Appearance as the Messiah​—​His Journey to Judæa​—​Accusations against him, and his Condemnation​—​The First Christian Community and its Chiefs​—​The Ebionites​—​Removal of Pilate from Judæa​—​Vitellius, Governor of Syria, favors the Judæans</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_141">141</a></td></tr> <tr> <td class="tdl chap smaller">28–37 <span class="smcap smaller">C. E.</span></td></tr> @@ -366,16 +328,16 @@ printed in a magazine or newspaper.</i><br /> <tr> <td class="tdl chap smaller">AGRIPPA I. HEROD II.</td></tr> <tr> - <td class="tdl">Character of Agrippa​—​Envy of the Alexandrian Greeks towards the Judans​—​Anti-Judan Literature​—​Apion​—​Measures against the Judans in Alexandria​—​Flaccus​—​Judan Embassy to Rome​—​Philo​—​Caligula's Decision against the Judan Embassy​—​Caligula orders his Statue to be placed in the Temple​—​The Death of Caligula relieves the Judans​—​Agrippa's Advance under Claudius​—​His Reign​—​Gamaliel the Elder and his Administration​—​Death of Agrippa​—​Herod II—The False Messiah, Theudas​—​Death of Herod II</td> + <td class="tdl">Character of Agrippa​—​Envy of the Alexandrian Greeks towards the Judæans​—​Anti-Judæan Literature​—​Apion​—​Measures against the Judæans in Alexandria​—​Flaccus​—​Judæan Embassy to Rome​—​Philo​—​Caligula's Decision against the Judæan Embassy​—​Caligula orders his Statue to be placed in the Temple​—​The Death of Caligula relieves the Judæans​—​Agrippa's Advance under Claudius​—​His Reign​—​Gamaliel the Elder and his Administration​—​Death of Agrippa​—​Herod II—The False Messiah, Theudas​—​Death of Herod II</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_174">174</a></td></tr> <tr> <td class="tdl chap smaller">37–49 <span class="smcap smaller">C. E.</span></td></tr> <tr> <td class="tdl chap"><a href="#CHAPTER_VIII">CHAPTER VIII.</a></td></tr> <tr> - <td class="tdl chap smaller">SPREAD OF THE JUDAN RACE, AND OF JUDAISM.</td></tr> + <td class="tdl chap smaller">SPREAD OF THE JUDÆAN RACE, AND OF JUDAISM.</td></tr> <tr> - <td class="tdl">Distribution of the Judans in the Roman Empire and in Parthia​—​Relations of the various Judan Colonies to the Synhedrion​—​Judan Bandits in Naarda​—​Heathen Attacks upon Judaism​—​Counter Attacks upon Heathenism by Judan Writers​—​The Judan Sibyls​—​The Anti-heathen Literature​—​The Book of Wisdom​—​The Allegorists​—​Philo's Aims and Philosophical System​—​Proselytes​—​The Royal House of Adiabene​—​The Proselyte Queen Helen​—​The Apostle Paul​—​His Character​—​Change in his Attitude towards the Pharisees​—​His Activity as a Conversionist​—​His Treatment of the Law of Moses​—​The Doctrines of Peter​—​Judaic-Christians and Heathen Christians</td> + <td class="tdl">Distribution of the Judæans in the Roman Empire and in Parthia​—​Relations of the various Judæan Colonies to the Synhedrion​—​Judæan Bandits in Naarda​—​Heathen Attacks upon Judaism​—​Counter Attacks upon Heathenism by Judæan Writers​—​The Judæan Sibyls​—​The Anti-heathen Literature​—​The Book of Wisdom​—​The Allegorists​—​Philo's Aims and Philosophical System​—​Proselytes​—​The Royal House of Adiabene​—​The Proselyte Queen Helen​—​The Apostle Paul​—​His Character​—​Change in his Attitude towards the Pharisees​—​His Activity as a Conversionist​—​His Treatment of the Law of Moses​—​The Doctrines of Peter​—​Judaic-Christians and Heathen Christians</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_200">200</a></td></tr> <tr> <td class="tdl chap smaller">40–49 <span class="smcap smaller">C. E.</span></td></tr> @@ -384,7 +346,7 @@ printed in a magazine or newspaper.</i><br /> <tr> <td class="tdl chap smaller">AGRIPPA II. AND OUTBREAK OF THE WAR.</td></tr> <tr> - <td class="tdl">Position of Affairs in Juda​—​Roman Oppression​—​Character of Agrippa II—The last High Priest​—​The Zealots and the Sicarii​—​Eleazar ben Dinai​—​Quarrel with the Samaritans​—​Violence <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_vi" id="Page_vi">vi</a></span>in Csarea​—​The Procurators​—​Florus​—​Insurrection in Csarea​—​Bloodshed in Jerusalem​—​The Peace and War Parties​—​The Leader of the Zealots, Eleazar ben Ananias​—​Menahem, chief of the Zealots​—​Massacres of Heathens and Judans​—​Defeat of the Romans​—​The Synhedrion and its President, Simon ben Gamaliel​—​Position of the Synhedrion</td> + <td class="tdl">Position of Affairs in Judæa​—​Roman Oppression​—​Character of Agrippa II—The last High Priest​—​The Zealots and the Sicarii​—​Eleazar ben Dinai​—​Quarrel with the Samaritans​—​Violence <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_vi" id="Page_vi">vi</a></span>in Cæsarea​—​The Procurators​—​Florus​—​Insurrection in Cæsarea​—​Bloodshed in Jerusalem​—​The Peace and War Parties​—​The Leader of the Zealots, Eleazar ben Ananias​—​Menahem, chief of the Zealots​—​Massacres of Heathens and Judæans​—​Defeat of the Romans​—​The Synhedrion and its President, Simon ben Gamaliel​—​Position of the Synhedrion</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_233">233</a></td></tr> <tr> <td class="tdl chap smaller">49–66 <span class="smcap smaller">C. E.</span></td></tr> @@ -400,9 +362,9 @@ printed in a magazine or newspaper.</i><br /> <tr> <td class="tdl chap"><a href="#CHAPTER_XI">CHAPTER XI.</a></td></tr> <tr> - <td class="tdl chap smaller">DESTRUCTION OF THE JUDAN STATE.</td></tr> + <td class="tdl chap smaller">DESTRUCTION OF THE JUDÆAN STATE.</td></tr> <tr> - <td class="tdl">Galilan Fugitives in Jerusalem​—​Condition of the Capital​—​Internal Contests​—​The Idumans​—​Eleazar ben Simon, John of Gischala, and Simon Bar-Giora​—​Progress of the War​—​Affairs in Rome​—​Vespasian created Emperor​—​Siege of Jerusalem by Titus​—​Heroic Defense​—​Famine​—​Fall of the Fortress Antonia​—​Burning of the Temple​—​Destruction of the City​—​Number of the Slain</td> + <td class="tdl">Galilæan Fugitives in Jerusalem​—​Condition of the Capital​—​Internal Contests​—​The Idumæans​—​Eleazar ben Simon, John of Gischala, and Simon Bar-Giora​—​Progress of the War​—​Affairs in Rome​—​Vespasian created Emperor​—​Siege of Jerusalem by Titus​—​Heroic Defense​—​Famine​—​Fall of the Fortress Antonia​—​Burning of the Temple​—​Destruction of the City​—​Number of the Slain</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_291">291</a></td></tr> <tr> <td class="tdl chap smaller">67–70 <span class="smcap smaller">C. E.</span></td></tr> @@ -411,7 +373,7 @@ printed in a magazine or newspaper.</i><br /> <tr> <td class="tdl chap smaller">THE AFTER-THROES OF THE WAR.</td></tr> <tr> - <td class="tdl">Sufferings of the Prisoners​—​The Arena​—​Cruelty of Titus​—​Enmity of the Antiochians​—​Triumph of the Emperor on the occasion of the Conquest of Juda​—​End of Simon Bar-Giora and John of Gischala​—​Coins to Commemorate the Roman Triumph​—​Fall of the last Fortresses: Herodium, Masada, and Machrus​—​Resistance of the Zealots in Alexandria and Cyrene​—​End of the Temple of Onias​—​The Last of the Zealots​—​Death of Berenice and Agrippa​—​Flavius Josephus and his Writings</td> + <td class="tdl">Sufferings of the Prisoners​—​The Arena​—​Cruelty of Titus​—​Enmity of the Antiochians​—​Triumph of the Emperor on the occasion of the Conquest of Judæa​—​End of Simon Bar-Giora and John of Gischala​—​Coins to Commemorate the Roman Triumph​—​Fall of the last Fortresses: Herodium, Masada, and Machærus​—​Resistance of the Zealots in Alexandria and Cyrene​—​End of the Temple of Onias​—​The Last of the Zealots​—​Death of Berenice and Agrippa​—​Flavius Josephus and his Writings</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_311">311</a></td></tr> <tr> <td class="tdl chap smaller">70–73 <span class="smcap smaller">C. E.</span><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_vii" id="Page_vii">vii</a></span></td></tr> @@ -420,7 +382,7 @@ printed in a magazine or newspaper.</i><br /> <tr> <td class="tdl chap smaller">THE SYNHEDRION AT JABNE.</td></tr> <tr> - <td class="tdl">Foundation of the School at Jabne​—​Jochanan ben Zakkai​—​The Last of the Herodians​—​Juda and Rome​—​The Tanaites​—​Gamaliel II. appointed Patriarch​—​The Power of Excommunication​—​Deposition and Restoration of the Patriarch​—​Steps towards Collecting the Mishna​—​Eliezer ben Hyrcanus​—​Joshua ben Chananya​—​Akiba and his System​—​Ishmael​—​Condition of the Synhedrion</td> + <td class="tdl">Foundation of the School at Jabne​—​Jochanan ben Zakkai​—​The Last of the Herodians​—​Judæa and Rome​—​The Tanaites​—​Gamaliel II. appointed Patriarch​—​The Power of Excommunication​—​Deposition and Restoration of the Patriarch​—​Steps towards Collecting the Mishna​—​Eliezer ben Hyrcanus​—​Joshua ben Chananya​—​Akiba and his System​—​Ishmael​—​Condition of the Synhedrion</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_321">321</a></td></tr> <tr> <td class="tdl chap smaller">70–117 <span class="smcap smaller">C. E.</span></td></tr> @@ -445,7 +407,7 @@ printed in a magazine or newspaper.</i><br /> <tr> <td class="tdl chap smaller">CONSEQUENCES OF THE WAR OF BAR-COCHBA.</td></tr> <tr> - <td class="tdl">Turnus Rufus persecutes the Jews​—​The Ten Martyrs​—​The Book of Tobit​—​Relations between Judaism and Christianity​—​The Return of the Schools to Palestine​—​The Synod at Usha​—​Mer​—​Simon ben Jochai​—​The Babylonian Synhedrion​—​Antoninus Pius and Aurelius Verus​—​The Revolt against Rome​—​The Patriarchate of Simon</td> + <td class="tdl">Turnus Rufus persecutes the Jews​—​The Ten Martyrs​—​The Book of Tobit​—​Relations between Judaism and Christianity​—​The Return of the Schools to Palestine​—​The Synod at Usha​—​Meïr​—​Simon ben Jochai​—​The Babylonian Synhedrion​—​Antoninus Pius and Aurelius Verus​—​The Revolt against Rome​—​The Patriarchate of Simon</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_421">421</a></td></tr> <tr> <td class="tdl chap smaller">135–170 <span class="smcap smaller">C. E.</span><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_viii" id="Page_viii">viii</a></span></td></tr> @@ -461,9 +423,9 @@ printed in a magazine or newspaper.</i><br /> <tr> <td class="tdl chap"><a href="#CHAPTER_XVIII">CHAPTER XVIII.</a></td></tr> <tr> - <td class="tdl chap smaller">THE FIRST AMORAM.</td></tr> + <td class="tdl chap smaller">THE FIRST AMORAÏM.</td></tr> <tr> - <td class="tdl">Judah II.—Friendliness of Alexander Severus towards the Jews​—​Joshua ben Levi​—​Hillel instructs Origen in Hebrew​—​The <i>Hexapla</i>—The Palestinean Amoram​—​Chanina​—​Jochanan​—​Simon ben Lakish​—​Joshua, the Hero of Fable​—​Simlai, the Philosophical Agadist​—​Porphyry comments on the Book of Daniel</td> + <td class="tdl">Judah II.—Friendliness of Alexander Severus towards the Jews​—​Joshua ben Levi​—​Hillel instructs Origen in Hebrew​—​The <i>Hexapla</i>—The Palestinean Amoraïm​—​Chanina​—​Jochanan​—​Simon ben Lakish​—​Joshua, the Hero of Fable​—​Simlai, the Philosophical Agadist​—​Porphyry comments on the Book of Daniel</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_479">479</a></td></tr> <tr> <td class="tdl chap smaller">219–280 <span class="smcap smaller">C. E.</span></td></tr> @@ -481,7 +443,7 @@ printed in a magazine or newspaper.</i><br /> <tr> <td class="tdl chap smaller">THE PATRIARCHATE OF GAMALIEL IV. AND JUDAH III.</td></tr> <tr> - <td class="tdl">The Amoraim in Palestine​—​Ami and Assi​—​The Brothers Chiya and Simon Bar Abba in Tiberias​—​Abbahu in Csarea​—​The Emperor Diocletian​—​Complete Separation from the Samaritans​—​Character and Political Position of Abbahu​—​Huna in Babylonia​—​Chama's Generosity​—​Huna's Contemporaries and Successors​—​Judah ben Ezekiel​—​Chasda of Cafri​—​Mar Sheshet​—​Nachman bar Jacob​—​Zera</td> + <td class="tdl">The Amoraim in Palestine​—​Ami and Assi​—​The Brothers Chiya and Simon Bar Abba in Tiberias​—​Abbahu in Cæsarea​—​The Emperor Diocletian​—​Complete Separation from the Samaritans​—​Character and Political Position of Abbahu​—​Huna in Babylonia​—​Chama's Generosity​—​Huna's Contemporaries and Successors​—​Judah ben Ezekiel​—​Chasda of Cafri​—​Mar Sheshet​—​Nachman bar Jacob​—​Zeïra</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_531">531</a></td></tr> <tr> <td class="tdl chap smaller">279–320 <span class="smcap smaller">C. E.</span><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_ix" id="Page_ix">ix</a></span></td></tr> @@ -490,16 +452,16 @@ printed in a magazine or newspaper.</i><br /> <tr> <td class="tdl chap smaller">THE TRIUMPH OF CHRISTIANITY AND ITS RELATIONS TO JUDAISM.</td></tr> <tr> - <td class="tdl">Hillel II.—His Calendar​—​Heads of Judan Schools: Jonah, Jos, and Jeremiah​—​The Expansion of Christianity​—​Constantine​—​The Decadence of the Jewish Schools in Babylonia​—​The Pumbeditha School​—​Development of Talmudical Dialectics​—​The Persian Queen Ifra and her son Shabur II.—The Emperor Julian​—​Favor shown towards the Jews​—​Proposed Rebuilding of the Temple​—​Roman Tolerance</td> + <td class="tdl">Hillel II.—His Calendar​—​Heads of Judæan Schools: Jonah, José, and Jeremiah​—​The Expansion of Christianity​—​Constantine​—​The Decadence of the Jewish Schools in Babylonia​—​The Pumbeditha School​—​Development of Talmudical Dialectics​—​The Persian Queen Ifra and her son Shabur II.—The Emperor Julian​—​Favor shown towards the Jews​—​Proposed Rebuilding of the Temple​—​Roman Tolerance</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_559">559</a></td></tr> <tr> <td class="tdl chap smaller">320–375 <span class="smcap smaller">C. E.</span></td></tr> <tr> <td class="tdl chap"><a href="#CHAPTER_XXII">CHAPTER XXII.</a></td></tr> <tr> - <td class="tdl chap smaller">THE LAST AMORAM.</td></tr> + <td class="tdl chap smaller">THE LAST AMORAÏM.</td></tr> <tr> - <td class="tdl">Decline of the Roman Empire​—​Ashi and the Redaction of the Talmud​—​Jezdijird II—The Jews under the Emperor Theodosius I and his successors​—​The extinction of the Patriarchate​—​Chrysostom and Ambrosius​—​Fanaticism of the Clergy​—​Jerome and his Jewish Teachers​—​Mar-Zutra​—​Fifth and Sixth Generations of Amoram​—​The Jews under Firuz​—​Jewish Colonies in India​—​Completion of the Babylonian Talmud​—​Its Spirit and Contents</td> + <td class="tdl">Decline of the Roman Empire​—​Ashi and the Redaction of the Talmud​—​Jezdijird II—The Jews under the Emperor Theodosius I and his successors​—​The extinction of the Patriarchate​—​Chrysostom and Ambrosius​—​Fanaticism of the Clergy​—​Jerome and his Jewish Teachers​—​Mar-Zutra​—​Fifth and Sixth Generations of Amoraïm​—​The Jews under Firuz​—​Jewish Colonies in India​—​Completion of the Babylonian Talmud​—​Its Spirit and Contents</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_604">604</a></td></tr> <tr> <td class="tdl chap smaller">375–500 <span class="smcap smaller">C. E.</span></td></tr> @@ -521,7 +483,7 @@ printed in a magazine or newspaper.</i><br /> <p class="hang">The Crowning Point of the Period​—​War with Antiochus Sidetes​—​Siege of Jerusalem​—​Treaty of Peace​—​The Parthian War​—​Hyrcanus joins Antiochus​—​Successful campaigns of Hyrcanus -against the Samaritans and Idumans​—​The Idumans forced +against the Samaritans and Idumæans​—​The Idumæans forced to embrace Judaism​—​Destruction of the Samaritan Temple at Gerizim and of the Capital, Samaria​—​Internal Affairs​—​The Parties: Pharisees, Sadducees and Essenes, their Rise and Constitution​—​Their @@ -534,7 +496,7 @@ Pharisees​—​Death of Hyrcanus.</p></blockquote> <p>The reign of Hyrcanus is at once the pinnacle and the turning-point of this period. He not only carried on his father's work, but completed it. Under -his predecessors Juda was confined to a narrow +his predecessors Judæa was confined to a narrow space, and even within these bounds there were territories in the possession of foreign foes. Hyrcanus enlarged the boundaries to the north and to @@ -571,7 +533,7 @@ could not put his whole strength against the fortress, because his mother (by some it is said, together with his brothers) had been placed on the walls by Ptolemy, and was there horribly tortured. Like a -true Hasmonan, the heroic woman is said to have +true Hasmonæan, the heroic woman is said to have encouraged her son to continue the siege, without heeding her sufferings, and to persevere in his efforts until the murderer of her family should receive the @@ -586,7 +548,7 @@ or, as is much more likely, his operations may have been interrupted by the approach of the Syrian king, who was advancing with his army to glean some advantage for himself from the troubles and the -confusion in Juda. After the withdrawal of Hyrcanus's +confusion in Judæa. After the withdrawal of Hyrcanus's troops, it is said that his mother and brothers<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">3</a></span> were put to death by Ptolemy, who fled to Philadelphia, the former Ammonite capital (Rabbath Ammon), @@ -610,7 +572,7 @@ the north side, where the country is flat, a hundred three-storied towers were erected from which the walls could be stormed. A broad double trench was likewise made to prevent the sallies of the -Judans, who contrived nevertheless to come forth, +Judæans, who contrived nevertheless to come forth, thus bravely impeding the work of the enemy, and obstructing the progress of the siege. The Syrian army suffered much from the want of water and @@ -627,7 +589,7 @@ not allowed to pass the lines of the besieging army, and were thus exposed to death from both sides. In the meantime the summer passed, and still no prospect of storming the walls offered itself to the -Syrians, whilst the Judans, on account of the scarcity<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">4</a></span> +Syrians, whilst the Judæans, on account of the scarcity<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">4</a></span> of provisions and the approaching holidays, were anxious for a truce. Hyrcanus made the first overtures, and asked for a cessation of arms during @@ -637,15 +599,15 @@ presents of animals with gilded horns for sacrificial purposes, and golden vessels filled with incense. Negotiations for peace followed upon this truce. Antiochus was urged by his advisers to show the -greatest severity in his demands upon the Judans. +greatest severity in his demands upon the Judæans. They reminded him of the policy of Antiochus Epiphanes, who knew no other way of crushing out the -hatred of mankind felt by the Judans than that of +hatred of mankind felt by the Judæans than that of obliging them to renounce their peculiar laws. If Antiochus Sidetes had listened to these prejudiced counselors, who saw, according to the biased views of that time, nothing but cynical exclusiveness in the -singular customs of the Judans, the cruel wars in +singular customs of the Judæans, the cruel wars in which the people had fought for their faith would have been repeated. Happily for them, Antiochus had neither the harshness nor the strength to venture @@ -653,7 +615,7 @@ upon so dangerous a game. Antiochus contented himself with destroying the battlements of Jerusalem (autumn 134). With that act the dark cloud which had menaced the independence of -Juda passed away.</p> +Judæa passed away.</p> <p>No great injury had been inflicted upon the State, and even the traces of disaster that had been left were @@ -665,19 +627,19 @@ the Senate to renew, with the Jewish commonwealth, the friendly treaties, which Rome lavishly accorded to the smallest nations. At the same time they were to complain that Antiochus Sidetes had taken -possession of several places in Juda, and among +possession of several places in Judæa, and among them the important fortresses of Joppa and Gazara. Rome always sided with the weak against the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">5</a></span> strong, not from a sense of justice but from self-interested calculation. She desired especially to -humble the royal house of the Seleucid, which +humble the royal house of the Seleucidæ, which had occasionally shown her a defiant, or at least a -haughty mien. The Judan ambassadors were +haughty mien. The Judæan ambassadors were consequently most favorably received, their requests listened to with attention, and a decree issued by which Antiochus was called upon to restore the fortresses he had taken, and to forbid his troops -to march through Juda; nor was he to treat its +to march through Judæa; nor was he to treat its inhabitants as his subjects (about 133). Antiochus appears to have acquiesced in this decision.</p> @@ -692,20 +654,20 @@ a defeat, and was kept in imprisonment for nearly ten years. Antiochus believed that he would be more fortunate than his brother. In addition to the army of 80,000 which he had assembled, he -requested the aid of Judan troops and of the +requested the aid of Judæan troops and of the forces of other surrounding nations, and Hyrcanus consented to join with his army in the expedition. -The Syrian king treated his Judan allies with the +The Syrian king treated his Judæan allies with the greatest regard. After a victory gained on the banks of the river Zab (Lycus), he ordered, according to the desire of Hyrcanus, that a two days' -respite should take place, so that the Judans might +respite should take place, so that the Judæans might celebrate their Sabbath and the festival of the Feast of Weeks which followed it (129).</p> <p>Fortune, however, had changed sides since the time of Antiochus the Great, and no longer favored -the Seleucidan dynasty. Antiochus lost his life in +the Seleucidæan dynasty. Antiochus lost his life in this campaign, and his brother Demetrius, who had been set at liberty by the king of Parthia at the time of the invasion of Antiochus, to be opposed to him<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">6</a></span> @@ -723,7 +685,7 @@ VIII, the latter finding likewise a competitor in his brother on the mother's side, Antiochus IX. The last pages of the history of Syria are stained with crimes caused by the deadly hatred of the -various members of the Seleucidan house against +various members of the Seleucidæan house against each other, and with the murders they committed. Soon after the death of her husband Demetrius, Cleopatra had one of her sons, Seleucus, killed, and @@ -732,10 +694,10 @@ Grypus, who forced her to drink it herself.</p> <p>Hyrcanus took advantage of this state of anarchy and weakness in Syria, which lasted several years, -to enlarge the boundaries of Juda, until his country +to enlarge the boundaries of Judæa, until his country attained its former limits. Soon after the death of Antiochus Sidetes, the last traces of vassalage to -which the siege of Jerusalem had reduced Juda +which the siege of Jerusalem had reduced Judæa were completely wiped out, and even the bonds of alliance were canceled, whilst Alexander Zabina was grateful to be acknowledged by Hyrcanus @@ -751,28 +713,28 @@ nation. To strengthen their request they referred to the unexpected help which God had given His<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">7</a></span> people in the evil days of Antiochus, enabling them to restore the sanctuary to its former purity. This -appeal from Juda was at the same time a hint to +appeal from Judæa was at the same time a hint to the Alexandrian community to acknowledge the new conditions that had arisen.</p> <p>John Hyrcanus, who until then had acted only in self-defense, was now, after the fall of Alexander Zabina (123), ready to strike energetically at Syria. -Juda at that time was encompassed on three sides -by foreign tribes: on the south by the Idumans, +Judæa at that time was encompassed on three sides +by foreign tribes: on the south by the Idumæans, on the north by the hated Samaritans, and beyond the Jordan by the Greeks, who had never been -friendly to the Judans. Hyrcanus therefore considered +friendly to the Judæans. Hyrcanus therefore considered it his mission to reconquer all those lands, and either to expel their inhabitants or to incorporate -them with the Judans; for so long as foreign and +them with the Judæans; for so long as foreign and hostile tribes existed in the very heart of the country, its political independence and religious stability would be in constant danger. Not only were these hostile peoples ever ready to join surrounding nations, and assist them in their greed for conquest, but they also often interfered with the religious -worship of the Judans, thus frequently giving rise +worship of the Judæans, thus frequently giving rise to acts of violence and bloodshed. Hyrcanus was consequently impelled by religious as well as by political motives to tear up these hotbeds of @@ -788,10 +750,10 @@ in the Jordan district. That city was taken after a six months' siege. Then the army moved on towards Samega, which, situated on the southern end of the Sea of Tiberias, must have been a place -of great importance to the Judans. Next in turn +of great importance to the Judæans. Next in turn came the towns of Samaria; its capital, Shechem, as<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">8</a></span> well as the temple erected on Mount Gerizim, which -had always been a thorn in the side of the Judans, +had always been a thorn in the side of the Judæans, were destroyed (21 Kislev, about 120). The anniversary of the destruction of this temple (Yom har Gerizim) was to be kept with great rejoicing, as the @@ -806,21 +768,21 @@ central rallying point, they gradually decreased in numbers and prosperity.</p> <p>After his victory over the Samaritans, Hyrcanus -marched against the Idumans. This people, +marched against the Idumæans. This people, although fallen very low during the many vicissitudes of fortune attending the constant changes of the Macedonian and Asiatic dynasties, and forced -by the Nabathans to leave their dwellings, had +by the Nabathæans to leave their dwellings, had alone, among all the tribes related by blood to the -Judans, been able to maintain themselves, and had +Judæans, been able to maintain themselves, and had preserved their ancient bitter animosity against them undiminished. Hyrcanus laid siege to their two fortresses, Adora and Marissa, and after having -demolished them, gave the Idumans the choice +demolished them, gave the Idumæans the choice between acceptance of Judaism and exile. They chose the former alternative, and became, outwardly, followers of that faith. The temples of the -Iduman idols were, of course, destroyed, but the +Idumæan idols were, of course, destroyed, but the priests secretly adhered to their worship. Thus, after more than a thousand years of enmity, Jacob and Esau were again united—the elder serving the younger @@ -832,14 +794,14 @@ for the preservation of the faith to degenerate into the desire to effect violent conversion of others.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">9</a></span> The enforced union of the sons of Edom with the sons of Jacob was fraught only with disaster to the -latter. It was through the Idumans and the -Romans that the Hasmonan dynasty was overthrown -and the Judan state destroyed.</p> +latter. It was through the Idumæans and the +Romans that the Hasmonæan dynasty was overthrown +and the Judæan state destroyed.</p> -<p>The first result of the conquest of the Idumans +<p>The first result of the conquest of the Idumæans and of their adoption of Judaism was a new contest with the city of Samaria, now chiefly inhabited by -Macedonians and Syrians. A colony of Idumans +Macedonians and Syrians. A colony of Idumæans had been transplanted from Marissa to the vicinity of Samaria. They were attacked and ill-treated by their neighbors, who were urged on to their acts of @@ -847,20 +809,20 @@ aggression by the Syrian kings, Grypus and Cyzicenus. The latter, who resembled Antiochus Epiphanes in his folly and extravagance, manifested in particular a fierce hatred against Hyrcanus. His -generals invaded Juda, took several fortresses +generals invaded Judæa, took several fortresses near the sea-coast, and placed a garrison in Joppa. Hyrcanus thereupon complained to the Roman -Senate, which had guaranteed to Juda the possession +Senate, which had guaranteed to Judæa the possession of this seaport, and sent five ambassadors to plead the justice of his cause at Rome. Among these was Apollonius, the son of Alexander, who had appeared before the Senate in a former embassy. Rome replied in fair words to the petition of Hyrcanus, and promulgated a decree forbidding Antiochus -Cyzicenus to molest the Judans, who were +Cyzicenus to molest the Judæans, who were the allies of Rome, and commanding him to restore all the fortresses, seaports and territories which he -had seized. It was further ordered that the Judans +had seized. It was further ordered that the Judæans should be allowed to ship their goods duty free from their ports, a favor not granted to any other allied nation or king, excepting the king of Egypt, who @@ -883,25 +845,25 @@ Aristobulus, the eldest son of Hyrcanus, who was conducting the siege conjointly with his younger brother Antigonus, Cyzicenus was defeated and forced to flee to Bethshean (Scythopolis). Too weak -to confront the Judans alone, he called to his help +to confront the Judæans alone, he called to his help the co-regent of Egypt, Ptolemy VIII (Lathurus), who, inspired by the hatred entertained by the -Egyptians against the Judans, readily complied +Egyptians against the Judæans, readily complied with that request. His mother Cleopatra, with whom the people had obliged him to share the government, was secretly in league against him, befriending, -like her parents, the cause of Juda. Two sons +like her parents, the cause of Judæa. Two sons of Onias IV, Helkias and Ananias, sided with her. It was doubtless on that account that her son took -an aversion to the Judans, and gladly came forth at +an aversion to the Judæans, and gladly came forth at the call of Cyzicenus to compel Hyrcanus to withdraw from the siege of Samaria. Despite the wishes of his mother, Lathurus sent an army of six thousand -men to support Cyzicenus against Juda. Too -weak to venture on meeting the Judan troops in +men to support Cyzicenus against Judæa. Too +weak to venture on meeting the Judæan troops in the open field, the operations were confined to laying waste the country around, in the hope of thus -impeding the work of the besiegers. The Judan +impeding the work of the besiegers. The Judæan princes, however, instead of being forced to abandon the siege, contrived by various manœuvres to compel the king of Syria to leave the scene of action and to @@ -917,7 +879,7 @@ Lathurus had left behind to continue the hostilities, were not more fortunate than himself, for the first lost his life in some engagement, the second succumbed to bribery, and delivered into the hands of the -Judan princes the town of Bethshean, as well as +Judæan princes the town of Bethshean, as well as other places in the plain of Jezreel, as far as Mount Carmel, which had been held by the Greeks or the Syrians. The heathen inhabitants were instantly @@ -936,23 +898,23 @@ added to the number of days of thanksgiving (25th Marcheshvan, November, 109).</p> <p>Thus Hyrcanus had carried out the comprehensive -plans of the Hasmonans and crowned them -with success. The independence of Juda was +plans of the Hasmonæans and crowned them +with success. The independence of Judæa was assured, and the country raised to the level of the neighboring states. The enemies who had menaced -it from every side, Syrians, Idumans, Samaritans, +it from every side, Syrians, Idumæans, Samaritans, were nearly all conquered, and the land was delivered from the bonds which had hitherto prevented its development. The glorious era of David and Solomon seemed to have returned, foreign tribes -were obliged to do homage to the ruler of Juda, the -old hatred between the latter and Iduma was blotted +were obliged to do homage to the ruler of Judæa, the +old hatred between the latter and Idumæa was blotted out, and Jacob and Esau again became twin brothers. Moabitis, the daughter of Arnon, again sent presents to the mountain of the daughter of Zion.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">12</a></span> The banks of the Jordan, the sea-coast, the caravan tracks that passed from Egypt through Syria, were -all under the dominion of Juda. She saw also the +all under the dominion of Judæa. She saw also the humiliation of her enemy, Ptolemy Lathurus. The latter was living in constant discord with his mother, the co-regent, who at last aroused the anger of the @@ -961,31 +923,31 @@ obliged to flee from Alexandria (108). He took refuge in the island of Cyprus, whither Cleopatra despatched an army in pursuit of him. But the troops sent to destroy him went over to his side. -The Judan soldiers who came from the province +The Judæan soldiers who came from the province of Onion, commanded by the generals Helkias and Ananias, the sons of Onias, alone remained faithful to the Queen, and vigorously attacked Ptolemy to force him to leave the island. In Alexandria as in -Juda, at that time, the Judans played a leading +Judæa, at that time, the Judæans played a leading role, and worked together in a common cause for mutual advantage. They fought against common foes, against Lathurus and his ally, Antiochus Cyzicenus.</p> <p>After all he had achieved for his country, it was only -natural that Hyrcanus should cause Judan coins to +natural that Hyrcanus should cause Judæan coins to be struck, and should inscribe them in old Hebrew characters, but he abandoned the modest example of his father and allowed his own name to appear on them, "Jochanan, High Priest." Upon some of the coins we find, next his name, the inscription -"and the Commonwealth of the Judans" (Cheber +"and the Commonwealth of the Judæans" (Cheber ha-Jehudim), as though he felt it necessary to indicate that it was in the name of the people that he had exercised the right of coinage. Upon other coins, however, we find the following words inscribed: "Jochanan, High Priest, and head of the Commonwealth -of the Judans" (Rosch Cheber ha-Jehudim). +of the Judæans" (Rosch Cheber ha-Jehudim). Instead of the lily which was graven on his father's coins, he chose an emblem similar to that of the Macedonian conquerors—the horn of plenty. Towards @@ -995,7 +957,7 @@ more and more ambitious. His constant aim was to enlarge his country and to increase his own power. Hyrcanus appears to have cast a wistful eye upon the widely-extended territory which commanded the -route to Damascus. The conquest of Itura, a tract +route to Damascus. The conquest of Ituræa, a tract of country lying to the east of Mount Hermon, which his successors completed, appears to have been planned by him. But a formidable disturbance in the @@ -1003,15 +965,15 @@ land, which he was unable to suppress, speedily followed by his own death, prevented him from carrying out this undertaking. And this disturbance, apparently insignificant in its beginning, took -so unfortunate a turn that the great Hasmonan +so unfortunate a turn that the great Hasmonæan edifice, built up with so much labor and care, was completely destroyed. For the second time the -Judan State, having reached its highest pinnacle +Judæan State, having reached its highest pinnacle of prosperity, ascertained that it was not to maintain itself in external greatness.</p> <p>The high tide of political development, which swept -over Juda whilst that country was under the dominion +over Judæa whilst that country was under the dominion of John Hyrcanus and his predecessors, could not fail to permeate the life of the people, and in particular to stimulate all their spiritual powers. @@ -1027,19 +989,19 @@ caused them to examine more curiously into their own condition, and to hold fast to their national traits; but it led them also to adopt those foreign views and practices which appeared to blend -harmoniously with their own. If the pious Judans +harmoniously with their own. If the pious Judæans had formerly opposed with all their might everything that bore the Hellenic impress, many of them<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">14</a></span> were now convinced that among the customs of Greece there might occasionally be something which they could adopt without prejudice or injury to their -own faith. The Hasmonans had not only learnt +own faith. The Hasmonæans had not only learnt from their neighbors the arts of war, how to fashion arms and construct fortresses, but also the peaceful arts of coining money with artistic ornamentation, and the rules of Greek architecture. A magnificent palace, evidently built in the Grecian style, arose -in Jerusalem. In front of the Hasmonan Palace, +in Jerusalem. In front of the Hasmonæan Palace, near the valley-like hollow which divided the higher town from the Temple, there was a wide covered colonnade, called the "Xystum," where the people @@ -1051,16 +1013,16 @@ according to Grecian art; with it was combined a Record Office, where important archives were kept. John Hyrcanus also erected, in the Grecian style, a family mausoleum in Modin, the birthplace of the -Hasmonans. It consisted of a lofty building of +Hasmonæans. It consisted of a lofty building of white polished marble. Around it was a colonnade, and on the columns were beautiful carvings of various weapons and figureheads of ships. Seven pyramids crowned the edifice, in memory of the progenitors -of the Hasmonans and their five heroic sons. -The Hasmonan mausoleum was of so great a height +of the Hasmonæans and their five heroic sons. +The Hasmonæan mausoleum was of so great a height that it was visible from the sea.</p> -<p>The tendency of the Judans of that period, however, +<p>The tendency of the Judæans of that period, however, was more especially directed to the maintenance and development of all that belonged peculiarly to themselves than to the acquiring of the arts @@ -1123,7 +1085,7 @@ events, showed itself even more in the sphere of religion than in the literature and habits of the people in general. The victory over the Syrians, the expulsion of the Hellenists, the subjection of the -Idumans, the humiliation of the Samaritans, culminating +Idumæans, the humiliation of the Samaritans, culminating in the destruction of the Temple of Gerizim, were so many triumphs of Judaism over its enemies, and were sanctioned as such by the champions of @@ -1140,8 +1102,8 @@ wider field upon which it had entered; the wider view which had been gained into the various relations of life, the advance out of the narrow circle of tradition and inherited customs, produced schism and separation -amongst the Judans themselves. The strict -religious party of Assidans withdrew from the +amongst the Judæans themselves. The strict +religious party of Assidæans withdrew from the scene of passing events, and, in order to avoid mixing in public life, they sought a secluded retreat where they could give themselves up to undisturbed @@ -1150,12 +1112,12 @@ into a distinct order, with strange customs and new views, and received the name of Essenes. Their example, however, of giving up all active share in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">17</a></span> the public weal was not followed by all the strictly -devout Judans, the majority of whom, on the contrary, +devout Judæans, the majority of whom, on the contrary, whilst firmly adhering to the precepts of their faith, considered it a religious duty to further the independence of their country. Thus there arose a division among the pious, and a national party -separated itself from the Assidans or Essenes, +separated itself from the Assidæans or Essenes, which did not avoid public life, but, according to its strength and ability, took an active part in public affairs. The members of this numerous sect @@ -1175,7 +1137,7 @@ a third party was formed—that of the Sadducees (Zadukim)—the members of which, without forsaking the religion, yet made the interests of the nation their chief care and object. Of these sects—the -Assidan-Essenes, the Pharisees, and the Sadducees—only +Assidæan-Essenes, the Pharisees, and the Sadducees—only the last two exerted a powerful influence upon the course of events. At what precise period opposition began to show itself among these several @@ -1208,7 +1170,7 @@ replied that the fate of the State, like that of the individual, depended not upon man but upon God. It was not human strength, nor human wisdom, nor the warrior's prowess that could determine the weal -or the woe of the Judan people, but Divine Providence +or the woe of the Judæan people, but Divine Providence alone. Everything happened according to the eternal decrees of the Divine will. Man was responsible only for his moral conduct and the individual @@ -1312,20 +1274,20 @@ a future world."</p> <p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">21</a></span> This party of the Sadducees, so sharply opposed to the Pharisees, pursued a national-political policy. -It was composed of the Judan aristocracy, the +It was composed of the Judæan aristocracy, the brave soldiers, the generals and the statesmen who had acquired wealth and authority at home, or who had returned from foreign embassies, all having gained, from closer intercourse with the outer world and other lands, freer thought and more worldly -views. They formed the kernel of the Hasmonan +views. They formed the kernel of the Hasmonæan following, which in peace or war faithfully served their leaders. This sect doubtless included also some Hellenists, who, shrinking from the desertion of their faith, had returned to Judaism. The Sadducees probably derived their name from one of their leaders, Zadok. The national interests of the -Judan community were placed by the Sadducees +Judæan community were placed by the Sadducees above the Law. Burning patriotism was their ruling sentiment, and piety occupied but the second place in their hearts. As experienced men of the @@ -1339,7 +1301,7 @@ himself to be kept back by religious scruples from forming political alliances, or from taking part in wars, although by so doing he must inevitably infringe some of the injunctions of religion. According -to the Sadducan views, it was for that +to the Sadducæan views, it was for that purpose that God bestowed free will upon man so that he himself should work out his own well-being; he is master of his fate, and human concerns are not @@ -1444,7 +1406,7 @@ did not place themselves in harsh antagonism to the Pharisees, but rather assumed the position of a higher grade of Pharisaism, to which party they originally belonged. They sprang without doubt -from the Assidans, whom they resembled in their +from the Assidæans, whom they resembled in their strict observance of the Sabbath. In their eyes the mere act of moving a vessel from one place to another would count as a desecration of that holy @@ -1493,7 +1455,7 @@ another, they began to avoid, if not to despise, the married state. How was it possible for the Essenes to maintain their excessive rigidity, especially in those warlike times? Not only the pagan enemy, -but even the Judan warriors returning from the +but even the Judæan warriors returning from the battle-field, defiled by the touch of a corpse, might bring all their precautions to naught. These fears may have induced the Essenes to seek seclusion in @@ -1504,7 +1466,7 @@ They chose for their residence the desert to the west of the Dead Sea, and settled in the oasis of Engadi. The fruit of palm trees, which abound in this district, partly furnished their simple fare. All -the Assidans did not join in the asceticism of the +the Assidæans did not join in the asceticism of the Essenes, nor did all the Essenes betake themselves to the desert. Some continued to live in their own family circles and did not renounce marriage; but,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">26</a></span> @@ -1588,7 +1550,7 @@ visionariness, made them seek for other truths in Judaism than appear to less subtle minds. The name of God was to them a subject of deep contemplation, justified in some degree by the dread which -existed among the Judans of pronouncing the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">28</a></span> +existed among the Judæans of pronouncing the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">28</a></span> name of the Almighty, formed of the four letters J h w h. If the name of God be thus holy, surely something mysterious must belong to the letters @@ -1618,7 +1580,7 @@ of national prosperity) into the darkness and exaggerations of Mysticism. Their deep and mystic reverence for the Prophet and Lawgiver Moses carried them to the greatest excesses. His -memory and name were endeared to all the Judans +memory and name were endeared to all the Judæans within and beyond Palestine. They took oaths in the name of Moses, and bestowed that name on no other man. But the Essenes carried their devotion @@ -1650,7 +1612,7 @@ of being able to reveal the future and interpret dreams; they were reverenced yet more by the ignorant, on account of their miraculous cures of so-called "possessed" persons. The intercourse of -the Judans with the Persians had brought with it, +the Judæans with the Persians had brought with it, together with a belief in the existence of angels, a superstitious belief in malicious demons (<i xml:lang="he" lang="he">Shedim</i>, <i xml:lang="he" lang="he">Mazikin</i>). Imbeciles were thought to be possessed @@ -1750,14 +1712,14 @@ In the last years of his life Hyrcanus went quite over to the Sadducees.</p> <p>The cause of this change, which brought such -unspeakable misery to the Judan nation, was trivial<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">32</a></span> +unspeakable misery to the Judæan nation, was trivial<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">32</a></span> in comparison with its results; but the antagonism of the two parties, which could only with the utmost difficulty be kept from breaking out into open discord, gave it a terrible and far-reaching importance. Hyrcanus had just returned from a glorious victory over one of the many nations in the northeast of -Pera (Kochalit?). Rejoicing in the happy result +Peræa (Kochalit?). Rejoicing in the happy result of his arms and in the flourishing state of his country, he ordered a feast to be held, to which he invited without distinction the leaders of the Sadducees and @@ -1823,10 +1785,10 @@ the followers of the Sadducees. But this stroke of policy produced the saddest results. Naturally enough it awakened in the hearts of the Pharisees, and of the people who sided with them, a deep -hatred against the house of the Hasmonans, which +hatred against the house of the Hasmonæans, which bore civil war in its train and hastened the nation's decline. One act had been sufficient to cast a cloud -over the brilliant days of the Hasmonans.</p> +over the brilliant days of the Hasmonæans.</p> <p>Hyrcanus lived but a short time after these events. He died in the thirty-first year of his reign, the @@ -1844,12 +1806,12 @@ prey to constant strife and discord.</p> <h2 class="vspace"><a name="CHAPTER_II" id="CHAPTER_II">CHAPTER II.</a><br /> -<span class="smaller">HYRCANUS'S SUCCESSORS, ARISTOBULUS I, ALEXANDER JANNUS, AND SALOME ALEXANDRA.</span></h2> +<span class="smaller">HYRCANUS'S SUCCESSORS, ARISTOBULUS I, ALEXANDER JANNÆUS, AND SALOME ALEXANDRA.</span></h2> <blockquote> <p class="hang">Character of Aristobulus​—​Antigonus​—​Mythical Account of his -Death​—​Alexander Jannus: his Character and Enterprises​—​His +Death​—​Alexander Jannæus: his Character and Enterprises​—​His Support of the Pharisees​—​Simon ben Shetach​—​Alexander's Breach with the Pharisees, and its Consequences​—​His last Wars and Death​—​Salome Alexandra's Relations to the Opposing @@ -1866,17 +1828,17 @@ he, like his brothers and successors, bore a Greek as well as a Hebrew name. But it was soon evident that the Greek custom of placing a female ruler at the head of the State was not looked upon -with favor in Juda. Thus Aristobulus was able to +with favor in Judæa. Thus Aristobulus was able to remove his mother from her official position without creating any disturbance, and he then united in his own person the two dignities of ruler and high -priest. It is said that he was the first of the Hasmonans +priest. It is said that he was the first of the Hasmonæans to assume the royal title; but this title did not add in any way to his power or his importance. His coins, indeed, which have since been discovered, bear only the following inscription, "The High Priest Judah, and the Commonwealth -of the Judans," and they are engraved with the +of the Judæans," and they are engraved with the same emblem as those of his father, viz., a cornucopia, although this symbol of plenty was hardly a truthful characteristic of the times.</p> @@ -1910,19 +1872,19 @@ and he does not appear to have been beloved by his subjects. The fact of his having had a decided preference for Hellenism accounts for his surname, which was honored by the Greeks and hated -by the Judans—"Friend of the Hellenes." This +by the Judæans—"Friend of the Hellenes." This one characteristic gave such offense to the people that they were ready to ascribe to him the authorship of any evil deed that might occur in the kingdom. Whilst the Greeks called him fair-minded -and modest, the Judans accused him of heartlessness +and modest, the Judæans accused him of heartlessness and cruelty. His mother expired during her imprisonment, possibly of old age; evil report whispered that her own son was guilty of having allowed her to die of starvation. His favorite brother, Antigonus, was foully murdered (probably through the intrigues of the party hostile to the -Hasmonans); sharp-tongued calumny affirmed<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">37</a></span> +Hasmonæans); sharp-tongued calumny affirmed<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">37</a></span> that the king, jealous of him, was the author of the foul deed, and tradition has woven a web of tragic incidents round the sad fate of Antigonus. But of @@ -1930,7 +1892,7 @@ this later.</p> <p>Aristobulus had inherited not only his father's military ability, but also his plans of extending -Juda in a northeasterly direction. The Iturans +Judæa in a northeasterly direction. The Ituræans and the Trachonites, who often left their mild, pastoral pursuits for the rougher trade of war, occupied the district surrounding the gigantic @@ -1943,17 +1905,17 @@ his first laurels when fighting against the Samaritans and the Syrians, was once more his companion-in-arms. The fortunes of war were favorable to Aristobulus, as they had been to his father; he acquired -new territory for Juda, and, like his father, forced -the Judan religion upon the conquered people. +new territory for Judæa, and, like his father, forced +the Judæan religion upon the conquered people. Continued conquests in the same direction would have put the caravan roads leading from the land of the Euphrates to Egypt into the hands of the -Judans; which possession, combined with the warlike +Judæans; which possession, combined with the warlike courage of the inhabitants and the defensive condition of the fortresses, might have permitted -Juda to attain an important position among the +Judæa to attain an important position among the nations. But, as though it had been decreed by Providence -that Juda should not gain influence in such +that Judæa should not gain influence in such a manner, Aristobulus was forced by severe illness to abandon his conquests and to return to Jerusalem. Antigonus, it is true, carried on the war @@ -2001,13 +1963,13 @@ of Straton.</p> <p>The commencement of the reign of Aristobulus's successor is involved in legend. From this we -gather that Alexander, whose Judan name Janna -(Jannus) is the abbreviation of Jonathan, had not +gather that Alexander, whose Judæan name Jannaï +(Jannæus) is the abbreviation of Jonathan, had not only been imprisoned by his brother, but had been<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">39</a></span> so hated by his father that he had been banished to Galilee. This was the result of a dream, in which it had been revealed to John Hyrcanus that his third -son would one day be king of Juda. The widow +son would one day be king of Judæa. The widow of Aristobulus is said to have released him from prison, and to have given him her hand with the crown. But in that case Alexander would have @@ -2025,7 +1987,7 @@ court. Simon ben Shetach, the brother of his wife, Queen Salome, the champion of the Pharisees, was constantly in the king's presence.</p> -<p>Alexander Jannus, who came to the throne at +<p>Alexander Jannæus, who came to the throne at the age of twenty-three, was as warlike as the family from which he sprung, but he was wanting in the generalship and the judgment of his ancestors. He @@ -2039,10 +2001,10 @@ nation. His good luck, however, was greater than his ability, for it enabled him to extricate himself from many a critical position into which he had brought himself, and also, upon the whole, to enlarge -the territory of Juda. Like his father, he employed +the territory of Judæa. Like his father, he employed mercenaries for his wars, whom he hired from Pisidia and Cilicia. He did not dare enroll Syrian -troops, the hatred that existed between Judans +troops, the hatred that existed between Judæans and Syrians being too deeply ingrained to permit<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">40</a></span> the harmonious working of the two to be counted upon.</p> @@ -2053,51 +2015,51 @@ from Syrian rule, owing to the rivalry that existed between the two half-brothers, Antiochus Grypus and Cyzicenus. He was particularly anxious to possess himself of the thickly-populated and important -seaport town of Ptolemas, colonized by Judans. +seaport town of Ptolemaïs, colonized by Judæans. Whilst his troops overran the district of -Gaza, then under the dominion of Zolus, a captain +Gaza, then under the dominion of Zoïlus, a captain of mercenaries, he pressed the seaport town himself -with a persistent siege. The inhabitants of Ptolemas +with a persistent siege. The inhabitants of Ptolemaïs turned for help to the Egyptian prince Ptolemy Lathurus, who, at open warfare with his mother, had seized upon Cyprus. Lathurus, glad to have found an opportunity of acquiring greater power, and of being able at the same time to approach the caravan roads of Egypt, hastened to send thirty thousand -men to the Judan coast. He chose a Sabbath day -for victoriously driving the Judan army, consisting +men to the Judæan coast. He chose a Sabbath day +for victoriously driving the Judæan army, consisting of at least fifty thousand men, from Asochis, near Sepphoris, back to the Jordan. More than thirty thousand of Alexander's troops remained on the field of battle, many were taken prisoners, whilst the others fled. Lathurus, with part of his army, -marched through Juda, slaughtering the inhabitants, +marched through Judæa, slaughtering the inhabitants, without sparing women or children. He wished not only to revenge himself upon Alexander, -but also upon the Judans, for had they not been +but also upon the Judæans, for had they not been his enemies in Egypt? Accho likewise surrendered, and Gaza voluntarily opened its gates to him.</p> <p>This crushing defeat would doubtless have -brought Juda into the most revolting slavery, had +brought Judæa into the most revolting slavery, had not Cleopatra attempted to snatch the fruit of her son's triumphs from him before he could turn them against herself. She sent a mighty army against -Lathurus, under the command of two Judan generals, +Lathurus, under the command of two Judæan generals, Helkias and Ananias, the two sons of Onias,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">41</a></span> to whom she was indebted for the integrity of her crown. Helkias died during the campaign, and his brother took his place in the council and in the field. The position of trust occupied by Ananias was of -distinct advantage to his compatriots in Juda. +distinct advantage to his compatriots in Judæa. Cleopatra had been urged not to lose the favorable -opportunity, when Juda was unable to forego her +opportunity, when Judæa was unable to forego her help, of invading that country and of dethroning Alexander. But Ananias was indignant at this advice. He not only pointed out the disgrace of such faithlessness, but he made the queen understand the evil consequences that would follow upon -such a step. Many Egyptian Judans, who were +such a step. Many Egyptian Judæans, who were the upholders of her throne against the threatened attacks of her son, would make common cause with her enemies, were she to strike a blow at the independence @@ -2110,9 +2072,9 @@ This language had its desired effect upon the queen; she rejected the cunning advice of the enemies of the Jews, and made an offensive and defensive league with Alexander at Bethzur (98). Lathurus -was obliged to leave Juda and to retreat with his +was obliged to leave Judæa and to retreat with his army to Cyprus. All the cities that had resisted -the arms of the Judan king were now visited by +the arms of the Judæan king were now visited by his wrath.</p> <p>But he was, above all things, determined upon @@ -2124,7 +2086,7 @@ the besieged inhabitants of Gaza. He executed some of the most distinguished amongst them, and the terror he inspired was so great that many of the men killed their own wives and children to prevent -them from falling into Judan slavery (96).</p> +them from falling into Judæan slavery (96).</p> <p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">42</a></span> The nine years of Alexander's reign had been too @@ -2142,7 +2104,7 @@ the mediator between the two parties; the Pharisees being still somewhat in the background, and the Sadducees holding posts of trust. Ever since John Hyrcanus's secession from Pharisaism, the -Great Council had been composed of Sadducan +Great Council had been composed of Sadducæan members, and as long as one party was thus openly preferred to the other, peace and reconciliation seemed impossible. The king may, therefore, have @@ -2153,7 +2115,7 @@ positively refused to act conjointly with their opponents and offered the most active resistance. Simon ben Shetach alone allowed himself to be chosen member of the Council, secretly determining -to purge it by degrees of its Sadducan element.</p> +to purge it by degrees of its Sadducæan element.</p> <p>Alexander's impartial conduct continued only so long as the critical position drew his attention away @@ -2193,7 +2155,7 @@ the court of sacrifices, by building up a partition wall. But these events gave rise to an implacable hatred between the king and the Pharisees. Thus, after three generations, the descendants of the great -Hasmonans had so far weakened the edifice raised +Hasmonæans had so far weakened the edifice raised at the expense of their ancestors' lives, that it appears marvelous how it could have continued to resist such repeated attacks. The bitter rivalry of @@ -2212,7 +2174,7 @@ heart upon invading the trans-Jordanic land, still called Moabitis, and the southeastern provinces of the sea of Tiberias, called Galaditis or Gaulonitis. But his progress in this campaign was checked by -the Nabathan king Obeda, who lured him into a +the Nabathæan king Obeda, who lured him into a pathless country broken up by ravines, where Alexander's army found its destruction, and where the king himself escaped only with his life to Jerusalem @@ -2233,30 +2195,30 @@ Upon Alexander's question as to what conditions of peace they required, the Pharisaic leaders answered that the first condition was the death of the king. They had, in fact, secretly offered their aid to the -Syrian monarch Eucrus to humble Alexander. -Summoned by their promises, Eucrus advanced -upon Juda with 40,000 infantry and 3000 cavalry. +Syrian monarch Eucærus to humble Alexander. +Summoned by their promises, Eucærus advanced +upon Judæa with 40,000 infantry and 3000 cavalry. Upon the news of this impending danger, Alexander marched out at the head of 20,000 infantry and 1000 cavalry. In the terrible encounter that ensued -at Shechem, Judan fought against Judan, Greek +at Shechem, Judæan fought against Judæan, Greek against Greek, for each army remained true to its leader and could not be bribed into desertion. The battle, disastrous for both sides, was finally gained -by Eucrus, and Alexander was driven, through the +by Eucærus, and Alexander was driven, through the loss of his mercenaries, to wander among the mountain-passes of Ephraim. There, his solitary position moved his people to pity, and six thousand of his<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">45</a></span> Pharisaic opponents left the Syrian camp and went over to their king, who was now able to force -Eucrus's retreat from Juda.</p> +Eucærus's retreat from Judæa.</p> <p>But the more relentless amongst the Pharisees still held out against Alexander, and after an unsuccessful battle in the open field, threw themselves for safety into the fortress of Bethome, which, however, they were obliged to surrender. Urged by his -Sadducan favorite Diogenes, and impelled by his +Sadducæan favorite Diogenes, and impelled by his own thirst for revenge, the king had eight hundred Pharisees crucified in one day. Tradition even relates that the wives and children of the victims @@ -2273,13 +2235,13 @@ lasted for six years, fifty thousand men of both parties had been sacrificed, but the Pharisees had suffered most. The remaining Pharisees trembled for their lives, and the night after the crucifixion of -the eight hundred, eight thousand fled from Juda, +the eight hundred, eight thousand fled from Judæa, part of them to Syria and part to Egypt.</p> <p>The weakness of Alexander's position may readily be gauged by the fact of his powerlessness to -prevent Juda from being made the seat of war by -the kings of Nabatha and Syria. Yet his good +prevent Judæa from being made the seat of war by +the kings of Nabathæa and Syria. Yet his good fortune did not forsake him, for a sudden change in the affairs of Syria, resulting in the overthrow of its king, Aretas, worked to Alexander's advantage. @@ -2294,7 +2256,7 @@ the sign of the covenant. The city of Pella, making a show of resistance, was destroyed. He also recovered the cities lying east of the Red Sea, which had been taken from him by Aretas. The territory of -Juda now embraced within its circumference a number +Judæa now embraced within its circumference a number of important towns; it extended on the other side of the Jordan, from Seleucia in the north to Zoar, the city of palms, south of the Dead Sea; from @@ -2309,7 +2271,7 @@ other, in Hebrew characters, "<span class="smcap">Jonathan the King</span>" (Jehonathan ha-Melech). His coins of an earlier date bore the same inscription as those of his predecessors, "<span class="smcap">The High Priest Jonathan, the Commonwealth -of the Judans</span>."</p> +of the Judæans</span>."</p> <p>After a campaign of three years' duration Alexander returned to Jerusalem, where he was received @@ -2319,7 +2281,7 @@ of the kingdom, on a mount near the Jordan, he built a strong fortress, called after him, <span class="smcap">Alexandrion</span>; and in the neighborhood of the Dead Sea, upon a towering height, protected on all sides by -deep ravines, he raised the citadel of Machrus, the +deep ravines, he raised the citadel of Machærus, the formidable guardian of his trans-Jordanic conquests. These two mountain fortresses, together with the third, Hyrcanion, built by John Hyrcanus, on Middle @@ -2362,7 +2324,7 @@ sons, Hyrcanus and Aristobulus. The Pharisees ungenerously appointed the anniversary of his death as a day of rejoicing.</p> -<p>It was indeed most fortunate for the Judan +<p>It was indeed most fortunate for the Judæan nation that a woman of gentle nature and sincere piety should have been called to the head of the State after it had been torn asunder by the recklessness @@ -2378,13 +2340,13 @@ Pharisees, entrusting them with the management of home affairs, yet she was far from persecuting the opposing party. Her authority was so greatly respected by the neighboring princes that they did -not dare make war with Juda, and she shrewdly +not dare make war with Judæa, and she shrewdly succeeded in keeping a mighty conqueror, who had possessed himself of Syria, from the confines of her own kingdom. Even the heavens, during the nine years of her reign, showered their blessings upon the land. The extraordinarily large grains of wheat -gathered during this time in the fields of Juda were +gathered during this time in the fields of Judæa were kept and exhibited during many subsequent years. The queen ordered coins to be struck, bearing the same emblems as her predecessors, with the Greek @@ -2420,7 +2382,7 @@ and he determined to waive his own rights of precedence in favor of Judah ben Tabbai, who was then residing in Alexandria, of whose profound learning and excellent character he had formed a high estimate. -The Alexandrian Judan community had +The Alexandrian Judæan community had probably entrusted this celebrated Palestinean scholar with some important office. A flattering epistle was sent to Judah, inviting him to return to Jerusalem @@ -2442,7 +2404,7 @@ malice, but to the sternness of the age itself. They were indeed scrupulously strict in their own conduct, and in directing those closely connected with them. From the days of Judah ben Tabbai and Simon ben -Shetach, the rule of Judan Law, according to the +Shetach, the rule of Judæan Law, according to the views of the Pharisees, may be said to have begun, and it grew and developed under each succeeding generation. These two celebrated men have therefore @@ -2450,7 +2412,7 @@ been called "Restorers of the Law," who "brought back to the Crown (the Law) its ancient splendor."</p> <p>Their work commenced with the reorganization<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">50</a></span> -of the Synhedrion. The Sadducan members were +of the Synhedrion. The Sadducæan members were deprived of their seats, the penal code which they had added to the Biblical penal laws was set aside, and the old traditionary methods again made @@ -2535,10 +2497,10 @@ maidens were wont to assemble upon this occasion in some open space among the vine-trees, where, as they trod the measure of the dance, they chanted strophes of song in the Hebrew tongue. -It was an opportunity for the Judan youths, spectators +It was an opportunity for the Judæan youths, spectators of this scene, to select their partners for life. This festival, like the preceding one, was inaugurated -by the Pharisees in opposition to Sadducan customs. +by the Pharisees in opposition to Sadducæan customs. The Synhedrion seized upon the sacrificial ardor of the people to introduce a measure which, above all things, was calculated to arouse feelings of patriotism @@ -2555,24 +2517,24 @@ yearly to the treasury of the Temple. In this way the daily sacrifices acquired a truly national character, as the whole nation contributed towards them. Three collections were instituted during the year: -in Juda at the beginning of spring; in the trans-Jordanic +in Judæa at the beginning of spring; in the trans-Jordanic countries, in Egypt and Syria, at the Feast of Weeks; and in the yet more distant lands of Babylonia, Media and Asia Minor, at the Feast of Tabernacles. These last collections were the -richest, the Judans who dwelt outside Palestine +richest, the Judæans who dwelt outside Palestine being very generous as well as very wealthy; thus, instead of the silver or copper shekel or denaria, they offered gold staters and darics. Central places in each land were chosen where the offerings should be deposited until they could be taken to Jerusalem. -The most distinguished Judans were selected to +The most distinguished Judæans were selected to carry them thither, and they were called "holy messengers."<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">53</a></span> In the Mesopotamian and Babylonian towns of Nisibis and Nahardea (Naarda), treasure-houses were built for these Temple gifts, whence, under a strong escort to protect them from the -Parthian and Nabathan robber-hordes, they were +Parthian and Nabathæan robber-hordes, they were safely borne to Jerusalem. The communities of Asia Minor had likewise their treasure-houses, Apamea and Laodicea, in Phrygia, Pergamus and @@ -2602,7 +2564,7 @@ one occasion Judah ben Tabbai had a witness executed who had been convicted of giving false testimony in a trial for a capital crime. He was, in this instance, desirous of practically refuting the -Sadducan views, forgetting that he was at the +Sadducæan views, forgetting that he was at the same time breaking a law of the Pharisees. That law required all the witnesses to be convicted of perjury before allowing punishment to be inflicted; @@ -2649,7 +2611,7 @@ compunction." Both father and son showed themselves worthy of their sublime task, that of guarding the integrity of the Law; for to uphold it one sacrificed<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">55</a></span> his life, and the other, his paternal love. Simon, -the Judan Brutus, let the law pursue its course, +the Judæan Brutus, let the law pursue its course, although he, as well as all the judges, were convinced of his son's innocence.</p> @@ -2671,8 +2633,8 @@ commending them warmly to her mercy. When they appeared before the queen they reminded her of their services to the late king, and of the terror with which their name had once inspired -Juda's neighbors, and they threatened to offer their -valuable services to the Nabathan king Aretas or +Judæa's neighbors, and they threatened to offer their +valuable services to the Nabathæan king Aretas or to the Syrian monarch. They implored the queen to grant them a safe retreat in some fortress where they would not be under the constant supervision of @@ -2680,20 +2642,20 @@ the Pharisees. The gentle-hearted queen was so much moved by the tears of these gray-haired warriors that she entrusted them with the command of most of the fortresses, reserving, however, the three -strongest—Hyrcanion, Alexandrion, and Machrus.</p> +strongest—Hyrcanion, Alexandrion, and Machærus.</p> <p>No political events of any great importance occurred during Alexandra's reign. Tigranes, king of Armenia, master of nearly the whole of Syria, had -threatened to invade some of the Judan provinces +threatened to invade some of the Judæan provinces which had formerly belonged to the Syrian kingdom. The proximity of this ruler had greatly alarmed the queen, and she endeavored by gentle words and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">56</a></span> rich presents to prevent a contest with this powerful Armenian king. Tigranes had received the -Judan embassy, and accepted the queen's gifts +Judæan embassy, and accepted the queen's gifts most courteously, but they would hardly have prevented -him from moving upon Juda, had he not +him from moving upon Judæa, had he not been compelled to devote himself to the defense of his own country from the attack of the Roman commander Lucullus (69).</p> @@ -2725,10 +2687,10 @@ only nine years; she had witnessed the happy days of her people's freedom, and, when lying on her death-bed, may have felt in her troubled soul the presentiment that the coming night of slavery was -at hand. She was the only queen in Judan history +at hand. She was the only queen in Judæan history whose name has been handed down to us with veneration, and she was also the last independent ruler -of Juda.</p> +of Judæa.</p> <hr /> @@ -2741,14 +2703,14 @@ of Juda.</p> <blockquote> <p class="hang">Brothers contend for the throne​—​Arrangement between the brothers​—​The -Iduman Antipater​—​Hyrcanus's weakness​—​Aretas besieges +Idumæan Antipater​—​Hyrcanus's weakness​—​Aretas besieges Jerusalem​—​Interference of Rome​—​Pompey at Jerusalem​—​The -Judan colony in Rome​—​Flaccus in Asia Minor​—​Cicero's oration -against the Judans​—​Weakening of the power of the Synhedrion​—​Shemaya +Judæan colony in Rome​—​Flaccus in Asia Minor​—​Cicero's oration +against the Judæans​—​Weakening of the power of the Synhedrion​—​Shemaya and Abtalion​—​Violent death of Aristobulus and -his son Alexander​—​Julius Csar and the Judans​—​Antipater's +his son Alexander​—​Julius Cæsar and the Judæans​—​Antipater's sons Phasael and Herod​—​Herod before the Synhedrion​—​Operations -of Cassius in Juda​—​Malich​—​Antigonus as King​—​Herod +of Cassius in Judæa​—​Malich​—​Antigonus as King​—​Herod escapes to Rome.</p></blockquote> <p class="center bpad">69–40 <span class="smcap smaller">B. C. E.</span></p> @@ -2782,14 +2744,14 @@ he resembled his father Alexander. Added to this, he possessed unlimited ambition, which blinded him to practical considerations and quitted him only with his last breath. His aim was to be the mighty -ruler of Juda, and with the means at his command +ruler of Judæa, and with the means at his command to make the neighboring countries subject to his rule. But his rash impetuosity prevented him from being successful, and, instead of gathering laurels, he brought only contempt upon himself and his nation. Hardly had Alexandra expired when Aristobulus, at the head of his mercenaries and -Sadducan followers, marched upon Jerusalem for +Sadducæan followers, marched upon Jerusalem for the purpose of dethroning his brother. Upon Hyrcanus's side were ranged the Pharisees, the people and the army. The wife and children of Aristobulus @@ -2814,7 +2776,7 @@ daughter of Hyrcanus.