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diff --git a/43057-8.txt b/43057-8.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 15ac8e2..0000000 --- a/43057-8.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,21743 +0,0 @@ -Project Gutenberg's History of the Jews, Vol. II (of 6), by Heinrich Graetz - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org - - -Title: History of the Jews, Vol. II (of 6) - -Author: Heinrich Graetz - -Release Date: June 29, 2013 [EBook #43057] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HISTORY OF THE JEWS, VOL. II *** - - - - -Produced by David Edwards, Charlie Howard, and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - - - - - - - - - -HISTORY OF THE JEWS - - - - - HISTORY OF THE - JEWS - - BY - HEINRICH GRAETZ - - VOL. II - - FROM THE REIGN OF HYRCANUS (135 B. C. E.) TO THE - COMPLETION OF THE BABYLONIAN TALMUD (500 C. E.) - - [Illustration] - - PHILADELPHIA - - THE JEWISH PUBLICATION SOCIETY OF AMERICA - - 5717-1956 - - - - - Copyright, 1893, by - THE JEWISH PUBLICATION SOCIETY OF AMERICA - - _All rights reserved. No part of this book may be - reproduced in any form without permission in - writing from the publisher: except by a reviewer - who may quote brief passages in a review to be - printed in a magazine or newspaper._ - - PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA - - - - -CONTENTS. - - - CHAPTER I. - - JOHN HYRCANUS. - - The Crowning Point of the Period--War with Antiochus Sidetes - --Siege of Jerusalem--Treaty of Peace--The Parthian War-- - Hyrcanus joins Antiochus--Successful campaigns of Hyrcanus - against the Samaritans and Idumæans--The Idumæans forced - to embrace Judaism--Destruction of the Samaritan Temple at - Gerizim and of the Capital, Samaria--Internal Affairs-- - The Parties: Pharisees, Sadducees and Essenes--Their Rise - and Constitution--Their Doctrines and their Relations to - one another--The Synhedrion--Strained Relations between - Hyrcanus and the Pharisees--Death of Hyrcanus _page_ 1 - - 135-106 B. C. E. - - - CHAPTER II. - - HYRCANUS'S SUCCESSORS, ARISTOBULUS I, ALEXANDER JANNÆUS, AND - SALOME ALEXANDRA. - - Character of Aristobulus--Antigonus--Mythical Account of - his Death--Alexander Jannæus: his Character and Enterprises - --His Support of the Pharisees--Simon ben Shetach-- - Alexander's Breach with the Pharisees, and its Consequences-- - His last Wars and Death--Salome Alexandra's Relations to the - Opposing Parties--The Synhedrion--Judah ben Tabba and Simon - ben Shetach--Institutions against the Sadducees--Party - Hatred--Diogenes--Persecution of the Sadducees--Death of - Alexandra _page_ 35 - - 106-69 B. C. E. - - - CHAPTER III. - - HYRCANUS II. ARISTOBULUS II. - - Brothers contend for the throne--Arrangement between the - Brothers--The Idumæan Antipater--Hyrcanus's weakness-- - Aretas besieges Jerusalem--Interference of Rome--Pompey - at Jerusalem--The Judæan colony in Rome--Flaccus in Asia - Minor--Cicero's oration against the Judæans--Weakening of - the power of the Synhedrion--Shemaya and Abtalion--Violent - death of Aristobulus and his son Alexander--Julius Cæsar - and the Judæans--Antipater's sons Phasael and Herod--Herod - before the Synhedrion--Operations of Cassius in Judæa-- - Malich--Antigonus as King--Herod escapes to Rome _page_ 57 - - 69-40 B. C. E. - - - CHAPTER IV. - - ANTIGONUS AND HEROD. - - Weakness of Antigonus and Herod's Strength of Character-- - Contest for the Throne--Herod becomes King--Proscriptions - and Confiscations--Herod's Policy--Abolition of the - Hereditary Tenure of the High Priesthood--Death of the High - Priest Aristobulus--War with the Arabians--The Earth-quake - --Death of the last of the Hasmonæans--Hillel becomes the - Head of the Synhedrion--His System of Tradition--Menahem - the Essene--Shammai and his School--Mariamne--Herod's - Magnificence and Passion for Building--Herod rebuilds the - Temple--Herod executes his Sons Alexander and Aristobulus-- - Antipater and his Intrigues--The Pharisees under Herod--The - Destruction of the Roman Eagle--Execution of Antipater and - Death of Herod _page_ 84 - - 40-3 B. C. E. - - - CHAPTER V. - - THE HERODIANS. - - The Family of Herod--Partition of the Kingdom of Judæa - --Revolt against Archelaus--Sabinus and Varus--The - Adventurer-Chief Judas the Galilæan--Confirmation of - Herod's Will--Archelaus as Ruler--His brief Reign and his - Banishment--Judæa becomes a Roman Province--The Revolt - against the Census--The Schools of Hillel and Shammai-- - Judas Founder of the Party of Zealots--Onerous Taxation-- - Fresh Hostility of the Samaritans--Expulsion of the Judæans - from Rome by Tiberias--Pontius Pilate _page_ 118 - - 3 B. C. E.-37 C. E. - - - CHAPTER VI. - - MESSIANIC EXPECTATIONS AND ORIGIN OF CHRISTIANITY. - - The Messianic Hope--Various Conceptions of the Expected - Messiah--The Essene Idea of the Kingdom of Heaven-- - John the Baptist, his Work and Imprisonment--Jesus of - Nazareth continues John's Labors--Story of his Birth--His - Success--His Relations to Judaism and the Sects--His - Miraculous Healing of the Sick and Exorcism of Demons--His - Secret Appearance as the Messiah--His Journey to Judæa-- - Accusations against him, and his Condemnation--The First - Christian Community and its Chiefs--The Ebionites--Removal - of Pilate from Judæa--Vitellius, Governor of Syria, favors - the Judæans _page_ 141 - - 28-37 C. E. - - - CHAPTER VII. - - AGRIPPA I. HEROD II. - - Character of Agrippa--Envy of the Alexandrian Greeks towards - the Judæans--Anti-Judæan Literature--Apion--Measures - against the Judæans in Alexandria--Flaccus--Judæan - Embassy to Rome--Philo--Caligula's Decision against the - Judæan Embassy--Caligula orders his Statue to be placed in - the Temple--The Death of Caligula relieves the Judæans-- - Agrippa's Advance under Claudius--His Reign--Gamaliel the - Elder and his Administration--Death of Agrippa--Herod II-- - The False Messiah, Theudas--Death of Herod II _page_ 174 - - 37-49 C. E. - - - CHAPTER VIII. - - SPREAD OF THE JUDÆAN RACE, AND OF JUDAISM. - - Distribution of the Judæans in the Roman Empire and in Parthia - --Relations of the various Judæan Colonies to the Synhedrion - --Judæan Bandits in Naarda--Heathen Attacks upon Judaism - --Counter Attacks upon Heathenism by Judæan Writers--The - Judæan Sibyls--The Anti-heathen Literature--The Book of - Wisdom--The Allegorists--Philo's Aims and Philosophical - System--Proselytes--The Royal House of Adiabene--The - Proselyte Queen Helen--The Apostle Paul--His Character-- - Change in his Attitude towards the Pharisees--His Activity - as a Conversionist--His Treatment of the Law of Moses--The - Doctrines of Peter--Judaic-Christians and Heathen Christians - _page_ 200 - - 40-49 C. E. - - - CHAPTER IX. - - AGRIPPA II. AND OUTBREAK OF THE WAR. - - Position of Affairs in Judæa--Roman Oppression--Character - of Agrippa II--The last High Priest--The Zealots and the - Sicarii--Eleazar ben Dinai--Quarrel with the Samaritans - --Violence in Cæsarea--The Procurators--Florus-- - Insurrection in Cæsarea--Bloodshed in Jerusalem--The - Peace and War Parties--The Leader of the Zealots, Eleazar - ben Ananias--Menahem, chief of the Zealots--Massacres of - Heathens and Judæans--Defeat of the Romans--The Synhedrion - and its President, Simon ben Gamaliel--Position of the - Synhedrion _page_ 233 - - 49-66 C. E. - - - CHAPTER X. - - THE WAR IN GALILEE. - - Description of Galilee--Its Population and Importance--The - Rising in Galilee--John of Gischala--Flavius Josephus, his - Education and Character--His Conduct as Governor of Galilee - --Commencement of the War--Overthrow of Gabara--Siege and - Capture of Jotapata--Surrender of Josephus to the Romans-- - Cruelty of Vespasian---Siege and Capture of Gamala and Mount - Tabor--Surrender of Gischala--Escape of John of Gischala to - Jerusalem _page_ 272 - - 66-67 C. E. - - - CHAPTER XI. - - DESTRUCTION OF THE JUDÆAN STATE. - - Galilæan Fugitives in Jerusalem--Condition of the Capital-- - Internal Contests--The Idumæans--Eleazar ben Simon, John of - Gischala, and Simon Bar-Giora--Progress of the War--Affairs - in Rome--Vespasian created Emperor--Siege of Jerusalem - by Titus--Heroic Defense--Famine--Fall of the Fortress - Antonia--Burning of the Temple--Destruction of the City-- - Number of the Slain _page_ 291 - - 67-70 C. E. - - - CHAPTER XII. - - THE AFTER-THROES OF THE WAR. - - Sufferings of the Prisoners--The Arena--Cruelty of Titus - --Enmity of the Antiochians--Triumph of the Emperor on the - occasion of the Conquest of Judæa--End of Simon Bar-Giora - and John of Gischala--Coins to Commemorate the Roman Triumph - --Fall of the last Fortresses: Herodium, Masada, and Machærus - --Resistance of the Zealots in Alexandria and Cyrene--End - of the Temple of Onias--The Last of the Zealots--Death - of Berenice and Agrippa--Flavius Josephus and his Writings - _page_ 311 - - 70-73 C. E. - - CHAPTER XIII. - - THE SYNHEDRION AT JABNE. - - Foundation of the School at Jabne--Jochanan ben Zakkai - --The Last of the Herodians--Judæa and Rome--The - Tanaites--Gamaliel II. appointed Patriarch--The Power of - Excommunication--Deposition and Restoration of the Patriarch - --Steps towards Collecting the Mishna--Eliezer ben Hyrcanus - --Joshua ben Chananya--Akiba and his System--Ishmael-- - Condition of the Synhedrion _page_ 321 - - 70-117 C. E. - - - CHAPTER XIV. - - INNER LIFE. - - Inner Life of the Jews--Sphere of Action of the Synhedrion - and the Patriarch--The Order of Members and Moral Condition - of the Common People--Relation of Christianity towards - Judaism--Sects--Jewish Christians--Pagan Christians - --Ebionites--Nazarenes--The Gnostics--Regulations of - the Synhedrion against Christianity--Proselytes at Rome-- - Aquilas and his translation of the Bible--Berenice and Titus - --Domitian--Josephus and the Romans _page_ 360 - - - CHAPTER XV. - - REVOLT OF THE JEWS AGAINST TRAJAN AND HIS SUCCESSORS. - - Trajan and Asia--Revolt of the Jews--Hadrian--The Jewish - Sibylline Books--The Attempted Rebuilding of the Temple-- - The Ordinances of Usha--Bar-Cochba--Akiba's Part in the War - --Bar-Cochba's Victories--Suppression of the Revolt--Siege - and Fall of Bethar _page_ 393 - - 96-138 C. E. - - - CHAPTER XVI. - - CONSEQUENCES OF THE WAR OF BAR-COCHBA. - - Turnus Rufus persecutes the Jews--The Ten Martyrs--The Book - of Tobit--Relations between Judaism and Christianity--The - Return of the Schools to Palestine--The Synod at Usha--Meïr - --Simon ben Jochai--The Babylonian Synhedrion--Antonius - Pius and Aurelius Verus--The Revolt against Rome--The - Patriarchate of Simon _page_ 421 - - 135-170 C. E. - - CHAPTER XVII. - - THE PATRIARCHATE OF JUDAH I. - - The Patriarch Judah I.--His Authority and Reputation-- - Completion of the Mishna--The Last Generation of Tanaites - --Condition of the Jews under Marcus Aurelius, Commodus, - Septimius Severus, and Antonius Caracalla--Character and - contents of the Mishna--Death of Judah _page_ 450 - - 175-219 C. E. - - - CHAPTER XVIII. - - THE FIRST AMORAÏM. - - Judah II.--Friendliness of Alexander Severus towards the Jews - --Joshua ben Levi--Hillel instructs Origen in Hebrew--The - _Hexapla_--The Palestinean Amoraïm--Chanina--Jochanan - --Simon ben Lakish--Joshua, the Hero of Fable--Simlai, - the Philosophical Agadist--Porphyry comments on the Book of - Daniel _page_ 479 - - 219-280 C. E. - - - CHAPTER XIX. - - THE JEWS OF THE PARTHIAN EMPIRE. - - Increasing importance of the Jewish Community in Babylonia-- - The Prince of the Captivity--The Babylonian Amoraim--Abba - Areka (Rab) and his royal friend Artaban--Samuel and King - Shabur--Important Political Changes under the Neo-Persians-- - Anarchy in Rome--Zenobia and the Jews _page_ 503 - - 219-279 C. E. - - - CHAPTER XX. - - THE PATRIARCHATE OF GAMALIEL IV. AND JUDAH III. - - The Amoraim in Palestine--Ami and Assi--The Brothers Chiya - and Simon Bar Abba in Tiberias--Abbahu in Cæsarea--The - Emperor Diocletian--Complete Separation from the Samaritans - --Character and Political Position of Abbahu--Huna in - Babylonia--Chama's Generosity--Huna's Contemporaries and - Successors--Judah ben Ezekiel--Chasda of Cafri--Mar - Sheshet--Nachman bar Jacob--Zeïra _page_ 531 - - 279-320 C. E. - - CHAPTER XXI. - - THE TRIUMPH OF CHRISTIANITY AND ITS RELATIONS TO JUDAISM. - - Hillel II.--His Calendar--Heads of Judæan Schools: - Jonah, José, and Jeremiah--The Expansion of Christianity - --Constantine--The Decadence of the Jewish Schools in - Babylonia--The Pumbeditha School--Development of Talmudical - Dialectics--The Persian Queen Ifra and her son Shabur II.-- - The Emperor Julian--Favor shown towards the Jews--Proposed - Rebuilding of the Temple--Roman Tolerance _page_ 559 - - 320-375 C. E. - - - CHAPTER XXII. - - THE LAST AMORAÏM. - - Decline of the Roman Empire--Ashi and the Redaction of the - Talmud--Jezdijird II--The Jews under the Emperor Theodosius - I and his successors--The extinction of the Patriarchate - --Chrysostom and Ambrosius--Fanaticism of the Clergy-- - Jerome and his Jewish Teachers--Mar Zutra--Fifth and Sixth - Generations of Amoraïm--The Jews under Firuz--Jewish - Colonies in India--Completion of the Babylonian Talmud--Its - Spirit and Contents _page_ 604 - - 375-500 C. E. - - - - -HISTORY OF THE JEWS. - - - - -CHAPTER I. - -JOHN HYRCANUS. - - The Crowning Point of the Period--War with Antiochus - Sidetes--Siege of Jerusalem--Treaty of Peace--The Parthian - War--Hyrcanus joins Antiochus--Successful campaigns of Hyrcanus - against the Samaritans and Idumæans--The Idumæans forced - to embrace Judaism--Destruction of the Samaritan Temple at - Gerizim and of the Capital, Samaria--Internal Affairs--The - Parties: Pharisees, Sadducees and Essenes, their Rise and - Constitution--Their Doctrines and their Relations to one - another--The Synhedrion--Strained Relations between Hyrcanus - and the Pharisees--Death of Hyrcanus. - - 135.106 B. C. E. - - -The reign of Hyrcanus is at once the pinnacle and the turning-point of -this period. He not only carried on his father's work, but completed -it. Under his predecessors Judæa was confined to a narrow space, and -even within these bounds there were territories in the possession of -foreign foes. Hyrcanus enlarged the boundaries to the north and to the -south, and thus released the State from the external pressure that had -been restricting its growth. His genius for war was aided by fortunate -circumstances in bringing about these happy results. - -If the reign of Hyrcanus corresponds in brilliancy to that of Solomon, -it resembles it also in another respect: both reigns commenced and -ended amid disturbance, sadness and gloom, while the middle of each -reign was happy and prosperous. When Solomon first came to the throne -he was opposed by Adonijah, the pretender to the crown, whom he -had to subdue; and upon Hyrcanus a similar but more difficult task -devolved--that of carrying on a struggle with several opponents. One -of these opponents was his brother-in-law, Ptolemy ben Habub, the -murderer of his father, who had also sought after Hyrcanus's own -life. It was only the support of the Syrian army, however, which -could make Ptolemy dangerous, the inhabitants of Jerusalem having -instantly declared themselves in favor of Hyrcanus as the successor of -the murdered Simon. Still, both his safety and his duty called upon -him to punish this unscrupulous enemy, and to avenge his father's -death. Hyrcanus hastened, therefore, to attack him in his fortress -before Antiochus could bring his troops to his relief. There is some -uncertainty as to the progress of this siege and its result; according -to one account, evidently somewhat embellished, Hyrcanus could not put -his whole strength against the fortress, because his mother (by some -it is said, together with his brothers) had been placed on the walls -by Ptolemy, and was there horribly tortured. Like a true Hasmonæan, -the heroic woman is said to have encouraged her son to continue the -siege, without heeding her sufferings, and to persevere in his efforts -until the murderer of her family should receive the chastisement due -to his crimes. Hyrcanus's heart was torn by conflicting feelings; -revenge towards his reckless foe urged him on, whilst tender pity for -his mother held him back. The fact is, however, that Hyrcanus withdrew -without accomplishing his purpose. It may have been the Sabbatical year -which prevented him from proceeding with the siege, or, as is much -more likely, his operations may have been interrupted by the approach -of the Syrian king, who was advancing with his army to glean some -advantage for himself from the troubles and the confusion in Judæa. -After the withdrawal of Hyrcanus's troops, it is said that his mother -and brothers were put to death by Ptolemy, who fled to Philadelphia, -the former Ammonite capital (Rabbath Ammon), where he was favorably -received by the governor, Zeno Cotylas. The name of Ptolemy is no more -mentioned, and he disappears altogether from the page of history. - -A far greater danger now threatened Hyrcanus from Antiochus Sidetes, -who was eager to avenge the recent defeat sustained by the Syrians -(autumn 135). He marched forth with a large army, devastated the -country round about, and approached the capital. Hyrcanus, doubtless -feeling himself unable to cope with his enemy in the open field, -shut himself up behind the strong walls of Jerusalem. Antiochus laid -regular siege to the city and encircled it with elaborate preparations -for its conquest. Seven camps were stationed around the city; on the -north side, where the country is flat, a hundred three-storied towers -were erected from which the walls could be stormed. A broad double -trench was likewise made to prevent the sallies of the Judæans, who -contrived nevertheless to come forth, thus bravely impeding the work of -the enemy, and obstructing the progress of the siege. The Syrian army -suffered much from the want of water and from sickness, the natural -consequence of that deficiency. The besieged were well supplied with -water, but food became scarce, and Hyrcanus found himself compelled to -commit an act of cruelty. In order to husband the failing provisions, -the inhabitants who could not bear arms were sent out of the city. -Perhaps the hope was entertained that the enemy would take pity on -them. But to the defenseless, foes are seldom generous. They were not -allowed to pass the lines of the besieging army, and were thus exposed -to death from both sides. In the meantime the summer passed, and still -no prospect of storming the walls offered itself to the Syrians, -whilst the Judæans, on account of the scarcity of provisions and the -approaching holidays, were anxious for a truce. Hyrcanus made the first -overtures, and asked for a cessation of arms during the seven days of -the Feast of Tabernacles. Antiochus not only granted that request, -but sent him presents of animals with gilded horns for sacrificial -purposes, and golden vessels filled with incense. Negotiations for -peace followed upon this truce. Antiochus was urged by his advisers -to show the greatest severity in his demands upon the Judæans. They -reminded him of the policy of Antiochus Epiphanes, who knew no other -way of crushing out the hatred of mankind felt by the Judæans than that -of obliging them to renounce their peculiar laws. If Antiochus Sidetes -had listened to these prejudiced counselors, who saw, according to the -biased views of that time, nothing but cynical exclusiveness in the -singular customs of the Judæans, the cruel wars in which the people -had fought for their faith would have been repeated. Happily for them, -Antiochus had neither the harshness nor the strength to venture upon -so dangerous a game. Antiochus contented himself with destroying the -battlements of Jerusalem (autumn 134). With that act the dark cloud -which had menaced the independence of Judæa passed away. - -No great injury had been inflicted upon the State, and even the traces -of disaster that had been left were soon obliterated. For Hyrcanus now -sent an embassy to Rome consisting of three delegates: Simon, the son -of Dositheus, Apollonius, the son of Alexander, and Diodorus, the son -of Jason, to entreat the Senate to renew, with the Jewish commonwealth, -the friendly treaties, which Rome lavishly accorded to the smallest -nations. At the same time they were to complain that Antiochus Sidetes -had taken possession of several places in Judæa, and among them the -important fortresses of Joppa and Gazara. Rome always sided with -the weak against the strong, not from a sense of justice but from -self-interested calculation. She desired especially to humble the royal -house of the Seleucidæ, which had occasionally shown her a defiant, -or at least a haughty mien. The Judæan ambassadors were consequently -most favorably received, their requests listened to with attention, -and a decree issued by which Antiochus was called upon to restore the -fortresses he had taken, and to forbid his troops to march through -Judæa; nor was he to treat its inhabitants as his subjects (about 133). -Antiochus appears to have acquiesced in this decision. - -He was, moreover, obliged to assume a friendly demeanor towards -Hyrcanus; for at that moment he was meditating an attack against -Parthia, which had formerly belonged to, but had since separated itself -from the kingdom of his ancestors. His brother, Demetrius Nicator, -had likewise undertaken an expedition against the Parthians, but had -sustained a defeat, and was kept in imprisonment for nearly ten years. -Antiochus believed that he would be more fortunate than his brother. In -addition to the army of 80,000 which he had assembled, he requested the -aid of Judæan troops and of the forces of other surrounding nations, -and Hyrcanus consented to join with his army in the expedition. The -Syrian king treated his Judæan allies with the greatest regard. After -a victory gained on the banks of the river Zab (Lycus), he ordered, -according to the desire of Hyrcanus, that a two days' respite should -take place, so that the Judæans might celebrate their Sabbath and the -festival of the Feast of Weeks which followed it (129). - -Fortune, however, had changed sides since the time of Antiochus the -Great, and no longer favored the Seleucidæan dynasty. Antiochus lost -his life in this campaign, and his brother Demetrius, who had been -set at liberty by the king of Parthia at the time of the invasion of -Antiochus, to be opposed to him as a rival monarch, now reigned in -his brother's stead (from 128-125). Hated by the Syrians on account -of his long imprisonment in Parthia, Demetrius was opposed by a -rival, Alexander Zabina, whom Ptolemy Physcon had set up against him. -Demetrius was obliged to flee before Zabina, and could not even find -a refuge in Accho, where his wife Cleopatra resided. Syria fell into -a state of still greater confusion under his successors, when Zabina -disputed the throne with the legitimate heir, Antiochus VIII, the -latter finding likewise a competitor in his brother on the mother's -side, Antiochus IX. The last pages of the history of Syria are stained -with crimes caused by the deadly hatred of the various members of -the Seleucidæan house against each other, and with the murders they -committed. Soon after the death of her husband Demetrius, Cleopatra had -one of her sons, Seleucus, killed, and mixed the poisoned cup for the -other one, Antiochus Grypus, who forced her to drink it herself. - -Hyrcanus took advantage of this state of anarchy and weakness in -Syria, which lasted several years, to enlarge the boundaries of Judæa, -until his country attained its former limits. Soon after the death of -Antiochus Sidetes, the last traces of vassalage to which the siege of -Jerusalem had reduced Judæa were completely wiped out, and even the -bonds of alliance were canceled, whilst Alexander Zabina was grateful -to be acknowledged by Hyrcanus as king of Syria. It was at this period -(124) that the inhabitants of Jerusalem, particularly those included -in the great council, made an appeal to the Egyptian community and to -the priest, Judas Aristobulus, teacher to the king, and of priestly -lineage, to allow the anniversaries of the consecration of the Temple -and of the victory over the sinners to be numbered among the memorial -holidays of the nation. To strengthen their request they referred to -the unexpected help which God had given His people in the evil days of -Antiochus, enabling them to restore the sanctuary to its former purity. -This appeal from Judæa was at the same time a hint to the Alexandrian -community to acknowledge the new conditions that had arisen. - -John Hyrcanus, who until then had acted only in self-defense, was now, -after the fall of Alexander Zabina (123), ready to strike energetically -at Syria. Judæa at that time was encompassed on three sides by foreign -tribes: on the south by the Idumæans, on the north by the hated -Samaritans, and beyond the Jordan by the Greeks, who had never been -friendly to the Judæans. Hyrcanus therefore considered it his mission -to reconquer all those lands, and either to expel their inhabitants -or to incorporate them with the Judæans; for so long as foreign and -hostile tribes existed in the very heart of the country, its political -independence and religious stability would be in constant danger. -Not only were these hostile peoples ever ready to join surrounding -nations, and assist them in their greed for conquest, but they also -often interfered with the religious worship of the Judæans, thus -frequently giving rise to acts of violence and bloodshed. Hyrcanus was -consequently impelled by religious as well as by political motives to -tear up these hotbeds of constant disturbance and hostility. - -To accomplish so great a task Hyrcanus required all the strength -he could muster, and, in order not to tax too heavily the military -resources of the nation, he employed mercenaries, whom, it is said, -he paid out of the treasures he had found in David's sepulcher. The -first place he attacked was Medaba, in the Jordan district. That city -was taken after a six months' siege. Then the army moved on towards -Samega, which, situated on the southern end of the Sea of Tiberias, -must have been a place of great importance to the Judæans. Next in turn -came the towns of Samaria; its capital, Shechem, as well as the temple -erected on Mount Gerizim, which had always been a thorn in the side of -the Judæans, were destroyed (21 Kislev, about 120). The anniversary of -the destruction of this temple (Yom har Gerizim) was to be kept with -great rejoicing, as the commemoration of a peculiarly happy event, and -no fasting or mourning was ever to mar the brightness of the festival. -From this time forth the glory of the Samaritans waned; for, although -centuries to come still found them a peculiar people, and, at the -present day even, they continue to exist and to offer sacrifice on -Mount Gerizim, still, from the want of a central rallying point, they -gradually decreased in numbers and prosperity. - -After his victory over the Samaritans, Hyrcanus marched against -the Idumæans. This people, although fallen very low during the -many vicissitudes of fortune attending the constant changes of the -Macedonian and Asiatic dynasties, and forced by the Nabathæans to leave -their dwellings, had alone, among all the tribes related by blood to -the Judæans, been able to maintain themselves, and had preserved their -ancient bitter animosity against them undiminished. Hyrcanus laid -siege to their two fortresses, Adora and Marissa, and after having -demolished them, gave the Idumæans the choice between acceptance of -Judaism and exile. They chose the former alternative, and became, -outwardly, followers of that faith. The temples of the Idumæan idols -were, of course, destroyed, but the priests secretly adhered to their -worship. Thus, after more than a thousand years of enmity, Jacob and -Esau were again united--the elder serving the younger brother. For the -first time Judaism, in the person of its head, John Hyrcanus, practised -intolerance against other faiths, but it soon found out with deep pain -how highly injurious it is to allow religious zeal for the preservation -of the faith to degenerate into the desire to effect violent conversion -of others. The enforced union of the sons of Edom with the sons of -Jacob was fraught only with disaster to the latter. It was through the -Idumæans and the Romans that the Hasmonæan dynasty was overthrown and -the Judæan state destroyed. - -The first result of the conquest of the Idumæans and of their -adoption of Judaism was a new contest with the city of Samaria, now -chiefly inhabited by Macedonians and Syrians. A colony of Idumæans -had been transplanted from Marissa to the vicinity of Samaria. They -were attacked and ill-treated by their neighbors, who were urged -on to their acts of aggression by the Syrian kings, Grypus and -Cyzicenus. The latter, who resembled Antiochus Epiphanes in his folly -and extravagance, manifested in particular a fierce hatred against -Hyrcanus. His generals invaded Judæa, took several fortresses near -the sea-coast, and placed a garrison in Joppa. Hyrcanus thereupon -complained to the Roman Senate, which had guaranteed to Judæa the -possession of this seaport, and sent five ambassadors to plead the -justice of his cause at Rome. Among these was Apollonius, the son of -Alexander, who had appeared before the Senate in a former embassy. Rome -replied in fair words to the petition of Hyrcanus, and promulgated a -decree forbidding Antiochus Cyzicenus to molest the Judæans, who were -the allies of Rome, and commanding him to restore all the fortresses, -seaports and territories which he had seized. It was further ordered -that the Judæans should be allowed to ship their goods duty free -from their ports, a favor not granted to any other allied nation or -king, excepting the king of Egypt, who was regarded as the peculiar -friend of Rome, and finally that the Syrian garrison should evacuate -Joppa. Whether the sentence pronounced by Rome had any great effect -upon Antiochus Cyzicenus or not, the fact that it was not adverse to -Hyrcanus was so far a boon that it strengthened his cause. It appears -to have restrained Cyzicenus within certain bounds. - -When, however, Hyrcanus, bent upon punishing Samaria for its enmity -to the people of Marissa, besieged that city, causing famine within -its walls by closely surrounding it with trenches and ramparts, and -thus cutting off every possibility of exit, Cyzicenus came to its -assistance. In an engagement with Aristobulus, the eldest son of -Hyrcanus, who was conducting the siege conjointly with his younger -brother Antigonus, Cyzicenus was defeated and forced to flee to -Bethshean (Scythopolis). Too weak to confront the Judæans alone, he -called to his help the co-regent of Egypt, Ptolemy VIII (Lathurus), -who, inspired by the hatred entertained by the Egyptians against the -Judæans, readily complied with that request. His mother Cleopatra, -with whom the people had obliged him to share the government, was -secretly in league against him, befriending, like her parents, the -cause of Judæa. Two sons of Onias IV, Helkias and Ananias, sided with -her. It was doubtless on that account that her son took an aversion -to the Judæans, and gladly came forth at the call of Cyzicenus to -compel Hyrcanus to withdraw from the siege of Samaria. Despite the -wishes of his mother, Lathurus sent an army of six thousand men to -support Cyzicenus against Judæa. Too weak to venture on meeting the -Judæan troops in the open field, the operations were confined to laying -waste the country around, in the hope of thus impeding the work of the -besiegers. The Judæan princes, however, instead of being forced to -abandon the siege, contrived by various manoeuvres to compel the king -of Syria to leave the scene of action and to withdraw to Tripolis. -During one of the battles in which Cyzicenus was beaten, it is said -that a voice from the Holy of Holies was heard announcing to Hyrcanus, -at the very moment in which it took place, the victory achieved by -his sons. He is said to have heard the following words pronounced -in Aramaic: "The young princes have defeated Antiochus." The two -generals, Callimandrus and Epicrates, whom Lathurus had left behind to -continue the hostilities, were not more fortunate than himself, for -the first lost his life in some engagement, the second succumbed to -bribery, and delivered into the hands of the Judæan princes the town -of Bethshean, as well as other places in the plain of Jezreel, as far -as Mount Carmel, which had been held by the Greeks or the Syrians. The -heathen inhabitants were instantly expelled from the newly conquered -cities, and the anniversaries of the recovery of Bethshean and of -the Plain (Bekaata), 15-16 Sivan (June, 109), were added henceforth -to the days of victory. Samaria, no longer able to rely upon foreign -help, was obliged to capitulate, and after a year's siege was given -up to the conqueror. Actuated either by revenge or prudence, Hyrcanus -caused Samaria to be utterly destroyed, and ditches and canals to be -dug through the place, so that not a trace should remain of the once -flourishing city. The day of its surrender was added to the number of -days of thanksgiving (25th Marcheshvan, November, 109). - -Thus Hyrcanus had carried out the comprehensive plans of the Hasmonæans -and crowned them with success. The independence of Judæa was assured, -and the country raised to the level of the neighboring states. The -enemies who had menaced it from every side, Syrians, Idumæans, -Samaritans, were nearly all conquered, and the land was delivered from -the bonds which had hitherto prevented its development. The glorious -era of David and Solomon seemed to have returned, foreign tribes were -obliged to do homage to the ruler of Judæa, the old hatred between the -latter and Idumæa was blotted out, and Jacob and Esau again became -twin brothers. Moabitis, the daughter of Arnon, again sent presents to -the mountain of the daughter of Zion. The banks of the Jordan, the -sea-coast, the caravan tracks that passed from Egypt through Syria, -were all under the dominion of Judæa. She saw also the humiliation of -her enemy, Ptolemy Lathurus. The latter was living in constant discord -with his mother, the co-regent, who at last aroused the anger of the -people against him to such a degree that he was obliged to flee from -Alexandria (108). He took refuge in the island of Cyprus, whither -Cleopatra despatched an army in pursuit of him. But the troops sent to -destroy him went over to his side. The Judæan soldiers who came from -the province of Onion, commanded by the generals Helkias and Ananias, -the sons of Onias, alone remained faithful to the Queen, and vigorously -attacked Ptolemy to force him to leave the island. In Alexandria as -in Judæa, at that time, the Judæans played a leading role, and worked -together in a common cause for mutual advantage. They fought against -common foes, against Lathurus and his ally, Antiochus Cyzicenus. - -After all he had achieved for his country, it was only natural that -Hyrcanus should cause Judæan coins to be struck, and should inscribe -them in old Hebrew characters, but he abandoned the modest example of -his father and allowed his own name to appear on them, "Jochanan, High -Priest." Upon some of the coins we find, next his name, the inscription -"and the Commonwealth of the Judæans" (Cheber ha-Jehudim), as though -he felt it necessary to indicate that it was in the name of the people -that he had exercised the right of coinage. Upon other coins, however, -we find the following words inscribed: "Jochanan, High Priest, and head -of the Commonwealth of the Judæans" (Rosch Cheber ha-Jehudim). Instead -of the lily which was graven on his father's coins, he chose an emblem -similar to that of the Macedonian conquerors--the horn of plenty. -Towards the end of his reign Hyrcanus assumed more the character of -a worldly potentate, and became more and more ambitious. His constant -aim was to enlarge his country and to increase his own power. Hyrcanus -appears to have cast a wistful eye upon the widely-extended territory -which commanded the route to Damascus. The conquest of Ituræa, a tract -of country lying to the east of Mount Hermon, which his successors -completed, appears to have been planned by him. But a formidable -disturbance in the land, which he was unable to suppress, speedily -followed by his own death, prevented him from carrying out this -undertaking. And this disturbance, apparently insignificant in its -beginning, took so unfortunate a turn that the great Hasmonæan edifice, -built up with so much labor and care, was completely destroyed. For the -second time the Judæan State, having reached its highest pinnacle of -prosperity, ascertained that it was not to maintain itself in external -greatness. - -The high tide of political development, which swept over Judæa -whilst that country was under the dominion of John Hyrcanus and his -predecessors, could not fail to permeate the life of the people, and -in particular to stimulate all their spiritual powers. With only short -interruptions they had, during half a century, been continually engaged -in a warfare in which they were alternately victorious and defeated, -and in which, being brought into contact with various nations, now -as friends, now as foes, they attained a greater maturity, and their -former simple existence rose to a more complex and a higher life. The -hard struggles by which they had achieved independence caused them to -examine more curiously into their own condition, and to hold fast to -their national traits; but it led them also to adopt those foreign -views and practices which appeared to blend harmoniously with their -own. If the pious Judæans had formerly opposed with all their might -everything that bore the Hellenic impress, many of them were now -convinced that among the customs of Greece there might occasionally be -something which they could adopt without prejudice or injury to their -own faith. The Hasmonæans had not only learnt from their neighbors the -arts of war, how to fashion arms and construct fortresses, but also -the peaceful arts of coining money with artistic ornamentation, and -the rules of Greek architecture. A magnificent palace, evidently built -in the Grecian style, arose in Jerusalem. In front of the Hasmonæan -Palace, near the valley-like hollow which divided the higher town from -the Temple, there was a wide covered colonnade, called the "Xystum," -where the people assembled. A bridge led across from the Xystum to -the west gate of the furthest court of the Temple. There was likewise -a building erected in the higher town, devoted to judicial meetings, -constructed according to Grecian art; with it was combined a Record -Office, where important archives were kept. John Hyrcanus also erected, -in the Grecian style, a family mausoleum in Modin, the birthplace of -the Hasmonæans. It consisted of a lofty building of white polished -marble. Around it was a colonnade, and on the columns were beautiful -carvings of various weapons and figureheads of ships. Seven pyramids -crowned the edifice, in memory of the progenitors of the Hasmonæans -and their five heroic sons. The Hasmonæan mausoleum was of so great a -height that it was visible from the sea. - -The tendency of the Judæans of that period, however, was more -especially directed to the maintenance and development of all that -belonged peculiarly to themselves than to the acquiring of the arts -of foreign civilization. The Hebrew language, which, since the close -contact of the people with Asiatic nations, had been almost superseded -by the Aramaic, appeared now to be celebrating to a certain extent -its renaissance; it was rejuvenated and became, for the second time, -though in an altered form, the language of the people. It was rendered -precious to them through the Holy Scriptural records which they had -preserved from destruction, and which had ever been the source of their -zeal and enthusiasm. Their coins were, as mentioned before, stamped in -Hebrew, public records were written in Hebrew, and the songs of the -people were sung in the same language. Though some prevalent Aramaic -names were still retained, and Grecian numbers were adopted, the Hebrew -language showed its strong vitality by enriching its vocabulary with -new forms of words, and stamping the foreign elements it admitted with -its own mark. The form that Hebrew assumed from this time forth is -called the "New Hebrew." It was distinguished from the old Hebrew by -greater clearness and facility, even though it lacked the depth and -poetical fervor of the latter. At the same time Greek was understood -by all the leaders and statesmen of the community. It was the language -made use of in their intercourse with the Syrian kings, and was -likewise spoken by their ambassadors to the Roman Senate. Along with -Jewish names, Greek names appeared now more frequently than before. -The character of the literature was also marked by the change which -took place in the spirit of the people at this period of its revival. -The sweet note of song was mute; not a trace of poetical creation has -come down to us from this and the next epoch. The nation called no -longer for the fiery inspiration which flows through the lyric songs -of the Psalms, and it could not furnish matter for mournful elegies. -What it required to promote religious sentiment and fervor was already -provided by the poetry of the Temple, and in the rich stores of the -Scriptures the people found knowledge and instruction. Sober history -now took the place of triumphant hymns, and related facts and deeds -for the use of posterity. History was the only branch of literature -which was cultivated, and the recent past and the immediate present -furnished the historian's pen with ample subjects. That Hebrew was used -in historical writings is shown by the fragments which have come down -to us. The so-called first book of the Maccabees, which was written in -Hebrew, (but is now extant only in a Greek translation) is a proof of -the inherent power of rejuvenescence belonging to the language. - -The change in the current of life, caused by political events, showed -itself even more in the sphere of religion than in the literature -and habits of the people in general. The victory over the Syrians, -the expulsion of the Hellenists, the subjection of the Idumæans, the -humiliation of the Samaritans, culminating in the destruction of the -Temple of Gerizim, were so many triumphs of Judaism over its enemies, -and were sanctioned as such by the champions of the religious party. -In order to stamp them indelibly on the memory of future generations, -their anniversaries were to be kept like the days of the consecration -of the Temple. Religion was still the great underlying impulse in all -movements, and showed its strength even in the abuse to which it gave -rise when it forced Judaism upon the heathens. In the meantime the -religious consciousness of the people shone with a clearer light in -consequence of the wider field upon which it had entered; the wider -view which had been gained into the various relations of life, the -advance out of the narrow circle of tradition and inherited customs, -produced schism and separation amongst the Judæans themselves. The -strict religious party of Assidæans withdrew from the scene of passing -events, and, in order to avoid mixing in public life, they sought a -secluded retreat where they could give themselves up to undisturbed -meditation. In this solitude they formed themselves into a distinct -order, with strange customs and new views, and received the name of -Essenes. Their example, however, of giving up all active share in -the public weal was not followed by all the strictly devout Judæans, -the majority of whom, on the contrary, whilst firmly adhering to the -precepts of their faith, considered it a religious duty to further -the independence of their country. Thus there arose a division among -the pious, and a national party separated itself from the Assidæans -or Essenes, which did not avoid public life, but, according to its -strength and ability, took an active part in public affairs. The -members of this numerous sect began at this time to bear the name of -Pharisees (Perushim). But this sect, the very center, as it were, -of the nation, having above all things at heart the preservation -of Judaism in the exact form in which it had been handed down, -insisted upon all political undertakings, all public transactions, -every national act being tried by the standard of religion. To these -demands, however, those who stood at the head of military or diplomatic -affairs, and who saw how difficult it was always to deal with political -matters according to the strict claims of their faith, would not or -could not reconcile themselves. Thus a third party was formed--that -of the Sadducees (Zadukim)--the members of which, without forsaking -the religion, yet made the interests of the nation their chief care -and object. Of these sects--the Assidæan-Essenes, the Pharisees, and -the Sadducees--only the last two exerted a powerful influence upon -the course of events. At what precise period opposition began to show -itself among these several parties cannot be determined, as indeed the -birth of new spiritual tendencies must ever remain shrouded from view. -According to one account, the adverse parties first appeared at the -time of Jonathan. - -The Pharisees (Perushim) can only be called a party figuratively and -by way of distinction from the other two, for the mass of the nation -was inclined to Phariseeism, and it was only in the national leaders -that its peculiarities became marked. The Pharisees received their -name from the fact of their _explaining_ the Scriptures in a peculiar -manner, and of deriving new laws from this new interpretation. As -expounders of the law the Pharisees formed the learned body of the -nation. Their opinions were framed, their actions governed by one -cardinal principle--the necessity of preserving Judaism. The individual -and the State were to be ruled alike by the laws and customs of their -fathers. Every deviation from this principle appeared to the Pharisees -as treason to all that was most precious and holy. To their opponents, -the Sadducees, who argued that, unless other measures were used for -political purposes, weighty national interests would be often wrecked -by religious scruples, the Pharisees replied that the fate of the -State, like that of the individual, depended not upon man but upon -God. It was not human strength, nor human wisdom, nor the warrior's -prowess that could determine the weal or the woe of the Judæan people, -but Divine Providence alone. Everything happened according to the -eternal decrees of the Divine will. Man was responsible only for his -moral conduct and the individual path he trod. The results of all human -endeavors lay outside the range of human calculation. From this, the -Pharisees' view of life, the rival opinion of the Sadducees diverged; -whilst the Essenes, on the contrary, exaggerated it. Another view of -the Pharisees was probably directed against the following objection -urged by the Sadducees: If the fate of the individual or of the State -did not depend upon the actions of the one or the policy of the other, -there would be an end to Divine justice; misfortune might then assail -the righteous man, whilst the sun of happiness smiled upon the sinner. -This reproach the Pharisees set aside by the doctrine, borrowed from -another source, which taught that Divine justice would manifest itself -not during life but after death. God will rouse the dead out of the -sleep of the grave; He will reward the righteous according to their -works, and punish the wicked for their evil deeds. "Those will rise up -to everlasting life, and these to everlasting shame." - -These views, however, precisely because they concerned only the inner -convictions of men, did not mark the opposition between the parties -so clearly as did the third dogma of the Pharisees, establishing the -importance and all-embracing influence of religious injunctions. In a -nation whose breath of life was religion, many customs whose origin -was lost in the dim twilight of the past had taken their place by the -side of the written Law. If these customs were not found in the books -of the Law they were ascribed to the great teachers (the Sopherim and -the great assembly--Keneseth hagedolah), which, at the time of the -return of the Captivity, had given form and new vigor to the religious -sentiment, and at the head of which stands the illustrious expounder -of Scripture, Ezra. Such religious customs were called the legacies -of the teachers of the Law (Dibre Sopherim). All these unwritten -customs, which lived in the heart of the nation and, as it were, grew -with its growth, gained an extraordinary degree of importance from the -dangers that Judaism had encountered and the victories that it had -achieved. The people had risked, in behalf of these very customs, their -property and their life; and the martyrdom that many of the faithful -had undergone, and the antagonism they felt towards the renegade and -frivolous Hellenists, had much increased the reverence and attachment -with which these customs were regarded. The Temple, especially, which -had been so ruthlessly defiled and afterwards been reconsecrated -in so marvelous a manner, had become doubly precious to the whole -people, who were determined to keep it free from the faintest breath -of desecration. The Levitical rules of purity, so far as they related -to the Temple, were therefore observed with peculiar care and rigorous -strictness. - -But this devotion to outward forms and ceremonies by no means excluded -the religion of the heart. The Pharisees were acknowledged to be moral, -chaste, temperate and benevolent. In their administration of justice -they allowed mercy to prevail, and judged the accused not from the -point of view of moral depravity but from that of human weakness. The -following maxim was given by Joshua, the son of Perachia, one of the -leaders of the sect, who, with his companion, Matthai of Arbela, lived -in the time of Hyrcanus: "Take a teacher, win a friend, and judge every -man from the presumption of innocence." His high moral temperament -is indicated by this maxim. Their rigid adherence to the Law, and -their lenient mildness and indulgence in other matters, gained for -the Pharisees the deep veneration of the whole people. Of this sect -were the pious priests, the teachers of the Law, and, above all, the -magistrates, civil and religious, who at that time often combined both -offices in one. The whole inner direction of the State and the Temple -was in their hands. But the Pharisees owed their influence chiefly to -their knowledge of the Law and to the application they made of it to -the affairs of daily life, and they alone were called the interpreters -and teachers of the Law. The degrading charge of hypocrisy, which was -applied to them by their enemies in later times, they by no means -merited, and, indeed, it is altogether preposterous to stigmatize a -whole class of men as dissemblers. They were rather, in their origin, -the noblest guardians and representatives of Judaism and strict -morality. Even their rivals, the Sadducees, could not but bear witness -to the fact that "they denied themselves in this world, but would -hardly receive a reward in a future world." - -This party of the Sadducees, so sharply opposed to the Pharisees, -pursued a national-political policy. It was composed of the Judæan -aristocracy, the brave soldiers, the generals and the statesmen who -had acquired wealth and authority at home, or who had returned from -foreign embassies, all having gained, from closer intercourse with -the outer world and other lands, freer thought and more worldly -views. They formed the kernel of the Hasmonæan following, which in -peace or war faithfully served their leaders. This sect doubtless -included also some Hellenists, who, shrinking from the desertion of -their faith, had returned to Judaism. The Sadducees probably derived -their name from one of their leaders, Zadok. The national interests -of the Judæan community were placed by the Sadducees above the Law. -Burning patriotism was their ruling sentiment, and piety occupied but -the second place in their hearts. As experienced men of the world, -they felt that the independence of the State could not be upheld by -the strictest observance of the laws of religion alone, nor by mere -reliance upon Divine protection. They proceeded from this fundamental -principle: man must exert his bodily strength and his spiritual powers; -he must not allow himself to be kept back by religious scruples from -forming political alliances, or from taking part in wars, although -by so doing he must inevitably infringe some of the injunctions of -religion. According to the Sadducæan views, it was for that purpose -that God bestowed free will upon man so that he himself should work -out his own well-being; he is master of his fate, and human concerns -are not at all swayed by Divine interposition. Reward and punishment -are the natural consequences of our actions, and are therefore quite -independent of resurrection. Without exactly denying the immortality -of the soul, the Sadducees completely repudiated the idea of judgment -_after_ death. Oppressed by the abundance of religious ordinances, -they would not admit their general applicability nor the obligation -of keeping them. Pressed to give some standard by which the really -important decrees might be recognized, they laid down the following -rule: that only the ordinances which appeared clearly expressed in the -Pentateuch were binding. Those which rested upon oral tradition, or had -sprung up at various times, had a subordinate value and could not claim -to be inviolable. Still they could not help occasionally recognizing -the value of traditional interpretations. - -From a number of individual instances in which the Sadducees separated -themselves from their rivals, one can mark the extent of their -opposition to the latter. This appeared in their judiciary and penal -laws and in the ritual they adopted, their worship in the Temple -being in particular a subject of angry controversy. The Sadducees -thought that the punishment ordered by the Pentateuch for the -infliction of any bodily injury--"an eye for an eye, a tooth for a -tooth"--should be literally interpreted and followed out, and obtained -in consequence the reputation of being cruel administrators of justice; -whilst the Pharisees, appealing to traditional interpretations of -the Scriptures, allowed mercy to preponderate, and only required a -pecuniary compensation from the offender. The Sadducees, on the other -hand, were more lenient in their judgment of those false witnesses -whose evidence might have occasioned a judicial murder, as they only -inflicted punishment if the execution of the defendant had actually -taken place. There were many points relating to the ritual which were -warmly disputed by the two parties; for instance, the date of the Feast -of Weeks, which, according to the Sadducees, should always fall upon -a Sunday, fifty days from the Sabbath after the Passover; so also the -pouring of water on the altar and the processions round it with willow -branches during the seven days of the Feast of Tabernacles, which the -Pharisees advocated and the Sadducees rejected. The latter objected -to the providing of the national offerings out of the treasury of the -Temple, and insisted that the required sacrifices should be left to -the care and zeal of individuals. The manner in which the frankincense -should be kindled on the Day of Atonement, whether before or after the -entrance of the high priest into the Holy of Holies, was also the cause -of bitter strife. On these and other points of dispute the Sadducees -invariably followed the exact letter of the Law, which resulted in -their occasionally enforcing stricter rules than the Pharisees, who -have been so much abused for their rigid austerity. To one Levitical -injunction, however, they paid but little attention--that of carefully -avoiding the touch of any person or thing considered unclean--and when -their rivals purified the vessels of the Temple after they had been -subject to any contact of the sort, they ridiculed them, saying, "It -wants but little, and the Pharisees will try and cleanse the sun." - -In spite of the relief which these less stringent views gave the -people, the Sadducees were not popular; the feeling of the time was -against laxity and in favor of strict religious observance. Besides, -the Sadducees repelled their countrymen by their proud, haughty -demeanor and their severe judicial sentences. They never gained the -heart of the public, and it was only by force and authority that -they were able to make their principles prevail. At that period the -religious sentiment was so active that it gave birth to a religious -order which far surpassed even the Pharisees in strictness and painful -scrupulousness, and which became the basis of a movement that, mixing -with new elements, produced a revolution in the history of the world. -This order, which, from a small and apparently insignificant origin, -grew into a mighty power, destined to exert an irresistible influence, -was that of the Essenes. - -The origin of this remarkable Essene order, which called forth the -admiration even of the Greeks and the Romans, can be dated from -the period of great religious enthusiasm excited by the tyranny -and persecutions of the Syrians. The Essenes had never formed a -political party, but, on the contrary, avoided the glare and tumult -of public life. They did not place themselves in harsh antagonism -to the Pharisees, but rather assumed the position of a higher grade -of Pharisaism, to which party they originally belonged. They sprang -without doubt from the Assidæans, whom they resembled in their strict -observance of the Sabbath. In their eyes the mere act of moving a -vessel from one place to another would count as a desecration of that -holy day. Even the calls of nature were not attended to on that day. -They lived in all respects like the Nazarites, whose ideal it was to -attain the highest sanctity of priestly consecration. It was their -constant endeavor, not only to observe all the outward Levitical laws, -but to attain through them to inward sanctity and consecration, to -deaden their passions and to lead a holy life. The Levitical laws of -cleanliness had, through custom and tradition, developed to such a -pitch that their austere observers must have been in constant danger -of being defiled by contact with persons and objects; and bathing and -sacrifices were prescribed, through which they might recover a state of -purity. A life-long Nazarite, or, what is the same thing, an Essene, -was consequently obliged to avoid any intercourse with those who were -less strict than himself, lest he should be contaminated by their -proximity. Such considerations compelled him to frequent the society -of, and to unite himself with, those only who shared his views. To -keep their purity unspotted, the Essenes were thus induced to form -themselves into a separate order, the first rule of which commanded -implicit obedience to the laws of scrupulous cleanliness. It was only -those whose views coincided with their own who could be allowed to cook -food for them, and from such likewise had to be procured their clothes, -tools, implements of trade and other things, in order to ensure that, -in their manufacture, the laws of cleanliness had been duly carried -out. They were thus completely set apart by themselves; and, in order -to keep clear of any less strictly rigid observers, they thought it -advisable to have their meals in common. Thus the Passover supper, -which could be partaken of only in a circle of fellow-worshipers, must -have been their ideal repast. It was almost impossible for Essenes -to mix with women, as by the slightest contact with them they risked -coming under the Levitical condemnation of uncleanliness, and, led on -from one deduction to another, they began to avoid, if not to despise, -the married state. How was it possible for the Essenes to maintain -their excessive rigidity, especially in those warlike times? Not only -the pagan enemy, but even the Judæan warriors returning from the -battle-field, defiled by the touch of a corpse, might bring all their -precautions to naught. These fears may have induced the Essenes to seek -seclusion in some retired place, where they could remain unvexed by -the sounds of war and undisturbed in their mode of life by any of its -necessary incidents. They chose for their residence the desert to the -west of the Dead Sea, and settled in the oasis of Engadi. The fruit -of palm trees, which abound in this district, partly furnished their -simple fare. All the Assidæans did not join in the asceticism of the -Essenes, nor did all the Essenes betake themselves to the desert. Some -continued to live in their own family circles and did not renounce -marriage; but, in consequence of their rigid scruples, they were met -by many difficulties. - -Thus it was that celibacy and repasts held in common came to be -considered as the general and most important characteristics of the -Essenes. This mode of living led the Essenes to divest themselves -of all their private possessions. To a member of their sect private -property could be of no use; each one placed his fortune in the common -treasury, out of which the wants of the various members of the order -were supplied. Hence the proverb, "A Chassid says, 'Mine and thine -belong to thee'" (not to me). There were consequently neither rich nor -poor among them, and this lack of all concern about material matters -naturally led them to abstract their attention from everything mundane -and to concentrate it upon religious matters. They thus avoided more -and more all that pertained merely to the world, and followed with the -enthusiasm of recluses a visionary, ideal tendency. The Essenes were -distinguished also by other peculiarities. They were always clothed -in white linen. Each of them carried a small shovel, with which, like -the Israelites during their wanderings in the desert, they would cover -their excrements with earth and thus hide impurity from sight. They -also wore a sort of apron or handkerchief (knaphaim), with which to -dry themselves after their frequent ablutions. In order to remove even -unperceived impurities, they, like the priests before officiating in -the Temple, bathed every morning in fresh spring water; and from these -daily baths they were called "Morning Baptists" (_Toble Shacharith_). -The name Essene appears likewise to have been derived from this -peculiarity, as in the Chaldaic language it means a bather (_Aschai_, -pronounced _Assai_). - -These outward forms were, however, only the steps that were to lead -to inward purity and righteousness--the symbols of their close -communion with God; to which, according to the opinion of antiquity, -man could only attain by fleeing from the world, and devoting himself -to an ascetic mode of life. The utmost simplicity in food and dress, -abstinence, and the practice of morality and self-sacrifice were -certainly virtues which adorned the Essenes, but were not peculiar -to their sect, as they belonged equally to the Pharisees. The -distinguishing traits of the Essenes, however, were their frequent -prayers, their aversion to taking an oath, and their devoted pursuit -of a kind of mystic doctrine. Before saying their prayers no profane -word was permitted, and at the first dawn of day, after the _Shema_ had -been read, they assembled for quiet meditation, preparatory to what -was considered their real prayer, which was always to be a spontaneous -effusion of the heart. To the Essenes their repasts were a kind of -divine service, the table on which their food was spread, an altar, -and the fare which they partook of, a holy sacrifice, which they ate -in deep and pious meditation. No language of a worldly nature passed -their lips during their meals, and these were generally partaken of -in complete silence. This strange silence doubtless produced a great -impression upon those who did not belong to the order; the more so, -because the real nature of this exclusive sect was not known to its -contemporaries, and everything concerning it assumed a mysterious and -awful aspect. - -It was not, perhaps, at first the object of the Essenes to become -absorbed in mystic lore; but their asceticism, their intensely quiet -life, which gave them so much opportunity for meditation, their freedom -from family cares, and, lastly, their religious visionariness, made -them seek for other truths in Judaism than appear to less subtle -minds. The name of God was to them a subject of deep contemplation, -justified in some degree by the dread which existed among the Judæans -of pronouncing the name of the Almighty, formed of the four letters -J h w h. If the name of God be thus holy, surely something mysterious -must belong to the letters themselves. Thus reasoned the Essenes, whose -seclusion from the world gave them abundant leisure to ponder over -this sacred enigma. So holy was the name of God in their estimation -that they refused to take any oath which called for its use, and their -statements were attested by a simple "yes" or "no." In close connection -with the mystery attaching to the name of God was that which they -applied to the names of angels. The Essenes faithfully handed down -in their theosophic system the names, as well as the importance and -position of the various angels. When they endeavored to explain the -meaning of Holy Writ by their fantastic and newly discovered ideas, -what fresh phases must have presented themselves to their distorted -vision! Every word, every expression must have revealed a hitherto -unsuspected meaning; the most difficult questions as to the being of -God, and His relations to the heavenly powers and the lower creatures, -were explained. Through their indifference to all that concerned the -State, as well as the affairs of daily life, they gradually led Judaism -(dependent as it was on the establishment of national prosperity) into -the darkness and exaggerations of Mysticism. Their deep and mystic -reverence for the Prophet and Lawgiver Moses carried them to the -greatest excesses. His memory and name were endeared to all the Judæans -within and beyond Palestine. They took oaths in the name of Moses, -and bestowed that name on no other man. But the Essenes carried their -devotion to such an extreme that he who spoke against the name of Moses -was treated as one who blasphemed God. - -The final aim of the Essenes was, without doubt, the attainment to -prophetic ecstasy so that they might become worthy of the Divine Spirit -(_Ruach ha-Kodesh_). The Essenes believed that through an ascetic life -they might re-awaken the long-silent echo of the Heavenly voice, and -this end gained, prophecy would be renewed, men and youths would again -behold Divine visions, once more see the uplifting of the veil which -hides the future, and the great Messianic kingdom would be revealed. -The kingdom of Heaven (_Malchuth Shamaim_) would commence, and all the -pain and trouble of the times would, at one stroke, be at an end. - -The Essenes were considered not only holy men (on account of their -peculiar mode of life and visionary views), but they were also admired -as workers of miracles. People hung upon their words and hoped for -the removal of impending evils through their means. Some of the -Essenes bore the reputation of being able to reveal the future and -interpret dreams; they were reverenced yet more by the ignorant, on -account of their miraculous cures of so-called "possessed" persons. -The intercourse of the Judæans with the Persians had brought with it, -together with a belief in the existence of angels, a superstitious -belief in malicious demons (_Shedim_, _Mazikin_). Imbeciles were -thought to be possessed by evil demons, who could only be exorcised by -a magic formula; and all extraordinary illnesses were attributed to -such demons, for which the advice of the wonder-worker, and not that -of the doctor, was sought. The Essenes occupied themselves with cures, -exorcisms, etc., and sought their remedies in a book (_Sefer Refuoth_) -which was attributed to King Solomon, whom the nation considered as the -master of evil spirits. Their curative remedies consisted partly in -softly-spoken incantations and verses (_Lechis'ha_), and partly in the -use of certain roots and stones supposed to possess magic power. Thus -the Essenes united the highest and the lowest aims,--the endeavor to -lead a pious life and the most vulgar superstitions. Their exaggerated -asceticism and fear of contact with others of a different mode of life -caused a morbidly unhealthy development among them. - -The more rationally-minded Pharisees paid them but little attention; -they made sport of the "foolish Chassid." Although sprung from a -common root, the more the Pharisees and Essenes developed, the more -widely they diverged. The one party saw in marriage a holy institution -appointed for the good of mankind, and the other an obstacle to a -thoroughly religious life. The Pharisees recognized man's free will in -thought and action, and consequently deemed him responsible for his -moral conduct. The Essenes, on the contrary, confined to the narrow -circle of their self-same, daily-repeated duties, came to believe in -a sort of divine fatalism, which not only governed the destiny of -mankind but also ruled the acts of each individual. The Essenes avoided -the Temple, the worship practised there being framed according to the -doctrines of the Pharisees and unable to satisfy their ideals. They -sent their offerings to the Temple, and thus fulfilled the duty of -sacrificing without being themselves present at the ceremony. With -them, patriotism became more and more subordinate to the devotion -they felt towards their own order, and thus by degrees they loosed -themselves from the strong bands of nationality. There lay concealed in -Essenism an element antagonistic to existing Judaism, unsuspected by -friends or foes. - -The Essenes had no influence whatever upon political events. Their -number was small, and even at the time of their greatest prosperity the -order consisted only of about four thousand members. Consequent upon -the life of celibacy which they adopted, the losses made by death in -their ranks could not naturally be replaced. To avoid dwindling away -entirely, they had recourse to the expedient of enrolling novices and -making proselytes. The new member was admitted with great solemnity, -and presented with the white garment, the apron, and the shovel, the -symbols of Essenism. The novice was not allowed, however, to enter -immediately into the community, but was subjected by degrees to an ever -stricter observance of the laws of abstinence and purity. There were -three probationary degrees to be passed through before a new member was -received into complete brotherhood. At his admission the novice swore -to follow the mode of life of the Essenes, to keep conscientiously and -to deliver faithfully the secret teachings of their order. He who was -found to be unworthy was expelled. - -The unfriendly relationship between the Pharisees and Sadducees did not -exist in the time of Hyrcanus. He made use of both parties according -to their capabilities--the Sadducees as soldiers or diplomatists, and -the Pharisees as teachers of the Law, judges, and functionaries in -civil affairs. The one honored Hyrcanus as the head of the State, the -other as the pious high priest. In fact, Hyrcanus personally favored -the Pharisees, but as prince he could not quarrel with the Sadducees, -among whom he found his soldiers, his generals and his counselors. -Their leader Jonathan was his devoted friend. Until old age crept on -him, Hyrcanus managed to solve the difficult problem of keeping in a -state of amity two parties that were always on the verge of quarreling. -He understood how to prevent either party from gaining the upper hand -and persecuting its rival. But (as too often happens in such difficult -situations) a word, a breath can upset the best-arranged plans, -bringing to naught the most skilful calculations, and the slowly, -carefully built edifice falls and crumbles in a day. A heedless word -of this kind turned the zealous follower of Pharisaism into its bitter -opponent. In the last years of his life Hyrcanus went quite over to the -Sadducees. - -The cause of this change, which brought such unspeakable misery to -the Judæan nation, was trivial in comparison with its results; but -the antagonism of the two parties, which could only with the utmost -difficulty be kept from breaking out into open discord, gave it a -terrible and far-reaching importance. Hyrcanus had just returned from -a glorious victory over one of the many nations in the northeast of -Peræa (Kochalit?). Rejoicing in the happy result of his arms and in -the flourishing state of his country, he ordered a feast to be held, -to which he invited without distinction the leaders of the Sadducees -and Pharisees. Around golden dishes laden with food were placed various -plants that grew in the desert, to remind the guests of the hardships -they had endured under the Syrian yoke, when the nobles of the land -were obliged to hide themselves in the wilderness. Whilst the guests -were feasting, Hyrcanus asked if the Pharisees could reproach him for -any transgression of the Law? If so, he desired to be told in what -he had failed. Was this apparent humility only a cunningly-devised -plan to discover the real disposition of the Pharisees towards him? -Had the Sadducees inspired him with suspicion against the Pharisees, -and advised him to find some way of proving the sincerity of their -attachment? In reply to the challenge thus thrown out, a certain -Eleazer ben Poira arose and bluntly answered, "Hyrcanus should content -himself with the crown of royalty, and should place on a worthier head -the high priest's diadem. During an attack on Modin by the Syrians his -mother, before his birth, was taken prisoner, and it is not fitting -for the son of a prisoner to be a priest--much less the High Priest!" -Although inwardly wounded by so outspoken an insult to his pride, -Hyrcanus had sufficient self-possession to appear to agree with the -bold speaker and ordered the matter to be examined. It was, however, -proved to be an empty report; in fact, without the slightest foundation. - -Hyrcanus's anger was doubly roused against the Pharisees through the -care taken by the Sadducees and his devoted friend Jonathan to persuade -him that the former had invented the story purposely to lower him in -the eyes of the people. Anxious to find out if the aspersion cast on -his fitness for the high-priesthood was the act of the whole party -or only the slander of an individual, he demanded that their leading -men should punish the calumniator, and expected that the chastisement -inflicted would be in proportion to his own exalted rank. But the -Pharisees knew of no special penalty for the slanderer of royalty, and -their judges only awarded him the lawful punishment of thirty-nine -lashes. Jonathan, the leader of the Sadducees, failed not to use this -circumstance as a means to rake up the fire in Hyrcanus's breast. -He led him to see in this mild judgment of the court a deep-rooted -aversion entertained by the Pharisees against him, thus estranging him -completely from his former friends, and binding him heart and soul to -the Sadducees. There is probably some exaggeration in the account of -Hyrcanus's persecution of the adherents of the Pharisees, and of his -setting aside all the decrees