</p> <p>Aristobulus II, who had attained royal dignity by a successful stroke of arms, does not appear to have in any way excited the displeasure of the Pharisees. -The position of the two parties in Juda now +The position of the two parties in Judæa now assumed a different character, and they might have become extinct as parties, had it not been for the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">59</a></span> advent of a man whose measureless ambition and @@ -2822,15 +2784,15 @@ personal interest brought him to the fore, and who, together with his family, became the vampire of the nation, sucking its noblest blood away. This man was Antipater, the descendant of a distinguished -Iduman family, who, in common with all other -Idumans, had been compelled by John Hyrcanus +Idumæan family, who, in common with all other +Idumæans, had been compelled by John Hyrcanus to accept Judaism. Never had a mistaken action found its punishment more surely and swiftly. The fanaticism of Hyrcanus I was now to bring ruin upon his house and family. The wealth and diplomatic talents of Antipater had raised him to the -post of satrap of Iduma during the reign of Alexander -Jannus and of his queen. His courteous +post of satrap of Idumæa during the reign of Alexander +Jannæus and of his queen. His courteous acts and generous presents had won the affections not only of his countrymen, but also those of the inhabitants of Gaza and Ascalon.</p> @@ -2838,7 +2800,7 @@ inhabitants of Gaza and Ascalon.</p> <p>Hyrcanus II, who required a guide in his helplessness, bestowed his confidence upon Antipater, who abused it, and exerted his influence to his own -advantage. The Iduman lost no opportunity of +advantage. The Idumæan lost no opportunity of reminding Hyrcanus of the degrading part that he had had to play in having been called to the throne only to relinquish it to his younger brother. So successfully @@ -2848,15 +2810,15 @@ death, that Hyrcanus was tempted into breaking the covenant he had sworn to respect, by calling in a foreign ruler to decide between the claims of the two brothers. Antipater had laid his plans beforehand -with Aretas, king of the Nabathans. He fled one +with Aretas, king of the Nabathæans. He fled one night from Jerusalem, bearing Hyrcanus with him, and arrived by forced marches at Petra, the capital -of the Nabathan king. Aretas was ready to help +of the Nabathæan king. Aretas was ready to help Hyrcanus, having been richly bribed by Antipater, and having the prospect of recapturing twelve cities east and south of the Dead Sea, which had been -bought so dearly by the Hasmonans. He marched, -therefore, upon Juda, with an army of fifty thousand<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">60</a></span> +bought so dearly by the Hasmonæans. He marched, +therefore, upon Judæa, with an army of fifty thousand<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">60</a></span> men, whose numbers were augmented by the followers of Hyrcanus (66). Thus the peace which the nation had enjoyed for nearly three years was @@ -2866,18 +2828,18 @@ Hyrcanus.</p> <p>Aretas laid siege to Jerusalem in the beginning of the spring. To escape so deplorable a sight, -many of the most distinguished Judans (probably +many of the most distinguished Judæans (probably some of the Pharisaic leaders amongst them) fled from the capital to Egypt. The siege lasted for several months, the strong walls of the city to a certain extent making up for the insufficient numbers of Aristobulus's warriors. But provisions began to fail, and, what was a far more serious consideration -for the pious Judans, the animals necessary +for the pious Judæans, the animals necessary for sacrificial purposes, particularly for the coming Paschal feast, were sensibly diminishing. But Aristobulus relied, and rightly so, upon the piety of the -Judan besiegers, who would not dare refuse the +Judæan besiegers, who would not dare refuse the required victims for the altar. He ordered baskets to be lowered each day from the walls, containing the price of the lambs that were placed in the baskets, @@ -2918,10 +2880,10 @@ and other parts of Asia at that time were the visible signs of Divine wrath.</p> <p>But more terrible than earthquake or hurricane -was the harbinger of evil that appeared in Juda, +was the harbinger of evil that appeared in Judæa, "the beast with iron teeth, brazen claws, and heart of stone, that was to devour much, and trample the -rest under foot," which came to the Judan nation, +rest under foot," which came to the Judæan nation, to drink its blood, to eat its flesh and to suck its marrow. The hour had struck when the Roman eagle, with swift flight, was to swoop down upon @@ -2931,17 +2893,17 @@ finally leaving her a corpse.</p> <p>Like inexorable fate, Rome watched over the destinies of the people of western Asia, plundering, -dividing and destroying. Juda was destined to +dividing and destroying. Judæa was destined to the same lot. The bird of prey scented its booty from afar with astonishing precision, and hastened -to put out the last spark of life. It came to Juda +to put out the last spark of life. It came to Judæa for the first time in the person of Scaurus, a legate of Pompey. In leaving for Asia, Scaurus hoped to exchange an insignificant position in his own country for a powerful one in foreign lands. He had imagined<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">62</a></span> that in Syria he might acquire wealth and honor, but finding that country already in possession of -other birds of prey, he turned his attention to Juda. +other birds of prey, he turned his attention to Judæa. There he was warmly welcomed by the rival brothers, who looked upon him as an arbitrator in their difficulties. They both sent ambassadors to meet him, @@ -2953,14 +2915,14 @@ or more properly speaking Antipater, gave little but promises. Roman interest accorded well with the greed of Scaurus. The Republic, fearing the growth of his power, began by insisting that the -Nabathan king should retire from the civil war +Nabathæan king should retire from the civil war in Palestine; Scaurus was therefore able to command Aretas to raise the siege of Jerusalem. Aretas complied, but was overtaken with his army at Rabbath Ammon by the troops of Aristobulus and defeated.</p> <p>For the moment Aristobulus might fancy that he -was the victorious monarch of Juda. The direction +was the victorious monarch of Judæa. The direction that Roman statesmanship had taken, and the slow, deliberate movements that the commander Pompey employed against Mithridates, lulled him @@ -2992,7 +2954,7 @@ the admiration of all those who saw it, and for that reason Pompey hastened to send it to Rome, where it was placed in the Temple of Jupiter on the Capitol, as the harbinger of his triumphs. But the pious -Judans, naturally, would not allow their own sanctuary +Judæans, naturally, would not allow their own sanctuary to be deprived of such an ornament, and spontaneously made contributions, some for golden grapes, others for golden leaves; so that another @@ -3014,19 +2976,19 @@ of birth, the other upon his capacity for governing. But a third party had also appeared before Pompey, which was to represent the right of the nation apart from the angry princes. Weary -of the Hasmonan quarrels, a republican party +of the Hasmonæan quarrels, a republican party had sprung up, which was ready to govern the -Judan community, according to the letter of the +Judæan community, according to the letter of the Law, without an hereditary sovereign. The republicans especially complained that the last of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">64</a></span> -Hasmonans had changed the Judan form of +Hasmonæans had changed the Judæan form of government from a hierarchy to a monarchy, in order to reduce the nation to servitude. Pompey, however, gave ear neither to the murmurs of the republicans nor to the arguments of the two brothers. It was not his intention to put an end to the strife; what he desired was, in the guise of a -peaceful arbitrator, to bring Juda under the Roman +peaceful arbitrator, to bring Judæa under the Roman rule. He soon saw that the weak-minded Hyrcanus (under the tutelage of a designing minister) would be better adapted for the part of a ward of Rome @@ -3087,7 +3049,7 @@ lasted for a long while, and might have continued still longer, had not the storming of the fortress been rendered easier to the besiegers by the patriots' strict observance of the Sabbath-day. In -accordance with either a Pharisaic or a Sadducan +accordance with either a Pharisaic or a Sadducæan rendering of the Law, the besieged declared that they were permitted to resist an attack of the invaders on the Sabbath, but that they were @@ -3108,17 +3070,17 @@ sacrificing before the altar. Many of the unfortunate victims threw themselves headlong from the battlements into the depths below, whilst others lit their own funeral pyre. It is believed that twelve -thousand Judans met their death upon this day. +thousand Judæans met their death upon this day. Pompey then penetrated into the Sanctuary, in order to satisfy his curiosity as to the nature of -the Judan worship, about which the most contradictory +the Judæan worship, about which the most contradictory reports prevailed. The Roman general was not a little astonished at finding within the sacred recesses of the Holy of Holies, neither an ass's head nor, indeed, images of any sort. Thus the malicious fictions busily circulated by Alexandrian writers, and of a character so prejudicial to the -Judans, were now shown to be false. The entrance +Judæans, were now shown to be false. The entrance of the Roman conqueror into the Temple, though deplorable enough, was in a way favorable to Judaism. Whether he was penetrated by awe at @@ -3131,7 +3093,7 @@ But the independence of the nation ceased forever from that hour. Exactly a century after the Maccabees had freed their people from the tyranny of the Syrians, their descendants brought -down the tyranny of the Romans upon Juda.</p> +down the tyranny of the Romans upon Judæa.</p> <p>What did Hyrcanus gain by his supplication for aid from the Republic? Pompey deprived him of @@ -3139,16 +3101,16 @@ his royal title, only leaving him the dignity of the high priesthood, with the doubtful appellation of ethnarch, and made him the ward of Antipater, who<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">67</a></span> was named governor of the country. The walls of -Jerusalem were razed to the ground, Juda put +Jerusalem were razed to the ground, Judæa put into the category of conquered provinces, and a tax was levied upon the capital. The territory was brought within narrower confines, and its extent -became once more what it had been in pre-Hasmonan +became once more what it had been in pre-Hasmonæan times. Several seaports lying along the coast, and inhabited by Greeks, as well as those trans-Jordanic towns which Hyrcanus and Alexander had conquered after hard fighting, and had -incorporated with Juda, were declared to be free +incorporated with Judæa, were declared to be free towns by Pompey, and were placed under the guardianship of the Roman governor of Syria. But these cities, particularly the trans-Jordanic ones, @@ -3156,19 +3118,19 @@ joined together in a defensive and offensive league, calling themselves the Decapolis. Pompey ordered the most determined of his prisoners of war, the zealots, to be executed, whilst the rest were taken -to Rome. The Judan prince, Aristobulus, his son +to Rome. The Judæan prince, Aristobulus, his son Antigonus, his two daughters, and his uncle Absalom were forced to precede Pompey's triumphal car, in the train of the conquered Asiatic kings and kings' sons. Whilst Zion veiled her head in mourning, Rome was reveling in her victories; but the -Judan prisoners that had been dragged to Rome +Judæan prisoners that had been dragged to Rome were to become the nucleus of a community destined to carry on a new kind of warfare against long-established Roman institutions, and ultimately to modify or partly destroy them.</p> -<p>There were, without doubt, many Judans living +<p>There were, without doubt, many Judæans living in Rome and in other Italian cities before Pompey's conquests, who may have emigrated into Italy from Egypt and Asia Minor for commercial objects. As @@ -3183,21 +3145,21 @@ train of captives, who were ransomed by their compatriots, and persuaded to remain in Rome. The descendants of these prisoners were called according to Roman law <i xml:lang="la" lang="la">libertini</i> (the freed ones). -The Judan quarter in Rome lay upon the right +The Judæan quarter in Rome lay upon the right bank of the Tiber, on the slope of Mount Vatican, and a bridge leading across that river to the Vatican was known for a long while by the name of the -Bridge of the Judans (Pons Judorum). Theodus, -one of the Judans settled in Rome, introduced +Bridge of the Judæans (Pons Judæorum). Theodus, +one of the Judæans settled in Rome, introduced into his own community a substitute for the paschal lamb, which could not be eaten outside of Jerusalem, and the loss of which was a bitter deprivation to the exiles. This aroused the displeasure of the -Judans in the home country, who wrote to Theodus: +Judæans in the home country, who wrote to Theodus: "If thou wert not Theodus, we should excommunicate thee."</p> -<p>The Roman Judans influenced, to a certain +<p>The Roman Judæans influenced, to a certain extent, the course of Roman policy. For as the original emigrants, as well as the ransomed captives, enjoyed the power of voting in public assemblies, @@ -3208,52 +3170,52 @@ perhaps also by their keen intelligence, to turn the scale upon some popular question. So important was their quiet influence that the eloquent but intolerant Cicero, who had learned to hate the -Judans from his master Apollonius Molo, was -afraid on one occasion to give vent to his anti-Judan +Judæans from his master Apollonius Molo, was +afraid on one occasion to give vent to his anti-Judæan feelings in a public speech, for fear of stirring them up against him. He had to defend the -unjust cause of a prtor Flaccus, who was accused +unjust cause of a prætor Flaccus, who was accused of having been guilty of numerous extortions during his government of the Asia Minor provinces. Amongst other things, Flaccus had seized upon the -votive offerings of the Temple (<i xml:lang="he" lang="he">aurum Judorum</i>) +votive offerings of the Temple (<i xml:lang="he" lang="he">aurum Judæorum</i>) given by the community of Asia Minor—about two<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">69</a></span> -hundred pounds of gold, collected by the Judan +hundred pounds of gold, collected by the Judæan inhabitants of the towns of Apamea, Laodicea, Adramyttium, and Pergamus (62). In order to justify his proceedings Flaccus cited a resolution of the Senate, by which all exportation of money was forbidden from Roman to foreign provinces; and -although Juda had been conquered by Roman arms, +although Judæa had been conquered by Roman arms, yet she did not enjoy the honor of being enrolled amongst the provinces of the Republic. The Roman -Judans were intensely interested in this trial, and +Judæans were intensely interested in this trial, and many of them were present among the populace. The cowardly Cicero was so much afraid of them that he would have liked to speak in a low tone in order to be heard by the Judges but -not by the Judans. In the course of his defense +not by the Judæans. In the course of his defense he made use of an unworthy piece of sophistry, which might have made an impression upon some bigoted Roman, but which could hardly satisfy an intelligent mind. "It requires great decision of character," he said, "to oppose the barbaric superstitions -of the Judans and, for the good of our +of the Judæans and, for the good of our country, to show proper contempt towards these seditious people, who invade our public assemblies. If Pompey did not avail himself of a conqueror's rights, and left the treasures of the Temple untouched, we may be sure he did not restrain himself out of -reverence for the Judan sanctuary, but out of +reverence for the Judæan sanctuary, but out of astuteness, to avoid giving the suspicious and slanderous -Judan nation an opportunity of accusing +Judæan nation an opportunity of accusing him; for otherwise he would hardly have spared -foreign, still less Judan, sanctuaries. When Jerusalem -was unconquered, and when the Judans were +foreign, still less Judæan, sanctuaries. When Jerusalem +was unconquered, and when the Judæans were living in peace, they displayed a deeply-rooted antipathy to the glory of the Roman State, to the dignity of the Roman name, and to the laws of our -ancestors. During the last war the Judan nation +ancestors. During the last war the Judæan nation proved most effectually how bitterly they hate us. How little this nation is beloved by the immortal gods is now evident, as her country is conquered<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">70</a></span> @@ -3265,7 +3227,7 @@ was not allowed to be seen within eighty miles of Rome, and his villas were razed to the ground.</p> <p>After Pompey's departure from Syria, the thraldom -imposed upon dismembered Juda became more +imposed upon dismembered Judæa became more onerous than before, because she was left in the anomalous condition of a partly conquered province and a partly independent country. The powerful @@ -3273,14 +3235,14 @@ minister of Hyrcanus contributed to make this condition lasting and oppressive. He endeavored to strengthen his connection with Rome by munificent presents, trusting that the Republic would support -him, in spite of his unpopularity with the Judan +him, in spite of his unpopularity with the Judæan people, who hated him as the cause of their subjection. -With the sweat from Juda's brow he sustained +With the sweat from Judæa's brow he sustained the Roman commander Scaurus, who had -opened a campaign against the Nabathan king, +opened a campaign against the Nabathæan king, Aretas. Meanwhile Alexander II, the eldest son of Aristobulus, escaping from captivity and arriving -in Juda, gained the support of the patriots, and +in Judæa, gained the support of the patriots, and putting himself at the head of fifteen hundred horse and ten thousand foot soldiers, marched upon Jerusalem. Hyrcanus, or more properly speaking his @@ -3301,10 +3263,10 @@ embracing the knees of the Roman commander, entreated him to show mercy to her son.</p> <p>Gabinius succeeded in weakening the unity of the -Judan State, which had of late been so unworthily -represented by the last of the Hasmonans, but the +Judæan State, which had of late been so unworthily +represented by the last of the Hasmonæans, but the integrity of which had always been so jealously -watched over by the Great Council. Juda was no +watched over by the Great Council. Judæa was no longer to be an independent State with self-governing and legislative powers over the whole country, but was to be divided into five provinces, each having @@ -3312,7 +3274,7 @@ its own independent Senate or Synhedrion for the control of home affairs. These assemblies were held at specially appointed towns, at Jerusalem, Gazara, Emmaus, Jericho, and Sepphoris; and -Judans selected from the aristocratic party, who +Judæans selected from the aristocratic party, who were well disposed towards Rome, were placed at the head of these councils.</p> @@ -3323,7 +3285,7 @@ success of his plans. As the Synhedrion had grown out of the innermost life of the whole nation and had not been forced upon it by outside influences, it was no easy matter to break its centralizing power. -The new scheme of dividing Juda into five provinces +The new scheme of dividing Judæa into five provinces was hardly introduced before it disappeared with Gabinius, leaving no trace of its existence. The Great Council remained as before the heart of the @@ -3347,7 +3309,7 @@ follow you into a land full of ensnaring influences (poisonous waters) which they would imbibe, and the sacred name of God would be through them profaned." These two presidents of the Synhedrion -seem to have been Alexandrian Judans, or at least +seem to have been Alexandrian Judæans, or at least they must have spent some years of exile in Alexandria, perhaps with their master Judah ben Tabbai.</p> @@ -3368,19 +3330,19 @@ careful study of the Law, for which the Pharisees became so justly celebrated, may be said to have originated with them.</p> -<p>For some little time the history of Juda contains +<p>For some little time the history of Judæa contains nothing but accounts of insubordination to Roman despotism and its unhappy consequences, of scenes of oppression and robbery, and of acts of spoliation of the Temple. Aristobulus, who had succeeded in escaping from Rome with his son -Antigonus, now appeared in Juda. The rule of +Antigonus, now appeared in Judæa. The rule of the Romans was of so galling a character that Aristobulus, who had not been a favorite in the old days, was now received with unbounded enthusiasm. Sufficient arms could not be procured for the volunteers<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">73</a></span> who flocked to his camp. He was joined by Pitholaus, -a Judan commander, who had once served as +a Judæan commander, who had once served as a general to Hyrcanus. Aristobulus placed himself at the head of 8000 men, and began immediately to regarrison the citadel of Alexandrion, whence he @@ -3389,7 +3351,7 @@ But his impatient temper led him into open battle, in which a large part of his army was utterly destroyed, and the rest scattered. Still unsubdued, Aristobulus threw himself with the remnant of his followers into -the citadel of Machrus, but at the approach of the +the citadel of Machærus, but at the approach of the Romans with their battering-rams he was obliged to capitulate, and for the second time was sent with his sons into captivity at Rome (56).</p> @@ -3405,12 +3367,12 @@ Romans who came in their way, Gabinius's troops not being strong enough to oppose them. But the Governor craftily succeeded in detaching some of Alexander's followers from his ranks, and then -tempted the Judan prince into open battle. At -Mount Tabor (in 55), the Judans were signally +tempted the Judæan prince into open battle. At +Mount Tabor (in 55), the Judæans were signally defeated.</p> <p>Meanwhile the three most eminent men of Rome—Julius -Csar, distinguished by his brilliant sagacity, +Cæsar, distinguished by his brilliant sagacity, Pompey by his martial renown, and Crassus by his boundless wealth—had agreed to break the power of the Senate, and to manage the affairs of @@ -3418,7 +3380,7 @@ the State according to their own will. The triumvirs began by dividing the fairest lands into provinces, which they separately appropriated. Syria fell to the share of Crassus, who was intensely avaricious -in spite of his vast riches. Juda from this +in spite of his vast riches. Judæa from this time on was annexed to Syria quite as a matter of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">74</a></span> course. Crassus went out of his way, when marching against the Parthians, to enter Jerusalem, being @@ -3432,7 +3394,7 @@ curiously carved wood, had been unknown to the priests. Upon the receipt of this gift, Crassus swore solemnly that he would spare the treasury of the Temple. But when was a promise known to be -binding that was made by a Roman to a Judan? +binding that was made by a Roman to a Judæan? He took the golden bar, the two thousand talents, and all the golden vessels of the Temple, which were worth another eight thousand talents (54). Laden @@ -3444,36 +3406,36 @@ that his legate, Cassius Longinus, returned to Syria with scarcely the tenth part of the army of one hundred thousand men (53). The Parthians pursued the weakened army, and the Syrians, weary of the -Roman yoke, lent them secret aid. To the Judans +Roman yoke, lent them secret aid. To the Judæans this seemed an auspicious moment also for their own emancipation.</p> <p>It fell to Pitholaus to call the army together, which he led against Cassius. Fortune, however, -always deserted the Judan arms when they were +always deserted the Judæan arms when they were turned against the Romans. Shut up in Tarichea on the lake of Tiberias, the troops were obliged to surrender. Upon the urgent demand of Antipater, Pitholaus was sentenced to death by Cassius, and -thirty thousand Judan warriors were sold into +thirty thousand Judæan warriors were sold into slavery (52).</p> <p>But the imprisoned Aristobulus looked forward once again to the hope of placing himself upon his father's throne and of banishing Antipater into<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">75</a></span> -obscurity. Julius Csar, the greatest man that +obscurity. Julius Cæsar, the greatest man that Rome ever produced, had openly defied the Senate, and broken with his associate Pompey. The bitter strife between the two Roman potentates lit the torch of war in the most distant provinces of the -Roman empire. Csar had given Aristobulus his +Roman empire. Cæsar had given Aristobulus his freedom, and in order to weaken Pompey's influence, had sent him with two legions to Palestine to create a diversion in his favor. But the partisans of Pompey -contrived to poison the Judan prince. His +contrived to poison the Judæan prince. His followers embalmed his body in honey and carried it to Jerusalem, where it was buried beside the -bodies of the Hasmonan princes. His eldest son, +bodies of the Hasmonæan princes. His eldest son, the gallant Alexander, was decapitated by order of Scipio, a follower of Pompey, at Antioch. The widow of Aristobulus and his surviving son Antigonus @@ -3487,70 +3449,70 @@ widow.</p> <p>Antipater continued to be Pompey's faithful ally, until the Roman general met with a miserable end -in Egypt. Then the Iduman offered his services -to Csar. When the great general found himself +in Egypt. Then the Idumæan offered his services +to Cæsar. When the great general found himself in Egypt, without sufficient forces, without news from Rome, in the midst of a hostile population, Antipater evinced a touching eagerness to help him, which did not remain unrewarded. He provided -the army of Csar's ally, Mithridates, king of Pergamus, +the army of Cæsar's ally, Mithridates, king of Pergamus, with all necessaries, and sent him a contingent -of Judan troops; he aided him in conquering -Pelusium, and conciliated the Egyptian-Judans +of Judæan troops; he aided him in conquering +Pelusium, and conciliated the Egyptian-Judæans who had taken the part of his opponent. He was now well able to forego the favor of Hyrcanus. To no effect did Antigonus, the last surviving son -of Aristobulus, seek an interview with Csar, in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">76</a></span> +of Aristobulus, seek an interview with Cæsar, in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">76</a></span> which he dwelt upon his father's and his brother's loyalty to the Roman general; Antipater had but to display his wounds, which he had received in the very last campaign, to gain the victory over his -rival. Csar, who was an astute reader of men, +rival. Cæsar, who was an astute reader of men, and who had himself revolted from the legitimate order of things, knew well enough how to value Antipater's loyalty and energy, and did not support the rightful claims of Antigonus. Out of consideration for Antipater (47), Hyrcanus was proclaimed -high priest and ethnarch, and to Juda was given +high priest and ethnarch, and to Judæa was given some relief from her burdens. The walls of Jerusalem were rebuilt, the provinces that formerly -belonged to Juda, namely, Galilee, the towns in +belonged to Judæa, namely, Galilee, the towns in the plains of Jezreel, and Lydda, were once more -made part of her territory. The Judans were no +made part of her territory. The Judæans were no longer forced to provide winter quarters for the Roman legions, although the landowners were obliged to give the fourth part of their harvest every second year to the Roman troops.</p> -<p>Csar was altogether benevolent to the Judans, +<p>Cæsar was altogether benevolent to the Judæans, and rewarded them for their loyalty. To the -Alexandrian Judans he granted many privileges, +Alexandrian Judæans he granted many privileges, confirming their long-enjoyed equality with the Greeks, and permitting them to be governed by a prince of their own (Ethnarch). Money was again -liberally provided for the Temple. Csar enabled +liberally provided for the Temple. Cæsar enabled the supplies to reach their destination. He prevented the Greek inhabitants of Asia Minor from -molesting the Judans of those provinces, from summoning +molesting the Judæans of those provinces, from summoning them before the courts of justice on the Sabbath, from interfering with their public assemblages and the building of their synagogues, and in general from disturbing them in their religious -observances (47–44). Csar must also have extended -his generosity to the Judan community in +observances (47–44). Cæsar must also have extended +his generosity to the Judæan community in Rome, for they evinced the warmest devotion to his memory.</p> -<p>But in spite of all these favors, the Judan nation<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">77</a></span> +<p>But in spite of all these favors, the Judæan nation<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">77</a></span> as a whole remained cold and distant. The foreign -communities of Judans might bless Csar as their -benefactor, but the Palestinean Judans could see +communities of Judæans might bless Cæsar as their +benefactor, but the Palestinean Judæans could see in him only the Roman, the patron of the hated -Iduman. So defiant was the attitude of the nation +Idumæan. So defiant was the attitude of the nation that Antipater felt himself compelled to threaten -the disaffected with the triple wrath of Csar, of +the disaffected with the triple wrath of Cæsar, of Hyrcanus and of himself, whilst he promised liberal -bounty to the obedient and loyal Judans. Meanwhile, +bounty to the obedient and loyal Judæans. Meanwhile, a small body of men taken from the army of Aristobulus had assembled under the command of Ezekias upon one of the mountain heights of Galilee, @@ -3558,7 +3520,7 @@ where they only awaited an opportune moment for raising the standard of revolt against Rome. The Romans, it is true, only looked upon this little army as a band of robbers, and upon Ezekias as a robber -chieftain, but to the Judans they were the avengers +chieftain, but to the Judæans they were the avengers of their honor and their freedom. For they were deeply mortified that Antipater had placed the reins of government in the hands of his sons, and @@ -3566,11 +3528,11 @@ that he cared only for the growing power of his house. Of the four sons born to him by Kypros, the daughter of the King of Arabia, he proclaimed Phasael, the eldest, Governor of Jerusalem and -Juda, and the second, Herod, a youth of the age +Judæa, and the second, Herod, a youth of the age of twenty, Governor of Galilee.</p> <p>This prince was destined to become the evil genius -of the Judan nation; it was he who brought her as +of the Judæan nation; it was he who brought her as a bound captive to Rome; it was he who placed his feet triumphantly upon her neck. Like an ominous cloud weighted down with misfortune, he seems from @@ -3580,8 +3542,8 @@ advanced, quenched all light in the gathering darkness and withered all growth, until nothing remained but a scene of desolation. True to his father's policy, Herod began by basely flattering Rome -and by wounding the Judan spirit. In order to -gain favor with Csar, and also to establish the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">78</a></span> +and by wounding the Judæan spirit. In order to +gain favor with Cæsar, and also to establish the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">78</a></span> security of his family, he undertook a campaign against the followers of Ezekias; he captured the leader of the band, and, without any trial or show of @@ -3589,12 +3551,12 @@ justice, sentenced him and his followers to decapitation. Eager were the words of praise and of thanks awarded to him by the Syrians and the Romans; he was called the "Robber-subduer"; but whilst -he was loaded with favors by Sextus Csar, the +he was loaded with favors by Sextus Cæsar, the Roman Governor of Syria, all true patriots mourned.</p> <p>The bitter degradation which the people suffered -at the hands of this Iduman family inspired some -of the most distinguished Judans to lay before the +at the hands of this Idumæan family inspired some +of the most distinguished Judæans to lay before the weak-minded Hyrcanus the true state of their own and of their High Priest's new position. They explained to him that his dignity was but an empty @@ -3618,7 +3580,7 @@ while at the same time he cautioned him not to appear surrounded by too many troops, and so arouse the suspicions of Hyrcanus. Herod appeared at the appointed time, but with an armed escort, and -with a letter from Sextus Csar, making the king +with a letter from Sextus Cæsar, making the king answerable for the life of the favorite. Thus the day arrived for the great trial to which all the inhabitants of Jerusalem were looking forward with @@ -3646,7 +3608,7 @@ appeared to be cowardly. But Hyrcanus was afraid of their growing wrath, and commanded the Council to adjourn the sitting. Meanwhile Herod withdrew from the anger of the people, and was -cordially received at Damascus by Sextus Csar, +cordially received at Damascus by Sextus Cæsar, who proclaimed him governor of Cœlesyria (46). Overwhelmed with honors, he was on the point of wreaking his vengeance upon the king and the @@ -3656,22 +3618,22 @@ nursed his revenge, determined to gratify it upon some future occasion.</p> <p>The wide-spread disturbance occasioned by the -murder of Csar (44) involved Palestine in new -troubles. The Roman Judans justly were so inconsolable +murder of Cæsar (44) involved Palestine in new +troubles. The Roman Judæans justly were so inconsolable at the death of this great man that they spent several entire nights mourning beside the grave that contained his ashes. The internal struggles, the bloody warfare, the constant proscriptions, were but the labor-throes of Rome previous to the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">80</a></span> -birth of a new order of things; but for Juda they +birth of a new order of things; but for Judæa they were to a certain extent a fresh attack of a fatal disease. The heads of the republican party supplanted -those of the Csarian party, but merely to be supplanted +those of the Cæsarian party, but merely to be supplanted by them again in a short time; and this was -the case not only in Juda, but in various parts of +the case not only in Judæa, but in various parts of the Roman empire. The republican, Cassius Longinus, had arrived in Syria for the purpose of raising -troops and money, and demanded that Juda should +troops and money, and demanded that Judæa should supply him with 700 talents. Cassius was in desperate haste, for any moment might deprive him of the supreme power with which he ruled at that time @@ -3681,16 +3643,16 @@ and sold them into slavery, because their contributions were not delivered quickly enough.</p> <p>The eyes of the unfortunate monarch, Hyrcanus, -were opened at last to the fact that the Idumans +were opened at last to the fact that the Idumæans were seeking only their own interest under the cloak of warm partisanship for his cause. He began to be suspicious in his dealings with them, and turned for support to a true and faithful friend, Malich, who -had long since recognized the duplicity of the Idumans. +had long since recognized the duplicity of the Idumæans. As yet Hyrcanus knew nothing of the fiendish plot by which he was to be dethroned, and which was to raise Herod, by the help of the Roman -legions, to the throne of Juda. But this rumor +legions, to the throne of Judæa. But this rumor had reached the ears of Malich. Determined to rid the king of the hated Antipater, he contrived to poison him when he was feasting at a banquet with Hyrcanus @@ -3699,12 +3661,12 @@ the growing evil, for Herod surpassed his father, not only in determination and in audacity, but also in duplicity. He avenged the death of Antipater by the assassination of Malich. All attempts to ruin -the Iduman brothers were unsuccessful. Even +the Idumæan brothers were unsuccessful. Even when Herod fell suddenly and grievously ill, Phasael was fortunate enough to subdue his enemies. A plot conceived by Antigonus, the son of Aristobulus<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">81</a></span> II, supported by his kinsman Ptolemy of -Chalcis, to deprive the Idumans of their power, +Chalcis, to deprive the Idumæans of their power, failed likewise, and Herod compelled Hyrcanus to crown him with the garland of victory when he made his entry into Jerusalem. As a means of disarming @@ -3716,7 +3678,7 @@ victim was to be bound to the executioner by the bonds of marriage, and her own mother, Alexandra, helped to bring about this miserable alliance.</p> -<p>Fortune smiled so persistently upon the Iduman +<p>Fortune smiled so persistently upon the Idumæan that all changes in the political world, however they might appear to damage his cause, only gave him greater power. The republican army was completely @@ -3726,27 +3688,27 @@ the feet of the second triumvirate—Octavius, Antony, and Lepidus. Herod and Phasael looked upon these changes with a troubled eye; for had they not displayed the warmest zeal for the opponents of the -triumvirate? Besides this, some of the Judan +triumvirate? Besides this, some of the Judæan nobles had hurried forth to meet the victor Antony in Bithynia, carrying to him their complaints of the -rapacity of the Iduman brothers. But Herod soon +rapacity of the Idumæan brothers. But Herod soon found the means to scatter the clouds. He also appeared before Antony with a smooth tongue and ready money. Antony did not fail to remember that he had formerly tasted of Antipater's hospitality. -He turned a deaf ear to the Judan nobles, and dismissed +He turned a deaf ear to the Judæan nobles, and dismissed Herod with marks of favor. The voice of the nation, which made itself heard through its ambassadors, was no longer heeded. Antony sentenced some of the unfortunate envoys to be thrown into prison, and others to be executed, whilst he -proclaimed the two Iduman brothers governors of -Juda, with the title "Tetrarch."</p> +proclaimed the two Idumæan brothers governors of +Judæa, with the title "Tetrarch."</p> <p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">82</a></span> At one time it seemed as if this constant good -fortune were about to desert the Iduman brothers -and to return to the Hasmonan house. The Parthians, +fortune were about to desert the Idumæan brothers +and to return to the Hasmonæan house. The Parthians, stimulated by the fugitive Roman republican Labienus, had made, under the command of their king's son Pacorus, and his commander, Barzapharnes, @@ -3764,15 +3726,15 @@ crown Antigonus. The Parthians agreed to this scheme, and, dividing their army into two detachments, marched by the sea-coast and the inland road upon Jerusalem. At every step they were met and -joined by Judan troops, who outstripped them in +joined by Judæan troops, who outstripped them in their haste to arrive at the capital. Upon entering -Jerusalem they besieged the Hasmonan palace, +Jerusalem they besieged the Hasmonæan palace, and flocked to the Mount of the Temple. The common people, in spite of being unarmed, supported the invaders. The festival of Pentecost was at hand, -and a crowd of worshipers from all parts of Juda +and a crowd of worshipers from all parts of Judæa were streaming into Jerusalem; they also declared -themselves in favor of Antigonus. The Idumans +themselves in favor of Antigonus. The Idumæans held the palace and its fortress, and the invaders, the city. Hyrcanus and Phasael were at last persuaded by Pacorus, the king's cup-bearer, to go as @@ -3791,15 +3753,15 @@ fortress Masada, which he left in command of his brother Joseph, retiring first into Arabia, then into Egypt, and finally to Rome. He was followed by the execrations of the people. Antigonus was now -proclaimed king of Juda (the Parthians carrying +proclaimed king of Judæa (the Parthians carrying off Hyrcanus to Babylon), and feeling himself to be in truth a monarch, he had coins struck with his Hebrew and Greek names: "Mattathias, High -Priest, and the Commonwealth of the Judans," and +Priest, and the Commonwealth of the Judæans," and also "King Antigonus." The Parthian auxiliary troops were dismissed, and Antigonus destroyed the last of the Roman contingent that still held some of -the fortresses in Palestine. So Juda was once +the fortresses in Palestine. So Judæa was once more freed from foreign soldiery, and could indulge in the sweet dream of regained independence after thirty hard years of internal troubles and terrible @@ -3820,7 +3782,7 @@ for the Throne​—​Herod becomes King​—​Proscr Confiscations​—​Herod's Policy​—​Abolition of the Hereditary Tenure of the High Priesthood​—​Death of the High Priest Aristobulus​—​War with the Arabians​—​The Earthquake​—​Death -of the last of the Hasmonans​—​Hillel becomes the Head of +of the last of the Hasmonæans​—​Hillel becomes the Head of the Synhedrion​—​His System of Tradition​—​Menahem the Essene​—​Shammai and his School​—​Mariamne​—​Herod's Magnificence and Passion for Building​—​Herod rebuilds the Temple​—​Herod @@ -3830,11 +3792,11 @@ the Roman Eagle​—​Execution of Antipater and Death of Herod.</ <p class="center bpad">40–3 <span class="smcap smaller">B. C. E.</span></p> -<p>It is certain that Juda derived her greatness and +<p>It is certain that Judæa derived her greatness and independence rather from the tact and foresight of -the first Hasmonans than from their skill in arms; +the first Hasmonæans than from their skill in arms; and in like manner she suffered humiliation and -bondage from the short-sightedness of the last Hasmonan +bondage from the short-sightedness of the last Hasmonæan kings, who did not understand how to make use of the advantages within their grasp. Events were most favorable for Antigonus to acquire extended @@ -3848,7 +3810,7 @@ couch of the war-goddess distasteful to him. The Parthians, who hated the greed of Rome, had valiantly repulsed her troops. Had Antigonus understood how to keep alive the hatred of the people -towards the Iduman house, the Romans themselves +towards the Idumæan house, the Romans themselves would have courted him as an ally instead of shunning him as an enemy, so eager were they for<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">85</a></span> assistance in staying the progress of the Parthians. @@ -3866,7 +3828,7 @@ the revenge which he meditated against Herod and his brothers, and this retarded instead of stimulating his activity. He did not know how to rise to the truly royal height whence he could look down with -contempt instead of with hatred upon the Iduman +contempt instead of with hatred upon the Idumæan upstarts. During his reign, which lasted three years and a half (40–37), he undertook nothing great or decisive, although the Roman officers, who @@ -3881,8 +3843,8 @@ The very leaders of the Synhedrion, Shemaya and Abtalion, averse to Herod on account of his overwhelming audacity, were not partisans of Antigonus. It is somewhat difficult to understand entirely the -reason of this aversion to the Hasmonan king. -Had Antigonus professed allegiance to Sadducan +reason of this aversion to the Hasmonæan king. +Had Antigonus professed allegiance to Sadducæan principles, or was there personal jealousy between the representatives of the royal power and the teachers of the Law? We are led to believe from @@ -3909,13 +3871,13 @@ stamp. When fortune frowned upon him for a time, he could always win back her smiles. His flight from Jerusalem had been so desperate for him that at one moment he contemplated suicide. His -design to make an ally of the Nabathan king -failed. He wandered through the Judan-Iduman +design to make an ally of the Nabathæan king +failed. He wandered through the Judæan-Idumæan desert, an outcast and penniless, but yet unbroken, and revolving far-reaching schemes. He turned to Egypt; there Cleopatra offered to make him general of her army, but he refused, for he still clung to -the hope of wearing the crown of Juda. He took +the hope of wearing the crown of Judæa. He took ship for Rome, and after being tempest-tossed and narrowly escaping shipwreck, he arrived at his destination at the favorable moment when Octavius @@ -3923,18 +3885,18 @@ and Antony had once more agreed upon the Brundisian treaty. He found no difficulty in persuading Antony that he could render him great service in repulsing the Parthians, and he convinced him that -Antigonus, raised to the throne of Juda by the +Antigonus, raised to the throne of Judæa by the Parthians, would always be an implacable enemy to the Romans. Antony was completely deceived by the craft and subtlety of Herod. He spoke favorably of him to Octavius, who dared not refuse him anything. Thus within seven days, Herod succeeded -in having the Senate proclaim him King of Juda, +in having the Senate proclaim him King of Judæa, and Antigonus pronounced an enemy of Rome (40).<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">87</a></span> This was the second death-blow that Rome had -dealt the Judan nation, in delivering her up to the -mercy of an alien, a half-Judan, an Iduman, who -had his own personal insults to avenge. Juda was +dealt the Judæan nation, in delivering her up to the +mercy of an alien, a half-Judæan, an Idumæan, who +had his own personal insults to avenge. Judæa was forced to submit, and in addition to pay tribute-money to Rome.</p> @@ -3944,7 +3906,7 @@ loaded him with honors), in order to assume the royal title conferred upon him. He left Rome and arrived at Acco (39). He was supplied with sums of money by various friends, and especially by -Saramalla, the richest Judan in Antioch. With +Saramalla, the richest Judæan in Antioch. With these moneys he hired mercenaries and subdued a great part of Galilee. He then hastened southwards, to relieve the fortress of Masada, where his @@ -3974,7 +3936,7 @@ to whom he had now for several years been betrothed.</p> <p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">88</a></span> -As soon as Sosius had advanced into Juda with +As soon as Sosius had advanced into Judæa with a large army of Roman infantry, cavalry and Syrian mercenaries, the siege of Jerusalem was pressed. The besieging army numbered one hundred thousand @@ -4000,7 +3962,7 @@ of the Temple, while the besieged, with their king, fortified themselves in the upper town and on the Temple Mount. The Romans were occupied during another fortnight with the storming of the south -wall. On a Sabbath evening, when the Judan +wall. On a Sabbath evening, when the Judæan warriors were least expecting an attack, a portion of the wall was taken, and the Romans rushed like madmen into the old part of the city and into the @@ -4021,13 +3983,13 @@ and then ignobly beheaded. This disgraceful treatment excited the opprobrium even of the Romans.</p> -<p>Herod, or, as the people called him, the Iduman +<p>Herod, or, as the people called him, the Idumæan slave, had thus reached the goal of his lofty desires. His throne, it is true, rested upon ruins and upon the dead bodies of his subjects; but he felt that he had the power to maintain its dignity, even if it were necessary to carry a broad river of blood round its -base. The bitter hatred of the Judan people, +base. The bitter hatred of the Judæan people, whose ruler he had become without the slightest lawful title, was nothing to him as compared with the friendship of Rome and the smile of Antony. @@ -4057,23 +4019,23 @@ hostile to Antigonus. He seized the property of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pa those whom he executed or otherwise condemned for the royal treasury; for this worthy pupil of Roman masters was fully alive to the advantages of proscription -and confiscation. He passed over the Hasmonan +and confiscation. He passed over the Hasmonæan house in selecting a high priest, and chose a certain Ananel, a descendant of Aaron, but not of high-priestly family, for that office. He declared -that his own was an old Judan family which had +that his own was an old Judæan family which had returned from Babylonia, wishing in this way to obliterate the fact that he was descended from an -Iduman ancestor who had been forced to accept +Idumæan ancestor who had been forced to accept Judaism. The natives of Jerusalem, who had a good memory for his true extraction, did not indeed -lend an ear to this invention, but foreign Judans +lend an ear to this invention, but foreign Judæans and heathens may perhaps have been deceived by it. His confidential friend and historian, Nicolaus of Damascus, relates this fiction as coming from his own lips. At the death of Shemaya and Abtalion, the presidents of the Synhedrion were chosen from -a Babylonian-Judan family, that of Bene Bathyra.</p> +a Babylonian-Judæan family, that of Bene Bathyra.</p> <p>Two persons still existed who might prove dangerous to Herod: an old man and a youth—Hyrcanus, @@ -4088,11 +4050,11 @@ been mutilated by them, and was therefore unfit to resume his priestly office; but his captors had generously granted him freedom, and the aged monarch had been joyfully and reverentially welcomed -by the community of Babylonian Judans. +by the community of Babylonian Judæans. In spite of the devotion which he received from these people, Hyrcanus had an intense longing to return to his native land, and Herod was afraid -that he might induce the Babylonian Judans or the +that he might induce the Babylonian Judæans or the Parthians to take up his cause and help him regain<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">91</a></span> his throne, from which the latter had torn him. Anxious to avert this danger, Herod bethought himself @@ -4101,8 +4063,8 @@ of bringing him under his own power. It was thus that the aged monarch received a pressing invitation to Jerusalem to share the throne and the power of king Herod, and to receive the thanks of the -Iduman for past acts of kindness that Hyrcanus -had shown him. Vainly did the Babylonian Judans +Idumæan for past acts of kindness that Hyrcanus +had shown him. Vainly did the Babylonian Judæans warn the credulous prince not to let himself be drawn a second time into the eddy of public life; he hurried to his doom. Herod received him with @@ -4129,7 +4091,7 @@ upon most favorably through the senses. Antony, in truth, struck by the portraits, requested to see Aristobulus. But Herod, in order that this meeting should not take place, suddenly proclaimed the -young Hasmonan high priest, and Ananel was +young Hasmonæan high priest, and Ananel was deprived of this dignity. But Alexandra was far from being satisfied, for she was secretly determined that her son should also wear the crown which his @@ -4139,8 +4101,8 @@ this dangerous youth. Aristobulus had already gained the heart of the people, and whenever he appeared in the Temple, every eye hung upon his noble and perfect form, every glance seemed to -avow that the Judans were longing to see this last -scion of the Hasmonan house seated upon the royal +avow that the Judæans were longing to see this last +scion of the Hasmonæan house seated upon the royal throne. Herod durst not act with open violence against his rival, who was looked upon with special favor by Queen Cleopatra, but as usual he resorted @@ -4148,12 +4110,12 @@ to treachery. He invited Aristobulus to Jericho, and bade his followers dispatch the youth whilst he was disporting in the bath. Thus died, at the early age of seventeen, Aristobulus III., the last male -representative of the Hasmonan house. Herod +representative of the Hasmonæan house. Herod then reappointed his puppet Ananel as high priest. -It was vain for the Iduman to affect deep grief at +It was vain for the Idumæan to affect deep grief at the death of his young brother-in-law, it was vain for him to throw sweet perfume upon his body; all -the relations and friends of the murdered Hasmonan +the relations and friends of the murdered Hasmonæan accused Herod in their hearts of his death, although their lips gave no utterance to their thoughts.</p> @@ -4232,12 +4194,12 @@ upon Herod, carrying him successfully over the most difficult obstacles in his path. Before the sixth year of his reign had ended, threatening clouds began to gather over his head. A surviving sister of the last -Hasmonan king Antigonus had arisen as the +Hasmonæan king Antigonus had arisen as the avenger of her brother and his race, and had, in some way or other, possessed herself of the fortress of Hyrcanion. Herod had hardly disarmed this female warrior before he was threatened by a more serious -danger. Cleopatra, who had always hated the Judans, +danger. Cleopatra, who had always hated the Judæans, and who had been most ungenerous to that community in Alexandria during a year of famine, had again attempted to effect Herod's ruin by @@ -4252,21 +4214,21 @@ almost impregnable, and which he fortified still more strongly. But Cleopatra was already devising another scheme for the downfall of her enemy. She succeeded in entangling him in a war with Malich, -the Nabathan king, and thus endeavored to bring +the Nabathæan king, and thus endeavored to bring about the ruin of two equally hated monarchs.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">95</a></span> But Herod gained two decisive victories over the -Nabathans, which alarmed Cleopatra, and caused +Nabathæans, which alarmed Cleopatra, and caused her to send her general Athenion to the aid of -Malich. The Judan army sustained a terrible +Malich. The Judæan army sustained a terrible defeat, and Herod was beaten back across the Jordan. This disaster was followed by an earthquake, -which alarmed and dispirited the Judan troops to +which alarmed and dispirited the Judæan troops to such an extent that they lost all courage and were almost powerless before the enemy. But Herod, with true genius, succeeded in rousing his people, -and in leading them victoriously against the Nabathans. +and in leading them victoriously against the Nabathæans. Malich was forced to become the vassal -of the Judan king.</p> +of the Judæan king.</p> <p>Hardly, however, was peace restored before a storm arose that threatened to shake the Roman @@ -4285,14 +4247,14 @@ though this should entail the devastation of whole countries by fire and by sword.</p> <p>It was during this highly excited period that a -Judan author foretold, in beautiful Greek verse, +Judæan author foretold, in beautiful Greek verse, written in the form of a sibylline prophecy, the coming destruction of the Roman-Greek state, and the reign of Belial, who would decoy the unhappy -ones to their final destruction; but this Judo-Greek +ones to their final destruction; but this Judæo-Greek seer also heralded the coming of a glorious Messiah. An era of crime had certainly begun, and -a Belial had appeared in the person of the half-Judan +a Belial had appeared in the person of the half-Judæan Herod, but as yet no Messianic dawn of better things was apparent.</p> @@ -4310,12 +4272,12 @@ Antony. He was prepared for the worst, but he determined not to be outlived by the aged Hyrcanus, by his wife Mariamne, or by his mother-in-law Alexandra. He accused Hyrcanus of having conspired -with the Nabathan king, and ordered the +with the Nabathæan king, and ordered the innocent monarch to be executed. Mariamne and Alexandra he placed under the guardianship of the -Ithuran Soem in the fortress of Alexandrion. +Ithuræan Soem in the fortress of Alexandrion. Herod then prepared to present himself before the -conqueror, Octavianus Csar, and if he met with +conqueror, Octavianus Cæsar, and if he met with his death, as was most probable, Mariamne and her mother were to be instantly murdered.</p> @@ -4399,7 +4361,7 @@ paved the way to a reconciliation between Pharisees and Sadducees by placing before them the principles common to both, from which neither of them could withhold their assent. On the one -hand, Hillel agreed with the Sadducan principle, +hand, Hillel agreed with the Sadducæan principle, that a law can only be valid if founded upon scriptural authority; but, on the other hand, he declared that this authority did not merely lie in the dead @@ -4520,7 +4482,7 @@ antagonistic to his house that were quietly developing within the seclusion of these schools.</p> <p>With a trembling heart he had presented himself -at Rhodes before Octavianus Csar, who, since the +at Rhodes before Octavianus Cæsar, who, since the defeat of Antony at Actium, was sole master of the Roman provinces. He, so haughty in his own country, appeared in meek and lowly guise at the @@ -4543,9 +4505,9 @@ and sent him back to his own country laden with<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pa honors (30). Herod found no difficulty in becoming as loyal a partisan of Octavianus as he had been for twelve long years of Antony. During -the campaign of the second Csar against Egypt, +the campaign of the second Cæsar against Egypt, he was met at Acco by Herod bearing rich presents, -and the Judan king supplied the Roman army with +and the Judæan king supplied the Roman army with water and with wine during their march through an arid country. It is possible that Antony may have heard, before he put an end to his life, that Herod's @@ -4553,18 +4515,18 @@ loyalty was not founded on a rock. Herod had also the malicious joy of knowing that his persistent enemy, Cleopatra, who had failed to fascinate the conqueror by her attractions, had nothing left but -to seek death. The Alexandrian Judans, who had +to seek death. The Alexandrian Judæans, who had suffered from her hatred, shared Herod's feelings. For, but a short time previous to her death, this terrible woman had longed to assassinate with her -own hands the Judans who were living in the capital +own hands the Judæans who were living in the capital of Egypt, and who were devoted to the cause of -Octavianus. The Egyptian Judans were rewarded +Octavianus. The Egyptian Judæans were rewarded for their devotion by an official recognition of their equality with the rest of the inhabitants; in fact, Octavianus had such confidence in their loyalty that he placed the harbors of the Nile and of -the sea under the control of the Judan Alabarchs, +the sea under the control of the Judæan Alabarchs, who had held that office under former Egyptian monarchs. This was a special mark of favor, for the possession of Egypt, the Roman granary, and @@ -4573,29 +4535,29 @@ precious to the first emperor of Rome that no Senator dared approach that country without the imperial permission. When the Alabarch who was then in office died, Octavianus allowed his successor -to be chosen by the Alexandrian Judans, and +to be chosen by the Alexandrian Judæans, and granted him all the rights of his predecessors. Whilst he governed the Greek Alexandrians with extreme severity on account of their depravity, their untrustworthiness and their love of sedition, and kept them -strictly under his own rule, he appointed a Judan<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">103</a></span> +strictly under his own rule, he appointed a Judæan<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">103</a></span> Council to assist the Alabarchs or Ethnarchs. The -Judan community was thus governed by one of its +Judæan community was thus governed by one of its own race, who decided all the judicial questions and provided for the carrying out of all imperial commands and behests.</p> -<p>Octavianus also granted to the numerous Judans +<p>Octavianus also granted to the numerous Judæans who were settled in Rome, the Libertini, if not extraordinary privileges, at least the right of observing their own religious customs, and thus set -a worthy example to his successors. The Judans +a worthy example to his successors. The Judæans were allowed to build synagogues, where they worshiped according to their rites; they were also permitted to transmit their yearly contributions to the Temple in Jerusalem, although, in general, it was forbidden to send large sums out of Rome. -The Roman Judans also received their due portion +The Roman Judæans also received their due portion of the grain that was distributed amongst the population. If the distribution happened to take place on a Sabbath, their portion was allotted to them on @@ -4605,17 +4567,17 @@ emperor.</p> <p>Octavianus made over to Herod the splendid body-guard of Cleopatra, numbering four hundred Gauls, and he placed under his jurisdiction several seaports -that had been torn from Juda, as well as the territory +that had been torn from Judæa, as well as the territory of Jericho. Samaria, as also Gadara and Hippos in trans-Jordanic territory, were also incorporated -with Juda. The area of the kingdom was +with Judæa. The area of the kingdom was now identical with what it had been before the civil war between the royal brothers and the first intervention of the Romans; but different, indeed, were the circumstances under which she had regained her possessions! Probably it was due to Herod's boundless sycophancy to Rome that sacrifices were now -regularly offered up for the welfare of the Csars, +regularly offered up for the welfare of the Cæsars, Augustus and his consort presenting in return golden vessels for the use of the Temple.</p> @@ -4656,13 +4618,13 @@ and of an attempt to poison him. The judges passed the sentence of death upon her, and, wishing to curry favor with Herod, ordered the execution to take place forthwith. It was thus that the most -beautiful woman in Juda, the Hasmonan princess, +beautiful woman in Judæa, the Hasmonæan princess, the pride of her people, was led to the scaffold. She went to her doom with remarkable fortitude, without the faintest tremor or the least display of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">105</a></span> feminine weakness, worthy of her heroic ancestry (29). We may take Mariamne as the symbol of -Juda, delivered up to the axe of the executioner +Judæa, delivered up to the axe of the executioner by intrigue and passion.</p> <p>But Mariamne's death did not quench Herod's @@ -4679,7 +4641,7 @@ reached his capital, Alexandra proceeded to possess herself of Jerusalem. But the king's vitality returned upon the rumor of this sudden peril to his throne, and Alexandra fell a victim to her sedition. She -was the very last who bore the Hasmonan name, +was the very last who bore the Hasmonæan name, and she had lived long enough to witness the violent and disgraceful deaths of her father-in-law Aristobulus II, her husband Alexander, her brother-in-law @@ -4713,34 +4675,34 @@ making that city the capital of his dominions, a dignity for which she was singularly adapted by her fortunate position. The newly-built Samaria was renamed Sebaste, just as the citadel Baris, the -armory of the Hasmonans in old days, on the +armory of the Hasmonæans in old days, on the northwest side of the Temple, had been called -Antonia in honor of Antony. In fact, Juda became +Antonia in honor of Antony. In fact, Judæa became crowded with cities and with monuments which bore the names of Herod's own family or those of his Roman protectors. The fortress of Straton on the sea was, by most lavish expenditure, converted into a beautiful city, with an extensive harbor, and -received the name of Csarea, one of the towers +received the name of Cæsarea, one of the towers on its walls being called Drusus, after the son of Augustus. Herod did not even hesitate to erect a Roman temple on the soil of the Holy Land. Two -colossal figures were raised in Csarea, one of them +colossal figures were raised in Cæsarea, one of them representing, in gigantic proportions, the figure of Augustus as the Olympian Jupiter, and the other that of the city of Rome as the Argive Juno. At -the splendid consecration of Csarea, the rebuilding +the splendid consecration of Cæsarea, the rebuilding of which had occupied twelve years, the inhabitants could have imagined themselves transported into a pagan city. On account of its name, its origin and its importance, the national party justly called it Little Rome. In later days it became the seat of the Roman governor, the rival of Jerusalem, and finally -her conqueror. Whenever Csarea rejoiced, Jerusalem -was sure to mourn. The harbor of Csarea, +her conqueror. Whenever Cæsarea rejoiced, Jerusalem +was sure to mourn. The harbor of Cæsarea, which grew in time to be a town itself, was called Sebastus. Herod had, without doubt, enhanced the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">107</a></span> -beauty of Juda, but, like a doomed victim, she was +beauty of Judæa, but, like a doomed victim, she was garlanded for the altar. His love of display found satisfaction in the magnificence of his edifices, but not his love of renown. Despairing of securing the @@ -4757,13 +4719,13 @@ from his own country for such enterprises.</p> <p>Herod may possibly have secured the admiration and affection of the Greeks, the Romans and the -Judans outside of Palestine; but the people of +Judæans outside of Palestine; but the people of Jerusalem felt nothing but aversion for this grasping upstart, who sought to estrange them from the customs of their fathers. In spite of his having shown himself to be their generous benefactor, upon the occasion of a great famine (24), the nation now only -beheld in him the murderer of the Hasmonans, the +beheld in him the murderer of the Hasmonæans, the usurper of their throne, the destroyer of the noblest citizens, the suppressor of freedom. He had disgraced the three dignities of Monarch, High Priest, @@ -4784,11 +4746,11 @@ rank be not too strikingly below his own.</p> <p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">108</a></span> This High Priest Simon was an Alexandrian, the -son of Bothus, and it was he who laid the foundation-stone -of the greatness of the house of Bothus, +son of Boëthus, and it was he who laid the foundation-stone +of the greatness of the house of Boëthus, from which several high priests descended. He appears to have been the founder of the sect of the -Bothuseans, who followed the teachings of the +Boëthuseans, who followed the teachings of the Sadducees, but who were better able to grasp and apply those teachings than the Sadducees themselves, thanks to their Alexandrian readiness and @@ -4931,7 +4893,7 @@ himself master of Jerusalem—a terrible reminiscence. The hands that built the Temple had already lighted the torch for its destruction. Herod placed it under the protection of Rome. To the horror of -the pious Judans, a golden eagle, the symbol of +the pious Judæans, a golden eagle, the symbol of Roman might, was hung over the principal entrance. Herod, moreover, constructed a subterranean passage, leading from the fortress of Antonia to the @@ -4960,7 +4922,7 @@ left him two sons, Alexander and Aristobulus, who, as they grew to man's estate, took the death of their unfortunate mother deeply to heart, and could not conceal the aversion they felt for their father. As -these princes were of Hasmonan descent, Herod +these princes were of Hasmonæan descent, Herod had decided upon making them his successors. He had sent them as youths to Rome, in order that they might gain the favor of Augustus, and be educated @@ -4972,21 +4934,21 @@ thought that by these means he could secure peace amongst the members of his own family. But his wishes were defeated by the hatred that the revengeful Salome and her brother Pheroras bore to the -descendants of the Hasmonan Mariamne. Herod +descendants of the Hasmonæan Mariamne. Herod was induced by his sister to take to his heart and to adopt as a royal prince the son of his first wife, Doris, whom together with her child he had repudiated upon his marriage with Mariamne.</p> <p>Antipater, the son of Doris, had inherited all the -malice, craft and cruelty of the Idumans, and he +malice, craft and cruelty of the Idumæans, and he spared neither his father nor his brothers. The three, Salome, Pheroras, and Antipater, although they hated one another mortally, were united in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">113</a></span> hatred against the sons of Mariamne. The more these princes were indulged by their father, and the more they were beloved by the people as descendants -from the Hasmonans on their mother's side, +from the Hasmonæans on their mother's side, the more did their bitter foes fear and detest them. Antipater accused Alexander and Aristobulus of wishing to avenge the death of their mother upon @@ -4998,7 +4960,7 @@ He began to hate his sons, and, as a mark of displeasure towards them, led Antipater to believe that he should share in their rights of succession. This determination of the king served to embitter -the Hasmonan princes still more, and drove them +the Hasmonæan princes still more, and drove them to the most unwise outbursts of anger against their father. Antipater succeeded at the same time in laying proofs of an attempted conspiracy of the two @@ -5061,11 +5023,11 @@ therefore kept a suspicious eye upon the members of the Pharisaic schools, and the Pharisees, on their side, continued to incite the youths of their following against their monarch, whom they termed -the Iduman and the Roman. This they were +the Idumæan and the Roman. This they were able to do without incurring any danger to themselves, for they clothed their words in a metaphorical<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">115</a></span> garb, applying the denunciations of the Hebrew -prophets of old to the Iduman nation, to express +prophets of old to the Idumæan nation, to express what they felt for Herod and his family.</p> <p>Amongst the Pharisees who were most bitterly @@ -5135,7 +5097,7 @@ was, was innocent of this crime.</p> <p>Herod's last thoughts dwelt, however, upon bloodshed. He insisted upon the most respected -men of Juda being brought to Jericho, and imprisoned +men of Judæa being brought to Jericho, and imprisoned in the great public arena, where they were closely guarded; he then left orders with his sister Salome and her husband that directly after his @@ -5149,7 +5111,7 @@ died five days after the execution of Antipater, in the sixty-ninth year of his life and the thirty-seventh of his reign, in the spring of the year 4 <span class="smcap smaller">B. C.</span> His flatterers called him "Herod the Great," but the -nation only knew him as "the Hasmonan slave." +nation only knew him as "the Hasmonæan slave." Whilst his body was being taken in all pomp to its resting-place in Herodium, under the escort of the Thracian, German and Gallic body-guard, the @@ -5165,14 +5127,14 @@ nation joyfully celebrated the day as a semi-festival.</p> <blockquote> -<p class="hang">The Family of Herod​—​Partition of the Kingdom of Juda​—​Revolt +<p class="hang">The Family of Herod​—​Partition of the Kingdom of Judæa​—​Revolt against Archelaus​—​Sabinus and Varus​—​The Adventurer-Chief, -Judas the Galilan​—​Confirmation of Herod's Will​—​Archelaus -as Ruler​—​His brief Reign and his Banishment​—​Juda becomes +Judas the Galilæan​—​Confirmation of Herod's Will​—​Archelaus +as Ruler​—​His brief Reign and his Banishment​—​Judæa becomes a Roman Province​—​The Revolt against the Census​—​The Schools of Hillel and Shammai​—​Judas Founder of the Party of Zealots​—​Onerous Taxation​—​Fresh Hostility of the Samaritans​—​Expulsion -of the Judans from Rome by Tiberius​—​Pontius +of the Judæans from Rome by Tiberius​—​Pontius Pilate.</p></blockquote> <p class="center bpad">3 <span class="smcap smaller">B. C. E.</span>—37 <span class="smcap smaller">C. E.</span></p> @@ -5182,23 +5144,23 @@ have been, it yet contrasted favorably with that which followed. Herod's rule was at all events distinguished by external splendor, and by a certain amount of animation in the direction of public -affairs. The boundaries of Juda now extended +affairs. The boundaries of Judæa now extended far beyond the limits assigned to them in the most -prosperous days of the Hasmonans. Those tracts +prosperous days of the Hasmonæans. Those tracts of land beyond the Jordan and the Hermon, which Aristobulus I and Alexander I had only partially conquered after years of useless fighting, fell into the possession of Herod merely by the stroke of a pen; but the new territories were less welcome, perhaps, on that account than if they had been won with -toil and difficulty. The towns of Juda had been +toil and difficulty. The towns of Judæa had been restored with great magnificence, they were adorned with beautiful specimens of Greek sculpture and architecture; but the monuments which were erected perpetuated the fame of Roman dignitaries and the Herodian family, and not the greatness of the nation. The seaports, and especially the port -of Csarea, were crowded with shipping, and trade +of Cæsarea, were crowded with shipping, and trade was consequently encouraged, but the imports which naturally increased did not help to enrich<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">119</a></span> the nation. The Temple was resplendent in its @@ -5216,7 +5178,7 @@ fell into an unsettled and disjointed state, which was the beginning of more lasting misfortunes. The edifice, superficially constructed, soon gave way, burying among its ruins everything that remained -in Juda of freedom and national existence.</p> +in Judæa of freedom and national existence.