of the latter. There is, however, more -truth in another report, from which we learn that Hyrcanus had deposed -the Pharisees from the various high posts they had filled. The offices -belonging to the Temple, to the courts of law and to the high council -were given to the followers of the Sadducees. But this stroke of policy -produced the saddest results. Naturally enough it awakened in the -hearts of the Pharisees, and of the people who sided with them, a deep -hatred against the house of the Hasmonæans, which bore civil war in its -train and hastened the nation's decline. One act had been sufficient to -cast a cloud over the brilliant days of the Hasmonæans. - -Hyrcanus lived but a short time after these events. He died in the -thirty-first year of his reign, the sixtieth year of his age (106), -leaving five sons, Aristobulus, Antigonus, Alexander, Absalom, and -one other, whose name has not come down to us. Hyrcanus bore some -resemblance to his prototype Solomon, inasmuch as that, after the -death of both, dissensions broke out and the country became a prey to -constant strife and discord. - - - - -CHAPTER II. - -HYRCANUS'S SUCCESSORS, ARISTOBULUS I, ALEXANDER JANNÆUS, AND SALOME -ALEXANDRA. - - Character of Aristobulus--Antigonus--Mythical Account of his - Death--Alexander Jannæus: his Character and Enterprises--His - Support of the Pharisees--Simon ben Shetach--Alexander's - Breach with the Pharisees, and its Consequences--His - last Wars and Death--Salome Alexandra's Relations to the - Opposing Parties--The Synhedrion--Judah ben Tabbai and Simon - ben Shetach--Institutions against the Sadducees--Party - Hatred--Diogenes--Persecution of the Sadducees--Death of - Alexandra. - - 106.69 B. C. E. - - -John Hyrcanus had proclaimed his wife queen, and his eldest son, Judah, -high priest. The latter is better known by his Greek name Aristobulus, -for he, like his brothers and successors, bore a Greek as well as a -Hebrew name. But it was soon evident that the Greek custom of placing a -female ruler at the head of the State was not looked upon with favor in -Judæa. Thus Aristobulus was able to remove his mother from her official -position without creating any disturbance, and he then united in his -own person the two dignities of ruler and high priest. It is said that -he was the first of the Hasmonæans to assume the royal title; but this -title did not add in any way to his power or his importance. His coins, -indeed, which have since been discovered, bear only the following -inscription, "The High Priest Judah, and the Commonwealth of the -Judæans," and they are engraved with the same emblem as those of his -father, viz., a cornucopia, although this symbol of plenty was hardly a -truthful characteristic of the times. - -The seed of discord sown by Hyrcanus grew and spread alarmingly in the -reigns of his descendants. In vain did the successive rulers attempt -to raise the importance of the royal dignity, in vain did they surround -themselves with a body-guard of trusty hirelings and perform the most -brilliant feats of valor, the breach between them and their subjects -became irreparable, and no remedy proved effectual. The royal house and -the people were no longer at one; political life was separated from -religious life, and the two were pursuing opposite paths. - -The king, Aristobulus, not only supplanted his mother upon the -throne, but he also imprisoned her with three of his brothers. His -brother Antigonus alone, of like temperament to himself and his -companion-in-arms, whom he tenderly loved, was permitted to take part -in the government. In spite of the meager and unsatisfactory accounts -of his short reign, we may gather from them that he followed the -example of his father's last years, in remaining closely connected -with the Sadducees, and in keeping the Pharisees from all power and -influence. Aristobulus had but few friends in his own family, and he -does not appear to have been beloved by his subjects. The fact of his -having had a decided preference for Hellenism accounts for his surname, -which was honored by the Greeks and hated by the Judæans--"Friend -of the Hellenes." This one characteristic gave such offense to the -people that they were ready to ascribe to him the authorship of any -evil deed that might occur in the kingdom. Whilst the Greeks called -him fair-minded and modest, the Judæans accused him of heartlessness -and cruelty. His mother expired during her imprisonment, possibly of -old age; evil report whispered that her own son was guilty of having -allowed her to die of starvation. His favorite brother, Antigonus, was -foully murdered (probably through the intrigues of the party hostile to -the Hasmonæans); sharp-tongued calumny affirmed that the king, jealous -of him, was the author of the foul deed, and tradition has woven a web -of tragic incidents round the sad fate of Antigonus. But of this later. - -Aristobulus had inherited not only his father's military ability, but -also his plans of extending Judæa in a northeasterly direction. The -Ituræans and the Trachonites, who often left their mild, pastoral -pursuits for the rougher trade of war, occupied the district -surrounding the gigantic Mount Hermon, and eastwards as far as -the lovely plain of Damascus. Against these half-barbaric tribes -Aristobulus undertook a campaign, probably continuing what his father -had commenced. His brother Antigonus, in whose company he had won his -first laurels when fighting against the Samaritans and the Syrians, was -once more his companion-in-arms. The fortunes of war were favorable to -Aristobulus, as they had been to his father; he acquired new territory -for Judæa, and, like his father, forced the Judæan religion upon the -conquered people. Continued conquests in the same direction would have -put the caravan roads leading from the land of the Euphrates to Egypt -into the hands of the Judæans; which possession, combined with the -warlike courage of the inhabitants and the defensive condition of the -fortresses, might have permitted Judæa to attain an important position -among the nations. But, as though it had been decreed by Providence -that Judæa should not gain influence in such a manner, Aristobulus -was forced by severe illness to abandon his conquests and to return -to Jerusalem. Antigonus, it is true, carried on the war successfully -for some little time; but after his return to the capital, for the -celebration of the festivals in the approaching month of Tishri, -neither he nor his royal brother was fated ever again to tread the -arena of war. Antigonus fell, as was mentioned previously, by the hand -of an assassin, and Aristobulus died of a malignant disease, after a -reign of one year (106-105). - -The deaths of the two brothers following in close succession gave -evil-tongued calumny the opportunity of inventing the following -fearful tragedy: It was said that the opponents of Antigonus seized -the occasion of his triumphal return to excite the suffering king's -jealousy. Aristobulus, while still reposing confidence in his brother, -sent for Antigonus, and intimated that he should appear unarmed. For -greater protection he had his body-guard stationed in one of the -passages, and gave orders that Antigonus was to be dispatched forthwith -if he should enter armed. The queen, who hated Antigonus, made use of -this order for the destruction of her brother-in-law, for she persuaded -him to go fully equipped to the king's chamber, and in one of the dark -passages of the tower of Straton the foul deed was executed. When the -king heard that his commands had been carried out he was violently -affected, and his grief caused a hemorrhage. His servant, in carrying -away a vessel filled with the blood that he had lost, slipped upon the -floor of the antechamber, still wet with the blood of the assassinated -man, and, dropping the vessel, caused the blood of the two brothers to -mingle. This accident was said to have had so overpowering an effect -upon the king's mind that he instantly declared himself to be his -brother's murderer, and the agony of remorse was the final cause of his -death. Tradition adds that an Essene seer of the name of Judah had not -only predicted the violent death of Antigonus, but also that it would -take place in the tower of Straton. - -The commencement of the reign of Aristobulus's successor is involved in -legend. From this we gather that Alexander, whose Judæan name Jannaï -(Jannæus) is the abbreviation of Jonathan, had not only been imprisoned -by his brother, but had been so hated by his father that he had been -banished to Galilee. This was the result of a dream, in which it had -been revealed to John Hyrcanus that his third son would one day be king -of Judæa. The widow of Aristobulus is said to have released him from -prison, and to have given him her hand with the crown. But in that case -Alexander would have married a widow, which it was unlawful for him, -as high priest, to do. It is more probable that Alexander ascended the -throne, being the nearest heir to it, without the aid of the widow of -Aristobulus. Nor is there any foundation for the story that Alexander -commenced his reign by the murder of a brother with whom he had -actually shared the sufferings of his captivity. Alexander appears to -have begun by studying the people's wishes, for the Pharisees were once -more allowed to appear at court. Simon ben Shetach, the brother of his -wife, Queen Salome, the champion of the Pharisees, was constantly in -the king's presence. - -Alexander Jannæus, who came to the throne at the age of twenty-three, -was as warlike as the family from which he sprung, but he was wanting -in the generalship and the judgment of his ancestors. He rushed madly -into military undertakings, thus weakening the power of the people, -and bringing the State more than once to the verge of destruction. The -seven and twenty years of his reign were passed in foreign and civil -wars, and were not calculated to increase the material prosperity of -the nation. His good luck, however, was greater than his ability, for -it enabled him to extricate himself from many a critical position into -which he had brought himself, and also, upon the whole, to enlarge the -territory of Judæa. Like his father, he employed mercenaries for his -wars, whom he hired from Pisidia and Cilicia. He did not dare enroll -Syrian troops, the hatred that existed between Judæans and Syrians -being too deeply ingrained to permit the harmonious working of the two -to be counted upon. - -Alexander's attention was principally directed to the seaports which -had managed to free themselves from Syrian rule, owing to the rivalry -that existed between the two half-brothers, Antiochus Grypus and -Cyzicenus. He was particularly anxious to possess himself of the -thickly-populated and important seaport town of Ptolemaïs, colonized by -Judæans. Whilst his troops overran the district of Gaza, then under the -dominion of Zoïlus, a captain of mercenaries, he pressed the seaport -town himself with a persistent siege. The inhabitants of Ptolemaïs -turned for help to the Egyptian prince Ptolemy Lathurus, who, at open -warfare with his mother, had seized upon Cyprus. Lathurus, glad to have -found an opportunity of acquiring greater power, and of being able -at the same time to approach the caravan roads of Egypt, hastened to -send thirty thousand men to the Judæan coast. He chose a Sabbath day -for victoriously driving the Judæan army, consisting of at least fifty -thousand men, from Asochis, near Sepphoris, back to the Jordan. More -than thirty thousand of Alexander's troops remained on the field of -battle, many were taken prisoners, whilst the others fled. Lathurus, -with part of his army, marched through Judæa, slaughtering the -inhabitants, without sparing women or children. He wished not only to -revenge himself upon Alexander, but also upon the Judæans, for had they -not been his enemies in Egypt? Accho likewise surrendered, and Gaza -voluntarily opened its gates to him. - -This crushing defeat would doubtless have brought Judæa into the most -revolting slavery, had not Cleopatra attempted to snatch the fruit of -her son's triumphs from him before he could turn them against herself. -She sent a mighty army against Lathurus, under the command of two -Judæan generals, Helkias and Ananias, the two sons of Onias, to whom -she was indebted for the integrity of her crown. Helkias died during -the campaign, and his brother took his place in the council and in -the field. The position of trust occupied by Ananias was of distinct -advantage to his compatriots in Judæa. Cleopatra had been urged not -to lose the favorable opportunity, when Judæa was unable to forego -her help, of invading that country and of dethroning Alexander. But -Ananias was indignant at this advice. He not only pointed out the -disgrace of such faithlessness, but he made the queen understand the -evil consequences that would follow upon such a step. Many Egyptian -Judæans, who were the upholders of her throne against the threatened -attacks of her son, would make common cause with her enemies, were she -to strike a blow at the independence of their country. His words even -contained the menace that he would, in such case, not only withhold his -political knowledge and his generalship from her interests, but that he -might possibly devote them to the cause of her opponents. This language -had its desired effect upon the queen; she rejected the cunning advice -of the enemies of the Jews, and made an offensive and defensive league -with Alexander at Bethzur (98). Lathurus was obliged to leave Judæa and -to retreat with his army to Cyprus. All the cities that had resisted -the arms of the Judæan king were now visited by his wrath. - -But he was, above all things, determined upon retaking Gaza. This -object was accomplished only after a year of desperate fighting, and -was finally brought about by an act of treachery. All the cruelty -inherent in Alexander was poured out upon the besieged inhabitants of -Gaza. He executed some of the most distinguished amongst them, and the -terror he inspired was so great that many of the men killed their own -wives and children to prevent them from falling into Judæan slavery -(96). - -The nine years of Alexander's reign had been too prolific in dangerous -and perplexing situations to allow of his disturbing the internal -harmony of his country. He appears to have been strictly neutral in -the strife that was raging between the Pharisees and Sadducees. His -wife Salome may have exercised her influence in urging him to maintain -this neutral position, as she was a warm partisan of the once-hated -Pharisees. - -Alexander appears to have made Simon ben Shetach the mediator between -the two parties; the Pharisees being still somewhat in the background, -and the Sadducees holding posts of trust. Ever since John Hyrcanus's -secession from Pharisaism, the Great Council had been composed of -Sadducæan members, and as long as one party was thus openly preferred -to the other, peace and reconciliation seemed impossible. The king may, -therefore, have been inspired by the wish to bring about some kind of -equality between the two parties by dividing offices and dignities -between them. But the Pharisees positively refused to act conjointly -with their opponents and offered the most active resistance. Simon -ben Shetach alone allowed himself to be chosen member of the Council, -secretly determining to purge it by degrees of its Sadducæan element. - -Alexander's impartial conduct continued only so long as the critical -position drew his attention away from home affairs. It changed visibly -when he returned from his campaign, the conqueror of cities and -provinces deeming himself the despotic master of his people. Either -the newly acquired influence of the Pharisees threatened to be an -obstacle in his path, or he may have wished to reward and attract the -Sadducees upon whom he might rely for carrying on his campaigns, or he -may have been influenced by his favorite, the Sadducee Diogenes; at -all events, Alexander appeared as the inveterate opponent of Pharisaic -teaching, and made his views public in a most insulting manner. Whilst -officiating as high priest, during the Feast of Tabernacles, it was -his duty, in accordance with an ancient custom, to pour the contents -of a ewer of water upon the altar as an emblem of fruitfulness. But in -order to show his contempt for a ceremony considered by the Pharisees -as a religious one, Alexander poured the water at his feet. Nothing -more was required to ignite the wrath of the congregation assembled in -the outer court of the Temple. With reckless indignation they threw -the branches and the fruit, which they carried in their hands in honor -of the festival, at the heretical king, denouncing him as an unworthy -high priest. Alexander would certainly have paid for this disgraceful -action with his life had he not called in the help of the Pisidian and -Cilician mercenaries, who had been ordered to be in waiting, and who -fell upon the congregation, slaughtering 6000 within the precincts -of the Temple (95). In order to avoid a repetition of such scenes, -Alexander thenceforth prevented the worshipers from entering the court -of sacrifices, by building up a partition wall. But these events gave -rise to an implacable hatred between the king and the Pharisees. Thus, -after three generations, the descendants of the great Hasmonæans had -so far weakened the edifice raised at the expense of their ancestors' -lives, that it appears marvelous how it could have continued to resist -such repeated attacks. The bitter rivalry of the two kingdoms of Judah -and Israel in the days of Rehoboam and Jeroboam was repeated in the -history of the Pharisees and the Sadducees. - -But Alexander did not see the breach that his hand had childishly and -ruthlessly made; absorbed in magnificent schemes of future conquest he -ignored the fact that if the harmonious intercourse between the king -and his subjects, the very life of the State, were to cease, greater -possessions would but weaken and not strengthen the kingdom. He had -set his heart upon invading the trans-Jordanic land, still called -Moabitis, and the southeastern provinces of the sea of Tiberias, called -Galaditis or Gaulonitis. But his progress in this campaign was checked -by the Nabathæan king Obeda, who lured him into a pathless country -broken up by ravines, where Alexander's army found its destruction, -and where the king himself escaped only with his life to Jerusalem -(about 94). There the wrath of the Pharisees awaited him. They had -excited the people to revolt, and six years of bloody uprisings against -him were the consequence (94-89). Alexander succeeded in putting -down one revolt after another by the aid of his mercenaries, but the -horrible butcheries that took place on these occasions were a perpetual -incentive to fresh uprisings. Alexander, worn out at length by these -sanguinary proceedings, offered to make peace with the Pharisees. It -was now, however, their turn to reject the proffered hand of peace, -and to be guilty of an act of treachery towards their country which -must remain as an indelible stain upon their party. Upon Alexander's -question as to what conditions of peace they required, the Pharisaic -leaders answered that the first condition was the death of the king. -They had, in fact, secretly offered their aid to the Syrian monarch -Eucærus to humble Alexander. Summoned by their promises, Eucærus -advanced upon Judæa with 40,000 infantry and 3000 cavalry. Upon the -news of this impending danger, Alexander marched out at the head of -20,000 infantry and 1000 cavalry. In the terrible encounter that ensued -at Shechem, Judæan fought against Judæan, Greek against Greek, for -each army remained true to its leader and could not be bribed into -desertion. The battle, disastrous for both sides, was finally gained by -Eucærus, and Alexander was driven, through the loss of his mercenaries, -to wander among the mountain-passes of Ephraim. There, his solitary -position moved his people to pity, and six thousand of his Pharisaic -opponents left the Syrian camp and went over to their king, who was now -able to force Eucærus's retreat from Judæa. - -But the more relentless amongst the Pharisees still held out against -Alexander, and after an unsuccessful battle in the open field, threw -themselves for safety into the fortress of Bethome, which, however, -they were obliged to surrender. Urged by his Sadducæan favorite -Diogenes, and impelled by his own thirst for revenge, the king had -eight hundred Pharisees crucified in one day. Tradition even relates -that the wives and children of the victims were butchered before their -eyes, and that Alexander, surrounded by his minions, feasted in the -presence of this scene of carnage. But this exaggeration of cruelty was -not required to brand him with the name of "Thracian"; the crucifixion -of eight hundred men was enough to stigmatize him as a heartless -butcher, and this action alone was to bring forth bitter fruits for the -Sadducees who had witnessed it with malicious joy. During the civil -wars that had lasted for six years, fifty thousand men of both parties -had been sacrificed, but the Pharisees had suffered most. The remaining -Pharisees trembled for their lives, and the night after the crucifixion -of the eight hundred, eight thousand fled from Judæa, part of them to -Syria and part to Egypt. - -The weakness of Alexander's position may readily be gauged by the fact -of his powerlessness to prevent Judæa from being made the seat of -war by the kings of Nabathæa and Syria. Yet his good fortune did not -forsake him, for a sudden change in the affairs of Syria, resulting in -the overthrow of its king, Aretas, worked to Alexander's advantage. -Thereby he was enabled to engage in the siege of some important -towns, colonized by Greeks and subject to Aretas: Diospolis, Pella -and Gerasa. Marching north, he invaded the lower Gaulonitis, with its -capital, Gamala, the upper province, with the town of Sogane, and the -city of Seleucia. He forced the inhabitants of these towns to accept -Judaism and the sign of the covenant. The city of Pella, making a -show of resistance, was destroyed. He also recovered the cities lying -east of the Red Sea, which had been taken from him by Aretas. The -territory of Judæa now embraced within its circumference a number of -important towns; it extended on the other side of the Jordan, from -Seleucia in the north to Zoar, the city of palms, south of the Dead -Sea; from Rhinokolura and Raphia in the south, on the shores of the -Mediterranean, to the mountains of Carmel in the northwest. The cities -on the sea-coast were of the most importance. Alexander ordered some -coins to be struck for his Greek subjects, with the Greek inscription, -"KING ALEXANDER," while an anchor was stamped upon one side, and upon -the other, in Hebrew characters, "JONATHAN THE KING" (Jehonathan -ha-Melech). His coins of an earlier date bore the same inscription as -those of his predecessors, "THE HIGH PRIEST JONATHAN, THE COMMONWEALTH -OF THE JUDÆANS." - -After a campaign of three years' duration Alexander returned to -Jerusalem, where he was received with the honors due to a conqueror. He -had caused his crimes in part to be forgiven. In the very center of the -kingdom, on a mount near the Jordan, he built a strong fortress, called -after him, ALEXANDRION; and in the neighborhood of the Dead Sea, upon -a towering height, protected on all sides by deep ravines, he raised -the citadel of Machærus, the formidable guardian of his trans-Jordanic -conquests. These two mountain fortresses, together with the third, -Hyrcanion, built by John Hyrcanus, on Middle Mountain, were so amply -fortified by nature and by art that they were considered impregnable. - -Even in the last years of Alexander's reign, although he was suffering -from an intermittent fever, he undertook the siege of some of the yet -unconquered fortresses of the trans-Jordanic territory. During the -siege of Argob, however, he was seized with so severe an attack that -he was forced to prepare himself for death. The solemnity of his last -hours led him to look upon his former actions in a new light. He was -horror-stricken to think how cruelly and foolishly he had persecuted -the Pharisees, and how in consequence he had alienated himself from -his people. He earnestly enjoined upon his queen, whom he declared -regent, to connect herself closely with the Pharisees, to surround -herself with counselors from their ranks, and not to embark in any -undertaking without having their consent. He also impressed upon her -to keep his death secret from his army until the beleaguered fortress -should have fallen, and then to resign his body to the Pharisees, that -they might either vent their rage upon it or else generously inter it. -From an obscure but more authentic source we gather that Alexander -sought to allay the queen's anxiety with regard to the party strife -rampant in Jerusalem by the following words: "Do not fear either the -true Pharisees or their honest opponents, but be on your guard against -hypocrites of both sides (the counterfeit ones), who, when they -commit sins, like the dissolute Prince Zimri, expect to be rewarded -like Phineas, who was zealous for the Law." Alexander died in the -forty-ninth year of his life and the twenty-seventh of his reign (79), -and left two sons, Hyrcanus and Aristobulus. The Pharisees ungenerously -appointed the anniversary of his death as a day of rejoicing. - -It was indeed most fortunate for the Judæan nation that a woman of -gentle nature and sincere piety should have been called to the head of -the State after it had been torn asunder by the recklessness of its -former ruler. She came like the refreshing dew to an arid and sunburnt -soil. The excited passions and the bitter hatred of the two parties -had time to abate during her reign, and the country rose above narrow -partisanship to the worthier occupation of advancing the common welfare -of the nation. Although Queen Salome, or, as she was called, Alexandra, -was devoted with her whole soul to the Pharisees, entrusting them -with the management of home affairs, yet she was far from persecuting -the opposing party. Her authority was so greatly respected by the -neighboring princes that they did not dare make war with Judæa, and she -shrewdly succeeded in keeping a mighty conqueror, who had possessed -himself of Syria, from the confines of her own kingdom. Even the -heavens, during the nine years of her reign, showered their blessings -upon the land. The extraordinarily large grains of wheat gathered -during this time in the fields of Judæa were kept and exhibited during -many subsequent years. The queen ordered coins to be struck, bearing -the same emblems as her predecessors, with the Greek inscription, -"QUEEN ALEXANDRA." On the whole, her reign passed peacefully and -happily. The Law, which had fallen into great neglect, became a fixed -institution, and if it occasionally affected the Sadducees, who were -constantly breaking it, they could not consider themselves victims of -caprice. The crowded prisons were opened; the Pharisees returned from -exile, with their narrowed vision widened by the experience they had -gained in foreign lands. - -Salome Alexandra proclaimed her eldest son Hyrcanus high priest; he was -a weak prince, whose private life was irreproachable, but who was not -fitted for a public post of importance. - -Simon ben Shetach, the brother of the queen, the oracle of the -Pharisaic party, stood high in her favor. So great a part did he play -in the history of that time that it was called by many "the days -of Simon ben Shetach and of Queen Salome." The chief post in the -Council of Seventy, hitherto possessed by the high priest, was now, -however, given up to the Pharisees by order of the queen. The Nasi, -or president of the Great Council, was from this time on, as a rule, -the most learned and the most respected of the Pharisees. No one, of -course, could lay juster claim to this distinction than Simon ben -Shetach. But Simon was not an ambitious man, and he determined to waive -his own rights of precedence in favor of Judah ben Tabbai, who was -then residing in Alexandria, of whose profound learning and excellent -character he had formed a high estimate. The Alexandrian Judæan -community had probably entrusted this celebrated Palestinean scholar -with some important office. A flattering epistle was sent to Judah, -inviting him to return to Jerusalem and was couched in this form: -"From me, Jerusalem, the holy city, to thee, Alexandria: my spouse -dwells with thee, I am forsaken." Judah ben Tabbai responded to this -appeal by hastening to Jerusalem. With the help of Simon he undertook -the reorganization of the Council, the improvement of administration -of the law, the re-establishment of neglected religious observances, -the furthering of education, and generally the fashioning of such -regulations as the times required. Like Ezra and Nehemiah of old, -these two zealous men insisted upon a return to the strictest form of -Judaism; and, if they were often obliged to employ severe and violent -measures, these are not to be accounted to any personal malice, but to -the sternness of the age itself. They were indeed scrupulously strict -in their own conduct, and in directing those closely connected with -them. From the days of Judah ben Tabbai and Simon ben Shetach, the rule -of Judæan Law, according to the views of the Pharisees, may be said to -have begun, and it grew and developed under each succeeding generation. -These two celebrated men have therefore been called "Restorers of the -Law," who "brought back to the Crown (the Law) its ancient splendor." - -Their work commenced with the reorganization of the Synhedrion. The -Sadducæan members were deprived of their seats, the penal code which -they had added to the Biblical penal laws was set aside, and the old -traditionary methods again made valid. The people had nothing to -complain of in this change, for they hated the severity of the "eye -for eye" punishment of the Sadducees. On the other hand, certain -days of rejoicing, disregarded by the Sadducees, were proclaimed as -half-holidays by the Pharisees. Witnesses in the law courts were no -longer to be questioned merely upon the place where and the time when -they had seen a crime committed, but they were expected to give the -most detailed and minute evidence connected with it, so that the judge -might be better able to pronounce a correct judgment and to detect the -contradictory statements of witnesses. This was particularly designed -as a protection against the charges of informers, who were numerous -enough in an age when conquerors and the conquered were constantly -changing parts. A salutary measure also was enforced to lessen the -number of divorce cases, which the literal interpretation of the -Pentateuchal divorce laws, as administered by the Sadducees, had failed -in doing. The High Court, as reorganized by the Pharisees, ordered the -husband to give his repudiated wife a certain sum of money, by which -she could support herself, and, as there was but little current coin -amongst a people whose wealth consisted principally in the fruits of -the soil or in cattle, the husband would often pause before allowing a -momentary fit of passion or excitement to influence his actions. - -One of the reforms of this time expressly attributed to Simon ben -Shetach was the promotion of better instruction. In all large towns, -high schools for the use of young men from the age of sixteen sprung up -at his instance. But all study, we may presume, was entirely confined -to the Holy Scriptures, and particularly to the Pentateuch and the -study of the Law. Many details or smaller points in the Law which had -been partly forgotten and partly neglected during the long rule of the -Sadducees, that is to say, from Hyrcanus's oppression of the Pharisees -until the commencement of Salome's reign, were once more introduced -into daily life. Neglected customs were renewed with all pomp and -solemnity, the days of their re-introduction being celebrated with -rejoicing, and any public mourning or fast thereon was suspended. Thus -the ceremony of pouring a libation of water upon the altar during the -Feast of Tabernacles, which had been mockingly ridiculed by Alexander, -was in time reinstated with enthusiasm, and became a favorite and -distinctive rite. Upon these occasions, on the night succeeding the -first day of the festival, the women's outer court of the Temple was -brilliantly illuminated until it glowed like a sea of fire. All the -people would then crowd to the holy mount to witness or take part -in the proceedings. At times these bore a lively character, such as -torch-light processions and dancing; at others they took the more -solemn form of musical services of song and praise. This jubilee would -last the whole night. At break of day the priests announced with a -blast of their trumpets that the march was about to commence. At every -halting-place the trumpets gathered the people together, until a huge -multitude stood assembled round the spring of Siloah. Thence the water -was drawn in a golden ewer. In solemn procession it was carried back to -the Temple, where the libation was performed. The water streamed over -the altar, and the notes of the flute, heard only upon the most joyful -occasions, mingled with the rapturous strains of melody that burst from -countless instruments. - -A similar national festival was the half-holiday of the wood-feast, -held in honor of the wood that was offered to the altar of the -Temple; it fell upon the fifteenth day of Ab (August). A number of -white-robed maidens were wont to assemble upon this occasion in some -open space among the vine-trees, where, as they trod the measure of -the dance, they chanted strophes of song in the Hebrew tongue. It was -an opportunity for the Judæan youths, spectators of this scene, to -select their partners for life. This festival, like the preceding one, -was inaugurated by the Pharisees in opposition to Sadducæan customs. -The Synhedrion seized upon the sacrificial ardor of the people to -introduce a measure which, above all things, was calculated to arouse -feelings of patriotism in the nation, and which was diametrically -opposed to the views of their rivals. The Sadducees had declared that -the daily offerings, and in fact the needs of the Temple, should not -be paid for from a national treasury, but with individual, voluntary -contributions. But the Council, in the reign of Salome Alexandra, -decreed that every Israelite from the age of twenty--proselytes and -freed slaves included--should contribute at least a half-shekel yearly -to the treasury of the Temple. In this way the daily sacrifices -acquired a truly national character, as the whole nation contributed -towards them. Three collections were instituted during the year: in -Judæa at the beginning of spring; in the trans-Jordanic countries, in -Egypt and Syria, at the Feast of Weeks; and in the yet more distant -lands of Babylonia, Media and Asia Minor, at the Feast of Tabernacles. -These last collections were the richest, the Judæans who dwelt -outside Palestine being very generous as well as very wealthy; thus, -instead of the silver or copper shekel or denaria, they offered gold -staters and darics. Central places in each land were chosen where the -offerings should be deposited until they could be taken to Jerusalem. -The most distinguished Judæans were selected to carry them thither, -and they were called "holy messengers." In the Mesopotamian and -Babylonian towns of Nisibis and Nahardea (Naarda), treasure-houses -were built for these Temple gifts, whence, under a strong escort to -protect them from the Parthian and Nabathæan robber-hordes, they were -safely borne to Jerusalem. The communities of Asia Minor had likewise -their treasure-houses, Apamea and Laodicea, in Phrygia, Pergamus and -Adramyttium, in the country of Aeolis. From this stretch of land nearly -two hundred pounds weight of gold was sent to Jerusalem about twenty -years after the first proclamation had been issued. From this we may -gather what an immense revenue poured into the Temple, leaving a large -surplus after all the requisites for divine service had been obtained. -The Temple of Jerusalem became thereby in time an object of envy and of -greed. - -So far, the revival, introduced by Judah ben Tabbai and Simon ben -Shetach, bore a harmless character; it reinstated old laws, created -new ones, and sought means of impressing them upon the memory and -attention of the people. But no reaction can remain within moderate -bounds; it moves naturally towards excesses. The Sadducees, who were -unwilling to adopt the Pharisaic rendering of the Law, were summoned -to appear before the seat of justice and were unsparingly condemned. -The anxiety to exalt the Law and to banish all opposition in the -rival party was so great that upon one occasion Judah ben Tabbai had -a witness executed who had been convicted of giving false testimony -in a trial for a capital crime. He was, in this instance, desirous of -practically refuting the Sadducæan views, forgetting that he was at the -same time breaking a law of the Pharisees. That law required all the -witnesses to be convicted of perjury before allowing punishment to be -inflicted; and, as one witness alone could not establish an accusation, -so one witness alone was not punishable. But the two chiefs were -so clean-handed that Simon ben Shetach did not fail to upbraid his -colleague on account of ill-advised haste, and Judah ben Tabbai evinced -the profoundest remorse at the shedding of the innocent blood of the -executed witness by resigning his office of president and by making -a public acknowledgment of his contrition. A favorite maxim of Judah -ben Tabbai reveals his gentle disposition. "Consider accused persons -as lawbreakers only whilst before you for judgment; the moment that is -rendered, look upon them as innocent." - -Simon ben Shetach, who succeeded Judah as President of the Council, -does not seem to have relaxed in severity towards the infringers of -the Law. The rare case of witchcraft was once brought before him, when -eighty women were condemned for the offense, and crucified in Ascalon. -On account of his unsparing severity, Simon ben Shetach brought upon -himself such hatred of his opponents that they determined upon a -fearful revenge. They incited two false witnesses to accuse his son of -a crime punishable with death, in consequence of which he was actually -condemned to die. On his way to the place of execution the young man -uttered such vehement protestations of innocence that at last the -witnesses themselves were affected, and confessed to their tissue of -falsehoods. But when the judges were about to set free the condemned, -the prisoner himself drew their attention to their violation of the -law, which enjoined that no belief was to be given witnesses who -withdrew their previous testimony. "If you wish," said the condemned -youth to his father, "that the salvation of Israel should be wrought -by your hand, consider me but the threshold over which you must pass -without compunction." Both father and son showed themselves worthy of -their sublime task, that of guarding the integrity of the Law; for to -uphold it one sacrificed his life, and the other, his paternal love. -Simon, the Judæan Brutus, let the law pursue its course, although he, -as well as all the judges, were convinced of his son's innocence. - -The severity of the Pharisaic Synhedrion had naturally not spared -the leaders of the Sadducees. Diogenes, the favorite of Alexander, -and a number of others who had advised or authorized the execution -of the 800 Pharisees, expiated this act of cruelty with their lives. -The most distinguished of the Sadducees began to be uneasy at this -constant persecution; they felt the sword of justice hanging over their -heads, ready to descend upon them if they were guilty of the slightest -infringement of the Law. In fear of their lives they turned to -Alexander's second son, Aristobulus, who, without being a warm adherent -of the Sadducees, was prepared to be the protector of their party. He -sent their chiefs to Alexandra, commending them warmly to her mercy. -When they appeared before the queen they reminded her of their services -to the late king, and of the terror with which their name had once -inspired Judæa's neighbors, and they threatened to offer their valuable -services to the Nabathæan king Aretas or to the Syrian monarch. They -implored the queen to grant them a safe retreat in some fortress where -they would not be under the constant supervision of the Pharisees. -The gentle-hearted queen was so much moved by the tears of these -gray-haired warriors that she entrusted them with the command of most -of the fortresses, reserving, however, the three strongest--Hyrcanion, -Alexandrion, and Machærus. - -No political events of any great importance occurred during Alexandra's -reign. Tigranes, king of Armenia, master of nearly the whole of Syria, -had threatened to invade some of the Judæan provinces which had -formerly belonged to the Syrian kingdom. The proximity of this ruler -had greatly alarmed the queen, and she endeavored by gentle words and -rich presents to prevent a contest with this powerful Armenian king. -Tigranes had received the Judæan embassy, and accepted the queen's -gifts most courteously, but they would hardly have prevented him from -moving upon Judæa, had he not been compelled to devote himself to the -defense of his own country from the attack of the Roman commander -Lucullus (69). - -Alexandra fell hopelessly ill, and her illness occasioned the saddest -of entanglements. The violent and ambitious Aristobulus, supposing -that his mother destined his weak brother Hyrcanus as her successor, -left the capital secretly, and arriving at the Galilean fortress of -Gabata in the neighborhood of Sepphoris, upon the friendship of whose -governor, the Sadducee Galaistes, he could rely, insisted upon its -being entirely given up to him. He garrisoned it with mercenaries, -furnished by some of the minor Syrian trans-Jordanic princes and the -robber-hordes of Trachonitis, and was thus enabled to hold a large -force at his command. Hyrcanus and the chiefs of the Synhedrion, -fearing an impending civil war, entreated of the queen to take measures -to prevent it, but without avail. Alexandra bade them trust to the -army, to the fortresses that had remained faithful, and to the rich -treasury, and devoted herself exclusively to preparation for death. She -expired soon after, in the year 69, leaving her people and her kingdom -to all the horrors of a civil war which was ultimately to destroy their -dearly won independence. Salome Alexandra had reigned for only nine -years; she had witnessed the happy days of her people's freedom, and, -when lying on her death-bed, may have felt in her troubled soul the -presentiment that the coming night of slavery was at hand. She was the -only queen in Judæan history whose name has been handed down to us with -veneration, and she was also the last independent ruler of Judæa. - - - - -CHAPTER III. - -HYRCANUS II. ARISTOBULUS II. - - Brothers contend for the throne--Arrangement between the - brothers--The Idumæan Antipater--Hyrcanus's weakness--Aretas - besieges Jerusalem--Interference of Rome--Pompey at - Jerusalem--The Judæan colony in Rome--Flaccus in Asia - Minor--Cicero's oration against the Judæans--Weakening of the - power of the Synhedrion--Shemaya and Abtalion--Violent death - of Aristobulus and his son Alexander--Julius Cæsar and the - Judæans--Antipater's sons Phasael and Herod--Herod before the - Synhedrion--Operations of Cassius in Judæa--Malich--Antigonus - as King--Herod escapes to Rome. - - 69.40 B. C. E. - - -When Providence has decreed that a State shall be destroyed, no event -is more certain to hasten its fall than the contentions between two -rival parties for the possession of the throne. The noblest upholders -of the nation's rights are then invariably arrayed against each other, -until at last the civil wars in which they are engaged are usually -referred to some foreign ruler, whose yoke is all the more galling -as he appears invariably in the light of a peacemaker with the olive -branch in his hand. - -The death of the queen gave the first incentive to the war which broke -out between the two brothers and divided the nation into two camps. -To Hyrcanus II, her eldest son, the dying mother had, in right of his -birth, bequeathed the throne. He, whose virtues would have graced the -modest life of a private individual, but who would have been but an -indifferent ruler even in a peaceful era, was certainly not fitted to -govern in troubled times. He did more harm by his good nature than many -another could do by acts of tyranny. His younger brother was the direct -opposite to him in character. Hyrcanus's cowardice contrasted vividly -with the reckless courage of Aristobulus, a quality in which he -resembled his father Alexander. Added to this, he possessed unlimited -ambition, which blinded him to practical considerations and quitted him -only with his last breath. His aim was to be the mighty ruler of Judæa, -and with the means at his command to make the neighboring countries -subject to his rule. But his rash impetuosity prevented him from -being successful, and, instead of gathering laurels, he brought only -contempt upon himself and his nation. Hardly had Alexandra expired when -Aristobulus, at the head of his mercenaries and Sadducæan followers, -marched upon Jerusalem for the purpose of dethroning his brother. Upon -Hyrcanus's side were ranged the Pharisees, the people and the army. The -wife and children of Aristobulus had been imprisoned as hostages in -the citadel of Baris in Jerusalem. The brothers met at Jericho, each -at the head of his army. Hyrcanus was defeated and fled to Jerusalem, -the greater number of his troops going over to Aristobulus. The younger -brother attacked and took the Temple, where many of his opponents had -sought refuge. Hyrcanus was obliged to lay down his arms when he saw -that the invader was master of the sanctuary and the capital. The two -brothers met again, agreed upon making peace, and signed their covenant -in the Temple. Aristobulus, as the one more capable of ruling, was to -wear the royal crown, whilst Hyrcanus was to retain the high priest's -diadem. This agreement was ratified by the marriage of Aristobulus's -son Alexander to Alexandra, daughter of Hyrcanus. - -Aristobulus II, who had attained royal dignity by a successful stroke -of arms, does not appear to have in any way excited the displeasure of -the Pharisees. The position of the two parties in Judæa now assumed a -different character, and they might have become extinct as parties, had -it not been for the advent of a man whose measureless ambition and -personal interest brought him to the fore, and who, together with his -family, became the vampire of the nation, sucking its noblest blood -away. This man was Antipater, the descendant of a distinguished Idumæan -family, who, in common with all other Idumæans, had been compelled by -John Hyrcanus to accept Judaism. Never had a mistaken action found its -punishment more surely and swiftly. The fanaticism of Hyrcanus I was -now to bring ruin upon his house and family. The wealth and diplomatic -talents of Antipater had raised him to the post of satrap of Idumæa -during the reign of Alexander Jannæus and of his queen. His courteous -acts and generous presents had won the affections not only of his -countrymen, but also those of the inhabitants of Gaza and Ascalon. - -Hyrcanus II, who required a guide in his helplessness, bestowed his -confidence upon Antipater, who abused it, and exerted his influence -to his own advantage. The Idumæan lost no opportunity of reminding -Hyrcanus of the degrading part that he had had to play in having been -called to the throne only to relinquish it to his younger brother. So -successfully did Antipater work upon his feelings, making him believe -that Aristobulus was actually planning his death, that Hyrcanus -was tempted into breaking the covenant he had sworn to respect, by -calling in a foreign ruler to decide between the claims of the two -brothers. Antipater had laid his plans beforehand with Aretas, king -of the Nabathæans. He fled one night from Jerusalem, bearing Hyrcanus -with him, and arrived by forced marches at Petra, the capital of the -Nabathæan king. Aretas was ready to help Hyrcanus, having been richly -bribed by Antipater, and having the prospect of recapturing twelve -cities east and south of the Dead Sea, which had been bought so dearly -by the Hasmonæans. He marched, therefore, upon Judæa, with an army of -fifty thousand men, whose numbers were augmented by the followers of -Hyrcanus (66). Thus the peace which the nation had enjoyed for nearly -three years was disturbed for many a long day by the scheming ambition -of Antipater and the boundless folly of Hyrcanus. - -Aretas laid siege to Jerusalem in the beginning of the spring. To -escape so deplorable a sight, many of the most distinguished Judæans -(probably some of the Pharisaic leaders amongst them) fled from the -capital to Egypt. The siege lasted for several months, the strong walls -of the city to a certain extent making up for the insufficient numbers -of Aristobulus's warriors. But provisions began to fail, and, what was -a far more serious consideration for the pious Judæans, the animals -necessary for sacrificial purposes, particularly for the coming Paschal -feast, were sensibly diminishing. But Aristobulus relied, and rightly -so, upon the piety of the Judæan besiegers, who would not dare refuse -the required victims for the altar. He ordered baskets to be lowered -each day from the walls, containing the price of the lambs that were -placed in the baskets, and were drawn up in return. But as the siege -dragged on, and as the end seemed far off, some counselor--we may -imagine that it was Antipater--advised Hyrcanus to hurry on the final -scene, and to desist from supplying the sacrificial lamb. The basket -that was lowered after this advice had been tendered was found to -contain, when received within the city walls, a pig. This insult to the -Law created a feeling of disgust amongst the besieged, and so deeply -affected them that subsequently the breeding of swine was forbidden by -the Synhedrion. - -The adherents of Hyrcanus were guilty of yet another enormity. Amongst -those who had left the besieged city was a pious man called Onias, who -had once successfully prayed for rain in a drought. The soldiers of -Hyrcanus dragged him from his solitary retreat, and believing that -Heaven would again answer his prayer, commanded him to pronounce a -curse upon Aristobulus and his followers. But instead of giving vent -to a curse, the old man exclaimed with fitting dignity, "Lord of the -universe, as the besieged and the besiegers both belong to Thy people, -I entreat of Thee not to grant the evil prayers of either party." The -coarse soldiers could not understand the feelings that prompted such -words, and murdered him as if he had been a criminal. In this way they -thought they could silence the spirit of Judaism rising to protest -against this civil war. But although the mighty ones of the land defied -all right and proper feeling, the people were grievously distressed, -and believed that the earthquake and the hurricane that devastated -Palestine and other parts of Asia at that time were the visible signs -of Divine wrath. - -But more terrible than earthquake or hurricane was the harbinger of -evil that appeared in Judæa, "the beast with iron teeth, brazen claws, -and heart of stone, that was to devour much, and trample the rest under -foot," which came to the Judæan nation, to drink its blood, to eat -its flesh and to suck its marrow. The hour had struck when the Roman -eagle, with swift flight, was to swoop down upon Israel's inheritance, -circling wildly round the bleeding nation, lacerating her with cruel -wounds and finally leaving her a corpse. - -Like inexorable fate, Rome watched over the destinies of the people of -western Asia, plundering, dividing and destroying. Judæa was destined -to the same lot. The bird of prey scented its booty from afar with -astonishing precision, and hastened to put out the last spark of -life. It came to Judæa for the first time in the person of Scaurus, a -legate of Pompey. In leaving for Asia, Scaurus hoped to exchange an -insignificant position in his own country for a powerful one in foreign -lands. He had imagined that in Syria he might acquire wealth and -honor, but finding that country already in possession of other birds of -prey, he turned his attention to Judæa. There he was warmly welcomed -by the rival brothers, who looked upon him as an arbitrator in their -difficulties. They both sent ambassadors to meet him, and as they knew -that the Romans were not indifferent to gold, they took care not to -appear empty-handed before him. But Aristobulus's gifts prevailed; he -sent three hundred talents, whilst Hyrcanus, or more properly speaking -Antipater, gave little but promises. Roman interest accorded well with -the greed of Scaurus. The Republic, fearing the growth of his power, -began by insisting that the Nabathæan king should retire from the civil -war in Palestine; Scaurus was therefore able to command Aretas to raise -the siege of Jerusalem. Aretas complied, but was overtaken with his -army at Rabbath Ammon by the troops of Aristobulus and defeated. - -For the moment Aristobulus might fancy that he was the victorious -monarch of Judæa. The direction that Roman statesmanship had taken, -and the slow, deliberate movements that the commander Pompey employed -against Mithridates, lulled him into the delusion that his monarchy -was one of lasting duration. A lover of war like his father, he began -immediately to make inroads into neighboring provinces, and also -organized a fleet for warlike purposes. For two years Aristobulus -nursed this vain dream, and he may even have wished to establish a show -of independence by ordering, during this interval, coins to be struck -in his name. But Antipater's inventive genius soon dissipated this -dream; for in the arts of bribery and diplomacy he was far superior -to Aristobulus. Antipater had already induced Scaurus to side with -Hyrcanus, and to win for him the favor of Pompey, who was at this time -gathering laurels in Syria. Pompey looked upon the quarrel between -the two brothers as an excellent means for adding another conquest -to his long lists of triumphs. Although Aristobulus had made him a -magnificent gift, valuable in point of art as of intrinsic merit, the -contest had not been brought to an end. This gift consisted of a golden -vine, bearing clusters of golden grapes and golden leaves, valued -at five hundred talents, and it had probably been designed by King -Alexander for the adornment of the Temple. This work of art aroused the -admiration of all those who saw it, and for that reason Pompey hastened -to send it to Rome, where it was placed in the Temple of Jupiter on -the Capitol, as the harbinger of his triumphs. But the pious Judæans, -naturally, would not allow their own sanctuary to be deprived of such -an ornament, and spontaneously made contributions, some for golden -grapes, others for golden leaves; so that another golden vine, in later -days, graced the outer court of the Temple. - -Although Pompey's vanity was flattered by this magnificent present, he -was far from deciding in favor of the donor. He had the insolence to -command Antipater and Nicodemus, the two envoys of the rival brothers, -to bid their masters appear in person at Damascus, where the vexed -question should be discussed, and where he would decide in favor of one -of the two princes. In spite of the deep humiliation which each felt, -both Hyrcanus and Aristobulus appeared, and upheld their individual -claims; the one resting upon his rights of birth, the other upon his -capacity for governing. But a third party had also appeared before -Pompey, which was to represent the right of the nation apart from the -angry princes. Weary of the Hasmonæan quarrels, a republican party had -sprung up, which was ready to govern the Judæan community, according to -the letter of the Law, without an hereditary sovereign. The republicans -especially complained that the last of the Hasmonæans had changed the -Judæan form of government from a hierarchy to a monarchy, in order -to reduce the nation to servitude. Pompey, however, gave ear neither -to the murmurs of the republicans nor to the arguments of the two -brothers. It was not his intention to put an end to the strife; what -he desired was, in the guise of a peaceful arbitrator, to bring Judæa -under the Roman rule. He soon saw that the weak-minded Hyrcanus (under -the tutelage of a designing minister) would be better adapted for the -part of a ward of Rome than the daring Aristobulus, and he inwardly -determined to support the weaker prince. But as he feared that by -too rash a decision he would only be involved in a long contest with -Aristobulus in an inaccessible country, and that he would only delay -his triumphal entry into Rome, he endeavored to put off the younger -brother with empty promises. Aristobulus, however, saw through the -snare that was prepared for him, and determined to make sure of his -freedom whilst there was yet time. He, therefore, entrenched himself -in the citadel of Alexandrion, intending to oppose the invasion of the -enemy from the walls of the fortress. But Roman greed of conquest was -now to manifest itself in all its abhorrent nakedness. - -The Roman commander was pleased to look upon this prince's justifiable -act of self-defense as evidence of insubordination, and to treat him -as an obstinate rebel. He crossed the Jordan at Bethshean, and taking -the field against Aristobulus, commanded him to surrender, following -up this command by a series of delusive promises and serious threats, -such as would have induced a more wily man to take a false step. -The unfortunate prince surrendered the fortress of Alexandrion, but -soon repenting of this folly, returned to entrench himself behind -the strong walls of the city of Jerusalem, whither Pompey followed -him. When the Roman commander arrived at Jericho he heard, to his -infinite satisfaction, of the suicide of Mithridates, the great and -dangerous enemy of the Roman State, and he felt that he had now only -to subdue Aristobulus before celebrating his triumphs in Rome. It -seemed as if this end would be easily attained; for Aristobulus, -impelled by fear, came penitently to the feet of Pompey, loading him -with presents, and promising to deliver Jerusalem into his hands. For -this purpose Aristobulus started for the capital, accompanied by the -legate Gabinius; but their advance was repelled by the patriots, who -closed the gates of Jerusalem upon them, and Pompey was compelled to -lead his army against the city. The Hyrcanists, or lovers of peace, as -they were called, opened their gates to the enemy; but the patriots -entrenched themselves upon the Mount of the Sanctuary, and destroying -the bridge that connected the Temple with the town, prepared for a -desperate defense. Pompey, much against his will, found that he was -involved in a regular siege, the Temple Mount being strongly fortified. -Then he sent to Tyre for his battering-rams, and ordered trees to be -felled for bridging over the moats. The siege lasted for a long while, -and might have continued still longer, had not the storming of the -fortress been rendered easier to the besiegers by the patriots' strict -observance of the Sabbath-day. In accordance with either a Pharisaic -or a Sadducæan rendering of the Law, the besieged declared that they -were permitted to resist an attack of the invaders on the Sabbath, -but that they were infringing upon the sanctity of that day if they -merely defended the walls from the enemy's onslaughts. As soon as the -Romans were aware of this distinction, they turned it to their own -advantage. They let their weapons rest on the Sabbath-day, and worked -steadily at the demolishing of the walls. Thus it happened that upon -one Sabbath, in the month of Sivan (June, 63 B. C.), a tower of the -Temple fell, and a breach was effected by which the most daring of the -Romans prepared a way for entering the Sanctuary. The legions of Rome -and the foreign mercenaries crowded into the court of the Temple, and -killed the priests as they stood sacrificing before the altar. Many of -the unfortunate victims threw themselves headlong from the battlements -into the depths below, whilst others lit their own funeral pyre. It -is believed that twelve thousand Judæans met their death upon this -day. Pompey then penetrated into the Sanctuary, in order to satisfy -his curiosity as to the nature of the Judæan worship, about which the -most contradictory reports prevailed. The Roman general was not a -little astonished at finding within the sacred recesses of the Holy of -Holies, neither an ass's head nor, indeed, images of any sort. Thus the -malicious fictions busily circulated by Alexandrian writers, and of a -character so prejudicial to the Judæans, were now shown to be false. -The entrance of the Roman conqueror into the Temple, though deplorable -enough, was in a way favorable to Judaism. Whether he was penetrated by -awe at the sublime simplicity of the Holy of Holies, or whether he did -not wish to be designated as the robber of sanctuaries, we know not; -but, wonderful to relate, Pompey controlled his greed for gold and left -the treasury, containing 2000 talents, untouched. But the independence -of the nation ceased forever from that hour. Exactly a century after -the Maccabees had freed their people from the tyranny of the Syrians, -their descendants brought down the tyranny of the Romans upon Judæa. - -What did Hyrcanus gain by his supplication for aid from the Republic? -Pompey deprived him of his royal title, only leaving him the dignity -of the high priesthood, with the doubtful appellation of ethnarch, and -made him the ward of Antipater, who was named governor of the country. -The walls of Jerusalem were razed to the ground, Judæa put into the -category of conquered provinces, and a tax was levied upon the capital. -The territory was brought within narrower confines, and its extent -became once more what it had been in pre-Hasmonæan times. Several -seaports lying along the coast, and inhabited by Greeks, as well as -those trans-Jordanic towns which Hyrcanus and Alexander had conquered -after hard fighting, and had incorporated with Judæa, were declared -to be free towns by Pompey, and were placed under the guardianship -of the Roman governor of Syria. But these cities, particularly the -trans-Jordanic ones, joined together in a defensive and offensive -league, calling themselves the Decapolis. Pompey ordered the most -determined of his prisoners of war, the zealots, to be executed, whilst -the rest were taken to Rome. The Judæan prince, Aristobulus, his son -Antigonus, his two daughters, and his uncle Absalom were forced to -precede Pompey's triumphal car, in the train of the conquered Asiatic -kings and kings' sons. Whilst Zion veiled her head in mourning, Rome -was reveling in her victories; but the Judæan prisoners that had been -dragged to Rome were to become the nucleus of a community destined -to carry on a new kind of warfare against long-established Roman -institutions, and ultimately to modify or partly destroy them. - -There were, without doubt, many Judæans living in Rome and in other -Italian cities before Pompey's conquests, who may have emigrated into -Italy from Egypt and Asia Minor for commercial objects. As merchants, -bringing grain from the Nile country, or tribute money from Asia Minor, -they may have come into contact with the Roman potentates. But these -emigrants could hardly have formed a regular communal organization, for -there were no authorized teachers of the Law amongst them. Probably, -however, some learned men may have followed in Pompey's train of -captives, who were ransomed by their compatriots, and persuaded -to remain in Rome. The descendants of these prisoners were called -according to Roman law _libertini_ (the freed ones). The Judæan quarter -in Rome lay upon the right bank of the Tiber, on the slope of Mount -Vatican, and a bridge leading across that river to the Vatican was -known for a long while by the name of the Bridge of the Judæans (Pons -Judæorum). Theodus, one of the Judæans settled in Rome, introduced -into his own community a substitute for the paschal lamb, which could -not be eaten outside of Jerusalem, and the loss of which was a bitter -deprivation to the exiles. This aroused the displeasure of the Judæans -in the home country, who wrote to Theodus: "If thou wert not Theodus, -we should excommunicate thee." - -The Roman Judæans influenced, to a certain extent, the course of -Roman policy. For as the original emigrants, as well as the ransomed -captives, enjoyed the power of voting in public assemblies, they were -able at times, by their combined action on a preconcerted plan, by -their assiduity, by their temperate and passionless conception of the -situation, perhaps also by their keen intelligence, to turn the scale -upon some popular question. So important was their quiet influence -that the eloquent but intolerant Cicero, who had learned to hate the -Judæans from his master Apollonius Molo, was afraid on one occasion -to give vent to his anti-Judæan feelings in a public speech, for fear -of stirring them up against him. He had to defend the unjust cause of -a prætor Flaccus, who was accused of having been guilty of numerous -extortions during his government of the Asia Minor provinces. Amongst -other things, Flaccus had seized upon the votive offerings of the -Temple (_aurum Judæorum_) given by the community of Asia Minor--about -two hundred pounds of gold, collected by the Judæan inhabitants of -the towns of Apamea, Laodicea, Adramyttium, and Pergamus (62). In -order to justify his proceedings Flaccus cited a resolution of the -Senate, by which all exportation of money was forbidden from Roman -to foreign provinces; and although Judæa had been conquered by Roman -arms, yet she did not enjoy the honor of being enrolled amongst the -provinces of the Republic. The Roman Judæans were intensely interested -in this trial, and many of them were present among the populace. The -cowardly Cicero was so much afraid of them that he would have liked -to speak in a low tone in order to be heard by the Judges but not by -the Judæans. In the course of his defense he made use of an unworthy -piece of sophistry, which might have made an impression upon some -bigoted Roman, but which could hardly satisfy an intelligent mind. "It -requires great decision of character," he said, "to oppose the barbaric -superstitions of the Judæans and, for the good of our country, to show -proper contempt towards these seditious people, who invade our public -assemblies. If Pompey did not avail himself of a conqueror's rights, -and left the treasures of the Temple untouched, we may be sure he did -not restrain himself out of reverence for the Judæan sanctuary, but out -of astuteness, to avoid giving the suspicious and slanderous Judæan -nation an opportunity of accusing him; for otherwise he would hardly -have spared foreign, still less Judæan, sanctuaries. When Jerusalem was -unconquered, and when the Judæans were living in peace, they displayed -a deeply-rooted antipathy to the glory of the Roman State, to the -dignity of the Roman name, and to the laws of our ancestors. During the -last war the Judæan nation proved most effectually how bitterly they -hate us. How little this nation is beloved by the immortal gods is now -evident, as her country is conquered and leased out." What impression -this speech made upon the audience, and what decision was given to -Flaccus, are unknown. A year later Cicero was punished by a sentence of -banishment. He was not allowed to be seen within eighty miles of Rome, -and his villas were razed to the ground. - -After Pompey's departure from Syria, the thraldom imposed upon -dismembered Judæa became more onerous than before, because she was left -in the anomalous condition of a partly conquered province and a partly -independent country. The powerful minister of Hyrcanus contributed to -make this condition lasting and oppressive. He endeavored to strengthen -his connection with Rome by munificent presents, trusting that the -Republic would support him, in spite of his unpopularity with the -Judæan people, who hated him as the cause of their subjection. With the -sweat from Judæa's brow he sustained the Roman commander Scaurus, who -had opened a campaign against the Nabathæan king, Aretas. Meanwhile -Alexander II, the eldest son of Aristobulus, escaping from captivity -and arriving in Judæa, gained the support of the patriots, and putting -himself at the head of fifteen hundred horse and ten thousand foot -soldiers, marched upon Jerusalem. Hyrcanus, or more properly speaking -his master Antipater, could not resist so great a force, and left the -capital to Alexander, who entered and had it fortified. The great -Roman power fought alternately upon either side, according to the -bribes that were offered its officials. Alexander felt so secure of -his position that he had coins struck with the following inscription -in Greek and Hebrew, "King Alexander and High Priest Jonathan." Aulus -Gabinius, however, the governor of Syria, and the most unscrupulous of -the Roman extortioners of his times, succeeded in ending this revolt -and in subduing Alexander. The death-stroke that awaited the latter was -only warded off by his mother, who, embracing the knees of the Roman -commander, entreated him to show mercy to her son. - -Gabinius succeeded in weakening the unity of the Judæan State, -which had of late been so unworthily represented by the last of the -Hasmonæans, but the integrity of which had always been so jealously -watched over by the Great Council. Judæa was no longer to be an -independent State with self-governing and legislative powers over the -whole country, but was to be divided into five provinces, each having -its own independent Senate or Synhedrion for the control of home -affairs. These assemblies were held at specially appointed towns, at -Jerusalem, Gazara, Emmaus, Jericho, and Sepphoris; and Judæans selected -from the aristocratic party, who were well disposed towards Rome, were -placed at the head of these councils. - -Although the fact of having dismembered the State testified in favor -of Gabinius's political insight, yet he deceived himself as regarded -the ultimate success of his plans. As the Synhedrion had grown out of -the innermost life of the whole nation and had not been forced upon it -by outside influences, it was no easy matter to break its centralizing -power. The new scheme of dividing Judæa into five provinces was hardly -introduced before it disappeared with Gabinius, leaving no trace of -its existence. The Great Council remained as before the heart of the -people, but its power was lessened by unfavorable circumstances. From -that time it was called the "Synhedrion," and to distinguish it from -the small Councils, the "Great Synhedrion." But it could not boast of -any political power, for that was now entirely in the hands of the -Romans. Simon ben Shetach, the celebrated president of the Council, was -succeeded by his two most distinguished disciples, Shemaya (Sameas) -and Abtalion (Pollion). We can trace the despairing sentiments of that -generation in some of their sayings which have been handed down to us: -"Love thy handicraft and shun governing; estrange thyself from worldly -power." "Be prudent in your words," said Abtalion to the law-framers; -"do not bring upon yourselves the penalty of exile, for your disciples -would have to follow you into a land full of ensnaring influences -(poisonous waters) which they would imbibe, and the sacred name of God -would be through them profaned." These two presidents of the Synhedrion -seem to have been Alexandrian Judæans, or at least they must have spent -some years of exile in Alexandria, perhaps with their master Judah ben -Tabbai. - -During their twenty-five years of official life (60-35), whilst the -political power of the Synhedrion was waning, their energy appears to -have been directed towards its inner or moral power. They assembled a -circle of eager disciples around them, to whom they taught the tenets -of the Law, their origin and application. They were indeed accredited -in after ages with so profound a knowledge of the Law, that to cite -Shemaya or Abtalion in support of an interpretation was considered -indisputable proof of its accuracy. One of their most distinguished and -most grateful disciples called them "the two great men of the era," and -the peculiarly careful study of the Law, for which the Pharisees became -so justly celebrated, may be said to have originated with them. - -For some little time the history of Judæa contains nothing but accounts -of insubordination to Roman despotism and its unhappy consequences, -of scenes of oppression and robbery, and of acts of spoliation of the -Temple. Aristobulus, who had succeeded in escaping from Rome with his -son Antigonus, now appeared in Judæa. The rule of the Romans was of so -galling a character that Aristobulus, who had not been a favorite in -the old days, was now received with unbounded enthusiasm. Sufficient -arms could not be procured for the volunteers who flocked to his camp. -He was joined by Pitholaus, a Judæan commander, who had once served as -a general to Hyrcanus. Aristobulus placed himself at the head of 8000 -men, and began immediately to regarrison the citadel of Alexandrion, -whence he hoped to exhaust the Romans by guerrilla warfare. But his -impatient temper led him into open battle, in which a large part of his -army was utterly destroyed, and the rest scattered. Still unsubdued, -Aristobulus threw himself with the remnant of his followers into the -citadel of Machærus, but at the approach of the Romans with their -battering-rams he was obliged to capitulate, and for the second time -was sent with his sons into captivity at Rome (56). - -Another insurrection, organized by his son Alexander, who had obtained -his freedom from the then all-powerful Pompey, was doomed to come to -as disastrous a termination. Galled by the oppression of the Governor -of Syria, the inhabitants of that unfortunate country sent an army of -30,000 men to join Alexander. They commenced by killing all the Romans -who came in their way, Gabinius's troops not being strong enough to -oppose them. But the Governor craftily succeeded in detaching some -of Alexander's followers from his ranks, and then tempted the Judæan -prince into open battle. At Mount Tabor (in 55), the Judæans were -signally defeated. - -Meanwhile the three most eminent men of Rome--Julius Cæsar, -distinguished by his brilliant sagacity, Pompey by his martial renown, -and Crassus by his boundless wealth--had agreed to break the power -of the Senate, and to manage the affairs of the State according to -their own will. The triumvirs began by dividing the fairest lands -into provinces, which they separately appropriated. Syria fell to -the share of Crassus, who was intensely avaricious in spite of his -vast riches. Judæa from this time on was annexed to Syria quite as a -matter of course. Crassus went out of his way, when marching against -the Parthians, to enter Jerusalem, being tempted thither by the rich -treasury of the Temple. He made no secret of his wish to seize upon -the two thousand talents that Pompey had spared. In order to satisfy -his greed, a