</p> <p>Herod had left several daughters and six sons. Some of them he favored in his will, others he @@ -5224,7 +5186,7 @@ slighted. The publication of this will (the contents of which were known to Ptolemy, the brother of the celebrated historian, Nicolaus of Damascus) proved how little he cared for the interests of -Juda, and how constantly he was actuated by +Judæa, and how constantly he was actuated by the most selfish motives. Instead of keeping the unity of the country intact, he dismembered it, so as to subdivide it between three of his sons. The @@ -5233,11 +5195,11 @@ his son by the second Mariamne; another Herod, by Cleopatra of Jerusalem; and Phasael, by his wife Pallas. He bequeathed to his son Archelaus (whose mother was Malthace the Samaritan) -the countries of Juda and Samaria, with the title +the countries of Judæa and Samaria, with the title of sovereign. Herod Antipas (also the son of Malthace) became the possessor of the lands of Galilee -and Pera; Philip, the son of Cleopatra of Jerusalem, -another tetrarchy—Gaulanitis, Batana, Trachonitis, +and Peræa; Philip, the son of Cleopatra of Jerusalem, +another tetrarchy—Gaulanitis, Batanæa, Trachonitis, and the country called Panias, which contained the source of the Jordan. He bequeathed to his sister Salome, as a reward for her faithfulness, the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">120</a></span> @@ -5305,7 +5267,7 @@ everything, but he could not promise that their wishes should be accomplished until Herod's will had received the imperial sanction. But the crowds of people, consisting of several thousands, who had -congregated from every part of Juda to celebrate +congregated from every part of Judæa to celebrate the Feast of Passover, incited by the Pharisees, who worked upon their feelings by picturing to them the martyrdom of Judas and Matthias, the destroyers @@ -5338,21 +5300,21 @@ out against his cruelty, and made use of it as a weapon with which to serve their own purposes when in the presence of Augustus. The whole house of Herod traveled to Rome to lay the land -of Juda at the feet of the emperor, and to petition, +of Judæa at the feet of the emperor, and to petition, according to their respective interests, for the alteration or the confirmation of the will.</p> <p>During their absence unexpected events took place, and the prize for which they were all contending very nearly escaped their possession altogether. -Juda became a huge battle-field, the arena of furious +Judæa became a huge battle-field, the arena of furious encounters. Men threw themselves into the affray, assuming the titles of kings or leaders of the people. The blood of the slain warriors, the groans of unarmed, wounded citizens, the smoke issuing from burning cities, filled every heart with dismay and with horrible forebodings of the downfall of -Juda. The tragical events which took place during +Judæa. The tragical events which took place during the first year after the death of Herod are described in the Chronicle as the "War Period of Varus," the Governor of Syria.</p> @@ -5366,7 +5328,7 @@ hostile to the Herodians had no decided plan of action, were insufficiently armed, and allowed themselves<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">123</a></span> to be led away by their fierce hatred into unwise and useless demonstrations. Varus, seeing -no further necessity for remaining in the Judan +no further necessity for remaining in the Judæan capital, returned to Antioch, but he left a considerable number of troops to be in readiness in case of any signs of hostility.</p> @@ -5380,7 +5342,7 @@ as if the emperor had been the acknowledged heir to Herod's possessions. Sabinus must have had some malevolent intention, for he hastened his journey to Jerusalem, notwithstanding that he had -promised Varus to remain at Csarea until the Herodian +promised Varus to remain at Cæsarea until the Herodian disputes were settled. He took advantage of the reluctance with which the custodians complied with his demands to create a disturbance among @@ -5399,7 +5361,7 @@ they defied the Romans, who had taken up their quarters in the palace of Herod. Sabinus, thinking himself lost, encouraged the Romans to besiege the Temple, and sent messages to Varus for more -reinforcements. The Judans, well protected behind +reinforcements. The Judæans, well protected behind the Temple walls, hurled their weapons and their huge stones down upon the Romans. Victory would have been theirs had not the enemy, with @@ -5419,7 +5381,7 @@ of these treasures, the desecration of the Holy of Holies, and the destruction of the halls of the Temple, barely ten years after the sacred edifice had been completed, roused all the indignation and, -at the same time, all the valor of the Judans. +at the same time, all the valor of the Judæans. Even a great part of the Herodian troops went over to the malcontents, and assisted them against the Romans. Thus strengthened, they besieged the @@ -5432,7 +5394,7 @@ mastery over them, remained for the time in the citadel of the palace.</p> <p>Thus all the horrors of anarchy were let loose in -Juda. Had the insurgents found skilful and trustworthy +Judæa. Had the insurgents found skilful and trustworthy leaders their united efforts might have brought about such momentous events that the Herodian dispute would have come to a most unexpected @@ -5441,7 +5403,7 @@ to give shape and purpose to all this patriotic fervor. It was nurtured by selfish adventurers, and was therefore hurtful to the country itself rather than dangerous to the enemy. Two thousand soldiers, -probably Idumans, whom Herod had dismissed +probably Idumæans, whom Herod had dismissed shortly before his death, disturbed the regions of the south. A certain Simon, a slave of Herod, distinguished by great beauty and an imposing presence, @@ -5489,7 +5451,7 @@ himself was so great that he not only ordered all the<span class="pagenum"><a na Roman troops that were at his disposal (over twenty thousand men) to march against the insurgents, but summoned the armies under the command of the -neighboring princes. Aretas, the king of the Nabathans, +neighboring princes. Aretas, the king of the Nabathæans, placed his troops at the command of the Roman general, and as they formed the vanguard of the Roman army, they burnt and plundered all @@ -5519,20 +5481,20 @@ was retained to keep guard over the rebellious citizens of Jerusalem.</p> <p>During all this time the Herodians were still discussing -their claims to the sovereignty of Juda +their claims to the sovereignty of Judæa before the throne of Augustus, and their servile behavior and mutual accusations only convinced the Emperor how unworthy one and all were of holding the reins of government. Before Augustus could -come to any decision, a Judan embassy arrived, +come to any decision, a Judæan embassy arrived, consisting of fifty men of position and importance, whose mission had been approved by Varus. They<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">127</a></span> brought accusations against the Herodian government, and implored the Emperor to proclaim -Juda a Roman province in conjunction with Syria, +Judæa a Roman province in conjunction with Syria, but to grant the nation full liberty to conduct her own internal affairs. As the petition had the support -of eight thousand Roman-Judans, the Emperor +of eight thousand Roman-Judæans, the Emperor was obliged to listen to it. However, after having heard both the demands of the embassy and the arguments of the pretenders to the throne, he @@ -5547,7 +5509,7 @@ had been his friend, and who had served the Romans with a devotion only equaled by the zeal with which he furthered his own egotistical ends. The imperial treasury suffered no diminution whether -Juda was called an ethnarchy or a province +Judæa was called an ethnarchy or a province dependent upon Rome.</p> <p>The reign of Archelaus was short and uneventful @@ -5564,7 +5526,7 @@ courts of the Temple. He gave way to the general desire to depose the unpopular High Priest Joasar, and appointed in his stead the latter's brother, Eleazer, who was soon succeeded by Joshua of the -family of Si or Seth. But he in turn was replaced +family of Sié or Seth. But he in turn was replaced by Joasar, and thus three High Priests followed one another in the short space of nine years.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">128</a></span> The only war carried on by Archelaus was fought @@ -5576,7 +5538,7 @@ whose powers were almost exhausted, but who was still able to dictate the conditions of his own surrender.</p> <p>Archelaus offended the feelings of the pious -Judans by his marriage with his sister-in-law +Judæans by his marriage with his sister-in-law Glaphyra, the widow of Alexander, who had been executed. This daughter of the king of Cappadocia had had two sons; one of these, Tigranes, @@ -5587,9 +5549,9 @@ husband, she married, after his death, Juba, the king of Numidia; but was soon divorced from him, and contracted an alliance with Archelaus, the brother of her first husband, an alliance forbidden by -Judan laws. Little is known of the life of Archelaus; +Judæan laws. Little is known of the life of Archelaus; his acts of tyranny called forth the opprobrium -of the Judans and the Samaritans. He +of the Judæans and the Samaritans. He was taken before Augustus to answer for his misdeeds, but being unable to defend himself, he was dethroned and sent into exile among the Allobrogian @@ -5601,13 +5563,13 @@ the Imperial sway, for Salome had bequeathed them at her death to the Empress Livia.</p> <p>Thus after enjoying a hundred and fifty years of real -or apparent independence, Juda became entirely +or apparent independence, Judæa became entirely subjugated to Roman authority, and was united with the province of Syria. Matters remained in this condition, with the exception of a short interval, till the -final revolt. The Imperial representative in Juda, +final revolt. The Imperial representative in Judæa, who henceforth received the title of Procurator, had<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">129</a></span> -his seat of government in the seaport Csarea, which +his seat of government in the seaport Cæsarea, which from that time became the hated rival of Jerusalem. The duties of the Procurator consisted in maintaining order in the country, and in enforcing the punctual @@ -5636,7 +5598,7 @@ constantly before the case containing the priestly vestments.</p> <p>The first Procurator whom Augustus sent to -Juda was the captain of the horse, Coponius. The +Judæa was the captain of the horse, Coponius. The Syrian Governor, Quirinius, came at the same time (6–7) to lay claim to the confiscated property of Archelaus. He was also instructed to take a census @@ -5680,7 +5642,7 @@ Synhedrion, and was connected with the names of Hillel, Shammai, and Judas of Galilee.</p> <p>Hillel and Shammai did not live to see the -catastrophe which made Juda a province of Rome. +catastrophe which made Judæa a province of Rome. Hillel's death caused wide-spread mourning, and the oration at his grave began with the sad cry: "O pious, O gentle, O worthy follower of Ezra." The @@ -5722,7 +5684,7 @@ burdensome that those which were milder in character were treasured up as rare exceptions. Thus, according to their opinion, no work should be attempted which, if commenced before the Sabbath, -would, even without the aid of a Judan, +would, even without the aid of a Judæan, be completed on the Sabbath. It was prohibited on the Sabbath day to give sums of money for charitable purposes, to make arrangements for @@ -5753,7 +5715,7 @@ proselytes. How dangerous to Judaism lukewarm proselytes may be, they had too often seen in the case of the converted Herodians. But in spite of their own rigid obedience to the Law, they did not -exact the same obedience from the Judan troops +exact the same obedience from the Judæan troops who were fighting against the national enemy. Originally there had been some hesitation about making war on the Sabbath, but now the school of @@ -5793,7 +5755,7 @@ due to God alone. And they set up as an exemplar Phineas, the slayer of the chief Zimri, the only one who, in the presence of a neglectful tribe and a slothful nation, had served his God with zeal. -Furthermore, Judas proclaimed that the Judan +Furthermore, Judas proclaimed that the Judæan state must be a republic, recognizing God alone as sovereign and His laws as supreme. This teaching found favor all the more readily as the @@ -5802,7 +5764,7 @@ The great purpose they had in view—the recovery of their freedom—electrified young and old, and the Zealots, a faction which at first only comprised followers of Shammai, soon included a -great number of Judans, who chafed indignantly +great number of Judæans, who chafed indignantly under the weight of the Roman fetters.</p> <p>As soon as the law was passed that every one @@ -5838,10 +5800,10 @@ office. The designations of tax-gatherer and overseer became henceforth terms of opprobrium.</p> <p>Another change also originated with the Roman -occupation of Juda. All public documents, +occupation of Judæa. All public documents, deeds of divorce, etc., were now to be dated according to the year of the reign of the Roman -Emperor, and not, as formerly, that of the Judan +Emperor, and not, as formerly, that of the Judæan rulers. The Zealots were much annoyed at this innovation, and they accused the more moderate Pharisees, who had yielded to it, of indifference in @@ -5859,7 +5821,7 @@ of Seth, whose four sons also became high priests.</p> <p>Under Coponius, who entered upon his office of Procurator when Quirinius left, the old enmity -between the Judans and Samaritans revived. +between the Judæans and Samaritans revived. Several days before the Feast of Passover, the doors of the Temple were thrown open at midnight, on account of the great number of offerings @@ -5880,17 +5842,17 @@ each one was intent upon draining, as far as possible, all the wealth from the nation.</p> <p>The death of Augustus brought little change to -Juda; the latter simply became, with other provinces, +Judæa; the latter simply became, with other provinces, the possession of Tiberius. Outwardly, these provinces may not have suffered under the new emperor's reign, for he was just to the people, though antagonistic to the aristocracy, which he endeavored to suppress. He listened to the complaints of the -Judans, and lightened the burdens of their almost +Judæans, and lightened the burdens of their almost unendurable taxation. He appointed as procurator Valerius Gratus, who occupied this post for eleven years (15–26) In reality, however, the antipathy -of Tiberius to the Judans was even greater than +of Tiberius to the Judæans was even greater than that of his predecessor and adopted father; it would<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">136</a></span> seem as if the representative of imperialism in Rome had a foreboding of the mortal blow which @@ -5898,7 +5860,7 @@ Rome was destined to receive from Judaism. This antipathy had probably been stimulated by the fact that the Romans, and particularly the Roman women, had a leaning towards Judaism. The enthusiasm -of the Judans for their religion presented a +of the Judæans for their religion presented a striking contrast to the indifference with which the Romans, both the priests and the laity, regarded their national worship. The loss of freedom in imperial @@ -5924,33 +5886,33 @@ and had sent offerings to the Temple through the agency of her teachers, who, however, had retained these offerings for themselves. As soon as these facts came to the ears of Tiberius, he presented a -law against Judans to the Senate. That body -consequently resolved that Judans must leave the +law against Judæans to the Senate. That body +consequently resolved that Judæans must leave the city of Rome, on pain of becoming slaves for life, unless they abjured Judaism within a given time. This measure is said to have been urgently recommended by the minister Sejanus, who exercised a most powerful influence over Tiberius. Thousands -of Judan youths were, then and there, banished to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">137</a></span> +of Judæan youths were, then and there, banished to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">137</a></span> Sardinia, to fight against the hordes of brigands that infested that island. Banishment to so uncongenial a climate was almost certain to be fatal to the unfortunate youths; but this consideration did not lead the Emperor, as hard-hearted as his senators, -to take a milder course. The Judans throughout +to take a milder course. The Judæans throughout Italy were threatened with banishment if they did not forsake their religious observances; all young men, in the prime of life, were forced to come armed into the camp on the Sabbath-day; severe punishment followed if religious scruples dictated -a refusal. This was the first time that the Judans +a refusal. This was the first time that the Judæans had suffered religious persecution in Rome—their first martyrdom—destined to be the precursor of countless others.</p> <p>The Procurator Gratus, whom Tiberius had appointed, took as active a part as his predecessors in -the internal affairs of Juda. During the eleven +the internal affairs of Judæa. During the eleven years that he occupied his post he installed as many as five high priests, of whom some only retained their office during one year. These changes were @@ -5958,11 +5920,11 @@ sometimes due to the unpopularity of the high priests, but were far more often the result of bribery or of wanton arbitrariness.</p> -<p>Although Juda and the neighboring lands of -Iduma and Samaria were ruled by Procurators, -the tetrarchy of Galilee and Pera enjoyed a semblance +<p>Although Judæa and the neighboring lands of +Idumæa and Samaria were ruled by Procurators, +the tetrarchy of Galilee and Peræa enjoyed a semblance of independence under the reign of Herod -Antipas, and the lands of Batana and Trachonitis +Antipas, and the lands of Batanæa and Trachonitis under that of Philip. These two princes were distinguished only for their passion for building and their submissiveness to Rome. Herod Antipas had @@ -5971,14 +5933,14 @@ but as soon as Tiberius became emperor he built a new city in the lovely neighborhood of the lake of Gennesareth, which he named Tiberias, and where he established his court (24–26). But the pious -Judans objected to living in this new city; it had +Judæans objected to living in this new city; it had probably been built upon a site which had once<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">138</a></span> served as a battle-field, as a quantity of human bones were discovered there. The inhabitants were consequently prevented by the strict Levitical regulations from visiting the Temple, and performing various religious observances. Antipas induced the -Judans to settle there only by holding out the +Judæans to settle there only by holding out the most tempting offers and by using force; and a century actually elapsed before the more conscientious members of the people consented to take up their @@ -5991,11 +5953,11 @@ wife of Augustus. Philip, whose revenue from the country only amounted to one hundred talents, also built two cities. One of these he built in the beautiful district near the source of the Jordan, and -named it Csarea Philippi, to distinguish it from the -seaport town of Csarea; the other, to the northeast +named it Cæsarea Philippi, to distinguish it from the +seaport town of Cæsarea; the other, to the northeast of the Lake of Gennesareth, he named Julias, after -the daughter of Augustus. Indeed, Juda teemed -with monuments erected in honor of the Csars. +the daughter of Augustus. Indeed, Judæa teemed +with monuments erected in honor of the Cæsars. Philip's disposition was gentle, and seemingly unmarred by fierce passions, and his reign, which lasted seven-and-thirty years (4 <span class="smcap smaller">B. C.</span>–33 <span class="smcap smaller">A. C.</span>), was @@ -6007,26 +5969,26 @@ nature.</p> was Pontius Pilate, whose tenure of office (26–36) embraced a decade memorable in the history of the world. As soon as he was in power, he showed the -determination to subject the Judans to further +determination to subject the Judæans to further humiliation, and to convince them that they must drink the cup of suffering to the dregs. The mere facts that Pilate was the creature of the deceitful minister Sejanus, before whom emperor and senate trembled alike, and that he was sent by him -to Juda, would suffice to describe his disposition.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">139</a></span> +to Judæa, would suffice to describe his disposition.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">139</a></span> Pilate was worthy of his master; he certainly went far beyond any of his predecessors in wounding the -susceptibilities of the Judan nation. He attacked +susceptibilities of the Judæan nation. He attacked their religious scruples by endeavoring to induce them to pay homage to the emblems and insignia of imperialism. Till now the leaders of Roman troops had respected the aversion with which the -Judans were known to regard all images, and on +Judæans were known to regard all images, and on entering Jerusalem the obnoxious emblems had always been removed from the Roman standards. Herod and his sons had never failed to observe this practice. Although Pilate well knew that the feelings -of Judans had never before been outraged on +of Judæans had never before been outraged on this subject, he paid no heed to them. It is not known whether he had received secret injunctions on this point from Sejanus, or whether he acted on @@ -6038,7 +6000,7 @@ these representations of human beings were to be worshiped as deities caused the deepest indignation throughout the land. Delegates from the people, who were even joined by members of the Herodian -family, hastened to the Procurator at Csarea, and +family, hastened to the Procurator at Cæsarea, and implored him to command the removal of the hated images.</p> @@ -6048,7 +6010,7 @@ supplications. On the sixth day Pilate attempted to terrify them, and threatened that they should be cut down by his legions if they did not immediately disperse. However, when he found that the -Judans were determined to sacrifice their lives, if +Judæans were determined to sacrifice their lives, if necessary, rather than their religious convictions, and perhaps afraid of the disapproval of Tiberius, he at last gave way, and issued a command that the @@ -6063,7 +6025,7 @@ Temple (the korban). He was in Jerusalem at the time, and was surrounded by an angry populace, who assailed him with execrations. He did not venture to call out his legions, but ordered a number -of soldiers to disguise themselves in the Judan +of soldiers to disguise themselves in the Judæan dress, and to mingle with the crowd and attack them. The multitudes rapidly dispersed, but not before great numbers of them had been killed and @@ -6085,14 +6047,14 @@ his Work and Imprisonment​—​Jesus of Nazareth continues John's Labors​—​Story of his Birth​—​His Success​—​His Relations to Judaism and the Sects​—​His Miraculous Healing of the Sick and Exorcism of Demons​—​His Secret Appearance as the Messiah​—​His -Journey to Juda​—​Accusations against him, and his +Journey to Judæa​—​Accusations against him, and his Condemnation​—​The First Christian Community and its Chiefs​—​The -Ebionites​—​Removal of Pilate from Juda​—​Vitellius, Governor -of Syria, favors the Judans.</p></blockquote> +Ebionites​—​Removal of Pilate from Judæa​—​Vitellius, Governor +of Syria, favors the Judæans.</p></blockquote> <p class="center bpad">28–37 <span class="smcap smaller">C. E.</span></p> -<p>While Juda was still trembling in fear of some +<p>While Judæa was still trembling in fear of some new act of violence on the part of the governor, Pontius Pilate, which would again afflict the country with disturbances and troubles, a strange event @@ -6134,17 +6096,17 @@ turned coldly from her and struck out into strange, divergent paths. This new power, this old doctrine in a new garb, or rather this Essenism intermingled with foreign elements, is Christianity, whose advent -and earliest course belong to the Judan history of +and earliest course belong to the Judæan history of this epoch.</p> <p>Christianity owed its origin to an overpowering, mysterious feeling which reigned among the better -classes of the Judan nation, and which became +classes of the Judæan nation, and which became daily stronger as their political position became more and more intolerable. The ever-recurring evils brought on them by the rapacity of their Roman rulers, the shamelessness of the Herodian -princes, the cowardice and servility of the Judan +princes, the cowardice and servility of the Judæan aristocracy, the debasement of the high priests and their families, and the dissensions of rival parties, had raised the longing for the deliverer announced @@ -6154,13 +6116,13 @@ possessed of outward charm or imbued with moral and religious grace, would readily have found disciples, and believers in his Messianic mission. The most earnest thinkers of that time had long regarded -the political condition of the Judans since their<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">143</a></span> +the political condition of the Judæans since their<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">143</a></span> return from the Babylonian exile as a temporary or preparatory state, which would only continue until the true prophet arose, and Elijah turned the hearts of the fathers to the children, and restored the tribes of Jacob. When the people, with solemn -rites, elected the Hasmonan Simon as their prince, +rites, elected the Hasmonæan Simon as their prince, they decreed that he and his descendants should hold that position only until the True Prophet appeared to assume the royal dignity, and it was only @@ -6170,11 +6132,11 @@ belonged.</p> <p>When, consequent upon the wars undertaken by the three powerful leaders, Octavius, Antony, and -Lepidus, ostensibly to punish Csar's murderers, +Lepidus, ostensibly to punish Cæsar's murderers, in reality to introduce a new form of government, the great political convulsion took place in the Roman Empire, and three divisions of the world -were laid waste, a Judan poet in Egypt was foretelling +were laid waste, a Judæan poet in Egypt was foretelling a far different outcome—the destruction of the whole heathen world and the dawn of the "Kingdom of God." In that kingdom a holy king—the @@ -6191,7 +6153,7 @@ resurrection of the dead would take place, and a future world be revealed.</p> <p>This ardent longing for the Messiah, and the -belief in his advent, swayed all classes of the Judan +belief in his advent, swayed all classes of the Judæan nation, excepting the aristocracy and those who clung to Rome. These were satisfied with the present, and anticipated harm rather than benefit @@ -6233,7 +6195,7 @@ of Israel, richly laden with presents, expiatory offerings from the nations by which they had so long been oppressed. Even the most educated classes, who had felt the influence of Grecian culture, and were represented -by Philo, the Judan Plato, fully believed +by Philo, the Judæan Plato, fully believed that the Messianic age was to be ushered in, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">145</a></span> pictured it as an epoch of miracles. A heavenly apparition, only visible to the righteous, would lead @@ -6272,7 +6234,7 @@ far away over land and sea, and that it would be answered by the nations of the earth flocking together round the banner of a Messiah. In announcing the kingdom of heaven, he only meant to -invite the sinners among the Judan people to penitence +invite the sinners among the Judæan people to penitence and reformation. The Essene who sent forth this call to the Israelites was John the Baptist (his name doubtless meaning the Essene, he who daily<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">146</a></span> @@ -6282,7 +6244,7 @@ the Baptist. He led the same life as the Essenes, fed upon locusts and wild honey, and wore the garb of the prophets of old, a cloak of camel-hair fastened by a leather girdle. John appears to have fully -entertained the belief, that if only the whole Judan +entertained the belief, that if only the whole Judæan nation would bathe in the river Jordan, acknowledge their sins, and adopt the strict rules of the Essenes, the promised Messianic time could be no longer @@ -6307,8 +6269,8 @@ the baptized persons return improved by their immersion in the waters of the Jordan? Was any great moral influence the result of this symbolical act? History tells us not; but our knowledge of -the state of Juda at that time can easily supply -us with an answer to the question. The Judan +the state of Judæa at that time can easily supply +us with an answer to the question. The Judæan people did not as a whole, especially among the middle-class citizens, require this violent shock as a means of improvement; they were neither @@ -6367,13 +6329,13 @@ Nazareth, a small town in Lower Galilee, to the south of Sepphoris, was the eldest son of an otherwise unknown carpenter, Joseph, and of his wife Miriam or Mary, who bore him four more sons, -Jacob, Jos, Judah, and Simon, and several daughters. +Jacob, Josê, Judah, and Simon, and several daughters. Whether Joseph or Mary, the father and mother of Jesus, belonged to the family of David cannot be proved. The measure of his mental culture can only be surmised from that existing in his native province. Galilee, at a distance from the -capital and the Temple, was far behind Juda in +capital and the Temple, was far behind Judæa in mental attainments and knowledge of the Law. The lively interchange of religious thought, and the discussions upon the Law, which made its writings @@ -6386,24 +6348,24 @@ that time very poor in seats of learning. But, on the other hand, morality was stricter in Galilee, and the observance of laws and customs more rigidly enforced. The slightest infringement was not -allowed, and what the Judans permitted themselves, -the Galilans would by no means consent +allowed, and what the Judæans permitted themselves, +the Galilæans would by no means consent to. They were also looked upon as fanatical dogmatists.</p> <p>Through their vicinity to the heathen Syrians, the -Galilans had adopted many superstitions, and, +Galilæans had adopted many superstitions, and, owing to their ignorance of the nature of disease, the sick were often thought to be possessed by demons, and various forms of illness were ascribed to the influence of evil spirits. The language of the -Galilans had also become corrupted by their +Galilæans had also become corrupted by their Syrian neighbors, and was marred by the introduction<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">149</a></span> -of Aramaic forms and words. The Galilans +of Aramaic forms and words. The Galilæans could not pronounce Hebrew with purity. They exchanged, and sometimes omitted, the guttural sounds, and thus often incurred the ridicule of the -Judans, who thought a great deal of correct articulation. -The first word he spoke revealed the Galilan, +Judæans, who thought a great deal of correct articulation. +The first word he spoke revealed the Galilæan, and, as his language provoked laughter, he was not often allowed to lead in the recital of the prayers. The birthplace of Jesus, Nazareth, offered @@ -6412,10 +6374,10 @@ not more fertile than the other parts of Galilee, and bearing no comparison to the richly-watered Shechem.</p> -<p>On account of his Galilan origin, Jesus could +<p>On account of his Galilæan origin, Jesus could not have stood high in that knowledge of the Law which, through the schools of Shammai and Hillel, -had become prevalent in Juda. His small stock +had become prevalent in Judæa. His small stock of learning and his corrupt half-Aramaic language pointed unmistakably to his birthplace in Galilee. His deficiency in knowledge, however, was fully @@ -6497,7 +6459,7 @@ time. Jesus apparently felt that if his appeal was not to be lost in the desert like that of the Baptist, but, on the contrary, bring forth lasting results, it must not be addressed to the whole -nation, but to a particular class of the Judans. +nation, but to a particular class of the Judæans. The middle classes, the inhabitants of towns of greater or lesser importance, were not wanting in godliness, piety and morality, and consequently a @@ -6510,7 +6472,7 @@ nor adultery, nor have I stolen, nor borne false witness; I have honored my father and mother, and loved my neighbor like myself,"—this declaration might have been made by the greater number -of the middle-class Judans of that time. The +of the middle-class Judæans of that time. The disciples of Shammai and Hillel, the followers of the zealot Judas, the bitter foes of the Herodians and of Rome, were not morally sick, and were not in need @@ -6518,7 +6480,7 @@ of the physician's art. They were ever ready for self-sacrifice, and Jesus wisely refrained from turning to them. Still less was he inclined to attempt to reform the rich, and he was repelled by the higher -classes of Judans. From these, the warning<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">152</a></span> +classes of Judæans. From these, the warning<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">152</a></span> of the simple, unlearned moralist and preacher, his reproof of their pride, their venality and inconstancy, would only have elicited mockery and derision. @@ -6531,7 +6493,7 @@ They were publicans and tax-gatherers, shunned by the patriots, as promoters of Roman interests, who turned their backs upon the Law, and led a wild, unshackled life, heedless alike of the past and of the -future. There existed in Juda many who had no +future. There existed in Judæa many who had no knowledge of the great healing truths of Judaism, who were ignorant of its laws, and indifferent as to the glorious history of its past or its possible future. @@ -6539,8 +6501,8 @@ These were known as transgressors of the Law (Abrianim), or sinners as they were called, the friends of Herod and of Rome. There were also ignorant, poor handicraftsmen and menials (Am -ha-Arez), who were seldom able to visit the Judan -capital, or listen to Judan teachings, which, indeed, +ha-Arez), who were seldom able to visit the Judæan +capital, or listen to Judæan teachings, which, indeed, they would probably not have understood. It was not for them that Sinai had flamed, or the prophets had uttered their cry of warning; for the teachers of @@ -6681,7 +6643,7 @@ found no opponent in him, so far as it was practised without ostentation or hypocrisy. He wore on his<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">156</a></span> garments the fringes ordered by the Law, and he belonged so thoroughly to Judaism that he shared -the narrow views held by the Judans at that +the narrow views held by the Judæans at that period, and thoroughly despised the heathen world. He was animated by that feeling when he said, "Give not that which is holy unto the dogs, @@ -6692,7 +6654,7 @@ rend you."</p> <p>The merit of Jesus consists especially in his efforts to impart greater inner force to the precepts of Judaism, in the enthusiasm with which he obeyed -them himself, in his ardor to make the Judans +them himself, in his ardor to make the Judæans turn to God with filial love as children to their father, in his fervent upholding of the brotherhood of men, in his insistence that moral laws be placed @@ -6768,7 +6730,7 @@ as it were, of the twelve tribes of Israel.</p> Jesus disclosed on one occasion to the most intimate circle of his disciples. He led them to a retired spot at the foot of Mount Hermon, not far -from Csarea Philippi, the capital of the Tetrarch +from Cæsarea Philippi, the capital of the Tetrarch Philip, where the Jordan rushes forth from mighty rocks, and in that remote solitude he revealed to them the hidden object of his thoughts. But he @@ -6915,7 +6877,7 @@ exaggerations and embellishments. Prejudice certainly existed against him in the capital. The educated classes could not imagine the Messiah's saving work to be performed by an unlearned -Galilan; indeed, the idea that the Messiah, who +Galilæan; indeed, the idea that the Messiah, who was expected to come from Bethlehem, out of the branch of David, should belong to Galilee, overthrew the long-cherished conviction of centuries. It is @@ -6937,7 +6899,7 @@ deeds of heroism, for, instead of inspiring his followers with hatred of Rome, he advocated peace, and in his contempt for mammon admonished them to submit willingly to the Roman tax-gatherers. "Render -therefore unto Csar the things which are Csar's, +therefore unto Cæsar the things which are Cæsar's, and unto God the things which are God's" (Matt. xxii. 21). These startling peculiarities, which seemed to contradict the preconceived idea of the Messianic @@ -6956,7 +6918,7 @@ the Divinity peculiar to Judaism. It was just in this particular that Jesus laid himself open to accusation. The report had spread that he had called himself the Son of God—words which, if taken literally, -wounded the religious feelings of the Judan nation +wounded the religious feelings of the Judæan nation too deeply to allow him who had uttered them to pass unscathed. But how was it possible to ascertain the truth, to learn whether Jesus had really @@ -6968,7 +6930,7 @@ traitor among his immediate followers, and that traitor was found in Judas Iscariot, who, as it is related, incited by avarice, delivered up to the judges the man whom he had before honored as the Messiah. -One Judan account, derived from what +One Judæan account, derived from what appears a trustworthy source, seems to place in the true light the use made of this traitor. In order to be able to arraign Jesus either as a false prophet or @@ -7024,19 +6986,19 @@ then present for the festival at Jerusalem.</p> <p>Pilate, before whom Jesus was brought, entering into the political side of the question, asked him if he declared himself to be not only the Messiah but -the King of the Judans, and as Jesus answered +the King of the Judæans, and as Jesus answered evasively, "Thou hast said it," he likewise decreed his execution, which he indeed alone had the power to enforce. That Pilate on the contrary found Jesus innocent and wished to save him, while -the Judans had determined upon putting him +the Judæans had determined upon putting him to death, is unhistorical and merely legendary. When Jesus was scoffed at and obliged to wear the crown of thorns in ironical allusion to the Messianic and royal dignity he had assumed, it was not the -Judans who inflicted those indignities upon him, +Judæans who inflicted those indignities upon him, but the Roman soldiers, who sought through him to -deride the Judan nation. Among the Judans +deride the Judæan nation. Among the Judæans who had condemned him there was, on the contrary, so little of personal hatred that he was treated exactly like any other criminal, and was given the @@ -7044,10 +7006,10 @@ cup of wine and frankincense to render him insensible<span class="pagenum"><a na to the pains of death. That Jesus was scourged before his execution proves that he was treated according to the Roman penal laws; for by the -Judan code no one sentenced to death could +Judæan code no one sentenced to death could suffer flagellation. It was consequently the Roman lictors who maliciously scourged with fagots or ropes -the self-styled King of the Judans. They also +the self-styled King of the Judæans. They also caused Jesus (by the order of Pilate) to be nailed to the cross, and to suffer the shameful death awarded by the law of Rome. For after the verdict of death @@ -7065,7 +7027,7 @@ Aramaic tongue—"God, my God, why hast Thou forsaken me?" (Eli, eli, lama shebaktani.) The Roman soldiers placed in mockery the following inscription upon the cross: "Jesus of Nazareth, -King of the Judans." The cross had been erected +King of the Judæans." The cross had been erected and the body was probably buried outside the town, on a spot which was the graveyard of condemned criminals. It was called Golgotha, the place of skulls. @@ -7084,7 +7046,7 @@ the place of skulls, became to the civilized world a new Sinai. Strange, that events fraught with so vast an import should have created so little stir at the time of their occurrence at Jerusalem, -that the Judan historians, Justus of Tiberias and +that the Judæan historians, Justus of Tiberias and Josephus, who relate, to the very smallest minutiae, everything which took place under Pilate, do not mention the life and death of Jesus.</p> @@ -7152,7 +7114,7 @@ would be rewarded according to his deeds. They believed that some then alive would not taste death until they had seen the Son of Man enter his kingdom. His disciples were hourly expecting the -return of Jesus, and only differed from the Judans +return of Jesus, and only differed from the Judæans in so far as they thought that the Messiah had already appeared in human form and character.</p> @@ -7187,7 +7149,7 @@ Judaism, observing the Sabbath, the rite of circumcision, and the dietary laws, whilst they also reverenced Jerusalem and the Temple as holy places. They were, however, distinguished from the other -Judans in some peculiarities besides the belief they +Judæans in some peculiarities besides the belief they cherished that the Messiah had already appeared. The poverty which they willingly embraced in accordance with the teaching of Jesus was a remarkable @@ -7200,10 +7162,10 @@ chattels and to pour the produce into the common purse.</p> <p>To this class belonged the early Christians, -or Judan Christians, who were called Nazarenes,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">169</a></span> +or Judæan Christians, who were called Nazarenes,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">169</a></span> and not, according to their origin, Essenes. Seven administrators were appointed, as was usual among -the Judans, to manage the expenditure of the community, +the Judæans, to manage the expenditure of the community, and to provide for their common repasts. They abstained from meat, and followed the way of the Essenes, whom they also resembled in their @@ -7259,9 +7221,9 @@ Christians; the reception of a new member was preceded by exorcism, as though the novice had till then been possessed by the devil. It was, therefore, not surprising that the Christians should have -been looked upon by Judans and heathens as conjurors +been looked upon by Judæans and heathens as conjurors and magicians. In the first century, however, -Christians attracted but little attention in Judan +Christians attracted but little attention in Judæan circles, escaping observation on account of the humble class to which they belonged. They formed a sect of their own, and were classed with the @@ -7273,9 +7235,9 @@ to the sect, and raised it to such a pinnacle of fame that it became a ruling power in the world.</p> <p>An evil star seems to have shone over the -Judan people during the hundred years which +Judæan people during the hundred years which had elapsed since the civil wars under the last -Hasmonans, which had subjected Juda to Rome. +Hasmonæans, which had subjected Judæa to Rome. Every new event appeared to bring with it some new misfortune. The comforting proverb of Ecclesiastes, that there is nothing new under the sun, @@ -7304,7 +7266,7 @@ thorns, the blood streaming from his wounds, was ever present to his followers, filling their hearts with bitter thoughts of revenge. Instead of turning their wrath against cruel Rome, they made the -representatives of the Judan people, and by degrees +representatives of the Judæan people, and by degrees the whole nation, responsible for inhuman deeds. They either intentionally deceived themselves, or in time really forgot that Pilate was the @@ -7322,21 +7284,21 @@ incident as fraught with possible rebellion against the Roman Empire, led his troops against the Samaritans, and ordered the ringleaders, who had<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172">172</a></span> been caught in their flight, to be cruelly executed. -Judans and Samaritans jointly denounced his +Judæans and Samaritans jointly denounced his barbarity to Vitellius, the Governor of Syria, and Pilate was summoned to Rome to justify himself. -The degree of favor shown to the Judans by +The degree of favor shown to the Judæans by Tiberius after the fall of Sejanus, explains the otherwise -surprising leniency evinced towards the Judan -nation at that time. The Judans had found an +surprising leniency evinced towards the Judæan +nation at that time. The Judæans had found an advocate at court in Antonia, the sister-in-law of Tiberius. The latter, who was the friend of a patriotic prince of the house of Herod, had revealed to Tiberius the plot framed against him by Sejanus, and in grateful recognition Tiberius repealed the act -of outlawry against the Judans. Vitellius, the +of outlawry against the Judæans. Vitellius, the Governor of Syria, was graciously inclined towards -the Judans, and not only inquired into their complaints, +the Judæans, and not only inquired into their complaints, but befriended them in every way, showing a degree of indulgence and forbearance most unusual in a Roman, in those subjects on which they @@ -7359,17 +7321,17 @@ use of it to install Jonathan, the son of Anan, in the place of Joseph Caiaphas. Caiaphas had acted in concert with Pilate during all the time he had governed, and from his good understanding with the latter had -doubtless become distasteful to the Judan nation.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">173</a></span> -The favor granted to the Judans by Vitellius was +doubtless become distasteful to the Judæan nation.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">173</a></span> +The favor granted to the Judæans by Vitellius was in accordance with the wishes of the Emperor, who commanded him to aid the nation with all the available Roman forces in an unjust cause—that of Herod Antipas against King Aretas. Antipas, who was married to the daughter of Aretas, king of the -Nabathans, had nevertheless fallen in love with +Nabathæans, had nevertheless fallen in love with Herodias, the wife of his half-brother Herod, who, disinherited by his father Herod I., led a private life, -probably in Csarea. During a journey to Rome, +probably in Cæsarea. During a journey to Rome, Antipas became acquainted with Herodias, who, doubtless repining at her obscure position, abandoned her husband, and after the birth of a daughter @@ -7380,19 +7342,19 @@ urged him to make war upon her faithless husband. Antipas suffered a great defeat, which was no sooner made known to the Emperor than he gave Vitellius orders instantly to undertake his defense against the -king of the Nabathans. As Vitellius was about to -conduct two legions from Ptolemais through Juda, +king of the Nabathæans. As Vitellius was about to +conduct two legions from Ptolemais through Judæa, the people took offense at the pictures of the Emperor which the soldiers bore on their standards, and which were to have been carried to Jerusalem, -but out of regard to the scruples of the Judans, -Vitellius, instead of leading his army through Juda, +but out of regard to the scruples of the Judæans, +Vitellius, instead of leading his army through Judæa, conveyed it along the farther side of the Jordan. Vitellius himself was received with the greatest favor in Jerusalem, and offered sacrifices in the Temple. Of all the Roman governors he was the one who had shown most kindness to the -Judans.</p> +Judæans.</p> <hr /> @@ -7405,11 +7367,11 @@ Judans.</p> <blockquote> <p class="hang">Character of Agrippa​—​Envy of the Alexandrian Greeks towards the -Judans​—​Anti-Judan Literature​—​Apion​—​Measures against -the Judans in Alexandria​—​Flaccus​—​Judan Embassy to Rome​—​Philo​—​Caligula's -Decision against the Judan Embassy​—​Caligula +Judæans​—​Anti-Judæan Literature​—​Apion​—​Measures against +the Judæans in Alexandria​—​Flaccus​—​Judæan Embassy to Rome​—​Philo​—​Caligula's +Decision against the Judæan Embassy​—​Caligula orders his Statue to be placed in the Temple​—​The -Death of Caligula relieves the Judans​—​Agrippa's Advance +Death of Caligula relieves the Judæans​—​Agrippa's Advance under Claudius​—​His Reign​—​Gamaliel the Elder and his Administration​—​Death of Agrippa​—​Herod II—The False Messiah, Theudas​—​Death of Herod II.</p></blockquote> @@ -7425,35 +7387,35 @@ which would in time to come displace her authority, trample upon her gods, shatter her power, and bring about a gradual decadence, ending in complete decay. An idea, conceived and brought -forth by one of Judan birth and developed by a +forth by one of Judæan birth and developed by a despised class of society, was to tread the power and glory of Rome in the dust. The third Roman Emperor, Caius Caligula Germanicus, was himself instrumental in delivering up to national contempt the Roman deities, in a sense the corner-stone of -the Roman Empire. The throne of the Csars +the Roman Empire. The throne of the Cæsars had been alternately in the power of men actuated by cruel cowardice and strange frenzy. None of the nations tributary to Rome suffered more deeply from this continual change in her masters than did -the Judans. Every change in the great offices -of state affected Juda, at times favorably, but more +the Judæans. Every change in the great offices +of state affected Judæa, at times favorably, but more often unfavorably. The first years of Caligula's -reign appeared to be auspicious for Juda. Caligula<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">175</a></span> -specially distinguished one of the Judan princes, +reign appeared to be auspicious for Judæa. Caligula<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">175</a></span> +specially distinguished one of the Judæan princes, Agrippa, with marks of his favor, thus holding out the prospect of a milder rule. But it was soon evident that this kindness, this good-will and favor, were but momentary caprices, to be followed by others of a far different and of a terrible character, -which threw the Judans of the Roman Empire into +which threw the Judæans of the Roman Empire into a state of fear and terror.</p> <p>Agrippa (born 10 <span class="smcap smaller">B. C. E.</span>, died 44 <span class="smcap smaller">C. E.</span>) was the son of the prince Aristobulus who had been assassinated -by Herod, and grandson of the Hasmonan +by Herod, and grandson of the Hasmonæan princess Mariamne; thus in his veins ran the blood -of the Hasmonans and Idumans, and these two +of the Hasmonæans and Idumæans, and these two hostile elements appeared to fight for the mastery over his actions, until at last the nobler was victorious. Educated in Rome, in the companionship of @@ -7461,10 +7423,10 @@ Drusus, the son of Tiberius, the Herodian element in Agrippa was the first to develop. As a Roman courtier, intent upon purchasing Roman favor, he dissipated his fortune and fell into debt. Forced -to quit Rome for Juda, after the death of his friend +to quit Rome for Judæa, after the death of his friend Drusus, he was reduced to such distress that he, who -was accustomed to live with the Csars, had to hide -in a remote part of Iduma. It was then that he +was accustomed to live with the Cæsars, had to hide +in a remote part of Idumæa. It was then that he contemplated suicide. But his high-spirited wife, Cypros, who was resolved to save him from despair, appealed to his sister Herodias, Princess of Galilee, @@ -7478,11 +7440,11 @@ very doubtful position he was driven by the jealousy of his own brother Aristobulus. Seemingly abandoned by all his friends, Agrippa determined upon once more trying his fortune in Rome. The -richest and most distinguished Judans of the Alexandrian +richest and most distinguished Judæans of the Alexandrian community, the Alabarch, Alexander Lysimachus,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">176</a></span> with whom he had taken refuge, provided him with the necessary means for his journey. This -noblest Judan of his age, guardian of the property +noblest Judæan of his age, guardian of the property of the young Antonia, the daughter of the triumvir, had evidently rendered such services to the imperial family that he had been adopted into it, and was @@ -7531,7 +7493,7 @@ to wear on his account, and placed the royal diadem upon his head, giving him the principality of Philip, that had fallen to the Empire of Rome. By decree of the Roman Senate he also received the title of -Prtor. So devoted was Caligula to Agrippa that, +Prætor. So devoted was Caligula to Agrippa that, during the first year of his reign, the Roman emperor would not hear of his quitting Rome, and when at length Agrippa was permitted to take possession @@ -7539,7 +7501,7 @@ of his own kingdom, he had to give his solemn promise that he would soon return to his imperial friend.</p> -<p>When Agrippa made his entry into Juda as monarch +<p>When Agrippa made his entry into Judæa as monarch and favorite of the Roman emperor, poor and deeply in debt though he had been when he left it, his wonderful change of fortune excited the envy of his @@ -7559,54 +7521,54 @@ followed by his faithful and true-hearted wife. Herod's last son, Herod Antipas, and his granddaughter, Herodias, died in exile. Agrippa, by imperial favor, became the heir of his brother-in-law, -and the provinces of Galilee and Pera were added +and the provinces of Galilee and Peræa were added to his other possessions.</p> <p>The favor evinced by Caligula towards Agrippa,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">178</a></span> -which might naturally be extended to the Judan +which might naturally be extended to the Judæan people, awakened the envy of the heathens, and brought the hatred of the Alexandrian Greeks to a crisis. Indeed, the whole of the Roman Empire -harbored secret and public enemies of the Judans. +harbored secret and public enemies of the Judæans. Hatred of their race and of their creed was intensified by a lurking fear that this despised yet proud nation might one day attain to supreme power. But -the hostile feeling against the Judans reached its +the hostile feeling against the Judæans reached its climax amongst the restless, sarcastic and pleasure-loving Greek inhabitants of Alexandria. They looked unfavorably upon the industry and prosperity -of their Judan neighbors, by whom they were surpassed +of their Judæan neighbors, by whom they were surpassed in both these respects, and whom they did not excel even in artistic and philosophical attainments. These feelings of hatred dated from the -time when the Egyptian queen entrusted Judan +time when the Egyptian queen entrusted Judæan generals with the management of the foreign affairs of her country, and they increased in intensity when the Roman emperors placed more confidence in the -reliable Judans than in the frivolous Greeks. +reliable Judæans than in the frivolous Greeks. Slanderous writers nourished this hatred, and in -their endeavors to throw contempt upon the Judans -they falsified the history of which the Judans were +their endeavors to throw contempt upon the Judæans +they falsified the history of which the Judæans were justly proud.</p> <p>The Stoic philosopher Posidonius circulated false legends about the origin and the nature of the -divine worship of the Judans, which legends had +divine worship of the Judæans, which legends had been originally invented by the courtiers of Antiochus Epiphanes. The disgraceful story of the worship of an ass in the Temple of Jerusalem, besides other tales as untrue and absurd, added to the -assertion that the Judans hated all Gentiles, found +assertion that the Judæans hated all Gentiles, found ready belief in a younger, contemporary writer, Apollonius Malo, with whom Posidonius had become acquainted in the island of Rhodes, and by whom they were widely circulated. Malo gave a -new account of the history of the Judan exodus, +new account of the history of the Judæan exodus, which he declared was occasioned by some enormity<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">179</a></span> -on the part of the Judans; he described Moses as +on the part of the Judæans; he described Moses as a criminal, and the Mosaic Law as containing the most abominable precepts. He declared that the -Judans were atheists, that they hated mankind in +Judæans were atheists, that they hated mankind in general; he accused them of alternate acts of cowardice and temerity, and maintained that they were the most uncultured people amongst the barbarians, @@ -7614,21 +7576,21 @@ and could not lay claim to the invention of any one thing which had benefited humanity. It was from these two Rhodian authors that the spiteful and venom-tongued Cicero culled his unworthy -attack upon the Judan race and the Judan Law. -In this respect he differed from Julius Csar, who, +attack upon the Judæan race and the Judæan Law. +In this respect he differed from Julius Cæsar, who, in spite of his associations with Posidonius and Malo, was entirely free from all prejudice against the -Judans.</p> +Judæans.</p> <p>The Alexandrian Greeks devoured these calumnies with avidity, exaggerated them, and gave them still wider circulation. Only three Greek authors -mentioned the Judans favorably—Alexander Polyhistor, +mentioned the Judæans favorably—Alexander Polyhistor, Nicolaus of Damascus, the confidant of Herod, and, lastly, Strabo, the most remarkable geographer of ancient times, who devoted a fine passage in his geographical and historical work -to Judaism. Although he mentions the Judans +to Judaism. Although he mentions the Judæans as having originated from Egypt, he does not repeat the legend that their expulsion was occasioned by some fault of their own. Far otherwise @@ -7638,7 +7600,7 @@ Moses and his followers from the shores of the Nile. He writes in praise of the Mosaic teaching relative to the unity of God, as opposed to the Egyptian plurality of deities, and of the spiritual, imageless -worship of the Judans in contrast to the animal +worship of the Judæans in contrast to the animal worship of the Egyptians, and to the investing of the divinity with a human form among the Greeks. "How can any sensible man," he exclaims, "dare @@ -7648,12 +7610,12 @@ teaches that the Mosaic Law was the great mainstay of righteousness, for it holds out the divine blessing to all those whose lives are pure. For some time after the death of their great lawgiver, Strabo maintains -that the Judans acted in conformity with the +that the Judæans acted in conformity with the Law, doing right and fearing God. Of the sanctuary in Jerusalem he speaks with veneration, for, although -the Judan kings were often faithless to the Law of +the Judæan kings were often faithless to the Law of Moses and to their subjects, yet the capital of the -Judans was invested with its own dignity, and the +Judæans was invested with its own dignity, and the people, far from looking upon it as the seat of despotism, revered and honored it as the Temple of God.</p> @@ -7661,7 +7623,7 @@ God.</p> <p>One author exceeded all the other hostile writers in the outrageous nature of his calumnies; this was the Egyptian Apion, who was filled with burning -envy at the prosperous condition of the Judans. +envy at the prosperous condition of the Judæans. He gave a new and exaggerated account of all the old stories of his predecessors, and gained the ear of the credulous multitude by the readiness and @@ -7684,7 +7646,7 @@ for he assured the Alexandrians that they were fortunate in being able to claim him as a citizen. It is not astonishing that so unscrupulous a man should<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">181</a></span> have made use of the hatred they bore to the -Judans to do the latter all the injury in his power.</p> +Judæans to do the latter all the injury in his power.</p> <p>But the hostility of the Alexandrians, based on envy and religious and racial antipathy, was suppressed @@ -7702,13 +7664,13 @@ upon himself, was cowed into submission by the Alexandrians, and became a mere tool in their hands. At the news of Agrippa's accession to the throne, they were filled with burning envy, and the -delight of the Alexandrian Judans, with whom +delight of the Alexandrian Judæans, with whom Agrippa came into contact through the Alabarch Alexander, only incensed them still more and roused them to action.</p> <p>Two most abject beings were the originators and -leaders of this anti-Judan demonstration; a venal +leaders of this anti-Judæan demonstration; a venal clerk of the court of justice, Isidorus, who was called by the popular wits, the Pen of Blood, because his pettifoggery had robbed many of their life, and @@ -7718,14 +7680,14 @@ city. These two agitators ruled, on the one hand, the weak and helpless governor, and, on the other, they led the dregs of the people, who were prepared to give vent to their feelings of hatred towards -the Judans upon a sign from their leaders.</p> +the Judæans upon a sign from their leaders.</p> <p>Unfortunately, Agrippa, whose change of fortune had been an offense in the eyes of the Alexandrians, touched at their capital upon his return from Rome -to Juda (July, 38), and his presence roused the -enemies of the Judans to fresh conspiracies.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182">182</a></span> -These began with a farce, but ended for the Judans +to Judæa (July, 38), and his presence roused the +enemies of the Judæans to fresh conspiracies.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182">182</a></span> +These began with a farce, but ended for the Judæans in terrible earnest. At first Agrippa and his race were insultingly jeered at. A harmless fool, Carabas, was tricked out in a crown of papyrus and a @@ -7739,10 +7701,10 @@ carrying with them busts of the emperor, with the pretext of dedicating these places of worship to Caligula. In addition to this, at the importunate instance of the conspirators, the governor, -Flaccus, was induced to withdraw from the Judan +Flaccus, was induced to withdraw from the Judæan inhabitants of Alexandria what they had held so gratefully from the first emperors—the right of -citizenship. This was a terrible blow to the Judans +citizenship. This was a terrible blow to the Judæans of Alexandria, proud as they were of their privileges, and justly entitled to the credit of having enriched this metropolis by their learning, @@ -7758,7 +7720,7 @@ of centuries.</p> <p>After committing these acts of depredation, the infuriated Alexandrians surrounded the Delta, under -the idea that the unfortunate Judans would be +the idea that the unfortunate Judæans would be driven to open resistance by the pangs of hunger or by the suffocating heat they were enduring in their close confinement. When at last the scarcity @@ -7774,19 +7736,19 @@ any maidens or women crossed the enemy's path they were offered pig's flesh as food, and upon their refusing to eat it they were cruelly tortured. Not satisfied with all these barbarities, Flaccus ordered -his soldiers to search the houses of the Judans for +his soldiers to search the houses of the Judæans for any weapons that might be concealed there, and they were told to leave not even the chambers of modest maidens unsearched. This reign of terror continued until the middle of September. At that time an imperial envoy appeared to depose Flaccus and to summon him to Rome, not on account of -his abominable conduct towards the Judans, but +his abominable conduct towards the Judæans, but because he was hated by the emperor. His sentence was exile and he was eventually killed.</p> <p>The emperor alone could have settled the vexed -question as to whether the Judans had the right +question as to whether the Judæans had the right of equal citizenship with the Greeks in Alexandria; but he was then in Germany or in Gaul celebrating childish triumphs, or in Britain gathering shells on @@ -7794,14 +7756,14 @@ the seashore. When he returned to Rome (August, 40) with the absurd idea of allowing himself to be worshiped as a god, and of raising temples and statues to his own honor, the heathen Greeks justly -imagined that their cause against the Judans was +imagined that their cause against the Judæans was won. They restored the imperial statues in the Alexandrian synagogues, convinced that in the face -of so great a sacrilege the Judans would rebel and +of so great a sacrilege the Judæans would rebel and thereby arouse the emperor's wrath. This was actually the cause of a fresh disturbance, for the new governor of Alexandria took part against the -Judans, courting in this way the imperial favor. +Judæans, courting in this way the imperial favor. He insisted that the unhappy people should show divine honors to the images of the emperor, and when they refused on the ground that such an act<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184">184</a></span> @@ -7827,7 +7789,7 @@ they remained true to their faith, and prepared to undergo any penalties that might be inflicted upon them. Some few appear to have embraced paganism out of fear or from worldly motives. The -Judan philosopher, Philo, gives some account of +Judæan philosopher, Philo, gives some account of the renegades of his time and his community, whom he designates as frivolous, immoral, and utterly unworthy. Amongst them may be mentioned the @@ -7835,18 +7797,18 @@ son of the Alabarch Alexander, Tiberius Julius Alexander, who forsook Judaism, and was consequently raised to high honors in the Roman State.</p> -<p>Meanwhile, the Judans determined upon pleading +<p>Meanwhile, the Judæans determined upon pleading their cause before the emperor. Three men (who were specially adapted for their mission) were selected to be sent as envoys to Rome. One of -these, the Judan philosopher, Philo, was so far +these, the Judæan philosopher, Philo, was so far distinguished through birth, social standing, profound culture, and brilliant eloquence, that no better pleader for the cause of justice could have been found. Through the medium of his powerful writings Philo has so largely influenced not only his<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">185</a></span> contemporaries but also those who came after him, -both within and without the Judan community, +both within and without the Judæan community, that the scanty accounts of his life must not be passed over. As brother of the Alabarch Alexander, Philo belonged to the most distinguished @@ -7912,7 +7874,7 @@ grasped at ordinary times.</p> <p>This was the man who was to present himself before the emperor, as the representative of the -Alexandrian Judan community. The heathen +Alexandrian Judæan community. The heathen Alexandrians also sent a deputation, headed by Apion, to which also belonged the venom-tongued Isidorus. Not only were the envoys concerned @@ -7932,21 +7894,21 @@ of smooth-tongued vainglory, and bore the stamp of the vanity and self-conceit of fallen Greece. But the outcome of this contest remains doubtful. Caligula was too passionate a partisan to -be a just umpire. He hated the Judans because +be a just umpire. He hated the Judæans because they would not recognize and worship him as their deity, and his hatred was fanned by two contemptible creatures, whom he had dragged from the mire and had attached to himself—the Egyptian Helicon and Apelles of Ascalon.</p> -<p>The Judan envoys were hardly permitted to +<p>The Judæan envoys were hardly permitted to speak when they were admitted to the imperial presence, and Caligula's first word was one of jarring reproof: "So you are the despisers of God, who will not recognize me as the deity, but who prefer worshiping a nameless one, whilst all my other subjects have accepted me as their god." -The Judan envoys declared that they had offered +The Judæan envoys declared that they had offered up three successive offerings in honor of Caligula: the first upon his accession to the throne; the second upon his recovery from a severe illness; @@ -7959,7 +7921,7 @@ awakening the ribald merriment of his pagan audience, upon what grounds do you hold your right of equality with the Alexandrians?" Without waiting for a reply, he turned his attention to something -else. Later on when he dismissed the Judan +else. Later on when he dismissed the Judæan envoys, he remarked that they seemed less wicked than stupid in not being willing to acknowledge his divinity.</p> @@ -7974,9 +7936,9 @@ profaned by Caligula. For not only were the imperial statues to be erected in the synagogues, but also in the Temple of Jerusalem. The governor of Syria, Petronius, had received orders to enter -Juda with his legions and to turn the Sanctuary +Judæa with his legions and to turn the Sanctuary into a pagan temple. It is easy to conceive the -mortal anguish of the Judan nation when these +mortal anguish of the Judæan nation when these orders became known to them. On the eve of the Feast of Tabernacles a messenger appeared in Jerusalem, who converted this feast of rejoicing @@ -7985,14 +7947,14 @@ at Accho, on the outskirts of Jerusalem, but, as the rainy season was at hand, and as obstinate resistance was expected, the Roman commander resolved to await the spring before commencing -active operations. Thousands of Judans hastened +active operations. Thousands of Judæans hastened to appear before Petronius, declaring that they would rather suffer the penalty of death than allow their Temple to be desecrated. Petronius, perplexed as to how he should carry out this mad scheme of Caligula's, consulted the members of the Royal Council, entreating of them to influence the -people in his favor. But the Judan aristocracy, +people in his favor. But the Judæan aristocracy, and even Agrippa's own brother Aristobulus, held with the people. Petronius then sent a true statement of the case to the emperor, hoping that he @@ -8005,7 +7967,7 @@ of a year of famine.</p> <p>But before Petronius' letter was in the hands of the emperor, Caligula's intentions had been frustrated -by Agrippa. The Judan king had acquired<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189">189</a></span> +by Agrippa. The Judæan king had acquired<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189">189</a></span> so extraordinary an influence over Caligula that the Romans called him and Antiochus of Commagene, his teachers in tyranny. Agrippa, who was living @@ -8022,7 +7984,7 @@ working for his people's cause. Caligula, flattered by the attentions that were lavished upon him, bade Agrippa demand a boon, which should be instantly granted. His astonishment was indeed boundless -when the Judan monarch begged for the repeal +when the Judæan monarch begged for the repeal of the imperial edict concerning images. He had little thought that his refined courtier would prove so unselfish a man, so pious, and so thoroughly @@ -8039,28 +8001,28 @@ and excitable nature into a fury. A new and stringent order was given to proceed with the introduction of the statues into the Temple of Jerusalem. But before this order, terrible to the -Judans and full of danger to Petronius himself, +Judæans and full of danger to Petronius himself, had arrived in Jerusalem, it was announced that the insane Caligula had met with his death at the -hands of the Prtorian Tribune Chereas (24 Jan., +hands of the Prætorian Tribune Chereas (24 Jan., 41). These tidings came to Jerusalem on the 22d of Shebat (March, 41), and the day was afterwards celebrated as one of great rejoicing.</p> <p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190">190</a></span> Caligula's successor upon the throne of the -Csars was Claudius, a learned pedant and a fool. +Cæsars was Claudius, a learned pedant and a fool. He owed his crown to chance, and to the diplomacy of King Agrippa, who had induced the reluctant -Senate to accept the choice of the Prtorians. +Senate to accept the choice of the Prætorians. Rome must indeed have fallen low when -a somewhat insignificant Judan prince was allowed +a somewhat insignificant Judæan prince was allowed to speak in the Senate House, and, in some measure, to have influence in the choice of her ruler. Claudius was not ungrateful to his ally; he lauded him before the assembled Senate, raised him to the dignity of consul, and made him king of all -Palestine, for Juda and Samaria were incorporated +Palestine, for Judæa and Samaria were incorporated with the monarchy.</p> <p>As a remembrance of these events, the emperor @@ -8072,22 +8034,22 @@ comradeship of King Agrippa with the Senate and the Roman people." On the other side was the emperor between two figures, and the inscription: "King Agrippa, friend of the emperor." The kingdom -of Juda had thus recovered its full extent; +of Judæa had thus recovered its full extent; indeed, it had acquired even a greater area than it -possessed formerly under the Hasmonans and +possessed formerly under the Hasmonæans and Herod I.</p> <p>Herod II., brother and son-in-law of King Agrippa, -received from Claudius the rank of Prtor, and was +received from Claudius the rank of Prætor, and was made prince of Chalcis, in Lebanon. The Alexandrian -Judans greatly benefited by the new order +Judæans greatly benefited by the new order of things which was brought about in the vast Roman Empire by the death of Caligula. The emperor Claudius freed the Alabarch Alexander, with whom he was on friendly terms, from the imprisonment into which his predecessor had thrown him, and settled the disputes of the Alexandrians -in favor of the Judans. Caligula's prejudice +in favor of the Judæans. Caligula's prejudice against that unfortunate community had developed<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191">191</a></span> their independence, and their strength was far from being broken. Their rights and privileges were @@ -8095,19 +8057,19 @@ fully re-established by an edict of the new emperor, and they were placed on an equal footing with the Greek inhabitants of Egypt. The dignity of the Alabarch was restored by the emperor, and -this was most important to the Judans, for it +this was most important to the Judæans, for it assured them of the leadership of one of their own race, and made them independent of the Roman officials. It was during this reign that Philo gave the wealth of his learning to a wide circle of readers, -and was instrumental in bringing Judan-Greek +and was instrumental in bringing Judæan-Greek culture to its zenith. Claudius extended his goodwill -to the Judans of the entire Roman Empire, +to the Judæans of the entire Roman Empire, granting them complete religious freedom, and protecting them from the interference of the pagans.</p> <p>When Agrippa, laden with honors, left Rome -for Juda to take possession of his kingdom, +for Judæa to take possession of his kingdom, his subjects remarked that some great change was manifest in him, and that the stirring revolution in Rome, by which a headstrong emperor @@ -8118,8 +8080,8 @@ the courtier had given place to the patriot; the pleasure-loving prince to the conscientious monarch, who was fully aware of what he owed his nation. The Herodian nature had, in fact, been -entirely subdued by the Hasmonan. For the last -time, Juda enjoyed under his reign a short span of +entirely subdued by the Hasmonæan. For the last +time, Judæa enjoyed under his reign a short span of undisturbed happiness; and his subjects, won by his generous affection, which even risked forfeiting the good will of Rome in their cause, repaid him with @@ -8138,9 +8100,9 @@ the congregation, Agrippa performed this act for the first time in the autumn of the year 42, and when he came to the verse, "From amongst your brethren shall you choose a king," he burst into a passion -of tears, for he was painfully aware of his Iduman +of tears, for he was painfully aware of his Idumæan descent, and knew that he was unworthy of being -a king of Juda. But the assembled multitude, +a king of Judæa. But the assembled multitude, and even the Pharisees, exclaimed with enthusiasm: "Thou art our brother; thou art our brother!"</p> @@ -8157,10 +8119,10 @@ somewhat of a monarchical character. The consent of the president was required for the interpolation of a leap year, and all letters or mandates addressed to near or distant communities were -sent in his name. The formul of these letters, +sent in his name. The formulæ of these letters, which have in some instances been handed down to us, are extremely interesting, both in contents -and form, for they prove that all Judan communities, +and form, for they prove that all Judæan communities, as well as their representatives, acknowledged the supreme authority of the Synhedrion. Gamaliel would address a foreign community through @@ -8182,23 +8144,23 @@ they were principally directed against the abuses that had crept in, or were aimed at promoting the welfare of the whole community. It was the true spirit of Hillel that pervaded the laws framed -by Gamaliel for the intercourse between the Judans +by Gamaliel for the intercourse between the Judæans and the heathens. The heathen poor were permitted to glean the fields in the wake of the reapers, and -were treated exactly like the Judan poor, and the +were treated exactly like the Judæan poor, and the pagans were given the peace greetings upon their own festivals when they were following their own rites. The poor in all towns of mixed population received equal treatment; they were helped in time of distress, their sick were nursed, their dead were honorably treated, their sorrowing ones were comforted, -whether they were pagans or Judans. In +whether they were pagans or Judæans. In these ordinances, so full of kindly feeling towards the heathen, the influence of Agrippa is plainly -visible. Rome and Juda had for the moment laid +visible. Rome and Judæa had for the moment laid aside their mutual antipathy, and their intercourse was characterized by love and forbearance. The -generosity of the emperor towards the Judans +generosity of the emperor towards the Judæans went so far that he severely punished some thoughtless Greek youths in the town of Dora for attempting to introduce his statues into the synagogues. The @@ -8212,7 +8174,7 @@ Greek and Ionian towns, so his grandson conferred a great benefit upon the degenerate city, once<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_194" id="Page_194">194</a></span> mother of the arts, a benefit which her citizens did not easily forget. He also showered favors upon -the inhabitants of Csarea, the city that Herod had +the inhabitants of Cæsarea, the city that Herod had raised as a rival of Jerusalem, and upon the Greeks of the seaboard Sebaste, who lived in their own special quarter. These recipients of his benefits @@ -8222,7 +8184,7 @@ daughters, and struck coins in his honor, bearing the inscription—"To the great king Agrippa, friend of the emperor." The last years of this monarch's reign were happy for his nation, both within and -without the kingdom of Juda. They were like the +without the kingdom of Judæa. They were like the rosy flush in the evening sky that precedes, not the dawn of day, but the blackness of night. In some respects they call to mind the reign of King Josiah @@ -8252,11 +8214,11 @@ but now honored race.</p> not to be of long duration. Although he had gained the complete confidence of the emperor, the Roman dignitaries looked upon him with suspicion,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_195" id="Page_195">195</a></span> -and beheld in each step made by the Judan +and beheld in each step made by the Judæan king some traces of disaffection; and they were not far wrong. For, however much Agrippa might coquet with Rome, he was yet determined to make -Juda capable of resisting that great power, should +Judæa capable of resisting that great power, should an encounter, which he deemed inevitable, occur between the two. His people should not be dependent upon the caprice of one individual. @@ -8279,7 +8241,7 @@ her at defiance, and succeeded in wringing from Claudius the revocation of his permission. Agrippa was forced to obey, not being in the position to openly offer resistance. But at heart he determined -upon weakening the Roman sway in Juda. To +upon weakening the Roman sway in Judæa. To attain these ends, he allied himself secretly with those princes with whom he was connected by marriage or on terms of friendly relationship, and @@ -8305,11 +8267,11 @@ bade them return each man to his own city. So tremendous was the power of Rome, that at one word from an underling of the emperor the meeting was annulled. But the energy and perseverance -of Agrippa would probably have spared Juda from +of Agrippa would probably have spared Judæa from any possible humiliation, and assured her future safety, had his life been prolonged; he met, however, with an unexpected death at the age of -fifty-four. Juda's star sank with that monarch, +fifty-four. Judæa's star sank with that monarch, who died, like Josiah, the last great king of the pre-exilian age, a quarter of a century before the destruction of his State.</p> @@ -8318,7 +8280,7 @@ of his State.</p> of Palestine had but dissembled their true feelings in regard to King Agrippa. Forgetful of that monarch's benefits, the Syrians and Greeks of -the city of Csarea, and of the seaboard of Sebaste, +the city of Cæsarea, and of the seaboard of Sebaste, solaced themselves by heaping abuse upon his memory, and by offering up thank-offerings to Charon for his death. The Roman soldiery quartered @@ -8329,32 +8291,32 @@ into brothels.</p> <p>Claudius was not indifferent to the insults offered to his dead friend's memory. He was, on the contrary, anxious to raise Agrippa's son, Agrippa II., -to the throne of Juda. But in this he was opposed +to the throne of Judæa. But in this he was opposed by his two all-powerful favorites, Pallas and Narcissus, on the plea of the prince's youth (he was<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_197" id="Page_197">197</a></span> -seventeen years of age), and Juda was thus allowed +seventeen years of age), and Judæa was thus allowed to sink once more into a Roman province.</p> <p>However, out of affection and respect to the dead -king, the emperor gave the Judan governor Cuspius +king, the emperor gave the Judæan governor Cuspius Fadus a somewhat independent position in regard to the Syrian governor Vibius Marsus, who -had always been hostile to Agrippa and the Judans. +had always been hostile to Agrippa and the Judæans. It was his soldiery who had insulted the -memory of the Judan monarch, and for this +memory of the Judæan monarch, and for this cowardly action they were to be punished and exiled to Pontus. They managed, however, to extort a pardon from the emperor, and remained -in Juda, a circumstance which contributed not a +in Judæa, a circumstance which contributed not a little to excite the bitterest feelings of the national party, which they fully returned. They could ill -control their hatred of the Judans, stinging the +control their hatred of the Judæans, stinging the latter into retaliation. Companies of freebooters under daring leaders prepared, as after the death of Herod, to free their country from the yoke of Rome. But Fadus was prepared for this rising. It was his desire to strengthen the Roman rule in -Juda, and to give it the same importance that it +Judæa, and to give it the same importance that it had had before the reign of Agrippa; and to this end he attempted to keep the selection of the high priest and the sacred robes in his own hands. But @@ -8376,14 +8338,14 @@ of four men—Cornelius, Tryphon, Dorotheus, and<span class="pagenum"><a nam John—started for Rome. When they arrived in that city they were introduced to the emperor by the young Agrippa. Claudius, still faithful to his -old affection for the Herodians, granted the Judans +old affection for the Herodians, granted the Judæans full right to follow their own laws, and gave Herod permission to choose the high priest of the Sanctuary. Taking instant advantage of this permission, Herod raised Joseph, of the house of Camith, to the high priesthood in the place of Elionai, his brother's choice. To a certain extent -Herod II. may be regarded as king of Juda, but +Herod II. may be regarded as king of Judæa, but he exerted no influence upon the course of political events. All legal power was vested in the hands of the governor; the Synhedrion lost, under the @@ -8407,10 +8369,10 @@ made others prisoners, and decapitated their leader.</p> <p>Shortly after these events Fadus was recalled from Jerusalem, and his place was taken by Tiberius Julius Alexander, son of the Alabarch Alexander, -nephew of the Judan philosopher Philo. Tiberius, +nephew of the Judæan philosopher Philo. Tiberius, who had espoused paganism, bore already the dignity of a Roman knight. The Emperor believed -doubtless that in naming a Judan of a distinguished +doubtless that in naming a Judæan of a distinguished house as governor over the land, he was giving proof of his friendliness to the nation. He did not imagine that their sensitive natures would be violently<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_199" id="Page_199">199</a></span> @@ -8430,7 +8392,7 @@ years at his post. He was afterwards named governor of Egypt, and exercised considerable influence in the choice of the emperor.</p> -<p>Herod II., king of Chalcis, titular king of Juda, +<p>Herod II., king of Chalcis, titular king of Judæa, died at this time (48), and with him the third generation of Herodians sank into the grave.</p> @@ -8440,15 +8402,15 @@ of Herodians sank into the grave.</p> <h2 class="vspace"><a name="CHAPTER_VIII" id="CHAPTER_VIII">CHAPTER VIII.</a><br /> -<span class="smaller">SPREAD OF THE JUDAN RACE, AND OF JUDAISM.</span></h2> +<span class="smaller">SPREAD OF THE JUDÆAN RACE, AND OF JUDAISM.</span></h2> <blockquote> -<p class="hang">Distribution of the Judans in the Roman Empire and in Parthia​—​Relations -of the various Judan Colonies to the Synhedrion​—​Judan +<p class="hang">Distribution of the Judæans in the Roman Empire and in Parthia​—​Relations +of the various Judæan Colonies to the Synhedrion​—​Judæan Bandits in Naarda​—​Heathen Attacks upon Judaism​—​Counter -Attacks upon Heathenism by Judan Writers​—​The -Judan Sibyls​—​The Anti-heathen Literature​—​The Book of +Attacks upon Heathenism by Judæan Writers​—​The +Judæan Sibyls​—​The Anti-heathen Literature​—​The Book of Wisdom​—​The Allegorists​—​Philo's Aims and Philosophical System​—​Proselytes​—​The Royal House of Adiabene​—​The Proselyte Queen Helen​—​The Apostle Paul​—​His Character​—​Change @@ -8458,23 +8420,23 @@ Doctrines of Peter​—​Judaic-Christians and Heathen-Christians. <p class="center bpad">40–49 <span class="smcap smaller">C. E.</span></p> -<p>Round the very cradle of the Judan race there had +<p>Round the very cradle of the Judæan race there had rung prophetic strains, telling of endless wanderings and dispersions. No other people had ever heard such alarming predictions, and they were being fulfilled in all their literal horror. There was hardly a corner in the two great predominant kingdoms of that time, the Roman and the Parthian, in which -Judans were not living, and where they had not +Judæans were not living, and where they had not formed themselves into a religious community. The shores of the great midland sea, and the outlets of all the principal rivers of the old world, of the Nile, the Euphrates, the Tigris, and the Danube, were -peopled with Judans. A cruel destiny seemed to +peopled with Judæans. A cruel destiny seemed to be ever thrusting them away from their central home. Yet this dispersion was the work of Providence and was to prove a blessing. The continuance of the -Judan race was thus assured. Down-trodden and +Judæan race was thus assured. Down-trodden and persecuted in one country, they fled to another, where the old faith, which became ever dearer to them, found a new home. Seeds were scattered @@ -8487,7 +8449,7 @@ to communities governed by law, so had the far wider dispersion of the oldest civilized people contributed to overthrow the errors and combat the sensual vices of the heathen world. In spite of being -thus scattered, the members of the Judan people +thus scattered, the members of the Judæan people were not completely divided from one another; they had a common center of union in the Temple of Jerusalem and in the Synhedrion which met in @@ -8503,38 +8465,38 @@ Synhedrion, from time to time, sent deputations to the different communities, both far and near, to acquaint them with the most important decisions.</p> -<p>The visits paid to the Temple by the Judans +<p>The visits paid to the Temple by the Judæans who lived out of Palestine, strengthened the bond of unity, and these visits must have been of frequent occurrence, for they necessitated the creation of many places of worship in Jerusalem where the various -foreign Judans met for prayer. The capital +foreign Judæans met for prayer. The capital contained synagogues of the Alexandrians, Cyrenians, -Libertines, Elymans, and Asiatics. One can -form some idea of the vast numbers of Judans existing +Libertines, Elymæans, and Asiatics. One can +form some idea of the vast numbers of Judæans existing at that period if one considers that Egypt alone, from the Mediterranean to the Ethiopian boundary, contained nearly a million. In the neighboring country of Cyrenaica, there were likewise many -Judans, some having been forcibly transplanted +Judæans, some having been forcibly transplanted thither from Egypt, whilst others were voluntary emigrants. In many parts of Syria, and especially -in its capital, Antioch, the Judans formed a considerable<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_202" id="Page_202">202</a></span> +in its capital, Antioch, the Judæans formed a considerable<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_202" id="Page_202">202</a></span> portion of the population. The kings of Syria who succeeded Antiochus Epiphanes had reinstated them in all their rights, of which the half-insane Epiphanes had robbed them. One of these kings had even given them some of the utensils taken from the Temple, and these were preserved -in their synagogue. About ten thousand Judans +in their synagogue. About ten thousand Judæans lived at Damascus, and one of their nobles was -made ethnarch over them by the Nabathan king, +made ethnarch over them by the Nabathæan king, Aretas Philodemus, just as in Alexandria one of their most distinguished members was elected chief of the community. To the great capital of the world, Rome, the point of attraction for the ambitious and the grasping, the discontented and the -visionaries, the Judans returned in such masses +visionaries, the Judæans returned in such masses after their expulsion by Tiberius, that when the Emperor Claudius determined, from some unknown cause, upon expelling them again, he was @@ -8547,38 +8509,38 @@ apostle, Chrestus, they were probably, but only in part, banished from Rome.</p> <p>Even greater than in Europe, Syria and Africa -was the number of Judans in the Parthian Empire. +was the number of Judæans in the Parthian Empire. They were the descendants of former exiles, who owned large tracts of country in Mesopotamia and Babylonia. Two youths from Naarda (Nahardea -on the Euphrates) called Asina (Chasina) and -Anila (Chanila) founded in the vicinity of that town +on the Euphrates) called Asinaï (Chasinaï) and +Anilaï (Chanilaï) founded in the vicinity of that town a robber settlement, which spread terror along the bordering countries. Just as Naarda and Nisibis became the central points for the countries of the Euphrates, there arose in every land a central -nucleus from which Judan colonies spread themselves +nucleus from which Judæan colonies spread themselves out into neighboring lands, from Asia Minor on the one side, towards the Black Sea on the other,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_203" id="Page_203">203</a></span> towards Greece and the Islands. Athens, Corinth, -Thessalonica, and Philippi contained Judan communities. +Thessalonica, and Philippi contained Judæan communities. There is no doubt that from Rome -Judan colonies went forth westward to the south +Judæan colonies went forth westward to the south of France and Spain.</p> -<p>The effect produced by the Judans upon the +<p>The effect produced by the Judæans upon the heathens was at first repellent. Their peculiar mode of living, their dress and their religious views, caused them to be considered as strange, enigmatical, mysterious beings, who at one moment inspired awe, and at another derision and contempt. So -thorough was the opposition between the Judans +thorough was the opposition between the Judæans and the heathens that it manifested itself in all their actions. Everything that was holy in the eyes of the heathens was looked upon with horror by the -Judans, whilst objects of indifference to the former +Judæans, whilst objects of indifference to the former were considered sacred by the latter. The withdrawal -of the Judans from the repasts enjoyed in +of the Judæans from the repasts enjoyed in common by their fellow-citizens, their repugnance to intermarriages with the heathens, their abhorrence of the flesh of swine, and their abstinence from warm @@ -8587,7 +8549,7 @@ of a perverse nature, whilst their keeping aloof from intimate intercourse with any but their own coreligionists was deemed a proof of their enmity towards mankind in general. The serious nature -of the Judans, which prevented their participation +of the Judæans, which prevented their participation in childish amusements and mimic combats, appeared to those around them the sign of a gloomy disposition, which could find no pleasure in the bright and @@ -8597,14 +8559,14 @@ which instilled hatred towards the generality of men, whilst the more thoughtful and discerning were filled with admiration by the pure and spiritual worship of one God, by the affection and sympathy -which bound the Judans together, and by the virtues +which bound the Judæans together, and by the virtues of chastity, temperance and fortitude which characterized them.</p> <p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_204" id="Page_204">204</a></span> Paganism, with the immoral life which sprang from it, stood revealed in all its nakedness to the -keen sight of the Judans. The dreary idolatry of +keen sight of the Judæans. The dreary idolatry of the heathen, with its fabulous mythology which made divine nature even lower than the human, the madness which allowed wicked emperors to be worshiped @@ -8613,34 +8575,34 @@ the fall of Greece and the closer connection of the Romans with demoralized nations, the daily spectacle of evil lives and broken marriage vows, the bacchanalian intoxication of superstition, unbelief, and -bestialities, fostered the pride of the Judans in their +bestialities, fostered the pride of the Judæans in their own spiritual and intellectual possessions, and urged them to make the superiority of Judaism over heathenism manifest. In places where the Grecian language facilitated exchange of thought, as in Egypt, Asia Minor and Greece, there was considerable -mental friction between the Judans and the heathens. +mental friction between the Judæans and the heathens. Judaism, as it were, summoned paganism to appear before the tribunal of truth, and there placed its own sublime faith beside the low, degrading forms of belief of its adversary.</p> -<p>The Judans were deeply anxious to impart the +<p>The Judæans were deeply anxious to impart the burning convictions that filled their hearts to the blind, deluded heathens, and to attain that object, their religion being hated by the latter, some of the -most cultivated among the Judans had recourse +most cultivated among the Judæans had recourse to a sort of pious fraud, by which heathen poets and soothsayers were made to bear witness to the beauty and grandeur of Judaism. Skilful imitations in -verse, enunciating Judan doctrines, were placed -by Judan-Grecian writers in the mouth of the mist-shrouded +verse, enunciating Judæan doctrines, were placed +by Judæan-Grecian writers in the mouth of the mist-shrouded singer Orpheus, and introduced among the strains of Sophocles, the tragic poet who had celebrated the all-powerful gods. When Rome had extended her empire far and wide, and the legends of the prophetic Sibyls had become known through -many lands, Judan poets hastened to make the +many lands, Judæan poets hastened to make the latter stand sponsors to tenets and views which<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_205" id="Page_205">205</a></span> they durst not proclaim themselves, or which, if given in their own name, would have obtained no @@ -8679,7 +8641,7 @@ law for all weak, pitiable men; for He is one God, and there is no other, and the wicked He will cast into the flames."</p></blockquote> <p>The aim of a long series of prose writings of -the Judan-Grecian school was to set forth the futility +the Judæan-Grecian school was to set forth the futility and defects of paganism on the one hand, and on the other to display Judaism in its most favorable light, and thus to induce the heathen to become @@ -8755,7 +8717,7 @@ truths of Judaism:</p> <p>"There is no God but Him whom the Jews adore. Divine wisdom preserved the first-born, saved the righteous (Noah) from the flood, upheld the righteous (Abraham) in innocence before God, delivered -the holy seed (the Judan people) from the oppression of the nations, +the holy seed (the Judæan people) from the oppression of the nations, filled the soul of the servant of God (Moses), who appeared before kings with terrible signs and wonders. Israel is the upright one whom God has chosen. He possesses the knowledge of the Divine @@ -8792,12 +8754,12 @@ In all things did the Lord magnify His people and glorify them; He abandoned them not, but assisted them in every time and place." (Book of Wisdom.)</p></blockquote> -<p>Like the Babylonian Isaiah, the Alexandrian-Judan +<p>Like the Babylonian Isaiah, the Alexandrian-Judæan sage contemplated his ideal in Israel, of whom a noble mission was required, and who would hereafter shine in glory.</p> -<p>Whilst the Alexandrian Judans were absorbed +<p>Whilst the Alexandrian Judæans were absorbed in Grecian literature and philosophy, and were using that melodious language as a weapon against paganism and the immorality it fostered, @@ -8814,13 +8776,13 @@ them, and they managed, through sophistical means, to deceive themselves into a belief of the genuineness of their exposition. The Holy Scripture could not, indeed, always offer apposite passages to the -prevailing philosophy, but the Judan-Alexandrian +prevailing philosophy, but the Judæan-Alexandrian authors knew how to help themselves out of that difficulty. They followed the example of Greek writers, who found their own views of the world in the poems of Homer, or put them there, and to accomplish that feat, employed a peculiar kind of -sophistical word-pictures. Thus the Judan thinkers +sophistical word-pictures. Thus the Judæan thinkers of that period, in their interpretations of the Holy Scriptures, had recourse to allegory, and instead<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_209" id="Page_209">209</a></span> of the plain, natural meaning of a work, often @@ -8840,7 +8802,7 @@ were obliged, in compliance with the taste of the time, to allegorize both the history and the lessons contained in them. One result of this method was the indifference that manifested itself among -the cultivated Judans of Alexandria to the practice +the cultivated Judæans of Alexandria to the practice of the religion of their fathers. Allegory undermined the ramparts that fenced the Law. If the latter was only the garment in which philosophical @@ -8854,10 +8816,10 @@ what use would be the practice of the latter? From indifference to the practice of the laws to the desertion of Judaism itself there was only one step, and thus can be explained the apostasy to -paganism of some Judans who were unable to +paganism of some Judæans who were unable to withstand the difficulties and constant pressure they had to encounter. It was also among the Alexandrian -Judans that the conflict between science +Judæans that the conflict between science and faith first appeared.</p> <p>The indifference towards Judaism was combated, @@ -8934,7 +8896,7 @@ reproaches of the people."</p> <p>It is in the Hebrew Scriptures, according to Philo, that the most profound wisdom is contained. All -that is taught by the sublimest philosophy the Judans +that is taught by the sublimest philosophy the Judæans found in their precepts and customs—the knowledge of the eternal God, the vanity of idols, and the universal laws of humanity and kindness. @@ -8951,11 +8913,11 @@ restore to well-being those whom fortune had disinherited?"</p> <p>In opposition to the abuse hurled against Judaism by a Lysimachus and an Apion, Philo brings forward the spirit of humanity which breathes through the -Judan Law, and which affects even the treatment +Judæan Law, and which affects even the treatment of animals and plants. "And yet, though Judaism is founded in truth on love, these miserable sycophants accuse it of misanthropy and egotism." In order -to ensure a better comprehension of the Judan +to ensure a better comprehension of the Judæan ethics by the cynics and lawbreakers of his own race, as also by the Greeks, who had only a false conception of Judaism, Philo arranged his writings @@ -8964,7 +8926,7 @@ commentary on the Pentateuch, with the further object that the truths of Judaism might be brought within the province of philosophy.</p> -<p>But if, on the one hand, Philo stood firmly on Judan +<p>But if, on the one hand, Philo stood firmly on Judæan ground, on the other he was no less imbued with the dogmas of the Grecian schools, which ran counter to the former, and he seems to have been @@ -9002,7 +8964,7 @@ in order to assume a philosophic aspect.</p> <p>The princely philosopher of the house of the Alabarchs combated the Greek and Roman paganism, steeped in vice and bestiality. His exposition -of the Judan Law was designed to darken still +of the Judæan Law was designed to darken still more, by comparison with the pure light of Judaism, the shadows of idolatry, the sexual looseness, frivolity, vanity and corruption which existed in the Grecian-Roman @@ -9059,7 +9021,7 @@ ideas, variously transformed, were introduced into a larger circle; whereas Philo, by his own eloquent writings, made an important and lasting effect. His works were perhaps read by cultivated heathens -even more than by Judans, though all were affected +even more than by Judæans, though all were affected by the warmth and glow which pervaded everything he wrote about God, Moses, and the spirit of the Law.</p> @@ -9081,12 +9043,12 @@ oriental people, the heathens felt the need of religion, and those who were searching for true and elevated teaching embraced Judaism, which was daily being brought more and more home to them in the -Greek translations of Judan writings through +Greek translations of Judæan writings through Greek-Alexandrine literature, and also through -intercourse with cultivated Judans.</p> +intercourse with cultivated Judæans.</p> <p>During the last ten years which preceded the -destruction of the Judan State, there were more +destruction of the Judæan State, there were more proselytes than there had been at any other time. Philo relates from his own experience that in his native country many heathens, when they embraced @@ -9104,14 +9066,14 @@ attracted towards the childlike and sublime scenes in Biblical history. The greater part of the women in Damascus were converted to Judaism, and it is related that in Asia Minor there were also many -female proselytes. Some over-eager Judans may +female proselytes. Some over-eager Judæans may have traveled with the intention of making converts, as was proved in the story of the Roman patrician Fulvia.</p> <p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_216" id="Page_216">216</a></span> It was by similar zeal for conversion that the -Judan faith was introduced into an Asiatic court, +Judæan faith was introduced into an Asiatic court, the members of which remained steadfast adherents to Judaism during several generations. Adiabene, a province on the banks of the Tigris, situated where @@ -9129,7 +9091,7 @@ Monobaz sent him to the court of a neighboring king, of the name of Abinerglus (Abennerig), who was so greatly pleased with the young prince confided to his care, that he gave him his daughter in marriage. -A Judan merchant by the name of Anania traded +A Judæan merchant by the name of Anania traded at this court, and whilst he showed his merchandise to the princesses, he dilated at the same time upon the tenets of Judaism with such success that he @@ -9140,7 +9102,7 @@ adherent of Judaism, which he openly embraced in the year 18 <span class="smcap smaller">C. E.</span> His mother, the queen Helen, had also, without the knowledge of her son, been won over to Judaism. The deep impression which the -Judan precepts had made upon the royal converts +Judæan precepts had made upon the royal converts was proved when the throne became vacant. The dying Monobaz passed over his eldest sons and named Izates as his successor. When Helen related @@ -9165,15 +9127,15 @@ Parthian capital.</p> Judaism, and even to submit to the rite of circumcision, but he was dissuaded from doing so by his mother, and by his physician, also named Anania, -who, being an Hellenic Judan, represented to him +who, being an Hellenic Judæan, represented to him that the latter was not essential. Izates felt reassured -for the time; but another Judan, a Galilan +for the time; but another Judæan, a Galilæan of the name of Eleazar, and a strict follower of the Law, came to his court and offered a contrary opinion. Eleazar, seeing the king engrossed in reading the Pentateuch, probably a Greek translation, could not help observing that to belong -to the Judan faith it was not sufficient to +to the Judæan faith it was not sufficient to read the Law, but it was necessary also to practise its precepts. Thereupon Izates, and, according to some authorities, also his elder brother @@ -9199,7 +9161,7 @@ however, which might have been most calamitous for Izates, Vologeses was prevented from undertaking, and henceforth his reign, which lasted about thirty years, continued undisturbed. Queen Helen, -fired by the enthusiasm of the Judan faith, desired +fired by the enthusiasm of the Judæan faith, desired to visit Jerusalem, and, accompanied by her son, she accomplished this long journey in about the year 43. Izates sent five of his own sons to Jerusalem to learn @@ -9250,7 +9212,7 @@ known as Ophla. Monobaz, who also had his palace in Jerusalem, had golden vessels made for use in the Temple on the Day of Atonement. The people of Adiabene remained firm friends of the -Judan nation, and were always ready to give their +Judæan nation, and were always ready to give their powerful help in times of danger.</p> <p>This leaning towards Judaism, evinced by so @@ -9260,7 +9222,7 @@ advantage of and worked upon this enthusiasm, and thus laid the first step to their future conquest of the world.</p> -<p>Two Judans, both coming from countries where +<p>Two Judæans, both coming from countries where the Greek language was spoken, Saul of Tarsus (known as Paul) and Jose Barnabas of Cyprus, declared their intention of proselytizing the heathen. @@ -9272,7 +9234,7 @@ obliged to change its original character and purpose.</p> <p>During the short decade following the death of its founder the small community had been augmented -by Essenes and some Judan inhabitants of +by Essenes and some Judæan inhabitants of Greek countries. The former, who had hitherto<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_220" id="Page_220">220</a></span> lived in a mystic land of visions and trusted to miraculous intervention for the arrival of the kingdom @@ -9295,22 +9257,22 @@ In order, however, to gain many converts, a greater power of oratory was required than the simple fishermen and mechanics of Galilee possessed. This want was supplied by the addition of -Greek-speaking Judans. From Asia Minor, Egypt, +Greek-speaking Judæans. From Asia Minor, Egypt, Cyrene, from the islands of Crete and Cyprus, there -was an annual pilgrimage of Judans to Jerusalem +was an annual pilgrimage of Judæans to Jerusalem at the time of the Passover festival. Besides men of piety and enthusiasts, there were adventurers, seekers after novelty, and beggars, ignorant of the Law. Of these pilgrims, numbers eagerly adopted the new faith. Many adventurers among the Greek -Judans were easily persuaded to accept the doctrine +Judæans were easily persuaded to accept the doctrine of the community of goods, which the Ebionite Christians had retained from their Essene origin, and which found great favor with these homeless wanderers. All those who possessed any property sold it to increase the contents of the general treasury, and those who were utterly impecunious lived without -any cares in the community. These Greek Judans, +any cares in the community. These Greek Judæans, who had learnt from their heathen neighbors the art of speaking on every subject, and even of veiling<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_221" id="Page_221">221</a></span> almost meaningless expressions in an attractive and @@ -9319,11 +9281,11 @@ an attractive form. They were best adapted to become the preachers and missionaries. When converted themselves, they used all their efforts to convert others. The Greek element soon predominated -over the Galilan, Ebionite and Essene +over the Galilæan, Ebionite and Essene elements, of which the community had previously been composed.</p> -<p>These Greek Judans, who had never been +<p>These Greek Judæans, who had never been taught the Law in the schools of Jerusalem and were, indeed, generally ignorant of its tenets, transgressed them, sometimes unwillingly, but at times @@ -9345,7 +9307,7 @@ a zealous follower of the Pharisaic school, who held that no edict of either the oral or the written Law might be tampered with. As he spoke Greek himself, he was able to measure the boldness of the -utterances of the Judan-Christian Greeks who were +utterances of the Judæan-Christian Greeks who were in Jerusalem, and his indignation was great against them. One of these Greeks, of the name of Stephen, was particularly violent in his attacks, and had recklessly @@ -9365,7 +9327,7 @@ punished by death, but were sentenced to be scourged. The foreign Nazarenes, terrified by this severity, hastened away from Jerusalem and dispersed in various Greek towns in which there dwelt -Judan communities, among whom they continued +Judæan communities, among whom they continued their work of proselytizing. Those followers of Jesus, however, who, notwithstanding their new faith, did not deny the holiness of the Law, remained @@ -9393,7 +9355,7 @@ and had risen again.</p> <p>Soon these two Greek cities saw a Nazarene community settling within their walls, who seemed -to be Judans, who lived according to Judan rule,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_223" id="Page_223">223</a></span> +to be Judæans, who lived according to Judæan rule,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_223" id="Page_223">223</a></span> who prayed, sang psalms, and ended their songs of praise with the customary "Amen"; but who yet showed certain signs of forming a new sect. They @@ -9425,7 +9387,7 @@ which nothing could daunt. He was excitable and vehement, could not endure any opposition to his opinions, and was one-sided and bitter in his treatment of those who differed from him in the slightest -degree. He had a limited knowledge of Judan +degree. He had a limited knowledge of Judæan writings, and was only familiar with the Scriptures through the Greek translation; enthusiastic and fanciful, he believed in the visions of his imagination @@ -9453,7 +9415,7 @@ of Judaism, the entry of Queen Helen, the Princes of Adiabene and their retinue into Jerusalem. She probably stayed in Damascus on her journey, and there must have received the thanks -of the Judan inhabitants of that city. These +of the Judæan inhabitants of that city. These events must have made a deep impression on Saul, and may have given rise to the thought: Had not the time foreseen by the prophets now arrived, @@ -9472,7 +9434,7 @@ clean and the unclean, and even to submit to circumcision? Should the heathen be required to follow even the severe Pharisaic ordinances? In that case it would be impossible that other nations -should enter the Judan community. But, on +should enter the Judæan community. But, on the other hand, could not the Law be abrogated for the sake of the heathens, and might they not merely be taught the knowledge of God and a loftier<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_225" id="Page_225">225</a></span> @@ -9555,14 +9517,14 @@ was probably not considered as quite acceptable. The people also seem to have felt distrust of their former persecutor. In short, Saul-Paul could not maintain his ground in Damascus, and fled to -Arabia (Auranitis), where Judan communities also<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_227" id="Page_227">227</a></span> +Arabia (Auranitis), where Judæan communities also<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_227" id="Page_227">227</a></span> existed. When, however, he returned to Damascus for the second time, and his coreligionists had acquired greater confidence in him, he could indulge his love of proselytism. But his brusque, inconsiderate manner, and his assertion that the Law was -no longer in force, aroused the Judan community -of Damascus against him. The Judan ethnarch +no longer in force, aroused the Judæan community +of Damascus against him. The Judæan ethnarch of the town, who had been appointed or confirmed by Aretas Philodemus, sought to take him prisoner. His companions saved him, by lowering him in a @@ -9570,7 +9532,7 @@ basket from a window in the wall. Thus he escaped from those who rightly considered him as the destroyer of Judaism. He returned to Jerusalem three years after his conversion. He felt that there -was a wide difference between himself and the Galilan +was a wide difference between himself and the Galilæan Christians, and that he would not be able to make terms with them. Paul was filled with the one thought, that the blessing for all generations, @@ -9580,7 +9542,7 @@ wealth of the heathen should belong to the children of Abraham, was now finally to be realized, and that he (Paul) was called upon to effect this work. He wished to put an end to the difference between the -Judans and the Greeks, between slaves and freemen, +Judæans and the Greeks, between slaves and freemen, and to make all brothers in the covenant of Abraham—as the seed of Abraham—according to the promise given in by-gone years. This was the @@ -9599,7 +9561,7 @@ especially in Galatia, in Ephesus, Philippi,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_ and Thessalonica, and in the town of Corinth. This result may partly be laid to the credit of Judaism; for when Paul wished to win over the heathens, he -had to unfold to them the glorious past of the Judan +had to unfold to them the glorious past of the Judæan nation, in order to speak of Jesus. He also had to contrast the pure belief in God with the wild practices of heathendom. He found a susceptibility @@ -9619,7 +9581,7 @@ mythological strain in them. The heathen nations could better comprehend the "Son of God" than the "Messianic Redeemer." The wide-spread disease of immorality, which was rife throughout the -Roman empire, rendered the Judan teachings +Roman empire, rendered the Judæan teachings acceptable and proper. Paul's orations, delivered with the fire of enthusiasm, and uttered by one who threw his whole soul into his words, could not @@ -9639,16 +9601,16 @@ of the lower classes, slaves, and especially women,<span class="pagenum"><a name by his glad tidings. To the cultivated Greeks the Christianity which Paul preached, based on the so-called resurrection of Jesus, appeared as -a ridiculous absurdity. The Judans were naturally +a ridiculous absurdity. The Judæans were naturally displeased with him. Paul's chief topics, on which he dilated to the heathens whom he -wished to convert, were the Judan nation, Judan -writings, and the Judan Law; without these his +wished to convert, were the Judæan nation, Judæan +writings, and the Judæan Law; without these his preaching about a Messiah or salvation had no foundation. The Greeks must have been told about Israel and Jerusalem, or his words would have fallen on deaf ears. He, therefore, could only resort to -those towns where Judan communities dwelt, from +those towns where Judæan communities dwelt, from whom the heathen nations had received some faint notion of the history and doctrines of Judaism.</p> @@ -9698,7 +9660,7 @@ wholly and entirely to comply with its precepts, stands under a curse. The great service which Jesus had rendered was that he had delivered all men from this curse, for through his means the Law -had been set aside. How could the Judans +had been set aside. How could the Judæans submit to this open desecration of the Law of Sinai for which their forefathers had suffered death, and for which, but a short time since, under @@ -9709,12 +9671,12 @@ him. They, however, contented themselves with flogging Paul when he fell into their hands, but they left his life unharmed; five times, as he himself relates, he was chastised -with thirty-nine strokes. Not only the Judans -but also the Nazarenes, or Judan Christians, were +with thirty-nine strokes. Not only the Judæans +but also the Nazarenes, or Judæan Christians, were incensed against Paul for his attack on the Law, and by this means dissension and schisms arose in the midst of young Christianity. Peter, or Kephas, -who came as a messenger to the Judans, taught a +who came as a messenger to the Judæans, taught a Christianity which differed from that of Paul, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_231" id="Page_231">231</a></span> that of the other Apostles who sought to make converts amongst the heathen; whilst Apollos from @@ -9740,7 +9702,7 @@ obliged to acknowledge his fault, and to speak openly against Paul's contempt of the Law. Paul, on the other hand, reproached him with hypocrisy. The influence of the severe, Law-loving Judaic -Christians was, however, so great that all the Judan +Christians was, however, so great that all the Judæan Christians of Antioch gave up eating at the tables of the heathen, and their example was even followed by Barnabas, the disciple of Paul.</p> @@ -9748,7 +9710,7 @@ followed by Barnabas, the disciple of Paul.</p> <p>Racial feelings also helped to widen the breach between the two parties. The Greek Christians despised the Judaic Christians in the same way -as the Hellenes had looked down upon the Judans. +as the Hellenes had looked down upon the Judæans. Paul sent out violent epistles against the adherents of the Law, and laid a curse on those who preached salvation in a manner differing @@ -9778,13 +9740,13 @@ towards it.</p> <blockquote> -<p class="hang">Position of Affairs in Juda​—​Roman Oppression​—​Character of +<p class="hang">Position of Affairs in Judæa​—​Roman Oppression​—​Character of Agrippa II.—The last High Priest​—​The Zealots and the Sicarii​—​Eleazar ben Dinai​—​Quarrel with the Samaritans​—​Violence in -Csarea​—​The Procurators​—​Florus​—​Insurrection in Csarea​—​Bloodshed +Cæsarea​—​The Procurators​—​Florus​—​Insurrection in Cæsarea​—​Bloodshed in Jerusalem​—​The Peace and War Parties​—​The Leader of the Zealots, Eleazar ben Ananias​—​Menahem, chief of -the Zealots​—​Massacres of Heathens and Judans​—​Defeat of +the Zealots​—​Massacres of Heathens and Judæans​—​Defeat of the Romans​—​The Synhedrion and its President, Simon ben Gamaliel​—​Position of the Synhedrion.</p></blockquote> @@ -9797,7 +9759,7 @@ the peoples of the earth would turn their eyes to Zion, and towards the light issuing thence to illumine the human race, yet in their native land, and more especially in Jerusalem, the yoke of the -Romans weighed heavily on the Judans, and became +Romans weighed heavily on the Judæans, and became daily more oppressive.</p> <p>The pitiable state of existing affairs crushed @@ -9810,7 +9772,7 @@ tormented and goaded on by his jailer, tugs at his fetters, with the strength of despair, until he wrenches them asunder. The bloody contest between Rome, strong in arms and fertile in -stratagem, and Juda, poor in outward means of +stratagem, and Judæa, poor in outward means of warfare and powerful only through indomitable will, inspires the deepest interest because, in spite of the disproportion between the combatants, the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_234" id="Page_234">234</a></span> @@ -9826,7 +9788,7 @@ the history of the world are comparable, was waged not merely for liberty, like the wars in which the Gauls, Germans, and Britons were engaged against Rome, but had likewise a religious -character. The Judan people were daily wounded +character. The Judæan people were daily wounded in their religious sentiments by the arbitrary rule of Rome, and desired to gain their independence in order to acquire and maintain the free exercise @@ -9837,7 +9799,7 @@ it rose with each fresh disaster, and in the most trivial circumstances they saw and resented an attack upon their most sacred convictions. It was seldom, indeed, that Rome outraged the religious -feelings of the Judans as she had done under +feelings of the Judæans as she had done under Caligula; on the contrary, she rather indulged their susceptibilities, but she often wounded them unintentionally through her despotic and jealous supervision.</p> @@ -9854,7 +9816,7 @@ The bad example was set by the last members of the house of Herod, who were educated either in Rome itself or in the small courts of the princely Roman vassals. Agrippa II (born 27,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_235" id="Page_235">235</a></span> -died 91–93), son of the last noble Judan king +died 91–93), son of the last noble Judæan king Agrippa I, a mere stripling of seventeen years at the time of his father's death, drank in the poisoned air of the Roman court, where the Messalinas @@ -9862,7 +9824,7 @@ and Agrippinas openly displayed the most hideous vices. After the demise of Herod II, the Emperor Claudius gave Agrippa the tiny kingdom of Chalcis (about 50). It was whispered that this last -scion of the Hasmonan and Herodian houses led +scion of the Hasmonæan and Herodian houses led an incestuous life with his beautiful sister Berenice, who was a year younger than himself, and a widow on the death of her husband, Herod II. There @@ -9878,7 +9840,7 @@ licentious intrigues.</p> <p>Agrippa's second sister, Mariamne II (born 34), married to a native of Palestine, Julius Archelaus, dissolved that union, though she had borne him -a daughter, and became the wife of the Judan +a daughter, and became the wife of the Judæan Demetrius of Alexandria, probably the son of the Alabarch Alexander, and in that case the brother of the apostate Tiberius Alexander. Still more @@ -9900,7 +9862,7 @@ infidelity of the younger sister both to her husband and to her religion.</p> <p>Although Agrippa was only prince of Chalcis, he -was looked upon as the king of Juda. Rome certainly +was looked upon as the king of Judæa. Rome certainly had not deprived him of the royal title, but had divested him of all power, and made use of him only as a pliant tool and as a guard upon the movements of @@ -9935,7 +9897,7 @@ Herod had lowered the dignity of the high priest's office by permitting it to be sold or gained by pandering to most degraded sentiments, there were<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_237" id="Page_237">237</a></span> certain families who seemed to have acquired a -right to it—those of Bothus, Cantheras, Phabi, +right to it—those of Boëthus, Cantheras, Phabi, Camith, and Anan or Seth, and it was but seldom that any one was elected outside that circle. The members of these families vied with each other in @@ -9986,7 +9948,7 @@ the day that the most eminent teacher of morality of that time, Jochanan ben Zaccai, found himself obliged to abolish the ritual hitherto used in cases of suspicion of adultery. With deep sorrow, the nobler-minded -Judans lamented a state of things in +Judæans lamented a state of things in which outward forms of worship stood higher than morality, and the defiling of the Temple caused more scandal and wrath than an act of murder. In @@ -9994,12 +9956,12 @@ the lower classes, crime of another but of a not less alarming nature appeared. The frequent insurrections which had been stimulated and fomented by the Zealots since Rome had arrogantly treated -Juda like a conquered province, had given rise +Judæa like a conquered province, had given rise to bands of free troops, which roved wildly about the country, confounding liberty with licentiousness, and trampling upon both customs and laws. They crowded the caves and hollows which abound in the -rocky mountains of Juda, and from those retreats +rocky mountains of Judæa, and from those retreats made frequent irruptions to gratify their love of unbridled liberty. Some bands of Zealots, led by Eleazar ben Dinai and Alexander, were incited by @@ -10007,7 +9969,7 @@ feelings of patriotism to deeds of cruelty. They had sworn destruction and death to the Romans, and they included among the latter all those who consorted with them; they would not recognize -them as Judans, and deemed it no crime to plunder +them as Judæans, and deemed it no crime to plunder and destroy them. The degenerate friends of Rome were, according to their views, and the oaths they had taken, mere outlaws, and the Zealots kept @@ -10081,7 +10043,7 @@ source of discord and misery. As the existing situation became more and more sad and hopeless, the longing in the hearts of faithful believers for the expected deliverer who was to bring peace to -Juda became more and more intense. Messianic +Judæa became more and more intense. Messianic hopes were rifer among the people now than they had been even during the time of the first Roman governors; and these hopes stirred up enthusiasts @@ -10092,7 +10054,7 @@ aim of all these enthusiasts. What the disciples of Judas attempted to bring about by force of arms, the disciples of Theudas hoped to accomplish without fighting, having recourse only to signs and miracles. -A Judan from Egypt calling himself a prophet,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_241" id="Page_241">241</a></span> +A Judæan from Egypt calling himself a prophet,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_241" id="Page_241">241</a></span> found no less than three, or according to another account, four thousand followers. These he summoned to the Mount of Olives, and there promised @@ -10114,16 +10076,16 @@ interference with their religion, looked upon the slightest offense to it as an attack upon Judaism itself, and made the governors, the emperor, and the Roman state responsible for the delinquency, -the imperial officials in Juda were not less susceptible, +the imperial officials in Judæa were not less susceptible, for they treated the most trivial agitation among the people as an insult to the majesty of Rome and the emperor, and punished with equal severity the innocent and the guilty. Vain was the -favor shown to the Judan nation by the emperors +favor shown to the Judæan nation by the emperors Claudius and Nero—the procurator constantly over-stepped the limit of his authority, and urged on by greed and the love of power, acted the part of -tyrant. Juda had the misfortune to be almost +tyrant. Judæa had the misfortune to be almost always governed by depraved creatures, who owed their position to the reckless favorites who ruled at court. They rivaled one another in acts of @@ -10132,12 +10094,12 @@ discontent and provoking the wrath of the people. Cumanus, who succeeded Tiberius Alexander (about 48–52), was the first of five such avaricious and bloodthirsty procurators. He governed only the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_242" id="Page_242">242</a></span> -provinces of Juda and Samaria, Claudius having +provinces of Judæa and Samaria, Claudius having bestowed the command of the province of Galilee on Felix, the brother of his favorite, Pallas. Cumanus and Felix became deadly foes.</p> -<p>It was the governor of Juda who first excited +<p>It was the governor of Judæa who first excited the resentment of the people. Jealous suspicion of any great concourse of people assembled in the Temple, a suspicion which, since the revolt @@ -10178,7 +10140,7 @@ Law, tore it in pieces and threw the fragments into the fire. Here was a new cause for angry excitement and wrathful reproaches in the desecration of what they held most sacred. Countless bands -flocked to Cumanus at Csarea, crying out against +flocked to Cumanus at Cæsarea, crying out against the blasphemer. Much rather, they exclaimed, would they suffer the worst fate themselves than see their Holy Scriptures profaned; and in tones @@ -10189,22 +10151,22 @@ in the presence of those whose religious feelings he had outraged.</p> <p>Another occurrence took a more serious form -and led to strife and bloodshed. Some Galilans +and led to strife and bloodshed. Some Galilæans who were on their way to a festival at Jerusalem, passed through Samaria, and whilst in the town of -Gina, on the southeastern end of the plain of +Ginæa, on the southeastern end of the plain of Jezreel, they were murdered in a fray with the hostile Samaritans. Was this only an accidental mischance, or the result of the burning hatred which -existed between the Judans and the Samaritans? +existed between the Judæans and the Samaritans? In either case the representatives of Galilee were justified in demanding vengeance at the hands of the governor upon the murderers. But Cumanus treated the affair with contemptuous indifference, -and thus obliged the Judans to deal with the +and thus obliged the Judæans to deal with the matter themselves. The leaders of the Zealots, Eleazer ben Dinai and Alexander, incited both by -the Galilans and their governor, Felix, took the +the Galilæans and their governor, Felix, took the matter into their own hands, entered with their troops the province of Acrabatene, inhabited by Samaritans, and pitilessly destroyed and killed all @@ -10230,23 +10192,23 @@ the Roman arms, strove to prevent so dangerous an act, and, clothed in deep mourning, implored the irritated multitude to pause and think of the future. At their prayer the people laid down their -arms. But neither the Judans nor the Samaritans +arms. But neither the Judæans nor the Samaritans were really pacified, and still smarting under the wrongs mutually received, they sent deputies to the Syrian governor, Umidius Quadratus, accusing each other, and asking him to investigate the whole dispute. To effect that object, Quadratus visited Samaria; but he was not an impartial judge, -and many of the captive Judans were doomed to +and many of the captive Judæans were doomed to perish on the cross. It was only after those executions had taken place that he formed a tribunal of justice, and summoned both parties to appear before it. In the meantime, however, Felix having taken -the part of the Galilans against the Samaritans, +the part of the Galilæans against the Samaritans, such entanglements ensued that Quadratus would not venture to adjudicate between the disputants, and ordered them to send deputies to Rome to obtain -the decision of the emperor. Among the Judan +the decision of the emperor. Among the Judæan envoys were Jonathan, the former high priest, and Anan, the governor of the Temple. Cumanus was also obliged to leave his post in order to appear at @@ -10259,22 +10221,22 @@ accused. The emperor caused a tribunal to be formed, but the verdict was given not by himself, but by his depraved wife, the notorious Agrippina, who was the paramour of Pallas, the brother of Felix. It -had been arranged between the Judan deputies +had been arranged between the Judæan deputies and Pallas that after sentence was pronounced against Cumanus, the emperor should be asked -to name Felix governor of Juda in his stead. -The verdict given in favor of the Judans could +to name Felix governor of Judæa in his stead. +The verdict given in favor of the Judæans could not be considered an impartial one, and was not in itself a proof that the Samaritans had been the aggressors. Many of them were pronounced guilty and executed, and Cumanus was sent into banishment. At the same time, probably also through the intercession of the empress, a kingdom -in the northeast of Juda was bestowed upon +in the northeast of Judæa was bestowed upon Agrippa; it consisted of that part of the country which had once belonged to Philip's tetrarchy, -Batana, Gaulanitis, Auranitis, Trachonitis, as well -as Paneas and Abilene. On Juda proper Rome +Batanæa, Gaulanitis, Auranitis, Trachonitis, as well +as Paneas and Abilene. On Judæa proper Rome kept a firm grasp, and would never allow a native prince, however much he might be under Roman influence and control, to exercise in that domain @@ -10282,7 +10244,7 @@ any regal prerogatives.</p> <p>Felix, whose appointment had been sought of the emperor by the former high priest, Jonathan, succeeded -Cumanus as governor of Juda. He +Cumanus as governor of Judæa. He married Drusilla, King Agrippa II's beautiful sister, who thereupon went over to paganism. During his long administration, Felix surpassed all his predecessors @@ -10295,7 +10257,7 @@ Nero, or his mother, Agrippina, was as favorable to the house of Herod as Claudius had been, and had given Agrippa four considerable towns with their surrounding districts as well as the important city<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_246" id="Page_246">246</a></span> -of Tiberias near Tarichea in Galilee, Juda was +of Tiberias near Tarichea in Galilee, Judæa was allowed to remain under the iron rule of its cruel governor. Felix pretended to attack only the seditious mutineers; but the fact of his consorting @@ -10322,28 +10284,28 @@ causing many of them to perish from want.</p> the nation was not without its baneful influence upon the conduct of the foreigners who dwelt in great numbers in the towns on the sea-coast. The -Greeks and Romans that had settled in Juda +Greeks and Romans that had settled in Judæa openly showed their hatred to their neighbors, and usurped the position of masters in the land. The fearful picture drawn by the great prophet seemed now on the point of being literally fulfilled: "The stranger in thy midst will ever rise higher, but thou wilt ever sink lower." The most shameless in -their conduct towards the Judans were the Greek -Syrians who lived in Csarea—even the civil rights +their conduct towards the Judæans were the Greek +Syrians who lived in Cæsarea—even the civil rights of the former were disputed by them. But the -Judans of Csarea, who far surpassed their +Judæans of Cæsarea, who far surpassed their heathen fellow-citizens in industry, wealth and courage, would not allow themselves to be deprived<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_247" id="Page_247">247</a></span> of their rights of citizenship, and fierce disputes and fights in the streets were consequently of almost -daily occurrence. On one occasion, some Judan +daily occurrence. On one occasion, some Judæan youths having avenged with blows an insult they had received from a party of Syrians, and obliged the latter to flee, Felix took up the affair, called in some troops, which, being chiefly composed of Greeks and Syrians, sided heartily with their own -countrymen. Many Judans lost their lives, many +countrymen. Many Judæans lost their lives, many were imprisoned, and the houses of the rich were plundered and destroyed. The actual point in dispute remained undecided, both sides being only @@ -10352,8 +10314,8 @@ The rival parties sent deputies to Rome, and Nero was called upon to pronounce judgment between them. Bribery gained the favor of Burrus, the secretary of the emperor, to the cause of the -Syrians of Csarea. His verdict was consequently -given against the Judans, who were deprived of +Syrians of Cæsarea. His verdict was consequently +given against the Judæans, who were deprived of their civil rights.</p> <p>Festus, the successor of Felix, governed for only @@ -10366,7 +10328,7 @@ drew followers around him, and then shared the fate of his predecessors. The jealous spite which animated the different parties became more and more violent. The king, Agrippa, at length took -up his residence in Jerusalem, in the Hasmonan +up his residence in Jerusalem, in the Hasmonæan palace, which was just opposite the Temple. In order to overlook the courts of the latter he added to the height of his palace, and from the hall in that @@ -10388,12 +10350,12 @@ Nero, however, but his paramour, Poppea Sabina, who gave the verdict. This beautiful but shameless woman had, strangely enough, a preference for Judaism, and as at Nero's court all state affairs were -conducted by intrigue, the Judan deputies profited +conducted by intrigue, the Judæan deputies profited by that happy chance and won their cause. The deputies brought back the imperial order that the jealous guard kept over the Temple should be discontinued. A few years later Poppea interceded -again on behalf of two Judans who had been condemned +again on behalf of two Judæans who had been condemned by Felix and sent as prisoners to Rome. In order not to infringe upon the laws of their religion they, like Daniel and his friends, refused, whilst in @@ -10406,7 +10368,7 @@ governor, and in comparison with those who preceded and those who came after him he was looked upon as a just ruler. Before he entered the province, Anan the high priest attempted to revive the -half-extinct Sadducism, and to put its penal code +half-extinct Sadducæism, and to put its penal code again into force; a tribunal was elected by him, and innocent men were condemned. The Pharisees were so dissatisfied with this illegal Synhedrion that @@ -10423,7 +10385,7 @@ Damnai succeeded him, but in a short time he had to give way to Joshua ben Gamala (63 or 64). Ben-Gamala had married a widow of great wealth, Martha, a daughter of the house of the high priest -Bothus, and it is said that she induced King +Boëthus, and it is said that she induced King Agrippa II, by the offer of a large bribe, to confer the office of high priest upon her husband. Between Joshua ben Damnai and his more fortunate successor @@ -10476,7 +10438,7 @@ their favor as well as that of their patrons.</p> <p>So unbearable was this condition of the state that even a cowardly nation must have lost patience, and -the courage of the Judan people, in spite of the +the courage of the Judæan people, in spite of the thousand disasters which had befallen them, of the heavy weight of the Roman yoke, and of the daily acts of violence of which they were the victims, was @@ -10486,39 +10448,39 @@ Nero, confiding in the favor of the Senate and the people, perpetrated one folly after another, and was guilty of a succession of crimes. Thus, excepting through their own endeavors, there appeared -no chance of deliverance for the Judans. +no chance of deliverance for the Judæans. This was the opinion of the best and greatest among them, of all those who were not the tools of Rome, or blinded by her false splendor, or paralyzed by terror of her strength. The boldest were already thinking of rebellion. The governor, Cestius Gallus, had, in the meantime, been informed of the exasperation -and angry feeling that existed among the Judan -people, and reported the state of Juda at the +and angry feeling that existed among the Judæan +people, and reported the state of Judæa at the court of Rome, failing not to make known there that the nation was brooding over conspiracy and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_251" id="Page_251">251</a></span> revolt. But no one listened to his warning voice. Nero was too busy to attend to such trifles; he had to play the zither, to perform on the stage, to indulge in orgies, and to devise murders. The Empress -Poppea, the friend of the Judans, was dead. The +Poppea, the friend of the Judæans, was dead. The creatures of the court resembled the monster Gessius Florus, and doubtless derided what they considered the puerile fears of Gallus. The latter thereupon devised a plan to bring prominently before Nero's court the vastness of the population -of Juda, and the imprudence of underrating it. It +of Judæa, and the imprudence of underrating it. It was arranged between Agrippa and the high priest Matthia that at the Feast of the Passover a great though peaceful demonstration should take place, through a peculiar manner of numbering the people. Circulars were sent to the community, residing both -within and outside Juda, bidding vast numbers +within and outside Judæa, bidding vast numbers appear at the coming festival. Crowds of worshipers, a greater concourse than had ever assembled before, obeyed the summons. In the spring of the year 66 they flocked to celebrate the Feast of Passover; -from the towns and villages of Juda, from +from the towns and villages of Judæa, from Syria, even from countries bordering the Euphrates, and from Egypt, they streamed into Jerusalem, which could hardly contain the vast multitude. On their @@ -10548,13 +10510,13 @@ his device of proving how great were the numbers of the people. Nero, at that time, had reached the highest point of his arrogance and pride. "Should Nero, whose triumphs surpassed those of Pompey, -Csar, and Augustus, fear Juda?" The account +Cæsar, and Augustus, fear Judæa?" The account sent by Cestius Gallus of the crowds assembled at Jerusalem during the Feast of Passover was probably not even read by Nero, or, if looked at, only thrown to the winds.</p> -<p>In Juda, and above all in the capital, men, +<p>In Judæa, and above all in the capital, men, young and old, became daily more impatient to break the galling chains of Rome. Patience was exhausted; they awaited only the favorable moment @@ -10563,18 +10525,18 @@ success. A trifling incident, which brought to light the unparalleled insolence of Florus, fanned the spirit of impatience and closed the lips of prudence. Fresh causes of disagreement had arisen between -the Judans and the Syrians in Csarea; the former +the Judæans and the Syrians in Cæsarea; the former could not forget that Nero had lowered them in the eyes of their fellow-citizens, and the latter, elated by the preference given them, made the -Judans feel their degraded position. The irritation +Judæans feel their degraded position. The irritation thus caused, stirred up the religious hatred and racial animosity which slumbered under the surface in both communities. A piece of ground belonging -to a heathen in Csarea, which happened to be +to a heathen in Cæsarea, which happened to be just in front of the synagogue, was covered by him with shops, so that only one narrow entrance to the -sacred building remained. The hot-headed Judan +sacred building remained. The hot-headed Judæan youths tried to interrupt the construction of these booths, and Florus, won over by a large sum of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_253" id="Page_253">253</a></span> money, refrained from interfering; and, in order not @@ -10582,15 +10544,15 @@ to be a witness of the probable scene of contention, he absented himself and went to Samaria, leaving the two bitterly-opposed parties to the undisturbed exercise of their passionate animosity. On a certain -Sabbath, while the Judans were assembled in worship, +Sabbath, while the Judæans were assembled in worship, a Greek placed a vessel in front of the synagogue and sacrificed birds upon it, to signify that -the Judans were descendants of outcast lepers. +the Judæans were descendants of outcast lepers. This calumny concerning the origin of their race was -not taken quietly by the Judan youths, who +not taken quietly by the Judæan youths, who instantly armed themselves and fell upon their mocking foes. The fight ended in the defeat of the -Judans, all of whom thereupon, carrying away their +Judæans, all of whom thereupon, carrying away their holy books, betook themselves to the neighboring small town of Narbata, and thence sent an embassy of twelve men, among whom was the rich @@ -10692,7 +10654,7 @@ being made to him that the greater part of the army was hated by the people, on account of the inhumanity of which it had been guilty, he bade them choose those soldiers who had taken least part in -the recent butchery. The representatives of Juda +the recent butchery. The representatives of Judæa selected the soldiers who served under Metilius, whose weak disposition appeared to them a pledge of forbearance. But hardly had Florus left Jerusalem,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_256" id="Page_256">256</a></span> @@ -10733,7 +10695,7 @@ these, though smarting under the insolence of Florus, desired the continuance of the present state of things under the imperial power of Rome. The honest friends of peace, however, -failed to perceive that the evil from which the Judan +failed to perceive that the evil from which the Judæan community suffered did not depend upon any one person who might be accidentally in power, but upon the system of tutelage and robbery, and on<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_257" id="Page_257">257</a></span> @@ -10846,10 +10808,10 @@ Florus and Agrippa, earnestly entreating that a sufficiently large number of troops should be instantly despatched to Jerusalem. The former, actuated either by timidity or by the spirit of revenge which -made him desire that the hated Judans should become +made him desire that the hated Judæans should become more and more hopelessly entangled, refused to comply with that request. Agrippa, on the other -hand, sent 3,000 horsemen, Auranites, Batanans, +hand, sent 3,000 horsemen, Auranites, Batanæans, and wild Trachonites, under the command of Philip of Bathyrene, and Darius, a commander of cavalry, to help the party that wished to remain at peace @@ -10886,7 +10848,7 @@ after a siege of two days, and put them to death (17th Ab); they then stormed the palace of Herod, which was defended by the combined troops of Rome and Agrippa. After eighteen days of incessant -fighting the garrison capitulated and the Judan +fighting the garrison capitulated and the Judæan soldiers under Philip were allowed to depart unhurt. The Romans, too proud to sue for mercy, retreated to the three towers in the wall, Hippicus, @@ -10914,16 +10876,16 @@ which was occupied by their friends. After this bloody episode the Zealots, led by Eleazar, besieged the towers, and the Roman troops under the command of Metilius were at last obliged to sue for -mercy. The Judans deputed to treat with Metilius +mercy. The Judæans deputed to treat with Metilius agreed that the Romans, deprived of their arms and baggage, should be allowed to depart unmolested. As soon, however, as the conquered soldiers were divested of their swords and shields, Eleazar's band fell upon them and destroyed them all. Metilius alone was spared, because in the fear of death he -had promised to adopt the Judan faith, and he was +had promised to adopt the Judæan faith, and he was allowed to live an animated trophy of the victory -of the Judans over the Romans. The day on +of the Judæans over the Romans. The day on which Jerusalem was delivered from the Romans (17 Elul) was henceforth to be considered one of the festive anniversaries. That the aim of Eleazar and @@ -10934,33 +10896,33 @@ and yet in the annals of those times we can discover no trace of persecution or cruelty towards them.