pious priest, Eleazer, delivered up to him a solid bar -of gold, the existence of which, hidden as it was in a hollow staff -of curiously carved wood, had been unknown to the priests. Upon the -receipt of this gift, Crassus swore solemnly that he would spare the -treasury of the Temple. But when was a promise known to be binding -that was made by a Roman to a Judæan? He took the golden bar, the two -thousand talents, and all the golden vessels of the Temple, which were -worth another eight thousand talents (54). Laden with these and other -spoils of the Sanctuary, Crassus marched against the Parthians; but -the Roman arms had always failed to subdue this people. Crassus was -slain, and his army was so entirely disabled that his legate, Cassius -Longinus, returned to Syria with scarcely the tenth part of the army -of one hundred thousand men (53). The Parthians pursued the weakened -army, and the Syrians, weary of the Roman yoke, lent them secret aid. -To the Judæans this seemed an auspicious moment also for their own -emancipation. - -It fell to Pitholaus to call the army together, which he led against -Cassius. Fortune, however, always deserted the Judæan arms when they -were turned against the Romans. Shut up in Tarichea on the lake of -Tiberias, the troops were obliged to surrender. Upon the urgent demand -of Antipater, Pitholaus was sentenced to death by Cassius, and thirty -thousand Judæan warriors were sold into slavery (52). - -But the imprisoned Aristobulus looked forward once again to the hope -of placing himself upon his father's throne and of banishing Antipater -into obscurity. Julius Cæsar, the greatest man that Rome ever -produced, had openly defied the Senate, and broken with his associate -Pompey. The bitter strife between the two Roman potentates lit the -torch of war in the most distant provinces of the Roman empire. Cæsar -had given Aristobulus his freedom, and in order to weaken Pompey's -influence, had sent him with two legions to Palestine to create a -diversion in his favor. But the partisans of Pompey contrived to -poison the Judæan prince. His followers embalmed his body in honey -and carried it to Jerusalem, where it was buried beside the bodies -of the Hasmonæan princes. His eldest son, the gallant Alexander, was -decapitated by order of Scipio, a follower of Pompey, at Antioch. The -widow of Aristobulus and his surviving son Antigonus found protection -with Ptolemy, prince of Chalcis, whose son Philippion had fallen in -love with Alexandra, the daughter of Aristobulus, and had brought her -to his father's court. But Ptolemy, out of criminal love to his own -daughter-in-law, caused his son to be murdered and married the widow. - -Antipater continued to be Pompey's faithful ally, until the Roman -general met with a miserable end in Egypt. Then the Idumæan offered -his services to Cæsar. When the great general found himself in Egypt, -without sufficient forces, without news from Rome, in the midst of a -hostile population, Antipater evinced a touching eagerness to help -him, which did not remain unrewarded. He provided the army of Cæsar's -ally, Mithridates, king of Pergamus, with all necessaries, and sent him -a contingent of Judæan troops; he aided him in conquering Pelusium, -and conciliated the Egyptian-Judæans who had taken the part of his -opponent. He was now well able to forego the favor of Hyrcanus. To no -effect did Antigonus, the last surviving son of Aristobulus, seek an -interview with Cæsar, in which he dwelt upon his father's and his -brother's loyalty to the Roman general; Antipater had but to display -his wounds, which he had received in the very last campaign, to gain -the victory over his rival. Cæsar, who was an astute reader of men, -and who had himself revolted from the legitimate order of things, knew -well enough how to value Antipater's loyalty and energy, and did not -support the rightful claims of Antigonus. Out of consideration for -Antipater (47), Hyrcanus was proclaimed high priest and ethnarch, and -to Judæa was given some relief from her burdens. The walls of Jerusalem -were rebuilt, the provinces that formerly belonged to Judæa, namely, -Galilee, the towns in the plains of Jezreel, and Lydda, were once -more made part of her territory. The Judæans were no longer forced to -provide winter quarters for the Roman legions, although the landowners -were obliged to give the fourth part of their harvest every second year -to the Roman troops. - -Cæsar was altogether benevolent to the Judæans, and rewarded them for -their loyalty. To the Alexandrian Judæans he granted many privileges, -confirming their long-enjoyed equality with the Greeks, and permitting -them to be governed by a prince of their own (Ethnarch). Money was -again liberally provided for the Temple. Cæsar enabled the supplies to -reach their destination. He prevented the Greek inhabitants of Asia -Minor from molesting the Judæans of those provinces, from summoning -them before the courts of justice on the Sabbath, from interfering with -their public assemblages and the building of their synagogues, and in -general from disturbing them in their religious observances (47-44). -Cæsar must also have extended his generosity to the Judæan community in -Rome, for they evinced the warmest devotion to his memory. - -But in spite of all these favors, the Judæan nation as a whole -remained cold and distant. The foreign communities of Judæans might -bless Cæsar as their benefactor, but the Palestinean Judæans could see -in him only the Roman, the patron of the hated Idumæan. So defiant was -the attitude of the nation that Antipater felt himself compelled to -threaten the disaffected with the triple wrath of Cæsar, of Hyrcanus -and of himself, whilst he promised liberal bounty to the obedient and -loyal Judæans. Meanwhile, a small body of men taken from the army of -Aristobulus had assembled under the command of Ezekias upon one of -the mountain heights of Galilee, where they only awaited an opportune -moment for raising the standard of revolt against Rome. The Romans, -it is true, only looked upon this little army as a band of robbers, -and upon Ezekias as a robber chieftain, but to the Judæans they were -the avengers of their honor and their freedom. For they were deeply -mortified that Antipater had placed the reins of government in the -hands of his sons, and that he cared only for the growing power of his -house. Of the four sons born to him by Kypros, the daughter of the King -of Arabia, he proclaimed Phasael, the eldest, Governor of Jerusalem and -Judæa, and the second, Herod, a youth of the age of twenty, Governor of -Galilee. - -This prince was destined to become the evil genius of the Judæan -nation; it was he who brought her as a bound captive to Rome; it was he -who placed his feet triumphantly upon her neck. Like an ominous cloud -weighted down with misfortune, he seems from the very first to have -thrown a dark shadow upon the life of the nation, which, as it slowly -but surely advanced, quenched all light in the gathering darkness and -withered all growth, until nothing remained but a scene of desolation. -True to his father's policy, Herod began by basely flattering Rome -and by wounding the Judæan spirit. In order to gain favor with Cæsar, -and also to establish the security of his family, he undertook a -campaign against the followers of Ezekias; he captured the leader of -the band, and, without any trial or show of justice, sentenced him and -his followers to decapitation. Eager were the words of praise and of -thanks awarded to him by the Syrians and the Romans; he was called the -"Robber-subduer"; but whilst he was loaded with favors by Sextus Cæsar, -the Roman Governor of Syria, all true patriots mourned. - -The bitter degradation which the people suffered at the hands of -this Idumæan family inspired some of the most distinguished Judæans -to lay before the weak-minded Hyrcanus the true state of their own -and of their High Priest's new position. They explained to him that -his dignity was but an empty name, that all real power lay with -Antipater and his sons. They pointed to the execution of Ezekias and -his followers as an act of gross contempt for the Law. These bitter -complaints would have had but little effect upon the weak Hyrcanus, -had not the mothers of the slain torn his heart with their cries of -anguish. Whenever he appeared in the Temple they threw themselves -before him and entreated him not to let the death of their sons remain -unavenged. - -At last Hyrcanus permitted the Synhedrion to summon Herod before the -seat of justice. But Antipater did not fail to warn his son of the -terrible storm that was gathering over his head, and of the danger -of entering Jerusalem alone and unarmed; while at the same time he -cautioned him not to appear surrounded by too many troops, and so -arouse the suspicions of Hyrcanus. Herod appeared at the appointed -time, but with an armed escort, and with a letter from Sextus Cæsar, -making the king answerable for the life of the favorite. Thus the day -arrived for the great trial to which all the inhabitants of Jerusalem -were looking forward with feverish impatience. When the members of -the court had taken their places, the accused, clad in purple, with -aggressive demeanor, and escorted by his followers, appeared before -them. At this sight most of the accusers felt their courage fail -them; Herod's bitterest enemies looked downcast and shamefaced, and -even Hyrcanus was embarrassed. A painful silence ensued, during which -each man stood breathless. Only one member found words to save the -waning dignity of the Council, the President, Shemaya. Quietly and -calmly he spoke: "Is it not the intention of the accused to put us to -death if we pronounce him guilty? And yet I must blame him less than -the king and you, who suffer such contempt to be cast upon the Law. -Know, then that he, before whom you are all trembling, will one day -deliver you to the sword of the executioner." These words roused the -fainting courage of the judges, and they soon showed themselves to be -as determined as they had before appeared to be cowardly. But Hyrcanus -was afraid of their growing wrath, and commanded the Council to adjourn -the sitting. Meanwhile Herod withdrew from the anger of the people, -and was cordially received at Damascus by Sextus Cæsar, who proclaimed -him governor of Coelesyria (46). Overwhelmed with honors, he was on the -point of wreaking his vengeance upon the king and the Council, when his -father and his brother Phasael urged him to milder measures. But he -silently nursed his revenge, determined to gratify it upon some future -occasion. - -The wide-spread disturbance occasioned by the murder of Cæsar (44) -involved Palestine in new troubles. The Roman Judæans justly were so -inconsolable at the death of this great man that they spent several -entire nights mourning beside the grave that contained his ashes. The -internal struggles, the bloody warfare, the constant proscriptions, -were but the labor-throes of Rome previous to the birth of a new -order of things; but for Judæa they were to a certain extent a fresh -attack of a fatal disease. The heads of the republican party supplanted -those of the Cæsarian party, but merely to be supplanted by them again -in a short time; and this was the case not only in Judæa, but in -various parts of the Roman empire. The republican, Cassius Longinus, -had arrived in Syria for the purpose of raising troops and money, and -demanded that Judæa should supply him with 700 talents. Cassius was in -desperate haste, for any moment might deprive him of the supreme power -with which he ruled at that time over persons and events in Syria. Thus -he threw the inhabitants of four Palestinean cities into chains and -sold them into slavery, because their contributions were not delivered -quickly enough. - -The eyes of the unfortunate monarch, Hyrcanus, were opened at last to -the fact that the Idumæans were seeking only their own interest under -the cloak of warm partisanship for his cause. He began to be suspicious -in his dealings with them, and turned for support to a true and -faithful friend, Malich, who had long since recognized the duplicity -of the Idumæans. As yet Hyrcanus knew nothing of the fiendish plot by -which he was to be dethroned, and which was to raise Herod, by the -help of the Roman legions, to the throne of Judæa. But this rumor had -reached the ears of Malich. Determined to rid the king of the hated -Antipater, he contrived to poison him when he was feasting at a banquet -with Hyrcanus (43). In cutting at the root, he failed, however, to -destroy the growing evil, for Herod surpassed his father, not only in -determination and in audacity, but also in duplicity. He avenged the -death of Antipater by the assassination of Malich. All attempts to ruin -the Idumæan brothers were unsuccessful. Even when Herod fell suddenly -and grievously ill, Phasael was fortunate enough to subdue his enemies. -A plot conceived by Antigonus, the son of Aristobulus II, supported by -his kinsman Ptolemy of Chalcis, to deprive the Idumæans of their power, -failed likewise, and Herod compelled Hyrcanus to crown him with the -garland of victory when he made his entry into Jerusalem. As a means -of disarming this terrible and mighty prince, Hyrcanus tried to attach -him to his house, by betrothing him to his granddaughter Mariamne, -celebrated in history no less for her beauty than for her misfortunes. -The victim was to be bound to the executioner by the bonds of marriage, -and her own mother, Alexandra, helped to bring about this miserable -alliance. - -Fortune smiled so persistently upon the Idumæan that all changes in -the political world, however they might appear to damage his cause, -only gave him greater power. The republican army was completely -routed at Philippi (in 42), the leaders, Brutus and Cassius, -committed suicide, and the Roman world lay at the feet of the second -triumvirate--Octavius, Antony, and Lepidus. Herod and Phasael looked -upon these changes with a troubled eye; for had they not displayed -the warmest zeal for the opponents of the triumvirate? Besides this, -some of the Judæan nobles had hurried forth to meet the victor Antony -in Bithynia, carrying to him their complaints of the rapacity of -the Idumæan brothers. But Herod soon found the means to scatter the -clouds. He also appeared before Antony with a smooth tongue and ready -money. Antony did not fail to remember that he had formerly tasted of -Antipater's hospitality. He turned a deaf ear to the Judæan nobles, and -dismissed Herod with marks of favor. The voice of the nation, which -made itself heard through its ambassadors, was no longer heeded. Antony -sentenced some of the unfortunate envoys to be thrown into prison, and -others to be executed, whilst he proclaimed the two Idumæan brothers -governors of Judæa, with the title "Tetrarch." - -At one time it seemed as if this constant good fortune were about to -desert the Idumæan brothers and to return to the Hasmonæan house. The -Parthians, stimulated by the fugitive Roman republican Labienus, had -made, under the command of their king's son Pacorus, and his commander, -Barzapharnes, an inroad into Asia Minor and Syria, whilst Mark -Antony was reveling at the court of the bewitching queen Cleopatra. -The Parthians, enemies of the Roman republic, were also violently -antagonistic to Herod and Phasael; they became doubly so on account of -their connection with Lysanias, the son of Ptolemy, who was related to -the house of Aristobulus, and who had promised great rewards to the -Parthian commanders if they would sweep the hated brothers out of the -way, dethrone Hyrcanus, and crown Antigonus. The Parthians agreed to -this scheme, and, dividing their army into two detachments, marched -by the sea-coast and the inland road upon Jerusalem. At every step -they were met and joined by Judæan troops, who outstripped them in -their haste to arrive at the capital. Upon entering Jerusalem they -besieged the Hasmonæan palace, and flocked to the Mount of the Temple. -The common people, in spite of being unarmed, supported the invaders. -The festival of Pentecost was at hand, and a crowd of worshipers from -all parts of Judæa were streaming into Jerusalem; they also declared -themselves in favor of Antigonus. The Idumæans held the palace and its -fortress, and the invaders, the city. Hyrcanus and Phasael were at last -persuaded by Pacorus, the king's cup-bearer, to go as envoys of peace -to the general, Barzapharnes, whilst Herod was closely watched. Upon -arriving at Ecdippa the two unfortunate ambassadors were thrown into -prison, where Phasael committed suicide, and where Hyrcanus had his -ears mutilated, in order to incapacitate him thereafter for holding his -priestly office. Plots were also laid to ensure the downfall of Herod, -but, warned by some faithful followers of his brother, he contrived to -escape from his palace at night. Accompanied by his bride Mariamne, -and by the female members of his family, he hurried to the fortress -Masada, which he left in command of his brother Joseph, retiring first -into Arabia, then into Egypt, and finally to Rome. He was followed by -the execrations of the people. Antigonus was now proclaimed king of -Judæa (the Parthians carrying off Hyrcanus to Babylon), and feeling -himself to be in truth a monarch, he had coins struck with his Hebrew -and Greek names: "Mattathias, High Priest, and the Commonwealth of the -Judæans," and also "King Antigonus." The Parthian auxiliary troops were -dismissed, and Antigonus destroyed the last of the Roman contingent -that still held some of the fortresses in Palestine. So Judæa was once -more freed from foreign soldiery, and could indulge in the sweet dream -of regained independence after thirty hard years of internal troubles -and terrible warfare. - - - - -CHAPTER IV. - -ANTIGONUS AND HEROD. - - Weakness of Antigonus and Herod's Strength of - Character--Contest for the Throne--Herod becomes - King--Proscriptions and Confiscations--Herod's - Policy--Abolition of the Hereditary Tenure of the High - Priesthood--Death of the High Priest Aristobulus--War with - the Arabians--The Earthquake--Death of the last of the - Hasmonæans--Hillel becomes the Head of the Synhedrion--His - System of Tradition--Menahem the Essene--Shammai and his - School--Mariamne--Herod's Magnificence and Passion for - Building--Herod rebuilds the Temple--Herod executes his Sons - Alexander and Aristobulus--Antipater and his Intrigues--The - Pharisees under Herod--The Destruction of the Roman - Eagle--Execution of Antipater and Death of Herod. - - 40.3 B. C. E. - - -It is certain that Judæa derived her greatness and independence rather -from the tact and foresight of the first Hasmonæans than from their -skill in arms; and in like manner she suffered humiliation and bondage -from the short-sightedness of the last Hasmonæan kings, who did not -understand how to make use of the advantages within their grasp. Events -were most favorable for Antigonus to acquire extended power. The Roman -leaders were violently opposed to one another. The provinces in the -east, unimportant in the eyes of Octavius, were looked upon by Antony -as the abode of luxury and pomp rather than as an arena for warlike -achievements. The soft arms of Cleopatra had made the rough couch of -the war-goddess distasteful to him. The Parthians, who hated the greed -of Rome, had valiantly repulsed her troops. Had Antigonus understood -how to keep alive the hatred of the people towards the Idumæan house, -the Romans themselves would have courted him as an ally instead of -shunning him as an enemy, so eager were they for assistance in staying -the progress of the Parthians. The mountain tribes of Galilee had -already declared in favor of Antigonus; and Sepphoris, one of their -cities, had been converted into an arsenal; besides, the caves of -Arbela sheltered numerous bands of freebooters, who might have proved -dangerous to the enemy's rear. But Antigonus was neither a statesman -nor a general. He did not know how to turn to account the varied -material which he had at hand. The whole of his strength was frittered -away upon trivial aims; his leading passion was the revenge which he -meditated against Herod and his brothers, and this retarded instead -of stimulating his activity. He did not know how to rise to the truly -royal height whence he could look down with contempt instead of with -hatred upon the Idumæan upstarts. During his reign, which lasted three -years and a half (40-37), he undertook nothing great or decisive, -although the Roman officers, who for the sake of appearances pretended -to support Herod, in point of fact usually occupied a neutral position. - -Even amongst his own people Antigonus did not know the secret of -winning men of influence to his cause so that they would stand or fall -with him. The very leaders of the Synhedrion, Shemaya and Abtalion, -averse to Herod on account of his overwhelming audacity, were not -partisans of Antigonus. It is somewhat difficult to understand entirely -the reason of this aversion to the Hasmonæan king. Had Antigonus -professed allegiance to Sadducæan principles, or was there personal -jealousy between the representatives of the royal power and the -teachers of the Law? We are led to believe from one circumstance, -insignificant in itself, that the dislike originated from the latter -cause. It happened once, upon the day of Atonement, that the entire -congregation, according to custom, had followed the high priest, -Antigonus, at the close of the divine service, from the Temple to his -own residence. On the way they met the two Synhedrists, Shemaya and -Abtalion; they quitted their priest-king to form an escort for their -beloved teachers of the Law. Antigonus, vexed at this apparent insult, -expressed his displeasure to the Synhedrists by an ironical obeisance, -which they returned in the same offensive way. This unfortunate -variance with the most influential men, coupled with Antigonus's lack -of generalship and statecraft, brought misfortune upon himself, his -house and the nation. - -His rival Herod, who possessed all those qualities in which he was -deficient, was a man of a different stamp. When fortune frowned upon -him for a time, he could always win back her smiles. His flight -from Jerusalem had been so desperate for him that at one moment he -contemplated suicide. His design to make an ally of the Nabathæan king -failed. He wandered through the Judæan-Idumæan desert, an outcast and -penniless, but yet unbroken, and revolving far-reaching schemes. He -turned to Egypt; there Cleopatra offered to make him general of her -army, but he refused, for he still clung to the hope of wearing the -crown of Judæa. He took ship for Rome, and after being tempest-tossed -and narrowly escaping shipwreck, he arrived at his destination at the -favorable moment when Octavius and Antony had once more agreed upon -the Brundisian treaty. He found no difficulty in persuading Antony -that he could render him great service in repulsing the Parthians, and -he convinced him that Antigonus, raised to the throne of Judæa by the -Parthians, would always be an implacable enemy to the Romans. Antony -was completely deceived by the craft and subtlety of Herod. He spoke -favorably of him to Octavius, who dared not refuse him anything. Thus -within seven days, Herod succeeded in having the Senate proclaim him -King of Judæa, and Antigonus pronounced an enemy of Rome (40). This -was the second death-blow that Rome had dealt the Judæan nation, in -delivering her up to the mercy of an alien, a half-Judæan, an Idumæan, -who had his own personal insults to avenge. Judæa was forced to submit, -and in addition to pay tribute-money to Rome. - -Herod, seeing that his ambition was to be crowned with success, now -left Antony (who had loaded him with honors), in order to assume the -royal title conferred upon him. He left Rome and arrived at Acco (39). -He was supplied with sums of money by various friends, and especially -by Saramalla, the richest Judæan in Antioch. With these moneys he hired -mercenaries and subdued a great part of Galilee. He then hastened -southwards, to relieve the fortress of Masada, where his brother Joseph -was hard pressed by the friends of Antigonus. This struggle was of long -duration, as the Romans were unwilling to take an active part in the -contest. Herod felt the necessity of appearing in person in Antony's -camp, which at that moment was pitched before Samosata, there to plead -his own cause. Partly in return for the services he rendered to the -Roman commander upon this occasion, and partly through his persuasive -powers, he induced Antony to send Sosius, one of his generals, at -the head of two legions, to resolutely carry on the contest against -Antigonus, and to establish upon the throne the king selected by Rome. - -This war was carried on by Herod with implacable severity. Five cities -in the neighborhood of Jericho, with their inhabitants to the number -of 2000, who had sided with Antigonus, he ordered to be burnt. In the -following spring (37), he commenced the siege of Jerusalem. Previous -to this, he celebrated in Samaria, with hands stained with the blood -of its inhabitants, his nuptials with Mariamne, to whom he had now for -several years been betrothed. - -As soon as Sosius had advanced into Judæa with a large army of Roman -infantry, cavalry and Syrian mercenaries, the siege of Jerusalem was -pressed. The besieging army numbered one hundred thousand men. They -built ramparts, filled up the moats, and prepared their battering-rams. -The besieged, though suffering from want of food, defended themselves -heroically. They made occasional sorties, dispersed the workmen, -destroyed the preparations for the siege, built up a new wall, and -harassed the besiegers to such an extent that after one month's -labor they had not advanced to any extent in their work. But the two -Synhedrists, Shemaya and Abtalion, raised their voices against this -opposition, and recommended their countrymen to open their gates to -Herod. - -This division of purpose amongst the besieged, combined with the -attacks of the invaders, may have hastened the fall of the northern -wall, which took place at the end of forty days. The besiegers rushed -into the lower town and into the outworks of the Temple, while the -besieged, with their king, fortified themselves in the upper town and -on the Temple Mount. The Romans were occupied during another fortnight -with the storming of the south wall. On a Sabbath evening, when the -Judæan warriors were least expecting an attack, a portion of the wall -was taken, and the Romans rushed like madmen into the old part of the -city and into the Temple. There, without distinction of age or sex, -they slaughtered all who came in their way, even the priest beside his -sacrifice. By a strange fatality, Jerusalem fell on the anniversary -of the day on which, twenty-seven years previously, the Temple had -been taken by Pompey. It was hardly possible for Herod to restrain his -savage soldiery from plundering and desecrating the holy spot, and it -was only by giving costly gifts to each soldier that he prevented the -entire destruction of Jerusalem. Antigonus was thrown into chains and -sent to Antony, who, upon Herod's persistent entreaties, and contrary -to all custom and usage, had him tortured and then ignobly beheaded. -This disgraceful treatment excited the opprobrium even of the Romans. - -Herod, or, as the people called him, the Idumæan slave, had thus -reached the goal of his lofty desires. His throne, it is true, rested -upon ruins and upon the dead bodies of his subjects; but he felt that -he had the power to maintain its dignity, even if it were necessary to -carry a broad river of blood round its base. The bitter hatred of the -Judæan people, whose ruler he had become without the slightest lawful -title, was nothing to him as compared with the friendship of Rome and -the smile of Antony. His line of action was clearly marked out for him -by the situation of affairs: he had to cling to the Romans as a support -against the ill-will of his people, and meet this ill-will by apparent -concessions, or control it by unrelenting severity. This was the policy -that he followed from the first moment of his victory until he drew -his last breath. During all the thirty-four years of his reign he -followed this line of policy, cold and heartless as fate, and entailing -the most terrible consequences. Even in the first confusion attendant -upon the conquest of the Temple Mount, he had not lost his coolness -and vigilance, but had ordered his satellite Costobar to surround the -exits of Jerusalem with his soldiery, and thus to prevent the escape -of the unfortunate fugitives. The followers of Antigonus were slain -in large numbers, many amongst them being of the most distinguished -families. Herod did not forget old grievances. The Synhedrists, who -twelve years previously had decreed his death, were killed to a man, -with the exception of Abtalion and Shemaya, who had been hostile -to Antigonus. He seized the property of those whom he executed or -otherwise condemned for the royal treasury; for this worthy pupil of -Roman masters was fully alive to the advantages of proscription and -confiscation. He passed over the Hasmonæan house in selecting a high -priest, and chose a certain Ananel, a descendant of Aaron, but not -of high-priestly family, for that office. He declared that his own -was an old Judæan family which had returned from Babylonia, wishing -in this way to obliterate the fact that he was descended from an -Idumæan ancestor who had been forced to accept Judaism. The natives -of Jerusalem, who had a good memory for his true extraction, did not -indeed lend an ear to this invention, but foreign Judæans and heathens -may perhaps have been deceived by it. His confidential friend and -historian, Nicolaus of Damascus, relates this fiction as coming from -his own lips. At the death of Shemaya and Abtalion, the presidents of -the Synhedrion were chosen from a Babylonian-Judæan family, that of -Bene Bathyra. - -Two persons still existed who might prove dangerous to Herod: an old -man and a youth--Hyrcanus, who had once worn the crown and the priestly -diadem, and his grandson Aristobulus, Herod's brother-in-law, who had -claims upon both the royal and the priestly dignity. Herod could not -devote himself to the calm enjoyment of his conquest until these two -should be powerless. Hyrcanus, it was true, who had fallen captive to -the Parthians, had been mutilated by them, and was therefore unfit to -resume his priestly office; but his captors had generously granted -him freedom, and the aged monarch had been joyfully and reverentially -welcomed by the community of Babylonian Judæans. In spite of the -devotion which he received from these people, Hyrcanus had an intense -longing to return to his native land, and Herod was afraid that he -might induce the Babylonian Judæans or the Parthians to take up his -cause and help him regain his throne, from which the latter had torn -him. Anxious to avert this danger, Herod bethought himself of taking -Hyrcanus from Parthian influence and of bringing him under his own -power. It was thus that the aged monarch received a pressing invitation -to Jerusalem to share the throne and the power of king Herod, and -to receive the thanks of the Idumæan for past acts of kindness that -Hyrcanus had shown him. Vainly did the Babylonian Judæans warn the -credulous prince not to let himself be drawn a second time into the -eddy of public life; he hurried to his doom. Herod received him with -every mark of respect, and gave him the place of honor at his table and -in the Council, masking his treachery so completely that Hyrcanus was -entirely deceived. He was unarmed and powerless in a golden cage. - -But more dangerous to Herod seemed his young brother-in-law -Aristobulus, the only brother of Mariamne, who, on account of his -lineage, his youth, and his surpassing beauty, had attracted the love -and devotion of all his people. Herod, in debarring him from the -dignity of high priest, imagined that he had successfully destroyed his -influence. But this was not so. Alexandra, the mother of Mariamne and -Aristobulus, as well versed in intrigue as Herod himself, had succeeded -in obtaining Antony's favor for her son. She had sent the portraits of -her children, the most beautiful of their race, to the Roman triumvir, -believing his weak nature might be worked upon most favorably through -the senses. Antony, in truth, struck by the portraits, requested to -see Aristobulus. But Herod, in order that this meeting should not -take place, suddenly proclaimed the young Hasmonæan high priest, and -Ananel was deprived of this dignity. But Alexandra was far from being -satisfied, for she was secretly determined that her son should also -wear the crown which his ancestors had worn. Herod, fully alive to his -peril, was all the more determined to rid himself of this dangerous -youth. Aristobulus had already gained the heart of the people, and -whenever he appeared in the Temple, every eye hung upon his noble and -perfect form, every glance seemed to avow that the Judæans were longing -to see this last scion of the Hasmonæan house seated upon the royal -throne. Herod durst not act with open violence against his rival, who -was looked upon with special favor by Queen Cleopatra, but as usual -he resorted to treachery. He invited Aristobulus to Jericho, and bade -his followers dispatch the youth whilst he was disporting in the bath. -Thus died, at the early age of seventeen, Aristobulus III., the last -male representative of the Hasmonæan house. Herod then reappointed his -puppet Ananel as high priest. It was vain for the Idumæan to affect -deep grief at the death of his young brother-in-law, it was vain for -him to throw sweet perfume upon his body; all the relations and friends -of the murdered Hasmonæan accused Herod in their hearts of his death, -although their lips gave no utterance to their thoughts. - -But this crime brought its own bitter punishment with it, and made -Herod's whole life one long tale of misery. The agony of remorse that -might have wrought some change upon a less hardened nature was not -felt, but only an ever-increasing suspicion towards those of his own -household, which urged him to heap crime upon crime, to murder his -nearest relatives, even his own children, until he became at last the -most terrible example of a sin-laden existence. Alexandra, who had -staked her ambitious hopes upon the coronation of her son, and who -now found herself so cruelly deceived, did not hesitate to accuse -Herod before Cleopatra of the murder of Aristobulus. This queen, whose -passions were uncontrolled, and who looked with an envious eye upon -Herod's newly acquired kingdom, took advantage of his crime to make -its author appear odious in the eyes of Antony. Herod was summoned to -Laodicea. Trembling for his life, the vassal king obeyed the summons, -but succeeded in ingratiating himself so thoroughly by costly gifts and -by carefully chosen yet eloquent words, that not only was the death of -Aristobulus overlooked, but he was distinguished by marks of esteem, -and sent back to Jerusalem, full of happy self-confidence. He lost, -however, one precious pearl from his crown. The far-famed district of -Jericho, celebrated for its wealth of palm-trees and its highly-prized -balsam, had been given by Antony to Cleopatra, and Herod was forced to -accept two hundred talents in lieu as tribute-money from the queen. He -could, however, rest well satisfied with this loss, when comparing it -with the danger from which he had escaped. - -On the threshold of his palace, however, the demon of discord awaited -him, ready to fill his whole being with despair. On the eve of his -departure he had entrusted his wife Mariamne to the care of Joseph, -the husband of his sister Salome, and had given him the secret command -that, in case of his falling a victim to Antony's displeasure, Joseph -should murder both Mariamne and Alexandra. Love for his beautiful wife, -whom he could not bear to think of as belonging to another, added to -hatred of Alexandra, who should not triumph in his death, prompted -this fiendish resolve. But Joseph had betrayed his secret mission to -Mariamne, and had thus plunged another dagger into the heart of that -unhappy queen. When a false report of Herod's death became current in -Jerusalem, Mariamne and her mother prepared to put themselves under -Roman protection. Herod's sister Salome, who hated both her husband -Joseph and her sister-in-law Mariamne, made use of this fact to -calumniate them upon her brother's return, accusing them of a mutual -understanding and undue intimacy. Herod at first turned a deaf ear to -this calumny, but when Mariamne disclosed to her husband, amidst tears -of indignation, that Joseph had confessed his secret mission to her, -then the king's wrath knew no bounds. Declaring that he fully believed -his sister's accusations, he beheaded Joseph, placed Alexandra in -confinement, and would have had Mariamne slain, had not his love for -his queen surpassed even his rage. From that day, however, the seeds of -distrust and hatred were sown in the palace, and they grew and spread -until one member of the royal family after another met with an untimely -and violent death. - -Outwardly, however, fortune appeared to smile upon Herod, carrying him -successfully over the most difficult obstacles in his path. Before the -sixth year of his reign had ended, threatening clouds began to gather -over his head. A surviving sister of the last Hasmonæan king Antigonus -had arisen as the avenger of her brother and his race, and had, in some -way or other, possessed herself of the fortress of Hyrcanion. Herod -had hardly disarmed this female warrior before he was threatened by a -more serious danger. Cleopatra, who had always hated the Judæans, and -who had been most ungenerous to that community in Alexandria during a -year of famine, had again attempted to effect Herod's ruin by awakening -Antony's displeasure against him. Afraid of this violent and yet crafty -queen, and alarmed at the hatred of his own people, who were longing -for his downfall, Herod determined upon preparing some safe retreat, -where his life would at all events be secure from his enemies. He chose -for this purpose the fortress of Masada, which nature had rendered -almost impregnable, and which he fortified still more strongly. But -Cleopatra was already devising another scheme for the downfall of -her enemy. She succeeded in entangling him in a war with Malich, the -Nabathæan king, and thus endeavored to bring about the ruin of two -equally hated monarchs. But Herod gained two decisive victories over -the Nabathæans, which alarmed Cleopatra, and caused her to send her -general Athenion to the aid of Malich. The Judæan army sustained a -terrible defeat, and Herod was beaten back across the Jordan. This -disaster was followed by an earthquake, which alarmed and dispirited -the Judæan troops to such an extent that they lost all courage and -were almost powerless before the enemy. But Herod, with true genius, -succeeded in rousing his people, and in leading them victoriously -against the Nabathæans. Malich was forced to become the vassal of the -Judæan king. - -Hardly, however, was peace restored before a storm arose that -threatened to shake the Roman world to its very depths and to destroy -the favorite of the Roman generals. Ever since that day when Rome and -her vast possessions lay at the feet of the triumvirs, who hated each -other cordially, and each one of whom wished to be sole ruler of the -state, the political atmosphere had been charged with destructive -elements that threatened to explode at any given moment. Added to this, -one of the three leaders was completely under the sway of the dissolute -and devilish Queen Cleopatra, who had set her heart upon becoming -mistress of Rome, even though this should entail the devastation of -whole countries by fire and by sword. - -It was during this highly excited period that a Judæan author foretold, -in beautiful Greek verse, written in the form of a sibylline prophecy, -the coming destruction of the Roman-Greek state, and the reign of -Belial, who would decoy the unhappy ones to their final destruction; -but this Judæo-Greek seer also heralded the coming of a glorious -Messiah. An era of crime had certainly begun, and a Belial had appeared -in the person of the half-Judæan Herod, but as yet no Messianic dawn of -better things was apparent. - -With the declaration of war between Octavius and Antony, a fierce -strife broke out between the Western and the Eastern provinces of -Rome; it was Europe against Asia--a war of nations. But it came to a -sudden end with the fall of Antony in the battle of Actium (31). This -blow struck Herod severely; neither he nor his friends doubted for one -moment that he would be submerged in the ruin of his protector, for -he had been closely allied to Antony. He was prepared for the worst, -but he determined not to be outlived by the aged Hyrcanus, by his wife -Mariamne, or by his mother-in-law Alexandra. He accused Hyrcanus of -having conspired with the Nabathæan king, and ordered the innocent -monarch to be executed. Mariamne and Alexandra he placed under the -guardianship of the Ithuræan Soem in the fortress of Alexandrion. Herod -then prepared to present himself before the conqueror, Octavianus -Cæsar, and if he met with his death, as was most probable, Mariamne and -her mother were to be instantly murdered. - -On the eve of Herod's departure, he found himself compelled to make -some change in the Synhedrion, and to appoint the Babylonian Hillel, -a man unknown until then, as one of the presidents. This gave a new -direction to the spirit of Judaism, which has affected that faith -down to the present. Hillel, born about the year 75, traced back his -descent, on his mother's side, to the house of David. Although his -lineage was a distinguished one, he was living in needy circumstances, -and was supported by his rich brother, Shebna. He probably accompanied -Hyrcanus on his return from Babylon to Jerusalem, and became one of the -most devoted disciples of the Synhedrists, Shemaya and Abtalion, whose -traditional lore he endeavored to transmit literally and faithfully. - -Hillel was particularly distinguished for his winning, dove-like -gentleness, his intense love of humanity, which arose from his own -humility, and from his deep faith in others, and lastly, for that -perfect equanimity proceeding from his profound trust in God, that -never wavered in the midst of trouble. In later ages he was revered as -the ideal of modesty and gentleness. When he was once asked to express -the essence of Judaism in one sentence, he uttered this golden maxim: -"Do not unto others what thou wouldst not have done unto thyself. -This is the principal commandment: all others are the development -of that one." If strife and dissension arose, Hillel was invariably -the peacemaker. His beneficence knew no bounds, and he had that rare -delicacy of feeling which never humiliates the recipient by the gift, -but which rather helps him to maintain his self-respect. His faith in -God raised him triumphantly above every fear. All the members of his -household were imbued through his example with the same faith; so much -so that once, upon entering the town and hearing a cry of distress, -he was able confidently to remark, "That cry cannot have proceeded -from my house." Hillel has bequeathed a greater number of maxims to us -than any of his predecessors. We read amongst them the following: "If -I were not to care for myself (my soul), who would do so for me? If I -care for myself alone, what can I effect? If not now, when then?" "Be -of the disciples of Aaron, love peace, seek peace, love mankind, thus -lead them to the Law." Impressed by the sublime mission of Israel, that -of maintaining and teaching the pure belief in one God, he exclaimed -at one of the festivals in the Temple: "If I (Israel) am here, then -is everything here; if I should be wanting, who would be here?" The -doctrines of Judaism were so profoundly revered by him that his -indignation was roused whenever they were used as stepping-stones to -the schemes of the ambitious. "He who wishes to raise his name, lowers -it; he who does not seek the Law, does not deserve to live. He who -does not progress in learning, retrogrades; he who uses the crown of -the Law for his own ends, perishes." - -Hillel became in after years the very ideal of his co-religionists. -The impetus given by him to the development of doctrinal Judaism marks -an epoch in the history of that faith. He greatly enriched the mass of -the traditional lore that he had imbibed from the Synhedrists, Shemaya -and Abtalion. But far more important was his logical derivation of the -statutes of the Law observed in his time. He traced them back to their -first principles, and raised them out of the narrow circle of tradition -and mere custom to the height of reason. The traditional law, according -to Hillel, carries within itself its justification and binding power, -it does not depend on authority alone. Thus, to a certain extent, he -paved the way to a reconciliation between Pharisees and Sadducees by -placing before them the principles common to both, from which neither -of them could withhold their assent. On the one hand, Hillel agreed -with the Sadducæan principle, that a law can only be valid if founded -upon scriptural authority; but, on the other hand, he declared that -this authority did not merely lie in the dead letter, but was also to -be derived from the general spirit of the scriptural writings. After -this demonstration by Hillel, no dispute amongst the schools could -arise as to the binding power of traditional law. By the introduction -of seven rules, or Middoth, the oral law could be imbued with the same -weight and authority as that actually contained in the Scriptures. -Through these seven rules the oral law assumed quite a different -aspect; it lost its apparently arbitrary character; it became more -universal and reasonable in its tendency, and might be looked upon as -originating from Holy Writ itself. - -These explanatory rules were, moreover, intended not only to justify -the oral law, but also to lay down instructions how to amplify the -laws, and how to meet unforeseen cases of difficulty. At first they -appear to have been unfavorably received. It is expressly narrated -that Hillel introduced them at a council of the Bathyrene Synhedrion, -but that assembly may either have misinterpreted them or have disputed -their expediency. In the meantime an opportunity presented itself -of having recourse to these explanatory rules, for a question was -raised, the solution of which deeply excited the whole nation, and -to this opportunity Hillel owed the dignified position of President -of the Synhedrion. The eve of the festival on which the Paschal -Lamb was to be sacrificed occurred on the Sabbath, a most unusual -event at that time, and the Bathyrene Synhedrion could not throw any -light upon the disputed question, whether it was permitted or not to -sacrifice the Paschal Lamb on the Sabbath Day. Hillel, whose ability -must have attracted the attention of the discerning before, had -taken part in the discussion, and had proved that according to the -explanatory rules, the Pesach, or Paschal Sacrifice, like every other -whole offering, supersedes the Sabbath. The debate became heated, the -mass of the people being warmly interested in the celebration of the -festival. Expressions of approval and censure for Hillel were freely -uttered. Some cried, "We have to look to the Babylonians for the best -information"; others ironically asked, "What good can we expect from -the Babylonians?" - -From that day Hillel's name became so popular that the Bathyrene -Synhedrists resigned their offices--whether of their own free will, -or because they were forced to do so by the people, is not known--and -conceded the Presidency to Hillel himself (about 30). Hillel, far from -being proud of his exalted position, expressed himself as dissatisfied, -and angrily reproved the Synhedrists. "Why is it," he asked, "that I, -an insignificant Babylonian, became President of the Synhedrion? Only -because you have been too indolent to heed the teachings of Shemaya and -Abtalion." Herod does not seem to have made any objection to the choice. - -One of the statutes which Hillel had introduced was of general -interest, and proved that he had true insight into affairs of life. -In the Sabbatical year all debts were by law canceled. At the time -when the state was a republic based upon moral laws, this was a wise -measure for equalizing property; but at a later period, when capital -became a power in itself, the rich were not willing to relieve their -less wealthy neighbors from their difficulties by giving them loans. On -this account Hillel, without entirely abrogating the law which already -existed, ruled that the creditor should give over the debt in writing -to the Court, so that the Court might collect it, and the creditor be -relieved from the necessity of violating the law. This timely statute, -equally advantageous to debtor and creditor, was called by the Greek -word _Prosbol_, because the debt was given over to the Council of the -Elders. - -At Herod's particular desire, the second place of honor, that of -Deputy of Hillel, was given to the Essene Menahem, to whom the king -showed great partiality. The cause of this attachment was as follows -(at least so the tale ran in later days): Menahem, by means of the -prophetic power ascribed to the Essenes, had foretold during his -childhood that Herod would one day be king in Jerusalem, and that his -reign would be a brilliant one, but that he would fail in piety and -justice. That which had appeared incredible to the youth recurred to -the man when he wore the regal crown. But Menahem appears not to have -found his office congenial, and soon withdrew in favor of Shammai, -whose characteristics, opposed in many ways to those of Hillel, in -reality supplemented them. Shammai was probably by birth a Palestinean, -and therefore much interested in all the political and religious -controversies of his native land. His religious views were strict to -a painful extreme. But Shammai was not of a gloomy or misanthropical -disposition; indeed, he encouraged friendliness in demeanor towards -every one. This is indicated by the maxim which has come down to us, -"Let your work in the Law be your principal occupation; speak little, -but do much, and receive all men with a friendly countenance." - -The two Synhedrists, Hillel and Shammai, founded two separate -schools, opposed to each other in many religious, moral, and legal -questions, which, with their different tendencies, exerted a powerful -influence, during the subsequent unsettled and warlike times, upon -events of historical importance. Herod had no conception of the forces -antagonistic to his house that were quietly developing within the -seclusion of these schools. - -With a trembling heart he had presented himself at Rhodes before -Octavianus Cæsar, who, since the defeat of Antony at Actium, was sole -master of the Roman provinces. He, so haughty in his own country, -appeared in meek and lowly guise at the footstool of the mighty ruler, -yet not without a certain manly resolution. In his interview with -Octavianus, Herod did not in any way conceal the position he had held -with relation to Antony; but he took care to dwell upon the fact of his -having refrained from aiding Antony after his defeat at Actium, thereby -intimating to Octavianus what use he might make of the devotion and -zeal which Herod was prepared to transfer from the cause of Antony to -that of his conqueror. Octavianus was neither noble enough to despise -so venal a man, nor did he feel secure enough to do without him. - -So he graciously encouraged the pleading Herod, bade him array himself -as before in royal robes, and sent him back to his own country laden -with honors (30). Herod found no difficulty in becoming as loyal a -partisan of Octavianus as he had been for twelve long years of Antony. -During the campaign of the second Cæsar against Egypt, he was met at -Acco by Herod bearing rich presents, and the Judæan king supplied -the Roman army with water and with wine during their march through -an arid country. It is possible that Antony may have heard, before -he put an end to his life, that Herod's loyalty was not founded on a -rock. Herod had also the malicious joy of knowing that his persistent -enemy, Cleopatra, who had failed to fascinate the conqueror by her -attractions, had nothing left but to seek death. The Alexandrian -Judæans, who had suffered from her hatred, shared Herod's feelings. -For, but a short time previous to her death, this terrible woman had -longed to assassinate with her own hands the Judæans who were living in -the capital of Egypt, and who were devoted to the cause of Octavianus. -The Egyptian Judæans were rewarded for their devotion by an official -recognition of their equality with the rest of the inhabitants; in -fact, Octavianus had such confidence in their loyalty that he placed -the harbors of the Nile and of the sea under the control of the Judæan -Alabarchs, who had held that office under former Egyptian monarchs. -This was a special mark of favor, for the possession of Egypt, the -Roman granary, and particularly of the harbor of Alexandria, was so -precious to the first emperor of Rome that no Senator dared approach -that country without the imperial permission. When the Alabarch who -was then in office died, Octavianus allowed his successor to be chosen -by the Alexandrian Judæans, and granted him all the rights of his -predecessors. Whilst he governed the Greek Alexandrians with extreme -severity on account of their depravity, their untrustworthiness and -their love of sedition, and kept them strictly under his own rule, he -appointed a Judæan Council to assist the Alabarchs or Ethnarchs. The -Judæan community was thus governed by one of its own race, who decided -all the judicial questions and provided for the carrying out of all -imperial commands and behests. - -Octavianus also granted to the numerous Judæans who were settled -in Rome, the Libertini, if not extraordinary privileges, at least -the right of observing their own religious customs, and thus set a -worthy example to his successors. The Judæans were allowed to build -synagogues, where they worshiped according to their rites; they were -also permitted to transmit their yearly contributions to the Temple in -Jerusalem, although, in general, it was forbidden to send large sums -out of Rome. The Roman Judæans also received their due portion of the -grain that was distributed amongst the population. If the distribution -happened to take place on a Sabbath, their portion was allotted to them -on the following day. These were the orders of the emperor. - -Octavianus made over to Herod the splendid body-guard of Cleopatra, -numbering four hundred Gauls, and he placed under his jurisdiction -several seaports that had been torn from Judæa, as well as the -territory of Jericho. Samaria, as also Gadara and Hippos in -trans-Jordanic territory, were also incorporated with Judæa. The area -of the kingdom was now identical with what it had been before the -civil war between the royal brothers and the first intervention of the -Romans; but different, indeed, were the circumstances under which she -had regained her possessions! Probably it was due to Herod's boundless -sycophancy to Rome that sacrifices were now regularly offered up for -the welfare of the Cæsars, Augustus and his consort presenting in -return golden vessels for the use of the Temple. - -Herod was now at the very zenith of his power; the untoward fortune -that he had feared had not only been averted, but had actually -assisted in exalting him. He was not, however, to enjoy his good -fortune; the terrible consequences of his crimes clung to his footsteps -and changed his cup of happiness into one of gall. In the narrow circle -of his own home a tragedy was about to be enacted, far more terrible -than could have been conceived by the imagination of a poet. Mariamne, -who, as well as her mother Alexandra, had been in close confinement -during the king's absence, had elicited from her gaoler Soem the fact -that she would not have been permitted to outlive Herod. Upon the -king's return she made no secret of her hatred for him, and when he -spoke to her in words of tenderness and affection, she taunted him with -the murders of her brother, her grandfather and many others of her -relatives. Herod's heart was torn by the love he bore to this beautiful -woman and by the wrath he felt at her persistent enmity to his person -and his power. Whilst still a prey to these conflicting feelings he -was only too ready to lend a willing ear to the malicious inventions -of his sister Salome, who assured him that his cup-bearer had been -bribed by Mariamne to poison him. During the investigation that ensued -it transpired that Soem had disclosed his secret instructions to -the queen, and this treachery on the part of a confidential servant -let loose a host of wild passions within Herod's breast. Soem was -decapitated on the spot. Whilst still moved by his ungovernable rage, -Herod summoned a council, before whom he accused his wife of adultery -and of an attempt to poison him. The judges passed the sentence of -death upon her, and, wishing to curry favor with Herod, ordered the -execution to take place forthwith. It was thus that the most beautiful -woman in Judæa, the Hasmonæan princess, the pride of her people, was -led to the scaffold. She went to her doom with remarkable fortitude, -without the faintest tremor or the least display of feminine weakness, -worthy of her heroic ancestry (29). We may take Mariamne as the symbol -of Judæa, delivered up to the axe of the executioner by intrigue and -passion. - -But Mariamne's death did not quench Herod's thirst for revenge; on -the contrary, it brought on still fiercer paroxysms of rage. He could -not endure her loss, and became a prey to sickness and insanity. -He would call frantically upon her name in a passion of sobs and -tears; and he had her body embalmed in honey, so that he might keep -it in his presence. It was whilst traveling in Samaria that he fell -so dangerously ill that the doctors despaired of his life, and when -this intelligence reached his capital, Alexandra proceeded to possess -herself of Jerusalem. But the king's vitality returned upon the rumor -of this sudden peril to his throne, and Alexandra fell a victim to -her sedition. She was the very last who bore the Hasmonæan name, and -she had lived long enough to witness the violent and disgraceful -deaths of her father-in-law Aristobulus II, her husband Alexander, her -brother-in-law Antigonus, her son Aristobulus III, her father Hyrcanus -II, and her daughter Mariamne. - -The remaining two-thirds of the Herodian reign are devoid of any -real progress; the record of that time tells of cringing submission -to Augustus and to Rome, of the erection of magnificent edifices, -of the love of pomp and display, of deeply-rooted moral corruption, -of unsuccessful conspiracies and court intrigues, leading to new -crimes and further executions. In order to retain the favor of the -all-powerful Augustus, Herod introduced into Jerusalem the celebration -of the Actian games, occurring every fifth year, in remembrance of -Augustus' victory over his rival, he also built theaters and arenas, -where he organized combats between gladiators or wild beasts, thus -arousing the displeasure of the national party, who rightly divined -that it was intended that Judaism soon should be absorbed by a -Pagan-Roman worship, and who recognized in the Roman trophies and -eagles displayed in the theaters, the introduction of Roman deities. -Herod gave his people another cause for umbrage, in the fact that -he was not only ornamenting the hated city of Samaria, within a -circumference of half a mile, with the most beautiful buildings, -but that he also contemplated making that city the capital of his -dominions, a dignity for which she was singularly adapted by her -fortunate position. The newly-built Samaria was renamed Sebaste, just -as the citadel Baris, the armory of the Hasmonæans in old days, on -the northwest side of the Temple, had been called Antonia in honor of -Antony. In fact, Judæa became crowded with cities and with monuments -which bore the names of Herod's own family or those of his Roman -protectors. The fortress of Straton on the sea was, by most lavish -expenditure, converted into a beautiful city, with an extensive harbor, -and received the name of Cæsarea, one of the towers on its walls being -called Drusus, after the son of Augustus. Herod did not even hesitate -to erect a Roman temple on the soil of the Holy Land. Two colossal -figures were raised in Cæsarea, one of them representing, in gigantic -proportions, the figure of Augustus as the Olympian Jupiter, and the -other that of the city of Rome as the Argive Juno. At the splendid -consecration of Cæsarea, the rebuilding of which had occupied twelve -years, the inhabitants could have imagined themselves transported into -a pagan city. On account of its name, its origin and its importance, -the national party justly called it Little Rome. In later days it -became the seat of the Roman governor, the rival of Jerusalem, and -finally her conqueror. Whenever Cæsarea rejoiced, Jerusalem was sure to -mourn. The harbor of Cæsarea, which grew in time to be a town itself, -was called Sebastus. Herod had, without doubt, enhanced the beauty of -Judæa, but, like a doomed victim, she was garlanded for the altar. His -love of display found satisfaction in the magnificence of his edifices, -but not his love of renown. Despairing of securing the affection of his -own people, he resolved to compel the admiration of the stranger. He -exhausted his people by taxation, redoubled his extortions, searched -for hidden treasures in the ancient royal cemeteries, sold those who -had been imprisoned for theft as slaves to neighboring countries, and -then lavished all the funds he had gained by these practices upon the -adornment of Syrian, Asiatic, and Greek cities. Huge were the sums of -money that he withdrew from his own country for such enterprises. - -Herod may possibly have secured the admiration and affection of the -Greeks, the Romans and the Judæans outside of Palestine; but the people -of Jerusalem felt nothing but aversion for this grasping upstart, who -sought to estrange them from the customs of their fathers. In spite -of his having shown himself to be their generous benefactor, upon the -occasion of a great famine (24), the nation now only beheld in him the -murderer of the Hasmonæans, the usurper of their throne, the destroyer -of the noblest citizens, the suppressor of freedom. He had disgraced -the three dignities of Monarch, High Priest, and Synhedrist. The first -he had arrogated to himself; the second, which until his reign had, -with very few exceptions, descended by right of inheritance from father -to son, he had given away, according to his own pleasure or to attain -his own ends; and the power of the third he had curtailed by allowing -it hardly any scope for action. Joshua, of the family of Phabi, had, -through Herod's instrumentality, succeeded Ananel as High Priest; but -the king having been fascinated by the beauty of another Mariamne, -the daughter of an inferior priest, Simon, he dispossessed Joshua of -his dignity, and raised Simon to his office, in order that his future -wife's rank be not too strikingly below his own. - -This High Priest Simon was an Alexandrian, the son of Boëthus, and it -was he who laid the foundation-stone of the greatness of the house -of Boëthus, from which several high priests descended. He appears to -have been the founder of the sect of the Boëthuseans, who followed -the teachings of the Sadducees, but who were better able to grasp and -apply those teachings than the Sadducees themselves, thanks to their -Alexandrian readiness and sophistry. - -These despotic acts of Herod were not calculated to make him beloved -by his people. He was perfectly aware of their ill-will towards him, -but as he could not crush it, he at least sought to make it harmless. -Thus he insisted upon all subjects taking an oath of allegiance, -resolving to punish severely those who would refrain from doing so. The -Essenes alone, who disapproved of oaths, were exempt; he had no cause -for fear in their peaceful, contemplative lives; on the contrary, he -warmly approved of such subjects, who would submit without murmuring -to any law that he might choose to make. Those amongst the Pharisees -who were the followers of the peace-loving Hillel seem to have taken -the required oath without hesitation, but the followers of the sterner -Shammai stubbornly refused to do so. Six thousand Pharisees in all -refused to take the oath of allegiance, and to inflict corporal -punishment upon so great a number appeared, even to Herod, a serious -matter. So he heavily taxed the refractory, amongst whom was the wife -of his brother Pheroras, an ardent devotee, strange to say, of strict -Phariseeism. - -But, in spite of all these precautionary measures, Herod did not trust -his subjects, and employed a number of spies to watch them. He himself -would often appear in disguise at their popular assemblies, and woe -to the unfortunate individual who, at that moment, might be giving -utterance to a complaint against the existing order of things; he was -doomed to be imprisoned in a fortress, or secretly despatched. But -popularity is too sweet for the tyrant to forego it, and to Herod it -was particularly important, as he wished to appear before the Romans -in the character of a prince beloved by his people. This, besides his -passion for building, was probably the motive that impelled him to -convert the Temple, now five hundred years old, small and of an old -fashion, into a magnificent edifice in a new style. The representatives -of the nation, when he informed them of his plan, received the news -with horror; they feared that Herod intended merely to destroy their -old Temple, and that he would endlessly protract the work of the -new building, thus robbing them entirely of their sanctuary. But he -pacified them by the assurance that the old Temple should remain -standing until all the workmen, with their material, were at hand for -the construction of the new one. Thousands of carts, laden with quarry -stone and marble, now appeared on the scene, and ten thousand skilled -workmen were ready to commence operations. In the eighteenth year of -Herod's reign (20) the building was begun, and in one year and a half -(18) the inner part of the Temple was finished. The building of the -outer walls, courts and galleries occupied a period of eight years, and -long after this time, until just before the destruction, the workmen -were still employed upon them. - -The Herodian Temple was a magnificent production, the exquisite -beauty of which those who witnessed it could not sufficiently admire. -It differed from the uncompleted Temple of Zerubbabel in being of -vaster dimensions and of richer and more ornate decoration. The whole -circumference of the Temple Mount (Har-ha-bayith), which was surrounded -by a lofty and strong wall, besides the fortress at Antonia, with -which it was in communication, exceeded three-quarters of a mile, -and the ground rose in terraces. Owing to this commanding position -the Sanctuary could be seen from afar. The long range of outer wall -protected a series of courts and galleries, with their cedar ceilings -and mosaic floorings. The first court was assigned as a place of -assembly for the people, where the most important questions were -discussed. Here the pagan and the unpurified were admitted; here Greek -and Roman inscriptions, in large characters, and placed in prominent -positions, caught the eye of him who entered. They ran as follows: "No -foreigner is permitted to pass through this grating into the Sanctuary -and its surroundings. If discovered there he has brought the punishment -of death upon himself." The second court, which in former days had -been protected by a wooden grating, was now shut in by a low wall. -The internal arrangements of the Temple were but little changed, and -consisted, as in the Temple of Zerubbabel, of three uncovered courts -and of the Sanctuary, which was of a size to admit of the golden -altar, the candlestick and the shewbread table, and, at the extreme -end, of the Holy of Holies. But the outer parts of the Sanctuary -vastly outshone those of the old Temple. Its walls were of snow-white -marble, and as they rose on the highest summit of the Temple Mount, -and towered above the outer walls and their fortifications, they -presented a beautiful and striking appearance from all sides. The large -space in front of the Sanctuary was partitioned into various smaller -courts for the use of the women, the laymen, the priests, and for all -those who were engaged in preparing the sacrifices for the altar. The -space allotted to the female portion of the worshipers, whose visits -to the Temple were now of frequent occurrence, was entirely shut off -from the rest, and three large balconies were reserved for the use of -the women, from which they were able to witness all celebrations of -a public character. The gateway leading to this part of the Temple -was closed by a magnificent door, cast in Corinthian brass, the gift -of a rich and pious Alexandrian, after whom it was named the Gate of -Nicanor. Fifteen steps led thence to the laymen's quarters, which -were reached by passing through a gateway, called, on account of its -commanding position, the High Gate. The outer court was entirely open; -but, on the other hand, the Sanctuary was shut off by a gateway higher -and broader than any other, containing double folding doors, thickly -covered with a layer of gold. This was the Great Gate or the Gate of -the Sanctuary. The high roof of the Sanctuary rose at intervals into -sharp gilded points, the object of which was to prevent the birds from -building their nests on this consecrated place, but probably quite -unintentionally on the part of the builder, they may also have served -as lightning conductors. - -The splendor of the dedication far exceeded that solemnized in King -Solomon's time. Hecatombs upon hecatombs were offered up, and the whole -nation was feasted. The celebration fell upon the very anniversary -of the day when, twenty years previously, Herod, with blood-stained -hands, had made himself master of Jerusalem--a terrible reminiscence. -The hands that built the Temple had already lighted the torch for its -destruction. Herod placed it under the protection of Rome. To the -horror of the pious Judæans, a golden eagle, the symbol of Roman might, -was hung over the principal entrance. Herod, moreover, constructed a -subterranean passage, leading from the fortress of Antonia to the east -gate of the Temple, in order to control the egresses of the Sanctuary. -His soul was filled with distrust of his people. - -Towards the close of his reign the aged and sin-laden monarch was -seized with a terrible malady. This threw him into a condition of such -hopeless misery that one may say that all human feeling gave place -to the fury of the wild beast. The corpses of his innocent victims -rose up before his excited imagination, and made his life one long -torment. Vainly he sought for one loving heart, one faithful soul, -who would comfort and guide him. But he believed that his own flesh -and blood--his sister and brother, Salome and Pheroras, even his own -children--were his enemies, and were conspiring against his peace and -his life. This terrible state of mind made him more dangerous than -ever to those who ventured within his presence. The chief cause of his -frenzy was the death of his beloved Mariamne. Besides two daughters, -she had left him two sons, Alexander and Aristobulus, who, as they -grew to man's estate, took the death of their unfortunate mother -deeply to heart, and could not conceal the aversion they felt for -their father. As these princes were of Hasmonæan descent, Herod had -decided upon making them his successors. He had sent them as youths -to Rome, in order that they might gain the favor of Augustus, and be -educated according to Roman fashion. He married the eldest, Alexander, -to Glaphyra, the daughter of Archelaus, King of Cappadocia, and the -younger, Aristobulus, to Salome's daughter, Berenice. He thought -that by these means he could secure peace amongst the members of -his own family. But his wishes were defeated by the hatred that the -revengeful Salome and her brother Pheroras bore to the descendants of -the Hasmonæan Mariamne. Herod was induced by his sister to take to his -heart and to adopt as a royal prince the son of his first wife, Doris, -whom together with her child he had repudiated upon his marriage with -Mariamne. - -Antipater, the son of Doris, had inherited all the malice, craft and -cruelty of the Idumæans, and he spared neither his father nor his -brothers. The three, Salome, Pheroras, and Antipater, although they -hated one another mortally, were united in hatred against the sons of -Mariamne. The more these princes were indulged by their father, and the -more they were beloved by the people as descendants from the Hasmonæans -on their mother's side, the more did their bitter foes fear and detest -them. Antipater accused Alexander and Aristobulus of wishing to avenge -the death of their mother upon the person of their father. Imprudent -expressions, hastily uttered in moments of irritation, may have given -some show of reason to these accusations. Herod's suspicions dwelt -eagerly upon this calumny. He began to hate his sons, and, as a mark of -displeasure towards them, led Antipater to believe that he should share -in their rights of succession. This determination of the king served to -embitter the Hasmonæan princes still more, and drove them to the most -unwise outbursts of anger against their father. Antipater succeeded at -the same time in laying proofs of an attempted conspiracy of the two -brothers against Herod before him. Their friends and their servants -were, by the king's commands, put to the torture, and upon the strength -of their confession, wrung from them under agony, Alexander and -Aristobulus were condemned to death by a council numbering one hundred -and fifty of Herod's friends. Herod himself hastened the execution, -and ordered the two princes to be torn from Jerusalem and hurried to -Samaria, and there, where thirty years previously their unnatural -father had celebrated his marriage with their mother, her two sons were -mercilessly beheaded. - -However, the conspiracies against Herod's life did not cease with -their death, but, on the contrary, acquired fresh vigor. Antipater, -not feeling at all sure of his succession so long as his father was -alive, actually conspired with Pheroras against the life of that -father and benefactor. But his fiendish design came to light, and it -was discovered that Antipater had undoubtedly intended poisoning his -father. This disclosure was a terrible blow for Herod. The turmoil of -his outraged feelings cannot be described, and yet he had to control -himself, and even to pretend great affection for Antipater, in order -to induce that prince to leave Rome and return to Jerusalem. Upon -Antipater's arrival, his father loaded him with reproaches, and accused -him before a tribunal, which was under the presidency of the Roman -governor Quintilius Varus, of fratricide and attempted parricide. -Vainly did the prince plead innocence; Herod's friend, Nicolaus of -Damascus, appeared as his merciless accuser. His death sentence was -passed, and Herod begged of Augustus to ratify it. - -Such constant and frequent alarms brought Herod, who had nearly reached -his seventieth year, to his death-bed. All his hopes were frustrated; -the result of so much labor, of so much guilt, of so much bloodshed, -had become hateful to him. In which of his surviving sons could he have -confidence? For the third time he altered the succession, and resolved -that the throne should belong to his youngest son, Antipas I. - -His miserable state of mind, which might have made him gentler and -more merciful, only led him into still greater cruelty. An unimportant -rising on the part of some hot-headed youths called forth from the aged -monarch an act of retaliation as heartless and as severe as in the days -when his heart beat high with young and ambitious hopes. The Pharisees -were no friends of his, especially those who were the disciples of -Shammai. He therefore kept a suspicious eye upon the members of the -Pharisaic schools, and the Pharisees, on their side, continued to -incite the youths of their following against their monarch, whom they -termed the Idumæan and the Roman. This they were able to do without -incurring any danger to themselves, for they clothed their words in a -metaphorical garb, applying the denunciations of the Hebrew prophets -of old to the Idumæan nation, to express what they felt for Herod and -his family. - -Amongst the Pharisees who were most bitterly opposed to Herod and the -Romans, Judah ben Zippori and Matthias ben Margalot were distinguished -for their ardor and recklessness, and were endeared to their people by -these very characteristics. Upon hearing of Herod's mortal illness, -they incited some of their young disciples to put an end to the -desecration of the Temple, by hurling the Roman eagle from the gateway. -The rumors of Herod's death, that were credited in Jerusalem, favored -this bold undertaking. A number of youths armed with axes rushed to -the Temple Gate, scaled it by means of a rope-ladder, and cut down -the eagle. At the news of this rebellious action, the captain of the -Herodian guard sent his troops to the spot, and they succeeded in -capturing the two ringleaders and forty of their followers. They were -brought into the king's presence, and the sight of these new victims -revived his exhausted vitality. At their trial, which was conducted in -his presence, he was forced to hear much that proved how incapable he -had been in breaking the stubborn will of his people. The prisoners -fearlessly confessed what they had done, boasting proudly of their -performance, and replying to the question as to who had incited them to -such an action, "The Law." They were all burnt alive as "desecrators of -the Temple." - -But Herod was to be punished more effectually by eternal justice than -would have been possible had he been arraigned before the severest -earthly tribunal. Even the pleasure that was granted him before he -entirely succumbed to his loathsome malady, the delight of being able -to order the execution of his son, was soon followed by a paroxysm -of pain in which he nearly caused his own destruction. His relative -Achiab tore the knife from his hand, but the cry of horror that arose -from his palace in Jericho at this suicidal attempt, came to the ear -of Antipater, a prisoner in the same palace. He began to hope that -his life might yet be spared, and he besought his gaoler to release -him. But the gaoler, who feared to risk his own life, hurried into the -king's apartments, to see if the cruel monarch still lived. When Herod -heard that Antipater yet hoped to outlive him, he ordered his instant -assassination, and his orders were forthwith obeyed. Although Antipater -deserved his death tenfold, yet there was a general feeling of horror -at the idea of a father who could sentence his three sons to death. -Even Augustus, who did not show any tenderly paternal feelings to his -daughter Julia, could not help exclaiming at the news of Antipater's -execution, that "he would rather be Herod's swine than his son." A -legend of later date tells how Herod was not satisfied with shedding -the blood of his own children, but how, in a passion, he ordered all -children under two years of age in Bethlehem and the surrounding -country to be massacred, because he had heard that the Messiah of the -House of David had been born in that place! But Herod, criminal as he -was, was innocent of this crime. - -Herod's last thoughts dwelt, however, upon bloodshed. He insisted -upon the most respected men of Judæa being brought to Jericho, and -imprisoned in the great public arena, where they were closely guarded; -he then left orders with his sister Salome and her husband that -directly after his death had taken place they should be all massacred -by his body-guard, so that the entire nation might be mourning their -loved ones, and no one would have the heart to rejoice over his -demise. Murder filled his thoughts from the first moment of his public -life until he drew his last breath. He died five days after the -execution of Antipater, in the sixty-ninth year of his life and the -thirty-seventh of his reign, in the spring of the year 4 B. C. His -flatterers called him "Herod the Great," but the nation only knew him -as "the Hasmonæan slave." Whilst his body was being taken in all pomp -to its resting-place in Herodium, under the escort of the Thracian, -German and Gallic body-guard, the nation joyfully celebrated the day as -a semi-festival. - - - - -CHAPTER V. - -THE HERODIANS. - - The Family of Herod--Partition of the Kingdom of Judæa--Revolt - against Archelaus--Sabinus and Varus--The Adventurer-Chief, - Judas the Galilæan--Confirmation of Herod's Will--Archelaus - as Ruler--His brief Reign and his Banishment--Judæa becomes - a Roman Province--The Revolt against the Census--The - Schools of Hillel and Shammai--Judas Founder of the - Party of Zealots--Onerous Taxation--Fresh Hostility of - the Samaritans--Expulsion of the Judæans from Rome by - Tiberius--Pontius Pilate. - -3 B. C. E.--37 C. E. - - -However unfortunate the reign of Herod may have been, it yet contrasted -favorably with that which followed. Herod's rule was at all events -distinguished by external splendor, and by a certain amount of -animation in the direction of public affairs. The boundaries of -Judæa now extended far beyond the limits assigned to them in the -most prosperous days of the Hasmonæans. Those tracts of land beyond -the Jordan and the Hermon, which Aristobulus I and Alexander I had -only partially conquered after years of useless fighting, fell into -the possession of Herod merely by the stroke of a pen; but the new -territories were less welcome, perhaps, on that account than if they -had been won with toil and difficulty. The towns of Judæa had been -restored with great magnificence, they were adorned with beautiful -specimens of Greek sculpture and architecture; but the monuments -which were erected perpetuated the fame of Roman dignitaries and the -Herodian family, and not the greatness of the nation. The seaports, and -especially the port of Cæsarea, were crowded with shipping, and trade -was consequently encouraged, but the imports which naturally increased -did not help to enrich the nation. The Temple was resplendent in -its renovated glory, and outwardly recalled the days of Solomon, but -the priests were forced to offer sacrifices for the welfare of those -whom they hated in their hearts. The country even enjoyed a certain -amount of independence, for the Roman fetters were not visible at a -superficial glance. All this outward show--because it was only outward -show--disappeared with the death of the one man who knew how to make -use of it. As soon as death had torn the reins from Herod's hands, -public affairs fell into an unsettled and disjointed state, which was -the beginning of more lasting misfortunes. The edifice, superficially -constructed, soon gave way, burying among its ruins everything that -remained in Judæa of freedom and national existence. - -Herod had left several daughters and six sons. Some of them he favored -in his will, others he slighted. The publication of this will (the -contents of which were known to Ptolemy, the brother of the celebrated -historian, Nicolaus of Damascus) proved how little he cared for the -interests of Judæa, and how constantly he was actuated by the most -selfish motives. Instead of keeping the unity of the country intact, -he dismembered it, so as to subdivide it between three of his sons. -The other three were not mentioned; these were--Herod, his son by -the second Mariamne; another Herod, by Cleopatra of Jerusalem; and -Phasael, by his wife Pallas. He bequeathed to his son Archelaus (whose -mother was Malthace the Samaritan) the countries of Judæa and Samaria, -with the title of sovereign. Herod Antipas (also the son of Malthace) -became the possessor of the lands of Galilee and Peræa; Philip, -the son of Cleopatra of Jerusalem, another tetrarchy--Gaulanitis, -Batanæa, Trachonitis, and the country called Panias, which contained -the source of the Jordan. He bequeathed to his sister Salome, as a -reward for her faithfulness, the revenues of the towns of Jamnia, -Azotus, and Phasaelis (to the north of Jericho). However, these last -bequests were only expressed in the form of wishes, for he left to the -emperor Augustus the right of deciding whether they should be put into -execution, or whether the land should be otherwise divided, and another -successor appointed to the throne. - -The sons, who had received but scanty proofs of affection from their -father during his lifetime, were not united by any ties of brotherly -love, and each envied the share which had fallen to his brother. -Antipas grudged the large territories and the regal title of Archelaus, -because in an earlier will he had been nominated as successor to -the throne. Salome, in spite of her large possessions, was equally -embittered against Archelaus, and did all in her power to dispute the -succession. The discord which divided the house of Herod was handed -down to their children and children's children. As the fulfilment of -Herod's bequests depended on a higher authority, all the disputants -tried to ingratiate themselves with the people, who, they hoped, -would intercede in their favor with Augustus. Salome and her husband -actually countermanded an order given by Herod for the execution of -the imprisoned nobles, and persuaded the officers of the Herodian -body-guard that Herod himself had disapproved of an execution on so -large a scale. - -Archelaus, who had still more causes for currying favor with the -people, appeared in the Court of the Temple after the period of -mourning had expired, and addressing the multitude from a throne -erected for the occasion, promised to abolish all the unjust laws -sanctioned in his father's reign, and to resettle public affairs, so -as to promote general peace and well-being. Emboldened by so much -condescension, the people would not rest contented with royal promises; -they insisted upon stating their grievances in a definite form, and -demanded speedy and certain redress. There were five points on which -the people were particularly resolute. They desired that the oppressive -yearly taxes should be reduced, whilst the duties upon public sales -and purchases should be completely taken off; that the prisoners who -had languished for years in dungeons should be liberated; that the -counselors who had voted the death-sentence when the Roman eagle had -been destroyed be punished; and finally that the unpopular High Priest, -Joaser, should be deposed, and one more worthy of his important office -be named in his stead. - -All this was really nothing short of demanding both a new and a -popular form of government and a public condemnation of the Herodian -tyranny. However little Archelaus cared at heart for the reputation -of his father, he could not possibly agree to all these requests. -Nevertheless, he assented to everything, but he could not promise that -their wishes should be accomplished until Herod's will had received -the imperial sanction. But the crowds of people, consisting of several -thousands, who had congregated from every part of Judæa to celebrate -the Feast of Passover, incited by the Pharisees, who worked upon their -feelings by picturing to them the martyrdom of Judas and Matthias, the -destroyers of the eagle, would not be put off, and came forward full of -anger and defiance. What their intentions may have been is not known. -Archelaus, who feared a revolt, sent a troop of soldiers to quell any -disturbance, but they were assailed with stones and forced to take to -flight. In the meantime midday approached, and the people allowed their -anger to cool. They were occupied with the rites of the festivals, and -made no preparations either for defense or for commencing hostilities. -Archelaus took advantage of their inactivity; he commanded all the -infantry in Jerusalem to fall upon the sacrificing multitude, and to -hew them down; the cavalry were to remain in the open plains to arrest -the fugitives. Three thousand were killed on that day on the Mount of -the Temple and in the surrounding country; those that escaped the sword -of the enemy destroyed themselves. Heralds thereupon proclaimed to the -whole town that Archelaus forbade the celebration of the Passover for -that year, and no one was allowed to approach the Temple. This was the -inauguration of the reign of Archelaus. - -Although his relatives would probably not have acted with more humanity -than he did, they cried out against his cruelty, and made use of it as -a weapon with which to serve their own purposes when in the presence of -Augustus. The whole house of Herod traveled to Rome to lay the land of -Judæa at the feet of the emperor, and to petition, according to their -respective interests, for the alteration or the confirmation of the -will. - -During their absence unexpected events took place, and the prize for -which they were all contending very nearly escaped their possession -altogether. Judæa became a huge battle-field, the arena of furious -encounters. Men threw themselves into the affray, assuming the titles -of kings or leaders of the people. The blood of the slain warriors, the -groans of unarmed, wounded citizens, the smoke issuing from burning -cities, filled every heart with dismay and with horrible forebodings of -the downfall of Judæa. The tragical events which took place during the -first year after the death of Herod are described in the Chronicle as -the "War Period of Varus," the Governor of Syria. - -At the desire of Archelaus, Quintilius Varus had remained in Jerusalem -after the departure of the Herodian family, so as to crush any attempt -at revolt which might occur during the absence of the princes. The -task was an easy one, for the patriots who were hostile to the -Herodians had no decided plan of action, were insufficiently armed, and -allowed themselves to be led away by their fierce hatred into unwise -and useless demonstrations. Varus, seeing no further necessity for -remaining in the Judæan capital, returned to Antioch, but he left a -considerable number of troops to be in readiness in case of any signs -of hostility. - -As soon as the governor Varus had left Jerusalem another cause of -annoyance was given to the people by the arrival of Sabinus, the -treasurer of Augustus. He had been sent to claim the treasures of -Herod, and probably also all those belonging to the Temple, as if the -emperor had been the acknowledged heir to Herod's possessions. Sabinus -must have had some malevolent intention, for he hastened his journey -to Jerusalem, notwithstanding that he had promised Varus to remain at -Cæsarea until the Herodian disputes were settled. He took advantage of -the reluctance with which the custodians complied with his demands to -create a disturbance among the people, and thus obtain a pretext for -entering the city. - -The Feast of Pentecost was drawing near, and, as usual, multitudes -of people congregated from all parts of the country at Jerusalem. -This time, the greater part of them were animated by hostile feelings -against the Romans and the Herodians. The strife was not delayed. The -people soon chose their leaders, and succeeded in occupying the Mount -of the Temple and the Hippodrome, whence they defied the Romans, who -had taken up their quarters in the palace of Herod. Sabinus, thinking -himself lost, encouraged the Romans to besiege the Temple, and sent -messages to Varus for more reinforcements. The Judæans, well protected -behind the Temple walls, hurled their weapons and their huge stones -down upon the Romans. Victory would have been theirs had not the enemy, -with burning materials, set fire to the colonnade. The flames spread -so rapidly that escape was impossible. Of the unfortunate combatants, -some were victims of the fire, others fell before the swords of the -Romans, and many of them killed themselves in reckless despair. - -As soon as the Temple was left unprotected, the Romans, tempted by -the treasures which they knew it contained, rushed into the courts. -Sabinus alone is said to have appropriated four hundred talents from -the treasures of the Temple. The plunder of these treasures, the -desecration of the Holy of Holies, and the destruction of the halls -of the Temple, barely ten years after the sacred edifice had been -completed, roused all the indignation and, at the same time, all the -valor of the Judæans. Even a great part of the Herodian troops went -over to the malcontents, and assisted them against the Romans. Thus -strengthened, they besieged the palace of Herod, laid mines under -the towers, and threatened the Romans with destruction if they did -not retire immediately. Sabinus, anxiously awaiting the expected -reinforcements, but vacillating between fear of the besiegers and a -longing to obtain the mastery over them, remained for the time in the -citadel of the palace. - -Thus all the horrors of anarchy were let loose in Judæa. Had the -insurgents found skilful and trustworthy leaders their united efforts -might have brought about such momentous events that the Herodian -dispute would have come to a most unexpected termination. But there -was no organization to give shape and purpose to all this patriotic -fervor. It was nurtured by selfish adventurers, and was therefore -hurtful to the country itself rather than dangerous to the enemy. -Two thousand soldiers, probably Idumæans, whom Herod had dismissed -shortly before his death, disturbed the regions of the south. A certain -Simon, a slave of Herod, distinguished by great beauty and an imposing -presence, collected a troop of malcontents, who hailed him as their -king, and, at his command, burned to the ground many royal castles -in the country, including the royal palace at Jericho. The palace of -Betharamata was destroyed by a band of men, the name of whose leader -is unknown. A third adventurer was a shepherd named Athronges, a giant -in strength and stature, who was accompanied into the field of battle -by four brothers, all of the same colossal build. After assuming the -royal title, he fell upon the Romans, cut off their retreat, and fought -valiantly till, after a long and fierce struggle, he was forced to -yield. There was but one leader of all these free troopers who had a -decided aim in view, and who might have proved a formidable foe, both -to Romans and Herodians, had fortune favored him, or his countrymen -given him their cordial help. This was Judas, known by the name of "the -Galilean," a native of Gamala in Gaulanitis, and a son of Ezekias, -fighting against whom Herod had won his first laurels. Judas had been -imbued, from his birth, with a passionate love for his country, and -as passionate a hatred towards the Romans. He became the leader of -a faction which gradually came to rule the country, and eventually -gave the Romans more difficulties to contend with than even the Gauls -and the Germans. Judas was at this period in the prime of life. His -intense zeal proved contagious, and he gained a considerable number of -partisans among the powerful Galileans. With their assistance he took -possession of the arsenal in Sepphoris, the Galilean capital. He then -armed his followers, gave them stipends from the money found in the -arsenal, and soon became the terror of the Romans and of all those who -were favorably disposed towards them. - -Events in the region bordering on Syria were even more pressing than -Sabinus in urging the governor to suppress the revolt, and to hasten -to the rescue of the Roman troops. The terror of Varus himself was so -great that he not only ordered all the Roman troops that were at his -disposal (over twenty thousand men) to march against the insurgents, -but summoned the armies under the command of the neighboring princes. -Aretas, the king of the Nabathæans, placed his troops at the command of -the Roman general, and as they formed the vanguard of the Roman army, -they burnt and plundered all the villages through which they passed. -Varus sent one division of his troops to Galilee to commence operations -against Judas. There seems to have been a severe struggle at the town -of Sepphoris; ultimately Varus set fire to it and sold the inhabitants -as slaves, but Judas escaped. The town of Emmaus, where Athronges had -established himself, shared the same fate, though the inhabitants had -taken to flight. On his arrival at Jerusalem, Varus found that his task -had become a light one, for the besiegers were alarmed at the report -of the approach of his army, and had abandoned their struggle against -Sabinus. Notwithstanding this, two thousand prisoners were crucified at -the command of Varus. - -Such was the end of a revolt which had been fanned into existence by a -natural feeling of anger and indignation, but had failed through the -absence of wise and judicious guidance. It had only been successful -in bringing the nation into a state of more humiliating dependence -upon Rome, for a legion was retained to keep guard over the rebellious -citizens of Jerusalem. - -During all this time the Herodians were still discussing their claims -to the sovereignty of Judæa before the throne of Augustus, and their -servile behavior and mutual accusations only convinced the Emperor -how unworthy one and all were of holding the reins of government. -Before Augustus could come to any decision, a Judæan embassy arrived, -consisting of fifty men of position and importance, whose mission had -been approved by Varus. They brought accusations against the Herodian -government, and implored the Emperor to proclaim Judæa a Roman province -in conjunction with Syria, but to grant the nation full liberty to -conduct her own internal affairs. As the petition had the support -of eight thousand Roman-Judæans, the Emperor was obliged to listen -to it. However, after having heard both the demands of the embassy -and the arguments of the pretenders to the throne, he decided upon -confirming Herod's will, with this exception, that he did not grant the -sovereignty immediately to Archelaus, but only recognized him as ruler -(Ethnarch), promising him, however, that if he proved worthy of the -royal title it should be granted to him eventually. Augustus could not -entirely disregard the last wishes of a prince who had been his friend, -and who had served the Romans with a devotion only equaled by the zeal -with which he furthered his own egotistical ends. The imperial treasury -suffered no diminution whether Judæa was called an ethnarchy or a -province dependent upon Rome. - -The reign of Archelaus was short and uneventful (4 B. C.-6 C. E.). -Herod's children had inherited little of their father's disposition, -excepting his fancy for building and his cringing policy towards Rome. -In other respects they were insignificant, and there was something -small and contemptible even in their tyranny. At first Archelaus (who -appears also under the name of Herod) attempted to conciliate the -discontented members of the community, whose indignation he had aroused -at the assembly in the courts of the Temple. He gave way to the general -desire to depose the unpopular High Priest Joasar, and appointed in his -stead the latter's brother, Eleazer, who was soon succeeded by Joshua -of the family of Sié or Seth. But he in turn was replaced by Joasar, -and thus three High Priests followed one another in the short space of -nine years. The only war carried on by Archelaus was fought against -Athronges, who had been able to hold his own for some time after the -death of his four brothers; and such was the incapacity of Archelaus -that he was long unable to subdue an adventurer, whose powers were -almost exhausted, but who was still able to dictate the conditions of -his own surrender. - -Archelaus offended the feelings of the pious Judæans by his marriage -with his sister-in-law Glaphyra, the widow of Alexander, who had been -executed. This daughter of the king of Cappadocia had had two sons; one -of these, Tigranes, and his nephew of the same name, became, in later -years, kings respectively of Greater and Lesser Armenia. Indifferent to -the melancholy fate of her husband, she married, after his death, Juba, -the king of Numidia; but was soon divorced from him, and contracted an -alliance with Archelaus, the brother of her first husband, an alliance -forbidden by Judæan laws. Little is known of the life of Archelaus; -his acts of tyranny called forth the opprobrium of the Judæans and the -Samaritans. He was taken before Augustus to answer for his misdeeds, -but being unable to defend himself, he was dethroned and sent into -exile among the Allobrogian races (6 C. E.). The principalities -belonging to Herod Antipas and to Philip remained in their former -condition, but the towns which had been in the possession of Salome -came also under the Imperial sway, for Salome had bequeathed them at -her death to the Empress Livia. - -Thus after enjoying a hundred and fifty years of real or apparent -independence, Judæa became entirely subjugated to Roman authority, -and was united with the province of Syria. Matters remained in this -condition, with the exception of a short interval, till the final -revolt. The Imperial representative in Judæa, who henceforth received -the title of Procurator, had his seat of government in the seaport -Cæsarea, which from that time became the hated rival of Jerusalem. The -duties of the Procurator consisted in maintaining order in the country, -and in enforcing the punctual payment of all taxes. He had even the -power of pronouncing the death sentence, and also of supervising the -Synhedrion's administration of the criminal law. - -The authority of the Synhedrion became more and more limited, and -the political importance of that assembly, which had considerably -diminished during the reign of Herod, dwindled entirely away. The -Romans interfered in all the functions of the Synhedrion, and also -in the installations of the High Priests. The Procurator named and -deposed the High Priests according to their friendly or unfavorable -inclinations towards Rome; he took charge of the sacerdotal ornaments, -and only gave them up on the chief festivals. The vestments of the High -Priests were kept under lock and key in the fortress of Antonia; they -were removed in time for the festival by the officials of the Temple, -and returned to their place of preservation in the presence of a Roman -overseer. A light was burning constantly before the case containing the -priestly vestments. - -The first Procurator whom Augustus sent to Judæa was the captain of the -horse, Coponius. The Syrian Governor, Quirinius, came at the same time -(6-7) to lay claim to the confiscated property of Archelaus. He was -also instructed to take a census of the population, and to estimate the -property of the country for the purpose of the new method of taxation. -A tax was to be levied upon every individual, inclusive of women -and slaves; however, female children under twelve and male children -under fourteen years of age and very old people were to be exempt. -Furthermore, an income tax was levied, and those who kept cattle were -called upon to give up a part of their herds. The taxes on the land -were to be paid out of the produce of the harvest. - -This method of levying imposts roused the indignation of all classes -alike. Every one resented such interference in private as well as -political affairs, and felt as if the land and property, and the very -person of each individual were in the hands of the emperor, and made -use of according to his pleasure. It is not surprising that, in their -ignorance of the Roman constitution, the people should have looked -upon the census as the herald of slavery, and anticipated with terror -a repetition of the Babylonian captivity. Their dread of the census, -exaggerated perhaps, but not wholly unjustifiable, caused greater -agitation than any previous statute, and aroused new disputes, in -which the old differences between Pharisee and Sadducee were entirely -forgotten. New points of discussion were raised. The question of the -supremacy of the oral law disappeared before the burning question of -the day--whether the people should become slaves to the Romans, or -whether they should offer stubborn and energetic resistance. This -question brought dissension into the camp of the Pharisees. The new -faction to which this discussion on the census had given rise sprang -from the very center of the Synhedrion, and was connected with the -names of Hillel, Shammai, and Judas of Galilee. - -Hillel and Shammai did not live to see the catastrophe which made Judæa -a province of Rome. Hillel's death caused wide-spread mourning, and -the oration at his grave began with the sad cry: "O pious, O gentle, -O worthy follower of Ezra." The people, in their great affection for -him, continued to distinguish his descendants with their favor, and -the presidency of the Synhedrion became hereditary in his family for -more than four centuries. Of Hillel's son and successor, Simon I, -nothing but his name has been preserved. All the greatness which -encircled Hillel's name was bequeathed to the school which he formed, -and which inherited and faithfully preserved the spirit of its founder. -The disciples of this school evinced in all their public dealings -the peacefulness and gentleness, the conciliatory spirit which had -distinguished their great master. They were guided and supported by -these characteristic qualities during the political storms which long -convulsed their unhappy country. There were about eighty members of -this school who were most devotedly attached to Hillel, and were called -the elders of the school. The names of only two of these have been -recorded: Jonathan, the son of Uziel, and Jochanan ben Zaccai. The -former is reputed, but without actual proof, to have been the author -of a Chaldaic translation of the Prophets. He was disinherited by his -father in favor of Shammai, probably from displeasure at his having -joined the school of Hillel. - -In the same way as the school of Hillel endeavored to preserve the -characteristic gentleness of their master, the followers of Shammai -emulated and even exceeded the stern severity of the founder of -their school. It seemed impossible to the school of Shammai to be -sufficiently stringent in religious prohibitions; the decisions which -they arrived at, in their interpretations of the law, were so generally -burdensome that those which were milder in character were treasured up -as rare exceptions. Thus, according to their opinion, no work should be -attempted which, if commenced before the Sabbath, would, even without -the aid of a Judæan, be completed on the Sabbath. It was prohibited on -the Sabbath day to give sums of money for charitable purposes, to make -arrangements for marriage contracts, to instruct children, to visit the -sick, or even to bring comfort to the sorrowing. In their regulations -concerning the purity of the Levites in their person and apparel, -their exaggerations brought them very near the excesses of the Essenes. -They were equally severe concerning matrimonial laws, and only allowed -divorce to be granted in the case of the unchastity of the wife. - -In the school of Shammai, the Pharisaic principles were carried to -the very extreme. It was only due to the yielding disposition of the -followers of Hillel that peace was not disturbed, and that a friendly -relationship existed between two schools of such opposite views and -characters. The school of Shammai were not only severe in their -explanations of the laws, but entertained very stern and rigid opinions -on nearly all subjects; they were particularly harsh and repellant -towards proselytes to Judaism. Any heathen who came to the school of -Shammai, requesting to be received into the community might expect but -a very cold and repellant reception. The school of Shammai cared not -for proselytes. How dangerous to Judaism lukewarm proselytes may be, -they had too often seen in the case of the converted Herodians. But in -spite of their own rigid obedience to the Law, they did not exact the -same obedience from the Judæan troops who were fighting against the -national enemy. Originally there had been some hesitation about making -war on the Sabbath, but now the school of Shammai were unreservedly -in favor thereof; the siege of a hostile city, commenced before the -Sabbath, was not to be raised, in spite of the transgressing of the -Sabbath law, until the fortress surrendered. These ordinances were -instituted by Shammai himself, in whom hatred of the heathen was even -greater than religious devotion. The school of Shammai had a large -number of adherents in the Synhedrion, as well as among the people. -Their religious austerity, and their hatred of the heathens, found more -sympathizers than the moderation and peacefulness of the followers of -Hillel. They consequently formed the majority, and were able to carry -all their resolutions. Among the followers of Shammai, several names -have been preserved--Baba ben Buta, Dostai from Itome, and Zadok. - -It is possible that this Zadok may be the same of whom it is related -that, excited by a fanatical hatred of the Romans, he joined with Judas -the Galilean, and placed himself at the head of a religious republican -faction who called themselves the _Zealots_ (Kannaim). The members -of this faction were also called the Galileans. The watchword which -Judas gave the party of the Zealots, and which was eagerly endorsed by -Zadok, was that obedience to the Roman law was disregard of the Divine -law, for God alone was ruler, and could alone demand obedience; that -it became, therefore, a clear and solemn duty to strain every nerve, -and sacrifice property, and life, and family in this struggle against -the usurper, who exacted submission due to God alone. And they set up -as an exemplar Phineas, the slayer of the chief Zimri, the only one -who, in the presence of a neglectful tribe and a slothful nation, had -served his God with zeal. Furthermore, Judas proclaimed that the Judæan -state must be a republic, recognizing God alone as sovereign and His -laws as supreme. This teaching found favor all the more readily as the -Roman yoke was becoming more and more intolerable. The great purpose -they had in view--the recovery of their freedom--electrified young and -old, and the Zealots, a faction which at first only comprised followers -of Shammai, soon included a great number of Judæans, who chafed -indignantly under the weight of the Roman fetters. - -As soon as the law was passed that every one should give an accurate -description of his family, his lands and his property, Zadok and Judas -gave the signal for energetic resistance. In some places a conflict -seems to have ensued. The more moderate, however, including the -High Priest Joasar, tried to pacify the malcontents by explaining -that the census would not be the precursor of slavery or of the -confiscation of property, but was simply necessary in order to control -the arrangements for taxation. It was useless, and the census was -regarded with such suspicion and dislike that every fine was now called -census (Kenas). Even the moderate party, although they endeavored to -stem the agitation, were indignant at the encroachments made upon -their liberties. The school of Hillel considered the taxation so -unjustifiable that, conscientious as they were, they acceded to all -measures by which it might be escaped. - -Such was the general abhorrence for this system of taxation, that -all those who were officially occupied in carrying it out, whether -as tax-collector (Moches) or as treasurer (Gabbai), were looked upon -as dishonorable men; they were not tolerated in the higher ranks of -the community, and their testimony as witnesses was discredited. Only -mercenary motives and utter indifference to public opinion could -induce any one to undertake the despised office. The designations of -tax-gatherer and overseer became henceforth terms of opprobrium. - -Another change also originated with the Roman occupation of Judæa. -All public documents, deeds of divorce, etc., were now to be dated -according to the year of the reign of the Roman Emperor, and not, as -formerly, that of the Judæan rulers. The Zealots were much annoyed at -this innovation, and they accused the more moderate Pharisees, who had -yielded to it, of indifference in matters of religion. "How could such -an ignominy be perpetrated as to write the words, 'according to the -laws of Moses and Israel'" (the usual formula in the separation deeds) -"next to the name of the heathen ruler, and thus permit the holy name -of the greatest prophet to be placed by the side of the name of the -heathen ruler." In one matter Quirinius was forced to yield to the -wishes of the people. He deposed the unpopular High Priest Joasar, and -named in his stead Anan of the family of Seth, whose four sons also -became high priests. - -Under Coponius, who entered upon his office of Procurator when -Quirinius left, the old enmity between the Judæans and Samaritans -revived. Several days before the Feast of Passover, the doors of the -Temple were thrown open at midnight, on account of the great number of -offerings which took place during that time. A few Samaritans stole -into the first outer court, and threw some human bones in among the -pillars, with the object of polluting the Temple. Henceforth the hatred -between these two races became fiercer than ever, and the guards of the -Temple, who were under the charge of the Levites, were strengthened, -so as to prevent the recurrence of such a desecration. Not long after -these events Coponius was recalled. He was followed by Marcus Ambivius, -who in a short time was also recalled, and was succeeded by Annius -Rufus. Thus there were three overseers in the short space of seven -years (7-14), a disastrous circumstance, as each one was intent upon -draining, as far as possible, all the wealth from the nation. - -The death of Augustus brought little change to Judæa; the latter simply -became, with other provinces, the possession of Tiberius. Outwardly, -these provinces may not have suffered under the new emperor's reign, -for he was just to the people, though antagonistic to the aristocracy, -which he endeavored to suppress. He listened to the complaints of -the Judæans, and lightened the burdens of their almost unendurable -taxation. He appointed as procurator Valerius Gratus, who occupied this -post for eleven years (15-26) In reality, however, the antipathy of -Tiberius to the Judæans was even greater than that of his predecessor -and adopted father; it would seem as if the representative of -imperialism in Rome had a foreboding of the mortal blow which Rome was -destined to receive from Judaism. This antipathy had probably been -stimulated by the fact that the Romans, and particularly the Roman -women, had a leaning towards Judaism. The enthusiasm of the Judæans -for their religion presented a striking contrast to the indifference -with which the Romans, both the priests and the laity, regarded their -national worship. The loss of freedom in imperial Rome had carried -away with it that ideality which inspires highly-gifted souls; ardent -and emotional minds sought in vain for some lofty interest to satisfy -their longings. Several Roman proselytes, during the reign of Tiberius, -gave evidence of their religious enthusiasm by sending offerings to the -Temple at Jerusalem. It may have been a feeling of superstition, rather -than conviction, which gave rise to conversions; for from the converts -gained for the cult of Isis in Rome, it was evident that the unknown, -the strange, the mystical exercised a strong fascination over those -from whose lives all idealism was banished. - -The displeasure of Tiberius was incurred by the Roman proselytes for -the first time under the following circumstances:--Fulvia, the wife of -a very highly respected senator, had been converted to Judaism, and had -sent offerings to the Temple through the agency of her teachers, who, -however, had retained these offerings for themselves. As soon as these -facts came to the ears of Tiberius, he presented a law against Judæans -to the Senate. That body consequently resolved that Judæans must leave -the city of Rome, on pain of becoming slaves for life, unless they -abjured Judaism within a given time. This measure is said to have been -urgently recommended by the minister Sejanus, who exercised a most -powerful influence over Tiberius. Thousands of Judæan youths were, -then and there, banished to Sardinia, to fight against the hordes of -brigands that infested that island. Banishment to so uncongenial a -climate was almost certain to be fatal to the unfortunate youths; but -this consideration did not lead the Emperor, as hard-hearted as his -senators, to take a milder course. The Judæans throughout Italy were -threatened with banishment if they did not forsake their religious -observances; all young men, in the prime of life, were forced to come -armed into the camp on the Sabbath-day; severe punishment followed if -religious scruples dictated a refusal. This was the first time that -the Judæans had suffered religious persecution in Rome--their first -martyrdom--destined to be the precursor of countless others. - -The Procurator Gratus, whom Tiberius had appointed, took as active -a part as his predecessors in the internal affairs of Judæa. During -the eleven years that he occupied his post he installed as many as -five high priests, of whom some only retained their office during one -year. These changes were sometimes due to the unpopularity of the high -priests, but were far more often the result of bribery or of wanton -arbitrariness. - -Although Judæa and the neighboring lands of Idumæa and Samaria were -ruled by Procurators, the tetrarchy of Galilee and Peræa enjoyed -a semblance of independence under the reign of Herod Antipas, and -the lands of Batanæa and Trachonitis under that of Philip. These -two princes were distinguished only for their passion for building -and their submissiveness to Rome. Herod Antipas had at first made -Sepphoris the capital of his tetrarchy, but as soon as Tiberius became -emperor he built a new city in the lovely neighborhood of the lake of -Gennesareth, which he named Tiberias, and where he established his -court (24-26). But the pious Judæans objected to living in this new -city; it had probably been built upon a site which had once served as -a battle-field, as a quantity of human bones were discovered there. -The inhabitants were consequently prevented by the strict Levitical -regulations from visiting the Temple, and performing various religious -observances. Antipas induced the Judæans to settle there only by -holding out the most tempting offers and by using force; and a century -actually elapsed before the more conscientious members of the people -consented to take up their abode in the city of Tiberias. - -The town of Beth-Ramatha, in a situation similar to that of Jericho, -and also rich in the produce of balsam plants, was renamed Livia, in -honor of the wife of Augustus. Philip, whose revenue from the country -only amounted to one hundred talents, also built two cities. One of -these he built in the beautiful district near the source of the Jordan, -and named it Cæsarea Philippi, to distinguish it from the seaport town -of Cæsarea; the other, to the northeast of the Lake of Gennesareth, -he named Julias, after the daughter of Augustus. Indeed, Judæa teemed -with monuments erected in honor of the Cæsars. Philip's disposition -was gentle, and seemingly unmarred by fierce passions, and his reign, -which lasted seven-and-thirty years (4 B. C.-33 A. C.), was quiet -and uneventful. Antipas, on the contrary, had inherited some of his -father's wild and bloodthirsty nature. - -The successor to the Governor Valerius Gratus was Pontius Pilate, whose -tenure of office (26-36) embraced a decade memorable in the history -of the world. As soon as he was in power, he showed the determination -to subject the Judæans to further humiliation, and to convince them -that they must drink the cup of suffering to the dregs. The mere facts -that Pilate was the creature of the deceitful minister Sejanus, before -whom emperor and senate trembled alike, and that he was sent by him to -Judæa, would suffice to describe his disposition. Pilate was worthy -of his master; he certainly went far beyond any of his predecessors in -wounding the susceptibilities of the Judæan nation. He attacked their -religious scruples by endeavoring to induce them to pay homage to the -emblems and insignia of imperialism. Till now the leaders of Roman -troops had respected the aversion with which the Judæans were known to -regard all images, and on entering Jerusalem the obnoxious emblems had -always been removed from the Roman standards. Herod and his sons had -never failed to observe this practice. Although Pilate well knew that -the feelings of Judæans had never before been outraged on this subject, -he paid no heed to them. It is not known whether he had received -secret injunctions on this point from Sejanus, or whether he acted on -his own authority, with the anticipation of a satisfactory bribe. He -sent privately for all the imperial emblems in order to replace them -upon the standards which were in Jerusalem. The command that these -representations of human beings were to be worshiped as deities caused -the deepest indignation throughout the land. Delegates from the people, -who were even joined by members of the Herodian family, hastened to the -Procurator at Cæsarea, and implored him to command the removal of the -hated images. - -During five days the petitioners remained before the palace of the -Procurator, sending up ceaseless supplications. On the sixth day -Pilate attempted to terrify them, and threatened that they should -be cut down by his legions if they did not immediately disperse. -However, when he found that the Judæans were determined to sacrifice -their lives, if necessary, rather than their religious convictions, -and perhaps afraid of the disapproval of Tiberius, he at last gave -way, and issued a command that the cause of their anger should be -removed. But he provoked the indignation of the inhabitants of -Jerusalem against himself a short time after. He purposed making an -aqueduct from a spring at a distance of four geographical miles from -the town of Jerusalem. In order to meet the necessary expenses, he -possessed himself of the treasures in the Temple (the korban). He was -in Jerusalem at the time, and was surrounded by an angry populace, -who assailed him with execrations. He did not venture to call out his -legions, but ordered a number of soldiers to disguise themselves in -the Judæan dress, and to mingle with the crowd and attack them. The -multitudes rapidly dispersed, but not before great numbers of them had -been killed and wounded. - - - - -CHAPTER VI. - -MESSIANIC EXPECTATIONS AND ORIGIN OF CHRISTIANITY. - - The Messianic Hope--Various Conceptions of the Expected - Messiah--The Essene Idea of the Kingdom of Heaven--John - the Baptist, his Work and Imprisonment--Jesus of Nazareth - continues John's Labors--Story of his Birth--His Success--His - Relations to Judaism and the Sects--His Miraculous Healing of - the Sick and Exorcism of Demons--His Secret Appearance as the - Messiah--His Journey to Judæa--Accusations against him, and his - Condemnation--The First Christian Community and its Chiefs--The - Ebionites--Removal of Pilate from Judæa--Vitellius, Governor of - Syria, favors the Judæans. - - 28-37 C. E. - - -While Judæa was still trembling in fear of some new act of violence on -the part of the governor, Pontius Pilate, which would again afflict the -country with disturbances and troubles, a strange event occurred. At -first but little heeded, it soon acquired, through the singularity of -its origin and many favorable attendant circumstances, a considerable -degree of notoriety. So great were the strides this movement rapidly -made to influence and power, that radical changes were produced by it -and new paths opened in the history of the world. The time had come -when the fundamental truths of Judaism, till then thoroughly known -and rightly appreciated only by profound thinkers, were to burst -their shackles and go freely forth among all the people of the earth. -Sublime and lofty views of God and of holy living for the individual -as well as for the state, which form the kernel of Judaism, were now -to be disseminated among other nations and to bring them a rich and -beneficent harvest. Israel was now to commence in earnest his sacred -mission; he was to become the teacher of nations. The ancient teaching -about God and religious morality was to be introduced by him unto a -godless and immoral world. Judaism, however, could gain admission into -the hearts of the heathens only by taking another name and assuming new -forms, for with its old designation and distinctive features it was not -generally popular. - -It was due to the strange movement which arose under the governorship -of Pilate that the teachings of Judaism won the sympathy of the -heathen world. But this new form of Judaism, altered by foreign -elements, became estranged from and placed itself in harsh antagonism -to the parent source. Judaism, which had given birth to this new -manifestation, could take no pleasure in her offspring, which soon -turned coldly from her and struck out into strange, divergent paths. -This new power, this old doctrine in a new garb, or rather this -Essenism intermingled with foreign elements, is Christianity, whose -advent and earliest course belong to the Judæan history of this epoch. - -Christianity owed its origin to an overpowering, mysterious feeling -which reigned among the better classes of the Judæan nation, and -which became daily stronger as their political position became more -and more intolerable. The ever-recurring evils brought on them by the -rapacity of their Roman rulers, the shamelessness of the Herodian -princes, the cowardice and servility of the Judæan aristocracy, the -debasement of the high priests and their families, and the dissensions -of rival parties, had raised the longing for the deliverer announced -in the prophetical writings--the Messiah--to so great a pitch that -any highly-gifted individual, possessed of outward charm or imbued -with moral and religious grace, would readily have found disciples, -and believers in his Messianic mission. The most earnest thinkers of -that time had long regarded the political condition of the Judæans -since their return from the Babylonian exile as a temporary or -preparatory state, which would only continue until the true prophet -arose, and Elijah turned the hearts of the fathers to the children, -and restored the tribes of Jacob. When the people, with solemn rites, -elected the Hasmonæan Simon as their prince, they decreed that he and -his descendants should hold that position only until the True Prophet -appeared to assume the royal dignity, and it was only to a scion of the -House of David, the Anointed that, according to prophecy, this dignity -by right belonged. - -When, consequent upon the wars undertaken by the three powerful -leaders, Octavius, Antony, and Lepidus, ostensibly to punish Cæsar's -murderers, in reality to introduce a new form of government, the -great political convulsion took place in the Roman Empire, and three -divisions of the world were laid waste, a Judæan poet in Egypt was -foretelling a far different outcome--the destruction of the whole -heathen world and the dawn of the "Kingdom of God." In that kingdom -a holy king--the Messiah--would hold the scepter. "When Rome shall -vanquish Egypt, and govern her, then shall the greatest in the kingdom, -the immortal King, arise in the world, and a holy King will come to -rule over all the nations of the earth during all time." The Messiah, -so confidently expected, was to bring forth quite a new state of -things--a new heaven and a new earth. At the coming of Elijah, who was -to be the precursor of the Messiah, the resurrection of the dead would -take place, and a future world be revealed. - -This ardent longing for the Messiah, and the belief in his advent, -swayed all classes of the Judæan nation, excepting the aristocracy -and those who clung to Rome. These were satisfied with the present, -and anticipated harm rather than benefit from any change. During the -short space of thirty years a great number of enthusiastic mystics -appeared, who, without any intention to deceive, and bent upon removing -the load of care and sorrow that weighed so heavily upon the people, -assumed the character of prophet or Messiah, and found disciples, who -followed their banner faithfully unto death. But though it appears that -every Messiah attracted ready believers, no one was acknowledged as -such by the whole nation. The incessant friction between the various -communities, and the deep study of the holy books, had awakened a -critical spirit difficult to satisfy. The nation was also split into -many parties, each entertaining a different idea of the future savior, -and rendering it, therefore, impossible that any one aspirant should -receive general recognition as the Messiah. The republican zealots, -the disciples of Judas of Galilee, pictured the Messiah as delivering -Israel from his enemies by the breath of his mouth, destroying the -Roman Empire, and restoring the golden era of David's kingdom. The -school of Shammai added to this representation of the Messiah the -attributes of ardent religious zeal and perfect moral purity. The -followers of Hillel, less swayed by fanaticism or political views, -expected a prince of peace, who would bring tranquillity to the -country itself, and introduce harmony into its relations with all its -neighboring states. On one point, however, all agreed: the Messiah -must spring from the branch of David; and thus, in the course of time, -the expression "Ben David"--the son of David--became identical with -the Messiah. According to the prevailing belief, the fulfillment of -the Messianic prophecies required the return of the scattered tribes -of Israel, richly laden with presents, expiatory offerings from the -nations by which they had so long been oppressed. Even the most -educated classes, who had felt the influence of Grecian culture, and -were represented by Philo, the Judæan Plato, fully believed that the -Messianic age was to be ushered in, and pictured it as an epoch of -miracles. A heavenly apparition, only visible to the righteous, would -lead back from Greece and barbarous lands the exiled and repentant -Israelites. The latter would be found prepared for the Messianic time, -following the holy life of the patriarchs, and imbued with a sublime -and pious spirit, which would prevent them from falling into their -old sins, and would surely call down upon them the full grace of God. -Then would the streams of former happiness be again replenished from -the eternal spring of Divine grace: the ruined cities would arise, the -desert become a blooming land, and the prayers of the living would have -the power of awakening the dead. - -It was the sect of Essenes that pictured the Messiah and the Messianic -time in the most idealistic manner. The great object of their -asceticism was to advance the kingdom of heaven (Malchuth Shamayim) and -the coming era (Olam-ha-Ba). Their adherence would be granted alone -to him who led a pure and spotless life, who renounced the world and -its vanities, and gave proofs that the Holy Spirit (Ruach ha-Kodesh) -dwelt within him. He must also have power over demons, reject Mammon, -and inaugurate a system of community of goods, in which poverty and -self-renunciation would be the ornaments of mankind. - -It was from the Essenes that for the first time the cry went forth, -"The Messiah is coming! The kingdom of heaven is near!" He who first -raised his voice in the desert little thought it would re-echo far away -over land and sea, and that it would be answered by the nations of the -earth flocking together round the banner of a Messiah. In announcing -the kingdom of heaven, he only meant to invite the sinners among the -Judæan people to penitence and reformation. The Essene who sent forth -this call to the Israelites was John the Baptist (his name doubtless -meaning the Essene, he who daily bathed and cleansed both body and -soul in spring water). But few accounts have reached us of John the -Baptist. He led the same life as the Essenes, fed upon locusts and wild -honey, and wore the garb of the prophets of old, a cloak of camel-hair -fastened by a leather girdle. John appears to have fully entertained -the belief, that if only the whole Judæan nation would bathe in the -river Jordan, acknowledge their sins, and adopt the strict rules of -the Essenes, the promised Messianic time could be no longer deferred. -He therefore called upon the people to come and receive baptism in the -Jordan, to confess and renounce their sins, and thus prepare for the -advent of the kingdom of heaven. - -John dwelt with other Essenes in the desert, in the vicinity of -the Dead Sea, presumably in order to be ever at hand to teach the -repentant sinners the deep moral signification of baptism. Bound up -with that rite was doubtless the adoption of the rule of life of -the Essenes. There were certainly many, imbued with an enthusiastic -spirit, and saddened by the evils and the distress they witnessed, -who eagerly responded to the cry of the Essene Baptist. Who would not -gladly, were it only in his power to do so, further the great work of -the Redemption, and help to advance the kingdom of heaven? Did the -baptized persons return improved by their immersion in the waters of -the Jordan? Was any great moral influence the result of this symbolical -act? History tells us not; but our knowledge of the state of Judæa at -that time can easily supply us with an answer to the question. The -Judæan people did not as a whole, especially among the middle-class -citizens, require this violent shock as a means of improvement; they -were neither vicious nor depraved, and their form of public religious -worship was sufficient to keep them in the right paths. By two sets -of people, however, the call of John to repentance might have been -heeded--it might have had a beneficial influence upon the higher and -lower classes, upon the aristocracy and wealthy, who had been corrupted -by Rome, and upon the miserable peasantry, brutalized by constant -warfare. But the rich only laughed at the high-souled enthusiast, who -taught that baptism in the water of the Jordan would bring about the -miraculous Messianic era, and the sons of the soil were too obtuse and -ignorant to heed the Baptist's earnest cry. - -His appeal, on the other hand, had nothing in its tenor and character -to offend the Pharisees, or arouse any opposition among the ranks of -that ruling party. John's disciples, those who were bound closest to -him, and who carried out his mode of living, kept strictly to the words -of the Law, and observed all its prescribed fasts. If the Pharisees, -comprising at that time the schools of Hillel and of Shammai, did not -greatly favor the enthusiasm and extravagance of the Essenes, they -placed themselves in no direct antagonism to the Baptists. - -From their side, John would have met with no hindrance to his work, but -the Herodians were suspicious of a man who drew such throngs around -him, whose burning words moved the hearts of his hearers in their -very depths, and could carry away the multitude to the performance -of any enterprise he chose to undertake. Herod Antipas, governor of -the province in which the Baptist dwelt, gave his soldiers orders to -seize and imprison him. How long a time he was kept in confinement, -and whether he was still alive when one of his disciples was being -proclaimed as the Messiah, must, on account of the untrustworthiness of -the sources from which our information is derived, remain doubtful. It -is authentic, however, that he was beheaded by the order of Antipas, -whilst the story of the young daughter of Herodias bringing to her -mother the bloody head of the Baptist upon a platter is a mere legend. - -After the imprisonment of the Baptist, his work was carried on by some -of his disciples, among whom no one exerted so powerful an influence -as Jesus of Galilee. Jesus (short for Joshua), born in Nazareth, -a small town in Lower Galilee, to the south of Sepphoris, was the -eldest son of an otherwise unknown carpenter, Joseph, and of his wife -Miriam or Mary, who bore him four more sons, Jacob, Josê, Judah, and -Simon, and several daughters. Whether Joseph or Mary, the father and -mother of Jesus, belonged to the family of David cannot be proved. The -measure of his mental culture can only be surmised from that existing -in his native province. Galilee, at a distance from the capital and -the Temple, was far behind Judæa in mental attainments and knowledge -of the Law. The lively interchange of religious thought, and the -discussions upon the Law, which made its writings and teachings the -common property of all who sought the Temple, were naturally wanting in -Galilee. The country, which, at a later period, after the destruction -of the Temple, contained the great schools of Uscha, Sepphoris, and -Tiberias, was at that time very poor in seats of learning. But, on the -other hand, morality was stricter in Galilee, and the observance of -laws and customs more rigidly enforced. The slightest infringement was -not allowed, and what the Judæans permitted themselves, the Galilæans -would by no means consent to. They were also looked upon as fanatical -dogmatists. - -Through their vicinity to the heathen Syrians, the Galilæans had -adopted many superstitions, and, owing to their ignorance of the nature -of disease, the sick were often thought to be possessed by demons, -and various forms of illness were ascribed to the influence of evil -spirits. The language of the Galilæans had also become corrupted by -their Syrian neighbors, and was marred by the introduction of Aramaic -forms and words. The Galilæans could not pronounce Hebrew with purity. -They exchanged, and sometimes omitted, the guttural sounds, and thus -often incurred the ridicule of the Judæans, who thought a great deal of -correct articulation. The first word he spoke revealed the Galilæan, -and, as his language provoked laughter, he was not often allowed to -lead in the recital of the prayers. The birthplace of Jesus, Nazareth, -offered no particular attraction; it was a small mountain-town, not -more fertile than the other parts of Galilee, and bearing no comparison -to the richly-watered Shechem. - -On account of his Galilæan origin, Jesus could not have stood high in -that knowledge of the Law which, through the schools of Shammai and -Hillel, had become prevalent in Judæa. His small stock of learning -and his corrupt half-Aramaic language pointed unmistakably to his -birthplace in Galilee. His deficiency in knowledge, however, was fully -compensated for by his intensely sympathetic character. High-minded -earnestness and spotless moral purity were his undeniable attributes; -they stand out in all the authentic accounts of his life that have -reached us, and appear even in those garbled teachings which his -followers placed in his mouth. The gentle disposition and the humility -of Jesus remind one of Hillel, whom he seems, indeed, to have taken as -his particular model, and whose golden rule, "What you wish not to be -done to yourself, do not unto others," he adopted as the starting-point -of his moral code. Like Hillel, Jesus looked upon the promotion of -peace and the forgiveness of injuries as the highest forms of virtue. -His whole being was permeated by that deeper religiousness which -consecrates to God not only the hour of prayer, a day of penitence, and -longer or shorter periods of devotional exercise, but every step in the -journey of life, which turns every aspiration of the soul towards Him, -subjects everything to His will, and, with child-like trust, commits -everything to His keeping. He was filled with tender brotherly love, -which Judaism also teaches towards an enemy, and had reached the ideal -of the passive virtues which the Pharisees inculcated: "Count yourself -among the oppressed and not among the oppressors, receive abuse and -return it not; do all from love to God, and rejoice in suffering." -Jesus doubtless possessed warm sympathies and a winning manner, which -caused his words to produce a deep and lasting effect. - -Jesus must, from the idiosyncrasies of his nature, have been powerfully -attracted by the Essenes, who led a contemplative life apart from the -world and its vanities. When John the Baptist--or more correctly the -Essene--invited all to come and receive baptism in the Jordan, to -repent and prepare for the Kingdom of Heaven, Jesus hastened to obey -the call, and was baptized by him. Although it cannot be proved that -Jesus was formally admitted into the order of the Essenes, much in his -life and work can only be explained by the supposition that he had -adopted their fundamental principles. Like the Essenes, Jesus highly -esteemed self-inflicted poverty, and despised the mammon of riches. The -following proverbs, ascribed to him, appear to bear his stamp: "Blessed -are ye poor, for yours is the kingdom of heaven" (Luke vi. 20). "It is -easier for a camel to go through the eye of a needle, than for a rich -man to enter into the kingdom of God" (Matthew xix. 24). "No man can -serve two masters, ye cannot serve God and mammon" (Matthew vi. 24). -Jesus shared the aversion of the Essenes to marriage: "It is not good -to marry" (Matthew xix. 11). Community of goods, a peculiar doctrine -of the Essenes, was not only approved of, but positively enjoined by -Jesus; like them, he also reprobated every form of oath. "Swear not -at all" (so Jesus taught), "neither by heaven nor by the earth, nor -by your head--but let your yea be yea, and your nay be nay" (James -v. 12). Miraculous cures, said to have been performed by him--such -as the exorcism of demons from those who believed themselves to be -possessed--were often made by the Essenes, so to say, in a professional -capacity. - -After John had been taken and imprisoned by Herod Antipas, Jesus -thought simply of continuing his master's work; like him, he preached -"Repent, for the kingdom of heaven is at hand," without perhaps having -then a suspicion of the part he was afterwards to play in that kingdom -of heaven looked forward to in the approaching Messianic time. Jesus -apparently felt that if his appeal was not to be lost in the desert -like that of the Baptist, but, on the contrary, bring forth lasting -results, it must not be addressed to the whole nation, but to a -particular class of the Judæans. The middle classes, the inhabitants of -towns of greater or lesser importance, were not wanting in godliness, -piety and morality, and consequently a call to them to repent and -forsake their sins would have been meaningless. The declaration made to -Jesus by the young man who was seeking the way of eternal life, "From -my youth upwards, I have kept the laws of God; I have not committed -murder, nor adultery, nor have I stolen, nor borne false witness; -I have honored my father and mother, and loved my neighbor like -myself,"--this declaration might have been made by the greater number -of the middle-class Judæans of that time. The disciples of Shammai -and Hillel, the followers of the zealot Judas, the bitter foes of the -Herodians and of Rome, were not morally sick, and were not in need -of the physician's art. They were ever ready for self-sacrifice, and -Jesus wisely refrained from turning to them. Still less was he inclined -to attempt to reform the rich, and he was repelled by the higher -classes of Judæans. From these, the warning of the simple, unlearned -moralist and preacher, his reproof of their pride, their venality -and inconstancy, would only have elicited mockery and derision. With -right judgment, therefore, Jesus determined upon seeking out those who -did not belong to, or had been expelled from the community for their -religious offenses, and who had either not been allowed or had not -desired to return to it. They were publicans and tax-gatherers, shunned -by the patriots, as promoters of Roman interests, who turned their -backs upon the Law, and led a wild, unshackled life, heedless alike -of the past and of the future. There existed in Judæa many who had no -knowledge of the great healing truths of Judaism, who were ignorant -of its laws, and indifferent as to the glorious history of its past -or its possible future. These were known as transgressors of the Law -(Abrianim), or sinners as they were called, the friends of Herod and -of Rome. There were also ignorant, poor handicraftsmen and menials -(Am ha-Arez), who were seldom able to visit the Judæan capital, or -listen to Judæan teachings, which, indeed, they would probably not have -understood. It was not for them that Sinai had flamed, or the prophets -had uttered their cry of warning; for the teachers of the Law, more -intent upon expounding doctrine than upon reforming their hearers, -failed to make the Law and the prophets intelligible to those classes, -and consequently did not draw them within their fold. It was to these -outcasts that Jesus turned, to snatch them out of their torpor, their -ignorance and ungodliness. He felt within himself the call to save "the -lost sheep of the house of Israel." "They that be whole need not a -physician, but they that are sick" (Matthew ix. 12). - -Intent upon the lofty mission which he had undertaken--to turn the -ignorant and the godless, the sinner and the publican to repentance, -and by virtue of the Essene mode of living to prepare them for the -approaching Messianic time--Jesus first sought his native town of -Nazareth. But there, where he had been known from his infancy, and -where the carpenter's son was not considered to possess superior -sanctity but only inferior knowledge, he was met with derision and -contempt. When, on the Sabbath, he spoke in the synagogue about -repentance, the listeners said to each other, "Is that not the son of -Joseph the carpenter, and his mother and sisters, are they not all with -us?" and they said to him, "Physician, heal thyself," and listened not -to him. The ignominious treatment he received in his own birthplace -caused him to utter the proverb, "The preacher is least regarded in his -own country." He left Nazareth, never to return. - -A better result followed the teaching of Jesus in the town of Capernaum -(Kefar Nahum), which was situated on the western coast of the Sea of -Tiberias. The inhabitants of that delightfully situated town differed -as much from the Nazarenes as their mild, fertile land from a rough -and wild mountain gorge. In Capernaum there were doubtless a greater -number of men steeped in effeminacy and vice, and there existed, -probably, a wider gap between the rich and the poor. But just on that -account Jesus had more scope to work there, and an easier access was -found for the earnest, penetrating words which he poured forth from -the depths of his soul. Many belonging to the lowest classes attached -themselves to Jesus and followed him. Among his first disciples in -Capernaum were Simon, called Kephas or Petrus (rock), and his brother -Andrew, the sons of Jonah, both fishermen, the first, in some degree, -a law-breaker, and also the two sons of a certain Zebedee, Jacob -and John. He was also followed by a rich publican, called sometimes -Matthew, sometimes Levi, in whose house Jesus often tarried, bringing -with him companions from the classes then looked down upon with the -greatest contempt. Women likewise of doubtful repute were among his -followers, the most conspicuous of the number being a native of the -town of Magdala, near Tiberias, Mary Magdalene, from whom seven devils -(according to the language of the time) had to be driven out. Jesus -converted these abandoned sinners into remorseful penitents. It was, -doubtless, an unheard-of thing at that time for a teacher of Judaism to -hold intercourse with women at all, more especially with any of that -description. - -He, however, by word and example raised the sinner and the publican, -and filled the hearts of those poor, neglected, thoughtless beings -with the love of God, transforming them into dutiful children of their -heavenly Father. He animated them with his own piety and fervor, and -improved their conduct by the hope he gave them of being able to -enter the kingdom of heaven. That was the greatest miracle that Jesus -performed. Above all things, he taught his male and female disciples -the Essene virtues of self-abnegation and humility, of the contempt of -riches, of charity and the love of peace. He said to his followers, -"Provide neither gold nor silver nor brass for your purses, neither -two coats, neither shoes" (Matthew x. 9). He bade them become sinless -as little children, and declared they must be as if born again if -they would become members of the approaching kingdom of heaven. The -law of brotherly love and forbearance he carried to the extent of -self-immolation. "If you receive a blow on one cheek, turn the other -one likewise, and if one takes your cloak, give him likewise your -shirt." He taught the poor that they should not take heed for meat or -drink or raiment, but pointed to the birds in the air and the lilies -in the fields that were fed and clothed yet "they toil not, neither -do they spin." He taught the rich how to distribute alms--"Let not -thy left hand know what thy right hand doeth." He admonished the -hypocrite, and bade him pray in the secrecy of his closet, placing -before him a short form of prayer--"Our Father which art in heaven," -which may possibly have been in use among the Essenes. - -Jesus made no attack upon Judaism itself, he had no idea of becoming -the reformer of Jewish doctrine or the propounder of a new law; he -sought merely to redeem the sinner, to call him to a good and holy -life, to teach him that he is a child of God, and to prepare him -for the approaching Messianic time. He insisted upon the unity of -God, and was far from attempting to change in the slightest degree -the Jewish conception of the Deity. To the question once put to him -by an expounder of the Law, "What is the essence of Judaism?" he -replied, "'Hear, O Israel, our God is one' and 'Thou shalt love thy -neighbor as thyself.' These are the chief commandments" (Mark xii. -28). His disciples, who had remained true to Judaism, promulgated the -declaration of their Master--"I am not come to destroy, but to fulfill; -till heaven and earth pass, one jot or one tittle shall in nowise pass -from the Law till all be fulfilled" (Matthew v. 17). He must have kept -the Sabbath