</p> <p>Thus far the insurrection had been limited to -Jerusalem, for the rest of Juda, although equally +Jerusalem, for the rest of Judæa, although equally excited, remained quiet during the events that were taking place in the capital, and awaited the result. Florus himself had likewise remained quietly at -Csarea, taking care, however, that the revolution<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_262" id="Page_262">262</a></span> +Cæsarea, taking care, however, that the revolution<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_262" id="Page_262">262</a></span> should flow on like a stream of fire, carrying devastation all over the country, and even beyond its boundaries. When tidings of the battle between the Zealots and the Roman cohorts in Jerusalem -reached Csarea, the Greeks and Syrians attacked -the Judans who had returned there. The carnage +reached Cæsarea, the Greeks and Syrians attacked +the Judæans who had returned there. The carnage which ensued must have been fearful; more than -twenty thousand Judans were killed, and these, +twenty thousand Judæans were killed, and these, doubtless, did not succumb without, in self-defense, -causing some other deaths. Not a single Judan -remained alive in Csarea. Those who tried to +causing some other deaths. Not a single Judæan +remained alive in Cæsarea. Those who tried to flee were captured, put into chains by the command of Florus, and sent as slaves to various ships. This unexampled cruelty exasperated the whole -population of Juda, and their hatred against the +population of Judæa, and their hatred against the heathens broke out into wild frenzy. Everywhere, as though by common assent, bands of free troops formed themselves, attacking the heathen inhabitants of the country, burning, destroying, and slaying. These barbarous onslaughts, of course, called again for revenge from the heathen population of -Juda and Syria. Many towns were divided into +Judæa and Syria. Many towns were divided into two hostile parties, which savagely fought together during the day, and lay in ambush to injure each other at night.</p> @@ -10970,18 +10932,18 @@ took place in the town of Bethshean, the first of a long series of acts of self-destruction of which we read in the account of the destruction of the Temple. Its heathen inhabitants had made a -covenant with their Judan fellow-citizens, promising +covenant with their Judæan fellow-citizens, promising to befriend them if they would assist in -repulsing any attack of Judan bands upon their -town. The Judans in Bethshean honestly fulfilled +repulsing any attack of Judæan bands upon their +town. The Judæans in Bethshean honestly fulfilled their agreement, fought vigorously against their brethren, and drove them away from the vicinity of the town. Among the combatants on that occasion, -Simon ben Saul, a Judan of gigantic strength +Simon ben Saul, a Judæan of gigantic strength and great valor, was principally distinguished.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_263" id="Page_263">263</a></span> No sooner, however, were the heathen inhabitants delivered from their assailants than, under cover of -the night, they fell upon the unguarded Judans, +the night, they fell upon the unguarded Judæans, and put them all, nearly thirteen thousand, to death. In that fearful massacre Simon and his family alone survived, the former, wielding his drawn @@ -10993,41 +10955,41 @@ killing his aged parents, his wife and children, he thrust his sword into his breast and expired at their side.</p> -<p>The violent animosity which inflamed the Judans -and heathens in Csarea also reached Alexandria. -A massacre of the Judans, partly due to +<p>The violent animosity which inflamed the Judæans +and heathens in Cæsarea also reached Alexandria. +A massacre of the Judæans, partly due to the anger of an apostate, took place in the Egyptian capital. The Alexandrian Greeks, jealous of -their Judan fellow-citizens, resolved to solicit the +their Judæan fellow-citizens, resolved to solicit the Emperor Nero to deprive them of the rights which they had received from Claudius, putting them on a footing of equality with the Greeks. To select the deputies who were to convey their wishes to the emperor, a large concourse assembled in the -amphitheater of the town. A few Judans being +amphitheater of the town. A few Judæans being discovered among the crowd, they were fiercely attacked and insulted as spies. Three of them were dragged through the streets to be committed alive to the flames. Enraged at the savage treatment -of their brethren, the Judans armed themselves, +of their brethren, the Judæans armed themselves, seized firebrands, and threatened to burn the amphitheater where the Greeks were still assembled. The governor Tiberius now attempted to interfere in order to stay the impending civil strife, but -he only increased the angry ferment. The Judans +he only increased the angry ferment. The Judæans hated him for being a renegade to his faith, and reproached him with his apostasy. Infuriated by their taunts, Tiberius Alexander lost all control over himself; he ordered his legions to repair to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_264" id="Page_264">264</a></span> -the Judan quarter, and gave free license to the +the Judæan quarter, and gave free license to the exercise of that brutality which it had cost so much effort to restrain. The soldiers, greedy for blood and plunder, poured in upon the beautiful Delta quarter of the town, killed all whom they found in their way, burned the houses, and filled the streets -with blood and corpses. Fifty thousand Judans lost +with blood and corpses. Fifty thousand Judæans lost their lives, and the man who ordered that frightful -butchery was the nephew of the Judan philosopher +butchery was the nephew of the Judæan philosopher Philo!</p> <p>Such was the alarming proportion which the @@ -11040,7 +11002,7 @@ From day to day the number of brave and daring warriors increased. The expected help now came from Adiabene and Babylon. Members of the royal house of Adiabene, brothers and sons of the -King Izates, Monobazus and Cenedus, took the +King Izates, Monobazus and Cenedæus, took the management of the rebellion into their own hands, and prepared to hold out to the last. Three heroes, who alone seemed more than equal to a @@ -11063,8 +11025,8 @@ Roman army, and offered himself as guide through the mountain paths and ravines of that dangerous country. Cestius led more than thirty thousand men, experienced soldiers, out of Antioch, against -Juda, and doubted not that in one battle he would -be able to destroy the Judan rebels. On his way +Judæa, and doubted not that in one battle he would +be able to destroy the Judæan rebels. On his way along the sea-coast he left in every town marks of blood and fire.</p> @@ -11104,7 +11066,7 @@ over the walls, and prepared vigorously for the defense of the places they occupied. During five successive days the Romans stormed the walls, but were always obliged to fall back before the missiles -of the Judans. It was only on the sixth day that +of the Judæans. It was only on the sixth day that they succeeded in undermining a part of the northern wall in front of the Temple. But this advantage was not followed up by Cestius. He did not deem @@ -11126,7 +11088,7 @@ and passes. A great number of Romans, among whom were many distinguished officers, lay slain upon the line of march. When the army reached the camp in Gabaot, it found itself surrounded by -swarming hosts of Judans, and Cestius, not considering +swarming hosts of Judæans, and Cestius, not considering it safe to remain there any longer, hastened his retreat, leaving the heaviest part of the baggage behind. In the narrow pass of Bethoron the Roman @@ -11140,14 +11102,14 @@ and they would have been almost completely destroyed in their flight had not approaching night saved them from further pursuit.</p> -<p>The Judans remained all night before Bethoron, +<p>The Judæans remained all night before Bethoron, but Cestius, leaving four hundred brave soldiers in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_267" id="Page_267">267</a></span> the camp, marched noiselessly out with the whole of his army, so that at break of day, when the -Judans perceived what had taken place, he had +Judæans perceived what had taken place, he had already obtained a considerable start. The four hundred soldiers left behind succumbed to the -Judans, who then vainly followed the Roman army +Judæans, who then vainly followed the Roman army as far as Antipatris. They found, however, rich booty, consisting of arms and implements of war. These they brought back as trophies to Jerusalem, @@ -11156,7 +11118,7 @@ enemies. The money chests of Cestius, which contained the supplies for the war, fell also into their hands, and helped to replenish the treasury at Jerusalem. In this first campaign against the despised -Judans the army of Cestius lost nearly six thousand +Judæans the army of Cestius lost nearly six thousand men, both Romans and allies; and the legion which the governor had brought from Antioch as a picked corps to fight against Jerusalem had lost @@ -11167,7 +11129,7 @@ equivalent to a shameful defeat.</p> <p>The Zealots, shouting exultant war songs, returned to Jerusalem (8th October), their hearts beating with the joyful hope of liberty and independence. -The proud and happy time of the Hasmonans +The proud and happy time of the Hasmonæans seemed to have returned, and its glory even to be surpassed. Had not the great Roman army, feared by all the world, been defeated and forced to ignominious @@ -11193,11 +11155,11 @@ Saul, sought the presence of the Emperor Nero in Greece, attempting to excuse the insurrectionary outburst and to throw the blame of it upon Florus. While they were trying to vindicate the fidelity of -the Judan nation, the Zealots, intoxicated with +the Judæan nation, the Zealots, intoxicated with their victory, had coins struck with the inscription—"For the deliverance of Jerusalem." Even the Samaritans now put aside their old feeling of animosity -against the Judans, and to gratify their +against the Judæans, and to gratify their hatred of the Romans made common cause with their former enemies.</p> @@ -11209,18 +11171,18 @@ The walls of Jerusalem were strengthened to a degree that promised to set the enemy for a long time at defiance. The young men underwent daily military exercise, and their enthusiasm made up for their -want of experience. In all parts of Juda the warlike +want of experience. In all parts of Judæa the warlike patriots and foes of Rome formed provisional committees to prepare for the great struggle which they felt must be approaching, and their glowing -ardor was shared even by the Judans who lived +ardor was shared even by the Judæans who lived in foreign lands.</p> <p>Of the internal political arrangements introduced in Jerusalem after the defeat of Cestius, only slight and uncertain indications have come down to us. The historian friendly to Rome, who could not sufficiently -darken the rebellion of the Judans, was not +darken the rebellion of the Judæans, was not inclined to record any of their acts. There can be no doubt, however, that the Great Synhedrion again<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_269" id="Page_269">269</a></span> acquired its former supreme authority over all political @@ -11244,22 +11206,22 @@ Gamaliel.</p> <p>After the victory gained over Cestius, the heathens became more and more embittered against -their Judan neighbors; and either from fear of +their Judæan neighbors; and either from fear of an onslaught from them, or actuated by revenge for the defeat of the Romans, they formed themselves into murderous bands, slaying without pity -Judan men, women and children who were living +Judæan men, women and children who were living among them. Such cruel massacres must have incensed the patriots all the more, as they frequently occurred among communities innocent of the remotest idea of joining the rebellion, and now, -as far as lay in their power, the Judans took +as far as lay in their power, the Judæans took their revenge upon their heathen neighbors. The savage enmity of races rose higher and higher, and, spreading far beyond the narrow boundary of Palestine, -animated the Judans on the one side and +animated the Judæans on the one side and the Greeks and Romans on the other. As all the -nations around Juda, including Syrians, Greeks, +nations around Judæa, including Syrians, Greeks, Romans and Alexandrians, made common cause with the Roman emperor, the ultra-Zealots thought themselves justified in visiting upon them the wrath<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_270" id="Page_270">270</a></span> @@ -11267,7 +11229,7 @@ that inflamed them against Rome. To cut off every link between them, the followers of the school of Shammai proposed erecting a barrier which should effectually prevent any communication, by -prohibiting the Judans in future from buying +prohibiting the Judæans in future from buying wine, oil, bread, or any other articles of food from their heathen neighbors. These regulations were known under the name of "The Eighteen Things." @@ -11291,7 +11253,7 @@ the school of Shammai were brought forward and agreed to, the 9th Adar, was regarded as a day of misfortune.</p> -<p>Meanwhile, the warlike activity of the Judans +<p>Meanwhile, the warlike activity of the Judæans had not ceased for a moment. The urgent necessity of making a selection of generals and leaders for the approaching strife was felt by all. The @@ -11300,7 +11262,7 @@ themselves, who for some cause or other had taken umbrage at the ultra-Zealots. Eleazar ben Ananias, who had given the first impulse to the great uprising, was only made governor of the unimportant -province of Iduma, and was even obliged to divide +province of Idumæa, and was even obliged to divide his authority with another.</p> <p>Eleazar ben Simon, an ultra-Zealot, who had @@ -11327,7 +11289,7 @@ Joseph ben Gorion.</p> <p>Simon was at the head of the Pharisees, and Anan, the former high priest, made no attempt to -conceal his leaning towards Sadducism; but their +conceal his leaning towards Sadducæism; but their antagonism in religious matters did not prevent them from now acting together. The love of country outweighed the spirit of partisanship. The @@ -11378,11 +11340,11 @@ Judas and of Jesus of Nazareth, did not receive the news of the revolt of Jerusalem and the defeat of Cestius with indifference. It assumed, on the contrary, with unreflecting ardor the jubilant spirit of -the victorious party. And how could the Galilans +the victorious party. And how could the Galilæans have remained indifferent? Had they not witnessed the cruel deaths of their own kin at the hands of the heathen? Daily they had been in the habit of giving -shelter to unhappy Judan exiles, and daily they +shelter to unhappy Judæan exiles, and daily they had had to fear the worst from their heathen neighbors. It was in the face of such dangers that all the cities of Galilee had armed to be ready for action, @@ -11391,7 +11353,7 @@ in Jerusalem. Three cities above all others were longing to raise the standard of revolt—Gischala in the extreme north, Tiberias in the south, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_273" id="Page_273">273</a></span> Gamala, opposite Tiberias, on the eastern shores of -the Sea of Galilee. The Judan inhabitants of +the Sea of Galilee. The Judæan inhabitants of Gischala were, to a certain extent, forced into insurrection, for the neighboring cities had banded together, and, after plundering the town, had partly @@ -11402,7 +11364,7 @@ and who, in company with Simon bar-Giora, became the terror of her legions.</p> <p>John ben Levi, of Gischala, commenced his career -by collecting under his flag all the rebellious Judans +by collecting under his flag all the rebellious Judæans of Upper Galilee, and by preparing to lead them against the heathen populace. He was a man of small means and of delicate constitution, but he @@ -11410,16 +11372,16 @@ possessed one of those enthusiastic natures capable of rising above the depressing influences of poverty and ill-health; besides which he had the art of making the circumstances of his life subservient to -his own aims. At the commencement of the Galilan +his own aims. At the commencement of the Galilæan rising, John's only ambition was to strengthen the walls of his birthplace against the attacks of hostile neighbors. Later on, he expended the considerable sums of money which he earned by selling -oil to the Judans of Syria and Csarea Philippi +oil to the Judæans of Syria and Cæsarea Philippi (for they would not use the unclean oil prepared by the heathens), in paying for the services of patriotic volunteers. He had gathered around him about -four thousand of these, principally Galilans, but +four thousand of these, principally Galilæans, but partly refugees from Syria, who were always increasing in number.</p> @@ -11457,8 +11419,8 @@ impregnable position made defense easy and conquest difficult, was preparing for revolt.</p> <p>In the neighborhood of Gamala lived a settlement -of Judan Babylonians, who, under Herod I, -had migrated to Batana, where they had built +of Judæan Babylonians, who, under Herod I, +had migrated to Batanæa, where they had built several towns and the fortress of Bathyra. The Babylonians, for the colony was called by this name, were devoted adherents to the Herodian family, and @@ -11473,12 +11435,12 @@ escape to a village of his own near the fortress of Gamala.</p> <p>Varus, who temporarily was taking the place of -Agrippa in Csarea, did not look favorably upon<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_275" id="Page_275">275</a></span> +Agrippa in Cæsarea, did not look favorably upon<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_275" id="Page_275">275</a></span> Philip, of whose influence with the king he was jealous. For Varus hoped in time to supersede Agrippa, and, in order to court popularity, resorted -to the cruel device of putting many Judans in -Csarea Philippi to death. But all the while he +to the cruel device of putting many Judæans in +Cæsarea Philippi to death. But all the while he dreaded the Babylonian colony and the wrath of Philip, who most certainly would divulge his ambitious designs to Agrippa. Thus he tried to lure @@ -11489,10 +11451,10 @@ and which prevented him from obeying the summons of Varus.</p> <p>Varus succeeded, however, in tempting seventy -of the most distinguished Judans into his power, +of the most distinguished Judæans into his power, the greater number of whom were murdered by his command. At the news of this assassination, terror -seized upon all the Babylonian Judans who were +seized upon all the Babylonian Judæans who were settled in the various cities of Galilee. They rushed into Gamala for protection, breathing vengeance, not only against Varus, but against all the Syrians @@ -11500,10 +11462,10 @@ who had supported him. They were joined by Philip, who with difficulty restrained them from some signal act of vengeance. But even after Agrippa had dismissed the unscrupulous Varus -from his office, the Babylonian Judans still evinced +from his office, the Babylonian Judæans still evinced great eagerness to coalesce with the enemies of Rome, and were therefore ordered to leave the -fortress of Gamala and return to Batana. But +fortress of Gamala and return to Batanæa. But this caused so great a tumult and division in the city that some of the inhabitants rose and attacked the Babylonians who were about to leave them, @@ -11533,12 +11495,12 @@ desired by the patriots, or would have a tragic termination. Unfortunately, Joseph was not the man who could successfully pilot so gigantic a scheme, but by his conduct he materially contributed to the -fall of the Judan nation.</p> +fall of the Judæan nation.</p> <p>Joseph, the son of Matthias, better known as Flavius Josephus, was a native of Jerusalem (born 38, died about 95), of illustrious priestly descent, -and related, on the female side, to the Hasmonan +and related, on the female side, to the Hasmonæan house. He and his brother Matthias received a careful education, and were taught the tenets of the Law whilst very young, their father's house being @@ -11555,7 +11517,7 @@ undertake a journey to Rome, in order to plead for two imprisoned Pharisees, in the presence of the Empress Poppea, and he succeeded in obtaining their freedom. The Empress, who entertained a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_277" id="Page_277">277</a></span> -friendly feeling toward the Judans, loaded him +friendly feeling toward the Judæans, loaded him with gifts. Rome itself could not fail to exercise a great influence upon the character of Josephus. The glitter of Nero's court, the busy life of the @@ -11570,10 +11532,10 @@ became a fervent adherent of the Roman rule.</p> <p>Filled with enthusiastic admiration for Rome, he must upon his return have found the proportions of -Juda humble and dwarfed. How sarcastically he +Judæa humble and dwarfed. How sarcastically he must have smiled at the wild gestures of the frenzied Zealots who dreamt of expelling the Romans from -Juda! Such an expectation appeared to him like +Judæa! Such an expectation appeared to him like the dream of a madman. With all the experiences that he had gathered in his travels he tried to shatter the revolutionary projects of the Zealots. But it @@ -11603,12 +11565,12 @@ him to look upon him as a Zealot. But, at all events, the heroic bearing of the insurgents and the victory that they had gained over the army of Cestius, cannot have failed to make upon Josephus, -as upon other plain and matter-of-fact Judans, +as upon other plain and matter-of-fact Judæans, a powerful impression. Entire separation from the empire of Rome appeared to him an impossible scheme; but he may have hoped that some concessions were to be extorted from the -imperial court; that perhaps Juda might be +imperial court; that perhaps Judæa might be handed over to the control of Agrippa, and that he might be allowed to fill the post in Jerusalem. To Agrippa himself the revolt was not quite unwelcome, @@ -11626,7 +11588,7 @@ him, now as pure and clean-handed, and again as open to bribery. But they were quite unimportant and soon disappeared from the scene of action. At first Josephus seems to have been anxious to -promote the revolutionary ardor of the Galilans. +promote the revolutionary ardor of the Galilæans. He called a kind of Synhedrion together, consisting of seventy men of repute, after the fashion of the great council in Tiberias. He appointed seven @@ -11733,7 +11695,7 @@ cordially, but equaled each other in craft and dissimulation.</p> <p>When John became aware that the greater number -of the Galilans were under the impression +of the Galilæans were under the impression that Josephus was a truthful and reliable man, and were supporting him with all their might, he sent his brother Simon, with a hundred chosen followers, @@ -11767,7 +11729,7 @@ perplexed the envoys by the evasive replies he gave them, assuring them, with a resigned air, when they ordered him to depart instantly for Jerusalem, that he was more than ready to lay down his office. -But all the while he was inciting the Galilans to +But all the while he was inciting the Galilæans to hatred of the envoys, who, in traveling from one town to another, found that they were not furthering their mission, but that, on the contrary, they @@ -11779,7 +11741,7 @@ Josephus outlawed. A traitor revealed this resolution to the governor. With an energy deserving of a better cause, Josephus sent his troops to guard the passes leading from the -Galilan towns to Jerusalem, and had the messengers +Galilæan towns to Jerusalem, and had the messengers seized and brought into his presence. He then summoned all his devoted followers (who came streaming from all the small towns and villages of @@ -11814,7 +11776,7 @@ last, words gave place to action, and Josephus' followers, drawing their arms, rushed frantically upon his enemies. The populace sided with Josephus, who was once more saved from deadly peril. Meanwhile, -the Galilan messengers who had been sent +the Galilæan messengers who had been sent to Jerusalem produced so favorable an impression for Josephus in that city, that the envoys were recalled, and the governor reinstated in his official @@ -11825,12 +11787,12 @@ thus treating the Synhedrion with contempt.</p> <p>But whilst he was bringing civil war upon Galilee, contempt upon the Synhedrion, disunion amongst the patriots, whilst he was urging the important city -of Tiberias to rebellion, the Galilan capital, Sepphoris, +of Tiberias to rebellion, the Galilæan capital, Sepphoris, with its Roman proclivities, had ample time to make overtures to the Empire. Josephus must bear the eternal opprobrium of having unmanned and broken the one strong bulwark of -Juda, the vigorous and warlike Galilee, and this he +Judæa, the vigorous and warlike Galilee, and this he accomplished through indecision, egotism, want of tact, and above all, his extraordinary duplicity. He certainly did strengthen some of the fortresses, or @@ -11838,7 +11800,7 @@ rather he did not prevent their garrisons from doing so, but when the Romans appeared in the land they found neither an army nor a nation to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_284" id="Page_284">284</a></span> oppose them. Every fortress had to depend upon -its own resources. The Galilans, without confidence +its own resources. The Galilæans, without confidence in their leader, and exhausted by constant strife, were becoming self-seeking if not cowardly.</p> @@ -11851,14 +11813,14 @@ in Jerusalem was lost during the five fatal months of his governorship of Galilee (from Nov., 66, to March, 67), and this was before the enemy had even threatened to appear, for the Romans during that -time had been inactive in Juda. The Emperor +time had been inactive in Judæa. The Emperor Nero was courting popular favor in Greece, by appearing in the arena as singer, player, and charioteer. Whilst engaged in these engrossing pursuits, there came upon him like a thunderbolt the news of the -rising in Juda and the defeat of the Roman army +rising in Judæa and the defeat of the Roman army under Cestius. Nero trembled, for the revolution -in Juda might be the precursor of grave events. +in Judæa might be the precursor of grave events. The emperor was then apprised of the death of his general Cestius, and none could tell whether he had met with a natural death, or had died heartbroken @@ -11868,7 +11830,7 @@ at his defeat.</p> who had won his laurels fighting against the Britons, and who was known to be one of the ablest generals of his time. But so great was the alarm felt at the -Judan rebellion and its possible consequences, that +Judæan rebellion and its possible consequences, that Licinius Mucianus was chosen as special governor of Syria, and ordered to quell all dangerous symptoms of disaffection that might appear among the @@ -11876,21 +11838,21 @@ Parthians. Vespasian was not in the emperor's favor at that time, and Nero would far rather have given some other general his post; but the emperor had no choice, for the ability of Vespasian was unquestionable, -and Juda required a strong hand. +and Judæa required a strong hand. Vespasian started from Greece in the winter season,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_285" id="Page_285">285</a></span> and commenced his preparations for the campaign in Ptolemais. His son Titus, who first won renown -in fighting against the Judans, brought two +in fighting against the Judæans, brought two legions from Alexandria, the fifth and tenth, those wild Decumani whose cruelty, already experienced -by the Alexandrian Judans, was now for the first +by the Alexandrian Judæans, was now for the first time to be felt by their Palestinean brethren. Vespasian was met in Ptolemais by all who wished to express their feelings of friendliness towards the Romans; amongst others came Agrippa with his sister Berenice. Agrippa had been accused by the Tyrians of being in secret league with the rebellious -Judans, and was therefore regarded with some +Judæans, and was therefore regarded with some suspicion by Vespasian; but he came at the head of his troops as a loyal subject-prince, whilst his beautiful sister Berenice, still beautiful in spite of @@ -11904,7 +11866,7 @@ men, besides the countless horde that was in the habit of following in the wake of armies. Early in the spring the army was equipped, and the campaign began by the despatch of small bands to -clear the way of Judan scouts, on the roads leading +clear the way of Judæan scouts, on the roads leading to the fortified places. Vespasian, far more prudent than his predecessor Cestius, instead of displaying great energy, carried on the campaign @@ -11949,14 +11911,14 @@ movements, whether he was to resist the enemy (in which case he would require reinforcements), or whether he was to enter into negotiations with Vespasian. The province of Galilee, although far more -thickly populated than Juda, counting more than +thickly populated than Judæa, counting more than three millions of souls, now already required military aid, so terribly had it been weakened by Josephus' inefficient management.</p> <p>Vespasian marched from Gabara to Jotapata, but his troops had to make their way with the greatest -difficulty, for the Judans had endeavored to bar +difficulty, for the Judæans had endeavored to bar the narrow passes and render the road impassable. The rock upon which the fortress of Jotapata was built is surrounded by steep and lofty hills, from<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_287" id="Page_287">287</a></span> @@ -11974,11 +11936,11 @@ machines, from which, in one uninterrupted volley, poured spears, stones, and slings containing ignitible matter. But the besieged fought with such bitterness, and with such cool contempt of death, that -even the Romans grew weary. The Galilans not +even the Romans grew weary. The Galilæans not only repulsed the storming parties, and often destroyed their machinery, but they also made successful sorties. The siege lasted more than forty -days, when at last, through the treachery of a Galilan, +days, when at last, through the treachery of a Galilæan, the fortress fell. Thus the Romans were able to surprise the besieged at daybreak, when they fell upon the exhausted sentinels, and then put the @@ -12011,7 +11973,7 @@ give himself up to the Romans. This exactly coincided with his own wishes, as his person was to be protected; but his companions, pointing their swords against his breast, swore that sooner than allow him -to dishonor the Judans by his cowardice they would +to dishonor the Judæans by his cowardice they would instantly take his life. Entirely at their mercy, he consented to their proposal that they should all die then and there. Each soldier swore that he would @@ -12044,14 +12006,14 @@ of its faith, was ruined, depopulated, and more thoroughly than ever made subject to its conquerors.</p> <p>It was upon this occasion that Agrippa proved<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_289" id="Page_289">289</a></span> -that his conduct to the Judans was not solely influenced +that his conduct to the Judæans was not solely influenced by his fear of the Romans. For Vespasian gave him free control over them in his own province, and he chose to sell those unfortunate people into captivity, when he might either have chastised them or given them their liberty.</p> -<p>The Galilan Zealots were in possession of only +<p>The Galilæan Zealots were in possession of only three fortified places—Gamala, Mount Tabor, and Gischala—in the extreme north. Joseph of Gamala and Chares were the leaders of the insurgents in @@ -12079,11 +12041,11 @@ impossible.</p> <p>This victory, falling upon the Feast of Tabernacles, was a glorious day for the men of Gamala; but it was dearly bought, for the corpses of the -Romans lay upon the bodies of many Judan +Romans lay upon the bodies of many Judæan warriors, who could ill be spared. Chares, one of their leaders, was mortally wounded. At last the Romans, after secretly mining one of the fortified -towers, made a feint of attacking it; the Judans +towers, made a feint of attacking it; the Judæans rushed to the battlements, and were preparing for defense, when the walls gave way and fell with a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_290" id="Page_290">290</a></span> fearful crash, burying the besieged, amongst whom @@ -12102,7 +12064,7 @@ position it was invincible. But Placidus tempted the greater part of the garrison out of the fortress by feigned flight. When his pursuers were close upon him, his cavalry wheeled around and threw -themselves upon the unfortunate Judans, of whom +themselves upon the unfortunate Judæans, of whom some few fled to Jerusalem, whilst the weakened fortress opened her gates to the enemy.</p> @@ -12117,7 +12079,7 @@ made his escape from the city, followed by many thousands of his people. On the morrow Gischala capitulated, her gates were thrown open, and her walls razed to the ground. But, indignant at -the conduct of the Judan leader, Titus ordered +the conduct of the Judæan leader, Titus ordered him to be hotly pursued. John succeeded, however, in reaching Jerusalem with a remnant of his army, whilst numbers of fugitives of both sexes and @@ -12135,12 +12097,12 @@ declare a truce to hostilities.</p> <h2 class="vspace"><a name="CHAPTER_XI" id="CHAPTER_XI">CHAPTER XI.</a><br /> -<span class="smaller">DESTRUCTION OF THE JUDAN STATE.</span></h2> +<span class="smaller">DESTRUCTION OF THE JUDÆAN STATE.</span></h2> <blockquote> -<p class="hang">Galilan Fugitives in Jerusalem​—​Condition of the Capital​—​Internal -Contests​—​The Idumans​—​Eleazer ben Simon, John of Gischala, +<p class="hang">Galilæan Fugitives in Jerusalem​—​Condition of the Capital​—​Internal +Contests​—​The Idumæans​—​Eleazer ben Simon, John of Gischala, and Simon Bar-Giora​—​Progress of the War​—​Affairs in Rome​—​Vespasian created Emperor​—​Siege of Jerusalem by Titus​—​Heroic Defense​—​Famine​—​Fall of the Fortress Antonia​—​Burning @@ -12148,13 +12110,13 @@ of the Temple​—​Destruction of the City​—​Nu <p class="center bpad">67–70 <span class="smcap smaller">C. E.</span></p> -<p>Jerusalem was the rallying point of all the Galilan +<p>Jerusalem was the rallying point of all the Galilæan fugitives. Thither many thousands had been brought by John of Gischala, and thither numbers fled from Tiberias; there, where the last stroke of the nation's destiny was to fall, patriotism, ambition, revenge, and despair were all duly represented. -The Galilan Zealots' burning account of their +The Galilæan Zealots' burning account of their desperate resistance to the Roman arms, and of the massacre of the weak and defenseless by the soldiers of Titus, had stirred the blood of the people @@ -12170,7 +12132,7 @@ take those walls and those towers, whose defenders were iron-hearted men. Had it not cost Rome a desperate struggle to conquer Galilee; what then had the strongly fortified capital to fear? This -overwrought condition of the Judans was stimulated +overwrought condition of the Judæans was stimulated by their ardent belief that the Messianic period, so long foretold by the prophets, was actually dawning,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_292" id="Page_292">292</a></span> when every other nation of the earth would be @@ -12231,8 +12193,8 @@ their safety, the moderate party of the Zealots sent a troop against him, obliging him to take refuge in Masada. It was from this place that he and the Sicarii undertook armed expeditions into -Iduma for the purpose of cattle-lifting and forage-hunting. -This roused the Idumans to retaliate by +Idumæa for the purpose of cattle-lifting and forage-hunting. +This roused the Idumæans to retaliate by opposing his force with a large army numbering twenty thousand men. These rival hosts outdid each other in patriotism, fierce courage, and recklessness.</p> @@ -12241,7 +12203,7 @@ each other in patriotism, fierce courage, and recklessness.</p> fanned the excitement and warlike energy of the inhabitants, embittered as they were by Josephus' duplicity and defection. For, as long as the -Judans believed that he was buried under the +Judæans believed that he was buried under the ruins of Jotapata, his name was mentioned with reverence, but as soon as the tidings spread that he was in the Roman camp, and treated with consideration @@ -12311,7 +12273,7 @@ refuge within the second wall of the citadel. Meanwhile, a rumor spread that Anan had called upon the Roman general for help. This was enough to bring John of Gischala with his troops to the gates -of the capital. Twenty thousand Idumans, men +of the capital. Twenty thousand Idumæans, men who rejoiced in an appeal to reckless and savage soldiery, under the leadership of John, Simon, Phineas, and Jacob, appeared likewise before Jerusalem, @@ -12321,18 +12283,18 @@ for the assault by barring the gates and doubling his sentinels. But in the ensuing night his troops were seized with a panic. A terrific storm of thunder, lightning, and drenching rain raged over -Jerusalem. The Idumans, men of bold character +Jerusalem. The Idumæans, men of bold character and hardy nature, did not flinch from their position, but many of the sentinels on the walls sought shelter from the violence of the elements and deserted their posts. The ever-watchful Zealots within the fortifications were thus able to communicate with -their Iduman allies and to effect their entrance. +their Idumæan allies and to effect their entrance. The besiegers threw themselves upon some of the unsuspecting watch, whilst the Zealots overpowered others. The citizens were roused to arms and a terrible battle ensued. The moderate party laid -their weapons down in despair, as the Idumans<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_296" id="Page_296">296</a></span> +their weapons down in despair, as the Idumæans<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_296" id="Page_296">296</a></span> pouring into the city massacred all those whom they suspected of being friendly to Anan. The morning sun dawned upon a hideous mass of corpses, for @@ -12353,25 +12315,25 @@ by the Zealots, no longer of aristocratic and high-priestly elements, but rather of a democratic order, also numbering seventy members.</p> -<p>The Idumans were as heartily disliked by the +<p>The Idumæans were as heartily disliked by the Zealots as they were by the moderate party, and many of them were courteously persuaded to withdraw from Jerusalem. Meanwhile the reign of terror continued, and amongst others fell Niger, the -hero from Pera, probably because he had upheld +hero from Peræa, probably because he had upheld the Synhedrists. In fact, this one case corroborates the general rule that every revolution devours its originators. For Niger was one of those who had strained every nerve to support the first rising -amongst the Judans, and his death was a blot upon +amongst the Judæans, and his death was a blot upon the rule of the Zealots. In order to check the anarchy which followed the overthrow of the Synhedrion, John of Gischala threw himself boldly into the front ranks, and was warmly supported by the -Galilan fugitives. His heroic bearing soon secured -him the following of the most fiery of the Judans, +Galilæan fugitives. His heroic bearing soon secured +him the following of the most fiery of the Judæans, whose devotion to himself rivaled that of his own -Galilans. John was born to be a leader of men; +Galilæans. John was born to be a leader of men; for not only was he dauntless as a commander, but he excelled others in penetration and fertility of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_297" id="Page_297">297</a></span> invention. This superiority naturally awakened the @@ -12384,13 +12346,13 @@ quiet. Vespasian was far too prudent to attack the lion in his lair, in spite of the repeated assurances of his followers that the conquest of Jerusalem would be an easy task. He chose to wait -until the Judans, weakened by their internal strife, +until the Judæans, weakened by their internal strife, would be entirely at his mercy. His troops, after spending an inactive winter (67–68), opened a new -campaign in the spring against Pera and many distant -parts of Juda, where thousands were slain +campaign in the spring against Peræa and many distant +parts of Judæa, where thousands were slain in obstinate and hard fighting. Vespasian returned -to Csarea at the end of this campaign, and left +to Cæsarea at the end of this campaign, and left Jerusalem undisturbed for two years. He was led to this course by two different events: the fresh outburst of civil war in Jerusalem, the death of Nero, @@ -12413,9 +12375,9 @@ waited in ambush, and made his wife and some of his soldiery prisoners, hoping to crush him by this cowardly action. But Bar-Giora was a stern-hearted warrior, and, in retaliation, threw himself -upon the defenseless Judans who ventured outside +upon the defenseless Judæans who ventured outside the walls to procure the necessaries of life. The<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_298" id="Page_298">298</a></span> -Judans, alarmed at this revenge, sent back his +Judæans, alarmed at this revenge, sent back his wife, while Bar-Giora was more determined than ever to make himself master of the capital. Day and night he waited and watched for some means @@ -12426,12 +12388,12 @@ through the party of the aristocrats.</p> this party had not really ceased to exist, but was secretly working to destroy the power of the Zealots. At their head stood the high-priest Matthias, the -son of Bothus, and others belonging to the great +son of Boëthus, and others belonging to the great priestly families. They knew how to enlist upon their side many of the populace who were unable to leave the city, and who were afraid of the consequences of the civil war. In league with the -Idumans, they suddenly made a well-directed +Idumæans, they suddenly made a well-directed attack upon the Zealots, over whom they gained a signal, but only a momentary advantage, for, recovering themselves from this defeat, the Zealots @@ -12474,12 +12436,12 @@ upon arriving in Corinth, that Galba had been murdered (5 Jan., 69), and that two emperors had been elected by the legions in his stead—Otho in Rome, and Vitellius in Lower Germany, he hurried -back to Juda, not only buoyed up by the secret +back to Judæa, not only buoyed up by the secret hopes of seeing his father created emperor in the general confusion which was pending, but also attracted by a powerful magnet, the beautiful Princess Berenice, who, in spite of living according -to orthodox Judan custom, did not hesitate to +to orthodox Judæan custom, did not hesitate to carry on an intrigue with the heathen Titus. Otho could retain possession of the purple only for one hundred days, at the end of which time he @@ -12489,7 +12451,7 @@ shields, by way of teaching the Spanish legions that they were fittest to choose and instal an emperor. They also wished to make it evident that the emperor need not owe his election only -to Rome and the Prtorian Guard, but should be +to Rome and the Prætorian Guard, but should be the choice also of the legions in the provinces. Vitellius' army gained the victory, and Otho, after brave resistance, fell by his own hand. Meanwhile @@ -12521,12 +12483,12 @@ support for Vespasian, and in this she succeeded admirably. The governor of Egypt responded to her appeal by making his legions swear fealty to him whom they now called emperor. -A few days later the legions stationed in Juda, and +A few days later the legions stationed in Judæa, and the Syrian troops under the command of Mucianus, also tendered their allegiance to Vespasian. The possession of the coveted purple was enough to make Vespasian for the time being forgetful of the -conquest of Juda. Accompanied by his son Titus, +conquest of Judæa. Accompanied by his son Titus, he repaired to Egypt, where they received the news of Vitellius' death (Dec., 69), an event which had drawn forth but the contemptuous scorn of his @@ -12538,10 +12500,10 @@ originally four distinct factions in the city, without counting the more moderate. These were the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_301" id="Page_301">301</a></span> Jerusalem Zealots under Eleazer ben Simon and Simon ben Ezron, consisting only of two thousand -four hundred members, the Galilan Zealots under +four hundred members, the Galilæan Zealots under John, numbering six thousand armed men, the Simonists and Sicarii outnumbering the rest by -their army of ten thousand, and the Idumans +their army of ten thousand, and the Idumæans under Jacob ben Sosa and Simon ben Kathla, a troop of five thousand men. These twenty-four thousand heroic patriots might have put their valor @@ -12576,13 +12538,13 @@ a protracted siege would necessarily imply weakness in the military power of Vespasian and his son.</p> <p>Although Titus was eagerly looking forward to -the subjection of Juda, he could not complete his<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_302" id="Page_302">302</a></span> +the subjection of Judæa, he could not complete his<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_302" id="Page_302">302</a></span> preparations for the siege of Jerusalem before the spring. He collected an army of not less than eighty thousand men, who came, bringing with them the largest number of battering machines that had been used in the warfare of that time. Three -traitors amongst the Judans were most useful to +traitors amongst the Judæans were most useful to him in his laborious undertakings—King Agrippa, who not only brought a contingent of men, but who also tried to influence the inhabitants of Jerusalem @@ -12592,9 +12554,9 @@ battle against his own nation; and Josephus, the constant companion of Titus, who, from being a prisoner, had become a guide in the country which he knew so well. Titus was not experienced enough -in the art of war, and so bade the Judan apostate +in the art of war, and so bade the Judæan apostate stand by his side, and gave him the command of -his own body-guard (Prfectus prtorio). But the +his own body-guard (Præfectus prætorio). But the hostile factions had drawn together when this new danger threatened them. Shortly before the Passover festival numbers of devoted men streamed into @@ -12612,11 +12574,11 @@ acknowledgment of the Roman rule, and payment of the taxes. Eager as he was to return to Rome, where all the enjoyments belonging to his great position were awaiting him, he was ready to -deal gently with the Judans. Besides which, his -devotion to a Judan princess, who, in spite of her +deal gently with the Judæans. Besides which, his +devotion to a Judæan princess, who, in spite of her errors, still clung faithfully to the holy city, made him anxious to spare that city from destruction. -But the Judans refused all negotiation. They had<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_303" id="Page_303">303</a></span> +But the Judæans refused all negotiation. They had<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_303" id="Page_303">303</a></span> sworn to defend their city with their lives, and would not hear of surrender. Then the siege began in earnest. All the gardens and groves to the north @@ -12626,12 +12588,12 @@ were unsparingly destroyed.</p> <p>Titus, anxious to reconnoitre the ground, advanced with a few followers to the north wall, where he narrowly escaped being taken prisoner. The first feat -of arms upon the part of the Judans was crowned +of arms upon the part of the Judæans was crowned with success, and seemed a good omen for the future. A few days later they surprised and totally discomfited the Tenth Legion, who were pitching their tents on the Mount of Olives. But, unfortunately, -this skirmish proved fruitless, for the Judans +this skirmish proved fruitless, for the Judæans were always obliged to retreat to their fortresses, not, however, without having convinced the Romans that they would have a desperate foe to @@ -12640,7 +12602,7 @@ their camps on three sides of the city, and in raising their engines against the outer wall. Titus commenced operations during the Passover festival (March or April, 70), when he believed that the -Judans would not be willing to fight. But as soon +Judæans would not be willing to fight. But as soon as the engines were in working order, they rushed like demons from their retreat, destroying the battering-rams, scattering the workmen, and bringing @@ -12653,7 +12615,7 @@ upon their heads, seized the ponderous missiles that were hurled into the city, and turned them into tools of destruction against the Romans. But the latter succeeded in repairing their broken battering-rams, -and in forcing the Judans, after fifteen days +and in forcing the Judæans, after fifteen days of conflict, back from the outer wall. This wall, the scene of a desperate struggle, was at last taken by the Romans, who, while making themselves masters @@ -12695,7 +12657,7 @@ A conspiracy being discovered amongst Bar-Giora's followers, that leader relentlessly punished the guilty with death. They were all beheaded in full view of the Roman camp, amongst them being Matthias -Bothus, of priestly family.</p> +Boëthus, of priestly family.</p> <p>But in spite of the watchfulness of the Zealots, they were unable to circumvent the traitors in all @@ -12712,7 +12674,7 @@ What was the surprise and horror of the Romans, however, when they discovered that a second and inner wall had been erected behind the one they had succeeded in destroying. They tried -in vain to storm it, the Judans repulsing a nocturnal +in vain to storm it, the Judæans repulsing a nocturnal attack. The battle lasted until the following morning. It was at about this time that the daily sacrifices ceased, on account of the scarcity of the @@ -12722,7 +12684,7 @@ sight of the interpreter who bore the message aroused the indignation of the besieged. John of Gischala replied that the holy city could not be destroyed, and that God held her fate in His hands. -The Judans then withdrew to their last point of +The Judæans then withdrew to their last point of defense, the Temple. The battering-rams were raised against the sacred walls. The unfortunate people were compelled to destroy the colonnades @@ -12732,7 +12694,7 @@ to tire out the Romans, even setting fire to some of the pillars attached to the Temple, and then pretending to take flight. This stratagem succeeded in making the Romans climb over the walls, beyond -which the Judans lay in ambush to receive them, +which the Judæans lay in ambush to receive them, putting them to the sword or casting them into the flames. But the fire could not be extinguished, and the beautiful colonnade of the western side was @@ -12752,10 +12714,10 @@ on carpets from her house to the Temple, was found searching the town like the very poorest for a morsel of food, of even the most revolting description. As if not one line of the old prophecy concerning the -doom of Juda was to remain unfulfilled, a terrible +doom of Judæa was to remain unfulfilled, a terrible scene was enacted, which struck even the enemy with horror. A woman by the name of Miriam, who -had fled from Pera to the capital, actually killed +had fled from Peræa to the capital, actually killed and devoured her own child.</p> <p>The rapidly increasing number of unburied @@ -12774,7 +12736,7 @@ stimulated by this belief, some few of their number were actually known to desert their colors and their faith and to accept Judaism, persuaded, in their turn, that the holy city could never fall into the hands of -the enemy. Proud as the Judans well might be +the enemy. Proud as the Judæans well might be of these voluntary proselytes, at this the supreme moment of their history, they volunteered to guard them as best they could from the horrors of @@ -12801,7 +12763,7 @@ of the Princess Berenice's feelings, and three of the council agreeing with their leader, it was decided to take the Temple, but not to destroy it.</p> -<p>On the 9th Ab, the Judans made another desperate +<p>On the 9th Ab, the Judæans made another desperate sally, but were driven back by an overpowering force of the besiegers. But the hour of the city's doom was about to strike, and in striking, @@ -12816,7 +12778,7 @@ flung his terrible missile through the so-called golden window of the Temple. The fire blazed up; it caught the wooden beams of the sanctuary, and rose in flames heavenwards. At this sight the -bravest of the Judans recoiled terror-stricken. +bravest of the Judæans recoiled terror-stricken. Titus hurried to the spot with his troops, and shouted to the soldiers to extinguish the flames. But no one heeded him. The maddened soldiery @@ -12826,13 +12788,13 @@ firebrands into the blazing building. Titus, unable to control his legions, and urged by curiosity, penetrated into the Holy of Holies.</p> -<p>Meanwhile, the Judans, desperate in their death +<p>Meanwhile, the Judæans, desperate in their death agonies, closed wildly with their assailants. The shouts of victory, the shrieks of despair, the fierce hissing of the flames, making the very earth tremble and the air vibrate, rose in one hideous din, which echoed from the tottering walls of the Sanctuary to -the mountain-heights of Juda. There were congregated +the mountain-heights of Judæa. There were congregated clusters of trembling people from all the country round, who beheld in the ascending flames the sign that the glory of their nation had departed @@ -12878,10 +12840,10 @@ On the 20th of Ab, the Romans began to raise their embankments, and after eighteen days of labor the siege of the upper city commenced. Even then the Zealots would not think of surrender. -Discovering that the Idumans were secretly making +Discovering that the Idumæans were secretly making terms with Titus, they threw some of the ringleaders into prison, and executed others. But the -Judan warriors were exhausted by their super-human +Judæan warriors were exhausted by their super-human resistance and by the long famine, and the Romans were at last able to scale the walls and to seize the fortresses, a prelude to their spreading @@ -12893,11 +12855,11 @@ walls were entirely leveled, Titus leaving only the three fortresses of Hippicus, Mariamne, and Phasael to stand as lasting witnesses of his victory. Under the ruins of Jerusalem and her Temple lay -buried the last remnant of Juda's independence. +buried the last remnant of Judæa's independence. More than a million of lives had been lost during the siege. Counting those who had fallen at Galilee, -Pera, and the provinces, it may be assumed -that the Judans who inhabited their native land +Peræa, and the provinces, it may be assumed +that the Judæans who inhabited their native land were almost all destroyed.</p> <p>Once more did Zion sit weeping amongst the @@ -12921,9 +12883,9 @@ mourning.</p> <p class="hang">Sufferings of the Prisoners​—​The Arena​—​Cruelty of Titus​—​Enmity of the Antiochians​—​Triumph of the Emperor on the occasion of -the Conquest of Juda​—​End of Simon Bar-Giora and John of +the Conquest of Judæa​—​End of Simon Bar-Giora and John of Gischala​—​Coins to Commemorate the Roman Triumph​—​Fall -of the Last Fortresses: Herodium, Masada, and Machrus​—​Resistance +of the Last Fortresses: Herodium, Masada, and Machærus​—​Resistance of the Zealots in Alexandria and Cyrene​—​End of the Temple of Onias​—​The Last of the Zealots​—​Death of Berenice and Agrippa​—​Flavius Josephus and his Writings.</p></blockquote> @@ -12956,11 +12918,11 @@ scenes of horror must have been witnessed and enacted by those unfortunate ones! They had,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_312" id="Page_312">312</a></span> it is true, one ray of comfort left. Possibly they might be carried to some Roman town where a -Judan community existed; their own people would +Judæan community existed; their own people would assuredly give any sum to purchase their freedom, and would then treat them with brotherly sympathy.</p> -<p>Vespasian now declared that all Juda was his +<p>Vespasian now declared that all Judæa was his property by conquest, and bade the Roman officials divide the country into lots, offering them to the highest bidder. And why should he not do so? @@ -12974,26 +12936,26 @@ ordering the execution of thousands, and consigning thousands to slavery? In his march through Syria he was followed by the most vigorous of his captives in chains. When he held his court in -Csarea, and entertained his friends in true Roman +Cæsarea, and entertained his friends in true Roman style, wild beasts were brought into the arena, -and Judan captives fought with them until they +and Judæan captives fought with them until they were torn to death; or they were forced to fight one against another, dying by each other's hands. -Thus at Csarea, two thousand five hundred -brave Judan youths perished in this manner to +Thus at Cæsarea, two thousand five hundred +brave Judæan youths perished in this manner to celebrate the birthday of Domitian, the brother -of the conqueror. And at Csarea Philippi, on +of the conqueror. And at Cæsarea Philippi, on Mount Hermon, the residence of King Agrippa, this terrible spectacle was renewed before the eyes of that monarch and of the Princess Berenice. Vespasian's birthday was honored in the same way at Berytus, the sand of the arena being literally -soaked with Judan blood. In fact, the gentleness +soaked with Judæan blood. In fact, the gentleness and humanity of Titus were strangely displayed in all cities of Syria by a repetition of -these barbarities. The Judan communities in +these barbarities. The Judæan communities in Syria, Asia Minor, Alexandria, and Rome, very -nearly shared the fate of their brethren in Juda. +nearly shared the fate of their brethren in Judæa. For the war had aroused the hatred of the entire<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_313" id="Page_313">313</a></span> heathen world against the unfortunate children of Israel—a hatred which was fanatical in its intensity, @@ -13005,17 +12967,17 @@ made him, upon one occasion, extend his mercy to her race. When he approached the city of Antioch, the whole populace turned out to meet him and demanded nothing less than the expulsion of the -Judan colony. But Titus replied that "The -Judans having no country left to them, it would +Judæan colony. But Titus replied that "The +Judæans having no country left to them, it would be inhuman to expel them from Antioch—they had no retreat." He even refused sternly to cancel -their existing privileges. The Alexandrian Judans +their existing privileges. The Alexandrian Judæans also were left undisturbed in their adopted city.</p> <p>Titus determined to celebrate his triumph over -Juda in the capital of the empire. For this purpose -seven hundred of the flower of the Judan +Judæa in the capital of the empire. For this purpose +seven hundred of the flower of the Judæan captives and the two leaders of the Zealots, John of Gischala, who had surrendered to the enemy when fainting with hunger, and Simon Bar-Giora, were @@ -13040,12 +13002,12 @@ and calmly awaited the fate that he knew was in store for him.</p> <p>Vespasian and his two sons, Titus and Domitian, -celebrated their triumph over Juda, in the imperial +celebrated their triumph over Judæa, in the imperial city of Rome. In front of the emperor were borne the vessels of the Temple, the seven-branched candlestick, the golden table, and a roll of the Law. The Romans were further gladdened -by the pageant of a long train of Judan captives +by the pageant of a long train of Judæan captives heavily chained, and by the wonderful representations of all the horrors and misery of the war—a kind of theatrical entertainment, devised with @@ -13062,19 +13024,19 @@ spectator of the scene. This magnificent triumph, the like of which had not been witnessed for many years in Rome, was a proof of the exultant joy, which passed like a wave over the heathen world, -at the fall of Juda, for the Roman legions had +at the fall of Judæa, for the Roman legions had but rarely met with so obstinate a foe. To commemorate this great victory, coins were struck, -upon which Juda was variously represented, as +upon which Judæa was variously represented, as a sorrowing woman under a palm tree, either standing with fettered hands, or seated in a despairing attitude upon the ground. The coins bore these inscriptions, "the Conquered" or "the Captive -Juda" ("Juda devicta," "Juda capta"). +Judæa" ("Judæa devicta," "Judæa capta"). Later on, a beautiful arch was erected to Titus, which is still standing, and upon which the carved reliefs of the candlestick and vessels of the Temple -are plainly visible. The Roman Judans, not only<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_315" id="Page_315">315</a></span> +are plainly visible. The Roman Judæans, not only<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_315" id="Page_315">315</a></span> at that time, but in years to come, would take a longer or more circuitous route, to avoid seeing this trophy. The rich spoils of the Sanctuary were @@ -13084,14 +13046,14 @@ when Rome was expiating her heavy sins, these relics of the glory of Jerusalem were carried to other countries.</p> -<p>Juda was not yet entirely subjugated, for +<p>Judæa was not yet entirely subjugated, for three strong fortresses were still in arms: Herodium, -Machrus, and Masada. The governor, -Bassus, sent by Vespasian to Juda, was commanded +Machærus, and Masada. The governor, +Bassus, sent by Vespasian to Judæa, was commanded to take them. Herodium surrendered -immediately, but Machrus offered a stubborn +immediately, but Machærus offered a stubborn resistance. This fortress, built by Alexander -Jannus, was well defended from the enemy by +Jannæus, was well defended from the enemy by its natural position. Steep precipices and yawning ravines made it impregnable. But it fell—and in this way: The young commander, Eleazer, a valiant @@ -13118,7 +13080,7 @@ mercilessly destroyed them. The death of Bassus, taking place at this time, caused the difficult task<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_316" id="Page_316">316</a></span> of the conquest of Masada to devolve upon his successor Silva. This hill-fortress was, if possible, -still more inaccessible than that of Machrus. +still more inaccessible than that of Machærus. The garrison consisted of 1000 Zealots, with their wives and children, commanded by Eleazer ben Jair, a descendant of Judas the founder of the @@ -13141,20 +13103,20 @@ with their victims, they stood amazed at the ominous silence, and their shouts brought forth only two trembling women and five children, who came creeping out from a cavern. And it was thus that -the last Zealots fell on Judan ground.</p> +the last Zealots fell on Judæan ground.</p> -<p>The Judans who had tried to shake off the +<p>The Judæans who had tried to shake off the Roman yoke had, indeed, been severely punished. -Not only the inhabitants of Juda, but also the -Judan community in Rome were made answerable -for the rebellion. The two drachm which they +Not only the inhabitants of Judæa, but also the +Judæan community in Rome were made answerable +for the rebellion. The two drachmæ which they had annually given to their Sanctuary were now demanded for the Capitoline Jupiter. Vespasian's greed soon caused this tax to be swept into his private treasury; and this first tax, inaugurated and -imposed by the emperor upon the Judans, was -called the Judan fiscal tax (Fiscus Judaicus). On -the other hand, those Judans who had been friendly +imposed by the emperor upon the Judæans, was +called the Judæan fiscal tax (Fiscus Judaicus). On +the other hand, those Judæans who had been friendly to Rome, and had given Vespasian assistance<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_317" id="Page_317">317</a></span> during the war, were richly recompensed. Berenice was received with the highest honors at the Imperial @@ -13184,7 +13146,7 @@ Rome. So high did he stand in the favor of the imperial house, that he was anxious to adopt their name, and is known to posterity as "Flavius Josephus." On the other hand, he was hated by the -Judan patriots, who exerted themselves to disturb +Judæan patriots, who exerted themselves to disturb him in the tranquil enjoyment of his possessions.</p> <p>But the war against the Zealots did not terminate @@ -13194,7 +13156,7 @@ carried them—to the provinces of the Euphrates, to Arabia, Egypt, and Cyrene. The Zealots who had taken refuge in Alexandria persuaded their co-religionists of that city to revolt against their rulers. -Many of the Alexandrian Judans, still smarting +Many of the Alexandrian Judæans, still smarting from the severe persecutions which they had suffered some years previously from the Romans, were ready<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_318" id="Page_318">318</a></span> for revolt; but this mad scheme was opposed by the @@ -13221,15 +13183,15 @@ Jonathan, one of their number, collected a multitude of the lower classes about him, and leading them into the Lybian Desert, announced some miraculous interposition. But here, again, the chief -Judans denounced their fanatical brethren to Catullus, +Judæans denounced their fanatical brethren to Catullus, the Roman governor, who seized them, and had many of them executed. Jonathan, however, evaded their pursuit for some time, and at last, when captured, revenged himself by accusing many -of the wealthy Judans of being his accomplices. +of the wealthy Judæans of being his accomplices. He was thrown into chains and sent to Rome. In the imperial city he ventured to declare that -Josephus and some of the Roman Judans were +Josephus and some of the Roman Judæans were disloyal to the emperor. Titus indignantly refused to believe this, and appeared to defend his favorite, whose innocence, together with that of his co-religionists, @@ -13238,7 +13200,7 @@ scourged and burnt alive.</p> <p>Thus ended the Zealot movement which had spread with evil results among a large portion of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_319" id="Page_319">319</a></span> -the Judan people in the Roman Empire. But +the Judæan people in the Roman Empire. But the Zealots who had escaped to North Arabia to the vicinity of Medina were the most fortunate; for they succeeded in founding a community of their @@ -13247,13 +13209,13 @@ another occasion, they played no unimportant part.</p> <p>So great was the sensation produced throughout the Roman Empire by this long and desperate -resistance of the Judans, that several writers felt +resistance of the Judæans, that several writers felt themselves called upon to give a detailed description of the war. The heathen authors were, of course, partial in their treatment of the subject; and, with due deference to the feelings of the Roman generals, underrated the heroism of the -Judans. But Josephus, who, in spite of his +Judæans. But Josephus, who, in spite of his Roman proclivities, had some spark of patriotism left, could not brook hearing his people stigmatized as cowards; so, collecting all the facts of the long @@ -13266,11 +13228,11 @@ his own interests had been involved. He laid his work before Titus, who gave him permission to offer it to the public, a clear proof that the Emperor was satisfied with its tendency. Justus of Tiberias -had preceded Josephus with a history of the Judan +had preceded Josephus with a history of the Judæan war, in which he accused that historian of hostility to Rome, of having been party to the revolt in Galilee, and of having invented his descent from the -Hasmonan house.</p> +Hasmonæan house.</p> <p>When the war of the sword was at an end, the war of the pen was carried on by the two writers. @@ -13292,7 +13254,7 @@ style than it was possible for Josephus to do.</p> <p>Jeremiah, uttering his lamentations amidst the ruins of Jerusalem, fitly ends the first period of Jewish history; whilst Flavius Josephus, writing -the story of his people in the quiet of Csar's +the story of his people in the quiet of Cæsar's palace, concludes the second period.</p> <hr /> @@ -13309,7 +13271,7 @@ palace, concludes the second period.</p> <blockquote> <p class="hang">Foundation of the School at Jabne​—​Jochanan ben Zakkai​—​The Last -of the Herodians​—​Juda and Rome​—​The Tanaites​—​Gamaliel II. +of the Herodians​—​Judæa and Rome​—​The Tanaites​—​Gamaliel II. appointed Patriarch​—​The Power of Excommunication​—​Deposition and Restoration of the Patriarch​—​Steps towards Collecting the Mishna​—​Eliezer ben Hyrcanus​—​Joshua ben Chananya​—​Akiba @@ -13326,9 +13288,9 @@ the slave-markets, or to become victims in the fights with wild beasts in the arena—all these calamities came with such crushing force on the remaining Jews that they felt utterly at a loss as to -what they should do. Juda was depopulated; all +what they should do. Judæa was depopulated; all who had taken up arms, whether in northern or -southern, whether in cis- or trans-Jordanic Juda, +southern, whether in cis- or trans-Jordanic Judæa, were either dead or enslaved and banished. The infuriated conquerors had spared neither the women nor the children. The third banishment—the Roman @@ -13346,7 +13308,7 @@ upon a contest with Rome as national suicide; and lastly those who, through party strife, had been forced to lay down their arms and to make separate terms with the Romans. This small -remnant in the land of Juda and the Jews of +remnant in the land of Judæa and the Jews of Syria, who had always hoped that Titus would respect the Temple (the center of worship and religion), were moved deeply, and thrown into @@ -13798,10 +13760,10 @@ Vespasian, for the great services which he had rendered to his house. It appears that the Emperor had added Galilee to his territories; Agrippa had a Jewish governor, whom he sent alternately to -the two Galilan capitals, Tiberias and Sepphoris. +the two Galilæan capitals, Tiberias and Sepphoris. To this ruler it was no doubt due that the district of Galilee recovered itself more rapidly, and became -sooner repeopled than Juda, which was governed +sooner repeopled than Judæa, which was governed by a Roman ruler.</p> <p>The period during which Jochanan worked in his @@ -13930,7 +13892,7 @@ were handed down in the house of the Patriarch. Gamaliel often made journeys in order to visit the various congregations, to be an eye-witness of their condition, and to keep them all in order. His journeys -took him over Juda, into Galilee, and as far +took him over Judæa, into Galilee, and as far as Acco (Ptolemais). Although he was not of robust health, he did not spare himself the greatest exertions, when he could benefit his people. His rule @@ -14321,7 +14283,7 @@ with this method that Eliezer taught at Lydda When he was questioned as to a law, he either replied as he had been taught by his teachers, or openly acknowledged "I do not know; I have -not been told." During his stay once in Csarea +not been told." During his stay once in Cæsarea Philippi in Upper Galilee, thirty questions were put to him for decision, to which he replied, "To twelve of these I can give the decision which has @@ -14743,7 +14705,7 @@ Law was a point of union for all men of activity and intelligence, and to it they turned all their energy, mind and power. The numerous teachers of this second generation of Tanaites were called the -Armed (Bale Trssin), because the Synhedrion +Armed (Baâle Trêssin), because the Synhedrion and schools constituted a battle-field on which the combatants contested for the Law (machai nomikai). The group was composed partly of members of the @@ -14759,11 +14721,11 @@ feet of the masters."</p> of Lydda; he was rich and generous, passionate and hasty—a zealous enemy of the Jewish Christians. Further, there were Eliezer of Modin, -an authority on Agadic explanations; and Jos, the -Galilan, whose heart was soft and full of love for +an authority on Agadic explanations; and José, the +Galilæan, whose heart was soft and full of love for humanity. There was also Isebab, the clerk of the Synhedrion; Chuzpit, the public orator or interpreter; -Judah ben Baba, the Chassidan (he probably +Judah ben Baba, the Chassidæan (he probably belonged to the order of the Essenes); Chananya ben Teradion, who, together with those just named, suffered the death of a martyr. Besides these @@ -14818,7 +14780,7 @@ named as having deserted his people, and thus having attained to undesirable notoriety. This was Elisha ben Abuya, better known by his apostate name Acher, who became a persecutor of the Law -and of those who adhered to it. Outside of Juda, +and of those who adhered to it. Outside of Judæa, and particularly in Babylon, there existed centers for the growth of spiritual activity. Judah ben Bathyra, who taught in Nisibis, a town in Babylon, @@ -14831,7 +14793,7 @@ have originated, as will be shown later on, the chief opposition to Trajan's plans for conquest in the district of the Euphrates. In Asia Minor, likewise, the study of the Halachas was pursued, though the names -of its teachers have not been preserved. Csarea, +of its teachers have not been preserved. Cæsarea, the capital of Cappadocia (also called Mazaca), appears<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_359" id="Page_359">359</a></span> to have been the chief seat of this branch of study. Rabbi Akiba, during his journey in Asia Minor, @@ -14849,7 +14811,7 @@ translated the book of Susannah and the Letter of Baruch. Additions were also made to the Books of Esther and Daniel. These later additions to Hebrew poetry were considered by Christians as -part of the Bible. In Juda, however, no attention +part of the Bible. In Judæa, however, no attention was paid to these foreign schools, but the Synhedrion of Jabne was regarded as the supreme authority.</p> @@ -15125,7 +15087,7 @@ Jewish Christian community sent out messengers to the foreign communities, in order to impress on them not only the Messianic character of Jesus, but also the duty which they owed to the Law. Thus -they founded Judo-Christian colonies, of which +they founded Judæo-Christian colonies, of which that at Rome in time became the chief.</p> <p>In opposition to these were the heathen Christians. @@ -15260,7 +15222,7 @@ various sects of Christians.</p> <p>Between the Jews and the Jewish Christians there existed at first tolerable relations. The former -called the latter Sectaries (Minim, Minans). Even<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_370" id="Page_370">370</a></span> +called the latter Sectaries (Minim, Minæans). Even<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_370" id="Page_370">370</a></span> the Tanaite and Ebionite teachers mixed freely with each other. The strict Rabbi Eliezer, who refused to the heathens their share and part in life everlasting, @@ -15414,7 +15376,7 @@ was caused in men's minds which led to the most extraordinary results.</p> <p>To the two elements borrowed from Judaism and -Christianity there were added others from the Judan-Alexandrian +Christianity there were added others from the Judæan-Alexandrian system of Philo, from Grecian philosophy, and, in fact, from all corners of the earth, whose source can hardly be determined. It was a @@ -15451,9 +15413,9 @@ powerful must have been the charm of the Gnostic teaching, that the authorities of the Synagogue and the Church enacted numberless rules and ordinances against it, and were yet powerless to prevent Gnostic -teachings and formul from gaining ground +teachings and formulæ from gaining ground amongst the Jews and the Christians. Gnosticism -spread throughout Juda, Egypt, Syria, Asia Minor, +spread throughout Judæa, Egypt, Syria, Asia Minor, and flourished especially in Rome—the capital of the world—where all religious views and creeds found followers. The language of the Gnostics was @@ -15495,7 +15457,7 @@ and depicted him as enthroned in the empyrean heights, without relation to the world. His fundamental attributes were grace, love, mercy. From him proceeded emanations which revealed a portion of -his essence; these emanations were called ons +his essence; these emanations were called æons (worlds). Beneath this highest of all beings they set the Creator of the world (Demiurge), whom they also called Ruler. To him they assigned the work @@ -15569,7 +15531,7 @@ Law could take so strange a step as to despise the Law. It is not to be doubted that Elisha ben Abuya was well acquainted with Gnostic literature, as also with Grecian songs, and with the writings of the -Minans. It is also certain that he knew of the +Minæans. It is also certain that he knew of the fundamental doctrine of the Gnostics, which represented God as a dual being, and that, like the Gnostics, he despised the Jewish Law. He is also @@ -15599,19 +15561,19 @@ to have returned with renewed horror. Once again sons conspired against their own mother. The narrow circle of the Tanaites felt the danger most severely; it hoped for nothing good from -the teachings of the Minans, and recognized that +the teachings of the Minæans, and recognized that their writings exercised a seductive influence on the masses. Tarphon (Tryphon) spoke of this dangerous influence with the deepest conviction. "The Evangels (Gilion), and all the writings of the -Minans deserve to be burnt, even with the holy +Minæans deserve to be burnt, even with the holy name of God, which occurs therein; for Paganism is less dangerous than the Jewish-Christian sects, because the former does not recognize the truths of Judaism from want of knowledge, whilst the others, on the contrary, deny what they fully know." He would therefore rather flee for safety to a heathen -temple than to the meeting-house of the Minans. +temple than to the meeting-house of the Minæans. Ishmael, whose character was less violent than that of Tarphon, displayed the same feeling against that Jewish Christianity which had shown itself so false @@ -15626,7 +15588,7 @@ means the Jewish Christians sought to recommend themselves to their superiors, and to show that they<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_379" id="Page_379">379</a></span> had no connection with the Jews. Their contemporaries therefore always considered the name -Minans as meaning tale-bearers.</p> +Minæans as meaning tale-bearers.</p> <p>It is related as a fact that high officers of one of the emperors, probably Domitian, came into @@ -15637,7 +15599,7 @@ occupied itself with the question what position the Jewish Christians should occupy in the Jewish community, and whether they should in fact be considered as Jews at all. There is no resolution of -the Synhedrion extant with regard to the Minans, +the Synhedrion extant with regard to the Minæans, but the regulations which were introduced with regard to them give evidence as to its existence. An actual line of separation was drawn between @@ -15656,7 +15618,7 @@ the use of magical cures which the Christians performed on animals or men in the name of Jesus was prohibited. A form of curse (which bore the name of Birchath ha-Minim) was likewise employed -against the Minans in the daily prayers, as +against the Minæans in the daily prayers, as also against the informers. The Patriarch, Gamaliel, confided the composition of this prayer to Samuel the Younger. This circumstance confirmed the idea @@ -15680,7 +15642,7 @@ made against the Jews, is based on a misunderstanding. The curse uttered in the prayers was not directed against the founder of the Christian religion, nor against the entire body of Christians, -but against the Minan informers.</p> +but against the Minæan informers.</p> <p>The separation of the Jewish Christian sects from the Jewish community did not efface the @@ -15688,7 +15650,7 @@ results of the influence which for a time they had exercised. Certain Gnostic, that is to say semi-Christian views, had found their way into Jewish circles. Ideas regarding the primeval forces, -the ons, the predestined differences of caste +the æons, the predestined differences of caste among men, even the teaching as to the two-fold existence of God as a God of kindness and a God of justice, had been adopted by many, and had @@ -15759,7 +15721,7 @@ part in it a portion in the future world, as was decreed against those who denied the resurrection and the divinity of the Jewish Law. The introduction of such forms of prayer as bore the impress of the -teachings of the Minans was wholly repressed. +teachings of the Minæans was wholly repressed. These measures against the introduction of Gnostic Christian theories bore fruit; the pure beliefs of Judaism, with regard to God, His relation to the @@ -15949,7 +15911,7 @@ all doubts, and comforted the consciences of the pious. The teachers of the Law used it universally for public readings. The Ebionites, to whom the older translation was also objectionable, employed -that of Akylas in their services. An Araman +that of Akylas in their services. An Aramæan translation was made partly from that of Akylas on account of its simplicity, and was called Targum Onkelos.</p> @@ -15960,7 +15922,7 @@ Clemens and his wife Flavia Domitilla. Flavius was a cousin of the Emperor Domitian; he was also a member of the Senate, and Consul. His wife was also a near relative of the Emperor. Their two -sons had been named as Csars by Domitian, +sons had been named as Cæsars by Domitian, therefore one of them would have become emperor. What a brilliant prospect for the Jews that a near relative of the Emperor Titus should reconstruct the @@ -16014,7 +15976,7 @@ or principality as it had hitherto existed, but did not enlarge it as his father had done. Domitian, the third of the Flavians, had no reason for displaying any favor to Agrippa. When the latter, -the last of the Judan kings, died (92), the Emperor +the last of the Judæan kings, died (92), the Emperor appropriated his territories, and made them into a province of Syria.</p> @@ -16077,7 +16039,7 @@ the Jewish nation became known to the cultured world. But soon after he erected for himself a monument of shame. Justus of Tiberias, his former enemy, had meanwhile written his history of the -Judan wars, in which he represented Josephus as +Judæan wars, in which he represented Josephus as an enemy to the Romans, a statement which might have led to unpleasant consequences. Josephus felt that his honor was attacked and his life threatened. @@ -16237,7 +16199,7 @@ willing to share the weakness and degradation of the times, and to sink without an effort amongst the masses of enslaved nations. Such unanimous action presupposes a concerted plan and a powerful -leader. From Juda the rebellion spread through +leader. From Judæa the rebellion spread through the neighboring countries to the Euphrates and Egypt (116–117). In half a century after the fall of the Jewish State a new race had arisen, who @@ -16251,21 +16213,21 @@ the schools. A legend relates that Trajan's wife<span class="pagenum"><a name="P (Plotina) had given birth to a son on the ninth of Ab, and lost it on the feast of Dedication, which the Jews kept in memory of the victory of the -Hasmonans, and she had interpreted their sorrowing +Hasmonæans, and she had interpreted their sorrowing as the hatred of an enemy, and their rejoicing as joy for her loss. The Empress therefore wrote to Trajan, "Instead of subduing the barbarians, you should rather punish the Jews who revolt against you."</p> -<p>In Juda the leaders of the rebellion appear to +<p>In Judæa the leaders of the rebellion appear to have been two courageous men from Alexandria, Julianus and Pappus. The former seems to have been the Alabarch of Alexandria, or his relative, and a descendant of the celebrated Alexander Lysimachus. He and his companion enjoyed a princely position amongst the Jews. The meeting -place of the revolutionary troops in Juda +place of the revolutionary troops in Judæa was the plain of Rimmon, or the great plain of Jezreel. There exists but a dim picture of the proceedings, and only the issue of the revolt is @@ -16428,7 +16390,7 @@ his faithful general, Quietus, should succeed, was also not fulfilled. His astute wife, Plotina, set aside his last wishes, and assured the army that Trajan had, before his death, accepted his near relation, -lius Hadrian, as his son and successor.</p> +Ælius Hadrian, as his son and successor.</p> <p>Hadrian, at his accession (August, 117), found that various nations were on the eve of a rebellion, @@ -16455,7 +16417,7 @@ been sent out by Trajan, after he had completed his work in the lands of the Euphrates. He had not yet succeeded in mastering the revolt when Hadrian<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_400" id="Page_400">400</a></span> became ruler. Historians are silent as to the nature -of the war in Juda. The Jewish sources call this +of the war in Judæa. The Jewish sources call this second rebellion "the war of Quietus" (Polemos shel Kitos). It appears to have taken an unfavorable turn for the Jews, for fresh signs of public mourning @@ -16510,7 +16472,7 @@ even an independent ruler, but only the servant of one higher." At the very moment when the two prisoners were being led to a martyr's death, the order came from Rome which deposed their executioner -from the governorship of Juda.</p> +from the governorship of Judæa.</p> <p>Quietus left Palestine, and was soon afterwards executed at the command of Hadrian. The day of @@ -16539,7 +16501,7 @@ every breast. The unknown poet places his words in the mouth of a heathen prophetess, the Sibyl, the sister of Isis. She first recites, in enigmatic references, the names of a long line of Roman conquerors -from the time of <span class="locked">Csar—</span></p> +from the time of <span class="locked">Cæsar—</span></p> <div class="poetry-container"><div class="poetry"> <span class="i20">... and after him there came</span><br /> @@ -16710,7 +16672,7 @@ to make concessions to the despised nation, and the latter could not forget that he had broken faith with them, and had deprived them of their fairest hopes. This mutual antipathy displayed itself -during Hadrian's journey through Juda. The +during Hadrian's journey through Judæa. The emperor, urged by vanity, and a desire to be called the father of his country, and impelled by a restlessness and want of occupation, which drove @@ -16724,7 +16686,7 @@ than his contemporaries in all matters. Whether he judged the condition of other provinces correctly may be doubted; he certainly was deceived in his hasty judgment of the Jews. During his visit to -Juda (130), it is probable that those people, +Judæa (130), it is probable that those people, such as the Romans, Samaritans, and Christians, who disliked the original inhabitants (the Jews), approached him with subservience, in order to greet @@ -16752,12 +16714,12 @@ all nations, and did his utmost to maintain peace with them.</p> <p>Hadrian thought that he had nothing to fear from -Juda. He informed the Roman Senate of the +Judæa. He informed the Roman Senate of the peaceful disposition of the Jews, and they perpetuated their credulity by various coins, in which the emperor is represented dressed in a toga, raising a kneeling Jew from his humble position. Three -boys (probably emblematic of the districts of Juda, +boys (probably emblematic of the districts of Judæa, Samaria, and Galilee) hand him palm branches. He thus cherished the expectation that racial and religious differences would soon disappear, and that @@ -16789,12 +16751,12 @@ Christian priest, honors anything but Serapis. Even that patriarch who has come to Egypt [probably Joshua] was compelled by some to worship Serapis, and by others to worship Christ." Joshua returned -to Juda after his fruitless visit, and appears to +to Judæa after his fruitless visit, and appears to have died soon after of grief and old age. It was justly said of him that with his death wisdom and prudent moderation came to an end. After his decease there occurred wide-spread movements -and contests in Juda, which were among the most +and contests in Judæa, which were among the most memorable in its history, and there was no one to stem the tide.</p> @@ -16804,7 +16766,7 @@ which they had probably been long preparing. The weapons prepared by the Jewish smiths for the Romans were made (in anticipation of their being used against themselves) weak and useless. In the -hollow chalk mountains of Juda the insurgents +hollow chalk mountains of Judæa the insurgents silently prepared underground passages and refuges, which were used as secret armories before the war, and afterwards as secret ambushes, from which the @@ -16823,15 +16785,15 @@ who, through his strange position, infused religious enthusiasm and warlike courage. It was considered as a favorable sign for their daring undertaking that two of the stations of the Roman legions had -been destroyed. Csarea and Emmaus had been +been destroyed. Cæsarea and Emmaus had been swallowed up some years before by an earthquake.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_409" id="Page_409">409</a></span> -Csarea was the Roman capital of Juda, the +Cæsarea was the Roman capital of Judæa, the dwelling-place of the governor, and, like Rome, it brought down the hatred of the Jews on itself. The peculiar idea was entertained, that, as the -greatness of Csarea had dated from the time of +greatness of Cæsarea had dated from the time of the destruction of Jerusalem, so from the fall of -Csarea Jerusalem would again attain to power. +Cæsarea Jerusalem would again attain to power. Emmaus had been the dwelling-place of eight hundred soldiers of Vespasian who had served there; it therefore had been used as a second @@ -16921,17 +16883,17 @@ uttered the blasphemy, "Lord, if thou dost not help us, at least do not help our enemies, and we shall not be defeated."</p> -<p>Tinnius Rufus, the Governor of Juda, was not +<p>Tinnius Rufus, the Governor of Judæa, was not prepared for the enormous military power opposed to him, and he soon had to retreat before the troops of the warlike Messiah. Rufus withdrew from one citadel to another, and in one year (132–133) fifty fortified places and 985 cities and villages fell into the hands of the rebels. It appears -that the whole of Juda, together with Samaria +that the whole of Judæa, together with Samaria and Galilee, were evacuated by the Romans, and fell into the possession of the Jews. When Hadrian -received the first news of the revolt in Juda, he +received the first news of the revolt in Judæa, he laid no great weight upon it; but when one report after another of the defeat of the Roman troops reached him, he sent relays and his best generals @@ -16952,7 +16914,7 @@ Revolution.</p> the Jews for their enemies, they did not avenge<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_412" id="Page_412">412</a></span> themselves upon such as fell into their hands. It was only against the Jewish Christians who lived -in Juda that Bar-Cochba displayed his hostility, +in Judæa that Bar-Cochba displayed his hostility, because they were considered as blasphemers and as spies. This hatred against the Jewish Christians was increased because they refused to take part in @@ -17018,7 +16980,7 @@ death. And ye shall be hated of all men for my name's sake: but he that shall endure unto the end, the same shall be saved.</p></blockquote> <p>Thus a father of the Church comforted the Christian -community in Juda. It appears that the Synhedrion +community in Judæa. It appears that the Synhedrion of the time of Bar-Cochba introduced some innovations in order to work against the increasing spread of the worship of Jesus amongst the Jewish @@ -17026,7 +16988,7 @@ Christians, and to promote a means of recognizing those who were for them or against them. It had been the habit for centuries past never to pronounce the sacred name of God, IHW, but to substitute -the word Lord (Adona). The Christians, however, +the word Lord (Adonaï). The Christians, however, had accustomed themselves to call Jesus "Lord." To counteract this, the Synhedrion enacted that the name of God should be used as in ancient times, @@ -17045,7 +17007,7 @@ battle-field. Hadrian was obliged to summon his greatest general, who at that time was repressing the revolt of a nation who loved freedom equally well, namely, the Britons. Julius Severus was recalled -to Juda, as he seemed to be the only man +to Judæa, as he seemed to be the only man who could measure swords with the great hero, Bar-Cochba. Severus, on his arrival, found the military position of the Jews so secure and inaccessible that @@ -17069,7 +17031,7 @@ from this, towards the southeast, there was the fortified town of Sichin, near to Sepphoris, in a fruitful plain. About three miles further, to the east of Galilee, and on the lake of the same name, -stood Magdala (Taricha). All three towns, Cabul, +stood Magdala (Tarichæa). All three towns, Cabul, Sichin and Magdala, are described as having been densely populated, and they formed the outposts which were to prevent the invasion of the Romans @@ -17085,7 +17047,7 @@ and was greatly favored by the conformation of the ground. One of the chief fortresses which Bar-Cochba probably again put in a state of defense was Tur-Simon, doubtless named after Simon the -Hasmonan. This fortress was also said to have +Hasmonæan. This fortress was also said to have so numerous a population that, every Friday, three hundred large baskets of loaves were distributed amongst the army. Here, according to legend, the @@ -17126,7 +17088,7 @@ war, which bear witness, not only to the courage of the Jews but also to their all-defying enthusiasm for the cause of their race.</p> -<p>If, as the geographical position of Juda demanded, +<p>If, as the geographical position of Judæa demanded, the first attack of the Romans was made on the north, on the Syrian and Phœnician side, the three northernmost citadels of Cabul, Sichin and @@ -17301,7 +17263,7 @@ the houses of their bridegrooms.</p> <p class="hang">Turnus Rufus persecutes the Jews​—​The Ten Martyrs​—​The Book of Tobit​—​Relations between Judaism and Christianity​—​The -Return of the Schools to Palestine​—​The Synod at Usha​—​Mer​—​Simon +Return of the Schools to Palestine​—​The Synod at Usha​—​Meïr​—​Simon ben Jochai​—​The Babylonian Synhedrion​—​Antoninus Pius and Aurelius Verus​—​The Revolt against Rome​—​The Patriarchate of Simon.</p></blockquote> @@ -17330,7 +17292,7 @@ the fall of Bethar.</p> north, where formerly the suburbs had been. He populated the newly erected city with a colony of soldiers who had served their time, Phœnicians -and Syrians. The city, lia Capitolina, was built +and Syrians. The city, Ælia Capitolina, was built in the Grecian style, with two market-places, a theater, and other public buildings, and was divided into seven quarters. Thus Hadrian succeeded<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_422" id="Page_422">422</a></span> @@ -17341,7 +17303,7 @@ a heathen temple in honor of Jupiter Capitolinus. Other statues of Roman, Greek, and Phœnician gods adorned, or rather defiled, Jerusalem. In all public edicts Jerusalem figured under its new name -lia, and so completely was its identity forgotten, +Ælia, and so completely was its identity forgotten, that a hundred years later a governor of Palestine asked a bishop, who said he came from Jerusalem, where that town was situated. At the south gate @@ -17361,7 +17323,7 @@ and endeavored to graft Paganism on Judaism by force of arms. He thought most effectually to break down the stubborn independence of the Jews if he could succeed in weaning them from their peculiar -religious life. A decree was issued in Juda which +religious life. A decree was issued in Judæa which inflicted the severest punishments on all those who permitted themselves to be circumcised, to keep the Sabbath, or to follow the Jewish law. Only in @@ -17372,7 +17334,7 @@ tinge of a religious character were, however, interdicted, such as the letter of separation for divorced wives, marriages on Wednesday, and other customs. This extension of the edict may have been a commentary -of the Roman authorities in Juda, who<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_423" id="Page_423">423</a></span> +of the Roman authorities in Judæa, who<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_423" id="Page_423">423</a></span> were better acquainted with the spirit of the Jews, and determined to enforce the imperial command in order to attain the desired end. The weary years @@ -17432,7 +17394,7 @@ Even Akiba on one occasion when he saw himself surrounded by Roman spies, gave a sign to his disciples to say the Shema softly and almost inaudibly, for the Roman authorities ruthlessly fulfilled the letter of -their edict. A Roman inspector (qusitor), who +their edict. A Roman inspector (quæsitor), who surprised a certain Artaban, as he was fastening Mezzuzoth to the door-posts, compelled him to pay 1000 denars for this act. Another man, Elisha, @@ -17532,14 +17494,14 @@ to death, and that he frightened away disciples from the study of the Law.</p> <p>Amongst the friends of peace who even advised -subservience to these decrees was Jos ben Kisma, +subservience to these decrees was José ben Kisma, who honored patience as the highest virtue, and hoped to effect more by submission than by bold<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_427" id="Page_427">427</a></span> opposition and useless self-destruction. He once met Chanina ben Teradion, who belonged to the party who were determined to give up their life for the Law. He was teaching his pupils from a scroll -of the Law, which he held in his lap. Jos said +of the Law, which he held in his lap. José said warningly, "Seest thou, my brother, that even Heaven is favorable to the Roman empire. The Temple is destroyed; the pious are cut down, the @@ -17547,8 +17509,8 @@ best men are exterminated, and yet this empire exists! How canst thou dare to teach against the Imperial law? It would not surprise me if thou wert condemned to the stake together with the -holy books." Jos was in high favor at the court of -the Governor of Juda, and when he died several +holy books." José was in high favor at the court of +the Governor of Judæa, and when he died several persons of high rank followed his body.</p> <p>Most of the Tanaites were of a different opinion, @@ -17625,7 +17587,7 @@ his mode of teaching as the only permissible one.</p> <p>The fourth martyr who heroically bore his death was Chanina ben Teradion. Regardless of the -warnings of Jos ben Kisma, he continued to hold his +warnings of José ben Kisma, he continued to hold his lectures until he was dragged to the tribunal. He was asked why he had acted in opposition to the imperial command, and he boldly answered, "Because @@ -17706,7 +17668,7 @@ darkest colors the horrors of persecution with which the Christians were attacked. "Then you will behold the terrors of desolation (predicted by the prophet Daniel) where they should not be; he who -is in Juda will flee to the mountains; woe to the +is in Judæa will flee to the mountains; woe to the pregnant and to the sucklings. Pray, however, that your flight may not take place in winter or on a Sabbath."</p> @@ -17734,7 +17696,7 @@ to the same house, but they became two entirely distinct bodies.</p> <p>Through the war against Hadrian and the edict -of persecution a terrible time had arisen for Juda. +of persecution a terrible time had arisen for Judæa. The towns were destroyed, the land laid waste, the inhabitants were killed either on the battle-field or on the scaffold, or led a miserable life as refugees, @@ -17763,7 +17725,7 @@ received the name of Pius, although the adopted son of Hadrian, was of a somewhat more humane and beneficent character, and a milder treatment seemed likely at his hands. A noble Roman lady -of Csarea or Antioch, who had pity on the sufferings +of Cæsarea or Antioch, who had pity on the sufferings of the Jews, advised them to petition the Roman authorities that the persecutions might cease. This lady was perhaps the wife of Rufus, and is @@ -17798,7 +17760,7 @@ the fugitives to their native land. The seven disciples of Akiba—the only heirs to the spiritual heritage of former times—who, for the most part, had emigrated to Babylon, now returned. These were -Mer, Judah ben Ilai, Jos ben Chalafta, Jochanan +Meïr, Judah ben Ilai, José ben Chalafta, Jochanan of Alexandria, Simon ben Jochai, Eleazar ben Jacob (or ben Shamua) and Nehemiah. They repaired directly to the plain of Rimmon, made notable @@ -17837,11 +17799,11 @@ but their numbers were less, and their mental activity inferior to that of the former generation. The chief of those who took part in affairs were Simon II., son of the Patriarch Gamaliel, Nathan -of Babylon, Mer and Simon ben Jochai. The first +of Babylon, Meïr and Simon ben Jochai. The first of these, as was related, escaped in a wonderful manner from the massacre at Bethar, as also from the persecution with which he was threatened. The -qusitor, who had been appointed by Rufus to +quæsitor, who had been appointed by Rufus to imprison him, gave him a hint of the threatened danger, on which Simon escaped and took refuge in Babylon. How long he remained there, and under @@ -17862,7 +17824,7 @@ supporters of the Law, appear to have preferred Usha—or they desired to proclaim their independence of the patriarch. Thus Simon, in order not to remain alone, had to repair to the Galilean Synod. -The College was completed by Nathan and Mer +The College was completed by Nathan and Meïr as speaker. The patriarch had almost brought on<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_435" id="Page_435">435</a></span> himself the fate of his father through disregarding the equality which reigned amongst the members of @@ -17885,7 +17847,7 @@ saying, "The world subsists on three conditions, truth, justice and peace."</p> <p>The most original personage of this period -was unquestionably Mer, whose great intellect, +was unquestionably Meïr, whose great intellect, thoroughness of purpose and knowledge remind us of his teacher Akiba. His real but forgotten name was Miasa or Moise (the Greek for Moses). According @@ -17895,8 +17857,8 @@ Nero in fact, who was believed in the East to have escaped his murderers and to have become converted to Judaism.</p> -<p>It is certain that Mer's birthplace was in Asia -Minor, probably in the Cappadocian Csarea. He +<p>It is certain that Meïr's birthplace was in Asia +Minor, probably in the Cappadocian Cæsarea. He made his livelihood through writing and copying Holy Writ. He was so intimately acquainted with the orthographical rules of the Hebrew language, @@ -17908,7 +17870,7 @@ two-thirds of which he devoted to his family and<span class="pagenum"><a name="P one-third to the support of poor fellow-students. He married Bruria (or Valeria), the learned daughter of Chanina ben Teradion, whose Halachic -knowledge was praised even by Joshua. Mer was +knowledge was praised even by Joshua. Meïr was for a time a pupil of Ishmael, but his simple mode of teaching did not please him so well as the more intelligent method of Akiba, whose system, which @@ -17917,7 +17879,7 @@ decided influence over his mode of thought. Akiba soon ordained his favorite pupil, and gave him the preference over Simon, but on account of his youth he did not meet with much respect as an independent -teacher. Mer was severe on such petty conduct, +teacher. Meïr was severe on such petty conduct, which did not look to the qualifications of a man, but to his age. "Look not," he said wittily, "to the vessel, but to its contents. Many a new vessel @@ -17926,7 +17888,7 @@ not contain even new wine." Several sensible sayings are recorded of him; he became celebrated as a writer of fables, and composed 300 on the fox alone—a favorite subject of Eastern imagery. The -submission to God of Mer and his wife on the +submission to God of Meïr and his wife on the occasion of the death of their two children has become known through a poetical account of the event. It is related that his two sons, having died @@ -17940,62 +17902,62 @@ the lender, and on receiving an affirmative answer she led him to where their two children lay dead, and consoled him with what he had said, that they had only been confided to their care, and were now -reclaimed by the owner. Mer's modesty was as +reclaimed by the owner. Meïr's modesty was as great as his submissiveness to God. His favorite saying was, "Occupy thyself less with gain than with the Law, and be humble to all men."</p> <p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_437" id="Page_437">437</a></span> His contemporaries and successors could not -sufficiently praise Mer's wisdom and character. -Jos depicts him to his townspeople, the inhabitants +sufficiently praise Meïr's wisdom and character. +José depicts him to his townspeople, the inhabitants of Sepphoris, as a pious, morally strict and holy man. It became proverbial that "He who touches -Mer's staff becomes wise." He obtained his deep +Meïr's staff becomes wise." He obtained his deep knowledge of men by mixing with those against whom prejudice prevailed. He even sought out the apostate and traitor Acher, in order that he -might be instructed by him. When Mer was +might be instructed by him. When Meïr was reproached for his intimacy with a traitor to the Law, he said, "When I see a juicy pomegranate I enjoy its contents and throw away the skin."</p> <p>One Sabbath he accompanied Acher, who was -on horseback, whilst Mer was on foot, discussing a +on horseback, whilst Meïr was on foot, discussing a rendering of the Scriptures. Suddenly Acher said to him, "Thou canst go thus far and not farther, for here is the limit of thy Sabbath walk. Return." -Mer, seizing the opportunity, said to Acher, +Meïr, seizing the opportunity, said to Acher, "Return thou also." But Acher said, "If for all sinners there be pardon, for me the gates of mercy are closed, because I have turned the gifts given me by God to evil uses." Later, when Acher was -ill, Mer again endeavored to win him over, and +ill, Meïr again endeavored to win him over, and flattered himself that he had induced Acher to repent before his death. A legend relates that -Mer spread his mantle over Acher's grave, from +Meïr spread his mantle over Acher's grave, from which there arose a pillar of smoke, and in imitation of a verse of Scripture (Ruth iii. 13) he exclaimed, "Rest here in the night; in the dawn of happiness the God of mercy will deliver thee; if not, I will be thy redeemer."</p> -<p>Mer also was intimate with a heathen philosopher, +<p>Meïr also was intimate with a heathen philosopher, Euonymus of Gadara. In Jewish circles it was said, "Be not surprised to find amongst the heathens a knowledge of God, for God had inspired Balaam and Euonymus, two of the greatest philosophers of heathendom, with His wisdom, so that they might teach the people." When Euonymus mourned for<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_438" id="Page_438">438</a></span> -the death of his parents, Mer visited him in order +the death of his parents, Meïr visited him in order to condole with him, for he held that a heathen who occupied himself with the Torah was as worthy as a high priest of Judaism, for it says in Holy Writ, "These laws man shall observe in order to live," by -which Mer explained that Jews were not exclusively +which Meïr explained that Jews were not exclusively appointed to enjoy eternal happiness.</p> -<p>Through intercourse with men of learning Mer +<p>Through intercourse with men of learning Meïr appears to have become acquainted with the Stoic philosophy, which was at that time the ruling power in the Roman world. But all the perfections which, @@ -18012,12 +17974,12 @@ from sin; brings him near to virtue; endows him with kingly dignity; makes him moral, long-suffering, forgetful of injury, and raises and carries him above all things." This was his ideal of a truly wise man. -In treating the Halachic traditions Mer copied his +In treating the Halachic traditions Meïr copied his teacher Akiba's system of dialectics. The rules of deduction used by his predecessors he employed as formulas which could establish or abolish legal enactments. His contemporaries relate of him that -they could never reach the real meaning of Mer's +they could never reach the real meaning of Meïr's decisions, because he brought forward a number of proofs for and against an ordinance, and he was able through similes and deductions to turn a law, @@ -18034,7 +17996,7 @@ Yet the injurious method of treating the Halachas, which was called Talmudic dialectics, became later on still more developed; in fact, the closer apprehension of the Halachas was deemed impossible -without it. Nevertheless, Mer's exposition +without it. Nevertheless, Meïr's exposition of the Law was decidedly serious and strict. Amongst other things he asserts that he who gives his wife less dowry than is usual, acts wrongly; for @@ -18043,7 +18005,7 @@ Further, he asserts that any one who in the smallest degree should deviate from the law laid down for divorce would render the act illegal, and his children from the second marriage would be considered as -illegitimate. Mer further controverted the law which +illegitimate. Meïr further controverted the law which was universally respected, that what was forbidden or permitted should be inferred from such cases as most commonly occurred in life, without regard to exceptional @@ -18061,44 +18023,44 @@ legally impossible. For other misdeeds, as for example usury, he imposed heavy fines. But his regulations were not carried out, his contemporaries and succeeding generations did not acknowledge -Mer's ordinances and imposts in their entirety. +Meïr's ordinances and imposts in their entirety. He was, however, most severe against himself, and once said—"Even if I hold something as permissible to others, I cannot allow it to hold good for myself, if I am convinced that my colleagues would be of a different opinion." As in the treatment of Halachas, -so in ordinary things, Mer followed in the footsteps +so in ordinary things, Meïr followed in the footsteps of Akiba; he completed the collection of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_440" id="Page_440">440</a></span> Mishnas, but appears to have arranged their component parts more according to their contents than -their number. These arrangements of Mer and his +their number. These arrangements of Meïr and his colleagues made no pretense to being a code, but each teacher of the Law having a circle of disciples, treated the material before him in the manner which seemed most suitable and convenient to -himself. Mer had assembled a not insignificant +himself. Meïr had assembled a not insignificant number of pupils round him, who were drawn towards him by his intelligent renderings and interesting lectures. He was in the habit of alternating the dry matter of the Halachas with the attractive Agadahs, and of illustrating them by fables.</p> -<p>Amongst Mer's disciples was one named Symmachos +<p>Amongst Meïr's disciples was one named Symmachos ben Joseph, who adopted and exaggerated his method to such an extent that it was said of him that he could argue well, but could not come to any practical decision. It was even said of him that his forefathers could not have been present at the Revelation -on Sinai. After Mer's death both Symmachos +on Sinai. After Meïr's death both Symmachos and his disciples were excluded from the school, because they did not seek for truth, but only -to dispute sophistically. It is probable that Mer +to dispute sophistically. It is probable that Meïr repaired to the Synhedrion of Usha when important questions were under discussion. He did not live on good terms with the Patriarch Simon.</p> <p>Simon ben Jochai of Galilee was as striking but -not so many-sided a personage as Mer, and he +not so many-sided a personage as Meïr, and he was falsely reported to be a worker of miracles—a mystic and a Cabbalist. Few facts of his life are known, but we may infer from what is recorded @@ -18168,10 +18130,10 @@ designs him to be a robber." His mode of teaching had no especially pronounced characteristics.</p> <p>As with Judah we have no distinctive features recorded, -so also of the life of Jos ben Chalafta of +so also of the life of José ben Chalafta of Sepphoris but little is known. He also followed a trade, and one of the lowest kind. He was a worker -in leather. Unlike his contemporaries, Jos devoted +in leather. Unlike his contemporaries, José devoted himself to the collection of the annals of Jewish history, and left an account from the creation of the world to the war of Bar Cochba, under the name @@ -18180,13 +18142,13 @@ dates correctly from the historical records of the Bible. He tried to render clear the doubtful passages, and to fill up the gaps in traditions. On the other hand, from the time of Alexander the -Great, we find that this chronicle of Jos gives +Great, we find that this chronicle of José gives independent and trustworthy, but very scanty information.</p> <p>But little that is noteworthy is known of the other disciples of Akiba. Besides the Galilean circle of scholars there was yet another in the extreme south -of Juda (Darom) who continued Ishmael's mode +of Judæa (Darom) who continued Ishmael's mode of teaching; only two members of this circle, Josiah and Jonathan, are known.</p> @@ -18194,11 +18156,11 @@ and Jonathan, are known.</p> the Captivity, was a man of special interest. It is not known where he received instruction in the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_443" id="Page_443">443</a></span> Halachas, nor what occasioned him to remove to -Juda, or to give up the more favorable position +Judæa, or to give up the more favorable position that he occupied in his native country. The foreign teachers of the Law at this period were Judah ben Bathyra of Nisibis, who appears to have sheltered -the fugitives from Juda; also Chananya, nephew +the fugitives from Judæa; also Chananya, nephew of Joshua, in Nahar-Pakod, who had been sent by his uncle to Babylon, so as to remove him from the influence of the Jewish Christians; and, lastly, @@ -18221,13 +18183,13 @@ of Nahardea, of which he was the president, whilst a certain Nechunyan, perhaps the Prince of the Captivity, appears to have supported him. The Babylonian community, until then under the control -of Juda, and now left uncared for through +of Judæa, and now left uncared for through the destruction of all religious institutions in the fatherland, welcomed a Synhedrion in their midst as of joyful import, and gratefully accepted its ordinances and decisions. Chananya immediately introduced a leap year, and the celebration of the -festivals as had been customary in Juda. But +festivals as had been customary in Judæa. But when the Synhedrion had been established in Usha it was no longer possible to continue the existence of a body which threatened the unity of Judaism, @@ -18259,14 +18221,14 @@ tantamount to building an altar, at which Chananya and Nechunya would officiate as unauthorized priests, and was in fact equal to disavowing the God of Israel. Chananya, however, doubted the continuance -of a Synhedrion in Juda, saying that the +of a Synhedrion in Judæa, saying that the teachers of the Law there did not enjoy any authority, to which the ambassadors replied, "The little ones whom thou hast deserted have meanwhile grown up." Chananya, however, did not relinquish his design until Judah ben Bathyra, in Nisibis, pointed out to him that in holy things unqualified obedience -must be paid to the Judan Synhedrion. Finding +must be paid to the Judæan Synhedrion. Finding no response or interest anywhere, he countermanded the festivals as arranged by himself, and the Babylonian Synhedrion came to an end.</p> @@ -18278,7 +18240,7 @@ in order to increase his dignity, endeavored to introduce a special etiquette, in order to remove the equality previously existing between all officials. In the absence of the Ab-beth-din Nathan and the -speaker Mer, he instituted a new order of rank, +speaker Meïr, he instituted a new order of rank, which would definitely recognize him as the superior head. This distinction lay herein, that at all public sittings of the Synhedrion the people, who were accustomed @@ -18291,7 +18253,7 @@ rows were to stand until he had taken his seat; and still less ceremony was to be observed towards the speaker (the Chacham).</p> -<p>When Nathan and Mer for the first time attended +<p>When Nathan and Meïr for the first time attended the meeting and noticed the new arrangements they secretly determined to conspire against Simon, and to deprive him of his office. For this purpose, however, @@ -18307,7 +18269,7 @@ with all branches of the Law. They also determined that Nathan, who belonged to the family of the Prince of the Captivity, and who was also of the race of David, should become Patriarch, and that -Mer should be second in rank as substitute. This +Meïr should be second in rank as substitute. This plot, however, was betrayed to Simon, and the conspirators found him prepared.</p> @@ -18317,21 +18279,21 @@ Synhedrion. But they made their absence felt by writing difficult questions and distributing them<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_446" id="Page_446">446</a></span> amongst the assembly, whom they thereby placed in an awkward position. Referring to these two -Jos afterwards said, "We are in the house of the +José afterwards said, "We are in the house of the Law, but the Law is outside." They were readmitted, but Simon arranged that their names should not be recorded in the ordinances enacted by him. R. Nathan subsequently made peace with -the Patriarch, but the breach with Mer endured. -Simon at length excommunicated him, but Mer was +the Patriarch, but the breach with Meïr endured. +Simon at length excommunicated him, but Meïr was not as submissive as he who, without a word, had accepted Gamaliel's sentence. Referring to a former resolution of the Synhedrion in Usha, that -no member could be excommunicated, Mer replied, +no member could be excommunicated, Meïr replied, "I do not care for your sentence until you prove to me on whom, on what grounds, and under what conditions it can be imposed." In proud recognition -of his own worth, Mer is said on his death-bed to +of his own worth, Meïr is said on his death-bed to have uttered the words: "Tell the sons of the Holy Land that their Messiah has died in a foreign land." According to his last will, his body @@ -18355,14 +18317,14 @@ desired to record our troubles and temporary relief on a scroll, we should not find space enough." The hatred of the Romans on the one hand, and the endurance of the Jews on the other, appear to have<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_447" id="Page_447">447</a></span> -ended in a fresh revolution in Juda, which took +ended in a fresh revolution in Judæa, which took place in the last year of the reign of the Emperor Antoninus Pius (161), but its rise, scene of action, and results are not known. The attempt at a new call to arms appears to have been connected with the warlike preparations commenced by the Parthians against Rome. Though often deceived, the -Judans still hoped for the help of the Parthians, as +Judæans still hoped for the help of the Parthians, as a means of deliverance from the Roman yoke. Simon b. Jochai, who heartily despised the hypocritical policy of the Romans, said, "When thou @@ -18401,7 +18363,7 @@ that the chiefs of the Synhedrion had taken no part in the revolution, they yet seem to have been suspected and watched by the Roman authorities. A conversation was once reported which took place -between Judah, Jos and Simon ben Jochai at Usha, +between Judah, José and Simon ben Jochai at Usha, where, it appears, a discussion was held with regard to the Roman policy. Judah, who, like Joshua, endeavored to calm those who stood around, had @@ -18409,7 +18371,7 @@ been praising Rome for her actions. "How useful this nation has been; everywhere it has erected towns with market-places; it has put bridges over rivers, and built bath-houses for the preservation of -health." Jos kept silent, neither giving praise nor +health." José kept silent, neither giving praise nor blame. Simon ben Jochai, on the other hand, could not repress his displeasure. "What the Romans do," he said, "they only do for the sake of selfishness @@ -18418,7 +18380,7 @@ in the cities, misuse the bathing-places, and levy toll for the bridges." A proselyte, Judah, repeated this, perhaps without desiring to make mischief. Judah, however, the eulogist of Rome, was loaded with -honors, Jos was banished to Laodicea, and Simon +honors, José was banished to Laodicea, and Simon was condemned to death. In consequence of these events the Synhedrion at Usha seems to have been dissolved, for the most important members were @@ -18444,7 +18406,7 @@ After his return Simon ben Jochai was asked to repair to Rome, and to intercede with the Emperor Marcus Aurelius for the abolition of the laws against the Jews. Simon took as his companion on -this journey Eleazar, the son of Jos, probably because +this journey Eleazar, the son of José, probably because he was acquainted with the Latin language. When they arrived in Rome, assisted by various influential Roman Jews, they probably succeeded in @@ -18603,7 +18565,7 @@ were invalid without the Patriarch's confirmation. The nomination of spiritual guides of the communities, the appointments to the judicial offices, the filling up of vacancies in the Synhedrion, in a word, -all Juda and the communities abroad, fell in this +all Judæa and the communities abroad, fell in this manner into dependence on the Patriarch. That which his father and grandfather had striven in vain to accomplish, came about, so to speak, at his touch. @@ -18624,7 +18586,7 @@ pronounce on any religious question without having first been expressly authorized by him. How great was the importance of this act may be seen from the circumstance that the foreign communities, as well -as those of Juda, were obliged to put themselves +as those of Judæa, were obliged to put themselves in direct communication with the Patriarch in order to obtain their officials, judges, and teachers. The community of Simonias, which lay to the south of @@ -18673,11 +18635,11 @@ highly, and said of him: "From a land far off there came to me the man of good counsel." But even<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_455" id="Page_455">455</a></span> him the Patriarch could not pardon an insignificant jest. Judah had once said to him, "If Huna, the -Prince of the Captivity, were to come to Juda, I +Prince of the Captivity, were to come to Judæa, I should certainly not carry my self-denial so far as to abdicate my office to him, but I would honor him as a descendant in the male line from David." -When Huna died and his body was taken to Juda, +When Huna died and his body was taken to Judæa, Chiya observed to the Patriarch, "Huna is coming." Judah grew pale at the news, and when he found that Chiya was referring to the corpse of @@ -18708,7 +18670,7 @@ with Judah. It ran somewhat as <span class="locked">follows:—</span></p> <div class="poetry-container"><div class="poetry"> <span class="i0">She looks from heaven on high,<br /></span> <span class="i0">And ceaseless is her cry,<br /></span> -<span class="i2">Whom wingd beings shun;<br /></span> +<span class="i2">Whom wingéd beings shun;<br /></span> <span class="i0">Youth doth she fright away.<br /></span> <span class="i0">And men with old age gray,<br /></span> <span class="i2">And loud shriek they who run.<br /></span> @@ -18767,7 +18729,7 @@ Patriarch himself had incited to gaiety and loquacity, expressed it as their opinion "that the Messiah could not appear until the fall of the two princely houses of Israel—the house of the Patriarch in -Juda, and that of the Prince of the Captivity in +Judæa, and that of the Prince of the Captivity in Babylon." The wine had caused them to betray their most secret thoughts.</p> @@ -18793,10 +18755,10 @@ and a contemporary of Judah, who had made himself acquainted with the Samaritan Torah, reproached them with having altered certain passages of the holy text. The peaceable relations between Jew -and Cuthan since the war of Hadrian were gradually +and Cuthæan since the war of Hadrian were gradually changed to a state of ill-feeling, which was as bitter on the one side as on the other. One day -when Ishmael b. Jos was passing through Neapolis +when Ishmael b. José was passing through Neapolis (Shechem) in order to go and pray at Jerusalem<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_458" id="Page_458">458</a></span> (for which purpose the Jews seem to have required the permission of Marcus Aurelius), the Samaritans @@ -18806,18 +18768,18 @@ was certainly better to pray upon their holy mount Traveling through the land of Samaria must have now become less dangerous than it had formerly been. The teachers of the Law had frequently to pass through -the strip of land lying between Juda and Sepphoris. +the strip of land lying between Judæa and Sepphoris. Although the seat of the Synhedrion was now in Galilee, and Sepphoris was thus to a certain extent the center of the entire Jewish community, nevertheless -Juda was, for various reasons, regarded as +Judæa was, for various reasons, regarded as holier than the northern district. The patriarch could not officiate in person when the appearance of the new moon was announced, but had to send a representative for the purpose (which office Chiya once filled); the place where the announcement was made was at this time Ain-tab, probably in the -province of Juda. This trifling superiority was +province of Judæa. This trifling superiority was still left to that district, the scene of so many holy ceremonies and ancient memories. The journey to Ain-tab was made through Samaria.</p> @@ -18836,7 +18798,7 @@ matter, and determined, if not entirely to abrogate, at least to moderate the harshness of these laws. Furthermore he decreed that the territory of certain border cities, which had up till then been considered -as forming a part of Juda, should henceforth not +as forming a part of Judæa, should henceforth not enjoy the privilege of sanctity which attached to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_459" id="Page_459">459</a></span> Jewish ground. This in so far constituted a relief, as these cities were thereby exempted from the @@ -18853,7 +18815,7 @@ the laws relative to the year of release, but was unwilling to take so important a step without first consulting such persons as were likely to entertain scruples on this point. At that time Pinchas ben -Jar was regarded as the model of austere piety. +Jaïr was regarded as the model of austere piety. He was a son-in-law of Simon ben Jochai, and possessed so gloomy a disposition as to cause him to entertain doubts as to the efficacy of any human @@ -18895,7 +18857,7 @@ swell the mass. The various schools and systems had left many points of law in doubt, which now awaited decision. Judah therefore based his compilation on Akiba's partially arranged collection -of laws as taught and corrected by Mer, retaining +of laws as taught and corrected by Meïr, retaining the same order. He examined the arguments for and against every opinion, and established the Halachic precepts according to certain ordinances @@ -18953,10 +18915,10 @@ Latin words in general use. Judah evinced a predilection for the Hebrew tongue, despising Syriac, which was then indigenous to Galilee, on account of its characteristic inexactness. Syriac, he asserted, -was superfluous in Juda, and that either Hebrew or +was superfluous in Judæa, and that either Hebrew or Greek should be spoken by every one. As a matter of fact, the Hebrew language was in nowise foreign -to the population of Juda, especially to such of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_462" id="Page_462">462</a></span> +to the population of Judæa, especially to such of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_462" id="Page_462">462</a></span> them as lived in the towns. Even Judah's female domestic slave and tyrant was so well acquainted with Hebrew that many a foreign scholar applied to her @@ -19007,7 +18969,7 @@ by no means a happy one for the Jews. Marcus Aurelius, the best and most moral of the Roman emperors, bore them no good will; he seems even to have cherished a special aversion to them. When -he came to Juda, in the summer of 175, after the +he came to Judæa, in the summer of 175, after the death of the rebel Avidius Cassius, he found the Jews clamorous; they had not come respectfully to pay him homage, but to ask exemption from the @@ -19016,7 +18978,7 @@ vexed at this want of reverence, is reported to have exclaimed, "At last I have discovered a people who are more restless than the Marcomani, the Quadi, or the Sarmati!" In Judah's time, the communities -in Juda were subjected to a tax, called the "crown +in Judæa were subjected to a tax, called the "crown money" (aurum coronarium), which was so oppressive that the inhabitants of Tiberias took to flight in order to escape its burden. There is not in existence @@ -19029,7 +18991,7 @@ sensual and bloodthirsty blockhead, Commodus (180–192), the son of the Emperor philosopher, ends the series of good or tolerable emperors, and there opens a succession of tyrants who cut one another's -throats. In his reign Juda was doubtless exposed +throats. In his reign Judæa was doubtless exposed to all sorts of extortions and oppression. The barbarous, savage and dissolute Pescennius Niger, who after the murder of the two preceding rulers @@ -19065,7 +19027,7 @@ occasioned.</p> <p>The numerous bands of marauders which had collected together during the war between Severus and Niger do not seem to have been entirely suppressed -in Juda, but continued to exist in this +in Judæa, but continued to exist in this land after the departure of Severus. The Romans, who regarded these marauders as highwaymen, dispatched troops to hunt them out of their hiding-places @@ -19073,7 +19035,7 @@ in the mountains, but were unable to disperse them entirely. Two famous teachers of the Law of this period, Eleazar, the son of Simon ben Jochai (who in his time had been hostile to the -Romans), and Ishmael, the son of Jos the Prudent, +Romans), and Ishmael, the son of José the Prudent, were induced to aid the Romans, to keep a watch over the Jewish freebooters, and to deliver them into the hands of the Roman authorities, who put @@ -19107,7 +19069,7 @@ probably at the slight inflicted on her husband, and answered him: "A vessel intended for holy purposes must not be put to profane uses."</p> -<p>Ishmael ben Jos was also visited with the disapprobation +<p>Ishmael ben José was also visited with the disapprobation of the people on account of his prosecution of the Jewish marauders. His excuse that he had received an order from the Roman authorities, @@ -19137,7 +19099,7 @@ ordination. He particularly enjoined on Gamaliel the obligation of conferring the dignity of teacher, first and foremost on Chanina bar Chama, to whom he believed himself indebted. His two servants, -Jos, of Phaeno, and Simon the Parthian, who +José, of Phaeno, and Simon the Parthian, who served him with great affection during his lifetime, were commanded to take charge of his corpse after his death. He besought the Synhedrion to bury @@ -19212,7 +19174,7 @@ Roman empire acquired, and outwardly retained, for nearly a quarter of a century, through the influence of three emperors and their Syrian mothers, a certain Syrian appearance which was -nearly allied with that of Juda; servile Rome +nearly allied with that of Judæa; servile Rome adopted Syrian habits, and filled her Pantheon with Eastern gods. By this means the gulf existing between Roman and Jew was to a certain extent @@ -19244,12 +19206,12 @@ that, although they enjoyed no especial favors, they at any rate had not to complain of excessive oppression. This intermediate and tolerable position of the Jews, equally removed from happiness and -persecution, is described by Janna, one of Judah's +persecution, is described by Jannaï, one of Judah's disciples, in the following words: "We neither enjoy the happiness of the wicked, nor endure the misfortunes of the just."</p> -<p>A certain religious law which this same Janna +<p>A certain religious law which this same Jannaï was at this time induced to repeal, proves that the condition of the Jews of Palestine was not too enviable during the period in question. They were @@ -19257,7 +19219,7 @@ obliged to pay their taxes, even during the year of Release, in natural produce, destined for the use of the standing army. Up till then they had been exempted, by virtue of a special favor originally -accorded them by Julius Csar, from delivering +accorded them by Julius Cæsar, from delivering these supplies in every seventh year, by reason of the fact that no harvest was gathered in this year, it being the one during which the land was commanded @@ -19265,7 +19227,7 @@ by the Law to be left fallow. In consequence of this dictatorial measure, and probably during Caracalla's campaign in Parthia (in 216, which just happened to be a year of Release), -Janna, who was the authority of that period, issued +Jannaï, who was the authority of that period, issued a proclamation, in which he declared that henceforward it would be permissible to cultivate the land during the year of Release. He laid especial stress @@ -19276,7 +19238,7 @@ of them, and that its abrogation was in nowise intended.</p> <p>The youthful emperor Elegabalus, formerly priest -of the Sun-god in Emesa, whom Msa, his crafty +of the Sun-god in Emesa, whom Mæsa, his crafty grandmother, had put forward as Caracalla's son, was entirely devoid of any predilection for the Jews, although appearances seem to lend color to the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_470" id="Page_470">470</a></span> @@ -19284,7 +19246,7 @@ opposite view. This living epitome of all vices, who disgraced the Roman world for four years (218–222), and who seems to have possessed no other vocation in history than publicly to degrade his heathen gods -and Roman Csarism, and to convince every one of +and Roman Cæsarism, and to convince every one of their worthlessness, seems, in fact, to have done and attempted many things in his methodical madness that bear a Jewish complexion. He offered @@ -19301,10 +19263,10 @@ of Judah had ample time to continue his work. The Mishnaic compilation had not, in fact, included many laws, partly because they were not possessed of absolute legal force, and partly because they were -as special cases included in the general formul. +as special cases included in the general formulæ. These neglected Halachas were collected by Judah's successors, as a supplement to the Mishna. Among -these collectors may be named Janna, whose academy +these collectors may be named Jannaï, whose academy was at Acbara; Chiya, and his twin-sons, Judah and Chiskiya, Bar-Kappara, Levi bar Sissi, Ushaya the elder, surnamed "the father of the @@ -19317,8 +19279,8 @@ it. The new compilation therefore possessed but a secondary value in comparison with the principal Mishna, and their mutual relations were of such a character that the former were referred to as "the -apocryphal Mishnas" (Matnita borata, or simply -Borata), in the same way as the books not included +apocryphal Mishnas" (Matnita boraïta, or simply +Boraïta), in the same way as the books not included in the canonical Bible are called "the Apocrypha"<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_471" id="Page_471">471</a></span> (apocryphal books). The compilations of Chiya and Ushaya alone acquired an authority nearly @@ -19529,7 +19491,7 @@ and which was conducive at the same time both to logical acuteness and to sophistry, seems to have first made its appearance in the public academies of Jabne and Usha, and in the numerous other schools. -It was probably the ingenious Mer and his disciples +It was probably the ingenious Meïr and his disciples who most contributed to its cultivation. As if it were not sufficient to consider and decide such cases as really occurred, according to the already existing @@ -19549,7 +19511,7 @@ contains no Halachas of a character hostile to the Jewish professors of Christianity; it does not touch on this subject in any place, not even declaring whether it is allowed or prohibited to eat meat -cooked by the Minans. It appears that the danger +cooked by the Minæans. It appears that the danger with which Judaism had been threatened by the Jewish Christians, since the destruction of the Temple until the Bar-Cochba war, had already been @@ -19635,7 +19597,7 @@ are concealed, and, as it were, overgrown by a mass of law relating to the ritual.</p> <p>With the completion of the Mishna and the -almost equally important Boratas, the Tanaites had +almost equally important Boraïtas, the Tanaites had accomplished their task of imparting a settled form and lasting shape to the hitherto uncertain and transitory matter of tradition; they had called it to @@ -19677,7 +19639,7 @@ home through the agency of a series of vigorous-minded men, who imbued the ancient customs and manners with a new and healthy spirit. The most prominent men and the lights of this epoch were: -in Juda, the Patriarch Judah II, son of Gamaliel; +in Judæa, the Patriarch Judah II, son of Gamaliel; Jochanan, the principal authority of these times; and Simon b. Lakish, the Teacher, robust of hand and brain; and in Babylonia, Abba-Areka and @@ -19711,16 +19673,16 @@ his father in the office of Patriarch (about Sepphoris to Tiberias, and this city, formerly avoided on account of its uncleanliness, was thus invested by him with considerable importance; it -outlived all the other cities of Juda, however rich +outlived all the other cities of Judæa, however rich in memories, and was the last retreat of the ancient traditions. The announcement of the appearance of the new moon, which on account of a certain -preference shown to the south of Juda had formerly +preference shown to the south of Judæa had formerly been made there, was now ordered by Judah to be made at Tiberias. The south of Palestine, formerly the principal scene of historical events, was henceforward bereft of its supremacy, and was -obliged to abandon its rle to the once-despised +obliged to abandon its rôle to the once-despised Galilee. Like his grandfather, Judah II was held in great reverence by his contemporaries, and was also called simply Rabbi or Rabbenu. He likewise @@ -19731,7 +19693,7 @@ more patiently than his ancestor.</p> narratives positively assert, that was beloved by a Roman emperor, from whom he received numerous marks of favor. Accident, which in the guise of the -Prtorian guards generally gave the casting vote<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_481" id="Page_481">481</a></span> +Prætorian guards generally gave the casting vote<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_481" id="Page_481">481</a></span> at the election of the emperor, elevated Alexander Severus (222–235), an unknown Syrian youth in his seventeenth year, to the position of ruler of the @@ -19764,7 +19726,7 @@ emperors than with an austere ruler like Alexander Severus, derided him in epigrams, and gave him the nicknames of the "Syrian Head of the Synagogue" (Archisynagogus, that is, Rabbi) and -"High Priest." The emperor's mother, Mamma, +"High Priest." The emperor's mother, Mammæa, however, had a preference for Christianity, and was a protectress of Origen, one of the Fathers of the Church. For these reasons, the Patriarch @@ -19845,7 +19807,7 @@ abolish, many of the stricter rules which had formerly been carried out with the utmost severity. In the stormy days of the first rebellion against the Romans, when the wave of racial hatred ran high -between Jews and Grco-Roman heathens, a Synod, +between Jews and Græco-Roman heathens, a Synod, in order to put a stop to all intercourse with the heathens, had forbidden the Jews to purchase or make use of their oil and various other articles of @@ -19854,7 +19816,7 @@ on the Jewish inhabitants, as the land produced all that was necessary to satisfy the daily wants of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_484" id="Page_484">484</a></span> people, and the oil exported from Galilee afforded a sufficient supply to the neighboring countries. -But the war of Hadrian devastated Juda and deprived +But the war of Hadrian devastated Judæa and deprived it of all its oil plantations; the daily need of oil thus gradually compelled this strict prohibition to be disregarded. But the legal permission was still @@ -19865,7 +19827,7 @@ used his best endeavors to obtain a majority favorable to the abrogation of this law, and prided himself greatly on accomplishing his purpose; it is probable that he had to sustain a severe conflict in -order to gain his object. When Simla, the Patriarch's +order to gain his object. When Simlaï, the Patriarch's assessor, who was constantly traveling between Galilee and Babylon, brought the news that permission had been granted to the Jewish inhabitants @@ -20021,7 +19983,7 @@ the Patriarch Jullos.</p> <p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_488" id="Page_488">488</a></span> The spirit of investigation awakened by the -Fathers of the Church, Pantus and Clemens of +Fathers of the Church, Pantæus and Clemens of Alexandria, in the Christian school of Alexandria, which sought to connect the Old and the New Testament, revived the necessity of an acquaintance @@ -20038,14 +20000,14 @@ masters in the knowledge of Hebrew and the correct exegesis of the Scripture: he admitted having learnt from Jews the exact sense of various difficult passages in the Bible, during his long but -intermittent residence in Juda (from about 229 to +intermittent residence in Judæa (from about 229 to 253). Being desirous of writing a Commentary on the Psalms, he took the trouble to have them explained to him by a Jew, according to the traditions. At that time the study of the Halachas had not yet superseded that of Biblical exegesis.</p> -<p>Besides Hillel and Simla there were other Jewish +<p>Besides Hillel and Simlaï there were other Jewish teachers well acquainted with the original text, who confuted the Christian teachers, and laughed at them for the absurdly childish arguments which @@ -20100,7 +20062,7 @@ of the schools applied themselves, in the first place, to the elucidation of the terse and frequently obscure text of the Mishna. From this aspect of their labors they received the name -of Amoraim (Amora, Expounder). But far from<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_490" id="Page_490">490</a></span> +of Amoraim (Amoraï, Expounder). But far from<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_490" id="Page_490">490</a></span> being satisfied with this arid work, or with remaining contentedly in this dependence, they gradually emancipated themselves, made new departures, and @@ -20156,7 +20118,7 @@ disciples, who proceeded to found new academies.</p> great veneration both by Jews and Romans, on account of his piety. Once, when he went, with Joshua b. Levi, a younger contemporary, to visit -the Proconsul (Anthypatos), in Csarea, the latter +the Proconsul (Anthypatos), in Cæsarea, the latter rose respectfully at their approach, replying to his friends, who expressed astonishment at his behavior, that "they appeared to him like angels." He @@ -20180,13 +20142,13 @@ the time of Moses there was only one Zimri (who debauched a heathen woman), and yet twenty-four thousand fell by the plague; ye, however, possess many Zimris, and complain notwithstanding." -Another time, Juda was visited by a continued<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_492" id="Page_492">492</a></span> +Another time, Judæa was visited by a continued<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_492" id="Page_492">492</a></span> drought and lack of rain. Chanina had arranged the prescribed fasts and offered up public prayers, yet the much desired rains did not set in; whereupon the people complained anew, and referred to Joshua b. Levi, the envoy to Rome, whose -prayers for rain for the south of Juda had been +prayers for rain for the south of Judæa had been crowned with success. On the next opportunity Chanina sent for Joshua from the south, and united with him in prayer, but again without success. @@ -20313,7 +20275,7 @@ striking maxim of this sort uttered by Jochanan was the following: "If thou art proposed as a member of the senate, choose rather as thy dwelling the desert of the Jordan." He permitted people, -in exceptional instances, to emigrate from Juda, +in exceptional instances, to emigrate from Judæa, in order to escape from the heavy burden of the municipal offices.</p> @@ -20413,7 +20375,7 @@ Jochanan and Ben-Lakish, the triumvirate of the Palestinian Amoraim, is more renowned in the world of legend than in history, where, indeed, but little is related of him. The son of Levi ben-Sissi, he conducted -a school at Lydda, in the south of Juda. It is +a school at Lydda, in the south of Judæa. It is true that the inhabitants of Lydda were not in over-good repute with the Galileans, who pronounced them proud and superficial. But Joshua's reputation in @@ -20425,7 +20387,7 @@ two members of the triumvirate entertained different views. Joshua himself admits, however, that he forgot many traditions during the period in which he was occupied with the organization of the communities -of Southern Juda. The situation of the communities +of Southern Judæa. The situation of the communities of this district had, in fact, been so unsettled ever since the catastrophe in the time of Hadrian, that Jochanan and Jonathan were obliged @@ -20456,7 +20418,7 @@ of the destroying angel himself, who was obliged to submit to his orders.</p> <p>An original path in the explanation of the Agada -was struck out by Simla; he it was who first considered +was struck out by Simlaï; he it was who first considered this collection worthy of profounder study. Born at Lydda, he had quitted this desolate region, and had settled down at Nahardea, where the new @@ -20469,7 +20431,7 @@ esteemed in Palestine. He was the first to collect together all the commands contained in the Jewish Law, numbering 613, of which 365 are prohibitions, and 248 affirmative precepts. David, according to -Simla, reduced these 613 commands to the following +Simlaï, reduced these 613 commands to the following eleven virtues: honesty, justice, truthfulness, abhorrence of calumny, of malice and of injuring one's neighbor, despising the wicked, reverence of the @@ -20488,18 +20450,18 @@ the Prophet Habakkuk expressed them all in a single formula: "The just man lives by his faith." This was the first attempt to reduce the whole Law of Israel to principles. A beautiful parable, in which -Simla indicates the part played by every nation in +Simlaï indicates the part played by every nation in the history of the world, affords evidence both of the wide extent of his views and of his poetical talent.