holy, for those of his followers who were attached to -Judaism strictly observed the Sabbath, which they would not have done -had their master disregarded it. It was only the Shammaitic strictness -in the observance of the Sabbath, which forbade even the healing of -the sick on that day, that Jesus protested against, declaring that -it was lawful to do good on the Sabbath. Jesus made no objection to -the existing custom of sacrifice, he merely demanded--and in this the -Pharisees agreed with him--that reconciliation with one's fellow-man -should precede any act of religious atonement. Even fasting found no -opponent in him, so far as it was practised without ostentation or -hypocrisy. He wore on his garments the fringes ordered by the Law, and -he belonged so thoroughly to Judaism that he shared the narrow views -held by the Judæans at that period, and thoroughly despised the heathen -world. He was animated by that feeling when he said, "Give not that -which is holy unto the dogs, neither cast ye your pearls before swine, -lest they trample them under their feet and turn again and rend you." - -The merit of Jesus consists especially in his efforts to impart greater -inner force to the precepts of Judaism, in the enthusiasm with which -he obeyed them himself, in his ardor to make the Judæans turn to God -with filial love as children to their father, in his fervent upholding -of the brotherhood of men, in his insistence that moral laws be placed -in the foreground, and in his endeavors to have them accepted by those -who had been hitherto regarded as the lowest and most degraded of human -beings. - -It was not to be expected, however, that through his teaching alone -Jesus could attract devoted followers, or achieve great results; -something more was required--something strange and wonderful to startle -and inflame. His appearance, his mystical character, his earnest -zeal produced, doubtless, a powerful effect, but to awaken in the -dull and cold a lasting enthusiasm, to gain the confidence of the -masses and to kindle their faith, it was necessary to appeal to their -imagination by strange circumstances and marvelous surroundings. The -Christian chronicles abound in extraordinary events and descriptions -of miraculous cures performed by Jesus. Though these stories may in -part be due to an inclination to exaggerate and idealize, they must -doubtless have had some foundation in fact. Miraculous cures--such, -for example, as the exorcism of those possessed by demons--belonged -so completely to the personality of Jesus that his followers boasted -more of the exercise of that power than of the purity and holiness of -their conduct. If we are to credit the historical accounts of that -period, the people also admired Jesus more for the command he displayed -over demons and Satan than for his moral greatness. It was indeed on -account of the possession of such power that he was first considered a -supernatural being by the uncultured masses. - -Encouraged by the great effect he produced in Capernaum, where he -found his first circle of disciples, Jesus wandered about in the towns -of Galilee, remaining some time in its second capital, Bethsaida, -in Magdala, and in Chorazin, where he gained many followers. His -presence, however, in Bethsaida and Chorazin could not have produced -any lasting result, as he bewailed--according to the words placed in -his mouth, "Woe unto thee, Chorazin, woe unto thee, Bethsaida"--the -spirit of opposition and indocility of their inhabitants. Like Sodom -and Gomorrah, they were accursed. Still he had many faithful disciples, -both men and women, who followed him everywhere, and obeyed him in all -things. They renounced not only their former immoral and irreligious -life, but also gave up all their possessions, carrying out the doctrine -of the community of goods. The repasts they took in common formed, as -it were, the connecting link which attached the followers of Jesus to -one another, and the alms distributed by the rich publicans relieved -the poor disciples of the fear of hunger, and thus bound them still -more closely to Jesus. - -Among his followers Jesus selected as his peculiar confidants -those who, distinguished by their superior intelligence or greater -steadfastness of character, seemed best calculated to forward the -aims he had in view. The number of these trusted disciples was not -known, but tradition mentions twelve, and calls them the twelve -apostles--representatives, as it were, of the twelve tribes of Israel. - -His great design, the secret desire of his heart, Jesus disclosed on -one occasion to the most intimate circle of his disciples. He led them -to a retired spot at the foot of Mount Hermon, not far from Cæsarea -Philippi, the capital of the Tetrarch Philip, where the Jordan rushes -forth from mighty rocks, and in that remote solitude he revealed to -them the hidden object of his thoughts. But he contrived his discourse -in such a manner that it appeared to be his disciples who at last -elicited from him the revelation that he considered himself the -expected Messiah. He asked his followers, "Who do men say that I, the -son of man, am?" Some replied that he was thought to be Elijah, the -expected forerunner of the Messiah; others, again, that he was the -prophet whose advent Moses had predicted; upon which Jesus asked them, -"But whom say ye that I am?" Simon Peter answered and said, "Thou art -the Christ." Jesus praised Peter's discernment and admitted that he -was the Messiah, but forbade his disciples from divulging the truth, -or, for the present, from speaking about it at all. Such was the -mysteriously-veiled birth of Christianity. When, a few days later, the -most trusted of his disciples, Simon Peter and the two sons of Zebedee, -James and John, timidly suggested that Elijah must precede the Messiah, -Jesus declared that Elijah had already appeared, though unrecognized, -in the person of the Baptist. Had Jesus from the very commencement of -his career nourished these thoughts in the depths of his soul, or had -they first taken shape when the many followers he had gained seemed to -make their realization possible? Jesus never publicly called himself -the Messiah, but made use of other expressions which were doubtless -current among the Essenes. He spoke of himself as "the son of man," -alluding probably to Daniel vii. 13, "One like the son of man came -with the clouds of heaven, and came to the Ancient of Days," a verse -which referred probably to the whole people and its Messianic future, -but which at that time was made to point to the Messiah himself. There -was yet one other name which Jesus applied to himself in his Messianic -character--the mysterious words "Son of God," probably taken from the -seventh verse of the second Psalm, "The Lord hath said unto me, Thou -art my son; this day have I begotten thee." Was this expression used by -Jesus figuratively, or did he wish it to be taken in a literal sense? -As far as we know, he never explained himself clearly on that subject, -not even at a later date, when it was on account of the meaning -attached to those words that he was undergoing his trial. His followers -afterwards disagreed among themselves upon that matter, and the various -ways in which they interpreted that ambiguous expression divided them -into different sects, among which a new form of idolatry unfolded -itself. - -When Jesus made himself known as the Messiah to his disciples, -enjoining secrecy, he consoled them for the present silence imposed on -them by the assurance that a time would come, when "What I tell you in -darkness, that speak ye in light, and what ye hear in the ear, that -preach ye upon the house-tops." What occurred was doubtless contrary to -what Jesus and his disciples expected, for as soon as it was known (the -disciples having probably not kept the secret) that Jesus of Nazareth -not only came to preach the Kingdom of Heaven, but was proclaimed as -the expected Messiah, the public sentiment rose against him. Proofs and -signs of his being the Messiah were asked, which he was not able to -give, and he thus was forced to evade the questions addressed to him. -Many of his followers seem to have been repelled by his assumption of -the Messianic character, and so left him at once. "From that time many -of his disciples went back, and walked no more with him" (John vi. 66). -In order not to be discredited in the eyes of his disciples, it was -essential that he should perform some miracle that would crown his work -or seal it with his death. It was expected that he would now appear in -Jerusalem before the whole nation in the character of the Messiah, and -it is stated that his own brothers entreated of him to go there, so -that his achievements might at last become visible to his disciples. -"For there is no man that doeth anything in secret and he himself -seeketh to be known openly. If thou do these things, show thyself to -the world" (John vii. 4). Jesus thus found himself almost obliged to -enter upon the path of danger. He was, moreover, no longer safe in -Galilee, and appears to have been tracked and pursued from place to -place by the servants of the Tetrarch Herod Antipas. It was at that -time that Jesus said to one of his followers who clung to him in his -distress, "The foxes have holes and the birds of the air have nests, -but the Son of Man hath not where to lay his head" (Matthew viii. 20). -He wished to prevent any misconception as to his desire to alter the -Law, and his reply to the Pharisee who asked what would be required of -him if he became his disciple was, "If thou wilt enter into life, keep -the commandments, sell what thou hast and give to the poor." When he -had passed Jericho and was approaching Jerusalem, Jesus took up his -abode near the walls of the capital, in the village of Bethany, at the -Mount of Olives, where the lepers who were obliged to avoid the city -had their settlement. It was in the house of one of these that shelter -was given him. The other disciples whom he found at Bethany belonged -also to the lower orders. They were Lazarus and his sisters, Mary and -Martha. Only one resident of wealth and position in Jerusalem, Joseph -of Arimathea, is said to have become a disciple of Jesus. - -The entrance of Jesus into Jerusalem and his appearance in the Temple -have been glorified by a halo of legends which contain but little -historical truth. They show us Jesus accompanied in triumph by the -people singing hosannas, the same people who a few days later were to -demand his death. Both reports were inventions: the first was designed -to prove that he was recognized as the Messiah by the people; the -second, to throw the guilt of his execution upon all Israel. Equally -unhistorical is the account of Jesus entering the Temple by force, -throwing down the tables of the money-changers, and chasing away those -who were selling doves. An act that must have given rise to intense -excitement would not have been omitted from other chronicles of that -period. It is not mentioned in any other writings of that time that the -stalls of money-changers and dealers in doves had a place in the Temple. - -It is just the most important facts of the life of Jesus--the account -of the attitude he assumed at Jerusalem before the people, the -Synhedrion and the different sects, the announcement of himself as the -Messiah, and the manner in which that announcement was received--that -are represented in such various ways in the chronicles that it is -impossible to separate the historical kernel from its legendary -exaggerations and embellishments. Prejudice certainly existed against -him in the capital. The educated classes could not imagine the -Messiah's saving work to be performed by an unlearned Galilæan; indeed, -the idea that the Messiah, who was expected to come from Bethlehem, -out of the branch of David, should belong to Galilee, overthrew the -long-cherished conviction of centuries. It is probably from this -time that the proverb arose: "Can there any good thing come out of -Nazareth?" (John i. 46). The devout took offense at his going about -eating and drinking with sinners, publicans, and women of a degraded -class. Even the Essenes, John's disciples, were displeased at his -infringement of rules and customs. The Shammaites were scandalized -at his healing the sick on the Sabbath day, and could not recognize -the Messiah in one who desecrated the Sabbath. He also roused the -opposition of the Pharisees by the disapproval he expressed here and -there of their interpretations of the laws, and of the conclusions they -drew from them. From Jesus the zealots could not look for deeds of -heroism, for, instead of inspiring his followers with hatred of Rome, -he advocated peace, and in his contempt for mammon admonished them to -submit willingly to the Roman tax-gatherers. "Render therefore unto -Cæsar the things which are Cæsar's, and unto God the things which are -God's" (Matt. xxii. 21). These startling peculiarities, which seemed -to contradict the preconceived idea of the Messianic character, caused -the higher and the learned classes to be coldly indifferent to him, -and it is certain that he met with no friendly reception in Jerusalem. -These various objections, however, to the mode of life and the tenets -of Jesus afforded no ground for any legal accusation against him. -Freedom of speech had, owing to the frequent debates in the schools -of Shammai and Hillel, become so firmly established a right that no -one could be attacked for expressing religious opinions, unless indeed -he controverted any received dogma or rejected the conception of the -Divinity peculiar to Judaism. It was just in this particular that -Jesus laid himself open to accusation. The report had spread that he -had called himself the Son of God--words which, if taken literally, -wounded the religious feelings of the Judæan nation too deeply to allow -him who had uttered them to pass unscathed. But how was it possible to -ascertain the truth, to learn whether Jesus had really called himself -the Son of God, and to know what meaning he attached to these words? -How was it possible to discover what was the secret of his sect? -To bring that to light it was necessary to seek a traitor among his -immediate followers, and that traitor was found in Judas Iscariot, -who, as it is related, incited by avarice, delivered up to the judges -the man whom he had before honored as the Messiah. One Judæan account, -derived from what appears a trustworthy source, seems to place in -the true light the use made of this traitor. In order to be able to -arraign Jesus either as a false prophet or a seducer of the people, -the Law demanded that two witnesses had heard him utter the dangerous -language of which he was accused, and Judas was consequently required -to induce him to speak whilst two hidden witnesses might hear and -report his words. According to the Christian writings, the treachery -of Judas manifested itself in pointing out Jesus through the kiss of -homage that he gave his master as he was standing among his disciples, -surrounded by the people and the soldiers. No sooner had Jesus been -seized by the latter than his disciples left him and sought safety in -flight, Simon Peter alone following him at some distance. At dawn of -day on the 14th of Nissan, the Feast of the Passover, that is to say, -on the eve of the Feast of Unleavened Bread, Jesus was led, not before -the great Synhedrion, but before the smaller court of justice, composed -of twenty-three members, over which the High Priest, Joseph Caiaphas, -presided. The trial was to determine whether Jesus had really claimed -to be, as the two witnesses testified, the Son of God; for one cannot -believe that he was arraigned before that tribunal because he had -boasted that it was in his power to destroy the Temple and rebuild it -in three days. Such a declaration, if really uttered by him, could not -have been made a cause of complaint. The accusation doubtless pointed -to the sin of blasphemy, and to the supposed affirmation of Jesus that -he was the Son of God. Upon the question being put to him on that -score, Jesus was silent and gave no answer. When the presiding judge, -however, asked him again if he were the Son of God, he is said to have -replied, "Thou hast said it," and to have added, "hereafter shall ye -see the Son of Man sitting on the right hand of power and coming in -the clouds of Heaven." If these words were really spoken by Jesus, the -judges could infer that he looked upon himself as the Son of God. The -High Priest rent his garments at the impious assertion, and the court -declared him guilty of blasphemy. From the account of the proceedings -given by Christian authorities, there is no proof that, according to -the existing penal laws, the judges had pronounced an unjust verdict. -All appearances were against Jesus. The Synhedrion received the -sanction of the death-warrant, or rather the permission to execute it, -from the governor, Pontius Pilate, who was just then present for the -festival at Jerusalem. - -Pilate, before whom Jesus was brought, entering into the political side -of the question, asked him if he declared himself to be not only the -Messiah but the King of the Judæans, and as Jesus answered evasively, -"Thou hast said it," he likewise decreed his execution, which he indeed -alone had the power to enforce. That Pilate on the contrary found Jesus -innocent and wished to save him, while the Judæans had determined upon -putting him to death, is unhistorical and merely legendary. When Jesus -was scoffed at and obliged to wear the crown of thorns in ironical -allusion to the Messianic and royal dignity he had assumed, it was -not the Judæans who inflicted those indignities upon him, but the -Roman soldiers, who sought through him to deride the Judæan nation. -Among the Judæans who had condemned him there was, on the contrary, so -little of personal hatred that he was treated exactly like any other -criminal, and was given the cup of wine and frankincense to render -him insensible to the pains of death. That Jesus was scourged before -his execution proves that he was treated according to the Roman penal -laws; for by the Judæan code no one sentenced to death could suffer -flagellation. It was consequently the Roman lictors who maliciously -scourged with fagots or ropes the self-styled King of the Judæans. -They also caused Jesus (by the order of Pilate) to be nailed to the -cross, and to suffer the shameful death awarded by the law of Rome. For -after the verdict of death was pronounced by the Roman authorities, -the condemned prisoner belonged no more to his own nation, but to the -Roman state. It was not the Synhedrion but Pilate that gave the order -for the execution of one who was regarded as a State criminal and a -cause of disturbance and agitation. The Christian authorities state -that Jesus was nailed on the cross at nine o'clock in the morning, and -that he expired at three o'clock in the afternoon. His last words were -taken from a psalm, and spoken in the Aramaic tongue--"God, my God, why -hast Thou forsaken me?" (Eli, eli, lama shebaktani.) The Roman soldiers -placed in mockery the following inscription upon the cross: "Jesus of -Nazareth, King of the Judæans." The cross had been erected and the body -was probably buried outside the town, on a spot which was the graveyard -of condemned criminals. It was called Golgotha, the place of skulls. -Such was the end of the man who had devoted himself to the improvement -of the most neglected, miserable, and abandoned members of his people, -and who, perhaps, fell a victim to a misunderstanding. How great was -the woe caused by that one execution! How many deaths and sufferings -of every description has it not caused among the children of Israel! -Millions of broken hearts and tragic fates have not yet atoned for his -death. He is the only mortal of whom one can say without exaggeration -that his death was more effective than his life. Golgotha, the place -of skulls, became to the civilized world a new Sinai. Strange, that -events fraught with so vast an import should have created so little -stir at the time of their occurrence at Jerusalem, that the Judæan -historians, Justus of Tiberias and Josephus, who relate, to the very -smallest minutiae, everything which took place under Pilate, do not -mention the life and death of Jesus. - -When the disciples of Jesus had somewhat recovered from the panic -which came upon them at the time he was seized and executed, they -re-assembled to mourn together over the death of their beloved Master. -The followers of Jesus then in Jerusalem did not amount to more than -one hundred and twenty, and if all who believed in him in Galilee -had been numbered, they would not have exceeded five hundred. Still, -the effect that Jesus produced upon the unenlightened masses must -have been very powerful; for their faith in him, far from fading away -like a dream, became more and more intense, their adoration of Jesus -rising to the highest pitch of enthusiasm. The only stumbling-block -to their belief lay in the fact that the Messiah who came to deliver -Israel and bring to light the glory of the kingdom of heaven, endured a -shameful death. How could the Messiah be subject to pain? A suffering -Messiah staggered them considerably, and this stumbling-block had to -be overcome before a perfect and joyful belief could be reposed in -him. It was at that moment probably that some writer relieved his own -perplexities and quelled their doubts by referring to a prophecy in -Isaiah, that "He will be taken from the land of the living, and will -be wounded for the sins of his people." The humble, wavering disciples -of Jesus were helped over their greatest difficulty by the Pharisees, -who were in the habit of explaining the new or the marvelous by -interpretations of Scripture. By this means they afforded indirectly -a solution and support to Christianity, and thus belief was given -to the most senseless and absurd doctrines, and the incredible was -made to appear certain and necessary. Without some support, however -feeble, from Holy Writ, nothing new would have been received or could -have kept its ground. By its help everything that happened was shown -to have been inevitable. Even that Jesus should have been executed -as a malefactor appeared pregnant with meaning, as it fulfilled the -literal prophecy concerning the Messiah. Was it not written that he -should be judged among the evil-doers? His disciples declared they had -heard Jesus say that he would be persecuted even unto death. Thus his -sufferings and death were evident proofs that he was the Messiah. His -followers examined his life, and found in every trivial circumstance -a deeper Messianic significance; even the fact that he was not born -in Bethlehem, but in Nazareth, appeared to be the fulfillment of a -prophecy. Thus he might therefore be called a Nazarene (Nazarite?), and -thus were his followers persuaded that Jesus, the Nazarene, was Christ -(the Messiah). When the faithful were satisfied on that point, it was -not difficult to answer the other question which naturally offered -itself--When would the promised kingdom of heaven appear, since he who -was to have brought it had died on the cross? Hope replied that the -Messiah would return in all his glory, with the angels of heaven, and -then every one would be rewarded according to his deeds. They believed -that some then alive would not taste death until they had seen the -Son of Man enter his kingdom. His disciples were hourly expecting -the return of Jesus, and only differed from the Judæans in so far as -they thought that the Messiah had already appeared in human form and -character. - -This kingdom was to last a thousand years: the Sabbath year of jubilee, -after the six thousand years of the world, would be founded by Jesus -when he returned to the earth, bringing the blessing of peace and -perfect happiness to the faithful. This belief required the further -conviction that Jesus had not fallen a prey to death, but that he would -rise again. It may have been the biblical story of Jonah's entombment -for three days in the bowels of a fish which gave rise to the legend -that Jesus after the same interval came forth from his sepulcher, which -was found to be empty. Many of his disciples declared they had seen -him after his death, now in one place, now in another; that they had -spoken to him, had marked his wounds, and had even partaken of fish and -honey with him. Nothing seemed to stagger their faith in the Messianic -character of Jesus; but greatly as they venerated and glorified him, -they had not yet raised him above humanity; in spite of the enthusiasm -with which he inspired them, they could not look upon him as God. They -regarded him only as a highly gifted man who, having obeyed the Law -more completely than any other human being, had been found worthy to be -the Messiah of the Lord. - -They deviated in no degree from the precepts of Judaism, observing the -Sabbath, the rite of circumcision, and the dietary laws, whilst they -also reverenced Jerusalem and the Temple as holy places. They were, -however, distinguished from the other Judæans in some peculiarities -besides the belief they cherished that the Messiah had already -appeared. The poverty which they willingly embraced in accordance -with the teaching of Jesus was a remarkable trait in them. From this -self-imposed poverty they were called Ebionites (poor), a name they -either gave themselves or received from those who had not joined them. -They lived together, and each new disciple was required to sell his -goods and chattels and to pour the produce into the common purse. - -To this class belonged the early Christians, or Judæan Christians, who -were called Nazarenes, and not, according to their origin, Essenes. -Seven administrators were appointed, as was usual among the Judæans, -to manage the expenditure of the community, and to provide for their -common repasts. They abstained from meat, and followed the way of the -Essenes, whom they also resembled in their practice of celibacy, in -their disuse of oil and superfluous garments, a single one of white -linen being all each possessed. It is related of James, the brother of -Jesus, who, on account of his near relationship to the founder, was -chosen leader of the early Christian community, and was revered as -an example, that he drank no wine or intoxicating beverages, that he -never ate meat, allowed no scissors to touch his hair, wore no woolen -material, and had only one linen garment. He lived strictly according -to the Law, and was indignant when the Christians allowed themselves to -transgress it. Next to him at the head of the community of Ebionites -stood Simon Kephas or Petrus, the son of Jonas, and John the son of -Zebedee, who became the pillars of Christianity. Simon Peter was the -most energetic of all the disciples of Jesus, and was zealous in his -endeavors to enroll new followers under the banner of Christianity. In -spite of the energy he thus displayed, he is described as being of a -vacillating character. The Christian chronicles state that when Jesus -was seized and imprisoned he denied him three times, and was called by -his master "him of little faith." He averred, with the other disciples, -that they had received from Jesus the mission of preaching to the lost -children of the house of Israel the doctrine of the brotherhood of -man and the community of goods; like Jesus and John the Baptist, they -were also to announce the approaching kingdom of heaven. Christianity, -only just born, went instantly forth upon her career of conquest and -proselytism. The disciples asserted that Jesus had imparted to them the -power of healing the sick, of awakening the dead, and of casting out -evil spirits. With them the practice of exorcism became common, and -thus the belief in the power of Satan and demons, brought from Galilee, -first took form and root. In Judaism itself the belief in demons was -of a harmless nature, without any religious significance. Christianity -first raised it to be an article of faith, to which hecatombs of human -beings were sacrificed. The early Christians used, or rather misused, -the name of Jesus for purposes of incantation. All those who believed -in Jesus boasted that it was given to them to drive away evil spirits, -to charm snakes, to cure the sick by the laying on of their hands, and -to partake of deadly poisons without injury to themselves. Exorcism -became by degrees a constant practice among Christians; the reception -of a new member was preceded by exorcism, as though the novice had till -then been possessed by the devil. It was, therefore, not surprising -that the Christians should have been looked upon by Judæans and -heathens as conjurors and magicians. In the first century, however, -Christians attracted but little attention in Judæan circles, escaping -observation on account of the humble class to which they belonged. They -formed a sect of their own, and were classed with the Essenes, to whom, -in many points, they bore so great a resemblance. They might probably -have dwindled away altogether had it not been for one who appeared -later in their midst, who gave publicity to the sect, and raised it to -such a pinnacle of fame that it became a ruling power in the world. - -An evil star seems to have shone over the Judæan people during the -hundred years which had elapsed since the civil wars under the last -Hasmonæans, which had subjected Judæa to Rome. Every new event appeared -to bring with it some new misfortune. The comforting proverb of -Ecclesiastes, that there is nothing new under the sun, in this instance -proved false. The Messianic vision which had indistinctly floated in -the minds of the people, but which had now taken a tangible form, was -certainly something new; and this novel apparition, with its mask of -death, was to inflict new and painful wounds upon the nation. - -Christianity, which came from Nazareth, was really an offshoot of the -sect of the Essenes, and inherited the aversion of that sect for the -Pharisaic laws by which the life of the people was regulated. This -aversion rose to hatred in the followers, stimulated by grief at the -death of their founder. Pontius Pilate had greatly contributed to -increasing of the enmity of the Christians against their own flesh -and blood. He it was who added mockery and scorn to the punishment of -death; he had bound their Messiah to the cross like the most abject -slave, and in derision of his assumed royalty had placed the crown of -thorns on his head. The picture of Jesus nailed to the cross, crowned -with thorns, the blood streaming from his wounds, was ever present to -his followers, filling their hearts with bitter thoughts of revenge. -Instead of turning their wrath against cruel Rome, they made the -representatives of the Judæan people, and by degrees the whole nation, -responsible for inhuman deeds. They either intentionally deceived -themselves, or in time really forgot that Pilate was the murderer of -their master, and placed the crime upon the heads of all the children -of Israel. - -At about this period the anger of Pilate was kindled against a -Samaritan self-styled Messiah or prophet, who called his believers -together in a village, promising to show them on Mount Gerizim the -holy vessels used in the time of Moses. The Governor, who looked -with suspicion upon every gathering of the people, and regarded -every exciting incident as fraught with possible rebellion against -the Roman Empire, led his troops against the Samaritans, and ordered -the ringleaders, who had been caught in their flight, to be cruelly -executed. Judæans and Samaritans jointly denounced his barbarity to -Vitellius, the Governor of Syria, and Pilate was summoned to Rome to -justify himself. The degree of favor shown to the Judæans by Tiberius -after the fall of Sejanus, explains the otherwise surprising leniency -evinced towards the Judæan nation at that time. The Judæans had found -an advocate at court in Antonia, the sister-in-law of Tiberius. The -latter, who was the friend of a patriotic prince of the house of Herod, -had revealed to Tiberius the plot framed against him by Sejanus, and -in grateful recognition Tiberius repealed the act of outlawry against -the Judæans. Vitellius, the Governor of Syria, was graciously inclined -towards the Judæans, and not only inquired into their complaints, -but befriended them in every way, showing a degree of indulgence and -forbearance most unusual in a Roman, in those subjects on which they -were peculiarly sensitive. When, on the occasion of the Feast of -Passover, Vitellius repaired to Jerusalem in order to make himself -acquainted with all that was going on there, he sought to lighten as -much as possible the Roman yoke. He remitted the tax on the fruits -of the market, and as the capital was mainly dependent upon that -market for its requirements, a heavy burden was thus removed from the -inhabitants of Jerusalem. He further withdrew the pontifical robes from -behind the lock and bolts of the fort of Antonia, and gave them over to -the care of the College of Priests, who kept them for some time. The -right of appointing the High Priest was considered too important to -the interests of Rome to be relinquished, and Vitellius himself made -use of it to install Jonathan, the son of Anan, in the place of Joseph -Caiaphas. Caiaphas had acted in concert with Pilate during all the time -he had governed, and from his good understanding with the latter had -doubtless become distasteful to the Judæan nation. The favor granted -to the Judæans by Vitellius was in accordance with the wishes of the -Emperor, who commanded him to aid the nation with all the available -Roman forces in an unjust cause--that of Herod Antipas against King -Aretas. Antipas, who was married to the daughter of Aretas, king of the -Nabathæans, had nevertheless fallen in love with Herodias, the wife of -his half-brother Herod, who, disinherited by his father Herod I., led -a private life, probably in Cæsarea. During a journey to Rome, Antipas -became acquainted with Herodias, who, doubtless repining at her obscure -position, abandoned her husband, and after the birth of a daughter -contracted an illegal marriage with his brother. Antipas' first wife, -justly exasperated at his shameless infidelity, had fled to her father -Aretas, and urged him to make war upon her faithless husband. Antipas -suffered a great defeat, which was no sooner made known to the Emperor -than he gave Vitellius orders instantly to undertake his defense -against the king of the Nabathæans. As Vitellius was about to conduct -two legions from Ptolemais through Judæa, the people took offense at -the pictures of the Emperor which the soldiers bore on their standards, -and which were to have been carried to Jerusalem, but out of regard -to the scruples of the Judæans, Vitellius, instead of leading his -army through Judæa, conveyed it along the farther side of the Jordan. -Vitellius himself was received with the greatest favor in Jerusalem, -and offered sacrifices in the Temple. Of all the Roman governors he was -the one who had shown most kindness to the Judæans. - - - - -CHAPTER VII. - -AGRIPPA I. HEROD II. - - Character of Agrippa--Envy of the Alexandrian Greeks towards - the Judæans--Anti-Judæan Literature--Apion--Measures - against the Judæans in Alexandria--Flaccus--Judæan Embassy - to Rome--Philo--Caligula's Decision against the Judæan - Embassy--Caligula orders his Statue to be placed in the - Temple--The Death of Caligula relieves the Judæans--Agrippa's - Advance under Claudius--His Reign--Gamaliel the Elder and his - Administration--Death of Agrippa--Herod II--The False Messiah, - Theudas--Death of Herod II. - - 37.49 C. E. - - -After the murder of the Roman Emperor Tiberius, when the Senate -indulged for the moment in the sweet dream of regaining its liberty, -Rome could have had no forebodings that an enemy was born to her in -Jerusalem, in the half-fledged Christian community, which would in -time to come displace her authority, trample upon her gods, shatter -her power, and bring about a gradual decadence, ending in complete -decay. An idea, conceived and brought forth by one of Judæan birth and -developed by a despised class of society, was to tread the power and -glory of Rome in the dust. The third Roman Emperor, Caius Caligula -Germanicus, was himself instrumental in delivering up to national -contempt the Roman deities, in a sense the corner-stone of the Roman -Empire. The throne of the Cæsars had been alternately in the power of -men actuated by cruel cowardice and strange frenzy. None of the nations -tributary to Rome suffered more deeply from this continual change in -her masters than did the Judæans. Every change in the great offices of -state affected Judæa, at times favorably, but more often unfavorably. -The first years of Caligula's reign appeared to be auspicious for -Judæa. Caligula specially distinguished one of the Judæan princes, -Agrippa, with marks of his favor, thus holding out the prospect of a -milder rule. But it was soon evident that this kindness, this good-will -and favor, were but momentary caprices, to be followed by others of a -far different and of a terrible character, which threw the Judæans of -the Roman Empire into a state of fear and terror. - -Agrippa (born 10 B. C. E., died 44 C. E.) was the son of the prince -Aristobulus who had been assassinated by Herod, and grandson of the -Hasmonæan princess Mariamne; thus in his veins ran the blood of the -Hasmonæans and Idumæans, and these two hostile elements appeared to -fight for the mastery over his actions, until at last the nobler was -victorious. Educated in Rome, in the companionship of Drusus, the son -of Tiberius, the Herodian element in Agrippa was the first to develop. -As a Roman courtier, intent upon purchasing Roman favor, he dissipated -his fortune and fell into debt. Forced to quit Rome for Judæa, after -the death of his friend Drusus, he was reduced to such distress that -he, who was accustomed to live with the Cæsars, had to hide in a remote -part of Idumæa. It was then that he contemplated suicide. But his -high-spirited wife, Cypros, who was resolved to save him from despair, -appealed to his sister Herodias, Princess of Galilee, for instant -help. And it was through the influence of Antipas, the husband of -this princess, that Agrippa was appointed overseer of the markets of -Tiberias. Impatient of this dependent condition, he suddenly resigned -this office and became courtier to Flaccus, governor of Syria. From -this very doubtful position he was driven by the jealousy of his own -brother Aristobulus. Seemingly abandoned by all his friends, Agrippa -determined upon once more trying his fortune in Rome. The richest and -most distinguished Judæans of the Alexandrian community, the Alabarch, -Alexander Lysimachus, with whom he had taken refuge, provided him with -the necessary means for his journey. This noblest Judæan of his age, -guardian of the property of the young Antonia, the daughter of the -triumvir, had evidently rendered such services to the imperial family -that he had been adopted into it, and was allowed to add their names to -his own--Tiberius Julius Alexander, son of Lysimachus. He possessed, -without doubt, the fine Greek culture of his age, for his brother Philo -was a man of the most exquisite taste in Greek letters. But none the -less did the Alabarch Alexander cling warmly to his people and to his -Temple. Resolved to save Agrippa from ruin, but distrustful of his -extravagant character, he insisted that his wife Cypros should become -hostage for him. - -A new life of adventure now commenced in Rome for Agrippa. He was met -on the Isle of Capri by the Emperor Tiberius, who, in remembrance -of Agrippa's close connection with the son he had lost, received -him most kindly. But upon hearing of the enormous sum of money that -Agrippa still owed to the Roman treasury, Tiberius allowed him to fall -into disgrace. He was saved, however, by his patroness Antonia, the -sister-in-law of the emperor, who maintained a friendly remembrance -of Agrippa's mother Berenice. By her mediation he was raised to new -honors, and became the trusted friend of the heir to the throne, Caius -Caligula. But, as though Agrippa were destined to be the toy of every -caprice of fortune, he was soon torn from his intercourse with the -future emperor and thrown into prison. In order to flatter Caligula, -Agrippa once expressed the wish, "Would that Tiberius would soon expire -and leave his throne to one worthier of it." This was repeated by a -slave to the emperor, and Agrippa expiated his heedlessness by an -imprisonment of six months, from which the death of Tiberius at last -set him free (37). - -With the accession to the throne of his friend and patron, Caligula, -his star rose upon the horizon. When the young emperor opened the -prison-door to Agrippa he presented him with a golden chain, in -exchange for the iron one that he had been forced to wear on his -account, and placed the royal diadem upon his head, giving him the -principality of Philip, that had fallen to the Empire of Rome. By -decree of the Roman Senate he also received the title of Prætor. So -devoted was Caligula to Agrippa that, during the first year of his -reign, the Roman emperor would not hear of his quitting Rome, and when -at length Agrippa was permitted to take possession of his own kingdom, -he had to give his solemn promise that he would soon return to his -imperial friend. - -When Agrippa made his entry into Judæa as monarch and favorite of the -Roman emperor, poor and deeply in debt though he had been when he left -it, his wonderful change of fortune excited the envy of his sister -Herodias. Stung by ambition, she implored of her husband also to repair -to Rome and to obtain from the generous young emperor at least another -kingdom. Once more the painful want of family affection, common to all -the Herodians, was brought to light in all its baseness. Alarmed that -Antipas might succeed in winning Caligula's favor, or indignant at -the envious feelings betrayed by his sister, Agrippa accused Antipas -before the emperor of treachery to the Roman Empire. The unfortunate -Antipas was instantly deprived of his principality and banished to -Lyons, whither he was followed by his faithful and true-hearted wife. -Herod's last son, Herod Antipas, and his granddaughter, Herodias, -died in exile. Agrippa, by imperial favor, became the heir of his -brother-in-law, and the provinces of Galilee and Peræa were added to -his other possessions. - -The favor evinced by Caligula towards Agrippa, which might naturally -be extended to the Judæan people, awakened the envy of the heathens, -and brought the hatred of the Alexandrian Greeks to a crisis. Indeed, -the whole of the Roman Empire harbored secret and public enemies of the -Judæans. Hatred of their race and of their creed was intensified by a -lurking fear that this despised yet proud nation might one day attain -to supreme power. But the hostile feeling against the Judæans reached -its climax amongst the restless, sarcastic and pleasure-loving Greek -inhabitants of Alexandria. They looked unfavorably upon the industry -and prosperity of their Judæan neighbors, by whom they were surpassed -in both these respects, and whom they did not excel even in artistic -and philosophical attainments. These feelings of hatred dated from -the time when the Egyptian queen entrusted Judæan generals with the -management of the foreign affairs of her country, and they increased -in intensity when the Roman emperors placed more confidence in the -reliable Judæans than in the frivolous Greeks. Slanderous writers -nourished this hatred, and in their endeavors to throw contempt upon -the Judæans they falsified the history of which the Judæans were justly -proud. - -The Stoic philosopher Posidonius circulated false legends about the -origin and the nature of the divine worship of the Judæans, which -legends had been originally invented by the courtiers of Antiochus -Epiphanes. The disgraceful story of the worship of an ass in the Temple -of Jerusalem, besides other tales as untrue and absurd, added to the -assertion that the Judæans hated all Gentiles, found ready belief in -a younger, contemporary writer, Apollonius Malo, with whom Posidonius -had become acquainted in the island of Rhodes, and by whom they were -widely circulated. Malo gave a new account of the history of the Judæan -exodus, which he declared was occasioned by some enormity on the -part of the Judæans; he described Moses as a criminal, and the Mosaic -Law as containing the most abominable precepts. He declared that the -Judæans were atheists, that they hated mankind in general; he accused -them of alternate acts of cowardice and temerity, and maintained that -they were the most uncultured people amongst the barbarians, and could -not lay claim to the invention of any one thing which had benefited -humanity. It was from these two Rhodian authors that the spiteful and -venom-tongued Cicero culled his unworthy attack upon the Judæan race -and the Judæan Law. In this respect he differed from Julius Cæsar, who, -in spite of his associations with Posidonius and Malo, was entirely -free from all prejudice against the Judæans. - -The Alexandrian Greeks devoured these calumnies with avidity, -exaggerated them, and gave them still wider circulation. Only three -Greek authors mentioned the Judæans favorably--Alexander Polyhistor, -Nicolaus of Damascus, the confidant of Herod, and, lastly, Strabo, -the most remarkable geographer of ancient times, who devoted a fine -passage in his geographical and historical work to Judaism. Although -he mentions the Judæans as having originated from Egypt, he does not -repeat the legend that their expulsion was occasioned by some fault of -their own. Far otherwise he explains the Exodus, affirming that the -Egyptian mode of life, with its unworthy idolatry, had driven Moses -and his followers from the shores of the Nile. He writes in praise of -the Mosaic teaching relative to the unity of God, as opposed to the -Egyptian plurality of deities, and of the spiritual, imageless worship -of the Judæans in contrast to the animal worship of the Egyptians, and -to the investing of the divinity with a human form among the Greeks. -"How can any sensible man," he exclaims, "dare make an image of the -Heavenly King?" Widely opposed to the calumniators of Judaism, Strabo -teaches that the Mosaic Law was the great mainstay of righteousness, -for it holds out the divine blessing to all those whose lives are pure. -For some time after the death of their great lawgiver, Strabo maintains -that the Judæans acted in conformity with the Law, doing right and -fearing God. Of the sanctuary in Jerusalem he speaks with veneration, -for, although the Judæan kings were often faithless to the Law of Moses -and to their subjects, yet the capital of the Judæans was invested with -its own dignity, and the people, far from looking upon it as the seat -of despotism, revered and honored it as the Temple of God. - -One author exceeded all the other hostile writers in the outrageous -nature of his calumnies; this was the Egyptian Apion, who was filled -with burning envy at the prosperous condition of the Judæans. He -gave a new and exaggerated account of all the old stories of his -predecessors, and gained the ear of the credulous multitude by the -readiness and fluency of his pen. Apion was one of those charlatans -whose conduct is based on the assumption that the world wishes to be -deceived, and therefore it shall be deceived. As expounder of the -Homeric songs, he traveled through Greece and Asia Minor, and invented -legends so flattering to the early Greeks that he became the hero of -their descendants. He declared that he had witnessed most things of -which he wrote, or that he had been instructed in them by the most -reliable people; and even affirmed that Homer's shade had appeared to -him, and had divulged which Grecian town had given birth to the oldest -of Greek bards, but that he dared not publish that secret. On account -of his intense vanity he was called the trumpet of his own fame, for -he assured the Alexandrians that they were fortunate in being able to -claim him as a citizen. It is not astonishing that so unscrupulous a -man should have made use of the hatred they bore to the Judæans to do -the latter all the injury in his power. - -But the hostility of the Alexandrians, based on envy and religious -and racial antipathy, was suppressed under the reign of Augustus and -Tiberius, when the imperial governors of Egypt sternly reprimanded all -those who might have become disturbers of the peace. Affairs changed, -however, when Caligula came to the throne, for the Alexandrians -were then aware that the governor Flaccus, who had been a friend of -Tiberius, was unfavorably looked upon by his successor, who was ready -to lend a willing ear to any accusation against him. Flaccus, afraid of -drawing the attention of the revengeful emperor upon himself, was cowed -into submission by the Alexandrians, and became a mere tool in their -hands. At the news of Agrippa's accession to the throne, they were -filled with burning envy, and the delight of the Alexandrian Judæans, -with whom Agrippa came into contact through the Alabarch Alexander, -only incensed them still more and roused them to action. - -Two most abject beings were the originators and leaders of this -anti-Judæan demonstration; a venal clerk of the court of justice, -Isidorus, who was called by the popular wits, the Pen of Blood, because -his pettifoggery had robbed many of their life, and Lampo, one of those -unprincipled profligates that are brought forth by a burning climate -and an immoral city. These two agitators ruled, on the one hand, the -weak and helpless governor, and, on the other, they led the dregs of -the people, who were prepared to give vent to their feelings of hatred -towards the Judæans upon a sign from their leaders. - -Unfortunately, Agrippa, whose change of fortune had been an offense in -the eyes of the Alexandrians, touched at their capital upon his return -from Rome to Judæa (July, 38), and his presence roused the enemies -of the Judæans to fresh conspiracies. These began with a farce, but -ended for the Judæans in terrible earnest. At first Agrippa and his -race were insultingly jeered at. A harmless fool, Carabas, was tricked -out in a crown of papyrus and a cloak of plaited rushes; a whip was -given him for a scepter, and he was placed on an eminence for a throne, -where he was saluted by all passers-by as Marin (which, in the Chaldaic -tongue, denotes "our master"). This was followed by the excitable mob's -rushing at the dawn of the next day into the synagogues, carrying -with them busts of the emperor, with the pretext of dedicating these -places of worship to Caligula. In addition to this, at the importunate -instance of the conspirators, the governor, Flaccus, was induced to -withdraw from the Judæan inhabitants of Alexandria what they had held -so gratefully from the first emperors--the right of citizenship. This -was a terrible blow to the Judæans of Alexandria, proud as they were of -their privileges, and justly entitled to the credit of having enriched -this metropolis by their learning, their wealth, their love of art and -their spirit of commerce equally with the Greeks. They were cruelly -driven out of the principal parts of the city of Alexandria, and were -forced to congregate in the Delta, or harbor of the town. The mob, -greedy for spoil, dashed into the deserted houses and work-shops, and -plundered, destroyed and annihilated what had been gathered together by -the industry of centuries. - -After committing these acts of depredation, the infuriated Alexandrians -surrounded the Delta, under the idea that the unfortunate Judæans -would be driven to open resistance by the pangs of hunger or by the -suffocating heat they were enduring in their close confinement. When -at last the scarcity of provisions impelled some of the besieged to -venture out of their miserable quarters, they were cruelly ill-treated -by the enemy, tortured, and either burnt alive or crucified. This -state of things lasted for a month. The governor went so far as to -arrest thirty-eight members of the Great Council, to throw them into -prison and publicly to scourge them. Even the female sex was not -spared. If any maidens or women crossed the enemy's path they were -offered pig's flesh as food, and upon their refusing to eat it they -were cruelly tortured. Not satisfied with all these barbarities, -Flaccus ordered his soldiers to search the houses of the Judæans for -any weapons that might be concealed there, and they were told to -leave not even the chambers of modest maidens unsearched. This reign -of terror continued until the middle of September. At that time an -imperial envoy appeared to depose Flaccus and to summon him to Rome, -not on account of his abominable conduct towards the Judæans, but -because he was hated by the emperor. His sentence was exile and he was -eventually killed. - -The emperor alone could have settled the vexed question as to whether -the Judæans had the right of equal citizenship with the Greeks in -Alexandria; but he was then in Germany or in Gaul celebrating childish -triumphs, or in Britain gathering shells on the seashore. When he -returned to Rome (August, 40) with the absurd idea of allowing himself -to be worshiped as a god, and of raising temples and statues to -his own honor, the heathen Greeks justly imagined that their cause -against the Judæans was won. They restored the imperial statues in -the Alexandrian synagogues, convinced that in the face of so great a -sacrilege the Judæans would rebel and thereby arouse the emperor's -wrath. This was actually the cause of a fresh disturbance, for the -new governor of Alexandria took part against the Judæans, courting -in this way the imperial favor. He insisted that the unhappy people -should show divine honors to the images of the emperor, and when they -refused on the ground that such an act was contrary to their Law, he -forbade their observance of the Sabbath day. In the following words he -addressed the most distinguished of their race: "How would it be if -you were suddenly overwhelmed by a host of enemies, or by a tremendous -inundation, or by a raging fire; if famine, pestilence or an earthquake -were to overtake you upon the Sabbath day? Would you sit idly in your -synagogues, reading the Law and expounding difficult passages? Would -you not rather think of the safety of parents and children, of your -property and possessions, would you not fight for your lives? Now -behold, if you do not obey my commands, I will be all that to you, -the invasion of the enemy, the terrible inundation, the raging fire, -famine, pestilence, earthquake, the visible embodiment of relentless -fate." But neither the rich nor the poor allowed themselves to be -coerced by these words; they remained true to their faith, and prepared -to undergo any penalties that might be inflicted upon them. Some few -appear to have embraced paganism out of fear or from worldly motives. -The Judæan philosopher, Philo, gives some account of the renegades of -his time and his community, whom he designates as frivolous, immoral, -and utterly unworthy. Amongst them may be mentioned the son of the -Alabarch Alexander, Tiberius Julius Alexander, who forsook Judaism, and -was consequently raised to high honors in the Roman State. - -Meanwhile, the Judæans determined upon pleading their cause before -the emperor. Three men (who were specially adapted for their mission) -were selected to be sent as envoys to Rome. One of these, the Judæan -philosopher, Philo, was so far distinguished through birth, social -standing, profound culture, and brilliant eloquence, that no better -pleader for the cause of justice could have been found. Through the -medium of his powerful writings Philo has so largely influenced not -only his contemporaries but also those who came after him, both within -and without the Judæan community, that the scanty accounts of his -life must not be passed over. As brother of the Alabarch Alexander, -Philo belonged to the most distinguished and wealthy family of the -Alexandrian community. He received in his youth the usual education -which all well-born parents held as necessary for their sons. Possessed -of unquenchable love for learning, he obtained complete mastery over -his studies. His taste for metaphysical research was developed at a -very early age, and he devoted himself to it untiringly for a time, -taking delight in that alone. He affirms enthusiastically that he had -no desire for honors, wealth, or material pleasures, so long as he -could revel in ethereal realms, in company with the heavenly bodies. He -belonged to the few elect who do not creep on the earth's surface, but -who free themselves from all earthly bondage in the sublime flight of -thought. He rejoiced in being exempt from cares and occupations. But -though he gloried in philosophy, Judaism, which he termed the "true -wisdom," was still dearer to his heart. When he gathered the beautiful -blossoms of Grecian learning, it was to twine them into a garland with -which to adorn Judaism. Philo had been leading the retired life of a -student for some time, when, as he bitterly remarked, an event drew him -unmercifully into the whirlpool of political troubles: the miserable -condition of his people had probably disturbed his contemplative life. -In later years he looked back with longing upon his former occupation, -and lamented that practical life had obscured his vision for -intellectual things, and had materially interfered with his range of -thought; but he consoled himself with the knowledge that in undisturbed -hours he was still able to lift his mind to noble objects. Philo's -philosophical researches not only furnished food for his intellect, -but helped to inspire him with true nobility of character, developing -in him a nature that regarded all acts of human folly, vulgarity, and -vice as so many enigmas which he could not solve. - -His wife, who was justly proud of him, emulated him in the simplicity -of her life. When asked by some of her brilliantly attired friends why -she, who was so rich, should disdain to wear gold ornaments, she is -said to have answered, "The virtue of the husband is adornment enough -for the wife." Philo's contemporaries were never weary of praising -his style; so forcibly indeed did it remind them of Plato's beautiful -diction that they would observe, "Plato writes like Philo, or Philo -like Plato." Philo's principal aim was to harmonize the spirit of -Judaism with that of the philosophy of the age, or, more rightly -speaking, to show that Judaism is the truest philosophy. And this was -not merely to be an intellectual exercise, but to him it was a sacred -mission. He was so completely absorbed in these ideas that, as he -relates of himself, he often fell into trances, when he fancied that -revelations were vouchsafed to him which he could not have grasped at -ordinary times. - -This was the man who was to present himself before the emperor, as -the representative of the Alexandrian Judæan community. The heathen -Alexandrians also sent a deputation, headed by Apion, to which also -belonged the venom-tongued Isidorus. Not only were the envoys concerned -with the privileges of the community they represented, but they -were pledged to raise their voices against the cruel persecution of -their race. For the first time in history were Judaism and Paganism -confronted in the lists, each of them being represented by men of Greek -culture and learning. Had the two forms of faith and civilization -been judged by their exponents, the decision for Judaism would not -have been doubtful. Philo, dignified and earnest, seemed in himself -to embody faithful search after truth, and the purest moral idealism; -whilst Apion, frivolous and sarcastic, was the very incarnation -of smooth-tongued vainglory, and bore the stamp of the vanity and -self-conceit of fallen Greece. But the outcome of this contest remains -doubtful. Caligula was too passionate a partisan to be a just umpire. -He hated the Judæans because they would not recognize and worship -him as their deity, and his hatred was fanned by two contemptible -creatures, whom he had dragged from the mire and had attached to -himself--the Egyptian Helicon and Apelles of Ascalon. - -The Judæan envoys were hardly permitted to speak when they were -admitted to the imperial presence, and Caligula's first word was one -of jarring reproof: "So you are the despisers of God, who will not -recognize me as the deity, but who prefer worshiping a nameless one, -whilst all my other subjects have accepted me as their god." The Judæan -envoys declared that they had offered up three successive offerings -in honor of Caligula: the first upon his accession to the throne; the -second upon his recovery from a severe illness; and the third after his -so-called victory over the Teutons. "That may be," answered Caligula, -"but the offerings were made _for me_ and _not to me_; for such I do -not care. And how is it," he continued, awakening the ribald merriment -of his pagan audience, "how is it that you do not eat pig's flesh, -and upon what grounds do you hold your right of equality with the -Alexandrians?" Without waiting for a reply, he turned his attention -to something else. Later on when he dismissed the Judæan envoys, he -remarked that they seemed less wicked than stupid in not being willing -to acknowledge his divinity. - -Whilst the unfortunate ambassadors were vainly seeking to gain ground -with the emperor, they were suddenly overwhelmed with tidings that -struck terror into their hearts. One of their own race burst into their -presence, exclaiming, amidst uncontrollable sobs, that the Temple in -the holy city had been profaned by Caligula. For not only were the -imperial statues to be erected in the synagogues, but also in the -Temple of Jerusalem. The governor of Syria, Petronius, had received -orders to enter Judæa with his legions and to turn the Sanctuary into a -pagan temple. It is easy to conceive the mortal anguish of the Judæan -nation when these orders became known to them. On the eve of the Feast -of Tabernacles a messenger appeared in Jerusalem, who converted this -feast of rejoicing into mourning. Petronius and his legions were at -Accho, on the outskirts of Jerusalem, but, as the rainy season was at -hand, and as obstinate resistance was expected, the Roman commander -resolved to await the spring before commencing active operations. -Thousands of Judæans hastened to appear before Petronius, declaring -that they would rather suffer the penalty of death than allow their -Temple to be desecrated. Petronius, perplexed as to how he should carry -out this mad scheme of Caligula's, consulted the members of the Royal -Council, entreating of them to influence the people in his favor. But -the Judæan aristocracy, and even Agrippa's own brother Aristobulus, -held with the people. Petronius then sent a true statement of the case -to the emperor, hoping that he might be induced to abandon his scheme. -Meanwhile he pacified the people by telling them that nothing could be -effected until fresh edicts arrived from Rome, and begged of them to -return to their agricultural duties, and thus to avert the possibility -of a year of famine. - -But before Petronius' letter was in the hands of the emperor, -Caligula's intentions had been frustrated by Agrippa. The Judæan -king had acquired so extraordinary an influence over Caligula that -the Romans called him and Antiochus of Commagene, his teachers in -tyranny. Agrippa, who was living at that time near the person of -the emperor, could not have been indifferent to the desecration of -the Temple, but he was too accomplished a courtier openly to oppose -this imperial caprice. On the contrary, he seemed dead to the cry of -anguish that arose from his people, and only occupied in preparing, -with the most lavish expenditure, a magnificent feast for the emperor -and his favorites. But under this garb of indifference he was really -working for his people's cause. Caligula, flattered by the attentions -that were lavished upon him, bade Agrippa demand a boon, which should -be instantly granted. His astonishment was indeed boundless when the -Judæan monarch begged for the repeal of the imperial edict concerning -images. He had little thought that his refined courtier would prove so -unselfish a man, so pious, and so thoroughly independent of the will of -the emperor. Cunning as he was, Caligula was helplessly entrapped, for -he could not retract his pledged word. Thus he was forced to write to -Petronius annulling his former decree. Meanwhile he received Petronius' -letter, in which the governor detailed what difficulties he would -encounter, were he to attempt to execute the orders of his master. More -than this was not required to lash Caligula's passionate and excitable -nature into a fury. A new and stringent order was given to proceed -with the introduction of the statues into the Temple of Jerusalem. -But before this order, terrible to the Judæans and full of danger to -Petronius himself, had arrived in Jerusalem, it was announced that the -insane Caligula had met with his death at the hands of the Prætorian -Tribune Chereas (24 Jan., 41). These tidings came to Jerusalem on the -22d of Shebat (March, 41), and the day was afterwards celebrated as one -of great rejoicing. - -Caligula's successor upon the throne of the Cæsars was Claudius, a -learned pedant and a fool. He owed his crown to chance, and to the -diplomacy of King Agrippa, who had induced the reluctant Senate to -accept the choice of the Prætorians. Rome must indeed have fallen low -when a somewhat insignificant Judæan prince was allowed to speak in the -Senate House, and, in some measure, to have influence in the choice -of her ruler. Claudius was not ungrateful to his ally; he lauded him -before the assembled Senate, raised him to the dignity of consul, and -made him king of all Palestine, for Judæa and Samaria were incorporated -with the monarchy. - -As a remembrance of these events, the emperor ordered an inscription -to be engraved on tablets of bronze, in pedantic imitation of the -classical age, and coins to be struck, bearing on one side two clasped -hands, with these words, "Friendship and comradeship of King Agrippa -with the Senate and the Roman people." On the other side was the -emperor between two figures, and the inscription: "King Agrippa, friend -of the emperor." The kingdom of Judæa had thus recovered its full -extent; indeed, it had acquired even a greater area than it possessed -formerly under the Hasmonæans and Herod I. - -Herod II., brother and son-in-law of King Agrippa, received from -Claudius the rank of Prætor, and was made prince of Chalcis, in -Lebanon. The Alexandrian Judæans greatly benefited by the new order -of things which was brought about in the vast Roman Empire by the -death of Caligula. The emperor Claudius freed the Alabarch Alexander, -with whom he was on friendly terms, from the imprisonment into which -his predecessor had thrown him, and settled the disputes of the -Alexandrians in favor of the Judæans. Caligula's prejudice against that -unfortunate community had developed their independence, and their -strength was far from being broken. Their rights and privileges were -fully re-established by an edict of the new emperor, and they were -placed on an equal footing with the Greek inhabitants of Egypt. The -dignity of the Alabarch was restored by the emperor, and this was most -important to the Judæans, for it assured them of the leadership of one -of their own race, and made them independent of the Roman officials. It -was during this reign that Philo gave the wealth of his learning to a -wide circle of readers, and was instrumental in bringing Judæan-Greek -culture to its zenith. Claudius extended his goodwill to the Judæans of -the entire Roman Empire, granting them complete religious freedom, and -protecting them from the interference of the pagans. - -When Agrippa, laden with honors, left Rome for Judæa to take possession -of his kingdom, his subjects remarked that some great change was -manifest in him, and that the stirring revolution in Rome, by which -a headstrong emperor had been dethroned in favor of a weak one, had -deeply impressed their own monarch. The frivolous Agrippa returned -an earnest-minded man; the courtier had given place to the patriot; -the pleasure-loving prince to the conscientious monarch, who was -fully aware of what he owed his nation. The Herodian nature had, in -fact, been entirely subdued by the Hasmonæan. For the last time, -Judæa enjoyed under his reign a short span of undisturbed happiness; -and his subjects, won by his generous affection, which even risked -forfeiting the good will of Rome in their cause, repaid him with -untiring devotion, the bitterest enemies of his scepter becoming his -ardent supporters. Historians do not weary of praising Agrippa's loving -adherence to Judaism; it seemed as if he were endeavoring to rebuild -what had been cast down by Herod. He mixed freely with the people -when they carried the first fruits into the Temple, and bore his own -offering of fruit or grain to the Sanctuary. He re-established the -old law that obliged the king to read the book of Deuteronomy in the -Court of the Temple at the close of each year of release. Facing the -congregation, Agrippa performed this act for the first time in the -autumn of the year 42, and when he came to the verse, "From amongst -your brethren shall you choose a king," he burst into a passion of -tears, for he was painfully aware of his Idumæan descent, and knew that -he was unworthy of being a king of Judæa. But the assembled multitude, -and even the Pharisees, exclaimed with enthusiasm: "Thou art our -brother; thou art our brother!" - -Agrippa's careful government made itself felt throughout the entire -community. Without doubt the Synhedrion, under the presidency of -Gamaliel I. (ha-Zaken, the elder), the worthy grandson of Hillel, was -permitted to take the management of home affairs into its own hands. -The presidency acquired greater importance under Gamaliel than it -had enjoyed before; for the Synhedrion, modeled upon the political -constitution of the country, partook somewhat of a monarchical -character. The consent of the president was required for the -interpolation of a leap year, and all letters or mandates addressed -to near or distant communities were sent in his name. The formulæ of -these letters, which have in some instances been handed down to us, are -extremely interesting, both in contents and form, for they prove that -all Judæan communities, as well as their representatives, acknowledged -the supreme authority of the Synhedrion. Gamaliel would address a -foreign community through the pen of his accomplished secretary, -Jochanan, in these terms: "To our brethren in Upper and Lower Galilee, -greeting: We make known to you that the time has arrived for the -ingathering of the tithes of your olive yards." "To our brethren, the -exiles in Babylon, Media, Greece (Ionia), and to all other exiles, -greeting: We make known to you that as in this season the lambs are -still very small, and the doves have not yet their full-grown wings, -the spring being very backward this season, it pleases me and my -colleagues to prolong the year by thirty days." - -Many excellent laws emanated from Gamaliel; they were principally -directed against the abuses that had crept in, or were aimed at -promoting the welfare of the whole community. It was the true spirit of -Hillel that pervaded the laws framed by Gamaliel for the intercourse -between the Judæans and the heathens. The heathen poor were permitted -to glean the fields in the wake of the reapers, and were treated -exactly like the Judæan poor, and the pagans were given the peace -greetings upon their own festivals when they were following their -own rites. The poor in all towns of mixed population received equal -treatment; they were helped in time of distress, their sick were -nursed, their dead were honorably treated, their sorrowing ones were -comforted, whether they were pagans or Judæans. In these ordinances, so -full of kindly feeling towards the heathen, the influence of Agrippa -is plainly visible. Rome and Judæa had for the moment laid aside their -mutual antipathy, and their intercourse was characterized by love and -forbearance. The generosity of the emperor towards the Judæans went so -far that he severely punished some thoughtless Greek youths in the town -of Dora for attempting to introduce his statues into the synagogues. -The governor Petronius was ordered to be strict in the prevention of -such desecration. - -Agrippa had inherited from his grandfather Herod the wish to be popular -among the Greeks. As Herod had sent presents to Athens and other Greek -and Ionian towns, so his grandson conferred a great benefit upon the -degenerate city, once mother of the arts, a benefit which her citizens -did not easily forget. He also showered favors upon the inhabitants -of Cæsarea, the city that Herod had raised as a rival of Jerusalem, -and upon the Greeks of the seaboard Sebaste, who lived in their own -special quarter. These recipients of his benefits exerted themselves to -give proofs of their gratitude. The people of Sebaste raised statues -to his three daughters, and struck coins in his honor, bearing the -inscription--"To the great king Agrippa, friend of the emperor." The -last years of this monarch's reign were happy for his nation, both -within and without the kingdom of Judæa. They were like the rosy -flush in the evening sky that precedes, not the dawn of day, but the -blackness of night. In some respects they call to mind the reign of -King Josiah in the earlier history of the nation, when the kingdom -enjoyed tranquillity at home and independence abroad, with no dearth of -intellectual activity. - -Philo visited Jerusalem during Agrippa's reign, and was able to take -part in the people's joy at the revocation of Caligula's edicts. Never -before had the first fruits been carried into the Temple with greater -solemnity or with more heartfelt rejoicing. To the bright strains of -musical instruments the people streamed into the Sanctuary with their -offerings, where they were received by the most distinguished of their -race. A psalm was then chanted, which described how the worshipers had -passed from sorrow into gladness. - -It was at this time that a great queen, followed by her numerous -retinue, arrived in Jerusalem, she having renounced paganism for -Judaism, thus filling to the brim the cup of gladness of the once -persecuted but now honored race. - -The happy era of Agrippa's reign was, however, not to be of long -duration. Although he had gained the complete confidence of the -emperor, the Roman dignitaries looked upon him with suspicion, -and beheld in each step made by the Judæan king some traces of -disaffection; and they were not far wrong. For, however much Agrippa -might coquet with Rome, he was yet determined to make Judæa capable -of resisting that great power, should an encounter, which he deemed -inevitable, occur between the two. His people should not be dependent -upon the caprice of one individual. Thus he resolved to strengthen -Jerusalem. He chose for this purpose the suburb of Bezetha, to the -northeast of the city, and there he ordered powerful fortifications -to be built. They were to constitute a defense for the fortress of -Antonia, which lay between Bezetha and Jerusalem. He applied to Rome -for the necessary permission, which was readily granted by Claudius, -who could deny him nothing, and the Roman favorites who would have -opposed him were silenced by gifts. The fortifications were