</p> <p>Possessed of a profound knowledge of the Scripture, -and gifted with an elevated mind, Simla was +and gifted with an elevated mind, Simlaï was especially qualified to enter into discussion with the Fathers of the Church, and to shake the arguments which they drew from the Old Testament in support of the dogmas of Christianity. In these discussions -Simla gave evidence of a sound exegesis, free from +Simlaï gave evidence of a sound exegesis, free from misinterpretations. During the time of the first<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_500" id="Page_500">500</a></span> generation of Amoraim, Christianity had entered upon a new stage; in opposition to the tendency of @@ -20575,13 +20537,13 @@ like Origen, to the acquirement of a clearer Hebrew text, that polemical discussions on Christological themes became more frequent.</p> -<p>Simla, in particular, defended the doctrine of the +<p>Simlaï, in particular, defended the doctrine of the unity of God against the Christian dogma of the Trinity, and adduced the proofs for his contention with consummate skill. His opponent in this theoretical dispute was perhaps Origen, who was for a long time a resident in Palestine. By the help of a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_502" id="Page_502">502</a></span> -sober method of interpretation Simla established the +sober method of interpretation Simlaï established the fact that all the passages of the Holy Scripture which appear to afford an argument in support of the Trinity, in reality bring out and emphasize so @@ -20649,7 +20611,7 @@ their migrations; whose name still exercises a certain magic in the distance, even after its fall; Babylonia, which had already been the temporary abode of the Jewish race, now became for a long period -the permanent scene of Jewish activity. Juda, on +the permanent scene of Jewish activity. Judæa, on the other hand, gradually fell into the background. The peculiar formation of the country between the Euphrates and the Tigris facilitated the separation @@ -20691,7 +20653,7 @@ towards each other and at last actually unite, and where numerous canals formerly intersected the country and connected their streams: the southern part of Mesopotamia, the ancient province of Babel, -and a portion of the former kingdom of Chalda. +and a portion of the former kingdom of Chaldæa. Babylonia, as understood in this narrow sense, was principally inhabited by Jews, and for this reason was also known by the name of "the land of Israel." @@ -20704,15 +20666,15 @@ distance of twenty-two parasangs (sixty-eight miles). The fixing of the boundaries of Jewish Babylonia is not a matter of indifference for history, as in former times it constituted a matter of conscience. Even -in Juda the natives of Babylonia of Jewish origin +in Judæa the natives of Babylonia of Jewish origin were admitted to possess the most unsullied purity of descent, and to have refrained from all intercourse with heathens, slaves, or persons born out -of wedlock; Juda was far behind Babylonia in this +of wedlock; Judæa was far behind Babylonia in this respect. An old proverb says: "In the matter of descent, the Jewish population of the (Roman) -countries is to that of Juda, as adulterated dough -is to pure meal, but Juda itself is only as dough +countries is to that of Judæa, as adulterated dough +is to pure meal, but Judæa itself is only as dough when compared with Babylonia."</p> <p>The Jewish province in Babylonia was divided into @@ -20805,7 +20767,7 @@ they were called on this account "candidates for hell." It is related of the women of Machuza that they indulged in pleasure and idleness. Once, when a Palestinean teacher of the Law brought -from Juda to Nahardea a Halacha allowing +from Judæa to Nahardea a Halacha allowing women to wear golden head-bands set with precious stones on the Sabbath, it was remarked that only four-and-twenty women in that town @@ -20960,7 +20922,7 @@ population of Babylonia, their independence, and the concentrated power of the Princes, stamp the history of the Jews of this region with a peculiar character; new needs arose in this country which -were unknown in Juda; new needs produced new +were unknown in Judæa; new needs produced new regulations and Halachas, and thus the Law entered upon a new development in which, as already intimated, Babylon played the most important part.</p> @@ -20982,7 +20944,7 @@ Galilee, where they were honored as saints; but Chiya exercised the greatest influence on the education of his disciple and nephew, Abba-Areka. Before the return to Babylonia of Abba-Areka and -Samuel from the academy of Judah I in Juda, an<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_512" id="Page_512">512</a></span> +Samuel from the academy of Judah I in Judæa, an<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_512" id="Page_512">512</a></span> otherwise unknown person, Shila by name, occupied the post of principal of the school (Resh-Sidra) in Nahardea. But with the appearance of these two @@ -20990,7 +20952,7 @@ men, who were endowed with all the qualities requisite in order to become the founders of new schools, extensive alterations were introduced; they initiated a new departure, and raised Babylonia to -the level of Juda.</p> +the level of Judæa.</p> <p>Abba (born about 175, died 247), who is known in history by the name of Rab, had completed his @@ -21093,7 +21055,7 @@ was called Be-Rab (Be abbreviated from Beth, <i>house</i>), which afterwards became the general name for a school. His authority extended beyond the boundaries of Babylonia; even Jochanan, the most -celebrated of the teachers of Juda, wrote to him, +celebrated of the teachers of Judæa, wrote to him, "To our teacher in Babylonia," grew angry whenever any one spoke slightingly of Rab, and admitted that the latter was the only person to whom he would @@ -21207,7 +21169,7 @@ express it, had formerly been "a vacant and unprotected fallow field." Rab surrounded it with a two-fold hedge, severity of manners and activity of mind. He was in this respect for Babylonia what Hillel -had been for Juda.</p> +had been for Judæa.</p> <p>Rab's virtues, his patience, conciliatory disposition, and modesty, also put one in mind of Hillel. @@ -21262,7 +21224,7 @@ was an epoch-maker in the history of the doctrine of Judaism. Nothing more is known of his youth than that he once ran away from his father. As a young man he followed the usual course, and went -to Juda in order to complete his education at the +to Judæa in order to complete his education at the academy of the Patriarch Judah I. It has already been narrated how he there cured a disease of the eyes from which the ailing Patriarch suffered, and @@ -21342,7 +21304,7 @@ to the Persian dynasty was so great that it supplanted the affection for his fellow-countrymen in his heart. When Shabur extended his conquests to Asia Minor, 12,000 Jews lost their lives on the -occasion of the assault of Mazaca-Csarea, the +occasion of the assault of Mazaca-Cæsarea, the Cappadocian capital. Samuel refused to go into mourning for the victims, giving as his reason that they had fought against Shabur. He thus formed @@ -21411,17 +21373,17 @@ surrendered it to his comrade in Sora, contenting himself with the third place. After Rab's death Samuel was recognized as the sole religious chief of Babylon, and continued in this capacity for ten -years. At first Jochanan, of Juda, hesitated +years. At first Jochanan, of Judæa, hesitated whether to acknowledge him as an authority. In the letter which the principal of the schools of Tiberias sent to Babylonia, he addressed Rab by the title of "our teacher in Babylonia," while Mar-Samuel he called simply "our comrade." The -teachers of Juda did not, in fact, give him credit +teachers of Judæa did not, in fact, give him credit for the requisite knowledge of the Halachas, basing their conclusion upon the fact that he occupied himself with other branches of science. It was in -vain that Samuel sent to Juda a festival calendar +vain that Samuel sent to Judæa a festival calendar calculated for sixty years; Jochanan remarked slightingly, when the fact came to his knowledge: "At any rate he is well acquainted with arithmetic." @@ -21528,7 +21490,7 @@ with bribes. By reason of their semi-savage state he referred to them as "the abandoned people into whose hands the Babylonian communities had been delivered." Levi bar Sissi, who was continually -traveling to and fro between Juda and Babylon, +traveling to and fro between Judæa and Babylon, was anxiously questioned by the Patriarch Judah II as to the character of the conquering race. With obvious prepossession in favor of the vanquished @@ -21550,7 +21512,7 @@ the old Halacha in similar cases. Even Rab, the essence of strictness, acquiesced in the demand of the Magi, and allowed the lamps to be brought from the open street into the houses on the Sabbath -on the occasion of the Festival of the Hasmonans, +on the occasion of the Festival of the Hasmonæans, in order not to give offense to the prejudices of the ruling sacerdotal class. This mutual toleration, doubtless, first made its appearance under the rule @@ -21687,7 +21649,7 @@ delighted to hold philosophical intercourse.</p> <p>At her court resided Longinus, the refined and philosophical lover of the fine arts, who in his -sthetic work on the Sublime was unable sufficiently +æsthetic work on the Sublime was unable sufficiently to express his admiration of the poetical contents of the Biblical account of the Creation, "Let there be light." Paul of Samosata, Bishop of Antioch, @@ -21705,8 +21667,8 @@ aversion.</p> <p>There can be no doubt that many Jews took up arms against Zenobia, whose rule must also have -extended over Juda. It is related that a certain -Zera bar Chanina having been brought up before +extended over Judæa. It is related that a certain +Zeïra bar Chanina having been brought up before Zenobia to receive sentence for an offense which seems to have been of a political nature, two of Jochanan's disciples, Ami and Samuel, presented @@ -21764,12 +21726,12 @@ fall (279).</p> <blockquote> <p class="hang">The Amoraim in Palestine​—​Ami and Assi​—​The Brothers Chiya and -Simon bar Abba in Tiberias​—​Abbahu in Csarea​—​The Emperor +Simon bar Abba in Tiberias​—​Abbahu in Cæsarea​—​The Emperor Diocletian​—​Complete Separation from the Samaritans​—​Character and Political Position of Abbahu​—​Huna in Babylonia​—​Chama's Generosity​—​Huna's Contemporaries and Successors​—​Judah ben Ezekiel​—​Chasda of Cafri​—​Mar Sheshet​—​Nachman -bar Jacob​—​Zera.</p></blockquote> +bar Jacob​—​Zeïra.</p></blockquote> <p class="center bpad">279–320 <span class="smcap smaller">C. E.</span></p> @@ -21780,7 +21742,7 @@ of the history of the world, and forms an epoch of transition also in the history of the Jews. The influence exerted by the mother-country began gradually to decline. It was Babylonia that now occupied -the universal interest, while Juda became a holy +the universal interest, while Judæa became a holy antiquity; it still possessed the power of arousing glorious memories, but was no longer the scene of memorable deeds. The teachers of this generation, @@ -21791,12 +21753,12 @@ longing, still preferred the schools of Palestine to those of their native land. But only very few of the principals of the schools were possessed of any eminence, and the most important of them, Ami, -Assi, Chiya b. Abba, and Zera, were all Babylonians +Assi, Chiya b. Abba, and Zeïra, were all Babylonians by birth. Abbahu, the only one who was a native -of Juda, was a person of much originality, but of +of Judæa, was a person of much originality, but of no authority in the Halacha. The superiority of Babylon was so readily acknowledged that Ami and -Assi, the leaders of Juda, of their own accord subordinated +Assi, the leaders of Judæa, of their own accord subordinated themselves to Rab's successor. The<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_532" id="Page_532">532</a></span> Babylonian novices excelled their masters in the knowledge of the Law; Sora and Pumbeditha took @@ -21824,7 +21786,7 @@ to Judah the ordering of the affairs of the communities and the schools, and to this point he devoted his entire attention. He commissioned the three principal Amoraim, Ami, Assi, and Chiya, to -undertake a journey through the cities of Juda, in +undertake a journey through the cities of Judæa, in order to inspect the various institutions of a religious or educational character, and to restore them in those places where they were falling into decay. @@ -21900,7 +21862,7 @@ in tolerably good relations with one another; the Samaritans were admitted to be in many respects strict Jews. The war of Hadrian united Jew and Samaritan even more closely, and this friendly relation -took so deep a root, that Mer's decision to +took so deep a root, that Meïr's decision to regard the Samaritans as heathens never gained general acceptance. Daily intercourse and business connections had bound them closely to each other. @@ -21986,7 +21948,7 @@ lawful; and they, in return, made him feel his dependency on their tithes. Upon this he determined never again to accept tithes from any one, and, in order to avoid temptation, he resolved to quit -Juda.</p> +Judæa.</p> <p>It is in this Amora that a singular fault may first be remarked, which later on became more general, @@ -22015,14 +21977,14 @@ period of the Herods. But these buildings, which had been crowded with listeners in Jochanan's time, now testified to the declining importance of the Holy Land. Babylonia was the goal of such of the -youth of Juda as were desirous of studying. Ami +youth of Judæa as were desirous of studying. Ami and Assi only bore the modest title of "the Judges, or the respected descendants of Aaron in the Holy Land," and of their own accord subordinated themselves to the Babylonian authorities.</p> <p>Of greater importance and originality was Abbahu -of Csarea on the Sea, who was a striking +of Cæsarea on the Sea, who was a striking contrast to Chiya and Simon, Abba's sons. He was wealthy, kept Gothic slaves, and had ivory seats in his house; his trade was the manufacture of @@ -22046,7 +22008,7 @@ applied to him: "It is good that thou takest up this (the study of the Halacha) and neglectest not that (the learning of the Greeks), for the pious are able to fulfil all duties." The Greek language was -in fact so current among the Jews of Csarea, that +in fact so current among the Jews of Cæsarea, that they even recited the passage of Scripture relative to the unity of God (the Shema) in this tongue.</p> @@ -22101,7 +22063,7 @@ and his co-emperor Galerius, on account of its arrogance. The Jews were possessed of intellectual weapons, and these they employed as long as they were permitted their free use. Like -Simla, Abbahu attacked the Christian dogmas in +Simlaï, Abbahu attacked the Christian dogmas in the most uncompromising manner, and grounded his opposition, according to the manner of the time, upon a verse in the Bible (Numbers xxiii. 19): "If @@ -22110,7 +22072,7 @@ the son of man,' he will repent it; 'I go to heaven,' he will not confirm it." The doctrine of the Ascension was especially a disputed point between the teachers of the Church and the synagogue, and -its defender in Csarea was Jacob the Minan, a +its defender in Cæsarea was Jacob the Minæan, a physician by profession. In order to authenticate the Ascension, the Christians brought forward the Agadic tradition, according to which Enoch ascended @@ -22155,7 +22117,7 @@ of honor throughout the day; nevertheless, Chiya was unable to forget the slight which he considered had been inflicted on him. This anecdote cannot be regarded as altogether unimportant, proving as -it does the decay of serious studies in Juda at +it does the decay of serious studies in Judæa at this time. The Halacha, the study of which wrinkled the brow and exercised the mind, no longer found listeners, and was obliged to quit the @@ -22185,7 +22147,7 @@ may also be gathered from another characteristic sketch, which at the same time affords a faithful picture of the customs of the period. It was usual on the occasion of a drought, an event of -not uncommon occurrence in Juda, for the most +not uncommon occurrence in Judæa, for the most meritorious member of the community to offer up the prescribed prayers for rain. The person who on one occasion was recommended to Abbahu as @@ -22249,12 +22211,12 @@ authority; his province was the Agadic exegesis. By reason, however, of his influence in the political world, his colleagues flattered him to excess—fearing to correct him even when he committed errors -in teaching. It appears that Csarea, where Ushaya +in teaching. It appears that Cæsarea, where Ushaya the elder had formerly established a temporary school, was now elevated by Abbahu to a par with Tiberias as an academical city, where the greatest -Amoram of Palestine assembled. The synagogue -in Csarea, whence had proceeded under Nero +Amoraïm of Palestine assembled. The synagogue +in Cæsarea, whence had proceeded under Nero the first movement of revolt against the Romans, resulting eventually in the loss of independence to the Jewish state, was perhaps Abbahu's academy, @@ -22263,23 +22225,23 @@ and it appears to have still borne the fatal name of In the same way as Simon bar Abba was accustomed to misfortune, Abbahu was attended by good luck, which did not forsake him even in his old age. -He had two promising sons, Abima and Chanina. +He had two promising sons, Abimaï and Chanina. The latter was sent by him to Tiberias for the purpose of perfecting his education; but instead of applying himself to study, Chanina spent his time in burying the dead, whereupon his father reprimanded him in a letter which is remarkable for -its laconic brevity: "Has Csarea, then, no graves, +its laconic brevity: "Has Cæsarea, then, no graves, that I should be obliged to send thee for this purpose to Tiberias? Study must precede practical work." Abbahu was the last important personage -of Juda during Talmudical times. For fifteen successive +of Judæa during Talmudical times. For fifteen successive centuries it had given birth to intellectual giants, judges, generals, kings, prophets, poets, soferim, patriots, teachers of the Law. It now ceased to produce, and brought forth no new celebrities into the world. When Abbahu died, says -the legend, the statues of Csarea wept for him.</p> +the legend, the statues of Cæsarea wept for him.</p> <p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_544" id="Page_544">544</a></span> In Babylonia, on the contrary, the lively ardor @@ -22301,7 +22263,7 @@ ignorance, and domestic and public life fashioned itself according to the ideal which had been inculcated with such enthusiasm by the two great teachers, Rab and Samuel. Babylonia assumed, -in many respects, the rle of the Holy Land, +in many respects, the rôle of the Holy Land, even as regards the contributions to the priests, which seem, however, to have been applied to the uses of the teachers of the Law: learning @@ -22331,7 +22293,7 @@ a new method of studying the Halacha; Nachman b. Jacob, who transferred his academy to Shekan-Zib on the Tigris, after the destruction of Nahardea (259); and finally Chasda, Sheshet, and Rabba bar -Abbahu. Almost all of these Amoram possessed +Abbahu. Almost all of these Amoraïm possessed their own peculiar tendency, and thus variety and diversity were introduced into the narrow circle of scholars in the Babylonian schools.</p> @@ -22339,7 +22301,7 @@ scholars in the Babylonian schools.</p> <p>Huna was born about 212, at Dio Kart, and died in 297. He was Rab's successor in Sora, and the authority of this period, to whom, as already narrated, -the Amoram of Juda voluntarily subordinated +the Amoraïm of Judæa voluntarily subordinated themselves. The story of his life presents at once a perfect picture of the manners of this period, and shows how indefatigable zeal for the @@ -22353,7 +22315,7 @@ came to him to judge their differences, "Bring me a man to till my ground and I will be your judge." Often he returned home from the field with his spade upon his shoulder. He was once perceived in -this condition by Chama b. Anila, the richest, and +this condition by Chama b. Anilaï, the richest, and at the same time the most charitable and generous man in Babylonia. This liberal man almost realized the ideal in his exercise of the Jewish virtue of @@ -22444,10 +22406,10 @@ of practice.</p> <p>For forty years Huna presided over the Metibta,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_548" id="Page_548">548</a></span> and by reason of his undisputed authority, Babylonia -became completely independent of Juda. +became completely independent of Judæa. He boldly acted upon the principle which his master Rab had been unable to carry through, and placed -Babylonia on a footing of equality with Juda as +Babylonia on a footing of equality with Judæa as regarded the Law. "We consider being in Babylon just the same as being in the Holy Land," was a principle first established by Huna. He thus broke @@ -22455,7 +22417,7 @@ the last tie that united the land of the captivity to the mother-country, or perhaps it would be more accurate to say that he merely gave expression to the actual state of things, for, as a matter of fact, -Babylonia far surpassed Juda. Only as a mark +Babylonia far surpassed Judæa. Only as a mark of respect, or in case it was desired to obtain a solemn sanction of an opinion, was it usual in Babylonia to obtain a decision from the Holy Land. @@ -22468,12 +22430,12 @@ son Rabba. The highest honors were paid to his remains by his friends and pupils. The funeral discourse opened with the following words: "Huna deserved that the Holy Spirit should descend upon -him." His corpse was carried to Juda, probably +him." His corpse was carried to Judæa, probably in execution of his dying wish; there it was met by the most distinguished men, such as Assi and Ami, who procured its interment in the vault of Chiya, another Babylonian. It gradually became a pious -custom to be buried in Juda's holy earth, to which +custom to be buried in Judæa's holy earth, to which was attributed an expiatory power. The resurrection was confidently expected to take place in that country, which, it was also believed, would be @@ -22482,7 +22444,7 @@ had died in unhallowed countries would roll about in the light, loose earth, until they reached the Holy Land, where they would again be revivified. In place of living inhabitants, who were continually -decreasing, Juda was becoming every day more<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_549" id="Page_549">549</a></span> +decreasing, Judæa was becoming every day more<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_549" id="Page_549">549</a></span> thickly populated with corpses. The Holy Land, which had formerly been one immense temple, inspiring great deeds and noble thoughts, was now @@ -22490,7 +22452,7 @@ a holy grave, which could render nothing holy but death. Of the numerous sanctuaries which had formerly existed, the dust alone now remained as an object of veneration. The entire central region of -Juda, the mountains of the King, was so exclusively +Judæa, the mountains of the King, was so exclusively inhabited by heathens, that it was proposed to declare it exempt from the tribute to the priests.</p> @@ -22512,7 +22474,7 @@ in most matters, he vehemently attacked all who gave the preference to artificial refinement. Although he held the Holy Land in great reverence, he nevertheless blamed those who left Babylonia in -order to be educated in the schools of Juda, and +order to be educated in the schools of Judæa, and was unrelenting towards such of his friends and pupils as emigrated thither. Judah founded for the first time an academy in Pumbeditha, which city, @@ -22535,11 +22497,11 @@ the Law. He had already been distinguished by Samuel as the "acute," and later on became the creator of that acute system of dialectics which in former times had gained a transitory acceptance in -Juda, and now became current in and indigenous +Judæa, and now became current in and indigenous to Babylonia. This system differed materially from that employed by the Tanaites, for it went direct to the heart of the matter, while the other clung to -the formul of the rules of interpretation. Judah's +the formulæ of the rules of interpretation. Judah's discourses were confined solely and simply to the treatment of matters of jurisprudence, as occult comparisons and distinctions, deductions and applications, @@ -22565,7 +22527,7 @@ down by him, and even gave him the lie direct. name of Rab or Samuel; but thus and thus were<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_551" id="Page_551">551</a></span> they handed down." In another respect also, Rami was the opponent of his brother; he quitted Babylonia -and emigrated to Juda, although Judah +and emigrated to Judæa, although Judah severely censured such a course, which, he considered, constituted no slight crime against religion. He even regarded the return of the Babylonian @@ -22575,7 +22537,7 @@ come about; for the prophet Jeremiah had impressed on the captives that they should also die in Babylon. The only excuse which he found for the pious Ezra and his emigration was the assertion -that the latter had led to Juda such families as +that the latter had led to Judæa such families as were of doubtful origin, in order to prevent their intermarrying with those whom he left behind.</p> @@ -22594,7 +22556,7 @@ the siege of Jerusalem?" Judah's punctiliousness with regard to purity of descent caused him many a vexation. There once came to Pumbeditha a distinguished citizen of Nahardea, who claimed to -be descended from the Hasmonans, perhaps from +be descended from the Hasmonæans, perhaps from the unfortunate king, Hyrcanus II, who had resided in Babylonia for several years. This Nahardean, who was connected with the most esteemed families @@ -22627,7 +22589,7 @@ abroad. When Huna died Judah was chosen by the Sora Metibta as their Principal (297); under him and his successor there was but a single academy which was recognized by every one. His authority -was recognized even in Juda. He once excommunicated +was recognized even in Judæa. He once excommunicated a certain distinguished member of the Metibta whose reputation was attacked. When the latter visited him on the occasion of his last illness, @@ -22648,7 +22610,7 @@ to memory all the decisions which the latter had ever given, and promised a reward to any one who would communicate to him any unknown trait of "our great master," as he called him. Chasda is -known as the most fortunate of the Amoram. +known as the most fortunate of the Amoraïm. Originally poor, he was afterwards blessed with such extraordinary gifts of fortune that his wealth became proverbial. Sixty marriages were celebrated @@ -22681,9 +22643,9 @@ ninety-two.</p> like himself had been a disciple of Rab and a pupil of Huna. Sheshet's memory was so retentive that he knew by heart not only the whole Mishna, but -also all the Boratas. Whenever Chasda and Sheshet +also all the Boraïtas. Whenever Chasda and Sheshet met, the former was dismayed at his opponent's -imposing array of Boratas, while the latter trembled<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_554" id="Page_554">554</a></span> +imposing array of Boraïtas, while the latter trembled<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_554" id="Page_554">554</a></span> at Chasda's subtle expositions. He was, in fact, a sworn enemy of that hair-splitting style of teaching which Judah had introduced into the Pumbedithan @@ -22811,17 +22773,17 @@ notorious for their love of mockery. It is not related whether he again transferred his residence to Nahardea, after that city was restored.</p> -<p>A connecting link between Juda and Babylonia, +<p>A connecting link between Judæa and Babylonia, of which two countries the former was slowly declining while the latter was gradually coming to -the fore, was formed by Zera, who was the highest -authority in Juda during the following generation. +the fore, was formed by Zeïra, who was the highest +authority in Judæa during the following generation. The history of this man brings into prominent relief the opposition existing between the mother-country and the Babylonian colony. He had been a pupil of Huna and Judah, but was dissatisfied with the method of teaching employed in Babylonia, and -yearned for the simple method of the Amoram, +yearned for the simple method of the Amoraïm, which obtained in the schools of Galilee. He hesitated to quit Babylonia, however, in deference to Judah's dislike of emigration. When, at last, he @@ -22830,7 +22792,7 @@ his longing to behold the Holy Land was so irresistible, that he ventured to cross the Jordan by a rope, so as not to lose time in searching for a bridge. A Christian who was witness of the traveler's -haste, remarked reprovingly to Zera: "You +haste, remarked reprovingly to Zeïra: "You Jews have not yet abandoned your old fault of precipitancy, which showed itself among you at Mount Sinai"; whereupon the latter rejoined: "Ought I @@ -22838,36 +22800,36 @@ to delay a single moment to enter the Holy Land, the sight of which was not even vouchsafed to Moses and Aaron, our teachers?"</p> -<p>Arrived at Tiberias, Zera endeavored to forget +<p>Arrived at Tiberias, Zeïra endeavored to forget the minute analysis which constituted the Babylonian method of teaching. The legend adds that he fasted for forty days, in order to give weight to his prayers, in which he entreated that the hateful Babylonian system might vanish entirely -from his memory. Juda and its peculiar method,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_558" id="Page_558">558</a></span> +from his memory. Judæa and its peculiar method,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_558" id="Page_558">558</a></span> on the other hand, seemed to him to be surrounded with a halo of glory, and "the atmosphere of the Holy Land appeared to him pregnant with wisdom." The characteristic tendency of Babylonia, however, had gained so strong a hold on his mind that he -was unable to free himself from it, even in Juda. +was unable to free himself from it, even in Judæa. However greatly he strove to acquire the simplicity -of the Judan method, he never succeeded in +of the Judæan method, he never succeeded in entirely eradicating the influence of the Babylonian rational analysis, and it was on account of this very superiority which he himself failed to recognize, that -he was held in high esteem by the Amoram of -Juda. The dignity of teacher was conferred upon +he was held in high esteem by the Amoraïm of +Judæa. The dignity of teacher was conferred upon him within a very short time. His modesty was so great, however, that, like King Saul, he hid himself, and only consented to be ordained when it was represented to him that remission of sins was attached thereto. In the encomium which it had become customary to recite on the occasion of an -ordination, allusion was made to Zera's small, +ordination, allusion was made to Zeïra's small, insignificant figure, in the following terms: "Without brilliancy, without glitter, but not without charm." -He became one of the authorities of Juda, together +He became one of the authorities of Judæa, together with Ami, Assi, and Abbahu, all of whom he outlived. At his grave a poet recited an elegy, which shows better taste than most of the verses produced @@ -22890,7 +22852,7 @@ on similar occasions; it ran somewhat as <blockquote> -<p class="hang">Hillel II.—His Calendar​—​Heads of Judan Schools: Jonah, Jos, +<p class="hang">Hillel II.—His Calendar​—​Heads of Judæan Schools: Jonah, José, and Jeremiah​—​The Expansion of Christianity​—​Constantine​—​The Decadence of the Jewish Schools in Babylonia​—​The Pumbeditha School​—​Development of Talmudical Dialectics​—​The @@ -22927,14 +22889,14 @@ of God and a purer morality, although it was<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_ very far from conforming in practice to these tenets. At the same time as Rome and Italy lost their importance and retained only a shadow of -their former greatness, Juda and Tiberias, which +their former greatness, Judæa and Tiberias, which had taken the place of Jerusalem, sank into insignificance. Like Italy, the seat of heathen civilization, -Juda was impoverished and stunted by Christianity. +Judæa was impoverished and stunted by Christianity. By means of the political power to which this religion now attained—the possession of the imperial dignity placing the axe of the lictors and -the sword of the legions under its command—Juda +the sword of the legions under its command—Judæa was soon deprived of its intellectual life, and the school of Tiberias lost the power of attraction which it had so long exercised, and sank into @@ -22942,13 +22904,13 @@ decadence.</p> <p>While Babylonia was raised during the next fifty years to the pinnacle of its fame by the exertions -of three original Amoram, Rabba, Abayi, and -Raba, the Judan Amoram of this period were of +of three original Amoraïm, Rabba, Abayi, and +Raba, the Judæan Amoraïm of this period were of no importance. The few men of these times whose names have survived are Chaggai, who became an authority by reason of his age, Jonah II -and Jos, the disciples and successors of Ami and -Assi. The sole recognized authority of Juda was +and José, the disciples and successors of Ami and +Assi. The sole recognized authority of Judæa was Jeremiah; but he was an emigrant from Babylonia, where he had been so little appreciated that he had been turned out of the schools. The office of @@ -22957,7 +22919,7 @@ insignificance, its holder, Hillel II, having in imitation of his great-grandfather Hillel, self-denyingly resigned a portion of his power. It is remarkable that at the same time as the Patriarchate -lost all consequence in Juda, it acquired a showy +lost all consequence in Judæa, it acquired a showy splendor abroad, as if the corpse were being adorned before being lowered into the grave. During the last century of the existence of the @@ -23000,7 +22962,7 @@ Priests, and other religious officials, should be relieved from all municipal and other onerous offices. Taking as models the constitution of the Roman priesthood, and the Christian system of -bishops, the Patriarch of Juda was regarded as +bishops, the Patriarch of Judæa was regarded as the chief of all the Jews in the Roman Empire. Constantine's impartial justice, however, lasted but a short time. The more Christianity asserted its<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_562" id="Page_562">562</a></span> @@ -23010,7 +22972,7 @@ origin, entertained as passionate a hatred of Judaism and its adherents as of heathenism. Sylvester, Bishop of Rome, Paul, afterwards Bishop of Constantinople, the new capital, and Eusebius of -Csarea, the first historian of the Church, did not +Cæsarea, the first historian of the Church, did not fail to incite the inhabitants of the empire against the Jews. Judaism was stigmatized as a noxious, profligate, godless sect (<i xml:lang="la" lang="la">feralis</i>, <i xml:lang="la" lang="la">nefaria secta</i>) @@ -23079,7 +23041,7 @@ which connected Christianity with its parent stock. The festival of Easter had up till now been celebrated for the most part at the same time as the Jewish Passover, and indeed upon the days calculated -and fixed by the Synhedrion in Juda for its +and fixed by the Synhedrion in Judæa for its celebration; but in future its observance was to be rendered altogether independent of the Jewish calendar, "For it is unbecoming beyond measure that<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_564" id="Page_564">564</a></span> @@ -23159,7 +23121,7 @@ upon him the dignity of Comes, which carried with it a sort of immunity from punishment in case of misdemeanor or violation of the law. He was also granted permission by the emperor to build the first -churches of Galilee—at Tiberias, Sepphoris (Dio-csarea), +churches of Galilee—at Tiberias, Sepphoris (Dio-cæsarea), Nazareth, and Capernaum—where but few Christians had hitherto resided.</p> @@ -23207,18 +23169,18 @@ reign, the Jewish teachers of the Law were<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_56 banished; in consequence of this decree several of them emigrated to Babylonia. Among those who were exiled there were two who are known by -name: Dim and Isaac bar Joseph. These persecutions +name: Dimé and Isaac bar Joseph. These persecutions seem to have been aggravated in the course of time; the teachers of the Law were threatened with death, whereby the stream of emigration from -Juda was naturally increased. Abin and Samuel +Judæa was naturally increased. Abin and Samuel bar Judah were among the later emigrants (337–338). The consequences of these events were the decline of the Academy of Tiberias and the general decay of active teaching. Up till then there had still existed a sort of Synhedrion, employing the usual method of voting at its meetings; Haggai, Jonah, -and Jos are named as members of it.</p> +and José are named as members of it.</p> <p>The sentiment of hostility, nourished by Constantius against the Jews, also manifested itself in @@ -23265,9 +23227,9 @@ power of the Persians (351). Gallus, who was addicted to debauchery, abandoned the conduct of the war to his legate Ursicinus. The latter, during three long years, worked more dire -distress in Juda than any imperial master. As +distress in Judæa than any imperial master. As the Roman legions were quartered in the cities of -Juda, Ursicinus made it the duty of the Jewish +Judæa, Ursicinus made it the duty of the Jewish inhabitants to furnish the provisions necessary for their maintenance, and prosecuted his demands so inexorably that the Jewish communities were @@ -23275,11 +23237,11 @@ thereby driven to violate the laws of their religion. The Roman military officials demanded, for example, that the troops should be supplied with new bread, even on the Sabbath and the feast of unleavened -bread. The communities of Juda were +bread. The communities of Judæa were so disheartened that the teachers of the Law vied with one another in granting indulgences and mitigating the severity of the Law. The two -authorities of Tiberias, Jonah and Jos, taught that +authorities of Tiberias, Jonah and José, taught that it was lawful to bake for Ursicinus' army on the Sabbath; and the teachers of Neve, a Gaulanite town, permitted leavened bread to be baked for @@ -23337,7 +23299,7 @@ with a view to revenging themselves on their enemies for the outrages to which they had so long been subjected. Similar revolts must also have occurred at this time in the two most important -towns of Juda, Tiberias and Lydda, as well as at +towns of Judæa, Tiberias and Lydda, as well as at various other places. Thus the revolt acquired not inconsiderable dimensions, and for this reason Constantius was obliged to reinforce his colleague @@ -23397,7 +23359,7 @@ of the months (intercalated month), but the Arameans this, they assembled and intercalated the month of the death of Aaron (Ab)." This secret epistle to Babylonia betrays the distress which existed in -Juda at this period. The dispersed and weakened +Judæa at this period. The dispersed and weakened Synhedrion must have been prevented from inserting the usual supplementary month in the spring (Adar), and must have been compelled to transpose @@ -23406,7 +23368,7 @@ sanctioned by the Law. On one occasion, about this period, the Jews were forbidden to observe<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_572" id="Page_572">572</a></span> the Day of Atonement, and were accordingly compelled to postpone it till the Sabbath. This -condition of distress in which Juda was plunged +condition of distress in which Judæa was plunged was not at all altered when the barbarous Gallus was put to death at Constantius' command, and Ursicinus fell into disfavor (354). The adherents @@ -23430,7 +23392,7 @@ manner by the Emperor Julian, who differed as greatly from his brother Gallus, as from his cousin and co-emperor, Constantius.</p> -<p>The miserable condition of Juda was the occasion +<p>The miserable condition of Judæa was the occasion of an act of self-renunciation on the part of the Patriarch Hillel, which has not yet been thoroughly appreciated. The custom had prevailed up till now @@ -23462,7 +23424,7 @@ The members of the Synhedrion favored this innovation; they only desired that the second day of the festivals, which had always been celebrated by the communities not situated in Palestine, -should not now be disregarded. Jos addressed +should not now be disregarded. José addressed to the Alexandrian communities an epistle containing the following words: "Although we have made you acquainted with the order of the festivals, @@ -23508,7 +23470,7 @@ of Palestine, and which gave rise to Hillel's calendar, augmented the importance and influence of Babylonia, and although Christianity could boast of having broken up the academies and destroyed, -so to speak, the Temple of the Law in Juda, the +so to speak, the Temple of the Law in Judæa, the destruction was nevertheless merely local. In Babylonia the study of the Law acquired so vigorous an impetus that the achievements of ancient times were @@ -23523,7 +23485,7 @@ amplifying them. Each of these methods was represented by one of the academies of Babylonia; Sora was receptive, Pumbeditha creative. Altogether Sora can be regarded only as a continuation -of the academies of Juda, as a sort of Babylonian<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_575" id="Page_575">575</a></span> +of the academies of Judæa, as a sort of Babylonian<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_575" id="Page_575">575</a></span> Tiberias; and although the spirit which reigned there underwent a change under the influence of the Babylonian method, still the Soranian school never @@ -23559,7 +23521,7 @@ Kailil, Ushaya, and Chananya; all of them lived in the greatest poverty, which misfortune they also ascribed to the curse resting on the house of Eli. Ushaya, the younger, and Chananya, who had -returned to Juda, obtained a precarious living as +returned to Judæa, obtained a precarious living as shoemakers. By reason of the scarcity of customers, they were sometimes obliged to sell their work to prostitutes. Nevertheless, their minds remained so @@ -23568,27 +23530,27 @@ with a single immodest glance; they were consequently<span class="pagenum"><a na held in high esteem, and were known as the "saints of the land of Israel." These two brothers applied themselves to the Agada, the favorite study -in Juda, while Rabba, their sober brother, who as +in Judæa, while Rabba, their sober brother, who as a child had shown signs of great acuteness of mind, evinced a predilection for the Halacha, in which province his labor was epoch-making. He had determined to remain in Babylonia, and his brothers, unable to quiet their apprehensions concerning his lot, used all their endeavors to persuade -him to come to Juda. "It is not all one," ran +him to come to Judæa. "It is not all one," ran their message to him, "whether one dies in or out -of Juda; for the Patriarch Jacob attached great +of Judæa; for the Patriarch Jacob attached great weight to being buried in the Holy Land. Although thou art learned, still it is better to have a master than to educate thyself. And if thou thinkest that there is no teacher of importance to be found in -the academies of Juda, we inform thee that thou +the academies of Judæa, we inform thee that thou wouldst indeed find such a one here." In consequence of this pressing invitation, and contrary to the principles of Judah, his teacher, Rabba emigrated -to Juda. Some time after, however, he returned +to Judæa. Some time after, however, he returned to Babylonia, probably because he was dissatisfied -with the Judan method of teaching. Rabba's +with the Judæan method of teaching. Rabba's worldly affairs are described as most miserable, and are frequently contrasted with Chasda's uninterrupted happiness.</p> @@ -23632,7 +23594,7 @@ Nachmani and Joseph ben Chiya, the one distinguished for Talmudical dialectics, and the other for Halachic erudition. The choice between the two was so difficult that it was determined to take -counsel of Juda, and the following question was +counsel of Judæa, and the following question was accordingly asked: "Who possesses the superiority, Sinai (man of learning), or the remover of mountains (man of acuteness)?" In Tiberias, where the @@ -23672,7 +23634,7 @@ alone, a fact that he frequently lamented. He was distinguished by a desire to enter deeply into the motives not only of the Pentateuch, but also of the Sopheric and Mishnaic laws, and to draw conclusions -from them. The formul which he employed as an +from them. The formulæ which he employed as an introduction to these investigations ran as follows: "Wherefore has the Law commanded this?" or "Why are such-and-such things prohibited by the @@ -23790,7 +23752,7 @@ performing various religious duties.</p> <p>Joseph was exceptional among the principals of the Pumbedithan Academy, inasmuch as he attached more weight to the acquisition of a knowledge -of the Mishna and the Boratas by committing +of the Mishna and the Boraïtas by committing them to memory, than to the drawing of ingenious conclusions. For this reason he was known by the title of "Sinai" and "Possessor of Storehouses." @@ -23874,7 +23836,7 @@ it began to regain its lost renown.</p> as to whom it should appoint as his successor. There were four who seemed worthy to occupy this post, being all equally esteemed; they -were Abayi, Raba, Zera II, and Rabba bar Matana. +were Abayi, Raba, Zeïra II, and Rabba bar Matana. The college accordingly determined to vote for the one who should give the most striking answer, to which no objection could be offered, to a question @@ -23937,13 +23899,13 @@ longer afforded material for discussion, every point which they presented having already been thoroughly elucidated; new themes were therefore propounded and solved by the help of recognized -formul. These subtle Talmudical dialectics received +formulæ. These subtle Talmudical dialectics received the names of their most proficient adepts, and were known as the "Havayot (reflections) d'Abayi ve Raba."</p> <p>Before his death, Abayi heard of the cruel persecutions -to which his coreligionists in Juda were +to which his coreligionists in Judæa were subjected under Constantius. The fugitives who conveyed this sad news to Babylonia, also brought with them new Halachas, from the circle of which @@ -23992,7 +23954,7 @@ of Machuza were descended for the most part from proselytes, for which reason the aristocratic Babylonian Jews forbore to contract marriages with them. As the Machuzans thus seemed to be at a -loss how to obtain wives, Zera II declared in a +loss how to obtain wives, Zeïra II declared in a public discourse that it was allowable for them to marry persons who had been born out of wedlock. This permission, however, implying as it did a sort @@ -24000,15 +23962,15 @@ of degradation of the Machuzans, was so offensive to their pride, that they almost stoned him to death with the fruits with which the booths were decorated (the incident occurring during the celebration of the -feast of Tabernacles), just as King Alexander Jannus +feast of Tabernacles), just as King Alexander Jannæus had once been attacked in the outer court of the temple. Raba could hardly find words severe -enough with which to blame Zera's candor: "Who +enough with which to blame Zeïra's candor: "Who would give utterance to so inconsiderate a decision in a community containing so many descendants of proselytes!" In order to enlist the favor of the populace still more strongly on his side, he demonstrated,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_587" id="Page_587">587</a></span> -in opposition to Zera's theory, that proselytes +in opposition to Zeïra's theory, that proselytes might marry even the daughters of priests, and he succeeded by this flattery in charming the Machuzans so greatly that they overwhelmed him @@ -24160,12 +24122,12 @@ bare study of its dry subject-matter. The former method offered a wide field for the employment of dialectical powers, while the Mishna, taken in its simplest sense, became a mere matter of memory. -On this account Raba placed the Amoram above +On this account Raba placed the Amoraïm above the Tanaites; the former explained, or explained better, such points as were doubtful to the latter. He was accustomed to say that a grain of pepper (acuteness) was better than a basketful of melons. -In contrast to Zera I, who was adverse to that method +In contrast to Zeïra I, who was adverse to that method of teaching which encouraged ingenious reasoning, and valued highly the simplicity of the Mishna, Raba declared that "whoso breaketh stones injureth himself @@ -24183,12 +24145,12 @@ triumvirate, Rabba, Abayi, and Raba, were Talmudists in the real meaning of the word, <i xml:lang="la" lang="la">i. e.</i>, dialecticians. In this sense the Talmud was the creation of the Pumbedithan and Machuzan schools. In -Juda there was scarcely a notion of it. By reason +Judæa there was scarcely a notion of it. By reason of his extensive acquirements, his profound intellect, and perhaps also on account of his wealth, Raba remained the sole authority during his continuance at the head of the academy. Questions were referred -to him even from Juda, when the frequent +to him even from Judæa, when the frequent persecutions under Constantius and Gallus involved the Holy Land in the deepest misery.</p> @@ -24303,14 +24265,14 @@ so confused a condition, that they secretly began to make signs one to the other. Papa, seeing this, was exceedingly mortified, and said to them: "Let those present depart from here in peace." Another -member, one Sima bar Ashi (father of the Ashi +member, one Simaï bar Ashi (father of the Ashi who became famous later on), used to importune Papa with questions which quite exceeded his modest capabilities. Papa, in despair lest he should be put to shame before his pupils, would throw himself down in prayer, and beseech the merciful God to preserve him from the terrible feeling of -confusion. Sima, having been an unobserved +confusion. Simaï, having been an unobserved witness of this fervent prayer, made up his mind that henceforward he would keep silence, and no longer involuntarily mortify Papa.</p> @@ -24345,7 +24307,7 @@ hands of fools; why did he not instance the verse, <p>In the course of the twenty-one years (356–377) during which Chama held office, a change occurred in the Roman Empire which was not without -weighty consequences for the communities of Juda +weighty consequences for the communities of Judæa and Babylonia. A nephew of the Emperor Constantius, Julian, effected a revolution which, however, was only temporary. Emperor Julian was one of @@ -24388,9 +24350,9 @@ therefore deprived them of their influence in civil and scientific matters, and attempted to lower them in the appreciation of the learned classes by the employment of the weapons of the intellect and -delicate satire. He called Jesus a Galilan whom +delicate satire. He called Jesus a Galilæan whom credulity had exalted to a god, and spoke of the -Christians by the nickname of Galilans. For +Christians by the nickname of Galilæans. For this reason he was all the more friendly toward the Jews, and was the only emperor after Alexander Severus who evinced serious interest in Judaism. @@ -24536,7 +24498,7 @@ The Christians also spread the report that Julian only pretended to be kindly disposed towards the Jews in order to entice them into heathenism. Especially spiteful is the story that the Jews destroyed -several churches in Juda and the neighboring +several churches in Judæa and the neighboring countries, and threatened to inflict as much evil on the Christians as they themselves had suffered at the hands of the Christian emperors. The report @@ -24610,7 +24572,7 @@ be inferior in strength to his opponent, Shabur II. Shabur on his side had set himself the task of freeing Asia from the Roman rule. Julian, however, was dreaming the golden dream which had lured many -a Roman general, from Crassus and Csar downwards, +a Roman general, from Crassus and Cæsar downwards, to the region of the Euphrates. His ambition was to plant the Roman eagle on the further side of the Tigris.</p> @@ -24650,7 +24612,7 @@ by an arrow, said to have been shot by a Christian belonging to his own army. Calmly, and as becomes a philosopher, Julian breathed his last. It is related that a few minutes before his death he exclaimed: -"Thou hast conquered, O Galilan!"</p> +"Thou hast conquered, O Galilæan!"</p> <p>The death of Julian in the neighborhood of the Tigris (June, 363) deprived the Jews of the last ray @@ -24687,7 +24649,7 @@ the Jews.</p> <h2 class="vspace"><a name="CHAPTER_XXII" id="CHAPTER_XXII">CHAPTER XXII.</a><br /> -<span class="smaller">THE LAST AMORAM.</span></h2> +<span class="smaller">THE LAST AMORAÏM.</span></h2> <blockquote> @@ -24696,7 +24658,7 @@ II—The Jews under the Emperors Theodosius I and his successors​—​The extinction of the Patriarchate​—​Chrysostom and Ambrosius​—​Fanaticism of the Clergy​—​Jerome and his Jewish Teachers​—​Mar-Zutra​—​Fifth and Sixth Generations of -Amoram​—​The Jews under Firuz​—​Jewish Colonies in India​—​Completion +Amoraïm​—​The Jews under Firuz​—​Jewish Colonies in India​—​Completion of the Babylonian Talmud​—​Its Spirit and Contents.</p></blockquote> <p class="center bpad">375–500 <span class="smcap smaller">C. E.</span></p> @@ -24756,7 +24718,7 @@ compilation and arrangement was represented by Ashi.</p> <p>Rabbana Ashi (born 352, died 427) was the son -of Sima, and the descendant of an ancient family. +of Simaï, and the descendant of an ancient family. He so early gave evidence of complete maturity of mind, that while still a youth he restored the long-desolate Soranian academy to its former place of @@ -24912,7 +24874,7 @@ to entirely restrict their energies to the work of compilation. On the contrary, Ashi solved many of the questions which had been left doubtful, or had been unsatisfactorily answered by the preceding -Amoram, and his decisions are as forcible +Amoraïm, and his decisions are as forcible and ingenious as they are simple; in fact, one often wonders how they could have been overlooked by his predecessors. About this time the Jerusalem or @@ -24998,9 +24960,9 @@ Vandals, who wrested from Rome her accumulations of spoil, also carried to Africa the vessels of the Temple, which Titus had added in triumph to the plunder of so many nations. Like the sons of -Juda, the Temple vessels wandered much.</p> +Judæa, the Temple vessels wandered much.</p> -<p>By reason of the Patriarchate, Juda was still +<p>By reason of the Patriarchate, Judæa was still regarded as their head by the Jewish communities of the Roman Empire. During this period it presents an even more gloomy picture of complete @@ -25008,12 +24970,12 @@ decay than formerly. The oppression of hostile Christianity bore all too heavily upon the country, and stifled the impulse to study. Tanchuma bar<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_612" id="Page_612">612</a></span> Abba, the chief supporter of the later Agada, is the -last Halachic authority of Juda. There also, as in -Babylonia, the last Amoram collected the traditions +last Halachic authority of Judæa. There also, as in +Babylonia, the last Amoraïm collected the traditions and planned and arranged the Jerusalem, or, more -correctly, the Judan or Western Talmud (Talmud +correctly, the Judæan or Western Talmud (Talmud shel Erez-Israel, Gemara di Bene Ma'araba). But -so defective is the history of Juda that not even +so defective is the history of Judæa that not even the names of the compilers or the originators of the movement are known. Doubtless the example of Babylonia suggested the making of this collection. @@ -25246,7 +25208,7 @@ the last of the patriarchs, enjoyed great distinction at the imperial court, such as none of his predecessors had ever possessed. Beside the title which had long been borne by the Patriarchs, the high dignity -of Prefect (<i xml:lang="la" lang="la">Prfectura</i>), together with a diploma of +of Prefect (<i xml:lang="la" lang="la">Præfectura</i>), together with a diploma of honor (<i xml:lang="la" lang="la">codicillus honorarius</i>), had been bestowed<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_618" id="Page_618">618</a></span> upon him, and although these were but hollow honors, they were of great importance at a time @@ -25451,9 +25413,9 @@ foreign interests.</p> <p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_623" id="Page_623">623</a></span> In spite of the affliction which fell to the lot of Judaism in the Eastern empire, and more especially -in Juda, whereby the study of the Talmud was +in Judæa, whereby the study of the Talmud was retarded, the spirit of investigation had not become -quite extinct in Juda. The reigning distress +quite extinct in Judæa. The reigning distress offered no scope for the profundities of the Halacha, but furthered the study of the cheerful Agada, which, diving deep into the joyful and gloomy situations @@ -25485,7 +25447,7 @@ for he succeeded in expressing himself freely in Hebrew. From this circumstance it may fairly be concluded that the knowledge of the holy tongue and of the Bible was more assiduously cultivated in -Juda than has generally been assumed. Bar-Chanina +Judæa than has generally been assumed. Bar-Chanina was obliged, however, to avoid publicity, and to go in secret to Hieronymus' cell, there to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_624" id="Page_624">624</a></span> instruct him, for by reason of the hostile use to @@ -25516,21 +25478,21 @@ has made such immense strides, they must be acknowledged as correct. Among others, a Jewish teacher of the Law ridiculed the additions to Habakkuk, according to which an angel transported the -prophet by the hair from Juda to Chalda. He +prophet by the hair from Judæa to Chaldæa. He demanded where in the Old Testament could be found a counterpart to this story of one of the holy prophets, possessed of a body subject to the power of gravity, traversing so immense a distance in a moment. In spite of the unpropitious state of the times, the Jews of Palestine were not afflicted -with that want of judgment which in nave faith +with that want of judgment which in naïve faith accepts without discrimination as holy anything that is put forward as such; they had not extinguished the light of discernment in the temple of their faith. This power of judgment was a result of the study<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_625" id="Page_625">625</a></span> of the Halacha, which afforded a counterpoise to the incapacity of discrimination which is a consequence -of credulity. Thus even in its old age Juda fostered +of credulity. Thus even in its old age Judæa fostered the Hebrew tongue, which it had given to its sons as an indissoluble bond of union in foreign countries. The use of the holy language in prayer, lecture, and @@ -25538,7 +25500,7 @@ study constituted the intellectual unity of the Jewish nation.</p> <p>Christianity had caught up a few rays of the -setting sun of Juda, and treasured them up in the +setting sun of Judæa, and treasured them up in the Church as a light from heaven. The knowledge of Hebrew, which Hieronymus had acquired from Jewish teachers, and by means of which he had been @@ -25577,7 +25539,7 @@ invented instruments for their torture, and constructed funeral pyres for burning them.</p> <p>It is remarkable that in spite of their repression -on the part of the state, the Jews living in Csarea, +on the part of the state, the Jews living in Cæsarea, the residence of the Governor, joined in the fashionable folly of the stadium. There existed among them charioteers, horse-racers, jockeys, and @@ -25765,9 +25727,9 @@ present day.</p> with Firuz's death, the ancient organization was again restored in Jewish Babylonia; the academies were re-opened, principals appointed, and Sora and -Pumbeditha received their last Amorac leaders—the +Pumbeditha received their last Amoraïc leaders—the former in the person of Rabina, the latter in -Jos. These two principals and their assessors had +José. These two principals and their assessors had but one end in view, the completion and termination of the work of compiling the Talmud begun by Ashi. The continual increase of affliction, the diminished @@ -25775,26 +25737,26 @@ interest which probably on that account was extended to study, the uncertainty of the future, all<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_631" id="Page_631">631</a></span> these causes forcibly suggested the completion of the Talmud. Rabina, who held office from 488 to 499, -and Jos, who discharged the duties of principal +and José, who discharged the duties of principal from 471 to about 520, are expressly mentioned in the old chronicles as "the close of the period of the -Amoram" (<i xml:lang="he" lang="he">Sof Horaah</i>). There is no doubt, +Amoraïm" (<i xml:lang="he" lang="he">Sof Horaah</i>). There is no doubt, however, that the members of the two academies, whose names have been preserved, also had a part in this work, and that they therefore are to be -regarded as the last of the Amoram. The most -important among them was Acha bar Huna of Be-Chatim, +regarded as the last of the Amoraïm. The most +important among them was Achaï bar Huna of Be-Chatim, near Nahardea (died 506), whose decisions and discussions are distinguished by characteristic peculiarities, and bear witness to a clear and sober -mind, and to great keenness. Acha was known +mind, and to great keenness. Achaï was known and esteemed for these qualities beyond Babylonia. An epistle received by the Babylonian academy -from Juda, which, as far as is historically +from Judæa, which, as far as is historically known, was probably the last addressed by the deserted mother-country to its daughter colony, speaks of him in terms of greatest reverence: -"Neglect not Acha, for he is the light of the eyes +"Neglect not Achaï, for he is the light of the eyes of the exiles." Even Huna-Mar, the Prince of the Captivity, must have possessed Talmudical acquirements, for the chronicle, which is by no means @@ -25804,7 +25766,7 @@ concedes to him the title of Rabbi. His history, with which certain important events are connected, belongs to the following period.</p> -<p>In conjunction with these men, Rabina and Jos +<p>In conjunction with these men, Rabina and José accomplished the completion of the Talmud, that is to say, they sanctioned as a complete whole the collection of all previous transactions and decisions @@ -25945,7 +25907,7 @@ subtilty and scholasticism; for no historical phenomenon exists without an unfavorable side. But even this abuse contributed to bring about clear conceptions, and rendered possible the movement toward -science. The Babylonian Amoram created that +science. The Babylonian Amoraïm created that dialectic, close-reasoning, Jewish spirit, which in the darkest days preserved the dispersed nation from stagnation and stupidity. It was the ether which @@ -25992,17 +25954,17 @@ of Judaism, will be told in subsequent pages.</p> <p>Abtalion, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.</p> <p>Acher (Elisha ben Abuya), apostasy, <a href="#Page_358">358</a>, <a href="#Page_377">377</a>.<br /> <span class="ixsub1">malice against the Jews, <a href="#Page_425">425</a> f.</span><br /> -<span class="ixsub1">relation to Mer, <a href="#Page_437">437</a>.</span></p> +<span class="ixsub1">relation to Meïr, <a href="#Page_437">437</a>.</span></p> <p>Adam, book of, <a href="#Page_462">462</a>.</p> <p>Adiabene, princes of, converted to Judaism, <a href="#Page_216">216</a> ff.<br /> -<span class="ixsub1">help the Judans in the revolution, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>.</span><br /> +<span class="ixsub1">help the Judæans in the revolution, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>.</span><br /> <span class="ixsub1">resist Trajan, <a href="#Page_393">393</a> f.</span></p> <p>Administration of justice, reform of, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>.</p> <p>Adoyot == evidence of witnesses, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>.<br /> <span class="ixsub1">= older compilation of the Mishna, <a href="#Page_460">460</a>.</span></p> <p>Adultery, suspected, ritual of, abolished, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>.</p> <p>Aelia Capitolina == Jerusalem, <a href="#Page_421">421</a>.</p> -<p>Agada (Hagadah), favorite study in Juda, <a href="#Page_576">576</a>, <a href="#Page_623">623</a>.<br /> +<p>Agada (Hagadah), favorite study in Judæa, <a href="#Page_576">576</a>, <a href="#Page_623">623</a>.<br /> <span class="ixsub1">subject-matter, <a href="#Page_328">328</a> f.</span></p> <p>Agape, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>.</p> <p>Agora-nomos, <a href="#Page_512">512</a> f., <a href="#Page_616">616</a>.</p> @@ -26046,8 +26008,8 @@ of Judaism, will be told in subsequent pages.</p> <p>Akylas (Aquila), <a href="#Page_385">385</a> ff.<br /> <span class="ixsub1">at the funeral of Gamaliel, <a href="#Page_404">404</a>.</span><br /> <span class="ixsub1">Greek translation of the Bible, <a href="#Page_386">386</a> f.</span></p> -<p>Albinus, procurator of Juda, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>.</p> -<p>Alexander Jannus, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>–<a href="#Page_47">47</a>.<br /> +<p>Albinus, procurator of Judæa, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>.</p> +<p>Alexander Jannæus, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>–<a href="#Page_47">47</a>.<br /> <span class="ixsub1">accession to the throne, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</span><br /> <span class="ixsub1">campaign in the trans-Jordanic land, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>.</span><br /> <span class="ixsub1">coins, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>.</span><br /> @@ -26058,7 +26020,7 @@ of Judaism, will be told in subsequent pages.</p> <span class="ixsub1">employs mercenaries, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</span><br /> <span class="ixsub1">forces Judaism upon the conquered, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>.</span><br /> <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_638" id="Page_638">638</a></span><span class="ixsub1">massacres 6000 people in the precincts of the Temple, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>.</span></p> -<p>Alexander Jannus, relation to the Pharisees, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>.<br /> +<p>Alexander Jannæus, relation to the Pharisees, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>.<br /> <span class="ixsub1">revolts against him, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>.</span><br /> <span class="ixsub1">wanting in generalship, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</span></p> <p>Alexander II, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>–<a href="#Page_75">75</a>.<br /> @@ -26085,7 +26047,7 @@ of Judaism, will be told in subsequent pages.</p> <p>Allegorical method of interpretation, <a href="#Page_208">208</a> ff.<br /> <span class="ixsub1">leads to apostasy from Judaism, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>.</span></p> <p>Altar, why the use of iron is forbidden in erecting, <a href="#Page_329">329</a>.</p> -<p>Ambivius, Marcus, procurator of Juda, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>.</p> +<p>Ambivius, Marcus, procurator of Judæa, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>.</p> <p>Ambrosius, fanaticism against the Jews, <a href="#Page_613">613</a> f.</p> <p>Amemar, principal of Nahardea, <a href="#Page_606">606</a>.</p> <p>Ami, <a href="#Page_531">531</a>, <a href="#Page_534">534</a>, <a href="#Page_537">537</a>.</p> @@ -26095,17 +26057,17 @@ of Judaism, will be told in subsequent pages.</p> <span class="ixsub1">method, <a href="#Page_490">490</a>.</span><br /> <span class="ixsub1">in Palestine, <a href="#Page_531">531</a> ff.</span></p> <p>Anan, high priest, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>.<br /> -<span class="ixsub1">attempts to revive Sadducism, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>.</span><br /> +<span class="ixsub1">attempts to revive Sadducæism, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>.</span><br /> <span class="ixsub1">executed by the Zealots, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>.</span></p> <p>Anan, his family, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>.</p> <p>Ananel, chosen high priest by Herod, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>.</p> <p>Andreias (Lucas), leader of the revolt against Trajan in Cyrene, <a href="#Page_395">395</a>.</p> -<p>Anti-Judan movement, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>–<a href="#Page_189">89</a>.</p> +<p>Anti-Judæan movement, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>–<a href="#Page_189">89</a>.</p> <p>Antigonus, son of Aristobulus II, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>–<a href="#Page_89">89</a>.<br /> <span class="ixsub1">character compared with that of Herod, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>–<a href="#Page_86">6</a>.</span><br /> <span class="ixsub1">contest with Herod, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>–<a href="#Page_88">8</a>.</span><br /> <span class="ixsub1">decapitated by Mark Antony, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="ixsub1">plot against the Idumans, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>.</span><br /> +<span class="ixsub1">plot against the Idumæans, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>.</span><br /> <span class="ixsub1">proclaimed king, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>.</span></p> <p>Antigonus, son of Hyrcanus, murdered, <a href="#Page_36">36</a> f.<br /> <span class="ixsub1">rumors about his death, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.</span></p> @@ -26115,7 +26077,7 @@ of Judaism, will be told in subsequent pages.</p> <p>Antipater, father of Herod, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>–<a href="#Page_80">80</a>.<br /> <span class="ixsub1">descent, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.</span><br /> <span class="ixsub1">instigates Hyrcanus II to break the agreement, <a href="#Page_59">59</a> f.</span><br /> -<span class="ixsub1">made governor of Juda, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>.</span><br /> +<span class="ixsub1">made governor of Judæa, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>.</span><br /> <span class="ixsub1">poisoned, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>.</span></p> <p>Antipater, son of Herod, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>–<a href="#Page_116">16</a>.<br /> <span class="ixsub1">adopted as royal prince, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>.</span><br /> @@ -26127,9 +26089,9 @@ of Judaism, will be told in subsequent pages.</p> <p>Antony, Mark, assists Herod, <a href="#Page_87">87</a> f.<br /> <span class="ixsub1">defeat of, at Actium, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>.</span><br /> <span class="ixsub1">gives the district of Jericho to Cleopatra, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="ixsub1">and Judan ambassadors against the Idumans, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>.</span></p> +<span class="ixsub1">and Judæan ambassadors against the Idumæans, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>.</span></p> <p>Apion, hatred of the Jews, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>, <a href="#Page_390">390</a>.<br /> -<span class="ixsub1">heads an anti-Judan embassy to Rome, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>.</span></p> +<span class="ixsub1">heads an anti-Judæan embassy to Rome, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>.</span></p> <p>Apocalypse (of John), <a href="#Page_369">369</a>.</p> <p>Apocrypha, and apocryphal additions, <a href="#Page_344">344</a>.<br /> <span class="ixsub1">considered by Christians as part of the Bible, <a href="#Page_359">359</a>, <a href="#Page_488">488</a>, <a href="#Page_624">624</a>.</span></p> @@ -26140,11 +26102,11 @@ of Judaism, will be told in subsequent pages.</p> <p>Archelaus, son and successor of Herod, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>–<a href="#Page_128">8</a>.<br /> <span class="ixsub1">bloody inauguration of his reign, <a href="#Page_121">121</a> f.</span><br /> <span class="ixsub1">character of his reign, <a href="#Page_121">121</a> f.</span></p> -<p>Aretas, king of the Nabathans, interferes between Hyrcanus II and Aristobulus II, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>–<a href="#Page_61">61</a>.</p> +<p>Aretas, king of the Nabathæans, interferes between Hyrcanus II and Aristobulus II, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>–<a href="#Page_61">61</a>.</p> <p>Aristobulus I, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>–<a href="#Page_38">8</a>.<br /> <span class="ixsub1">adheres to the Sadducees, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>.</span><br /> <span class="ixsub1">assumes the title of king, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="ixsub1">campaign against the Ithurans and Trachonites, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>.</span><br /> +<span class="ixsub1">campaign against the Ithuræans and Trachonites, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>.</span><br /> <span class="ixsub1">coins, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>.