commenced, -but their completion was interrupted by the governor of Syria, Vibius -Marsus. He saw through Agrippa's scheme, plainly told the emperor of -the dangers that would surely menace Rome if Jerusalem could safely -set her at defiance, and succeeded in wringing from Claudius the -revocation of his permission. Agrippa was forced to obey, not being in -the position to openly offer resistance. But at heart he determined -upon weakening the Roman sway in Judæa. To attain these ends, he -allied himself secretly with those princes with whom he was connected -by marriage or on terms of friendly relationship, and invited them to -a conference at Tiberias, under the pretext of meeting for general -amusement and relaxation. There came at his call to the Galilean -capital Antiochus, king of Commagene, whose son Epiphanes was affianced -to Agrippa's youngest daughter; Samsigeranus, king of Emesa, whose -daughter Jatape was married to Agrippa's brother Aristobulus; then -Cotys, king of Armenia Minor, Polemon, prince of Cilicia, and lastly, -Herod, Agrippa's brother, prince of Chalcis. All these princes owed -their positions to Agrippa, and were therefore liable to lose them -at the accession of the next emperor or at the instigation of some -influential person at the court of Claudius. But Marsus, suspicious of -this understanding between so many rulers, and distrustful of the cause -that brought them together, suddenly presented himself in their midst, -and, with the ancient Roman bluntness, bade them return each man to his -own city. So tremendous was the power of Rome, that at one word from -an underling of the emperor the meeting was annulled. But the energy -and perseverance of Agrippa would probably have spared Judæa from any -possible humiliation, and assured her future safety, had his life been -prolonged; he met, however, with an unexpected death at the age of -fifty-four. Judæa's star sank with that monarch, who died, like Josiah, -the last great king of the pre-exilian age, a quarter of a century -before the destruction of his State. - -It soon became evident that the Greek inhabitants of Palestine had but -dissembled their true feelings in regard to King Agrippa. Forgetful of -that monarch's benefits, the Syrians and Greeks of the city of Cæsarea, -and of the seaboard of Sebaste, solaced themselves by heaping abuse -upon his memory, and by offering up thank-offerings to Charon for his -death. The Roman soldiery quartered in those towns made common cause -with the Greeks, and carried the statues of Agrippa's daughters into -brothels. - -Claudius was not indifferent to the insults offered to his dead -friend's memory. He was, on the contrary, anxious to raise Agrippa's -son, Agrippa II., to the throne of Judæa. But in this he was opposed by -his two all-powerful favorites, Pallas and Narcissus, on the plea of -the prince's youth (he was seventeen years of age), and Judæa was thus -allowed to sink once more into a Roman province. - -However, out of affection and respect to the dead king, the emperor -gave the Judæan governor Cuspius Fadus a somewhat independent position -in regard to the Syrian governor Vibius Marsus, who had always been -hostile to Agrippa and the Judæans. It was his soldiery who had -insulted the memory of the Judæan monarch, and for this cowardly -action they were to be punished and exiled to Pontus. They managed, -however, to extort a pardon from the emperor, and remained in Judæa, -a circumstance which contributed not a little to excite the bitterest -feelings of the national party, which they fully returned. They could -ill control their hatred of the Judæans, stinging the latter into -retaliation. Companies of freebooters under daring leaders prepared, as -after the death of Herod, to free their country from the yoke of Rome. -But Fadus was prepared for this rising. It was his desire to strengthen -the Roman rule in Judæa, and to give it the same importance that it had -had before the reign of Agrippa; and to this end he attempted to keep -the selection of the high priest and the sacred robes in his own hands. -But in this he met resistance both in the person of the high priest and -at the hands of Agrippa's brother, Herod II. - -Jerusalem was so greatly excited by these proceedings that not -only did the governor Fadus appear within the city, but he was -accompanied by Caius Cassius Longinus at the head of his troops. -Herod and his brother Aristobulus begged for a truce of hostilities, -as they were anxious to send envoys to Rome. This they were allowed -to do, only on the condition that they surrendered themselves as -hostages for the preservation of peace. Having willingly complied, -an embassy, consisting of four men--Cornelius, Tryphon, Dorotheus, -and John--started for Rome. When they arrived in that city they -were introduced to the emperor by the young Agrippa. Claudius, still -faithful to his old affection for the Herodians, granted the Judæans -full right to follow their own laws, and gave Herod permission to -choose the high priest of the Sanctuary. Taking instant advantage of -this permission, Herod raised Joseph, of the house of Camith, to the -high priesthood in the place of Elionai, his brother's choice. To a -certain extent Herod II. may be regarded as king of Judæa, but he -exerted no influence upon the course of political events. All legal -power was vested in the hands of the governor; the Synhedrion lost, -under the sway of his successor, the power which it had regained under -Agrippa. - -Fadus was confronted with a rising of another nature during his -governorship. A certain Theudas appeared as prophet or messiah, and was -followed by four hundred disciples, for the messianic redemption was -quickly growing into a necessity for the nation. To give proof of his -power he declared that he would divide the waters of the Jordan, and -would lead his followers safe across the bed of the river. But when his -band of disciples approached the riverside, carrying with them much of -their worldly possessions, they were confronted by a troop of Fadus's -cavalry soldiers, who slew some, made others prisoners, and decapitated -their leader. - -Shortly after these events Fadus was recalled from Jerusalem, and his -place was taken by Tiberius Julius Alexander, son of the Alabarch -Alexander, nephew of the Judæan philosopher Philo. Tiberius, who had -espoused paganism, bore already the dignity of a Roman knight. The -Emperor believed doubtless that in naming a Judæan of a distinguished -house as governor over the land, he was giving proof of his -friendliness to the nation. He did not imagine that their sensitive -natures would be violently opposed to the fact of being governed by a -renegade. The people seem indeed to have been most uncomfortable under -the rule of Tiberius; the zealots lifted up their heads and excited -an insurrection. They were led by Jacob and Simon and the sons of the -zealot Judah, but no details of this revolt are extant. To judge by the -severity of the sentence passed upon the ringleaders by the governor, -it must have been of a grave character, for the two brothers suffered -crucifixion, the most degrading form of capital punishment amongst -the Romans. Tiberius Alexander remained only two years at his post. -He was afterwards named governor of Egypt, and exercised considerable -influence in the choice of the emperor. - -Herod II., king of Chalcis, titular king of Judæa, died at this time -(48), and with him the third generation of Herodians sank into the -grave. - - - - -CHAPTER VIII. - -SPREAD OF THE JUDÆAN RACE, AND OF JUDAISM. - - Distribution of the Judæans in the Roman Empire and in - Parthia--Relations of the various Judæan Colonies to the - Synhedrion--Judæan Bandits in Naarda--Heathen Attacks upon - Judaism--Counter Attacks upon Heathenism by Judæan Writers--The - Judæan Sibyls--The Anti-heathen Literature--The Book of - Wisdom--The Allegorists--Philo's Aims and Philosophical - System--Proselytes--The Royal House of Adiabene--The Proselyte - Queen Helen--The Apostle Paul--His Character--Change in - his Attitude towards the Pharisees--His Activity as a - Conversionist--His Treatment of the Law of Moses--The Doctrines - of Peter--Judaic-Christians and Heathen-Christians. - - 40.49 C. E. - - -Round the very cradle of the Judæan race there had rung prophetic -strains, telling of endless wanderings and dispersions. No other people -had ever heard such alarming predictions, and they were being fulfilled -in all their literal horror. There was hardly a corner in the two great -predominant kingdoms of that time, the Roman and the Parthian, in which -Judæans were not living, and where they had not formed themselves into -a religious community. The shores of the great midland sea, and the -outlets of all the principal rivers of the old world, of the Nile, the -Euphrates, the Tigris, and the Danube, were peopled with Judæans. A -cruel destiny seemed to be ever thrusting them away from their central -home. Yet this dispersion was the work of Providence and was to prove -a blessing. The continuance of the Judæan race was thus assured. -Down-trodden and persecuted in one country, they fled to another, where -the old faith, which became ever dearer to them, found a new home. -Seeds were scattered here and there, destined to carry far and wide the -knowledge of God and the teachings of pure morality. Just as the Greek -colonies kindled in various nations the love of art and culture, and -the Roman settlements gave rise in many lands to communities governed -by law, so had the far wider dispersion of the oldest civilized people -contributed to overthrow the errors and combat the sensual vices of the -heathen world. In spite of being thus scattered, the members of the -Judæan people were not completely divided from one another; they had a -common center of union in the Temple of Jerusalem and in the Synhedrion -which met in the hall of hewn stone, and to these the dispersed -communities clung with loving hearts. Towards them their looks were -ever fondly directed, and by sending their gifts to the Temple they -continued to participate, at least by their contributions, in the -sacrificial worship. From the Synhedrion they received their code of -laws, which they followed the more willingly as it was not forced -upon them. The Synhedrion, from time to time, sent deputations to the -different communities, both far and near, to acquaint them with the -most important decisions. - -The visits paid to the Temple by the Judæans who lived out of -Palestine, strengthened the bond of unity, and these visits must have -been of frequent occurrence, for they necessitated the creation of -many places of worship in Jerusalem where the various foreign Judæans -met for prayer. The capital contained synagogues of the Alexandrians, -Cyrenians, Libertines, Elymæans, and Asiatics. One can form some -idea of the vast numbers of Judæans existing at that period if one -considers that Egypt alone, from the Mediterranean to the Ethiopian -boundary, contained nearly a million. In the neighboring country -of Cyrenaica, there were likewise many Judæans, some having been -forcibly transplanted thither from Egypt, whilst others were voluntary -emigrants. In many parts of Syria, and especially in its capital, -Antioch, the Judæans formed a considerable portion of the population. -The kings of Syria who succeeded Antiochus Epiphanes had reinstated -them in all their rights, of which the half-insane Epiphanes had robbed -them. One of these kings had even given them some of the utensils taken -from the Temple, and these were preserved in their synagogue. About ten -thousand Judæans lived at Damascus, and one of their nobles was made -ethnarch over them by the Nabathæan king, Aretas Philodemus, just as in -Alexandria one of their most distinguished members was elected chief of -the community. To the great capital of the world, Rome, the point of -attraction for the ambitious and the grasping, the discontented and the -visionaries, the Judæans returned in such masses after their expulsion -by Tiberius, that when the Emperor Claudius determined, from some -unknown cause, upon expelling them again, he was only deterred, by fear -of their great numbers, from endeavoring to carry out his intention. -Meanwhile he forbade their religious meetings. Towards the end of his -reign, however, on account of some disturbances occasioned by a certain -Christian apostle, Chrestus, they were probably, but only in part, -banished from Rome. - -Even greater than in Europe, Syria and Africa was the number of Judæans -in the Parthian Empire. They were the descendants of former exiles, -who owned large tracts of country in Mesopotamia and Babylonia. Two -youths from Naarda (Nahardea on the Euphrates) called Asinaï (Chasinaï) -and Anilaï (Chanilaï) founded in the vicinity of that town a robber -settlement, which spread terror along the bordering countries. Just -as Naarda and Nisibis became the central points for the countries of -the Euphrates, there arose in every land a central nucleus from which -Judæan colonies spread themselves out into neighboring lands, from Asia -Minor on the one side, towards the Black Sea on the other, towards -Greece and the Islands. Athens, Corinth, Thessalonica, and Philippi -contained Judæan communities. There is no doubt that from Rome Judæan -colonies went forth westward to the south of France and Spain. - -The effect produced by the Judæans upon the heathens was at first -repellent. Their peculiar mode of living, their dress and their -religious views, caused them to be considered as strange, enigmatical, -mysterious beings, who at one moment inspired awe, and at another -derision and contempt. So thorough was the opposition between the -Judæans and the heathens that it manifested itself in all their -actions. Everything that was holy in the eyes of the heathens -was looked upon with horror by the Judæans, whilst objects of -indifference to the former were considered sacred by the latter. The -withdrawal of the Judæans from the repasts enjoyed in common by their -fellow-citizens, their repugnance to intermarriages with the heathens, -their abhorrence of the flesh of swine, and their abstinence from warm -food on the Sabbath, were considered as the outcome of a perverse -nature, whilst their keeping aloof from intimate intercourse with -any but their own coreligionists was deemed a proof of their enmity -towards mankind in general. The serious nature of the Judæans, which -prevented their participation in childish amusements and mimic combats, -appeared to those around them the sign of a gloomy disposition, which -could find no pleasure in the bright and the beautiful. Superficial -persons, therefore, regarded Judaism only as a barbarous superstition, -which instilled hatred towards the generality of men, whilst the more -thoughtful and discerning were filled with admiration by the pure and -spiritual worship of one God, by the affection and sympathy which bound -the Judæans together, and by the virtues of chastity, temperance and -fortitude which characterized them. - -Paganism, with the immoral life which sprang from it, stood revealed in -all its nakedness to the keen sight of the Judæans. The dreary idolatry -of the heathen, with its fabulous mythology which made divine nature -even lower than the human, the madness which allowed wicked emperors -to be worshiped as gods, the sensuality which had prevailed since the -fall of Greece and the closer connection of the Romans with demoralized -nations, the daily spectacle of evil lives and broken marriage -vows, the bacchanalian intoxication of superstition, unbelief, and -bestialities, fostered the pride of the Judæans in their own spiritual -and intellectual possessions, and urged them to make the superiority of -Judaism over heathenism manifest. In places where the Grecian language -facilitated exchange of thought, as in Egypt, Asia Minor and Greece, -there was considerable mental friction between the Judæans and the -heathens. Judaism, as it were, summoned paganism to appear before the -tribunal of truth, and there placed its own sublime faith beside the -low, degrading forms of belief of its adversary. - -The Judæans were deeply anxious to impart the burning convictions that -filled their hearts to the blind, deluded heathens, and to attain that -object, their religion being hated by the latter, some of the most -cultivated among the Judæans had recourse to a sort of pious fraud, -by which heathen poets and soothsayers were made to bear witness to -the beauty and grandeur of Judaism. Skilful imitations in verse, -enunciating Judæan doctrines, were placed by Judæan-Grecian writers in -the mouth of the mist-shrouded singer Orpheus, and introduced among -the strains of Sophocles, the tragic poet who had celebrated the -all-powerful gods. When Rome had extended her empire far and wide, -and the legends of the prophetic Sibyls had become known through -many lands, Judæan poets hastened to make the latter stand sponsors -to tenets and views which they durst not proclaim themselves, or -which, if given in their own name, would have obtained no hearing. -In an oracular form the Sibyl was made to reveal the deep meaning of -Judaism, to stir the hearts of the people by pictures of the awful -result of infidelity to God, and to offer to nations engaged in bloody -conflict the olive branch of peaceful amity, opening out to them bright -prospects of the happier times, predicted by the Seers, to those -who believed in the eternal God of Judaism; and the Sibyl spoke in -prophetic strains of the glorious future, when all the nations of the -earth would rejoice in the blessings of the Messianic kingdom. - - "Unhappy Greece, cease proudly to exalt thyself; offer prayers - for help to the immortal and lofty One, and take heed of thy - ways. Serve the mighty God, so that thou also mayest find thy - portion among the good when the end will have come and the day - of judgment, according to the will of God, will rise up before - man. Then will the teeming earth give abundantly to mortals - the fairest fruits of the vine and the olive and choicest - nourishing seeds. Also sweet honey dropping from heaven, and - trees with their fruit, and fat sheep. Likewise oxen and lambs - and the kids of the goat. For them rivers of milk will flow, - sweet and white. The cities will be filled with merchandise, - the earth will be rich, and there will be no more war or - fearful sound of fighting. Nor will the earth, loud groaning, - quake and be rent. War will cease, and there will be no drought - upon the lands, no more famine or fruit-destroying hail. But - great peace will reign over all the world, and to the end of - time each king will be the other's friend, and under one law - will the people of the whole world be governed by the Eternal - God, enthroned in the starry heavens--one law for all weak, - pitiable men; for He is one God, and there is no other, and the - wicked He will cast into the flames." - -The aim of a long series of prose writings of the Judæan-Grecian school -was to set forth the futility and defects of paganism on the one hand, -and on the other to display Judaism in its most favorable light, and -thus to induce the heathen to become acquainted with the tenets of the -latter. Heathen kings who had been convinced that idolatry was empty -and vain, and that by Judaism, on the contrary, truth was revealed were -pointed out as examples. - -"The Book of Wisdom" was even more decided and vigorous in its -denunciations of paganism than the Sibylline writings. Its unknown -author gave with philosophical acumen, but in a poetical garb, a -truthful exposition of idolatry, showed it to be the cause of vice and -immorality, and then, in marked contrast to these dark shadows, made -Judaism shine with increased purity and luster. It was the wisdom of -Judaism, embodied, as it were, in the wise King Solomon, that presented -these views, and in his name, turning to the monarchs of the earth -(the Roman governors), rebukes their shameless self-deification. "Love -righteousness, ye rulers of the earth," exclaims the Wisdom of Solomon, -"recognize the Lord in goodness, and seek Him in simplicity of heart" -(Book of Wisdom, i. 1). According to this author, the invention of -idols was the cause of lasciviousness, and leads to the destruction -of life. Idolatry did not exist from the beginning, neither will it -last forever. It arose through the vanity and ignorance of man, and -would endure but a short time. A father, suddenly plunged into deepest -grief by the death of a child, perhaps made for himself an image of -the latter; by degrees he worshiped the lifeless figure as a god, and -insisted upon the observance by his dependants of mystical rites in -its honor. In the course of time this godless practice became law, and -images, by the order of despots, received the worship of the people. In -the absence of the monarch, when he could not be personally adored by -his subjects, the tyrant was flattered by the incense offered to his -image. The ambition of the artist also fostered the growth of idolatry -among the ignorant masses. To please the potentates of the earth he -strove to make his images as beautiful as possible, and the public, -dazzled by the splendor and grace of the work, worshiped as gods those -whom they previously reverenced as men. Such beautiful productions of -art became a snare to those whom misfortune or tyranny had enslaved, -and induced them to deify carved stone and wood, and to bestow on them -the uncommunicable name of God. Not alone do the people err in their -religious creed, but they live in constant strife with one another -and call it peace; infanticide is celebrated as a rite, they observe -dark, mysterious ceremonies, and are guilty of unchastity. Each one -plays the part of spy on the other, or wounds his friend in his dearest -honor. All, without distinction, thirst for blood, love plunder, and -practice cunning, perjury, deceit, ingratitude, and every description -of impurity. For the worship of vain idols is the beginning, cause, -and end of every evil thing. "For health he calleth upon that which is -weak, for life prayeth to that which is dead, for aid humbly beseecheth -that which hath least means to help" (Book of Wisdom, xiii. 18). - -After the author has thus shown the vanity of idolatry, he attempts to -describe the fundamental truths of Judaism: - - "There is no God but Him whom the Jews adore. Divine wisdom - preserved the first-born, saved the righteous (Noah) from the - flood, upheld the righteous (Abraham) in innocence before God, - delivered the holy seed (the Judæan people) from the oppression - of the nations, filled the soul of the servant of God (Moses), - who appeared before kings with terrible signs and wonders. - Israel is the upright one whom God has chosen. He possesses the - knowledge of the Divine Being, and may call himself the Son of - God, who in His mercy sustains and upholds him." - -These righteous ones will have eternal life. When Israel is persecuted -by the rulers of the earth, because his path lies apart from theirs, -and he condemns their godless ways, turns from them as unclean, and -calls God his Father; when the nations of the earth torture him and put -him to a shameful death--these are only trials imposed by God on His -chosen one, to prove him and make him worthy of His grace. He tries him -like gold in the furnace, and accepts him as a pure offering. Israel -shall judge the nations, and have dominion over the people, and their -God shall reign forever. - - "Then will the upright one stand firmly before his oppressors. - They will be troubled with great fear; they will be amazed - at his glorious salvation, and repenting they will say, - 'This was he whom we had in derision, and of whom we made a - laughing-stock. Ignorantly we accounted his life madness, and - his end to be without honor. And now he is numbered among the - children of God and his lot is among the saints. We strayed - from the way of truth, and the light of righteousness did not - shine for us.' Israel was the instrument through which God - gave the world the undying light of the law. In all things did - the Lord magnify His people and glorify them; He abandoned - them not, but assisted them in every time and place." (Book of - Wisdom.) - -Like the Babylonian Isaiah, the Alexandrian-Judæan sage contemplated -his ideal in Israel, of whom a noble mission was required, and who -would hereafter shine in glory. - -Whilst the Alexandrian Judæans were absorbed in Grecian literature -and philosophy, and were using that melodious language as a weapon -against paganism and the immorality it fostered, they were carried -beyond the object they had in view. Their desire was to make Judaism -acceptable to the cultivated Greeks, but in following out that design -it was, in some degree, lost to themselves. Greek conceptions had so -completely taken possession of their thoughts that at last they came -to find in the teachings of Judaism the current speculations of the -Greeks. The faith that they had inherited was, however, still dear -to them, and they managed, through sophistical means, to deceive -themselves into a belief of the genuineness of their exposition. The -Holy Scripture could not, indeed, always offer apposite passages to -the prevailing philosophy, but the Judæan-Alexandrian authors knew how -to help themselves out of that difficulty. They followed the example -of Greek writers, who found their own views of the world in the poems -of Homer, or put them there, and to accomplish that feat, employed a -peculiar kind of sophistical word-pictures. Thus the Judæan thinkers -of that period, in their interpretations of the Holy Scriptures, had -recourse to allegory, and instead of the plain, natural meaning -of a work, often gave it a different and seemingly higher import. -Starting with the assumption that the Scriptures cannot always receive -a literal explanation without the divine glory's being tarnished and -many biblical characters being degraded, they resorted to the arts of -allegory and metaphor. This method became so general that even the -masses lost all pleasure in the simple stories of the Holy Scriptures, -and took more delight in artificial explanations than in the plain -lessons and sublime laws of their sacred books. The pious men, who -were wont to explain the Scriptures on the Sabbath, were obliged, in -compliance with the taste of the time, to allegorize both the history -and the lessons contained in them. One result of this method was the -indifference that manifested itself among the cultivated Judæans of -Alexandria to the practice of the religion of their fathers. Allegory -undermined the ramparts that fenced the Law. If the latter was only the -garment in which philosophical ideas were robed, if the Sabbath was -merely intended to record the power of uncreated divinity, and the rite -of circumcision was only meant to show the necessity of placing a curb -on the passions, it would be sufficient to understand and adopt the -ideas underlying those forms. Of what use would be the practice of the -latter? From indifference to the practice of the laws to the desertion -of Judaism itself there was only one step, and thus can be explained -the apostasy to paganism of some Judæans who were unable to withstand -the difficulties and constant pressure they had to encounter. It was -also among the Alexandrian Judæans that the conflict between science -and faith first appeared. - -The indifference towards Judaism was combated, indeed, by many who had -not wholly given themselves up to Greek culture. Philo, the greatest -genius which Alexandrian Judaism produced, opposed the lukewarm spirit -and the feelings of contempt which had grown up against the practice of -the Law. In his elevated and inspired diction he urged the obligation -of adhering to the letter of the Law, and induced his co-religionists -to regard it again with love and reverence. Philo indeed shared some -of the errors and prejudices of his contemporaries, but with his clear -intelligence, he soared above the mists which enthroned them. He -likewise made exaggerated use of the allegorical method employed by -his predecessors, and agreed with them in applying it to the entire -Pentateuch, or at least to the greater part of its history and laws. -To carry out this metaphorical line of scriptural interpretation he -devised symbolic numbers, explained Hebrew by Greek words, and from -one and the same sentence deduced different and opposite conclusions. -To Philo allegorical exposition became almost a necessity. Had he not -already found it in use, he would doubtless have invented it. - -He wished to give the sanction of Holy Writ to the great thoughts -which were partly the productions of his own rich mind, partly adopted -from the philosophical schools of the Academy, the Stoics and the -Neo-Pythagoreans. Sharing, and indeed, surpassing in perversity the -allegorical explanations he found in vogue, he departed from them -just in that essential point which told against the necessity of the -practice of the Law, and in that lay his chief importance. He expresses -himself with decision and force against those who, satisfied with the -spiritual meaning contained in the Law, are indifferent to the Law -itself. He calls them superficial and thoughtless, acting as though -they lived in a desert, or as incorporeal beings who knew neither -of town nor village nor dwelling, or who, in fact, entertained no -intercourse with human beings, despising what is dear to mankind, -and seeking only abstract spiritual truths. The holy word, however, -while teaching us to seek out diligently the deepest spiritual meaning -of the Law, does not cancel our obligation of adhering to customs -introduced by inspired men who were in all things infinitely greater -than ourselves. Shall we, because we know the spiritual meaning of the -Sabbath, neglect its prescribed observance? "Shall we," he exclaims, -"make use of fire on the Sabbath, till the ground, carry burdens, plead -in courts of justice, enforce the payment of debts, and, in fact, -transact all our usual daily business? Shall we, because a festival -symbolizes the peace of the soul, and is intended as an expression of -gratitude to God, cease to observe the festival itself? Or shall we -give up the rite of circumcision now that we are acquainted with its -symbolic significance? In that case we should likewise renounce our -reverence for the sanctity of the Temple and abandon many religious -observances. But, on the contrary, both the inner truth contained in -the Law, and the Law itself, should be equally prized--the one as the -soul, the other as the body. Just as we take care of the body, looking -upon it as the habitation of the soul, so also should we value the -letter of the Law. By strict observance of the Law we shall attain a -clearer insight into its deepest meaning, and shall likewise escape the -remarks and reproaches of the people." - -It is in the Hebrew Scriptures, according to Philo, that the most -profound wisdom is contained. All that is taught by the sublimest -philosophy the Judæans found in their precepts and customs--the -knowledge of the eternal God, the vanity of idols, and the universal -laws of humanity and kindness. "Is not the highest honor due," he -exclaims, "to those laws which teach the rich to share their wealth -with the needy, which console the poor by enabling them to look forward -to the time when they will no longer beg at the rich man's door, but -will have recovered their alienated property; for, at the opening -of the seventh year, prosperity would return again to the widow and -the orphan, and would restore to well-being those whom fortune had -disinherited?" - -In opposition to the abuse hurled against Judaism by a Lysimachus and -an Apion, Philo brings forward the spirit of humanity which breathes -through the Judæan Law, and which affects even the treatment of animals -and plants. "And yet, though Judaism is founded in truth on love, these -miserable sycophants accuse it of misanthropy and egotism." In order -to ensure a better comprehension of the Judæan ethics by the cynics -and lawbreakers of his own race, as also by the Greeks, who had only a -false conception of Judaism, Philo arranged his writings so that they -should form a kind of philosophical commentary on the Pentateuch, with -the further object that the truths of Judaism might be brought within -the province of philosophy. - -But if, on the one hand, Philo stood firmly on Judæan ground, on the -other he was no less imbued with the dogmas of the Grecian schools, -which ran counter to the former, and he seems to have been equally -swayed by the spirit of Judaism and that of Greece. Vainly he attempted -to bring the contradictory ideas into harmony. They were so completely -opposed from their very inception that they could not be reconciled. To -solve the difficulty between the conflicting views of a creating God -and a perfect deity who does not come into contact with matter, Philo's -system takes a middle course. God created first the spiritual world of -ideas, which were not merely the archetypes of all future creations, -but at the same time active powers which formed the latter. Through -these spiritual powers which surround God like a train of servitors, -He works indirectly in the world. Spiritual power acting, as it were, -intermediately between God and the world is, according to Philo, the -Logos, or creative reason, the divine wisdom, the spirit of God, the -source of all strength. In Philo's more mystical than philosophical -description, the Logos is the first-born son of God, who, standing on -the border-land of the finite and infinite, links both together. He -is neither uncreated like God, nor created like the things that are -finite. The Logos is the prototype of the universe, the delegate of -God, whose behests it communicates to the world, the interpreter who -reveals His will and constantly accomplishes it, the archangel who -shows forth his works, the high priest and intercessor between the -world and God. Early Christianity made use of this doctrine of the -Logos in order to assume a philosophic aspect. - -The princely philosopher of the house of the Alabarchs combated -the Greek and Roman paganism, steeped in vice and bestiality. His -exposition of the Judæan Law was designed to darken still more, by -comparison with the pure light of Judaism, the shadows of idolatry, the -sexual looseness, frivolity, vanity and corruption which existed in the -Grecian-Roman world. He tried to show how false were the accusations -hurled against Judaism, and to make known the sublime grandeur and -beauty of its tenets. His principal works were written for his own -people and co-religionists, though he frequently addressed those who -stood outside that circle. Against the few laws of humanity which the -Greeks boasted to have possessed from ancient times, as, for example -that of granting fuel to any one requiring it, or of showing a wayfarer -the right path, Philo could have no difficulty in enumerating a long -array of benevolent duties contained in Scripture or transmitted by -word of mouth. At the head of unwritten laws he placed Hillel's golden -saying, "What is hateful to yourself do not unto others." Judaism does -not merely forbid any one to refuse fire or water, but commands that -what the poor and feeble require shall be given to them. It prohibits -the use of false weights and measures, the coinage of false money. It -does not allow children to be taken from their parents, or wives to -be separated from their husbands, even when they have been legally -acquired as slaves. Even towards animals the duty of mercy is impressed -upon man. "What, in comparison to these," he cries to the Greeks, "are -the few laws descending from primeval times, of which you boast so -much?" - -In the following tone of mockery Philo answered malicious accusations -against the Lawgiver: - - "Yes, verily, Moses must have been a sorcerer, not only to have - preserved a whole people, and supplied them abundantly whilst - they were journeying through many nations, exposed to the - danger of hunger and thirst, and ignorant of the way they were - pursuing, but likewise to have made them, in spite of their - mutinous spirit, which often broke out against himself, docile - and pliant." - -Of the three great moralists who followed each other within a century, -Hillel the Babylonian, Jesus of Nazareth, and Philo the Alexandrian, -it was the last who in all things, great and small, upheld most -strenuously the glory of Judaism. He was superior to them likewise -in beauty of style and in depth of thought, whilst he was animated -with equally fervent convictions. The first two simply created an -impulse, but it was through their disciples that their ideas, variously -transformed, were introduced into a larger circle; whereas Philo, -by his own eloquent writings, made an important and lasting effect. -His works were perhaps read by cultivated heathens even more than by -Judæans, though all were affected by the warmth and glow which pervaded -everything he wrote about God, Moses, and the spirit of the Law. - -Philo and the Alexandrian sages continued to promote the great work -of the prophets Isaiah, Habakkuk and Jeremiah, and laid bare all the -unreasonableness, the instability, the perversion and immorality -of the heathen religions. The transparent, shimmering ether with -which the Greeks invested Olympus, these writers resolved into mists -and vapors. Greeks and Romans, who felt deeply on the subject, were -moved to turn with contempt from a religion which not only gave so -unworthy a representation of the Divinity, but actually seemed to -sanctify immorality by the example set before them in the history -of their deities. Like most oriental people, the heathens felt the -need of religion, and those who were searching for true and elevated -teaching embraced Judaism, which was daily being brought more and more -home to them in the Greek translations of Judæan writings through -Greek-Alexandrine literature, and also through intercourse with -cultivated Judæans. - -During the last ten years which preceded the destruction of the Judæan -State, there were more proselytes than there had been at any other -time. Philo relates from his own experience that in his native country -many heathens, when they embraced Judaism, not only changed their faith -but their lives, which were henceforth conspicuous by the practice -of the virtues of moderation, gentleness and humanity. "Those who -left the teachings in which they had been educated, because they were -replete with lying inventions and vanities, became sincere worshipers -of the truth, and gave themselves up to the practice of the purest -piety." Above all, the women, whose gentle feelings were offended by -the impurity of the mythological stories, seemed attracted towards the -childlike and sublime scenes in Biblical history. The greater part of -the women in Damascus were converted to Judaism, and it is related that -in Asia Minor there were also many female proselytes. Some over-eager -Judæans may have traveled with the intention of making converts, as was -proved in the story of the Roman patrician Fulvia. - -It was by similar zeal for conversion that the Judæan faith was -introduced into an Asiatic court, the members of which remained -steadfast adherents to Judaism during several generations. Adiabene, -a province on the banks of the Tigris, situated where once lay the -Assyrian kingdom, was governed by a royal pair, Monobaz and Helen. -It was a small, but not unimportant state, and although it touched -the great domains of Rome and Parthia, it had been able to hold its -independence during some centuries. Monobaz had many children, the -offspring both of Helen and of other wives, but the youngest of all, -Izates, was the favorite of both parents. In order that he should not -suffer from the jealousy which that favoritism had caused among the -elder brothers, Monobaz sent him to the court of a neighboring king, -of the name of Abinerglus (Abennerig), who was so greatly pleased with -the young prince confided to his care, that he gave him his daughter in -marriage. A Judæan merchant by the name of Anania traded at this court, -and whilst he showed his merchandise to the princesses, he dilated at -the same time upon the tenets of Judaism with such success that he -converted them to his faith. Izates, whose wife, Samach, was one of the -converts, became interested in Anania, discoursed with him, and became -a sincere adherent of Judaism, which he openly embraced in the year 18 -C. E. His mother, the queen Helen, had also, without the knowledge of -her son, been won over to Judaism. The deep impression which the Judæan -precepts had made upon the royal converts was proved when the throne -became vacant. The dying Monobaz passed over his eldest sons and named -Izates as his successor. When Helen related her husband's wishes to the -nobles of Adiabene, they suggested that the elder brothers should be -put to death, and thus prevent a civil war, to which their hatred and -jealousy might not improbably give rise. But Helen, softened by her -conversion to Judaism, would not follow this sanguinary advice, and -only kept the brothers in confinement, with the exception of her eldest -son, Monobaz II, to whom she confided the regency. When Izates arrived -at the capital of Adiabene, and had, according to his father's last -testament, received the crown from the hand of Monobaz, he considered -it an unmanly act of cruelty to leave his brothers to languish in -confinement, and he sent them as hostages into honorable banishment, -some to Rome and some to the Parthian capital. - -Once on the throne, Izates intended to adopt Judaism, and even to -submit to the rite of circumcision, but he was dissuaded from doing so -by his mother, and by his physician, also named Anania, who, being an -Hellenic Judæan, represented to him that the latter was not essential. -Izates felt reassured for the time; but another Judæan, a Galilæan -of the name of Eleazar, and a strict follower of the Law, came to -his court and offered a contrary opinion. Eleazar, seeing the king -engrossed in reading the Pentateuch, probably a Greek translation, -could not help observing that to belong to the Judæan faith it was -not sufficient to read the Law, but it was necessary also to practise -its precepts. Thereupon Izates, and, according to some authorities, -also his elder brother Monobaz, secretly submitted to the rite of -circumcision. The queen-mother had anticipated dangerous results from -so decided a step, but they were not immediately forthcoming. Not only -was there perfect peace after the accession of Izates, but he was so -much respected that he was chosen to be arbitrator between the Parthian -king Artaban and the rebellious nobles of that monarch. - -Some time later, when several of the king's relations avowed their -conversion to Judaism, some of the nobles of Adiabene formed a -conspiracy, and secretly induced Abia, the king of Arabia, to declare -war against him. Izates, however, was successful, and Abia killed -himself in despair. The nobles then conspired with Vologeses, the king -of Parthia, to make war against their king, who had been faithless -to the religion of his forefathers. This war, however, which might -have been most calamitous for Izates, Vologeses was prevented from -undertaking, and henceforth his reign, which lasted about thirty -years, continued undisturbed. Queen Helen, fired by the enthusiasm of -the Judæan faith, desired to visit Jerusalem, and, accompanied by her -son, she accomplished this long journey in about the year 43. Izates -sent five of his own sons to Jerusalem to learn the religion and the -language of the Hebrews. - -How grand and joyous must have been the welcome offered by the -inhabitants of Jerusalem to a queen come from the far distant East -with the sole view of paying homage to their God and His Law! Was not -the word of prophecy fulfilled before their very eyes, that the second -Temple should be greater than the first, inasmuch as the heathens -should come and worship the one God? - -Helen soon had the opportunity of appearing as the benefactress of the -people. A famine prevailed which created great distress in the country, -and the poorer classes especially suffered severely. Queen Helen sought -to relieve them by bringing from Alexandria and Cyprus whole ship-loads -of wheat and figs, which she distributed among the starving people -(48 C. E.). Abundant means were given her by Izates to carry out her -generous impulses. Her offering to the Temple consisted of a golden -shell-shaped portal for the door of the inner Temple, to receive and -reflect the first rays of the morning sun, and thus announce the break -of dawn to the officiating priests. - -The piety and benevolence of the proselyte Helen were long remembered -with love and gratitude by the nation. She survived her son Izates, -who died at the age of fifty-five (55 C. E.); he is said to have left -twenty-four sons and the same number of daughters. He was succeeded -by his elder brother, Monobaz II, who declared himself also to be a -firm adherent to Judaism. When Helen died, Monobaz caused her remains, -as well as those of his brother, to be removed to Jerusalem, and to -be buried within the magnificent tomb which she had constructed there -during her lifetime. This mausoleum, which was about thirty stadia -north of Jerusalem, had beautiful pillars of alabaster, and was -considered a great work of art. Helen had built a palace in the lower -part of the town, and her granddaughter, the Princess Grapte, erected -another in that part of Jerusalem known as Ophla. Monobaz, who also had -his palace in Jerusalem, had golden vessels made for use in the Temple -on the Day of Atonement. The people of Adiabene remained firm friends -of the Judæan nation, and were always ready to give their powerful help -in times of danger. - -This leaning towards Judaism, evinced by so many religiously inclined -heathens, was utilized by the teachers of the Nazarene creed. They took -advantage of and worked upon this enthusiasm, and thus laid the first -step to their future conquest of the world. - -Two Judæans, both coming from countries where the Greek language was -spoken, Saul of Tarsus (known as Paul) and Jose Barnabas of Cyprus, -declared their intention of proselytizing the heathen. They thus -widened the sphere of the small community, and raised it from being -an insignificant sect of Judaism to the position of a distinct and -separate religious body, but in order to do so they were obliged to -change its original character and purpose. - -During the short decade following the death of its founder the small -community had been augmented by Essenes and some Judæan inhabitants -of Greek countries. The former, who had hitherto lived in a mystic -land of visions and trusted to miraculous intervention for the arrival -of the kingdom of heaven, may have seen their dreams fulfilled in -the advent of Jesus. The Essenes, who had no families, were obliged -to augment their numbers from without. They could only add to -the community by dint of mystical persuasions, and, as believing -followers of Jesus, they continued their propaganda and attracted new -adherents from the lower classes, whom the leaders of the Pharisees -had neglected or avoided. Their untiring zeal incited the activity of -the first Christians, who had been awaiting, not so much an increase -of believers, as the speedy re-appearance of Jesus, enthroned in the -clouds of heaven. Apostles were now sent out from Jerusalem, where -they were chiefly established, to propagate the belief that Jesus -was the true Messiah. In order, however, to gain many converts, a -greater power of oratory was required than the simple fishermen and -mechanics of Galilee possessed. This want was supplied by the addition -of Greek-speaking Judæans. From Asia Minor, Egypt, Cyrene, from the -islands of Crete and Cyprus, there was an annual pilgrimage of Judæans -to Jerusalem at the time of the Passover festival. Besides men of -piety and enthusiasts, there were adventurers, seekers after novelty, -and beggars, ignorant of the Law. Of these pilgrims, numbers eagerly -adopted the new faith. Many adventurers among the Greek Judæans were -easily persuaded to accept the doctrine of the community of goods, -which the Ebionite Christians had retained from their Essene origin, -and which found great favor with these homeless wanderers. All those -who possessed any property sold it to increase the contents of the -general treasury, and those who were utterly impecunious lived without -any cares in the community. These Greek Judæans, who had learnt from -their heathen neighbors the art of speaking on every subject, and -even of veiling almost meaningless expressions in an attractive and -persuasive manner, presented the new religion in an attractive form. -They were best adapted to become the preachers and missionaries. When -converted themselves, they used all their efforts to convert others. -The Greek element soon predominated over the Galilæan, Ebionite and -Essene elements, of which the community had previously been composed. - -These Greek Judæans, who had never been taught the Law in the schools -of Jerusalem and were, indeed, generally ignorant of its tenets, -transgressed them, sometimes unwillingly, but at times intentionally. -When taken to task they justified their actions by the belief which -they entertained in the Messianic character of Jesus, who, they -alleged, had also put aside the authority of the Law. In Jerusalem, -still considered as the holy city, each practice and observance was -made a matter of deep importance. People began to suspect that the -Nazarenes, who spoke in foreign tongues, were introducing innovations -and endeavoring to bring the Law into contempt, and the disciples of -Jesus were thenceforth watched, and their utterances in the synagogues -and in the market-places were carefully noted. Amongst those who were -most fanatical against the Nazarenes was Saul of Tarsus, a zealous -follower of the Pharisaic school, who held that no edict of either -the oral or the written Law might be tampered with. As he spoke Greek -himself, he was able to measure the boldness of the utterances of the -Judæan-Christian Greeks who were in Jerusalem, and his indignation was -great against them. One of these Greeks, of the name of Stephen, was -particularly violent in his attacks, and had recklessly spoken against -the holiness of the Law and the Temple. It appears that Saul proclaimed -him to be a blasphemer, and that he was stoned, whether after a -judicial trial or by an angry populace is not known. After that time -the Nazarenes were viewed with still greater suspicion, and were called -upon to defend themselves; and again it was Saul who watched the -proceedings of these Greek adherents of the new sect, and caused them -to be brought up for trial. They were imprisoned, and those who were -found guilty of contempt of the Law by their belief in the Messianic -attributes of Jesus were not punished by death, but were sentenced -to be scourged. The foreign Nazarenes, terrified by this severity, -hastened away from Jerusalem and dispersed in various Greek towns -in which there dwelt Judæan communities, among whom they continued -their work of proselytizing. Those followers of Jesus, however, who, -notwithstanding their new faith, did not deny the holiness of the -Law, remained unmolested. Their three leaders, James, a brother or a -relation of Jesus, Kephas or Peter, and John, son of Zebedee, lived at -Jerusalem without fear of persecution. - -The other Nazarenes zealously continued the work of conversion in -foreign places. Homeless themselves, they endeavored to introduce into -their circle of followers the doctrine of the community of goods, which -would enable them to live on from day to day without care or thought -for the morrow. They were particularly attracted towards the towns of -Antioch and Damascus, where they found a large field for their labors -in the Greek-speaking community of men and women. The half-educated -multitude listened eagerly to the words of messengers who announced -that a heavenly kingdom was at hand, and to enter it they must accept -only baptism, and the belief that Jesus was the Messiah who had -actually appeared, had been crucified, and had risen again. - -Soon these two Greek cities saw a Nazarene community settling within -their walls, who seemed to be Judæans, who lived according to Judæan -rule, who prayed, sang psalms, and ended their songs of praise with -the customary "Amen"; but who yet showed certain signs of forming a -new sect. They assembled together at a meal which they called Agape, -spoke the blessing over the wine, drank after one another from the same -vessel, broke their bread in remembrance of the last hours of Jesus, -and gave each other, men and women indiscriminately, the kiss of peace. -Then, in convulsive excitement, some arose and prophesied, others spoke -in strange tongues, whilst others again effected miraculous cures in -the name of Jesus. An unnatural and highly wrought state of enthusiasm -prevailed in these Greek-Nazarene circles, which would probably have -been deemed ridiculous, and would have evaporated in time; in short, -Christianity might have died a noiseless death, if Saul of Tarsus had -not appeared, and given it a new direction, a great scope, and thereby -imparted to it vital powers and vigor. Without Jesus, Saul would not -have made his vast spiritual conquests, but without Saul, Christianity -itself would have had no stability. - -Saul (born in Tarsus in Cilicia, at the beginning of the Christian -epoch, and belonging to the tribe of Benjamin) had a very remarkable -nature. Weak and fragile in body, he was possessed of a tenacity which -nothing could daunt. He was excitable and vehement, could not endure -any opposition to his opinions, and was one-sided and bitter in his -treatment of those who differed from him in the slightest degree. He -had a limited knowledge of Judæan writings, and was only familiar -with the Scriptures through the Greek translation; enthusiastic and -fanciful, he believed in the visions of his imagination and allowed -himself to be guided by them. In short, Saul combined a morbid and an -iron nature; he seemed created to establish what was new, and to give -form and reality to that which seemed impossible and unreal. - -He had persecuted the Greek Nazarenes, hunted them out of their -haunts of concealment to give them over to punishment, because they -had seceded from Pharisaic Judaism. But that did not suffice. Hearing -that some of them were established in Damascus, he followed them -thither with all zeal, intending, with implacable persecuting zeal, to -exterminate the community. But his disposition towards them suddenly -changed. In Damascus many heathens, particularly many of the female -population, had gone over to Judaism. The conversion of the royal house -of Adiabene had caused much excitement. Saul had probably himself -witnessed the great triumph of Judaism, the entry of Queen Helen, the -Princes of Adiabene and their retinue into Jerusalem. She probably -stayed in Damascus on her journey, and there must have received the -thanks of the Judæan inhabitants of that city. These events must -have made a deep impression on Saul, and may have given rise to the -thought: Had not the time foreseen by the prophets now arrived, when -every nation should recognize the God of Israel, bow down and swear -allegiance to Him alone? - -If he was occupied with these thoughts he must also have been prepared -to wrestle with many doubts to which they gave rise. Would it be -possible to convert the heathen world if the Law were to bind them with -its trammels, if they were to be forced to observe the Sabbath and -the festivals, to keep the dietary laws, to distinguish between the -clean and the unclean, and even to submit to circumcision? Should the -heathen be required to follow even the severe Pharisaic ordinances? -In that case it would be impossible that other nations should enter -the Judæan community. But, on the other hand, could not the Law be -abrogated for the sake of the heathens, and might they not merely be -taught the knowledge of God and a loftier morality? Yet, as the whole -law originated from God, by whom it was revealed, and who had expressly -commanded that it should be fulfilled, how could it be set aside? A -saying of his teachers may then have occurred to Saul, that the Law -was only binding until the time of the Messiah, and that as soon as -the Redeemer came its importance and significance would cease. If the -Messiah had really appeared, then all the difficulties that surrounded -the conversion of the heathen would disappear. This train of thought -engrossed the mind of Saul. His nervous temperament and imaginative -nature easily dispelled all doubts, and he believed firmly and truly -that Jesus had made himself manifest to him. Much later he said of -the vision which had appeared: "If it were in the flesh I know not, -if it were supernatural I know not, God knows; but I was carried up -beyond the third heaven." This is not very reliable evidence to an -actual fact. Legend has adorned this conversion, which was of such -great importance to Christianity, in a fitting manner. It describes -Saul traveling to Damascus, and his path illumined by a great light. -Beholding this light, he is said to have fallen in terror to the earth, -and to have heard a voice, which called to him, "Saul, Saul, why dost -thou persecute me?" Blinded by the vision, he reached Damascus; and -after an interview with a Christian, who advised him to be baptized, -the scales at length fell from his eyes. - -With the certainty that he had actually beheld Jesus, another doubt -was banished from Saul's mind, or a different Messianic point of -view was revealed to him. Jesus had certainly died--or rather had -been crucified--but, as he appeared to Saul, he must have risen from -the dead; he must have been the first who had been brought to life -again, and had therefore confirmed the fact that there would be a -Resurrection, which fact had been a matter of contention between the -various schools: and Jesus had also thereby announced the advent of -the kingdom of heaven, of which, as the prophet Daniel had predicted, -the resurrection of the dead was to be the forerunner. Thus the former -Pharisee of Tarsus was firmly convinced of three things--that Jesus -had arisen; that he was the true Messiah who had been predicted; and -that the kingdom of heaven, the period of the resurrection, was near, -and that the then existing generation, or rather the true believers -in Jesus, would soon witness its arrival. This belief led to further -results. If the Messiah had already appeared, or if Jesus were actually -the Christ, then the Law was of itself abrogated, and the heathens -could participate in the blessing of Abraham, without observing the -Law. This belief acted as an incentive to Saul. He felt himself called -upon to convert the depraved world of heathendom, and, through Christ, -to lead it back to the Father of all. No time was allowed to elapse -between the inception of this idea and its realization. Assuming the -name of Paul, he joined the Nazarenes of Damascus, who were not a -little astonished that their persecutor had now become their colleague, -and was seeking to make fresh converts. - -Paul found many opportunities for converting in Damascus, as a strong -feeling in favor of Judaism prevailed there, and the sacrifice -incumbent on its followers alone kept many aloof. The newly-converted -Apostle could render this step easier, as he relieved them of all -duties to the Law by means of a belief in Jesus. He does not, however, -seem to have found a warm reception for his faith, resting as it did on -sophistry, even amongst his own countrymen. His theory that the whole -Law might be set aside was probably not considered as quite acceptable. -The people also seem to have felt distrust of their former persecutor. -In short, Saul-Paul could not maintain his ground in Damascus, and -fled to Arabia (Auranitis), where Judæan communities also existed. -When, however, he returned to Damascus for the second time, and his -coreligionists had acquired greater confidence in him, he could indulge -his love of proselytism. But his brusque, inconsiderate manner, and -his assertion that the Law was no longer in force, aroused the Judæan -community of Damascus against him. The Judæan ethnarch of the town, who -had been appointed or confirmed by Aretas Philodemus, sought to take -him prisoner. His companions saved him, by lowering him in a basket -from a window in the wall. Thus he escaped from those who rightly -considered him as the destroyer of Judaism. He returned to Jerusalem -three years after his conversion. He felt that there was a wide -difference between himself and the Galilæan Christians, and that he -would not be able to make terms with them. Paul was filled with the one -thought, that the blessing for all generations, the promise (evangel) -made to Abraham that he should be father of many nations, and that -the wealth of the heathen should belong to the children of Abraham, -was now finally to be realized, and that he (Paul) was called upon to -effect this work. He wished to put an end to the difference between the -Judæans and the Greeks, between slaves and freemen, and to make all -brothers in the covenant of Abraham--as the seed of Abraham--according -to the promise given in by-gone years. This was the glad message which -he brought to the people; it was a far-reaching thought, of which -the Ebionites in Jerusalem and the so-called main Apostles had no -understanding. - -After a short stay in Jerusalem, Saul, accompanied by his disciple, -the Cyprian Joseph Barnabas, repaired to Cilicia, Paul's native -place, and traversed Asia Minor and Macedonia to Achaia. There his -endeavors were crowned with marvelous results. He founded in various -places Greek-Christian communities, especially in Galatia, in Ephesus, -Philippi, and Thessalonica, and in the town of Corinth. This result -may partly be laid to the credit of Judaism; for when Paul wished to -win over the heathens, he had to unfold to them the glorious past of -the Judæan nation, in order to speak of Jesus. He also had to contrast -the pure belief in God with the wild practices of heathendom. He found -a susceptibility for the pure teachings of Judaism among the heathen. -Not a few felt disgust at the mythological stories of the gods and -the deification of human beings. The remembrance was yet fresh in -their memories how all nations of the Roman kingdom, with unexampled -abjectness, had dedicated altars to the monster Caligula, and had -recognized and worshiped him as a god. Despairing and pure spirits -sought a God to whom they might elevate themselves, but they did not -find him. Now Paul had come and brought them this God, surrounded, -it is true, with wonderful stories, which, however, pleased them, on -account of the mythological strain in them. The heathen nations could -better comprehend the "Son of God" than the "Messianic Redeemer." The -wide-spread disease of immorality, which was rife throughout the Roman -empire, rendered the Judæan teachings acceptable and proper. Paul's -orations, delivered with the fire of enthusiasm, and uttered by one -who threw his whole soul into his words, could not fail to make an -impression on the better-disposed and purer-minded heathens. To this -was added the fear of the approach of the end of the world, which Paul, -through his firm belief in the resurrection and reappearance of Jesus, -had transformed into the hope that the dead would arise, in refulgent -form, at the trumpet-call, and that the living would be carried up into -heaven in a cloud. - -Thus Paul appealed to the imagination of many heathens in his apostolic -wanderings from Jerusalem to Illyria. At first he aroused only people -of the lower classes, slaves, and especially women, by his glad -tidings. To the cultivated Greeks the Christianity which Paul preached, -based on the so-called resurrection of Jesus, appeared as a ridiculous -absurdity. The Judæans were naturally displeased with him. Paul's chief -topics, on which he dilated to the heathens whom he wished to convert, -were the Judæan nation, Judæan writings, and the Judæan Law; without -these his preaching about a Messiah or salvation had no foundation. -The Greeks must have been told about Israel and Jerusalem, or his -words would have fallen on deaf ears. He, therefore, could only resort -to those towns where Judæan communities dwelt, from whom the heathen -nations had received some faint notion of the history and doctrines of -Judaism. - -Paul's efforts were directly aimed at destroying the bonds which -connected the teachings of Christ with those of Judaism. He therefore -inveighed against the Law, as it proved a hindrance to the reception of -heathen proselytes. He asserted that it was detrimental to the pursuit -of a higher spiritual life and to following the way of truth. Paul not -only disapproved of the so-called ceremonial laws of Judaism, but also -of those relating to morality. He affirmed that without laws men would -not have given way to their evil desires. "Thou shalt not covet" had -first aroused covetousness; thus through the Law the knowledge of sin -had arisen. Man is sensual and inclined to sin, for flesh is weak and -inclined to resist the Law. Paul set up a new teaching. He maintained -that man had only become sensual, weak and sinful because the first -man had sinned. Adam's fall had given birth to an inextinguishable -hereditary sin, and by this means death had come upon humanity. The -Law was not able to overcome this hereditary sin. In order to destroy -sin and death, God had made a special dispensation. He had given up -the Messiah, His son, to death, and again re-animated him, and he -had become the second Adam, who was to obliterate hereditary sin, -to conquer death, and establish everlasting life. Thus the Redeemer, -instead of bringing about the redemption of nations from the yoke -imposed on them, had redeemed them from sin. - -Paul therefore conceived Christianity to be the very opposite of -Judaism. The one was founded on law and compulsion, the other owed -its origin to freedom and grace. Jesus or Christianity had brought -about the holy state foretold by the prophets. The ancient times had -departed, and a new state of things had arisen; the old covenant -(Testament) must yield to the new one; Abraham himself had not -been judged as just through the Law, but through faith. Thus Paul -sophistically explained the Scriptures. From the Law it is to be -inferred that whosoever does not abide by it, and refuses wholly and -entirely to comply with its precepts, stands under a curse. The great -service which Jesus had rendered was that he had delivered all men -from this curse, for through his means the Law had been set aside. How -could the Judæans submit to this open desecration of the Law of Sinai -for which their forefathers had suffered death, and for which, but a -short time since, under Caligula, they had determined to sacrifice -their lives? It is not to be wondered at that they rose against the -man who despised the Law, and persecuted him. They, however, contented -themselves with flogging Paul when he fell into their hands, but they -left his life unharmed; five times, as he himself relates, he was -chastised with thirty-nine strokes. Not only the Judæans but also the -Nazarenes, or Judæan Christians, were incensed against Paul for his -attack on the Law, and by this means dissension and schisms arose -in the midst of young Christianity. Peter, or Kephas, who came as a -messenger to the Judæans, taught a Christianity which differed from -that of Paul, and that of the other Apostles who sought to make -converts amongst the heathen; whilst Apollos from Alexandria, and a -certain Chrestus preached another version. - -The Judaic Christians saw with terror the fruits of the ceremonial -freedom preached by Paul in the communities founded by him in Corinth -and Ephesus, where every species of vice and immorality was rife. Other -Apostles, therefore, followed Paul, and proclaimed his teachings full -of error and misrepresentation, and maintained that the Law of Judaism -was binding on Christians, as it was only by this Law that the lower -passions could be held in check. In Antioch a violent quarrel arose -between Paul and the Judaic-Christian Apostle. Peter, who till then had -disregarded the dietary laws and eaten at one table with the heathens, -was censured by the leaders of the severe party of the Apostle James, -and was now obliged to acknowledge his fault, and to speak openly -against Paul's contempt of the Law. Paul, on the other hand, reproached -him with hypocrisy. The influence of the severe, Law-loving Judaic -Christians was, however, so great that all the Judæan Christians of -Antioch gave up eating at the tables of the heathen, and their example -was even followed by Barnabas, the disciple of Paul. - -Racial feelings also helped to widen the breach between the two -parties. The Greek Christians despised the Judaic Christians in the -same way as the Hellenes had looked down upon the Judæans. Paul sent -out violent epistles against the adherents of the Law, and laid a -curse on those who preached salvation in a manner differing from his -own. These did not spare him either, and related how he had loved -the daughter of a high priest; how, on being despised by her, he had -in disgust written against circumcision, the Sabbath, and the Law. -Thus, within barely thirty years after the death of its founder, -Christianity was split into two parties, namely, a Judaic-Christian -and a heathen-Christian sect. The Judaic Christians remained attached -to the foundations of Judaism, compelled their converts to adhere to -the Law, and clung to Jerusalem, where they awaited the return of -the Messiah. The heathen Christians, on the other hand, separated -themselves more and more from Judaism, and took up an inimical position -towards it. - - - - -CHAPTER IX. - -AGRIPPA II. AND OUTBREAK OF THE WAR. - - Position of Affairs in Judæa--Roman Oppression--Character - of Agrippa II.