</span><br /> <span class="ixsub1">death, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.</span><br /> <span class="ixsub1">forces Judaism upon the conquered heathen, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>.</span><br /> @@ -26159,7 +26121,7 @@ of Judaism, will be told in subsequent pages.</p> <span class="ixsub1">assassinated, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>.</span></p> <p>Aristobulus, son of Herod and Mariamne, executed, <a href="#Page_112">112</a> f.</p> <p>Aristobulus, brother of Herod II, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</p> -<p>Aristocracy, Judan, corruption of, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>.<br /> +<p>Aristocracy, Judæan, corruption of, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>.<br /> <span class="ixsub1">cowardice and servility, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>.</span><br /> <span class="ixsub1">opposed to war with Rome, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>.</span></p> <p>Armenia, Jews in, <a href="#Page_591">591</a>.</p> @@ -26172,22 +26134,22 @@ of Judaism, will be told in subsequent pages.</p> <span class="ixsub1">view on the coming of the Messiah, <a href="#Page_610">610</a> f.</span></p> <p>Asia Minor, Talmudic schools in, <a href="#Page_358">358</a> f.</p> <p>Assi, <a href="#Page_531">531</a>, <a href="#Page_534">534</a>, <a href="#Page_537">537</a>.</p> -<p>Assidans. See <a href="#Essenes">Essenes</a>.</p> +<p>Assidæans. See <a href="#Essenes">Essenes</a>.</p> <p>Astronomy, <a href="#Page_521">521</a>.</p> <p>Augustine, hatred of the Jews, <a href="#Page_625">625</a>.</p> <p>Augustus (Octavianus), <a href="#Page_101">101</a>–<a href="#Page_103">3</a>.<br /> <span class="ixsub1">death, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="ixsub1">extends the territory of Juda, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>.</span></p> +<span class="ixsub1">extends the territory of Judæa, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>.</span></p> <p id="Augustus">Augustus (Octavianus), favors shown to the Jews of Egypt, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>.<br /> <span class="ixsub1">to those of Rome, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>.</span><br /> <span class="ixsub1">gracious to Herod, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>.</span></p> -<p class="p2">Bale Trsin, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>.</p> +<p class="p2">Baâle Trêsin, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>.</p> <p>Babylonia, becomes second home of the Jews, <a href="#Page_503">503</a>.<br /> <span class="ixsub1">different meanings of the word in Jewish history, <a href="#Page_504">504</a>.</span><br /> <span class="ixsub1">division of the Jewish province in it, <a href="#Page_505">505</a> ff.</span></p> <p>Babylonia, Jews in, <a href="#Page_503">503</a>.<br /> -<span class="ixsub1">become heads of schools in Juda, <a href="#Page_537">537</a>.</span><br /> +<span class="ixsub1">become heads of schools in Judæa, <a href="#Page_537">537</a>.</span><br /> <span class="ixsub1">decline of learning, <a href="#Page_626">626</a>.</span><br /> <span class="ixsub1">effect of the sojourn of the Jews in it on their mind and character, <a href="#Page_504">504</a>.</span><br /> <span class="ixsub1">martyrs, <a href="#Page_629">629</a>.</span><br /> @@ -26197,8 +26159,8 @@ of Judaism, will be told in subsequent pages.</p> <span class="ixsub1">progress, <a href="#Page_544">544</a>.</span><br /> <span class="ixsub1">purity of descent, <a href="#Page_505">505</a>.</span><br /> <span class="ixsub1">resist Trajan, <a href="#Page_393">393</a> f., <a href="#Page_397">397</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="ixsub1">study the Law in Juda, <a href="#Page_511">511</a> f., <a href="#Page_518">518</a>, <a href="#Page_531">531</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="ixsub1">surpass the Jews in Juda, <a href="#Page_503">503</a>.</span></p> +<span class="ixsub1">study the Law in Judæa, <a href="#Page_511">511</a> f., <a href="#Page_518">518</a>, <a href="#Page_531">531</a>.</span><br /> +<span class="ixsub1">surpass the Jews in Judæa, <a href="#Page_503">503</a>.</span></p> <p>Babylonian colony of Jews in Galilee, devoted to the Herodian family, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>.<br /> <span class="ixsub1">part played in the war with Rome, <a href="#Page_275">275</a>.</span></p> <p>Babylonian prince of captivity. See <a href="#Princes">Princes of Captivity</a>.</p> @@ -26207,7 +26169,7 @@ of Judaism, will be told in subsequent pages.</p> <p>Bar-Cochba, <a href="#Page_409">409</a> ff. See <a href="#Revolt">Revolt against Hadrian</a>.</p> <p>Barnabas (apostle), <a href="#Page_227">227</a>.</p> <p>Barnabas, Jose of Cyprus, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>.</p> -<p>Bassus, procurator of Juda, <a href="#Page_315">315</a>.</p> +<p>Bassus, procurator of Judæa, <a href="#Page_315">315</a>.</p> <p>Bath-Kol, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>.</p> <p>Be-Rab, <a href="#Page_514">514</a>.</p> <p>Bechirta, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>.</p> @@ -26223,28 +26185,28 @@ of Judaism, will be told in subsequent pages.</p> <span class="ixsub1">honored at Athens with a statue, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>.</span><br /> <span class="ixsub1">intercession with Florus, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>.</span><br /> <span class="ixsub1">relation to Vespasian and Titus, <a href="#Page_299">299</a> f., <a href="#Page_317">317</a>.</span></p> -<p>Beth-Din, after the fall of Juda, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>.</p> +<p>Beth-Din, after the fall of Judæa, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>.</p> <p>Bethar, <a href="#Page_416">416</a> ff.</p> <p>Bethshean, conflict between Jews and heathens in, <a href="#Page_262">262</a> f.</p> <p>Beth-Shearim, seat of the Synhedrion, <a href="#Page_452">452</a>.</p> <p>Bible, interpretation of by Christians, <a href="#Page_488">488</a> f., <a href="#Page_499">499</a>, <a href="#Page_501">501</a>.<br /> <span class="ixsub1">knowledge of, among Jews and Christians, <a href="#Page_623">623</a> ff.</span><br /> -<span class="ixsub1">cultivated in Juda, <a href="#Page_623">623</a> ff.</span><br /> +<span class="ixsub1">cultivated in Judæa, <a href="#Page_623">623</a> ff.</span><br /> <span class="ixsub1">neglect of, <a href="#Page_536">536</a> f.</span></p> <p>Birchath ha Minim, <a href="#Page_379">379</a> f.</p> <p>Bishops of Rome, <a href="#Page_500">500</a>.</p> -<p>Bothus and Bothuseans, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>.</p> +<p>Boëthus and Boëthuseans, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>.</p> <p>Boraita, <a href="#Page_470">470</a> f.</p> -<p>Bruria, wife of Mer, <a href="#Page_436">436</a>.</p> -<p>Burial in Juda, merits attributed to, <a href="#Page_548">548</a>, <a href="#Page_576">576</a>.</p> +<p>Bruria, wife of Meïr, <a href="#Page_436">436</a>.</p> +<p>Burial in Judæa, merits attributed to, <a href="#Page_548">548</a>, <a href="#Page_576">576</a>.</p> -<p class="p2">Csar and Juda, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>–<a href="#Page_77">77</a>.<br /> +<p class="p2">Cæsar and Judæa, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>–<a href="#Page_77">77</a>.<br /> <span class="ixsub1">benevolence to the Jews, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>.</span></p> -<p>Csarea, affray between Jews and Syrian-Greeks, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>.<br /> +<p>Cæsarea, affray between Jews and Syrian-Greeks, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>.<br /> <span class="ixsub1">founded by Herod, <a href="#Page_106">106</a> f.</span><br /> <span class="ixsub1">Jews deprived of their civil rights, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>.</span><br /> <span class="ixsub1">Jews join in the races of the stadium, <a href="#Page_626">626</a>.</span></p> -<p>Csarea Philippi, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>.</p> +<p>Cæsarea Philippi, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>.</p> <p>Caiaphas, Joseph, high priest, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>.</p> <p>Cainites (Gnostic sect), <a href="#Page_375">375</a>.</p> <p>Calendar, <a href="#Page_362">362</a>.<br /> @@ -26254,7 +26216,7 @@ of Judaism, will be told in subsequent pages.</p> <span class="ixsub1">orders his statue to be put in the Temple of Jerusalem, <a href="#Page_188">188</a> f.</span><br /> <span class="ixsub1">reason of his hatred of the Jews, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>.</span><br /> <span class="ixsub1">relation to Agrippa I, <a href="#Page_176">176</a> f.</span><br /> -<span class="ixsub1">to Juda, <a href="#Page_174">174</a> f.</span><br /> +<span class="ixsub1">to Judæa, <a href="#Page_174">174</a> f.</span><br /> <span class="ixsub1">treatment of a Jewish embassy from Alexandria, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>.</span></p> <p>Camith, family of high priests, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>.</p> <p>Canon of Holy Writings completed, <a href="#Page_344">344</a>.</p> @@ -26265,7 +26227,7 @@ of Judaism, will be told in subsequent pages.</p> <span class="ixsub1">of Quirinus, <a href="#Page_129">129</a> ff.</span><br /> <span class="ixsub1">census taken by Rome for taxation, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>.</span></p> <p>Chama, principal of Pumbeditha, <a href="#Page_594">594</a> f.</p> -<p>Chama ben Anila, model of Jewish charity, <a href="#Page_545">545</a> f.</p> +<p>Chama ben Anilaï, model of Jewish charity, <a href="#Page_545">545</a> f.</p> <p>Chanina, deputy of the high priest (Segan ha-Cohanim), <a href="#Page_330">330</a>.</p> <p>Chanina ben Chama, <a href="#Page_490">490</a>–<a href="#Page_492">2</a>.</p> <p>Chanina ben Teradion, <a href="#Page_427">427</a>.<br /> @@ -26319,21 +26281,21 @@ of Judaism, will be told in subsequent pages.</p> <p>Cicero, hostility against the Jews, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>–<a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>.</p> <p>Circumcision, prohibited, <a href="#Page_422">422</a>, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>.</p> <p>Citizenship, Roman, full right of, extended by Caracalla, <a href="#Page_468">468</a>.</p> -<p>Civil war in Juda, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>.<br /> +<p>Civil war in Judæa, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>.<br /> <span class="ixsub1">See also <a href="#War">War of Revolution</a>.</span></p> <p>Claudius banishes the Jews from Rome, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>.<br /> <span class="ixsub1">favorably disposed towards the Jews of the Roman empire, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>.</span><br /> <span class="ixsub1">friendship to Agrippa I, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="ixsub1">relation to Juda, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</span></p> +<span class="ixsub1">relation to Judæa, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</span></p> <p>Clemens, Flavius, convert to Judaism, <a href="#Page_387">387</a>.<br /> <span class="ixsub1">executed, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>.</span></p> <p>Cleopatra, queen of Egypt, antagonism to Herod, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>.<br /> <span class="ixsub1">death, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="ixsub1">hostile to the Judans, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>.</span></p> -<p>Cleopatra, mother of Ptolemy VIII, relation to Juda, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a> f.</p> +<span class="ixsub1">hostile to the Judæans, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>.</span></p> +<p>Cleopatra, mother of Ptolemy VIII, relation to Judæa, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a> f.</p> <p>Clergy, Christian, fanaticism against the Jews, <a href="#Page_612">612</a> ff.</p> <p>Coins struck, in honor of Agrippa I, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>.<br /> -<span class="ixsub1">by Alexander Jannus, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>.</span><br /> +<span class="ixsub1">by Alexander Jannæus, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>.</span><br /> <span class="ixsub1">by Alexander II, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>.</span><br /> <span class="ixsub1">by Antigonus, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>.</span><br /> <span class="ixsub1">by Aristobulus, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>.</span><br /> @@ -26341,7 +26303,7 @@ of Judaism, will be told in subsequent pages.</p> <span class="ixsub1">in honor of Hadrian, commemorating his victory over Bar-Cochba, <a href="#Page_419">419</a>.</span><br /> <span class="ixsub1">by Hadrian, <a href="#Page_407">407</a>.</span><br /> <span class="ixsub1">by Hyrcanus, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="ixsub1">Roman, commemorating the overthrow of Juda, <a href="#Page_314">314</a>.</span><br /> +<span class="ixsub1">Roman, commemorating the overthrow of Judæa, <a href="#Page_314">314</a>.</span><br /> <span class="ixsub1">commemorating Nerva's act of toleration to the Jews, <a href="#Page_392">392</a>.</span><br /> <span class="ixsub1">by Salome Alexandra, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>.</span><br /> <span class="ixsub1">of the war of revolution, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>.</span><br /> @@ -26354,20 +26316,20 @@ of Judaism, will be told in subsequent pages.</p> <span class="ixsub1">re-enacts the decrees of Hadrian against the Jews, <a href="#Page_564">564</a>.</span></p> <p>Constantius, oppresses the Jews, <a href="#Page_566">566</a> f.<br /> <span class="ixsub1">forbids the Jews to make converts and to marry Christian women, <a href="#Page_567">567</a>.</span></p> -<p>Coponius, first procurator of Juda, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>.</p> +<p>Coponius, first procurator of Judæa, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>.</p> <p>Council, the Great, when called Synhedrion, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.<br /> <span class="ixsub1">See <a href="#Synhedrion">Synhedrion</a>.</span></p> <p>Council of Nice, <a href="#Page_563">563</a>.<br /> <span class="ixsub1">incorporates apocryphal books in the Canon, <a href="#Page_624">624</a>.</span></p> <p>Crassus plunders the Temple, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>.</p> <p>Ctesiphon, <a href="#Page_506">506</a> f.</p> -<p>Cumanus, procurator of Juda, <a href="#Page_241">241</a> ff.</p> +<p>Cumanus, procurator of Judæa, <a href="#Page_241">241</a> ff.</p> <p>Cypros, wife of Agrippa I, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>.</p> <p>Cyprus, revolt against Trajan, <a href="#Page_397">397</a>.</p> <p>Cyrene, uprising of the Jews in, <a href="#Page_331">331</a>.<br /> <span class="ixsub1">revolt against Trajan, <a href="#Page_395">395</a>.</span></p> <p>Cyril of Alexandria, fanaticism against the Jews, <a href="#Page_618">618</a> f.</p> -<p>Cyzicenus, Antiochus, King of Syria, hostility to Juda, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>.<br /> +<p>Cyzicenus, Antiochus, King of Syria, hostility to Judæa, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>.<br /> <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_642" id="Page_642">642</a></span><span class="ixsub1">defeated by Hyrcanus I, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</span></p> <p>Daniel, book of, how considered by Christians and Porphyry, <a href="#Page_502">502</a>.<br /> <span class="ixsub1">applications made of his prophecies and visions, <a href="#Page_494">494</a> f., <a href="#Page_527">527</a>, <a href="#Page_598">598</a>.</span></p> @@ -26377,16 +26339,16 @@ of Judaism, will be told in subsequent pages.</p> <p>Diocletian, attitude towards the Patriarch, <a href="#Page_533">533</a> f.<br /> <span class="ixsub1">not unfavorably disposed towards the Jews, <a href="#Page_533">533</a>.</span><br /> <span class="ixsub1">persecutes Christians and Samaritans, <a href="#Page_533">533</a> f., <a href="#Page_539">539</a>.</span></p> -<p>Diogenes, Sadducan and favorite of Alexander Jannus, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>.</p> -<p>Divorce, ordinance of Mer concerning, <a href="#Page_439">439</a>;<br /> +<p>Diogenes, Sadducæan and favorite of Alexander Jannæus, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>.</p> +<p>Divorce, ordinance of Meïr concerning, <a href="#Page_439">439</a>;<br /> <span class="ixsub1">restricted, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>.</span></p> -<p>Documents in Juda, dated according to the reign of the Roman emperors, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>.</p> +<p>Documents in Judæa, dated according to the reign of the Roman emperors, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>.</p> <p>Domitian, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>.<br /> <span class="ixsub1">decrees against the Jews, <a href="#Page_387">387</a>–<a href="#Page_389">9</a>.</span><br /> <span class="ixsub1">persecution of proselytes to Judaism, <a href="#Page_384">384</a>, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>.</span></p> <p>Drusilla, sister of Agrippa II, apostate, and wife of the procurator Felix, <a href="#Page_235">235</a> f., <a href="#Page_245">245</a>.</p> -<p class="p2">Earthquake in Juda, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.</p> +<p class="p2">Earthquake in Judæa, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.</p> <p>Easter, Christian, and Jewish Passover, separated by the Church, <a href="#Page_563">563</a>.</p> <p>Ebionites, <a href="#Page_168">168</a> f., <a href="#Page_220">220</a>, <a href="#Page_366">366</a>.<br /> <span class="ixsub1">See also <a href="#ChristianityJ">Christianity, Jewish</a>.</span></p> @@ -26412,7 +26374,7 @@ of Judaism, will be told in subsequent pages.</p> <span class="ixsub1">excommunicated by Gamaliel, <a href="#Page_339">339</a> f.</span><br /> <span class="ixsub1">upholder of tradition, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>.</span></p> <p>Eliezer of Modin, authority on Agadic explanations, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>.</p> -<p>Embassies, Judan, to Rome, <a href="#Page_126">126</a> f., <a href="#Page_197">197</a> f., <a href="#Page_449">449</a>.<br /> +<p>Embassies, Judæan, to Rome, <a href="#Page_126">126</a> f., <a href="#Page_197">197</a> f., <a href="#Page_449">449</a>.<br /> <span class="ixsub1">from Alexandria, <a href="#Page_184">184</a> ff.</span></p> <p>Emigration of Jews to India, <a href="#Page_629">629</a> f.</p> <p id="Essenes">Essenes, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>–<a href="#Page_31">31</a>.<br /> @@ -26427,7 +26389,7 @@ of Judaism, will be told in subsequent pages.</p> <span class="ixsub1">idea of the Messiah, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>.</span><br /> <span class="ixsub1">mysticism, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>.</span><br /> <span class="ixsub1">occupy themselves with cures, exorcisms, etc., <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="ixsub1">origin, from the Assidans, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</span><br /> +<span class="ixsub1">origin, from the Assidæans, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</span><br /> <span class="ixsub1">number, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>.</span><br /> <span class="ixsub1">prophetic power ascribed to them, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>.</span><br /> <span class="ixsub1">relation to Christianity, <a href="#Page_219">219</a> f.</span><br /> @@ -26441,17 +26403,17 @@ of Judaism, will be told in subsequent pages.</p> <p>Exile, Roman (Galut Edom), compared with that of Babylonia, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>.</p> <p>Exorcism, practice of, in Christianity, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>.</p> -<p class="p2">Fadus, procurator of Juda after Agrippa I's death, <a href="#Page_197">197</a> f.</p> +<p class="p2">Fadus, procurator of Judæa after Agrippa I's death, <a href="#Page_197">197</a> f.</p> <p>Fathers of the Church, hatred of the Jews, <a href="#Page_525">525</a> ff., <a href="#Page_562">562</a>, <a href="#Page_613">613</a>, <a href="#Page_620">620</a>, <a href="#Page_623">623</a> ff.</p> <p>Felix, governor of Galilee, <a href="#Page_242">242</a> f.<br /> -<span class="ixsub1"> of Juda, <a href="#Page_245">245</a> f.</span></p> +<span class="ixsub1"> of Judæa, <a href="#Page_245">245</a> f.</span></p> <p>Festivals, calculations of the dates of, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>, <a href="#Page_340">340</a>, <a href="#Page_362">362</a> f., <a href="#Page_532">532</a>, <a href="#Page_573">573</a>.<br /> -<span class="ixsub1">second day celebrated by the Jews outside of Juda, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>, <a href="#Page_573">573</a>.</span></p> -<p>Festus, procurator of Juda, <a href="#Page_247">247</a> ff.</p> +<span class="ixsub1">second day celebrated by the Jews outside of Judæa, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>, <a href="#Page_573">573</a>.</span></p> +<p>Festus, procurator of Judæa, <a href="#Page_247">247</a> ff.</p> <p>Firuz (Pheroces), persecutes the Babylonian Jews, <a href="#Page_628">628</a>–<a href="#Page_630">30</a>.</p> <p>Fiscus Judaicus (Jewish taxes for Rome), <a href="#Page_316">316</a>.</p> <p>Flaccus, governor of Egypt, persecutes the Jews, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>–<a href="#Page_183">3</a>.</p> -<p>Florus, Gessius, procurator of Juda, <a href="#Page_249">249</a> ff.<br /> +<p>Florus, Gessius, procurator of Judæa, <a href="#Page_249">249</a> ff.<br /> <span class="ixsub1">avarice, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>.</span><br /> <span class="ixsub1">cruelty, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>.</span><br /> <span class="ixsub1">indulgent to the Sicarii, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>.</span><br /> @@ -26460,19 +26422,19 @@ of Judaism, will be told in subsequent pages.</p> <p>Funeral, expenses and outfit of, <a href="#Page_404">404</a>.</p> <p>Future life, in the Mishna, <a href="#Page_473">473</a>.</p> -<p class="p2">Gabinius, Aulus, in Juda, <a href="#Page_70">70</a> f.</p> +<p class="p2">Gabinius, Aulus, in Judæa, <a href="#Page_70">70</a> f.</p> <p>Galba, emperor, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>.</p> <p id="Galilee">Galilee adopts many heathen superstitions, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>.<br /> <span class="ixsub1">corruptness of its language, <a href="#Page_148">148</a> f.</span><br /> <span class="ixsub1">description of, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>.</span><br /> <span class="ixsub1">mental condition at the time of Jesus, <a href="#Page_148">148</a> f.</span><br /> -<span class="ixsub1">stricter morality and observance of laws and customs than in Juda, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>.</span></p> +<span class="ixsub1">stricter morality and observance of laws and customs than in Judæa, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>.</span></p> <p>Galilee in the war of revolution, <a href="#Page_272">272</a> ff.<br /> <span class="ixsub1">Gischala, focus of the revolution in Galilee, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>.</span><br /> <span class="ixsub1">taken by the Romans, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>.</span><br /> <span class="ixsub1">Mount Tabor, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>.</span></p> <p>Galilean fugitives in Jerusalem, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>.</p> -<p>Galilee recovers after the fall of Juda, <a href="#Page_333">333</a>.</p> +<p>Galilee recovers after the fall of Judæa, <a href="#Page_333">333</a>.</p> <p>Gallus, Cestius, Governor of Syria, <a href="#Page_250">250</a> f., <a href="#Page_257">257</a>.<br /> <span class="ixsub1">battle with the Zealots, <a href="#Page_265">265</a> f.</span></p> <p>Gamala, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>, <a href="#Page_289">289</a> f.</p> @@ -26503,7 +26465,7 @@ of Judaism, will be told in subsequent pages.</p> <span class="ixsub1">doctrines, <a href="#Page_375">375</a> ff.</span><br /> <span class="ixsub1">influence on Jewish circles, <a href="#Page_377">377</a>, <a href="#Page_380">380</a> f.</span><br /> <span class="ixsub1">sects, <a href="#Page_374">374</a> f.</span></p> -<p>Gratus, Valerius, procurator of Juda, <a href="#Page_135">135</a> ff.</p> +<p>Gratus, Valerius, procurator of Judæa, <a href="#Page_135">135</a> ff.</p> <p>Greek culture and language, attitude of the Rabbis to, <a href="#Page_400">400</a>, <a href="#Page_537">537</a> f.</p> <p>Greek Jews become preachers and missionaries of Christianity, <a href="#Page_220">220</a> f.</p> <p id="Greek">Greek translations of the Bible, <a href="#Page_385">385</a> ff., <a href="#Page_488">488</a> f.</p> @@ -26517,7 +26479,7 @@ of Judaism, will be told in subsequent pages.</p> <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_644" id="Page_644">644</a></span><span class="ixsub1">decrees against the Jews, <a href="#Page_421">421</a>.</span></p> <p>Hadrian disappoints the Jews concerning the restoration of the Temple, <a href="#Page_403">403</a> f.<br /> <span class="ixsub1">inaugurates a religious persecution against the Jews, <a href="#Page_426">426</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="ixsub1">journey through Juda, <a href="#Page_406">406</a>.</span><br /> +<span class="ixsub1">journey through Judæa, <a href="#Page_406">406</a>.</span><br /> <span class="ixsub1">makes Jerusalem a pagan city, <a href="#Page_407">407</a>.</span><br /> <span class="ixsub1">policy against the Jews after the war of Bar-Cochba, <a href="#Page_422">422</a>.</span><br /> <span class="ixsub1">yielding to the Jews, <a href="#Page_400">400</a> f.</span></p> @@ -26529,8 +26491,8 @@ of Judaism, will be told in subsequent pages.</p> <p>Heathen, difference of attitude towards them between Hillelites and Shammaites, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>.<br /> <span class="ixsub1">laws concerning them, <a href="#Page_476">476</a>–<a href="#Page_478">8</a>.</span><br /> <span class="ixsub1">relaxing of the laws against them, <a href="#Page_525">525</a> f.</span></p> -<p>Hebrew language, knowledge of, cultivated in Juda, <a href="#Page_623">623</a> ff.<br /> -<span class="ixsub1">spoken by the population of Juda, <a href="#Page_461">461</a> f.</span></p> +<p>Hebrew language, knowledge of, cultivated in Judæa, <a href="#Page_623">623</a> ff.<br /> +<span class="ixsub1">spoken by the population of Judæa, <a href="#Page_461">461</a> f.</span></p> <p>Hebrews, epistle to, <a href="#Page_371">371</a>.</p> <p>Helen of Adiabene, proselyte and benefactress in Jerusalem, <a href="#Page_218">218</a> f.</p> <p>Helkias and Ananias, sons of Onias, and generals of Cleopatra, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a> f.</p> @@ -26546,27 +26508,27 @@ of Judaism, will be told in subsequent pages.</p> <span class="ixsub1">discord in his family, <a href="#Page_119">119</a> f., <a href="#Page_177">177</a>.</span><br /> <span class="ixsub1">disease, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a> f.</span><br /> <span class="ixsub1">distrust of his people, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="ixsub1">escapes from Juda to Rome, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>.</span><br /> +<span class="ixsub1">escapes from Judæa to Rome, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>.</span><br /> <span class="ixsub1">executes Hyrcanus, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>.</span><br /> <span class="ixsub1">exhausts the people by taxation, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.</span><br /> <span class="ixsub1">governor of Cœlesyria, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>.</span><br /> <span class="ixsub1">governor of Galilee, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>.</span><br /> <span class="ixsub1">introduces games into Jerusalem, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>.</span><br /> <span class="ixsub1">judgment of Augustus on him, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="ixsub1">last bloody orders with regard to the nobles of Juda, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>.</span><br /> +<span class="ixsub1">last bloody orders with regard to the nobles of Judæa, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>.</span><br /> <span class="ixsub1">love of pomp and display, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="ixsub1">proclaimed king of Juda by the Senate of Rome, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>.</span><br /> +<span class="ixsub1">proclaimed king of Judæa by the Senate of Rome, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>.</span><br /> <span class="ixsub1">relation to his children, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>–<a href="#Page_114">4</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>.</span><br /> <span class="ixsub1">relation of the Pharisees to him, <a href="#Page_114">114</a> f.</span><br /> -<span class="ixsub1">struggle for the crown of Juda, <a href="#Page_87">87</a> f.</span><br /> +<span class="ixsub1">struggle for the crown of Judæa, <a href="#Page_87">87</a> f.</span><br /> <span class="ixsub1">suicidal attempt, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>.</span><br /> <span class="ixsub1">before the Synhedrion, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="ixsub1">will concerning Juda, <a href="#Page_119">119</a> f.</span></p> +<span class="ixsub1">will concerning Judæa, <a href="#Page_119">119</a> f.</span></p> <p>Herod II, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>.<br /> <span class="ixsub1">death, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>.</span><br /> <span class="ixsub1">prince of Chalcis in Lebanon, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, <a href="#Page_196">196</a> f.</span><br /> -<span class="ixsub1">titular king of Juda, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>.</span></p> -<p>Herod Antipas, tetrarch of Galilee and Pera, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>.<br /> +<span class="ixsub1">titular king of Judæa, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>.</span></p> +<p>Herod Antipas, tetrarch of Galilee and Peræa, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>.<br /> <span class="ixsub1">beheads John the Baptist, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>.</span></p> <p>Herodias, wife of Antipas, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>.<br /> <span class="ixsub1">dies in exile, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>.</span></p> @@ -26595,7 +26557,7 @@ of Judaism, will be told in subsequent pages.</p> <span class="ixsub1">and Joseph, the apostate, <a href="#Page_565">565</a> f.</span><br /> <span class="ixsub1">calendar, <a href="#Page_573">573</a> f.</span></p> <p>Hillelites, belong to the peace party, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>.</p> -<p>History, cultivated under the Hasmonans, <a href="#Page_15">15</a> f.</p> +<p>History, cultivated under the Hasmonæans, <a href="#Page_15">15</a> f.</p> <p>Honorius, emperor of the West, laws of, against the Jews, <a href="#Page_616">616</a> f.</p> <p>Huna, principal of the school of Sora, <a href="#Page_545">545</a>–<a href="#Page_548">8</a>.<br /> <span class="ixsub1">charity, <a href="#Page_546">546</a> f.</span><br /> @@ -26605,7 +26567,7 @@ of Judaism, will be told in subsequent pages.</p> <p>Hypatia, <a href="#Page_619">619</a>.</p> <p>Hyrcanus I, John, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>–<a href="#Page_34">34</a>.<br /> <span class="ixsub1">ambitious, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="ixsub1">assures the independence of Juda, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>.</span><br /> +<span class="ixsub1">assures the independence of Judæa, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>.</span><br /> <span class="ixsub1">campaign against the Parthians, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>.</span><br /> <span class="ixsub1">coins, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>.</span><br /> <span class="ixsub1">compared to Solomon, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>.</span><br /> @@ -26614,8 +26576,8 @@ of Judaism, will be told in subsequent pages.</p> <span class="ixsub1">embassy sent by him to Rome, <a href="#Page_4">4</a> f., <a href="#Page_9">9</a>.</span><br /> <span class="ixsub1">employs mercenaries, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>.</span><br /> <span class="ixsub1">expels the Hellenists and destroys Samaria, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="ixsub1">extends the boundaries of Juda, <a href="#Page_11">11</a> f.</span><br /> -<span class="ixsub1">forces Judaism on the Idumans, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>.</span><br /> +<span class="ixsub1">extends the boundaries of Judæa, <a href="#Page_11">11</a> f.</span><br /> +<span class="ixsub1">forces Judaism on the Idumæans, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>.</span><br /> <span class="ixsub1">reprimanded by Eleazar ben Poira, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.</span><br /> <span class="ixsub1">relation to the religious parties, <a href="#Page_31">31</a> ff.</span><br /> <span class="ixsub1">wars, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>–<a href="#Page_11">11</a>.</span></p> @@ -26626,16 +26588,16 @@ of Judaism, will be told in subsequent pages.</p> <span class="ixsub1">characters of both contrasted, <a href="#Page_57">57</a> f.</span><br /> <span class="ixsub1">interference of Rome, <a href="#Page_61">61</a> ff.</span><br /> <span class="ixsub1">part played by Antipater, <a href="#Page_59">59</a> ff.</span><br /> -<span class="ixsub1">rise of a republican party in Juda, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>.</span><br /> +<span class="ixsub1">rise of a republican party in Judæa, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>.</span><br /> <span class="ixsub1">his ears mutilated by the Parthians, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>.</span><br /> <span class="ixsub1">executed by Herod, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>.</span></p> -<p>Hyrcanus, son of Alexander Jannus, high priest, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>.</p> +<p>Hyrcanus, son of Alexander Jannæus, high priest, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>.</p> -<p class="p2">Idumans forced to accept Judaism, <a href="#Page_8">8</a> f.<br /> +<p class="p2">Idumæans forced to accept Judaism, <a href="#Page_8">8</a> f.<br /> <span class="ixsub1">part played by them in the war of revolution, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.</span></p> <p>Images, Roman, introduced by Pilate into Jerusalem, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>.<br /> <span class="ixsub1">of the emperor put up in the synagogues of Alexandria, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>.</span></p> -<p>Independence, Judan, when lost, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>.</p> +<p>Independence, Judæan, when lost, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>.</p> <p>Indo-Jewish colonists, <a href="#Page_629">629</a> f.</p> <p>Informers, <a href="#Page_425">425</a> f., <a href="#Page_464">464</a> f., <a href="#Page_570">570</a>.</p> <p>Iron, its use in the erecting of an altar, why forbidden, <a href="#Page_329">329</a>.</p> @@ -26688,7 +26650,7 @@ of Judaism, will be told in subsequent pages.</p> <p>Jews and Christians, connection between them severed, <a href="#Page_431">431</a>.</p> <p>Jews and heathen, hatred between them, <a href="#Page_262">262</a> ff., <a href="#Page_313">313</a> f.</p> <p>Jews prohibited from entering Jerusalem, <a href="#Page_422">422</a>, <a href="#Page_564">564</a>.</p> -<p>Jews, inner life of, after the fall of Juda, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>–<a href="#Page_365">5</a>.</p> +<p>Jews, inner life of, after the fall of Judæa, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>–<a href="#Page_365">5</a>.</p> <p>Jews, moral and religious condition of the middle class of, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>.</p> <p>Jews in Rome, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>–<a href="#Page_69">9</a>.<br /> <span class="ixsub1">after the war of revolution, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>.</span><br /> @@ -26718,7 +26680,7 @@ of Judaism, will be told in subsequent pages.</p> <span class="ixsub1">school, his, at Jerusalem, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>.</span><br /> <span class="ixsub1">teachings, <a href="#Page_326">326</a> ff.</span><br /> <span class="ixsub1">why he sided with Rome, <a href="#Page_329">329</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="ixsub1">work, his, after the fall of Juda, <a href="#Page_322">322</a> ff.</span></p> +<span class="ixsub1">work, his, after the fall of Judæa, <a href="#Page_322">322</a> ff.</span></p> <p>John the Baptist, an Essene, <a href="#Page_145">145</a> ff., <a href="#Page_150">150</a>.<br /> <span class="ixsub1">beheaded by Herod Antipas, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>.</span><br /> <span class="ixsub1">not hindered in his work by the Pharisees, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>.</span></p> @@ -26728,10 +26690,10 @@ of Judaism, will be told in subsequent pages.</p> <p>John, son of Zebedee, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>.</p> <p>Jonathan, leader of the Sadducees, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>.</p> <p>Jonathan, son of Uziel, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>.</p> -<p>Jos, principal of the school of Pumbeditha, completes the compilation of the Talmud, <a href="#Page_630">630</a>.</p> -<p>Jos ben Chalafta, <a href="#Page_442">442</a>.</p> -<p>Jos, the Galilean, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>.</p> -<p>Jos ben Kisma, <a href="#Page_426">426</a> f.</p> +<p>José, principal of the school of Pumbeditha, completes the compilation of the Talmud, <a href="#Page_630">630</a>.</p> +<p>José ben Chalafta, <a href="#Page_442">442</a>.</p> +<p>José, the Galilean, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>.</p> +<p>José ben Kisma, <a href="#Page_426">426</a> f.</p> <p>Joseph the Apostate, <a href="#Page_564">564</a> ff.</p> <p>Joseph ben Chiya, principal of the school of Pumbeditha, <a href="#Page_577">577</a> f., <a href="#Page_581">581</a>–<a href="#Page_583">3</a>.</p> <p>Joseph of Gamala, leader in the revolution, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>.</p> @@ -26771,7 +26733,7 @@ of Judaism, will be told in subsequent pages.</p> <p>Joshua Phabi, high priest, deposed by Herod, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.</p> <p>Jotapata, fortress in Galilee, <a href="#Page_286">286</a> f.</p> <p>Jovianus, emperor, grants toleration, <a href="#Page_602">602</a>.</p> -<p id="Judaea">Juda, annexed to Syria, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>.<br /> +<p id="Judaea">Judæa, annexed to Syria, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>.<br /> <span class="ixsub1">condition after Agrippa I's death, <a href="#Page_197">197</a> ff.</span><br /> <span class="ixsub1">condition after the war of revolution, <a href="#Page_332">332</a>, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>.</span><br /> <span class="ixsub1">confusion of, after Herod's death, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>–<a href="#Page_125">5</a>.</span><br /> @@ -26801,7 +26763,7 @@ of Judaism, will be told in subsequent pages.</p> <p>Judah ben Baba, martyr under Hadrian, <a href="#Page_429">429</a>.</p> <p>Judah ben Ezekiel, principal of the schools of Pumbeditha and Sora, <a href="#Page_549">549</a>, <a href="#Page_552">552</a>.<br /> <span class="ixsub1">method, <a href="#Page_550">550</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="ixsub1">opinion, his, on the returning of the Jews from Babylonia to Juda, <a href="#Page_551">551</a>.</span></p> +<span class="ixsub1">opinion, his, on the returning of the Jews from Babylonia to Judæa, <a href="#Page_551">551</a>.</span></p> <p>Judah ben Ilai of Usha, <a href="#Page_442">442</a>.</p> <p>Judah ben Tabbai, president of the Great Council, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>.<br /> <span class="ixsub1">resigns the presidency, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.</span><br /> @@ -26819,8 +26781,8 @@ of Judaism, will be told in subsequent pages.</p> <span class="ixsub1">attempts to restore the Temple of Jerusalem, <a href="#Page_599">599</a>–<a href="#Page_601">601</a>.</span><br /> <span class="ixsub1">epistle to the Jewish communities, <a href="#Page_597">597</a> f.</span><br /> <span class="ixsub1">ideal, his, of government, <a href="#Page_595">595</a> f.</span></p> -<p>Julianus, leader of the revolt against Trajan in Juda, <a href="#Page_395">395</a>.</p> -<p>Justus, son of Pistus, historian of the Judan war, <a href="#Page_319">319</a> f.<br /> +<p>Julianus, leader of the revolt against Trajan in Judæa, <a href="#Page_395">395</a>.</p> +<p>Justus, son of Pistus, historian of the Judæan war, <a href="#Page_319">319</a> f.<br /> <span class="ixsub1">leader of the revolution in Tiberias, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>.</span><br /> <span class="ixsub1">opponent of Josephus, <a href="#Page_390">390</a>.</span></p> @@ -26834,7 +26796,7 @@ of Judaism, will be told in subsequent pages.</p> <span class="ixsub1">acquires a settled form through Judah I, <a href="#Page_462">462</a>.</span><br /> <span class="ixsub1">becomes a distinguishing feature of Judaism, <a href="#Page_608">608</a>.</span><br /> <span class="ixsub1">meaning of the term, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="ixsub1">observance, its, enforced after the fall of Juda, <a href="#Page_363">363</a> f., <a href="#Page_479">479</a> f.</span><br /> +<span class="ixsub1">observance, its, enforced after the fall of Judæa, <a href="#Page_363">363</a> f., <a href="#Page_479">479</a> f.</span><br /> <span class="ixsub1">study of (Talmud Torah), highly esteemed, <a href="#Page_473">473</a> f.</span><br /> <span class="ixsub1">set above its practice, <a href="#Page_427">427</a>.</span><br /> <span class="ixsub1">and the priesthood, <a href="#Page_544">544</a>.</span><br /> @@ -26845,9 +26807,9 @@ of Judaism, will be told in subsequent pages.</p> <p>Laying on of hands, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>.</p> <p>Libation of water, ceremony of, on the Feast of Tabernacles, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>.</p> <p>Libertini, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>.</p> -<p>Literature, Judan, character of, under Hyrcanus I, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>.<br /> -<span class="ixsub1">Judan-Grecian, <a href="#Page_204">204</a> ff.</span></p> -<p>Longinus, Cassius, in Juda, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</p> +<p>Literature, Judæan, character of, under Hyrcanus I, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>.<br /> +<span class="ixsub1">Judæan-Grecian, <a href="#Page_204">204</a> ff.</span></p> +<p>Longinus, Cassius, in Judæa, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</p> <p>Longinus, philosopher, <a href="#Page_529">529</a>.</p> <p>Lydda, assembly of, after the war of Bar-Cochba, <a href="#Page_423">423</a>.<br /> <span class="ixsub1">seat of a school, <a href="#Page_346">346</a>, <a href="#Page_497">497</a>, <a href="#Page_530">530</a>.</span></p> @@ -26881,7 +26843,7 @@ of Judaism, will be told in subsequent pages.</p> <p>Masechta, meaning of, <a href="#Page_354">354</a>.</p> <p>Mata, city in Babylonia, <a href="#Page_506">506</a>.</p> <p>Matthias ben Margalot, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>.</p> -<p>Mer (Miasa or Moise), <a href="#Page_434">434</a> ff.<br /> +<p>Meïr (Miasa or Moise), <a href="#Page_434">434</a> ff.<br /> <span class="ixsub1">method, <a href="#Page_438">438</a>, <a href="#Page_476">476</a>.</span><br /> <span class="ixsub1">ordinances, <a href="#Page_439">439</a>.</span><br /> <span class="ixsub1">relation to Acher, <a href="#Page_437">437</a>.</span><br /> @@ -26891,11 +26853,11 @@ of Judaism, will be told in subsequent pages.</p> <p>Menachem, the Essene, deputy of Hillel, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>.</p> <p>Menachem ben Jair, leader of the Sicarii, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>.<br /> <span class="ixsub1">executed, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>.</span></p> -<p>Mercenaries employed in Juda by Hyrcanus I, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>.<br /> -<span class="ixsub1">by Alexander Jannus, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</span></p> +<p>Mercenaries employed in Judæa by Hyrcanus I, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>.<br /> +<span class="ixsub1">by Alexander Jannæus, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</span></p> <p>Messiah, ideas of, entertained by the various parties, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>.<br /> <span class="ixsub1">Joshua ben Levi's idea of, <a href="#Page_498">498</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="ixsub1">scene of his coming expected to be Juda, <a href="#Page_548">548</a>.</span><br /> +<span class="ixsub1">scene of his coming expected to be Judæa, <a href="#Page_548">548</a>.</span><br /> <span class="ixsub1">suffering, idea of, <a href="#Page_166">166</a> f.</span></p> <p>Messianic hopes, <a href="#Page_610">610</a> f.<br /> <span class="ixsub1">part they played in the war of revolution, <a href="#Page_291">291</a> f.</span><br /> @@ -26906,7 +26868,7 @@ of Judaism, will be told in subsequent pages.</p> <p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_649" id="Page_649">649</a></span>Middle Ages, when they began for Judaism, <a href="#Page_617">617</a>.</p> <p>Midrash, <a href="#Page_328">328</a> f.</p> <p>Migration of nations, <a href="#Page_604">604</a> f.</p> -<p>Minim, Minans == Jewish Christians, <a href="#Page_369">369</a>, <a href="#Page_377">377</a> ff.</p> +<p>Minim, Minæans == Jewish Christians, <a href="#Page_369">369</a>, <a href="#Page_377">377</a> ff.</p> <p>Mishna, <a href="#Page_460">460</a> ff.<br /> <span class="ixsub1">character, <a href="#Page_471">471</a> ff.</span><br /> <span class="ixsub1">tendency, <a href="#Page_474">474</a> f.</span><br /> @@ -26918,7 +26880,7 @@ of Judaism, will be told in subsequent pages.</p> <span class="ixsub1">di Rabbi Judah, <a href="#Page_460">460</a> ff.</span></p> <p>Mishna Rishona and Acharona, <a href="#Page_354">354</a>.</p> <p>Monobaz, prince of Adiabene, converted to Judaism, <a href="#Page_216">216</a> f.</p> -<p>Monuments erected in Juda in honor of Roman emperors, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>.</p> +<p>Monuments erected in Judæa in honor of Roman emperors, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>.</p> <p>Moses, false Messiah in Crete, <a href="#Page_611">611</a>.</p> <p class="p2">Naasites. See <a href="#Ophites">Ophites</a>.</p> @@ -26954,7 +26916,7 @@ of Judaism, will be told in subsequent pages.</p> <p>Odenathus and the Jews, <a href="#Page_527">527</a> ff.</p> <p>Onkelos Targum, <a href="#Page_387">387</a>, <a href="#Page_581">581</a>.</p> <p id="Ophites">Ophites (Naasites), Gnostic sect, <a href="#Page_375">375</a>.</p> -<p>Ordinances of Mer, <a href="#Page_439">439</a>.<br /> +<p>Ordinances of Meïr, <a href="#Page_439">439</a>.<br /> <span class="ixsub1">of Usha, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>.</span></p> <p>Ordination, <a href="#Page_361">361</a>.<br /> <span class="ixsub1">prohibited by Hadrian, <a href="#Page_426">426</a>.</span></p> @@ -26966,8 +26928,8 @@ of Judaism, will be told in subsequent pages.</p> <p class="p2">Palmyra (Tadmor), <a href="#Page_528">528</a>.</p> <p>Papa bar Nachman, principal of the school of Nares, <a href="#Page_593">593</a> f.</p> -<p>Papus, leader of the revolt against Trajan in Juda, <a href="#Page_395">395</a>.</p> -<p>Parthians, relation of, to Juda, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_447">447</a>.</p> +<p>Papus, leader of the revolt against Trajan in Judæa, <a href="#Page_395">395</a>.</p> +<p>Parthians, relation of, to Judæa, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_447">447</a>.</p> <p>Parthia, conquered by Trajan, <a href="#Page_393">393</a>.</p> <p>Parthian empire, Jews in, <a href="#Page_503">503</a> f.</p> <p>Parties, religious, when appeared, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>.<br /> @@ -27013,7 +26975,7 @@ of Judaism, will be told in subsequent pages.</p> <p>Phabi, family of high priests, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>.</p> <p id="Pharisees">Pharisees (Parushim), <a href="#Page_17">17</a> ff.<br /> <span class="ixsub1">adherents to the Law, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="ixsub1">and Alexander Jannus, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>.</span><br /> +<span class="ixsub1">and Alexander Jannæus, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>.</span><br /> <span class="ixsub1">attitude toward Herod, <a href="#Page_114">114</a> f.</span><br /> <span class="ixsub1">cardinal principle: preservation of Judaism, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>.</span><br /> <span class="ixsub1">Divine providence, emphasis laid upon, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>.</span><br /> @@ -27027,7 +26989,7 @@ of Judaism, will be told in subsequent pages.</p> <p>Phasael, brother of Herod, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>.<br /> <span class="ixsub1">commits suicide, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>.</span></p> <p>Pheroras, brother of Herod, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>.</p> -<p>Philip, tetrarch of Batana and Trachonitis, <a href="#Page_137">137</a> f.</p> +<p>Philip, tetrarch of Batanæa and Trachonitis, <a href="#Page_137">137</a> f.</p> <p>Philo, the Alexandrian, <a href="#Page_191">191</a> ff.<br /> <span class="ixsub1">compared with Hillel and Jesus, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>.</span><br /> <span class="ixsub1">defends Judaism, <a href="#Page_212">212</a> f.</span><br /> @@ -27038,14 +27000,14 @@ of Judaism, will be told in subsequent pages.</p> <span class="ixsub1">principal aim, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>.</span><br /> <span class="ixsub1">visits Jerusalem, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>.</span></p> <p>Phineas ben Samuel, made high priest by the Zealots, <a href="#Page_294">294</a> f.</p> -<p>Pilate, Pontius, procurator of Juda, <a href="#Page_138">138</a> ff.<br /> +<p>Pilate, Pontius, procurator of Judæa, <a href="#Page_138">138</a> ff.<br /> <span class="ixsub1">cruelty, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>.</span><br /> <span class="ixsub1">introduces Roman emblems and insignia into Jerusalem, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>.</span><br /> <span class="ixsub1">possesses himself of the treasury of the Temple, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>.</span></p> -<p>Pinchas ben Jar, <a href="#Page_459">459</a> f.</p> +<p>Pinchas ben Jaïr, <a href="#Page_459">459</a> f.</p> <p>Pirke Aboth, <a href="#Page_478">478</a>.</p> <p>Poetry, why not produced under the Maccabees, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>.</p> -<p>Pompey in Juda, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>–<a href="#Page_67">7</a>.<br /> +<p>Pompey in Judæa, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>–<a href="#Page_67">7</a>.<br /> <span class="ixsub1">enters the Holy of Holies, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>.</span></p> <p>Poppea Sabina, favors Judaism, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>.</p> <p>Porphyry on the book of Daniel, <a href="#Page_502">502</a>.</p> @@ -27058,8 +27020,8 @@ of Judaism, will be told in subsequent pages.</p> <span class="ixsub1">arrogance, <a href="#Page_555">555</a>.</span><br /> <span class="ixsub1">neglect of religion, <a href="#Page_554">554</a>.</span><br /> <span class="ixsub1">position, dignity and authority, <a href="#Page_508">508</a>–<a href="#Page_511">11</a>.</span></p> -<p>Procurator in Juda, authority and duties, <a href="#Page_128">128</a> f.</p> -<p>Procurators of Juda, Albinus, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>.<br /> +<p>Procurator in Judæa, authority and duties, <a href="#Page_128">128</a> f.</p> +<p>Procurators of Judæa, Albinus, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>.<br /> <span class="ixsub1">Ambivius, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>.</span><br /> <span class="ixsub1">Bassus, <a href="#Page_315">315</a>.</span><br /> <span class="ixsub1">Coponius, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>.</span><br /> @@ -27080,16 +27042,16 @@ of Judaism, will be told in subsequent pages.</p> <span class="ixsub1">discussion about their admission, <a href="#Page_384">384</a> f.</span><br /> <span class="ixsub1">Jews forbidden to make, <a href="#Page_433">433</a>, <a href="#Page_562">562</a>.</span><br /> <span class="ixsub1">persecuted by Domitian, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>.</span></p> -<p>Ptolemas, besieged by Alexander Jannus, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</p> -<p>Ptolemy VIII, Lathurus, enmity against Juda, <a href="#Page_10">10</a> ff., <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</p> +<p>Ptolemaïs, besieged by Alexander Jannæus, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</p> +<p>Ptolemy VIII, Lathurus, enmity against Judæa, <a href="#Page_10">10</a> ff., <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</p> <p>Pumbeditha, capital of Jewish Babylonia, <a href="#Page_506">506</a>.<br /> <span class="ixsub1">center of North Babylonia, <a href="#Page_549">549</a>.</span><br /> <span class="ixsub1">rise of its school, <a href="#Page_575">575</a> ff.</span></p> <p>Purim, celebration of, <a href="#Page_620">620</a> f.</p> <p class="p2">Quietus, Lucius, general under Trajan in the revolt of Mesopotamia, <a href="#Page_397">397</a>–<a href="#Page_399">9</a>.<br /> -<span class="ixsub1">in Juda, <a href="#Page_399">399</a> f.</span></p> -<p>Quirinus, governor of Syria, takes a census in Juda, <a href="#Page_129">129</a> ff.</p> +<span class="ixsub1">in Judæa, <a href="#Page_399">399</a> f.</span></p> +<p>Quirinus, governor of Syria, takes a census in Judæa, <a href="#Page_129">129</a> ff.</p> <p id="Rab" class="p2">Rab (Abba-Areka), <a href="#Page_470">470</a>, <a href="#Page_484">484</a>.<br /> <span class="ixsub1">Agoranomos in Babylonia, <a href="#Page_512">512</a> f.</span><br /> @@ -27117,7 +27079,7 @@ of Judaism, will be told in subsequent pages.</p> <p>Religious persecutions. See <a href="#Persecutions">Persecutions</a>.</p> <p>Restoration of the Law. See <a href="#Simon">Simon ben Shetach</a>.</p> <p>Resurrection, a matter of contention between the various schools, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>.<br /> -<span class="ixsub1">expected to take place in Juda, <a href="#Page_548">548</a>.</span></p> +<span class="ixsub1">expected to take place in Judæa, <a href="#Page_548">548</a>.</span></p> <p>Resurrection of Christ, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>.</p> <p>Revolts, Jewish, under Antoninus Pius, <a href="#Page_447">447</a>.<br /> <span class="ixsub1">under Constantius, <a href="#Page_569">569</a> f.</span><br /> @@ -27130,8 +27092,8 @@ of Judaism, will be told in subsequent pages.</p> <p>Roman eagle over the entrance to the Temple, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>.</p> <p>Roman empire, decline of, <a href="#Page_527">527</a>, <a href="#Page_560">560</a>, <a href="#Page_604">604</a> f.<br /> <span class="ixsub1">division of, by Theodosius, <a href="#Page_615">615</a>.</span></p> -<p>Rufus, Annius, procurator of Juda, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>.</p> -<p>Rufus, Tinnius, procurator of Juda, <a href="#Page_411">411</a>.</p> +<p>Rufus, Annius, procurator of Judæa, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>.</p> +<p>Rufus, Tinnius, procurator of Judæa, <a href="#Page_411">411</a>.</p> <p>Rufus, Turnus, general of Hadrian and oppressor of the Jews, <a href="#Page_421">421</a>.</p> <p>Rules, seven, of Hillel, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>.<br /> <span class="ixsub1">thirteen of Ishmael, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>.</span></p> @@ -27152,12 +27114,12 @@ of Judaism, will be told in subsequent pages.</p> <span class="ixsub1">repudiate the idea of judgment after death, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.</span><br /> <span class="ixsub1">relation to the Pharisees, <a href="#Page_17">17</a> f.</span><br /> <span class="ixsub1">rigor in the administration of justice, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.</span></p> -<p>Salome Alexandra, wife of Alexander Jannus, and regent, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>–<a href="#Page_56">56</a>.<br /> +<p>Salome Alexandra, wife of Alexander Jannæus, and regent, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>–<a href="#Page_56">56</a>.<br /> <span class="ixsub1">champion of the Pharisees, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</span><br /> <span class="ixsub1">coins, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>.</span><br /> <span class="ixsub1">death, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.</span><br /> <span class="ixsub1">entrusts the management of affairs to the Pharisees, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="ixsub1">last independent ruler of Juda, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.</span><br /> +<span class="ixsub1">last independent ruler of Judæa, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.</span><br /> <span class="ixsub1">protects the Sadducees, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>.</span><br /> <span class="ixsub1">prosperity of the country under her reign, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>.</span><br /> <span class="ixsub1">restoration of the Law, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>–<a href="#Page_53">53</a>.</span></p> @@ -27190,21 +27152,21 @@ of Judaism, will be told in subsequent pages.</p> <span class="ixsub1">deterioration of manners of the teachers, <a href="#Page_588">588</a> f.</span><br /> <span class="ixsub1">estrangement between the teachers and the people, <a href="#Page_588">588</a> ff.</span><br /> <span class="ixsub1">hierarchy and dignitaries, <a href="#Page_547">547</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="ixsub1">independence of the schools of Juda, <a href="#Page_548">548</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="ixsub1">opposition to the schools of Juda, <a href="#Page_557">557</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="ixsub1">superiority over the schools of Juda, <a href="#Page_531">531</a> f., <a href="#Page_537">537</a>, <a href="#Page_544">544</a>, <a href="#Page_560">560</a>.</span><br /> +<span class="ixsub1">independence of the schools of Judæa, <a href="#Page_548">548</a>.</span><br /> +<span class="ixsub1">opposition to the schools of Judæa, <a href="#Page_557">557</a>.</span><br /> +<span class="ixsub1">superiority over the schools of Judæa, <a href="#Page_531">531</a> f., <a href="#Page_537">537</a>, <a href="#Page_544">544</a>, <a href="#Page_560">560</a>.</span><br /> <span class="ixsub1">teachers, <a href="#Page_454">454</a>.</span><br /> <span class="ixsub1">two methods of instruction, <a href="#Page_574">574</a>.</span></p> -<p>Schools in Juda, <a href="#Page_324">324</a> ff.<br /> +<p>Schools in Judæa, <a href="#Page_324">324</a> ff.<br /> <span class="ixsub1">in Jabne, <a href="#Page_324">324</a> ff.</span><br /> <span class="ixsub1">in other places, <a href="#Page_335">335</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="ixsub1">decline of the Judan schools, <a href="#Page_543">543</a>, <a href="#Page_548">548</a> f., <a href="#Page_560">560</a>.</span><br /> +<span class="ixsub1">decline of the Judæan schools, <a href="#Page_543">543</a>, <a href="#Page_548">548</a> f., <a href="#Page_560">560</a>.</span><br /> <span class="ixsub1">oppressed by hostile Christianity, <a href="#Page_611">611</a>.</span></p> -<p>Schools, Babylonian and Judan, their different methods, <a href="#Page_557">557</a> f.</p> -<p>Schools outside of Juda and Babylonia, in Asia Minor and Alexandria, <a href="#Page_358">358</a> f.</p> +<p>Schools, Babylonian and Judæan, their different methods, <a href="#Page_557">557</a> f.</p> +<p>Schools outside of Judæa and Babylonia, in Asia Minor and Alexandria, <a href="#Page_358">358</a> f.</p> <p>Schools of Shammai and Hillel, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_335">335</a> f.</p> <p>Schools, prohibited by Hadrian, <a href="#Page_426">426</a>.</p> -<p>Second day of feasts, celebrated by the Jews outside of Juda, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>, <a href="#Page_573">573</a>.</p> +<p>Second day of feasts, celebrated by the Jews outside of Judæa, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>, <a href="#Page_573">573</a>.</p> <p>Secret scrolls, <a href="#Page_461">461</a>.</p> <p>Seder Olam, <a href="#Page_442">442</a>.</p> <p>Sepphoris, capital of Galilee, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>.<br /> @@ -27243,8 +27205,8 @@ of Judaism, will be told in subsequent pages.</p> <span class="ixsub1">expedition against the Parthians, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>.</span></p> <p>Sidra == school, <a href="#Page_514">514</a>.</p> <p>Silas, the Babylonian, hero in the war of revolution, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>.</p> -<p>Silva, procurator of Juda, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>.</p> -<p>Simla, <a href="#Page_498">498</a> ff.<br /> +<p>Silva, procurator of Judæa, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>.</p> +<p>Simlaï, <a href="#Page_498">498</a> ff.<br /> <span class="ixsub1">controversies with the Fathers of the Church, <a href="#Page_501">501</a> f.</span></p> <p>Simon Bar-Giora, patriot and leader in the war of revolution, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>.<br /> <span class="ixsub1">character, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>.</span><br /> @@ -27264,7 +27226,7 @@ of Judaism, will be told in subsequent pages.</p> <span class="ixsub1">and Judah II, <a href="#Page_488">488</a> f.</span><br /> <span class="ixsub1">view on the book of Job, <a href="#Page_497">497</a>.</span></p> <p>Simon Magus, a nickname of Paul, <a href="#Page_368">368</a>.</p> -<p id="Simon">Simon ben Shetach, brother-in-law of Alexander Jannus, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.<br /> +<p id="Simon">Simon ben Shetach, brother-in-law of Alexander Jannæus, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.<br /> <span class="ixsub1">crucifies 80 women for witchcraft, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.</span><br /> <span class="ixsub1">mediator between the Pharisees and Sadducees, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>.</span><br /> <span class="ixsub1">president of the Synhedrion, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.</span><br /> @@ -27287,7 +27249,7 @@ of Judaism, will be told in subsequent pages.</p> <p>Swine, breeding of, why it was forbidden by the Synhedrion, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>.</p> <p>Swine's head put up in the gate of Jerusalem, <a href="#Page_422">422</a>.</p> <p>Sylvester, bishop of Rome, hatred of the Jews, <a href="#Page_562">562</a>.</p> -<p>Symmachus, disciple of Mer, <a href="#Page_440">440</a>.</p> +<p>Symmachus, disciple of Meïr, <a href="#Page_440">440</a>.</p> <p>Synagogues in Jerusalem, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>.</p> <p id="Synhedrion">Synhedrion (Great Council):<br /> <span class="ixsub1">Synhedrion of Babylonia, <a href="#Page_443">443</a> f.</span><br /> @@ -27328,7 +27290,7 @@ of Judaism, will be told in subsequent pages.</p> <span class="ixsub1">end of the second generation, <a href="#Page_429">429</a>.</span><br /> <span class="ixsub1">last generation, <a href="#Page_450">450</a>.</span><br /> <span class="ixsub1">the last, <a href="#Page_462">462</a>.</span></p> -<p>Tanchuma bar Abba, last Halachic authority of Juda, <a href="#Page_611">611</a> f.</p> +<p>Tanchuma bar Abba, last Halachic authority of Judæa, <a href="#Page_611">611</a> f.</p> <p>Targumim, <a href="#Page_387">387</a>, <a href="#Page_581">581</a> f.</p> <p>Tarphon (Tryphon) of Lydda, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>.<br /> <span class="ixsub1">on Jewish Christianity, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>.</span></p> @@ -27364,15 +27326,15 @@ of Judaism, will be told in subsequent pages.</p> <span class="ixsub1">seat of the patriarch, <a href="#Page_480">480</a>.</span><br /> <span class="ixsub1">seat of a school, <a href="#Page_493">493</a> f.</span></p> <p>Tiberius, emperor, expels the Jews from Rome, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>.<br /> -<span class="ixsub1">lightens the burdens of taxation in Juda, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>.</span><br /> +<span class="ixsub1">lightens the burdens of taxation in Judæa, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>.</span><br /> <span class="ixsub1">mildness towards the Jews, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>.</span><br /> <span class="ixsub1">persecutes the Jews in Rome, <a href="#Page_136">136</a> f.</span></p> <p>Tiberius, Alexander, nephew of Philo, apostate, governor of Egypt, <a href="#Page_300">300</a>.<br /> <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_655" id="Page_655">655</a></span><span class="ixsub1">governor of Jerusalem, <a href="#Page_198">198</a> f.</span><br /> <span class="ixsub1">orders a massacre of the Jews in Alexandria, <a href="#Page_263">263</a> f.</span><br /> -<span class="ixsub1">treachery against Juda during the war of revolution, <a href="#Page_302">302</a>.</span></p> -<p>Tigranes, king of Armenia, threatens Juda, <a href="#Page_55">55</a> f.</p> -<p>Tithes, paid after the fall of Juda, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>.</p> +<span class="ixsub1">treachery against Judæa during the war of revolution, <a href="#Page_302">302</a>.</span></p> +<p>Tigranes, king of Armenia, threatens Judæa, <a href="#Page_55">55</a> f.</p> +<p>Tithes, paid after the fall of Judæa, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>.</p> <p>Titus, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>, <a href="#Page_388">388</a>.<br /> <span class="ixsub1">cruelty, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>.</span><br /> <span class="ixsub1">at Gischala, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>.</span><br /> @@ -27395,8 +27357,8 @@ of Judaism, will be told in subsequent pages.</p> <p class="p2">Valens, emperor, protects and honors the Jews, <a href="#Page_603">603</a>.</p> <p>Valentinian I, grants toleration, <a href="#Page_603">603</a>.</p> <p>Valerianus, emperor, <a href="#Page_527">527</a>.</p> -<p>Varus, quenches a revolt in Juda, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a> f.</p> -<p>Varus, representative of Agrippa II in Csarea, cruelty and treachery, <a href="#Page_274">274</a> f.</p> +<p>Varus, quenches a revolt in Judæa, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a> f.</p> +<p>Varus, representative of Agrippa II in Cæsarea, cruelty and treachery, <a href="#Page_274">274</a> f.</p> <p>Verus Commodus, emperor, persecutes the Jews, <a href="#Page_447">447</a> f.</p> <p>Vespasian, <a href="#Page_284">284</a> f.<br /> <span class="ixsub1">avarice, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>.</span><br /> @@ -27410,19 +27372,19 @@ of Judaism, will be told in subsequent pages.</p> <p>Vitellius, governor of Syria, kindness of, to the Jews, <a href="#Page_172">172</a> f.</p> <p>Vulgata, <a href="#Page_625">625</a>.</p> -<p id="War" class="p2">War of the Revolution, the Judan, with Rome, <a href="#Page_233">233</a> ff.<br /> +<p id="War" class="p2">War of the Revolution, the Judæan, with Rome, <a href="#Page_233">233</a> ff.<br /> <span class="ixsub1">character and chief cause of, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>.</span><br /> <span class="ixsub1">cruelties, <a href="#Page_315">315</a>.</span><br /> <span class="ixsub1">differences in the attitude of the parties, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>.</span><br /> <span class="ixsub1">encounter between Cestius Gallus and the Zealots, <a href="#Page_265">265</a> f.</span><br /> <span class="ixsub1">first campaign, <a href="#Page_264">264</a> ff.</span><br /> <span class="ixsub1">heroism of the Jews, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="ixsub1">internal strife between the various parties of Juda, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="ixsub1">Juda divided into lots, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>.</span><br /> +<span class="ixsub1">internal strife between the various parties of Judæa, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.</span><br /> +<span class="ixsub1">Judæa divided into lots, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>.</span><br /> <span class="ixsub1">leaders, <a href="#Page_270">270</a> f.</span><br /> <span class="ixsub1">prisoners of war, fate of, <a href="#Page_311">311</a> f., <a href="#Page_321">321</a>.</span><br /> <span class="ixsub1">starting point of the revolution, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="ixsub1">tactics pursued by the Romans, to weaken Juda by internal strife, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>.</span><br /> +<span class="ixsub1">tactics pursued by the Romans, to weaken Judæa by internal strife, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>.</span><br /> <span class="ixsub1">traitors, <a href="#Page_302">302</a>, <a href="#Page_304">304</a> f.</span><br /> <span class="ixsub1">triumph of Vespasian and Titus in Rome, <a href="#Page_314">314</a> f.</span><br /> <span class="ixsub1">Zealots, ultra, obtain the reins of the government, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>.</span><br /> @@ -27437,7 +27399,7 @@ of Judaism, will be told in subsequent pages.</p> <span class="ixsub1">resistance after the fall of the Temple, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>.</span><br /> <span class="ixsub1">struggle around the Temple, <a href="#Page_305">305</a> ff.</span><br /> <span class="ixsub1">stubborn defense, <a href="#Page_304">304</a> f.</span><br /> -<span class="ixsub1">See also <a href="#Galilee">Galilee</a>, <a href="#Josephus">Josephus</a>, <a href="#Judaea">Juda</a>, <a href="#Zealots">Zealots</a>.</span></p> +<span class="ixsub1">See also <a href="#Galilee">Galilee</a>, <a href="#Josephus">Josephus</a>, <a href="#Judaea">Judæa</a>, <a href="#Zealots">Zealots</a>.</span></p> <p>Wisdom, book of, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>–<a href="#Page_208">8</a>.</p> <p>Wisdom, of the Chaldeans, influences the Rabbis, <a href="#Page_577">577</a> f.</p> <p>"Wise men," <a href="#Page_356">356</a>.</p> @@ -27466,7 +27428,7 @@ of Judaism, will be told in subsequent pages.</p> <span class="ixsub1">self-confidence, <a href="#Page_291">291</a> f.</span><br /> <span class="ixsub1">struggle about the high priesthood, <a href="#Page_294">294</a> f.</span><br /> <span class="ixsub1">watchword, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>.</span></p> -<p>Zera, <a href="#Page_557">557</a> f.</p> +<p>Zeïra, <a href="#Page_557">557</a> f.</p> <p>Zend-Avesta, <a href="#Page_524">524</a>.</p> <p>Zenobia, <a href="#Page_529">529</a> f.</p> <p>Zerubbabel, supposed ancestor of the Princes of Captivity in Babylonia, <a href="#Page_509">509</a>.<br /> @@ -27493,17 +27455,17 @@ preference was found in this book; otherwise they were not changed.</p> <p class="in0 in4"> "Ruach ha-Kodesh" and "Ruach-ha-Kodesh";<br /> -"Galilan" and "Galilean";<br /> +"Galilæan" and "Galilean";<br /> "A. C." and "C. E." (to indicate "A. D.");<br /> "repellent" and "repellant";<br /> "coreligionists" and "co-religionists";<br /> "instal" and "install";<br /> "Agora-nomos" and "Agoranomos";<br /> "subtlety" and "subtilty";<br /> -"Amoram" and "Amoraim".<br /> +"Amoraïm" and "Amoraim".<br /> </p> -<p>Text mostly used "Tanaites", so infrequent occurrences of "Tanates" +<p>Text mostly used "Tanaites", so infrequent occurrences of "Tanaïtes" have been changed.</p> <p>Page <a href="#Page_505">505</a> says that "twenty-two parasangs" are "sixty-eight miles," @@ -27511,383 +27473,6 @@ but page <a href="#Page_506">506</a> says they are "sixteen geographical miles". to current understanding of "parasang," the former is more nearly correct.</p> </div> - - - - - - - -<pre> - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of History of the Jews, Vol. II (of 6), by -Heinrich Graetz - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HISTORY OF THE JEWS, VOL. 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