--The last High Priest--The Zealots - and the Sicarii--Eleazar ben Dinai--Quarrel - with the Samaritans--Violence in Cæsarea--The - Procurators--Florus--Insurrection in Cæsarea--Bloodshed - in Jerusalem--The Peace and War Parties--The Leader of - the Zealots, Eleazar ben Ananias--Menahem, chief of the - Zealots--Massacres of Heathens and Judæans--Defeat of - the Romans--The Synhedrion and its President, Simon ben - Gamaliel--Position of the Synhedrion. - - 49.66 C. E. - - -Whatever triumph Judaism might celebrate by the accession of -proselytes, and bright as seemed the dawn of the day predicted by the -prophet, when the peoples of the earth would turn their eyes to Zion, -and towards the light issuing thence to illumine the human race, yet in -their native land, and more especially in Jerusalem, the yoke of the -Romans weighed heavily on the Judæans, and became daily more oppressive. - -The pitiable state of existing affairs crushed down all joyful feelings -as to the prospective dominion of Judaism. A veil of sadness had for -the last twenty years been spread over the nation, and no joyful -feelings could exist beneath it. The last decades exhibit the nation as -a captive who, continually tormented and goaded on by his jailer, tugs -at his fetters, with the strength of despair, until he wrenches them -asunder. The bloody contest between Rome, strong in arms and fertile -in stratagem, and Judæa, poor in outward means of warfare and powerful -only through indomitable will, inspires the deepest interest because, -in spite of the disproportion between the combatants, the weak -daughter of Zion would probably have gained the victory had she not -been torn by conflicting parties and surrounded by treachery. Perhaps, -had she awaited a more favorable moment, success might have been hers; -but Providence had decreed the destruction of her national life. - -This great combat, to which few struggles in the history of the world -are comparable, was waged not merely for liberty, like the wars in -which the Gauls, Germans, and Britons were engaged against Rome, but -had likewise a religious character. The Judæan people were daily -wounded in their religious sentiments by the arbitrary rule of Rome, -and desired to gain their independence in order to acquire and maintain -the free exercise of their religion. Such being their aim, the frequent -reverses they sustained could not abate the ardent longing they felt to -be free; on the contrary, it rose with each fresh disaster, and in the -most trivial circumstances they saw and resented an attack upon their -most sacred convictions. It was seldom, indeed, that Rome outraged -the religious feelings of the Judæans as she had done under Caligula; -on the contrary, she rather indulged their susceptibilities, but she -often wounded them unintentionally through her despotic and jealous -supervision. - -The higher classes, poisoned by the seductive arts of Rome, had become -deaf to the voice of duty, and the wise and vigilant among the nation -feared, with reason, that the whole body would be infused with the -moral prostration of its highest members. The aristocratic families -were, indeed, so deeply steeped in immorality that the middle classes -could hardly escape its contaminating influence. The bad example was -set by the last members of the house of Herod, who were educated either -in Rome itself or in the small courts of the princely Roman vassals. -Agrippa II (born 27, died 91-93), son of the last noble Judæan king -Agrippa I, a mere stripling of seventeen years at the time of his -father's death, drank in the poisoned air of the Roman court, where -the Messalinas and Agrippinas openly displayed the most hideous vices. -After the demise of Herod II, the Emperor Claudius gave Agrippa the -tiny kingdom of Chalcis (about 50). It was whispered that this last -scion of the Hasmonæan and Herodian houses led an incestuous life with -his beautiful sister Berenice, who was a year younger than himself, and -a widow on the death of her husband, Herod II. There was probably some -truth in the rumor, as Agrippa found himself forced to silence it. He -betrothed his sister to Polemon, king of Cilicia, who, perhaps allured -by her wealth even more than by her beauty, adopted Judaism to obtain -her hand. But impelled by her inconstant humor, Berenice soon left -Polemon, and was free again to indulge in her licentious intrigues. - -Agrippa's second sister, Mariamne II (born 34), married to a native -of Palestine, Julius Archelaus, dissolved that union, though she had -borne him a daughter, and became the wife of the Judæan Demetrius -of Alexandria, probably the son of the Alabarch Alexander, and in -that case the brother of the apostate Tiberius Alexander. Still more -depraved was his youngest sister, the beautiful Drusilla (born 38). Her -father had promised her, when still a child, to the prince Epiphanes, -the son of his friend Antiochus of Commagene, but only upon condition -of his becoming a convert to Judaism. After Agrippa's death, however, -Epiphanes refused to accept Judaism, and the young Agrippa gave his -sister Drusilla to Aziz, king of Emesa, who declared himself willing -to embrace her faith. Heedless, however, of conjugal duty, Drusilla -soon abandoned her husband, married a Roman, the Governor Felix, and -for his sake gave up her faith and became a pagan. The envy with which -Berenice inspired Drusilla was supposed to have been the motive of -the infidelity of the younger sister both to her husband and to her -religion. - -Although Agrippa was only prince of Chalcis, he was looked upon as -the king of Judæa. Rome certainly had not deprived him of the royal -title, but had divested him of all power, and made use of him only as -a pliant tool and as a guard upon the movements of the surrounding -nations. Agrippa was devoted to the imperial house, styling himself the -emperor's friend. He displayed weakness and impotency when it behooved -him to put bounds to the usurpations, insolence, and arrogance of Rome, -and only showed his strength when he opposed the struggles of his -people to regain their freedom and liberty. The whole house of Agrippa, -including his most distant connections, Antipas and the two brothers -Costobar and Saul, were all immoral, rapacious, and hostile to their -own people. The only authority which Claudius, or rather his council, -had left in the hands of the titular king, and which was ratified by -his successors, was that which he was allowed to exercise over the -Temple, and which enabled him to appoint the high priest. It was not -religious zeal or moral worth that swayed Agrippa in the choice of the -high priest, but simply the sentiments felt by the candidate for that -office towards Rome. He who carried servility and the surrender of -national aspirations furthest gained the prize. In barely twenty years -Agrippa had named at least seven high priests. Among that number was -Ananias (son of Eleazar?), whose enormous wealth, either acquired or -inherited, allowed him to ingratiate himself with all who were open to -bribery, and set him free to practise acts of lawlessness and violence. -Since the time when Herod had lowered the dignity of the high priest's -office by permitting it to be sold or gained by pandering to most -degraded sentiments, there were certain families who seemed to have -acquired a right to it--those of Boëthus, Cantheras, Phabi, Camith, and -Anan or Seth, and it was but seldom that any one was elected outside -that circle. The members of these families vied with each other in -dishonorable conduct and frivolous thoughtlessness. Often their fierce -jealousy broke out in acts of violence, and the streets of Jerusalem -occasionally were the scenes of bloody skirmishes between the followers -of those hostile rival houses. Each succeeding high priest tried to -gain as much as possible out of his office, giving--heedless of the -worth or fitness of the recipient--the most lucrative places in the -Temple to his relatives and friends. So reckless were the high priests -in the use, or rather abuse, of their power, that they would send their -slaves, armed with clubs, to the barns to seize for themselves the -tithes which every one was legally free to give to whichever priest he -might select. Those priests who had not the good fortune to be related -to the high priest were thus deprived of the means of subsistence, -and fell into stringent poverty. Avarice and greed of power were the -mainsprings of the actions of those who were elected to represent the -highest ideal of morality; the Temple was despoiled by its dignitaries -even before the enemy forced his way into it with his weapons of murder. - -From this time, according to tradition, the visible signs of divine -mercy ceased to appear in the Temple. Like some cankerous affection, -this demoralization of princes and high priests extended ever more -and more to the classes closest to them, producing evils which are -depicted in dark colors by the pen of a contemporary. Since the penal -laws were administered in the name of the emperor, and were placed -under the control of the governors, the judiciary became dependent -upon the Romans and the wealthy and influential classes. Selfishness, -bribery, calumny, and cowardice, according to the painter of the -manners and morality of that period, were ever increasing. "They throw -off," he bitterly exclaims, "the yoke of heaven, and place themselves -under the yoke of men; their judgments are false and their actions -perverse. The vain and thoughtless are made great, while the nobler -citizens are despised." Frivolity in the women and licentiousness in -the men were so completely the order of the day that the most eminent -teacher of morality of that time, Jochanan ben Zaccai, found himself -obliged to abolish the ritual hitherto used in cases of suspicion of -adultery. With deep sorrow, the nobler-minded Judæans lamented a state -of things in which outward forms of worship stood higher than morality, -and the defiling of the Temple caused more scandal and wrath than an -act of murder. In the lower classes, crime of another but of a not -less alarming nature appeared. The frequent insurrections which had -been stimulated and fomented by the Zealots since Rome had arrogantly -treated Judæa like a conquered province, had given rise to bands of -free troops, which roved wildly about the country, confounding liberty -with licentiousness, and trampling upon both customs and laws. They -crowded the caves and hollows which abound in the rocky mountains of -Judæa, and from those retreats made frequent irruptions to gratify -their love of unbridled liberty. Some bands of Zealots, led by Eleazar -ben Dinai and Alexander, were incited by feelings of patriotism to -deeds of cruelty. They had sworn destruction and death to the Romans, -and they included among the latter all those who consorted with them; -they would not recognize them as Judæans, and deemed it no crime -to plunder and destroy them. The degenerate friends of Rome were, -according to their views, and the oaths they had taken, mere outlaws, -and the Zealots kept their oath only too well. They attacked the nobles -as often as they fell in their way, ravaged their possessions and did -them as much harm as lay in their power. If there was any wrong to be -avenged upon the enemy of their country, they were the first to lend -their sword in defense of their outraged nationality. - -Another band of Zealots, grown wild and savage, forgot the original aim -of liberating their country, and turned their attacks upon the foes of -the latter into profit for themselves. They were called Sicarii, from -the short dagger "sica," which they wore concealed under their cloaks, -and with which, either openly or insidiously, they struck and killed -their enemies. The Sicarii belonged to the very refuse of the Zealots. -Later they acknowledged the grandsons of Judas of Galilee, Menahem and -Eleazar ben Jair, as their leaders, but at the commencement of this -epoch they were under no discipline whatever. They wandered about the -country without any defined object, lending their assistance to those -who either offered them a reward or an opportunity for satisfying their -thirst for revenge. Armed with daggers, they wandered among the various -groups that thronged the colonnade of the Temple during the festivals, -and unperceived, struck down those they had marked out as their -victims. These murders were committed with such extraordinary rapidity -and skill, that for a long time the assassins remained undiscovered, -but all the greater were the dread and horror excited by those dark, -mysterious deeds. Murders became so frequent that Jochanan ben Zaccai -and the teachers of the Law found it necessary to abrogate the -sin-offering for the shedding of innocent blood, as too many animals -would have been slaughtered for the human victims. It may have been -about this time that the Great Synhedrion, which witnessed with intense -grief the constant increase of lawlessness and immorality, gave up its -functions and transferred its place of meeting from the Hewn-stone Hall -to the Commercial Hall in Bethany, an act which seemed to imply its -dissolution. - -To stem, if possible, the confusion and disorder which existed, -the noblest citizens combined, and keeping aloof from conflicts -and strifes, sought to further by all means in their power the -spiritual advancement of Judaism. To keep the Law intact was their -self-imposed, sacred task. In Jochanan ben Zaccai they found a fitting -representative. He was considered, next to the president of the -Synhedrion, Simon ben Gamaliel (and perhaps even before him), as the -greatest teacher of that time. On account of his deep knowledge of the -Law and of the worth and dignity of his character, Jochanan ben Zaccai -was made vice-president of the Synhedrion. That position gave him the -power to cancel such laws as could not be enforced in that stormy -period. His chief office, however, was that of teacher. In the cool -shade cast by the Temple walls, he sat, encircled by his disciples, to -whom he delivered the laws that were to be observed, and expounded the -Scriptures. - -Besides the spirit of anarchy there was another source of discord -and misery. As the existing situation became more and more sad and -hopeless, the longing in the hearts of faithful believers for the -expected deliverer who was to bring peace to Judæa became more and more -intense. Messianic hopes were rifer among the people now than they -had been even during the time of the first Roman governors; and these -hopes stirred up enthusiasts who proclaimed themselves to be prophets -and Messiahs, and who inspired belief and obtained followers. Freedom -from the yoke of Rome was the one great aim of all these enthusiasts. -What the disciples of Judas attempted to bring about by force of arms, -the disciples of Theudas hoped to accomplish without fighting, having -recourse only to signs and miracles. A Judæan from Egypt calling -himself a prophet, found no less than three, or according to another -account, four thousand followers. These he summoned to the Mount of -Olives, and there promised to overthrow the walls of Jerusalem with -the breath of his mouth and to defeat the Roman soldiers. He was not -the only one who, carried away by the fervor of desire, prophesied the -approach of better times. And well may those enthusiasts have found -acceptance among the people. A nation that had enjoyed so rich a past -and looked forward even to a more glorious future, might allow itself -to be lulled into forgetfulness of the dismal present by pictures of -freedom and happiness. These visions and prophecies, harmless enough -in themselves, derived a sad importance from the bitter and savage -animosity with which they inspired the Roman governors. If the people, -jealous of any interference with their religion, looked upon the -slightest offense to it as an attack upon Judaism itself, and made -the governors, the emperor, and the Roman state responsible for the -delinquency, the imperial officials in Judæa were not less susceptible, -for they treated the most trivial agitation among the people as an -insult to the majesty of Rome and the emperor, and punished with equal -severity the innocent and the guilty. Vain was the favor shown to -the Judæan nation by the emperors Claudius and Nero--the procurator -constantly over-stepped the limit of his authority, and urged on by -greed and the love of power, acted the part of tyrant. Judæa had the -misfortune to be almost always governed by depraved creatures, who -owed their position to the reckless favorites who ruled at court. -They rivaled one another in acts of wickedness and cruelty, thus ever -increasing the discontent and provoking the wrath of the people. -Cumanus, who succeeded Tiberius Alexander (about 48-52), was the first -of five such avaricious and bloodthirsty procurators. He governed -only the provinces of Judæa and Samaria, Claudius having bestowed -the command of the province of Galilee on Felix, the brother of his -favorite, Pallas. Cumanus and Felix became deadly foes. - -It was the governor of Judæa who first excited the resentment of the -people. Jealous suspicion of any great concourse of people assembled -in the Temple, a suspicion which, since the revolt at the time of the -census, had become traditional among the Roman governors, induced -Cumanus, at the time of the Passover, to place an armed cohort in the -colonnade of the Temple to watch the throngs which gathered there -during that festival. On that occasion a soldier, with the recklessness -often exhibited by the inferior Roman troops, made an offensive gesture -towards the sanctuary, which the people interpreted as an insult -to their Temple. Carried away by indignation and anger, they threw -stones at the soldiers and abused the governor. A tumult ensued, which -threatened to become a serious sedition. Cumanus ordered fresh troops -to advance and take possession of the fortress of Antonia, and assuming -a menacing aspect, alarmed the people assembled round the Temple, who -now hastened to escape from his reach. In their anxiety to get away, -the crowds pressed fearfully through the various places of exit, and it -is believed that more than ten or indeed twenty thousand persons were -suffocated or trampled to death. - -A similar occasion might have led to a like disastrous result, had -not Cumanus prudently complied with the wishes of the people. On the -highway, not far from Bethoron, a band of Sicarii having fallen upon -and robbed a servant of the emperor, Cumanus resolved that all the -neighboring villages should suffer bitterly for the act of violence -committed in their vicinity. One of the Roman soldiers, infuriated by -an attack upon a fellow-countryman, got possession of a Book of the -Law, tore it in pieces and threw the fragments into the fire. Here -was a new cause for angry excitement and wrathful reproaches in the -desecration of what they held most sacred. Countless bands flocked to -Cumanus at Cæsarea, crying out against the blasphemer. Much rather, -they exclaimed, would they suffer the worst fate themselves than see -their Holy Scriptures profaned; and in tones of fury they called for -the death of the guilty man. The governor yielded this time to the -counsel of his friends, and ordered the soldier to be executed in the -presence of those whose religious feelings he had outraged. - -Another occurrence took a more serious form and led to strife and -bloodshed. Some Galilæans who were on their way to a festival at -Jerusalem, passed through Samaria, and whilst in the town of Ginæa, -on the southeastern end of the plain of Jezreel, they were murdered -in a fray with the hostile Samaritans. Was this only an accidental -mischance, or the result of the burning hatred which existed between -the Judæans and the Samaritans? In either case the representatives -of Galilee were justified in demanding vengeance at the hands of the -governor upon the murderers. But Cumanus treated the affair with -contemptuous indifference, and thus obliged the Judæans to deal with -the matter themselves. The leaders of the Zealots, Eleazer ben Dinai -and Alexander, incited both by the Galilæans and their governor, -Felix, took the matter into their own hands, entered with their troops -the province of Acrabatene, inhabited by Samaritans, and pitilessly -destroyed and killed all within their reach. The Samaritans appealed to -Cumanus for redress for this attack upon their province, and he gave -them permission to take up arms, sending at the same time Roman troops -to assist them in a fearful massacre. - -This proof, as they considered it, of the partisanship of the emperor's -officials roused the anger of the inhabitants of Jerusalem to such -a degree that, spurred on among others by Dortus, a man of some -position, they were on the point of attacking the troops of Cumanus, -which would doubtless have seriously increased the gravity of the -situation, and might have hastened the final catastrophe by twenty -years. The principal inhabitants of Jerusalem, however, alarmed at the -possible consequences of an outbreak against the Roman arms, strove to -prevent so dangerous an act, and, clothed in deep mourning, implored -the irritated multitude to pause and think of the future. At their -prayer the people laid down their arms. But neither the Judæans nor the -Samaritans were really pacified, and still smarting under the wrongs -mutually received, they sent deputies to the Syrian governor, Umidius -Quadratus, accusing each other, and asking him to investigate the whole -dispute. To effect that object, Quadratus visited Samaria; but he was -not an impartial judge, and many of the captive Judæans were doomed -to perish on the cross. It was only after those executions had taken -place that he formed a tribunal of justice, and summoned both parties -to appear before it. In the meantime, however, Felix having taken the -part of the Galilæans against the Samaritans, such entanglements ensued -that Quadratus would not venture to adjudicate between the disputants, -and ordered them to send deputies to Rome to obtain the decision of the -emperor. Among the Judæan envoys were Jonathan, the former high priest, -and Anan, the governor of the Temple. Cumanus was also obliged to leave -his post in order to appear at Rome and justify himself there. - -All the intricate court intrigues were brought into play by this trial, -which took on a more serious aspect from the fact that the governor -himself was one of the accused. The emperor caused a tribunal to be -formed, but the verdict was given not by himself, but by his depraved -wife, the notorious Agrippina, who was the paramour of Pallas, the -brother of Felix. It had been arranged between the Judæan deputies -and Pallas that after sentence was pronounced against Cumanus, the -emperor should be asked to name Felix governor of Judæa in his stead. -The verdict given in favor of the Judæans could not be considered an -impartial one, and was not in itself a proof that the Samaritans had -been the aggressors. Many of them were pronounced guilty and executed, -and Cumanus was sent into banishment. At the same time, probably also -through the intercession of the empress, a kingdom in the northeast -of Judæa was bestowed upon Agrippa; it consisted of that part of -the country which had once belonged to Philip's tetrarchy, Batanæa, -Gaulanitis, Auranitis, Trachonitis, as well as Paneas and Abilene. On -Judæa proper Rome kept a firm grasp, and would never allow a native -prince, however much he might be under Roman influence and control, to -exercise in that domain any regal prerogatives. - -Felix, whose appointment had been sought of the emperor by the former -high priest, Jonathan, succeeded Cumanus as governor of Judæa. He -married Drusilla, King Agrippa II's beautiful sister, who thereupon -went over to paganism. During his long administration, Felix surpassed -all his predecessors in arrogance and audacity. He gave himself up -entirely to the acquisition of riches and the satisfaction of his -appetites. He continued to exercise his evil power even after the death -of Claudius (54). For although the young emperor, Nero, or his mother, -Agrippina, was as favorable to the house of Herod as Claudius had been, -and had given Agrippa four considerable towns with their surrounding -districts as well as the important city of Tiberias near Tarichea in -Galilee, Judæa was allowed to remain under the iron rule of its cruel -governor. Felix pretended to attack only the seditious mutineers; but -the fact of his consorting with the wild Sicarii showed how little -truth there was in that assumption. Numerous, indeed, must have been -the victims who suffered death at his hands under the plea that they -were the enemies of Rome, for even the former high priest, Jonathan, -at whose request the emperor had given Felix his appointment, now -bitterly reproached him for his misdeeds. Exasperated by his boldness -the governor caused him to be assassinated, employing the Sicarii to -seize and murder him in the broad light of day. Ishmael II, of the -house of Phabi, was named high priest by Agrippa in about the year 59. -It was during his pontificate that the family of the high priest gained -such power in the state that, aided by a strong rabble, they were able -to compel the landowners to pay them all the tithes, thus robbing the -lower priests of their incomes and causing many of them to perish from -want. - -The arrogance with which the governors treated the nation was not -without its baneful influence upon the conduct of the foreigners who -dwelt in great numbers in the towns on the sea-coast. The Greeks -and Romans that had settled in Judæa openly showed their hatred to -their neighbors, and usurped the position of masters in the land. The -fearful picture drawn by the great prophet seemed now on the point -of being literally fulfilled: "The stranger in thy midst will ever -rise higher, but thou wilt ever sink lower." The most shameless in -their conduct towards the Judæans were the Greek Syrians who lived in -Cæsarea--even the civil rights of the former were disputed by them. But -the Judæans of Cæsarea, who far surpassed their heathen fellow-citizens -in industry, wealth and courage, would not allow themselves to be -deprived of their rights of citizenship, and fierce disputes and -fights in the streets were consequently of almost daily occurrence. On -one occasion, some Judæan youths having avenged with blows an insult -they had received from a party of Syrians, and obliged the latter to -flee, Felix took up the affair, called in some troops, which, being -chiefly composed of Greeks and Syrians, sided heartily with their own -countrymen. Many Judæans lost their lives, many were imprisoned, and -the houses of the rich were plundered and destroyed. The actual point -in dispute remained undecided, both sides being only more embittered by -the blood that had been shed. The rival parties sent deputies to Rome, -and Nero was called upon to pronounce judgment between them. Bribery -gained the favor of Burrus, the secretary of the emperor, to the cause -of the Syrians of Cæsarea. His verdict was consequently given against -the Judæans, who were deprived of their civil rights. - -Festus, the successor of Felix, governed for only a short time (from 59 -to 61). During that period the unsatisfactory state of things remained -unchanged, or, if possible, became still worse. A new enthusiast, -proclaiming himself the Messiah, awoke the hope of the people for -liberty and redemption, drew followers around him, and then shared -the fate of his predecessors. The jealous spite which animated the -different parties became more and more violent. The king, Agrippa, at -length took up his residence in Jerusalem, in the Hasmonæan palace, -which was just opposite the Temple. In order to overlook the courts of -the latter he added to the height of his palace, and from the hall in -that building, where he took his repasts, he could watch every movement -that took place in the Temple. The Temple authorities took umbrage at -this, and complained that Agrippa encroached upon their privileges; -and in order to hide the Temple from his view they had a high wall -built on its western side. This aroused the displeasure of Agrippa -and of the governor, who wished to demolish the hardly finished wall. -Bitter words were used on both sides; but at last prudence prevailed, -and it was resolved that the dispute should be settled by the emperor. -Twelve deputies, among whom were the high priest Ishmael and the -treasurer Hilkia, were sent to represent the case at Rome. It was not -Nero, however, but his paramour, Poppea Sabina, who gave the verdict. -This beautiful but shameless woman had, strangely enough, a preference -for Judaism, and as at Nero's court all state affairs were conducted -by intrigue, the Judæan deputies profited by that happy chance and -won their cause. The deputies brought back the imperial order that -the jealous guard kept over the Temple should be discontinued. A few -years later Poppea interceded again on behalf of two Judæans who had -been condemned by Felix and sent as prisoners to Rome. In order not -to infringe upon the laws of their religion they, like Daniel and his -friends, refused, whilst in prison, to eat anything but fruit. But at -the desire of Poppea, who had now become empress, Nero granted the -self-denying captives their liberty. - -After the death of Festus, Nero named Albinus governor, and in -comparison with those who preceded and those who came after him he was -looked upon as a just ruler. Before he entered the province, Anan the -high priest attempted to revive the half-extinct Sadducæism, and to put -its penal code again into force; a tribunal was elected by him, and -innocent men were condemned. The Pharisees were so dissatisfied with -this illegal Synhedrion that they demanded of Agrippa the dismissal of -the high priest. - -The new governor Albinus was met on his way by accusations against -Anan, who it was said had infringed upon the authority of Rome by -punishing criminals himself. His enemies were successful, and he was -obliged to resign his office of high priest after having filled it for -three months. Joshua ben Damnai succeeded him, but in a short time he -had to give way to Joshua ben Gamala (63 or 64). Ben-Gamala had married -a widow of great wealth, Martha, a daughter of the house of the high -priest Boëthus, and it is said that she induced King Agrippa II, by the -offer of a large bribe, to confer the office of high priest upon her -husband. Between Joshua ben Damnai and his more fortunate successor -there burned so fierce a hatred that their respective followers could -not meet in the streets without insulting and even attacking each other. - -Joshua ben Gamala can, however, by no means be ranked among the worst -of the high priests. The improvement in education, which began with -him, testified to the interest he took in the useful institutions of -the community. He established schools for boys from the age of five -years in every town. But Ben-Gamala did not long retain his high -office; he was obliged to resign it to Matthia ben Theophilus (65), -the last of the twenty-eight high priests who owed their election to -Rome and the house of Herod. Albinus the governor, who was bent upon -the destruction of the fanatical Sicarii, embittered the people by the -heavy taxes laid upon them, a part of which he kept for himself. Upon -learning that a successor had been appointed, he caused those of the -Sicarii who had been imprisoned for serious offenses to be executed, -and those who were suffering for lighter misdeeds were, upon paying -a fine, set at liberty. The Sicarii thus released from imprisonment -took part afterwards in the insurrections of the people against their -oppressors, and stained the good cause with many acts of cruelty. - -The last of the procurators, Gessius Florus, who also was appointed by -Poppea, hastened by his shameless partiality, avarice, and inhumanity, -the execution of the long-cherished plan of the malcontents to shake -off the tyrannical yoke of Rome. Florus was one of those utterly -profligate beings to whom nothing is sacred; who sacrifice everything -to their greed, and disregard, without scruple, the most solemn oaths. -What his predecessors had done with a pretense at least to some form, -or under the shadow of secrecy, he accomplished openly in brazen-faced -defiance of the Law. Inaccessible to pity, he had indulgence only -for the Sicarii, who gave him a portion of their plunder. In the two -years during which his administration lasted (64-66), many towns were -completely sacked. The Sicarii were allowed to carry on unmolested -their nefarious practices, the rich being obliged to purchase their -favor as well as that of their patrons. - -So unbearable was this condition of the state that even a cowardly -nation must have lost patience, and the courage of the Judæan people, -in spite of the thousand disasters which had befallen them, of the -heavy weight of the Roman yoke, and of the daily acts of violence of -which they were the victims, was not yet broken. Rome at that time -resembled a community of madmen, among whom the emperor Nero, confiding -in the favor of the Senate and the people, perpetrated one folly after -another, and was guilty of a succession of crimes. Thus, excepting -through their own endeavors, there appeared no chance of deliverance -for the Judæans. This was the opinion of the best and greatest among -them, of all those who were not the tools of Rome, or blinded by her -false splendor, or paralyzed by terror of her strength. The boldest -were already thinking of rebellion. The governor, Cestius Gallus, had, -in the meantime, been informed of the exasperation and angry feeling -that existed among the Judæan people, and reported the state of Judæa -at the court of Rome, failing not to make known there that the nation -was brooding over conspiracy and revolt. But no one listened to his -warning voice. Nero was too busy to attend to such trifles; he had to -play the zither, to perform on the stage, to indulge in orgies, and -to devise murders. The Empress Poppea, the friend of the Judæans, was -dead. The creatures of the court resembled the monster Gessius Florus, -and doubtless derided what they considered the puerile fears of Gallus. -The latter thereupon devised a plan to bring prominently before Nero's -court the vastness of the population of Judæa, and the imprudence of -underrating it. It was arranged between Agrippa and the high priest -Matthia that at the Feast of the Passover a great though peaceful -demonstration should take place, through a peculiar manner of numbering -the people. Circulars were sent to the community, residing both within -and outside Judæa, bidding vast numbers appear at the coming festival. -Crowds of worshipers, a greater concourse than had ever assembled -before, obeyed the summons. In the spring of the year 66 they flocked -to celebrate the Feast of Passover; from the towns and villages of -Judæa, from Syria, even from countries bordering the Euphrates, and -from Egypt, they streamed into Jerusalem, which could hardly contain -the vast multitude. On their way towards the Temple, some of the -pilgrims were crushed in the crowd, and this feast was thereafter -called the Passover of the Crushing. The numbering of the people was -carried on in the following way:--From each offering a kidney was taken -for the priests, the kidneys thus appropriated being counted; and it -was reckoned that each lamb that was eaten in company, was partaken of -by at least ten persons. The result of these calculations proved that -nearly three millions were at that time present in Jerusalem. - -Cestius Gallus had himself come to Jerusalem to conduct the -investigation, and all appealed to him to have pity on their -unspeakable woes, and to deliver them from their country's scourge. -Florus, who was present, only smiled, but the governor of the city -promised to use his influence in softening the procurator's heart -towards them, and he acquainted Rome with the imposing concourse -he had seen with his own eyes at Jerusalem. He was, however, much -deceived as to the effect produced by his device of proving how great -were the numbers of the people. Nero, at that time, had reached the -highest point of his arrogance and pride. "Should Nero, whose triumphs -surpassed those of Pompey, Cæsar, and Augustus, fear Judæa?" The -account sent by Cestius Gallus of the crowds assembled at Jerusalem -during the Feast of Passover was probably not even read by Nero, or, if -looked at, only thrown to the winds. - -In Judæa, and above all in the capital, men, young and old, became -daily more impatient to break the galling chains of Rome. Patience -was exhausted; they awaited only the favorable moment when they could -strike at their foe with a chance of success. A trifling incident, -which brought to light the unparalleled insolence of Florus, fanned the -spirit of impatience and closed the lips of prudence. Fresh causes of -disagreement had arisen between the Judæans and the Syrians in Cæsarea; -the former could not forget that Nero had lowered them in the eyes of -their fellow-citizens, and the latter, elated by the preference given -them, made the Judæans feel their degraded position. The irritation -thus caused, stirred up the religious hatred and racial animosity which -slumbered under the surface in both communities. A piece of ground -belonging to a heathen in Cæsarea, which happened to be just in front -of the synagogue, was covered by him with shops, so that only one -narrow entrance to the sacred building remained. The hot-headed Judæan -youths tried to interrupt the construction of these booths, and Florus, -won over by a large sum of money, refrained from interfering; and, -in order not to be a witness of the probable scene of contention, he -absented himself and went to Samaria, leaving the two bitterly-opposed -parties to the undisturbed exercise of their passionate animosity. On a -certain Sabbath, while the Judæans were assembled in worship, a Greek -placed a vessel in front of the synagogue and sacrificed birds upon it, -to signify that the Judæans were descendants of outcast lepers. This -calumny concerning the origin of their race was not taken quietly by -the Judæan youths, who instantly armed themselves and fell upon their -mocking foes. The fight ended in the defeat of the Judæans, all of -whom thereupon, carrying away their holy books, betook themselves to -the neighboring small town of Narbata, and thence sent an embassy of -twelve men, among whom was the rich tax-gatherer Jonathan, to Florus -in Samaria. The deputies reminded him of the sum he had received, and -of his promise to afford them protection. But instead of listening -to their supplications he received them harshly, and threw them into -prison. When tidings of this new act of violence reached Jerusalem, -the anger of the whole population was aroused, but before they had -time to form any plan of action, Florus sent them another exasperating -message. He desired the warden of the Temple to hand over out of the -sacred treasury seventeen talents, which he declared were required in -the service of the emperor. This command, the intention of which was -plainly discerned by the inhabitants of Jerusalem, made them flock -around the Temple as though they would shield the threatened Sanctuary. -The timid broke forth in lamentations, and the fearless reviled the -Roman governor, and carried a box about as though they were collecting -alms for the indigent Florus. The latter, anticipating opportunities -to satisfy his avarice and thirst for blood, now came himself to -Jerusalem, and by his presence added fuel to the fire. Florus placed -himself as judge in front of the palace of Herod, and called upon the -high priest and the men of greatest standing to appear before him, -demanding them to deliver into his hands those who had dared mock him. -Trembling, they endeavored to offer excuses for what had taken place, -and implored his mercy. But Florus heeded them not, and gave orders -to the Roman soldiers to plunder the upper market-place, a quarter -inhabited by the wealthy. Like very demons the wild soldiers threw -themselves into the market and the adjoining streets, killed men, women -and children, ransacked houses and carried off their contents. On that -one day (16th Iyar), more than three thousand six hundred men perished. -The prisoners, by the command of Florus, were scourged and crucified. -In vain had the princess or queen Berenice knelt before Florus, -imploring him to stay the work of bloodshed and destruction; he was -deaf to her entreaties, and in fear for her own safety she was obliged -to seek refuge and safety in her palace. - -Some days after, vast crowds gathered in the now half-ruined upper -town (Zion), uttering lamentations for those who had been killed and -pronouncing execrations upon their murderer Florus, and it was not -without much difficulty that the heads of the people succeeded in -silencing them. But this only increased the audacity of Florus, who -demanded, as a proof of their present peaceable intentions, that the -people with the nobles should go forth to meet the incoming troops -and welcome them in a friendly spirit. The representatives of the -Sanctuary could hardly induce the people to comply with that request, -for the patriots rebelled against the new humiliation thus thrust -upon them, and persuaded many to share their sentiments. At length, -however, the high priest succeeded in persuading the people to offer -an amicable reception to the Roman cohorts. But soon the deceitful -intention of the governor manifested itself. The people fulfilled -the heavy sacrifice they had with heavy hearts undertaken to perform, -and greeted the troops with forced friendliness; but the soldiers, -having received their instructions from Florus, looked grimly at them -and made no response. At the first murmur of discontent caused by -the strange manner of the Roman troops, the latter rushed upon the -people with drawn swords, driving them before them, whilst the horses -trampled on the fugitives. A fearful crush took place at the gates of -the city, and the road from Bezetha was strewn with the wounded and the -killed. When it was perceived that the soldiers were directing their -steps towards Fort Antonia and the Temple, the designs of Florus upon -the treasures contained in it could no longer be concealed, and the -people hastened to the Sanctuary to protect it, if possible, from his -sacrilegious project. They threw stones at the soldiers, barred their -passage through the narrow entrance, demolished the colonnade which -connected the fortress Antonia with the Temple, and thus frustrated the -governor's hope of becoming a second Crassus. Without being aware of it -themselves, the inhabitants of Jerusalem had by that step commenced the -war of insurrection. - -Before the determined attitude of the people the courage of Florus -forsook him. He informed the representatives of the capital that -in order to restore peace to Jerusalem, he would quit the city and -withdraw the greater number of the troops, leaving only a small -garrison behind. Upon representations being made to him that the -greater part of the army was hated by the people, on account of -the inhumanity of which it had been guilty, he bade them choose -those soldiers who had taken least part in the recent butchery. The -representatives of Judæa selected the soldiers who served under -Metilius, whose weak disposition appeared to them a pledge of -forbearance. But hardly had Florus left Jerusalem, when the heated -ferment resolved itself into determined action. The people were divided -into two parties, one was the party of peace, the other the party that -favored revolution. The latter party was composed chiefly of the young -and strong, who shared the views and principles of the Zealots. They -were ready to risk their lives in their endeavor to overthrow the yoke -of pagan, tyrannical Rome, and regain their cherished liberty. - -The revolutionary party was not devoid of statesmanlike discretion; it -had already formed an alliance with the princely house of Adiabene, -which was warmly devoted to Judaism, and had likewise managed to -interest the Parthian-Babylonian community in its cause. The advocates -of war, bold and fearless, looked down upon their more timid brethren. -Men of strength, filled with lofty aspirations, they swore a solemn -oath to die rather than submit to Rome; and well did they keep that -oath in the raging war, under the hail of the catapults, tortured -by the rack, and in the arena of wild beasts. The soul of the -revolutionary party in Jerusalem was Eleazar ben Ananias, who belonged -to a high-priestly family. He was well versed in the Law, and belonged -to the strict school of Shammai, which generally agreed with the -Zealots. - -On the side of peace were the followers of Hillel, who abhorred war -on principle; the nobles who were basking in the brilliant sunshine -of Rome; the wealthy, whose possessions would be exposed to jeopardy -through so great a revolution--all these, though smarting under the -insolence of Florus, desired the continuance of the present state -of things under the imperial power of Rome. The honest friends of -peace, however, failed to perceive that the evil from which the Judæan -community suffered did not depend upon any one person who might be -accidentally in power, but upon the system of tutelage and robbery, -and on the fundamental difference which existed between the foreign -rulers and the people they governed. Even the best governors, those who -truly desired to preserve order and peace, could not have prevented the -susceptibility of the nation from being frequently wounded, nor the -constant irritation of the people. - -The people, although aroused and embittered, appeared undecided, and -paused before taking the final step, each party trying to draw the -populace to its side. The friends of peace, whilst they strove to -moderate the anger of the masses, endeavored likewise to justify their -revolt against Florus before the Syrian governor, Cestius, and to -explain that Florus was in fault for the disturbance which had broken -out. They acquainted Cestius with everything that had occurred, and -begged him to come to Jerusalem to see with his own eyes the misery and -ruin caused by the acts of the last governor, and to convince himself -of the friendly demeanor of its inhabitants. Cestius, too indolent to -come and inquire into the matter himself, sent a deputy, Neapolitanus, -in his stead. - -The leaders of the revolutionary party had, in the meantime, been so -successful that the payment of taxes to Rome was withheld. The king, -Agrippa, who, from motives of self-interest, was in favor of peace, -called the people together, and attempted to open their eyes to the -danger into which they were blindly running. Standing upon a high -gallery opposite the Temple he spoke to the people. At his side was the -Princess Berenice, who had interceded for the injured and downtrodden, -to cover him with the shield of her popularity. - -His speech, containing every argument that reason or sophistry could -urge against war with Rome, made at first some impression upon the -people. A great number of them cried out that they had no ill-will -against the Romans, but only desired to be delivered from the yoke -of Florus. Thereupon Agrippa exhorted the assembled multitude to -show that they were really peacefully inclined by replacing the -broken columns they had thrown down and paying the taxes due to the -emperor. For the moment it appeared as though their angry feelings -were about to subside. The shattered colonnade was to be repaired, -and in the adjoining towns and villages taxes were gathered. When -Agrippa found what an advantage he had gained he went a step further, -and tried to persuade the people to obey Florus as their governor -until his successor should be appointed. But this last demand spoilt -all. The revolutionary party again won the upper hand, and Agrippa -was obliged to flee from Jerusalem. Those who had so often suffered -from the cruelty and injustice of Florus, at the very mention of his -name feared to become again his miserable dupes and the victims of -cunning intrigue. After Agrippa's departure there was no question -of taxes. Universal was the satisfaction at their abolition, and -the tax-gatherers durst not confront the prevailing excitement by -attempting to enforce their payment. The day on which it was resolved -not to pay the taxes, the 25th Sivan (June), was henceforth to be kept -as the anniversary of a victory. The Sicarii now also began to bestir -themselves. They assembled under the command of Menahem, a descendant -of Judas, the founder of the Zealots, and took the fortress of Masada; -they put its Roman garrison to death, possessed themselves of their -weapons, and being thus well armed, appeared on the field of battle. - -Eleazar, the head of the Zealots, fanned the revolutionary spirit -of the people, and drove them on to complete rupture with Rome. He -dissuaded the priests from receiving any presents or sacrifices from -heathens, and so great was the power he exerted that the officiating -priests discontinued offering the daily sacrifice for the emperor -Nero. That was the starting-point of the revolution. Allegiance to the -emperor was thenceforth renounced. The party of peace saw also the -grave importance of this step and tried to retrace it. Learned teachers -of the Law, doubtless of the school of Hillel, explained to a large -gathering of the people that it was unlawful to shut out the offerings -of heathens from the Temple, and aged priests declared that it was an -ancient custom to receive such offerings. The officiating priests, -however, remained unconvinced, and threw themselves without reserve -into the maelstrom of revolution. From that time on, the Temple obeyed -its chief, Eleazar, and became the hotbed of the insurrection. - -The advocates of peace saw with sorrow the progress made by the rival -party, and tried to smother the flames before they could accomplish -the work of destruction and ruin; but the means they employed to -quench the revolutionary fire only made it burn the more fiercely. -They sent deputies to Florus and Agrippa, earnestly entreating that a -sufficiently large number of troops should be instantly despatched to -Jerusalem. The former, actuated either by timidity or by the spirit of -revenge which made him desire that the hated Judæans should become more -and more hopelessly entangled, refused to comply with that request. -Agrippa, on the other hand, sent 3,000 horsemen, Auranites, Batanæans, -and wild Trachonites, under the command of Philip of Bathyrene, and -Darius, a commander of cavalry, to help the party that wished to remain -at peace with Rome. When these troops arrived, they found the Mount -on which the Temple stood, as well as the lower town, already in the -possession of the Zealots. The aristocratic quarter of the higher town -alone remained open to them. A fierce combat took place between the -two parties, the royal troops joining the few soldiers left of the -Roman garrison. Fighting continued for seven days, with no decided -results. - -At the time of the festival of wood-carrying (15th Ab), however, the -situation changed. The Zealots barred the entrance of the Temple -against any one belonging to the peace party, and gained over to their -side the masses who had brought wood for the altar, as well as the -Sicarii who had made their way into the Temple through the crowd. -Strengthened by the increase of numbers, the Zealots drove away their -opponents and became masters of the upper town. The anger of the people -was roused against the friends of Rome, they set fire to the palaces of -King Agrippa and Princess Berenice, devoting to the flames likewise the -house of the rich priest Ananias, and the public archives, among which -the bonds of debtors were kept. Some of the partisans of Rome crept in -terror into the sewers, while others took refuge with the troops in the -western palace of Herod. Shortly after this the Zealots attacked the -Roman guards in the fort Antonia, overcame them after a siege of two -days, and put them to death (17th Ab); they then stormed the palace of -Herod, which was defended by the combined troops of Rome and Agrippa. -After eighteen days of incessant fighting the garrison capitulated and -the Judæan soldiers under Philip were allowed to depart unhurt. The -Romans, too proud to sue for mercy, retreated to the three towers in -the wall, Hippicus, Phasael, and Mariamne. The Sicarii under Menahem -rushed into the fort after the Romans had left it, and killed all who -had not been able to save themselves by flight (6th Elul--August). - -But the patriotic Zealots, the followers of Eleazar, were soon made -aware of the injury their righteous cause must sustain from their -fraternizing with the unrestrainable Sicarii. Puffed up by their -victory over Agrippa's troops, Menahem and his satellites broke out -into acts of shameful cruelty. Insulting pride now characterized -Menahem's behavior; words of anger were exchanged between him and -Eleazar; and as the former entered the Temple in the captured regal -attire, the words became blows and fighting commenced. The Sicarii -were besieged, and Menahem, who had fled to the part of the city -called Ophla, was brought back and executed. A small number of his -followers, under his relative Eleazar ben Jair, escaped to the fortress -of Masada, which was occupied by their friends. After this bloody -episode the Zealots, led by Eleazar, besieged the towers, and the -Roman troops under the command of Metilius were at last obliged to -sue for mercy. The Judæans deputed to treat with Metilius agreed that -the Romans, deprived of their arms and baggage, should be allowed to -depart unmolested. As soon, however, as the conquered soldiers were -divested of their swords and shields, Eleazar's band fell upon them and -destroyed them all. Metilius alone was spared, because in the fear of -death he had promised to adopt the Judæan faith, and he was allowed to -live an animated trophy of the victory of the Judæans over the Romans. -The day on which Jerusalem was delivered from the Romans (17 Elul) was -henceforth to be considered one of the festive anniversaries. That the -aim of Eleazar and his party was noble and disinterested was shown by -the moderation they observed after their victory. The city was in their -hands, their rivals helpless, and yet in the annals of those times we -can discover no trace of persecution or cruelty towards them. - -Thus far the insurrection had been limited to Jerusalem, for the rest -of Judæa, although equally excited, remained quiet during the events -that were taking place in the capital, and awaited the result. Florus -himself had likewise remained quietly at Cæsarea, taking care, however, -that the revolution should flow on like a stream of fire, carrying -devastation all over the country, and even beyond its boundaries. -When tidings of the battle between the Zealots and the Roman cohorts -in Jerusalem reached Cæsarea, the Greeks and Syrians attacked the -Judæans who had returned there. The carnage which ensued must have been -fearful; more than twenty thousand Judæans were killed, and these, -doubtless, did not succumb without, in self-defense, causing some -other deaths. Not a single Judæan remained alive in Cæsarea. Those -who tried to flee were captured, put into chains by the command of -Florus, and sent as slaves to various ships. This unexampled cruelty -exasperated the whole population of Judæa, and their hatred against the -heathens broke out into wild frenzy. Everywhere, as though by common -assent, bands of free troops formed themselves, attacking the heathen -inhabitants of the country, burning, destroying, and slaying. These -barbarous onslaughts, of course, called again for revenge from the -heathen population of Judæa and Syria. Many towns were divided into two -hostile parties, which savagely fought together during the day, and lay -in ambush to injure each other at night. - -A horrible deed, resulting from the war of races, took place in -the town of Bethshean, the first of a long series of acts of -self-destruction of which we read in the account of the destruction -of the Temple. Its heathen inhabitants had made a covenant with their -Judæan fellow-citizens, promising to befriend them if they would assist -in repulsing any attack of Judæan bands upon their town. The Judæans -in Bethshean honestly fulfilled their agreement, fought vigorously -against their brethren, and drove them away from the vicinity of the -town. Among the combatants on that occasion, Simon ben Saul, a Judæan -of gigantic strength and great valor, was principally distinguished. -No sooner, however, were the heathen inhabitants delivered from their -assailants than, under cover of the night, they fell upon the unguarded -Judæans, and put them all, nearly thirteen thousand, to death. In that -fearful massacre Simon and his family alone survived, the former, -wielding his drawn sword with the energy of despair, drove terror into -the hearts of his enemies. Full of anguish and remorse at having fought -against his brethren, he resolved to fall only by his own hand. After -killing his aged parents, his wife and children, he thrust his sword -into his breast and expired at their side. - -The violent animosity which inflamed the Judæans and heathens in -Cæsarea also reached Alexandria. A massacre of the Judæans, partly due -to the anger of an apostate, took place in the Egyptian capital. The -Alexandrian Greeks, jealous of their Judæan fellow-citizens, resolved -to solicit the Emperor Nero to deprive them of the rights which they -had received from Claudius, putting them on a footing of equality with -the Greeks. To select the deputies who were to convey their wishes -to the emperor, a large concourse assembled in the amphitheater of -the town. A few Judæans being discovered among the crowd, they were -fiercely attacked and insulted as spies. Three of them were dragged -through the streets to be committed alive to the flames. Enraged at -the savage treatment of their brethren, the Judæans armed themselves, -seized firebrands, and threatened to burn the amphitheater where the -Greeks were still assembled. The governor Tiberius now attempted to -interfere in order to stay the impending civil strife, but he only -increased the angry ferment. The Judæans hated him for being a renegade -to his faith, and reproached him with his apostasy. Infuriated by -their taunts, Tiberius Alexander lost all control over himself; he -ordered his legions to repair to the Judæan quarter, and gave free -license to the exercise of that brutality which it had cost so much -effort to restrain. The soldiers, greedy for blood and plunder, poured -in upon the beautiful Delta quarter of the town, killed all whom they -found in their way, burned the houses, and filled the streets with -blood and corpses. Fifty thousand Judæans lost their lives, and the -man who ordered that frightful butchery was the nephew of the Judæan -philosopher Philo! - -Such was the alarming proportion which the insurrectionary movement by -Eleazar ben Ananias had assumed. The revolution had tasted blood, and -was drawn on and on in its hurried course till it carried away even -the indifferent, and converted almost the whole nation into Zealots. -From day to day the number of brave and daring warriors increased. The -expected help now came from Adiabene and Babylon. Members of the royal -house of Adiabene, brothers and sons of the King Izates, Monobazus and -Cenedæus, took the management of the rebellion into their own hands, -and prepared to hold out to the last. Three heroes, who alone seemed -more than equal to a whole army, now entered Jerusalem. They were -Niger, from the other side of the Jordan, Silas, the Babylonian, and -Simon Bar-Giora, the wild patriot, who, from his first entrance to the -end of the war, brought terror to the hearts of the Romans. Cestius -Gallus, whose duty it was as Governor of Syria to uphold the honor of -Roman arms, and to keep the imperial supremacy intact in the country -placed under his jurisdiction, could no longer witness the rebellion -spreading around him without an effort to stem its progress. He called -his legions together, and the neighboring princes voluntarily sent -their troops to his assistance as auxiliaries. Even Agrippa contributed -three thousand foot soldiers and two thousand horsemen to the Roman -army, and offered himself as guide through the mountain paths and -ravines of that dangerous country. Cestius led more than thirty -thousand men, experienced soldiers, out of Antioch, against Judæa, and -doubted not that in one battle he would be able to destroy the Judæan -rebels. On his way along the sea-coast he left in every town marks of -blood and fire. - -As soon as the Zealots in Jerusalem heard of the approach of the Roman -troops they seized their arms, in spite of its being the Sabbath day. -They were not afraid to face the Romans, nor would they allow the -Sabbath laws to interfere with their warlike ardor. Cestius had made -a halt at Gabaot, about a mile from Jerusalem, expecting, perhaps, a -missive of repentant submission. But the Zealots attacked the Roman -army with such impetuosity that they broke through their ranks, killing -in the first onslaught more than five hundred soldiers, whilst they -only lost three and twenty men themselves (26th Tishri--October). If -the Roman cavalry had not come to the assistance of the foot soldiers, -the latter would have been utterly destroyed. Loaded with rich booty, -the victors returned to Jerusalem, singing jubilant hosannas, while -Cestius during three days remained idle in his camp without venturing -to advance. - -It was only on the fourth day that the Roman army approached the -capital. The Zealots had abandoned the outer parts of Jerusalem, which -could afford them no adequate shelter, and had withdrawn behind the -strong walls of the inner town behind the Temple. The Romans thereupon -marched in, destroyed the suburb Bezetha, then pressed on towards the -western point, just opposite Herod's palace, where they pitched their -camp (30th Tishri). This caused no alarm to the Zealots; they threw -the traitors who, following the advice of Anan ben Jonathan, wished to -open the gates to the enemy, over the walls, and prepared vigorously -for the defense of the places they occupied. During five successive -days the Romans stormed the walls, but were always obliged to fall back -before the missiles of the Judæans. It was only on the sixth day that -they succeeded in undermining a part of the northern wall in front of -the Temple. But this advantage was not followed up by Cestius. He did -not deem it advisable to continue the combat against heroic enthusiasts -and embark on a lengthy campaign at that season, when the autumn -rains would soon commence, if they had not already set in, and might -prevent the army from receiving provisions. On that account probably he -thought it more prudent to retrace his steps. It could hardly have been -cowardice which inspired the resolve. - -As soon as the unexpected departure of the Romans became known to -the inhabitants of Jerusalem, they followed them, attacking the rear -and flanks of the army from the mountain crests, the Roman troops -being obliged to keep to the beaten ways in the valleys and passes. A -great number of Romans, among whom were many distinguished officers, -lay slain upon the line of march. When the army reached the camp in -Gabaot, it found itself surrounded by swarming hosts of Judæans, and -Cestius, not considering it safe to remain there any longer, hastened -his retreat, leaving the heaviest part of the baggage behind. In the -narrow pass of Bethoron the Roman army fared still worse; attacked on -all sides, it was brought into confusion and disorder, and the men -could not defend themselves from the arrows of the enemy, which fell -thick upon them from the vantage-ground of the mountain wall on either -side. Wildly the Roman troops hurried on towards Bethoron, and they -would have been almost completely destroyed in their flight had not -approaching night saved them from further pursuit. - -The Judæans remained all night before Bethoron, but Cestius, leaving -four hundred brave soldiers in the camp, marched noiselessly out -with the whole of his army, so that at break of day, when the Judæans -perceived what had taken place, he had already obtained a considerable -start. The four hundred soldiers left behind succumbed to the Judæans, -who then vainly followed the Roman army as far as Antipatris. They -found, however, rich booty, consisting of arms and implements of war. -These they brought back as trophies to Jerusalem, making good use of -them later on against their enemies. The money chests of Cestius, which -contained the supplies for the war, fell also into their hands, and -helped to replenish the treasury at Jerusalem. In this first campaign -against the despised Judæans the army of Cestius lost nearly six -thousand men, both Romans and allies; and the legion which the governor -had brought from Antioch as a picked corps to fight against Jerusalem -had lost their eagles, a loss which was regarded by Rome as the -greatest dishonor that could befall an army, equivalent to a shameful -defeat. - -The Zealots, shouting exultant war songs, returned to Jerusalem (8th -October), their hearts beating with the joyful hope of liberty and -independence. The proud and happy time of the Hasmonæans seemed to -have returned, and its glory even to be surpassed. Had not the great -Roman army, feared by all the world, been defeated and forced to -ignominious flight? What a change had been effected in the brief space -of six months! Then every one trembled before the cowardly Florus and -his few soldiers, and now the Romans had fled! Had not God helped -them as mercifully as He had helped their forefathers? The hearts -of the Zealots knew no fears for the future. "As we have beaten the -two generals, Metilius and Cestius, so likewise shall we overcome -their successors." Any one who spoke of submission to Rome or of the -advantage of opening negotiations with her was looked upon as a -traitor to his country and an enemy to Judaism. The advocates of peace -had for the moment lost all influence, and the friends of Rome could -not venture to utter aloud their real sentiments. Many of them left -Jerusalem secretly, whilst others pretended to share the Zealots' love -of freedom and hatred of Rome. The two Herodian brothers, Costobar and -Saul, sought the presence of the Emperor Nero in Greece, attempting -to excuse the insurrectionary outburst and to throw the blame of it -upon Florus. While they were trying to vindicate the fidelity of the -Judæan nation, the Zealots, intoxicated with their victory, had coins -struck with the inscription--"For the deliverance of Jerusalem." Even -the Samaritans now put aside their old feeling of animosity against the -Judæans, and to gratify their hatred of the Romans made common cause -with their former enemies. - -Stirring activity took possession of the capital, and gave it quite a -new appearance. Everywhere weapons were being forged and implements of -war manufactured, in preparation for any fresh assault. The walls of -Jerusalem were strengthened to a degree that promised to set the enemy -for a long time at defiance. The young men underwent daily military -exercise, and their enthusiasm made up for their want of experience. -In all parts of Judæa the warlike patriots and foes of Rome formed -provisional committees to prepare for the great struggle which they -felt must be approaching, and their glowing ardor was shared even by -the Judæans who lived in foreign lands. - -Of the internal political arrangements introduced in Jerusalem -after the defeat of Cestius, only slight and uncertain indications -have come down to us. The historian friendly to Rome, who could not -sufficiently darken the rebellion of the Judæans, was not inclined to -record any of their acts. There can be no doubt, however, that the -Great Synhedrion again acquired its former supreme authority over all -political and military affairs. At the head of the great council was -Simon ben Gamaliel, of the House of Hillel, one who, even according -to the account of his enemy, must have been gifted with remarkable -discernment and energy, and who might, had his advice been followed, -have brought the impending struggle to a successful issue. Although he -did not belong to the party of extreme Zealots, he desired the contest -to be carried on with the most resolute activity, and upheld, with all -the strength given him by his eminence and position, those who were -determined that the revolution should be real and its effects lasting. -Upon coins dating from the first and second years of the newly-won -independence, appears the following inscription, "Simon, the Prince of -Israel," which doubtless referred to the Patriarch Simon ben Gamaliel. - -After the victory gained over Cestius, the heathens became more and -more embittered against their Judæan neighbors; and either from fear of -an onslaught from them, or actuated by revenge for the defeat of the -Romans, they formed themselves into murderous bands, slaying without -pity Judæan men, women and children who were living among them. Such -cruel massacres must have incensed the patriots all the more, as they -frequently occurred among communities innocent of the remotest idea -of joining the rebellion, and now, as far as lay in their power, the -Judæans took their revenge upon their heathen neighbors. The savage -enmity of races rose higher and higher, and, spreading far beyond the -narrow boundary of Palestine, animated the Judæans on the one side and -the Greeks and Romans on the other. As all the nations around Judæa, -including Syrians, Greeks, Romans and Alexandrians, made common cause -with the Roman emperor, the ultra-Zealots thought themselves justified -in visiting upon them the wrath that inflamed them against Rome. To -cut off every link between them, the followers of the school of Shammai -proposed erecting a barrier which should effectually prevent any -communication, by prohibiting the Judæans in future from buying wine, -oil, bread, or any other articles of food from their heathen neighbors. -These regulations were known under the name of "The Eighteen Things." -Religious fervor and political zealotry, in those stormy times, -always accompanied each other. The Hillelites, more moderate in their -religious and political views, could not agree to such sharply defined -exclusiveness, but when the Synod was called together to decide upon -the laws before mentioned, the Zealots proved all-powerful. Eleazar ben -Ananias, probably the leader of the Zealots, who was himself a teacher -of the Law, invited the disciples of both schools to meet in his house. -Armed soldiers were placed at the door and were directed to allow every -one to enter but no one to go out, and during the fiery discussions -that were carried on there, many of the school of Hillel are said to -have been killed. On account of these acts of violence, the day on -which the severe decrees of the school of Shammai were brought forward -and agreed to, the 9th Adar, was regarded as a day of misfortune. - -Meanwhile, the warlike activity of the Judæans had not ceased for a -moment. The urgent necessity of making a selection of generals and -leaders for the approaching strife was felt by all. The important -choice belonged, it appears, to the people themselves, who for some -cause or other had taken umbrage at the ultra-Zealots. Eleazar ben -Ananias, who had given the first impulse to the great uprising, was -only made governor of the unimportant province of Idumæa, and was even -obliged to divide his authority with another. - -Eleazar ben Simon, an ultra-Zealot, who had been instrumental in -gaining the victory over Cestius and who was the treasurer of the -Temple, was, in spite of belonging to the class of nobles, completely -overlooked. Moderate men, even those who had been formerly friends of -Rome, obtained the preference. Joseph ben Gorion, and Anan the son of -Anan, who for a short time had held the office of high priest, received -posts of the greatest importance, the supervision of Jerusalem and the -defense of the fortresses. Besides these, five governors were appointed -over different provinces. To Joseph ben Matthias was entrusted the -most important place of all. The people, still dazzled by the magic -of aristocratic names, could not allow men of unknown origin, however -brave and devoted they might be, to fill high political positions. The -ruling power lay in the Great Synhedrion, and consequently in those who -presided over that assembly, Simon ben Gamaliel and his associates Anan -and Joseph ben Gorion. - -Simon was at the head of the Pharisees, and Anan, the former high -priest, made no attempt to conceal his leaning towards Sadducæism; -but their antagonism in religious matters did not prevent them from -now acting together. The love of country outweighed the spirit of -partisanship. The apparent unanimity that reigned in the Synhedrion -was nevertheless deceptive. Great nobles, secret friends to Rome, -had a place and voice in that assembly, and often brought indecision -into its councils. Opposite and conflicting views resulted in halting -measures and diminished vigor. The Synhedrion was likewise often -swayed by the changing sentiments of the people, which always receive -attention in the hour of revolution. Thus deprived of united strength -and active energy, the Synhedrion ruled for barely two years, when it -succumbed through weakness, and was obliged to give up the reins to the -ultra-Zealots. - - - - -CHAPTER X. - -THE WAR IN GALILEE. - - Description of Galilee--Its Population and Importance--The - Rising in Galilee--John of Gischala--Flavius Josephus, - his Education and Character--His Conduct as Governor of - Galilee--Commencement of the War--Overthrow of Gabara--Siege - and Capture of Jotapata--Surrender of Josephus to the - Romans--Cruelty of Vespasian--Siege and Capture of Gamala and - Mount Tabor--Surrender of Gischala--Escape of John of Gischala - to Jerusalem. - - 66.67 C. E. - - -The territory entrusted for defense to Joseph ben Matthias, by reason -of its position, its astonishing fertility, its sturdy population, -and its various resources in time of danger, was looked upon as the -post of greatest importance next to the capital; it was, in fact, -the bulwark of Jerusalem. Galilee was divided into Upper and Lower -Galilee. This, the country of enthusiasts, the birthplace of the -Zealot Judas and of Jesus of Nazareth, did not receive the news of the -revolt of Jerusalem and the defeat of Cestius with indifference. It -assumed, on the contrary, with unreflecting ardor the jubilant spirit -of the victorious party. And how could the Galilæans have remained -indifferent? Had they not witnessed the cruel deaths of their own kin -at the hands of the heathen? Daily they had been in the habit of giving -shelter to unhappy Judæan exiles, and daily they had had to fear the -worst from their heathen neighbors. It was in the face of such dangers -that all the cities of Galilee had armed to be ready for action, -and were only awaiting a signal from the Synhedrion in Jerusalem. -Three cities above all others were longing to raise the standard of -revolt--Gischala in the extreme north, Tiberias in the south, and -Gamala, opposite Tiberias, on the eastern shores of the Sea of Galilee. -The Judæan inhabitants of Gischala were, to a certain extent, forced -into insurrection, for the neighboring cities had banded together, and, -after plundering the town, had partly destroyed it by fire. The enraged -Gischalites placed themselves under the leadership of a man destined to -carry on the war against Rome to its bitter end, and who, in company -with Simon bar-Giora, became the terror of her legions. - -John ben Levi, of Gischala, commenced his career by collecting -under his flag all the rebellious Judæans of Upper Galilee, and by -preparing to lead them against the heathen populace. He was a man of -small means and of delicate constitution, but he possessed one of -those enthusiastic natures capable of rising above the depressing -influences of poverty and ill-health; besides which he had the art of -making the circumstances of his life subservient to his own aims. At -the commencement of the Galilæan rising, John's only ambition was to -strengthen the walls of his birthplace against the attacks of hostile -neighbors. Later on, he expended the considerable sums of money which -he earned by selling oil to the Judæans of Syria and Cæsarea Philippi -(for they would not use the unclean oil prepared by the heathens), in -paying for the services of patriotic volunteers. He had gathered around -him about four thousand of these, principally Galilæans, but partly -refugees from Syria, who were always increasing in number. - -In Tiberias, the second focus of insurrection, the revolutionary -party were confronted by a faction with Roman proclivities. This -beautiful city by the sea had been in the possession of King Agrippa -for many years, and having enjoyed a tolerably easy condition under -his rule, had but little cause for complaint. But the greater part of -the populace were Zealots, clamorous to free themselves from their -monarch. The soul of the revolt was Justus, the son of Pistus, who -wrote the history of the war in which he was engaged, in the Greek -language. He was gifted with a persuasive tongue; but his great -influence was confined to the wealthy and refined inhabitants of the -city. Jesus ben Sapphia, a Zealot like himself, led the lower classes -of sailors and burden-carriers. Opposed to these insurgents was the -aristocratic party, which rallied loyally round the king and the Roman -army. They were represented by Julius Capellus, Herod ben Miar, Herod -ben Gamala, and Kompse bar Kompse, but they had no following amongst -the people, and were obliged to become the unwilling spectators of the -surrender of their city to the revolutionists. - -The news of the defeat of Cestius was the signal for Justis and Jesus -ben Sapphia to commence operations against the heathen cities where -their co-religionists had been so barbarously massacred. The city of -Gamala, one of the most important on the southeast coast of the Sea -of Galilee, whose impregnable position made defense easy and conquest -difficult, was preparing for revolt. - -In the neighborhood of Gamala lived a settlement of Judæan Babylonians, -who, under Herod I, had migrated to Batanæa, where they had built -several towns and the fortress of Bathyra. The Babylonians, for the -colony was called by this name, were devoted adherents to the Herodian -family, and Philip, a grandson of Zamaris, the first founder of the -colony, was the leader of the royal troops who fought against the -Zealots in Jerusalem. When, however, he had suffered defeat in that -city, his life had been spared, for he had promised to aid the Zealots -in their struggle against Rome. He lay concealed for a few days in -Jerusalem, and then effected his escape to a village of his own near -the fortress of Gamala. - -Varus, who temporarily was taking the place of Agrippa in Cæsarea, -did not look favorably upon Philip, of whose influence with the king -he was jealous. For Varus hoped in time to supersede Agrippa, and, in -order to court popularity, resorted to the cruel device of putting many -Judæans in Cæsarea Philippi to death. But all the while he dreaded the -Babylonian colony and the wrath of Philip, who most certainly would -divulge his ambitious designs to Agrippa. Thus he tried to lure Philip -into his presence, but, happily for himself, that general was seized -with a severe attack of fever, which he had caught in his flight from -Jerusalem, and which prevented him from obeying the summons of Varus. - -Varus succeeded, however, in tempting seventy of the most distinguished -Judæans into his power, the greater number of whom were murdered by -his command. At the news of this assassination, terror seized upon -all the Babylonian Judæans who were settled in the various cities of -Galilee. They rushed into Gamala for protection, breathing vengeance, -not only against Varus, but against all the Syrians who had supported -him. They were joined by Philip, who with difficulty restrained them -from some signal act of vengeance. But even after Agrippa had dismissed -the unscrupulous Varus from his office, the Babylonian Judæans still -evinced great eagerness to coalesce with the enemies of Rome, and -were therefore ordered to leave the fortress of Gamala and return to -Batanæa. But this caused so great a tumult and division in the city -that some of the inhabitants rose and attacked the Babylonians who were -about to leave them, whilst others, under the leadership of a certain -Joseph, revolted from the rule of Agrippa. - -It was at this moment, when the volcano of revolutionary passions was -ever ready to burst forth in fresh eruptions, that Joseph ben Matthias -was entrusted by the Great Synhedrion with the command of Upper and -Lower Galilee. In those provinces the powerful city of Sepphoris alone -remained faithful to the Romans, and in all Galilee there reigned a -bitter feeling of enmity against Sepphoris. For the people of Tiberias -were angered that their city should have taken only a secondary place -in the province, in spite of Agrippa II's having chosen it for his -capital. It was the business of the governor to promote a spirit of -concord amongst the inhabitants of Galilee, and at the same time to win -the Sepphorites to the popular cause. Upon the shoulders of this man -rested a heavy responsibility. For it would naturally depend greatly -upon him whether this revolt, which had burst into life with such -extreme energy, would attain the end desired by the patriots, or would -have a tragic termination. Unfortunately, Joseph was not the man who -could successfully pilot so gigantic a scheme, but by his conduct he -materially contributed to the fall of the Judæan nation. - -Joseph, the son of Matthias, better known as Flavius Josephus, was a -native of Jerusalem (born 38, died about 95), of illustrious priestly -descent, and related, on the female side, to the Hasmonæan house. He -and his brother Matthias received a careful education, and were taught -the tenets of the Law whilst very young, their father's house being -frequented by learned rabbis. At the age of sixteen Josephus became the -disciple of the hermit Vanus, following his master into the desert, -living on the wild fruits of the earth and bathing daily in cold water, -according to the habit of the Essenes. But, growing weary of this -life, he returned, after three years, to Jerusalem, where his fine -intellectual tastes led him to a profound study of Greek literature. -At the age of twenty-six he had occasion to undertake a journey to -Rome, in order to plead for two imprisoned Pharisees, in the presence -of the Empress Poppea, and he succeeded in obtaining their freedom. -The Empress, who entertained a friendly feeling toward the Judæans, -loaded him with gifts. Rome itself could not fail to exercise a great -influence upon the character of Josephus. The glitter of Nero's court, -the busy life of the capital of the world, the immensity of all the -imperial institutions, so dazzled him that he thought the Roman empire -would be an eternal one and that it was specially favored by Divine -Providence. He did not see concealed beneath the purple and the gold -the terrible disease of which that great empire was sickening. From -that moment Josephus became a fervent adherent of the Roman rule. - -Filled with enthusiastic admiration for Rome, he must upon his -return have found the proportions of Judæa humble and dwarfed. How -sarcastically he must have smiled at the wild gestures of the frenzied -Zealots who dreamt of expelling the Romans from Judæa! Such an -expectation appeared to him like the dream of a madman. With all the -experiences that he had gathered in his travels he tried to shatter -the revolutionary projects of the Zealots. But it was useless; the -people determined upon war, seized their weapons, and rose to revolt. -Josephus, alarmed for his safety, took shelter with some of his -adherents in the Temple, whence he emerged only upon hearing that -the more moderate Zealots, under the leadership of Eleazer, were -placed in control of affairs. Apprehensive that his well-known Roman -proclivities might make him an object of suspicion, he simulated a -desire for national liberty, whilst secretly rejoicing at the prospect -of the advance of the Roman general Cestius, who, it was thought, -would soon put an end to this mad struggle for freedom. But the result -disappointed all his hopes. The retreat of Cestius resembled a defeat. - -Why Josephus, the devoted adherent of Rome, should have been entrusted -with the governorship of the important province of Galilee is -inexplicable. Probably his friend, the former high priest Joshua, -son of Gamala, whose voice carried great weight in the Synhedrion, -may have urged his claims, and Josephus' dissimulation may have led -those about him to look upon him as a Zealot. But, at all events, the -heroic bearing of the insurgents and the victory that they had gained -over the army of Cestius, cannot have failed to make upon Josephus, as -upon other plain and matter-of-fact Judæans, a powerful impression. -Entire separation from the empire of Rome appeared to him an impossible -scheme; but he may have hoped that some concessions were to be extorted -from the imperial court; that perhaps Judæa might be handed over to -the control of Agrippa, and that he might be allowed to fill the post -in Jerusalem. To Agrippa himself the revolt was not quite unwelcome, -for he hoped to reap some benefit from it, and through the agency of -Josephus he was able to act in a way which he himself could not have -pursued as a vassal of Rome. Josephus had, in fact, been working for -Agrippa, and, in so far, there was nothing dishonest or traitorous in -his conduct. - -Two coadjutors, Joaser and Judah, were sent by the Synhedrion to assist -Josephus. They were both learned in the Law, and were described by -him, now as pure and clean-handed, and again as open to bribery. But -they were quite unimportant and soon disappeared from the scene of -action. At first Josephus seems to have been anxious to promote the -revolutionary ardor of the Galilæans. He called a kind of Synhedrion -together, consisting of seventy men of repute, after the fashion of -the great council in Tiberias. He appointed seven judges in each city, -and officers of the law in different parts of Galilee. He raised an -army of a hundred thousand men, armed and drilled them according to the -Roman system, and inculcated order and discipline amongst his soldiers, -qualities indispensable to a nation of warriors, but less important to -a people enthusiastic for liberty. He even created a corps of cavalry -and supported them from his own means. He surrounded himself with a -body-guard of five hundred mercenaries, who were disciplined to obey a -sign from their master. He began to fortify a number of cities in Upper -and Lower Galilee; and stored them with provisions. Thus he seriously -contemplated the defense of his province against Rome. Upon his arrival -in Galilee, either inspired by the Synhedrion or impelled by his own -ardor, Josephus carried his religious zeal to the extent of ordering -the destruction of the palace inhabited by his ancestor Herod during -the time of Augustus, where images of animals were worshiped in direct -defiance of the Law. In order to carry out this design he invited the -most distinguished men of Tiberias to meet him at Bethmaon, but during -their discussion Jesus ben Sapphia set fire to the palace and divided -the spoil amongst his followers. This displeased Josephus, who hastened -into the town of Tiberias, and gathering up what remained of the -plunder, handed it over into the custody of King Agrippa's officers. - -Peculiarly repugnant to Josephus was John of Gischala; his untiring -energy and intellectual superiority were enough to awaken the jealousy -of the former, although Josephus, as the representative of the -Synhedrion, assumed the higher position of the two. He took pains to -place obstacles in the way of the patriot. Thus John was at first not -permitted to carry off and sell the large quantity of corn stored by -the Romans in Upper Galilee, the sale of which was to have enabled -him to complete the fortification of his own city. Joaser and Judah -finally extorted from Josephus the requisite authorization. It was -on this occasion that John of Gischala was made painfully aware of -the duplicity of the governor, which for the future he determined to -baffle. Certain youths of a village called Dabaritta, near Mount -Tabor, had waylaid and plundered the wife of one of the king's -agents who was traveling through the land, and they brought the -precious metals and rich garments which they had taken from her to -Josephus, then at Tarichea. Out of too great a regard for the king, -Josephus undertook to return this booty to him, at the same time -falsely pretending that he had sent it to Jerusalem for the national -treasury. The inhabitants of the neighboring villages, roused to angry -displeasure at the news of Josephus' treachery, assembled at Tarichea -in crowds. They were led by Jesus ben Sapphia, who came with the holy -Book of the Law in his hand, charging the people, if not for their -own sakes, at least for the honor of their sacred writings, to punish -the traitor. Josephus' house was surrounded at daybreak by a furious -throng, who would have burnt it down over his head had he not saved -himself by one of his ingenious falsehoods. He rent his clothes, poured -ashes upon his head, hung a sword round his neck, and appeared as a -suppliant in the arena of Tarichea. As soon as he could gain a hearing -he made the Taricheans believe that he was not keeping the spoil, -either for the use of Agrippa or for the advantage of Jerusalem, but -that it was to enable him to fortify the walls of their own city. -The credulous Taricheans, who readily believed this explanation, now -declared themselves in favor of Josephus, and turned their weapons upon -the discontented strangers. The governor meanwhile, under cover of -the tumult, crept back to his own house, where, however, he was soon -roused by some hundreds of the infuriated crowd (not Taricheans), who -were utterly intractable, and were bent upon the destruction of his -dwelling-place. Nothing daunted, Josephus appeared upon the roof, and -begged of the ringleaders to enter and give him some reason for their -conduct. The men allowed themselves to be tempted within the doors, -whereupon they were instantly seized, cruelly scourged, maimed, and -then cast out to their followers, who, thinking Josephus must have some -hidden force of men concealed within, departed in consternation. From -that moment all hope of a manly defense of Galilee had to be abandoned. -Josephus was like a demon of discord, to whose lot had fallen the -task of promoting a spirit of harmony amongst the people. Galilee -was divided into two parties, the one composed of the more moderate -inhabitants of that province, who were the adherents of the governor, -the other numbering the fiery patriots, who could no longer doubt his -duplicity, and had selected John as their leader. The two leaders hated -each other cordially, but equaled each other in craft and dissimulation. - -When John became aware that the greater number of the Galilæans were -under the impression that Josephus was a truthful and reliable man, -and were supporting him with all their might, he sent his brother -Simon, with a hundred chosen followers, to the Synhedrion at Jerusalem, -there to lodge a complaint against the governor, begging of the Great -Council to recall him from his post. The President of the Synhedrion, -Simon ben Gamaliel, who was a friend of John, and who entirely -discredited the sincerity of Josephus, as well as Anan, the former high -priest, supported this charge, and decreed that four envoys be sent -to Galilee, with orders that Josephus lay down his office, and that -they be invested with the power of bringing him, alive or dead, to -Jerusalem. The larger communities of Tiberias, Sepphoris, and Gabara -were instructed by the Synhedrion to afford no protection to Josephus, -who was an enemy to his country, but to support John of Gischala in his -stead. - -Once more Josephus was in great peril. But, as usual, he saved himself -by his own ready wit and crafty policy. On the one hand, he would not -give up the post which had become dear to him; and, on the other, -he did not wish to disobey the orders of the Synhedrion. As soon as -the decrees of the Great Council were made known to him, through -his father, who was living in Jerusalem, he took his precautionary -measures. He pretended to be in active preparation for a revolt from -Rome, and perplexed the envoys by the evasive replies he gave them, -assuring them, with a resigned air, when they ordered him to depart -instantly for Jerusalem, that he was more than ready to lay down his -office. But all the while he was inciting the Galilæans to hatred of -the envoys, who, in traveling from one town to another, found that they -were not furthering their mission, but that, on the contrary, they -were often in danger of being roughly handled by Josephus' friends. -Weary of this useless journeying, the envoys, on the advice of John of -Gischala, sent secret messengers throughout Galilee, declaring Josephus -outlawed. A traitor revealed this resolution to the governor. With an -energy deserving of a better cause, Josephus sent his troops to guard -the passes leading from the Galilæan towns to Jerusalem, and had the -messengers seized and brought into his presence. He then summoned all -his devoted followers (who came streaming from all the small towns and -villages of Galilee) to appear armed before him, and told them he was -the victim of a fiendish plot. This was enough to lash them into a -frenzy of rage, and they would have torn the envoys to pieces had not -Josephus, with wonderfully assumed generosity, quieted their wrath. -He then sent for some of the most simple-minded and credulous men of -his province whom he easily persuaded into going to Jerusalem, there -to extol his government, to entreat of the Synhedrion to leave their -beloved governor at his post, and to recall the hated envoys. - -Meanwhile, these latter, finding they could achieve nothing in Upper -Galilee, withdrew from that part of the province and appeared in -Tiberias. But Josephus was there before them, ready to frustrate -all their plans. In their extreme vexation and perplexity, they had -commanded the people to keep a day of fasting and humiliation, when -prayer was to be offered up for Divine help, without which no earthly -weapons were of avail. The people answered to this call by assembling -in great numbers in the arena of Tiberias, a place capable of holding -many thousands. Although every one was supposed to be unarmed, Josephus -and his soldiers managed to conceal weapons under their cloaks. Prayers -for Divine help were followed by angry discussions; at last, words gave -place to action, and Josephus' followers, drawing their arms, rushed -frantically upon his enemies. The populace sided with Josephus, who was -once more saved from deadly peril. Meanwhile, the Galilæan messengers -who had been sent to Jerusalem produced so favorable an impression for -Josephus in that city, that the envoys were recalled, and the governor -reinstated in his official post. Josephus revenged himself upon his -enemies by sending the envoys back to Jerusalem in chains, thus -treating the Synhedrion with contempt. - -But whilst he was bringing civil war upon Galilee, contempt upon -the Synhedrion, disunion amongst the patriots, whilst he was urging -the important city of Tiberias to rebellion, the Galilæan capital, -Sepphoris, with its Roman proclivities, had ample time to make -overtures to the Empire. Josephus must bear the eternal opprobrium -of having unmanned and broken the one strong bulwark of Judæa, the -vigorous and warlike Galilee, and this he accomplished through -indecision, egotism, want of tact, and above all, his extraordinary -duplicity. He certainly did strengthen some of the fortresses, or -rather he did not prevent their garrisons from doing so, but when the -Romans appeared in the land they found neither an army nor a nation -to oppose them. Every fortress had to depend upon its own resources. -The Galilæans, without confidence in their leader, and exhausted by -constant strife, were becoming self-seeking if not cowardly. - -It would indeed be difficult for us to believe the numerous instances -recorded of craft and duplicity on the part of Josephus, had he not -dwelt upon them himself with unexampled shamelessness. All that had -been gained during the four months' rebellion in Jerusalem was lost -during the five fatal months of his governorship of Galilee (from Nov., -66, to March, 67), and this was before the enemy had even threatened -to appear, for the Romans during that time had been inactive in Judæa. -The Emperor Nero was courting popular favor in Greece, by appearing in -the arena as singer, player, and charioteer. Whilst engaged in these -engrossing pursuits, there came upon him like a thunderbolt the news -of the rising in Judæa and the defeat of the Roman army under Cestius. -Nero trembled, for the revolution in Judæa might be the precursor of -grave events. The emperor was then apprised of the death of his general -Cestius, and none could tell whether he had met with a natural death, -or had died heartbroken at his defeat. - -Nero selected as his successor Flavius Vespasian, who had won his -laurels fighting against the Britons, and who was known to be one of -the ablest generals of his time. But so great was the alarm felt at -the Judæan rebellion and its possible consequences, that Licinius -Mucianus was chosen as special governor of Syria, and ordered to quell -all dangerous symptoms of disaffection that might appear among the -Parthians. Vespasian was not in the emperor's favor at that time, and -Nero would far rather have given some other general his post; but the -emperor had no choice, for the ability of Vespasian was unquestionable, -and Judæa required a strong hand. Vespasian started from Greece in -the winter season, and commenced his preparations for the campaign -in Ptolemais. His son Titus, who first won renown in fighting against -the Judæans, brought two legions from Alexandria, the fifth and -tenth, those wild Decumani whose cruelty, already experienced by the -Alexandrian Judæans, was now for the first time to be felt by their -Palestinean brethren. Vespasian was met in Ptolemais by all who wished -to express their feelings of friendliness towards the Romans; amongst -others came Agrippa with his sister Berenice. Agrippa had been accused -by the Tyrians of being in secret league with the rebellious Judæans, -and was therefore regarded with some suspicion by Vespasian; but he -came at the head of his troops as a loyal subject-prince, whilst his -beautiful sister Berenice, still beautiful in spite of having passed -her first youth, captivated the general's son Titus, and kept him -enslaved for many years to come. - -Vespasian's army, consisting of Roman troops and mercenaries, amounted -to more than 50,000 men, besides the countless horde that was in the -habit of following in the wake of armies. Early in the spring the -army was equipped, and the campaign began by the despatch of small -bands to clear the way of Judæan scouts, on the roads leading to the -fortified places. Vespasian, far more prudent than his predecessor -Cestius, instead of displaying great energy, carried on the campaign -from beginning to end with extreme caution, seeking to cut the ground, -step by step, from under his enemies' feet. Josephus and his troops -were slowly but surely driven back; in open battle he was often -shamefully defeated, for his men had no confidence in his generalship, -and his army literally melted away at the sight of the enemy. With how -different a spirit were the followers of John of Gischala inspired! As -soon as the hostile forces approached Jotapata, the inhabitants of that -city offered desperate resistance, and although they could not break -through the serried ranks of the Romans, they fought so bravely that -they put the vanguard to flight. - -Vespasian determined upon effecting the subjection of Galilee before -turning his steps towards the capital, and to accomplish this purpose -he marched upon the fortresses in the north of that province, Gabara -and Jotapata. The first, insufficiently fortified, was soon taken and -burnt. The entire population of the garrison were put to the sword, -to avenge the defeat of the Romans at Jerusalem. The unfortunate -inhabitants of the entire district suffered a similar fate, for they -were either cruelly butchered or sold into slavery. The war now became -one of revenge and extermination. But Josephus remained far from the -scene of action in his capital at Tiberias, which at his flight thither -was filled with terror. - -Josephus would gladly have gone over to the enemy, but some remote -feeling of shame prevented him from taking this unpardonable step -at the beginning of the war. He proceeded to lay a statement of the -condition of his unhappy province before the Synhedrion, demanded -instruction as to his movements, whether he was to resist the enemy (in -which case he would require reinforcements), or whether he was to enter -into negotiations with Vespasian. The province of Galilee, although far -more thickly populated than Judæa, counting more than three millions -of souls, now already required military aid, so terribly had it been -weakened by Josephus' inefficient management. - -Vespasian marched from Gabara to Jotapata, but his troops had to make -their way with the greatest difficulty, for the Judæans had endeavored -to bar the narrow passes and render the road impassable. The rock upon -which the fortress of Jotapata was built is surrounded by steep and -lofty hills, from which it is separated by abrupt precipices. There -existed only one practicable entrance to the fortress, and this was on -the north side, but it was firmly protected by a high wall bristling -with towers. Upon this wall were gathered all possible instruments for -repelling the enemy; great pieces of rock, slings for throwing stones, -bows and arrows, and weapons of countless sorts. Against this one -approach all the efforts of the Romans were directed. They confronted -it with sixty storming machines, from which, in one uninterrupted -volley, poured spears, stones, and slings containing ignitible matter. -But the besieged fought with such bitterness, and with such cool -contempt of death, that even the Romans grew weary. The Galilæans -not only repulsed the storming parties, and often destroyed their -machinery, but they also made successful sorties. The siege lasted more -than forty days, when at last, through the treachery of a Galilæan, the -fortress fell. Thus the Romans were able to surprise the besieged at -daybreak, when they fell upon the exhausted sentinels, and then put the -garrison to the sword. Many, however, of their devoted victims, rather -than fall into the hands of their terrible adversaries, sought death by -flinging themselves over the walls, or by falling on their own weapons. -Forty thousand men lost their lives in this siege, and more than a -thousand women and children were sold into slavery, whilst the fortress -was razed to the ground. But Jotapata had shown her unhappy country how -to fall with honor and glory. A few days previously Japha (Japhia) had -been taken, its men, both old and young, slaughtered, and its women and -children sold as slaves. - -Josephus had been actually within the walls of the fortress of Jotapata -throughout the siege. He had arrived from Tiberias at the first news of -the enemy's approach, and placed himself at the head of the garrison. -But divining rightly enough that all resistance would eventually prove -hopeless, he had attempted to abandon his people, and had only been -prevented from doing this by the besieged. When the Romans entered -the fortress, Josephus sought concealment in a huge cistern, in which -hiding-place he found forty of his own soldiers. When their retreat -was discovered, Josephus was called upon to give himself up to the -Romans. This exactly coincided with his own wishes, as his person was -to be protected; but his companions, pointing their swords against his -breast, swore that sooner than allow him to dishonor the Judæans by -his cowardice they would instantly take his life. Entirely at their -mercy, he consented to their proposal that they should all die then and -there. Each soldier swore that he would fall by the hand of one of his -companions, and each in turn fell heroically. But Josephus broke his -word to the dead as he had broken it to the living. He and one comrade -being the only survivors, he succeeded, partly by persuasion and partly -by force, in disarming his companion, and in delivering himself into -the hands of the Romans. Vespasian treated him with extreme courtesy, -as if he had never looked upon him as an enemy. Although he bore the -semblance of a prisoner, he was allowed to wear a robe of honor. -Vespasian loaded him with presents, Titus was his constant companion, -and he was permitted to select a wife from the captive maidens. - -Joppa's turn to fall before the conquerors soon followed upon that -of Japha and Jotapata, whilst the people of Tiberias, thoroughly -discouraged by the conduct of Josephus, were not long in opening the -gates of their city to the Romans. - -Thus, one year after the revolt in Jerusalem, the greater part of -the province of Galilee, which had defended itself with all the fire -of patriotism, with all the zeal of a free country, and with all the -enthusiasm of its faith, was ruined, depopulated, and more thoroughly -than ever made subject to its conquerors. - -It was upon this occasion that Agrippa proved that his conduct to -the Judæans was not solely influenced by his fear of the Romans. For -Vespasian gave him free control over them in his own province, and he -chose to sell those unfortunate people into captivity, when he might -either have chastised them or given them their liberty. - -The Galilæan Zealots were in possession of only three fortified -places--Gamala, Mount Tabor, and Gischala--in the extreme north. Joseph -of Gamala and Chares were the leaders of the insurgents in Gamala. -All in vain had one of Agrippa's officers besieged the place for some -months; the Zealots held out, until at last Vespasian with his force -approached the fortress. The story of the siege constitutes one of -the most heroic pages in the whole account of the war. For many days -the besieged fought from their walls in a manner worthy of the first -great Zealot Judas. At the end of three weeks the battering-rams of the -Romans opened a breach in the walls, through which the enemy crept. As -the besieged retired, their assailants followed them into a labyrinth -of narrow streets, and found themselves suddenly attacked from the -house-tops. The Romans tried to save themselves by clambering on some -low-roofed houses, but these were too weak to bear their weight and -gave way, burying the men in their ruins. The besieged then seized upon -huge stones--their whole city, so to speak--and hurled them upon their -enemies' heads, so that flight was impossible. - -This victory, falling upon the Feast of Tabernacles, was a glorious day -for the men of Gamala; but it was dearly bought, for the corpses of -the Romans lay upon the bodies of many Judæan warriors, who could ill -be spared. Chares, one of their leaders, was mortally wounded. At last -the Romans, after secretly mining one of the fortified towers, made a -feint of attacking it; the Judæans rushed to the battlements, and were -preparing for defense, when the walls gave way and fell with a fearful -crash, burying the besieged, amongst whom was the sole remaining -leader, Joseph, the son of the midwife. The siege was now practically -over, for the Romans poured in, and slaughtered every man they met. -Nearly five thousand died by their own hands; only two maidens were -left out of the whole population of Gamala. - -Meanwhile the fortress of Mount Tabor was taken by the strategy of -Placidus. It stood isolated on an almost perpendicular height, rising -sixteen hundred feet from the plain of Jezreel. From its position it -was invincible. But Placidus tempted the greater part of the garrison -out of the fortress by feigned flight. When his pursuers were close -upon him, his cavalry wheeled around and threw themselves upon the -unfortunate Judæans, of whom some few fled to Jerusalem, whilst the -weakened fortress opened her gates to the enemy. - -The small city of Gischala, garrisoned by very few men, under the -leadership of John, could not possibly hold out against the Romans. -Upon the approach of Titus, John begged for a twenty-four hours' truce -before the capitulation of his fortress, ostensibly to preserve the -sanctity of the Sabbath. Upon the acquiescence of the Roman general, -he made his escape from the city, followed by many thousands of his -people. On the morrow Gischala capitulated, her gates were thrown open, -and her walls razed to the ground. But, indignant at the conduct of the -Judæan leader, Titus ordered him to be hotly pursued. John succeeded, -however, in reaching Jerusalem with a remnant of his army, whilst -numbers of fugitives of both sexes and of every age were captured and -massacred by the Roman soldiery. This was the last death-struggle -of besieged Galilee. But the Romans were so thoroughly exhausted by -those desperate encounters, and their ranks were so much thinned by -their long warfare, that Vespasian was obliged to declare a truce to -hostilities. - - - - -CHAPTER XI. - -DESTRUCTION OF THE JUDÆAN STATE. - - Galilæan Fugitives in Jerusalem--Condition of the - Capital--Internal Contests--The Idumæans--Eleazer ben - Simon, John of Gischala, and Simon Bar-Giora--Progress of - the War--Affairs in Rome--Vespasian created Emperor--Siege - of Jerusalem by Titus--Heroic Defense--Famine--Fall of the - Fortress Antonia--Burning of the Temple--Destruction of the - City--Number of the Slain. - - 67.70 C. E. - - -Jerusalem was the rallying point of all the Galilæan fugitives. -Thither many thousands had been brought by John of Gischala, and -thither numbers fled from Tiberias; there, where the last stroke of -the nation's destiny was to fall, patriotism, ambition, revenge, and -despair were all duly represented. The Galilæan Zealots' burning -account of their desperate resistance to the Roman arms, and of -the massacre of the weak and defenseless by the soldiers of Titus, -had stirred the blood of the people of Jerusalem. The despondent -drew fresh courage, and the fearless still greater ardor from the -words of these enthusiasts. The defenders of their country, daily -growing in numbers, and heroic in deed as well as in word, considered -themselves invincible. When the Zealots looked upon the fortresses -of their capital, the last shadow of alarm melted away. The Romans, -they declared, must have wings to take those walls and those towers, -whose defenders were iron-hearted men. Had it not cost Rome a -desperate struggle to conquer Galilee; what then had the strongly -fortified capital to fear? This overwrought condition of the Judæans -was stimulated by their ardent belief that the Messianic period, so -long foretold by the prophets, was actually dawning, when every -other nation of the earth would be given into the dominion of Israel. -In spite of the loss of Galilee and of its brave defenders, coins -were struck, bearing this inscription: "In the first or second year -of the deliverance or freedom of Israel," and on the reverse side: -"Simon, Prince of Israel." But the Zealots were indulging in fatal -self-confidence, almost as dangerous to their cause as the treachery of -Josephus and the conquest of Galilee. - -Never had Jerusalem been so populous, so beautiful, and so strong as at -the moment when she was doomed to destruction; it was as if she was to -learn the bitter lesson that outward strength and outward glory alone -are of but little avail. Within the fortifications, the circumference -of Jerusalem was nearly one geographical mile in extent, embracing -the suburbs of Bethany and Bethphage, where the worshipers who came -up thrice a year to the holy city found shelter. It is difficult to -compute the exact population of Jerusalem. From one source we learn -that it contained six hundred thousand souls; but then we must further -take into account the numbers that had streamed into the city for -protection. - -The Zealots had not succeeded in imparting their enthusiasm to the -inhabitants of the country towns; many of the wealthiest and shrewdest, -seeing no possible advantage to themselves in the continuation of the -war, were ready to capitulate. Thus only the very young and men of no -worldly position devoted themselves to the cause of the revolutionists. -Every community, every family, was divided against itself, some -clamoring for war and others demanding peace; but as the former had -no rallying point in their own towns, they all sought kindred spirits -in Jerusalem, and increased the number of Zealots in that city. The -fortress of Masada alone, commanded by Eleazer ben Jair, was a -hotbed of insurgents; it was the Jerusalem of the Sicarii, who were -strengthened by the leadership of Simon Bar-Giora. This man, who was -to play a leading part in the war, was remarkable for his physical -strength, and distinguished for his reckless courage, a quality which -did not desert him until his last breath. At the flight of the Roman -troops under Cestius he followed amongst the very first upon the heels -of the fugitives. He then gathered a number of free-lances about -him, and led a wild life in the neighborhood of the Dead Sea, namely -in Acrabattine. When the inhabitants of that district complained -in Jerusalem that he imperiled their safety, the moderate party of -the Zealots sent a troop against him, obliging him to take refuge -in Masada. It was from this place that he and the Sicarii undertook -armed expeditions into Idumæa for the purpose of cattle-lifting and -forage-hunting. This roused the Idumæans to retaliate by opposing his -force with a large army numbering twenty thousand men. These rival -hosts outdid each other in patriotism, fierce courage, and recklessness. - -The stream of patriots daily pouring into Jerusalem fanned the -excitement and warlike energy of the inhabitants, embittered as they -were by Josephus' duplicity and defection. For, as long as the Judæans -believed that he was buried under the ruins of Jotapata, his name was -mentioned with reverence, but as soon as the tidings spread that he -was in the Roman camp, and treated with consideration by the Roman -generals, their feelings of pity were changed into violent hatred. The -ultra-Zealots were filled with suspicion and distrust, and they looked -upon all who were not in favor of extreme measures as traitors to the -cause. - -Eleazer ben Simon, the leader of the Zealots, and a man of great -penetration, nursed a special feeling of hatred against the Synhedrion, -a body that bound him, valiant and aspiring patriot as he was, to a -life of inaction. And who presided in the Synhedrion? Josephus' friend -and chosen companion, Joshua ben Gamala, who had not attempted to -depose the Governor of Galilee, even when his duplicity was clearly -proved. And who was the treasurer? Antipas, a Herodian, a near relative -of King Agrippa. Was it not more than likely that the Synhedrion and -the Herodians would throw open the gates of their city at the approach -of the Romans? This was the prevailing feeling of the Zealots, and they -believed themselves strong enough to take the government into their own -hands, and by desperate exertions to prosecute the war undisturbed. - -It was not surprising that from day to day the feeling of enmity -between the Zealots and the more moderate Synhedrists should grow -in intensity, for it was a war of life and death in which they were -engaged. Matters were brought to a crisis by the Zealots falling upon -and imprisoning those persons whose relationship to the royal house -and whose doubtful opinions seemed to proclaim them to be secret -conspirators. But they did not halt at this step. They degraded those -belonging to the family of the high-priest from their position, -and replaced them by representatives chosen from the people. They -determined upon divesting the high-priest of his office (of late -years the Romans had held the conferring of this dignity in their own -hands), and raising to this exalted rank an unknown priest of the name -of Phineas ben Samuel, of the city of Aphta. It was said of Phineas, -probably to disparage him, that he had originally been a stone-mason -or an agriculturist. He was brought by the Zealots with due solemnity -from his homely surroundings, was invested with the priestly garments, -and was materially aided by his rich friends to maintain the dignity -of his state, whilst Matthias ben Theophilus, who had been chosen -high-priest by Agrippa, was deposed. The Synhedrists, whose leaders -belonged principally to the high-priesthood, and who looked upon the -instalment of Phineas as an outrage to their sacred calling, were -beside themselves with indignation at this step. Anan, whose audacity -of speech and great wealth entitled him to a prominent position in -the Synhedrion, induced the citizens of Jerusalem to rebel, and to -attack the Zealots sword in hand, and thus the civil war commenced. -The moderate party, who were numerically the stronger, drove their -antagonists step by step out of every district of the city up to the -Mount of the Temple, where they forced them to take refuge within -the second wall of the citadel. Meanwhile, a rumor spread that Anan -had called upon the Roman general for help. This was enough to bring -John of Gischala with his troops to the gates of the capital. Twenty -thousand Idumæans, men who rejoiced in an appeal to reckless and savage -soldiery, under the leadership of John, Simon, Phineas, and Jacob, -appeared likewise before Jerusalem, ready to wield their swords in -favor of the Zealots who were besieged in the Temple. Anan prepared -for the assault by barring the gates and doubling his sentinels. But -in the ensuing night his troops were seized with a panic. A terrific -storm of thunder, lightning, and drenching rain raged over Jerusalem. -The Idumæans, men of bold character and hardy nature, did not flinch -from their position, but many of the sentinels on the walls sought -shelter from the violence of the elements and deserted their posts. -The ever-watchful Zealots within the fortifications were thus able to -communicate with their Idumæan allies and to effect their entrance. The -besiegers threw themselves upon some of the unsuspecting watch, whilst -the Zealots overpowered others. The citizens were roused to arms and -a terrible battle ensued. The moderate party laid their weapons down -in despair, as the Idumæans pouring into the city massacred all those -whom they suspected of being friendly to Anan. The morning sun dawned -upon a hideous mass of corpses, for more than 8000 dead bodies were -found in the city. - -The Zealots were now the victors, and their reign of terror began. -They committed to trial, not without some show of justice, and then -executed, all persons suspected of having been concerned in the -conspiracy. Anan and Joshua ben Gamala were necessarily amongst the -victims, and the bitterness which was felt towards them was so great -that their unburied bodies were thrown to the dogs. The Synhedrion -naturally ceased to exist, so many of its members having been executed; -but a new Synhedrion seems to have been called into being by the -Zealots, no longer of aristocratic and high-priestly elements, but -rather of a democratic order, also numbering seventy members. - -The Idumæans were as heartily disliked by the Zealots as they were by -the moderate party, and many of them were courteously persuaded to -withdraw from Jerusalem. Meanwhile the reign of terror continued, and -amongst others fell Niger, the hero from Peræa, probably because he -had upheld the Synhedrists. In fact, this one case corroborates the -general rule that every revolution devours its originators. For Niger -was one of those who had strained every nerve to support the first -rising amongst the Judæans, and his death was a blot upon the rule of -the Zealots. In order to check the anarchy which followed the overthrow -of the Synhedrion, John of Gischala threw himself boldly into the -front ranks, and was warmly supported by the Galilæan fugitives. His -heroic bearing soon secured him the following of the most fiery of the -Judæans, whose devotion to himself rivaled that of his own Galilæans. -John was born to be a leader of men; for not only was he dauntless -as a commander, but he excelled others in penetration and fertility -of invention. This superiority naturally awakened the jealousy of -the Zealot leaders in Jerusalem, who were not a little afraid of his -becoming sole dictator and lawgiver. - -Meanwhile the Romans were remaining absolutely quiet. Vespasian was far -too prudent to attack the lion in his lair, in spite of the repeated -assurances of his followers that the conquest of Jerusalem would be -an easy task. He chose to wait until the Judæans, weakened by their -internal strife, would be entirely at his mercy. His troops, after -spending an inactive winter (67-68), opened a new campaign in the -spring against Peræa and many distant parts of Judæa, where thousands -were slain in obstinate and hard fighting. Vespasian returned to -Cæsarea at the end of this campaign, and left Jerusalem undisturbed for -two years. He was led to this course by two different events: the fresh -outburst of civil war in Jerusalem, the death of Nero, and the fact -that his successor had been chosen and triumphantly installed by the -Spanish and Gallic legions. - -The lawless Simon Bar-Giora, who had kindled the war in Jerusalem, -could not rest in Masada, where the Sicarii had received him, for he -was ambitious and eager for action. Thus he left the fortress, and -collecting a number of slaves, to whom he held out promises of freedom -and plunder, appeared before Jerusalem, ready to play an important part -in the war. But the Zealots were afraid of him, and wished to make -him powerless. They did not dare meet him in open battle, for he had -already been their conqueror; so they waited in ambush, and made his -wife and some of his soldiery prisoners, hoping to crush him by this -cowardly action. But Bar-Giora was a stern-hearted warrior, and, in -retaliation, threw himself upon the defenseless Judæans who ventured -outside the walls to procure the necessaries of life. The Judæans, -alarmed at this revenge, sent back his wife, while Bar-Giora was more -determined than ever to make himself master of the capital. Day and -night he waited and watched for some means of ingress, and at last he -obtained what he wished through the party of the aristocrats. - -In spite of the loss of their most prominent men, this party had not -really ceased to exist, but was secretly working to destroy the power -of the Zealots. At their head stood the high-priest Matthias, the son -of Boëthus, and others belonging to the great priestly families. They -knew how to enlist upon their side many of the populace who were unable -to leave the city, and who were afraid of the consequences of the civil -war. In league with the Idumæans, they suddenly made a well-directed -attack upon the Zealots, over whom they gained a signal, but only a -momentary advantage, for, recovering themselves from this defeat, the -Zealots assembled upon the Mount of the Temple, and prepared to show a -bold front to their opponents. The latter, much discomfited, appealed -to Bar-Giora for assistance, and thus a fatal division was brought -within the very walls of Jerusalem. - -With the entry of this commander, civil war began in its most terrible -form. Bar-Giora commanded his followers to surround the Mount of the -Temple, where the Zealots lay entrenched. From the galleries and from -the roofs the besieged were able not only to defend themselves, but -also to repulse their assailants. In spite of his impatience, Bar-Giora -was obliged to withdraw and to take up a safer position in the town. - -Vespasian, who was informed of all these movements, quietly bided his -time, convinced that the losing side would sooner or later demand his -help, and that then victory would be easy. He felt indisposed, through -various circumstances, to undertake a long and difficult siege, but -was inclined rather to keep his hands free for the final struggle. -Nero had ended his shameful life with a shameful death (68), and Galba, -who succeeded him as emperor, held the reins of power with an aged -and trembling grasp. Old and childless, he had to think of choosing -a successor. At this critical time, when every day was pregnant with -some important event, Vespasian did not think it prudent to devote -himself to the siege of Jerusalem. He adopted a waiting, watchful -policy, and sent his son Titus with King Agrippa to Rome to receive -the new emperor, and, as people said, to be adopted by him as heir -to his vast empire. But when Titus heard, upon arriving in Corinth, -that Galba had been murdered (5 Jan., 69), and that two emperors had -been elected by the legions in his stead--Otho in Rome, and Vitellius -in Lower Germany, he hurried back to Judæa, not only buoyed up by -the secret hopes of seeing his father created emperor in the general -confusion which was pending, but also attracted by a powerful magnet, -the beautiful Princess Berenice, who, in spite of living according to -orthodox Judæan custom, did not hesitate to carry on an intrigue with -the heathen Titus. Otho could retain possession of the purple only for -one hundred days, at the end of which time he found himself forced -to fight against Vitellius, whom the German legions had borne upon -their shields, by way of teaching the Spanish legions that they were -fittest to choose and instal an emperor. They also wished to make it -evident that the emperor need not owe his election only to Rome and the -Prætorian Guard, but should be the choice also of the legions in the -provinces. Vitellius' army gained the victory, and Otho, after brave -resistance, fell by his own hand. Meanwhile Vespasian was dreaming of -the moment when he should drape himself in the stained imperial mantle, -but he hesitated before putting his scheme into execution. He wished -to be driven to it. Partly, he feared Licinius Mucianus, governor of -Syria, who commanded more legions than he did, and with whom he was not -on very friendly terms. But Vespasian's son Titus, who made no secret -of his ambition, won over Mucianus to urge his father into allowing -himself to be proclaimed emperor. It was also absolutely essential to -obtain the support of Tiberius Alexander, the son of the Alabarch and -the governor of that most important province--Egypt. This move in the -great game was due to the hand of a woman. The Princess Berenice was a -friend of the Egyptian governor, and she was furthering the imperial -election as an affair of the heart. Titus' love for her was so openly -avowed that all her court were convinced that he had promised her -marriage. It was therefore not unnatural that she should employ all the -means suggested by her imagination, and made possible by her personal -charms, to attain this end. The most important step was to gain -Tiberius Alexander's support for Vespasian, and in this she succeeded -admirably. The governor of Egypt responded to her appeal by making his -legions swear fealty to him whom they now called emperor. A few days -later the legions stationed in Judæa, and the Syrian troops under the -command of Mucianus, also tendered their allegiance to Vespasian. The -possession of the coveted purple was enough to make Vespasian for the -time being forgetful of the conquest of Judæa. Accompanied by his son -Titus, he repaired to Egypt, where they received the news of Vitellius' -death (Dec., 69), an event which had drawn forth but the contemptuous -scorn of his people. - -And how did Jerusalem spend the two years of peace that Vespasian -granted her? There were originally four distinct factions in the -city, without counting the more moderate. These were the Jerusalem -Zealots under Eleazer ben Simon and Simon ben Ezron, consisting only -of two thousand four hundred members, the Galilæan Zealots under -John, numbering six thousand armed men, the Simonists and Sicarii -outnumbering the rest by their army of ten thousand, and the Idumæans -under Jacob ben Sosa and Simon ben Kathla, a troop of five thousand -men. These twenty-four thousand heroic patriots might have put their -valor to some account in one decisive battle could they but have acted -in harmony. But not one of their leaders was capable of sacrificing -his own ambition to the general good. The followers of Eleazer claimed -precedence on the grounds of their being natives of Jerusalem and of -having thus given the first impulse to the movement. John insisted upon -his superiority on account of his quickness of perception and readiness -in action, and Simon felt revengeful towards the Zealots, who had -dared quell his disorder. Members of the four different factions were -perpetually meeting and fighting in the streets, giving the enemy both -the time and the opportunity to devastate the surrounding country; for -it was almost certain that no one faction would dare oppose the Romans, -and equally certain that the four factions would not combine in arms -against them. - -Titus, the new heir to the imperial throne, at last made his appearance -before Jerusalem (February, 70), fully expecting that he would be -able to force the city into submission; for it was almost a reproach -to the Romans that this rebellious capital should have maintained -her independence for four years. The prestige of the new imperial -house seemed in some measure to depend upon the fall of Jerusalem; a -protracted siege would necessarily imply weakness in the military power -of Vespasian and his son. - -Although Titus was eagerly looking forward to the subjection of Judæa, -he could not complete his preparations for the siege of Jerusalem -before the spring. He collected an army of not less than eighty -thousand men, who came, bringing with them the largest number of -battering machines that had been used in the warfare of that time. -Three traitors amongst the Judæans were most useful to him in his -laborious undertakings--King Agrippa, who not only brought a contingent -of men, but who also tried to influence the inhabitants of Jerusalem in -favor of the Romans; Tiberius Alexander, who sealed his apostasy from -Judaism by going into battle against his own nation; and Josephus, the -constant companion of Titus, who, from being a prisoner, had become a -guide in the country which he knew so well. Titus was not experienced -enough in the art of war, and so bade the Judæan apostate stand by -his side, and gave him the command of his own body-guard (Præfectus -prætorio). But the hostile factions had drawn together when this new -danger threatened them. Shortly before the Passover festival numbers -of devoted men streamed into Jerusalem to defend their holy city. The -elders and chiefs had sent messengers to the people living in the -outlying provinces, praying for help, and their request was not made in -vain. The walls of Jerusalem were fortified more strongly than ever. - -At last Titus assembled his huge army from all sides and encamped -at Scopus-Zophim, north of Jerusalem. He summoned in the first -instance the inhabitants to surrender; he demanded only submission, -acknowledgment of the Roman rule, and payment of the taxes. Eager as -he was to return to Rome, where all the enjoyments belonging to his -great position were awaiting him, he was ready to deal gently with the -Judæans. Besides which, his devotion to a Judæan princess, who, in -spite of her errors, still clung faithfully to the holy city, made him -anxious to spare that city from destruction. But the Judæans refused -all negotiation. They had sworn to defend their city with their lives, -and would not hear of surrender. Then the siege began in earnest. All -the gardens and groves to the north and west of Jerusalem, the first -points of the attack, were unsparingly destroyed. - -Titus, anxious to reconnoitre the ground, advanced with a few followers -to the north wall, where he narrowly escaped being taken prisoner. -The first feat of arms upon the part of the Judæans was crowned with -success, and seemed a good omen for the future. A few days later they -surprised and totally discomfited the Tenth Legion, who were pitching -their tents on the Mount of Olives. But, unfortunately, this skirmish -proved fruitless, for the Judæans were always obliged to retreat to -their fortresses, not, however, without having convinced the Romans -that they would have a desperate foe to encounter. The besiegers -succeeded in pitching their camps on three sides of the city, and -in raising their engines against the outer wall. Titus commenced -operations during the Passover festival (March or April, 70), when -he believed that the Judæans would not be willing to fight. But as -soon as the engines were in working order, they rushed like demons -from their retreat, destroying the battering-rams, scattering the -workmen, and bringing alarm and confusion upon the enemy. Not only the -Zealots, but all who could carry arms took part in the defense, the -women setting splendid examples of heroism to the men. The besieged -threw masses of stone upon their assailants, poured boiling oil upon -their heads, seized the ponderous missiles that were hurled into the -city, and turned them into tools of destruction against the Romans. -But the latter succeeded in repairing their broken battering-rams, and -in forcing the Judæans, after fifteen days of conflict, back from the -outer wall. This wall, the scene of a desperate struggle, was at last -taken by the Romans, who, while making themselves masters of it, seized -the suburban town of Bezetha. - -The skirmishes were now carried on daily, and with increasing -bitterness. After seventeen days of unremitting labor, the Romans -succeeded in raising their banks opposite the Antonine tower. But John -of Gischala and some heroic followers of Bar-Giora, creeping through a -subterranean passage, destroyed these works by setting fire to them. -With the ever-increasing danger grew the heroism of the besieged. All -Josephus' persuasive words, prompted by Titus, were useless. There were -but two courses left open to them--victory or death. At the very outset -of the siege they had learned what they would have to expect from the -Romans. Titus, surnamed "Delight of all Mankind," crucified, at times, -five hundred of his prisoners in a day. Again, he would send them back -into the city after cutting off their hands. He was, however, forced to -acknowledge to himself that the siege would be one of long duration. -But the horrors of famine were soon to come to his assistance. All -egress from and ingress into the besieged city being rigorously -prevented, the provisions began to fail amongst the thickly-crowded -populace. Houses and streets were filled with unburied corpses, and -the pangs of starvation seemed to destroy all feelings of pity in -the unfortunate survivors. The prospect--a terrible one indeed--of a -lingering death sent numbers of deserters to the Romans, where they -met with a pitiful fate. As the number of these unfortunate fugitives -increased, the Zealots treated those whom they suspected of defection -with still greater severity. A conspiracy being discovered amongst -Bar-Giora's followers, that leader relentlessly punished the guilty -with death. They were all beheaded in full view of the Roman camp, -amongst them being Matthias Boëthus, of priestly family. - -But in spite of the watchfulness of the Zealots, they were unable to -circumvent the traitors in all their designs. Those who were secretly -friendly to Rome shot off on their arrow-heads written accounts -concerning the state of the city, which fell into the enemy's camp. -The Zealots struggled manfully to prevent the Romans from completing -their earthworks, but at the end of twenty-one days, the battering-rams -were again pointing at the Antonine tower. The wall surrounding the -fortress fell at length under the tremendous blows from without. -What was the surprise and horror of the Romans, however, when they -discovered that a second and inner wall had been erected behind the -one they had succeeded in destroying. They tried in vain to storm it, -the Judæans repulsing a nocturnal attack. The battle lasted until the -following morning. It was at about this time that the daily sacrifices -ceased, on account of the scarcity of the animals. Titus seized this -opportunity again to summon the besieged to surrender, but the mere -sight of the interpreter who bore the message aroused the indignation -of the besieged. John of Gischala replied that the holy city could not -be destroyed, and that God held her fate in His hands. The Judæans then -withdrew to their last point of defense, the Temple. The battering-rams -were raised against the sacred walls. The unfortunate people were -compelled to destroy the colonnades leading to the Antonine tower, thus -cutting off all connection with that fortress. They spared no craft to -tire out the Romans, even setting fire to some of the pillars attached -to the Temple, and then pretending to take flight. This stratagem -succeeded in making the Romans climb over the walls, beyond which the -Judæans lay in ambush to receive them, putting them to the sword or -casting them into the flames. But the fire could not be extinguished, -and the beautiful colonnade of the western side was entirely destroyed. - -Meanwhile, the inhabitants of the city were suffering cruelly from -famine, which was sapping their life, obliterating all distinctions -between rich and poor, and giving free scope to the lowest passions. -Money had lost its value, for it could not purchase bread. Men fought -desperately in the streets over the most loathsome and disgusting food, -a handful of straw, a piece of leather, or offal thrown to the dogs. -The wealthy Martha, wife of the High Priest Joshua ben Gamala, whose -wont it had been to step on carpets from her house to the Temple, was -found searching the town like the very poorest for a morsel of food, -of even the most revolting description. As if not one line of the old -prophecy concerning the doom of Judæa was to remain unfulfilled, a -terrible scene was enacted, which struck even the enemy with horror. A -woman by the name of Miriam, who had fled from Peræa to the capital, -actually killed and devoured her own child. - -The rapidly increasing number of unburied corpses made the sultry -summer air pestilential, and the populace fell a prey to sickness, -famine, and the sword. But the army of the besieged fought on with -unbroken courage, they rushed to the battle-field, although fainting -with hunger and surrounded by grim pictures of death, as bravely as had -been their wont in the early days of the siege. The Romans were amazed -at the unflinching heroism of the Zealots, at their devotion to the -Sanctuary and to the cause of their people. In fact, they grew to look -upon them as invincible, and stimulated by this belief, some few of -their number were actually known to desert their colors and their faith -and to accept Judaism, persuaded, in their turn, that the holy city -could never fall into the hands of the enemy. Proud as the Judæans well -might be of these voluntary proselytes, at this the supreme moment of -their history, they volunteered to guard them as best they could from -the horrors of starvation. - -Meanwhile, the Romans had begun to batter the outer walls of the courts -of the Temple. For six days they had been working in vain, and had -then tried to fix their scaling ladders and storm the walls. But as -they were repulsed with great loss of life, Titus relinquished his -hope of sparing the sacred edifice, and ordered his men to set fire to -the gates. For a whole night and the next day the fire raged fiercely; -then Titus commanded that it should be extinguished, and that a road -should be leveled for the advance of his legions. A council of war -was hastily summoned to decide upon the fate of the Sanctuary. This -council consisted of six of the chief generals of the army, three of -whom advised the destruction of the Temple, which, if spared, would -inevitably remain as a focus for rebellion. Titus was opposed to this -decision, partly on account of the Princess Berenice's feelings, and -three of the council agreeing with their leader, it was decided to take -the Temple, but not to destroy it. - -On the 9th Ab, the Judæans made another desperate sally, but were -driven back by an overpowering force of the besiegers. But the hour of -the city's doom was about to strike, and in striking, leave an echo -that would ring through the centuries to come. The besieged attempted -one more furious onslaught upon their enemies. They were again -defeated, and again driven back to their sheltering walls. But this -time they were closely followed by the Romans, one of whom, seizing a -burning firebrand, mounted upon a comrade's shoulders, and flung his -terrible missile through the so-called golden window of the Temple. -The fire blazed up; it caught the wooden beams of the sanctuary, and -rose in flames heavenwards. At this sight the bravest of the Judæans -recoiled terror-stricken. Titus hurried to the spot with his troops, -and shouted to the soldiers to extinguish the flames. But no one -heeded him. The maddened soldiery plunged into the courts of the -Temple, murdering all who came within their reach, and hurling their -firebrands into the blazing building. Titus, unable to control his -legions, and urged by curiosity, penetrated into the Holy of Holies. - -Meanwhile, the Judæans, desperate in their death agonies, closed wildly -with their assailants. The shouts of victory, the shrieks of despair, -the fierce hissing of the flames, making the very earth tremble and the -air vibrate, rose in one hideous din, which echoed from the tottering -walls of the Sanctuary to the mountain-heights of Judæa. There were -congregated clusters of trembling people from all the country round, -who beheld in the ascending flames the sign that the glory of their -nation had departed forever. Many of the inhabitants of Jerusalem, -unwilling to outlive their beloved Temple, cast themselves headlong -into the burning mass. But thousands of men, women, and children, in -spite of the fierce onslaught of the legions and the rapidly increasing -flames, clung fondly to the inner court. For had they not been promised -by the persuasive lips of false prophets, that God would save them by -a miracle at the very moment of destruction? They fell but an easier -prey to the Romans, who slew some six thousand on the spot. The Temple -was burnt to the ground, and only a few smouldering ruins were left, -rising like gigantic ghosts from the ashes. A few of the priests had -escaped to the tops of the walls, where they remained without food for -some days, until they were compelled to surrender. Titus ordered their -instant execution, saying, "Priests must fall with their Temple." The -conquering legions raised their standards in the midst of the ruins, -sacrificed to their gods in the Holy Place, and saluted Titus as -emperor. By a strange coincidence the second Temple had fallen upon -the anniversary of the destruction of the first Temple (10th Ab, 70). -Titus, who could no longer feel bound to respect the feelings of the -Princess Berenice, gave orders that the Acra and the Ophla, different -parts of the city, should be instantly set on fire. - -But the struggle was not yet over. The leaders of the rebellion had -retreated to the upper city with some of their followers. There they -conferred with Titus. John and Simon, having sworn that they would -never lay down their arms, offered to surrender upon the condition -that they would be permitted to pass armed through the Roman camp. But -Titus sternly bade them throw themselves upon his mercy; and so the -fierce strife blazed out anew. On the 20th of Ab, the Romans began to -raise their embankments, and after eighteen days of labor the siege -of the upper city commenced. Even then the Zealots would not think -of surrender. Discovering that the Idumæans were secretly making -terms with Titus, they threw some of the ringleaders into prison, -and executed others. But the Judæan warriors were exhausted by their -super-human resistance and by the long famine, and the Romans were at -last able to scale the walls and to seize the fortresses, a prelude to -their spreading through the city, plundering and murdering the last of -the wretched inhabitants. On the 8th of Elul they set fire to all that -remained of Jerusalem, the upper city, known by the name of Zion. The -walls were entirely leveled, Titus leaving only the three fortresses of -Hippicus, Mariamne, and Phasael to stand as lasting witnesses of his -victory. Under the ruins of Jerusalem and her Temple lay buried the -last remnant of Judæa's independence. More than a million of lives had -been lost during the siege. Counting those who had fallen at Galilee, -Peræa, and the provinces, it may be assumed that the Judæans who -inhabited their native land were almost all destroyed. - -Once more did Zion sit weeping amongst the ruins, weeping over her sons -fallen in battle, over her daughters sold into slavery or abandoned to -the savage soldiery of Rome; but she was more desolate now than in the -days of her first captivity, for hushed was the voice of the prophet, -who once foretold the end of her widowhood and her mourning. - - - - -CHAPTER XII. - -THE AFTER-THROES OF THE WAR. - - Sufferings of the Prisoners--The Arena--Cruelty of - Titus--Enmity of the Antiochians--Triumph of the Emperor - on the occasion of the Conquest of Judæa--End of Simon - Bar-Giora and John of Gischala--Coins to Commemorate the - Roman Triumph--Fall of the Last Fortresses: Herodium, Masada, - and Machærus--Resistance of the Zealots in Alexandria - and Cyrene--End of the Temple of Onias--The Last of the - Zealots--Death of Berenice and Agrippa--Flavius Josephus and - his Writings. - - 70-73 C. E. - - -It would, indeed, be difficult to describe the sufferings of those who -were taken captive in the war, estimated at the number of nine hundred -thousand. The surviving inhabitants of Jerusalem were driven into the -site of the Temple, and placed under the guardianship of a certain -Fronto and a freed slave. All those who were recognized as insurgents -were crucified, the princes of Adiabene alone being spared and sent -as hostages to Rome, to secure the loyalty of the king of Adiabene. -Seventeen thousand prisoners died of hunger, many of them being -neglected by Fronto, whilst others indignantly refused the food which -their conquerors offered them. From amongst the youths above seventeen -years of age, the tallest and handsomest were selected for the Roman -triumphs, whilst others were sent to labor in the mines for the rest of -their lives, or were relegated to the Roman provinces, to take their -part in the fights of the arena. Youths under the age of sixteen and -most of the female captives were sold into slavery at an incredibly low -price, for the market was glutted. How many scenes of horror must have -been witnessed and enacted by those unfortunate ones! They had, it is -true, one ray of comfort left. Possibly they might be carried to some -Roman town where a Judæan community existed; their own people would -assuredly give any sum to purchase their freedom, and would then treat -them with brotherly sympathy. - -Vespasian now declared that all Judæa was his property by conquest, and -bade the Roman officials divide the country into lots, offering them to -the highest bidder. And why should he not do so? Had he not fertilized -the land with blood? Besides which, the sale would realize great -profits, and Vespasian cared even more for gold than for honor. - -And what was the work of the merciful Titus after ordering the -execution of thousands, and consigning thousands to slavery? In his -march through Syria he was followed by the most vigorous of his -captives in chains. When he held his court in Cæsarea, and entertained -his friends in true Roman style, wild beasts were brought into the -arena, and Judæan captives fought with them until they were torn to -death; or they were forced to fight one against another, dying by -each other's hands. Thus at Cæsarea, two thousand five hundred brave -Judæan youths perished in this manner to celebrate the birthday of -Domitian, the brother of the conqueror. And at Cæsarea Philippi, on -Mount Hermon, the residence of King Agrippa, this terrible spectacle -was renewed before the eyes of that monarch and of the Princess -Berenice. Vespasian's birthday was honored in the same way at Berytus, -the sand of the arena being literally soaked with Judæan blood. In -fact, the gentleness and humanity of Titus were strangely displayed in -all cities of Syria by a repetition of these barbarities. The Judæan -communities in Syria, Asia Minor, Alexandria, and Rome, very nearly -shared the fate of their brethren in Judæa. For the war had aroused the -hatred of the entire heathen world against the unfortunate children -of Israel--a hatred which was fanatical in its intensity, its object -being the entire destruction of the whole race. Titus' inmost feelings -must have coincided with those of his people. But strange to say, his -love for Berenice, so deeply implanted in his heart, made him, upon one -occasion, extend his mercy to her race. When he approached the city of -Antioch, the whole populace turned out to meet him and demanded nothing -less than the expulsion of the Judæan colony. But Titus replied that -"The Judæans having no country left to them, it would be inhuman to -expel them from Antioch--they had no retreat." He even refused sternly -to cancel their existing privileges. The Alexandrian Judæans also were -left undisturbed in their adopted city. - -Titus determined to celebrate his triumph over Judæa in the capital -of the empire. For this purpose seven hundred of the flower of the -Judæan captives and the two leaders of the Zealots, John of Gischala, -who had surrendered to the enemy when fainting with hunger, and Simon -Bar-Giora, were sent to Rome. At the close of the siege of Jerusalem -the dauntless Simon had leaped, with some of his followers, into one -of the vaults beneath the city, and provided with workmen's tools, -had attempted to hew his way out; but coming upon a great rock he was -prevented from accomplishing his purpose, and his slender stock of -provisions failing him, he determined to die as became a hero. In a -white robe, covered with a purple mantle, he suddenly appeared before -the Roman sentinels who were reposing amongst the ruins of the Temple. -They gazed at him with terror. He merely addressed them with the -following words: "Take me to your general." When Rufus appeared at the -sentinels' call, the leader of the Zealots presented himself before -his astonished gaze, saying: "I am Simon Bar-Giora." He was instantly -thrown into chains, and calmly awaited the fate that he knew was in -store for him. - -Vespasian and his two sons, Titus and Domitian, celebrated their -triumph over Judæa, in the imperial city of Rome. In front of the -emperor were borne the vessels of the Temple, the seven-branched -candlestick, the golden table, and a roll of the Law. The Romans were -further gladdened by the pageant of a long train of Judæan captives -heavily chained, and by the wonderful representations of all the -horrors and misery of the war--a kind of theatrical entertainment, -devised with much ingenuity for the occasion. Simon Bar-Giora (the -terrible foe of the Roman legions), with a halter round his neck, was -dragged through the streets of Rome, and finally hurled as a human -sacrifice to the gods, from the Tarpeian rock. John of Gischala met -with his fate in a dungeon. Tiberius Alexander, the conqueror of his -own race, shared in the triumph, and a statue was erected in his -honor in the Forum. Josephus was but a spectator of the scene. This -magnificent triumph, the like of which had not been witnessed for many -years in Rome, was a proof of the exultant joy, which passed like -a wave over the heathen world, at the fall of Judæa, for the Roman -legions had but rarely met with so obstinate a foe. To commemorate -this great victory, coins were struck, upon which Judæa was variously -represented, as a sorrowing woman under a palm tree, either standing -with fettered hands, or seated in a despairing attitude upon the -ground. The coins bore these inscriptions, "the Conquered" or "the -Captive Judæa" ("Judæa devicta," "Judæa capta"). Later on, a beautiful -arch was erected to Titus, which is still standing, and upon which the -carved reliefs of the candlestick and vessels of the Temple are plainly -visible. The Roman Judæans, not only at that time, but in years to -come, would take a longer or more circuitous route, to avoid seeing -this trophy. The rich spoils of the Sanctuary were deposited in the -Temple of Peace, and the roll of the Law in the imperial palace; but at -a later time, when Rome was expiating her heavy sins, these relics of -the glory of Jerusalem were carried to other countries. - -Judæa was not yet entirely subjugated, for three strong fortresses were -still in arms: Herodium, Machærus, and Masada. The governor, Bassus, -sent by Vespasian to Judæa, was commanded to take them. Herodium -surrendered immediately, but Machærus offered a stubborn resistance. -This fortress, built by Alexander Jannæus, was well defended from the -enemy by its natural position. Steep precipices and yawning ravines -made it impregnable. But it fell--and in this way: The young commander, -Eleazer, a valiant hero, was captured by the Romans, whilst fearlessly -standing without the gates, proudly reliant upon the terror of his -arms. Bassus ordered him to be scourged within view of the besieged, -and then made semblance of having him crucified. A wail of despair went -up from the fortress; the besieged, determined to save their beloved -comrade, offered to give up their citadel if his life were spared. -Bassus agreed to this proposal, and the garrison was saved; but of -the inhabitants of the lower town, the men and youths were inhumanly -butchered, to the number of 1700, and the women and children sold into -slavery. - -Three thousand Zealots, under Judas ben Jair, who had escaped by one -of the subterranean passages from Jerusalem, were hiding in a wood -on the outskirts of the Jordan. There they were, however, discovered -and surrounded by the Romans, who mercilessly destroyed them. The -death of Bassus, taking place at this time, caused the difficult task -of the conquest of Masada to devolve upon his successor Silva. This -hill-fortress was, if possible, still more inaccessible than that of -Machærus. The garrison consisted of 1000 Zealots, with their wives -and children, commanded by Eleazer ben Jair, a descendant of Judas -the founder of the Zealots. They were amply provided with provisions, -water and weapons, and were, moreover, men of heroic resolve. But a -Roman battering-ram destroyed one of the protecting walls, and a second -wall of wooden beams, built by the besieged, was set on fire by the -assailants. The situation was a hopeless one. Eleazer realized this, -and determined upon persuading the garrison to die by their own hands -rather than to fall into the power of the Romans. The heroes agreed -to this proposal, even with enthusiasm, and on the first day of the -great Feast of Passover, after slaying their wives and children, they -all perished on their own swords. When the Romans entered the citadel, -prepared for the last desperate struggle with their victims, they stood -amazed at the ominous silence, and their shouts brought forth only two -trembling women and five children, who came creeping out from a cavern. -And it was thus that the last Zealots fell on Judæan ground. - -The Judæans who had tried to shake off the Roman yoke had, indeed, -been severely punished. Not only the inhabitants of Judæa, but also -the Judæan community in Rome were made answerable for the rebellion. -The two drachmæ which they had annually given to their Sanctuary were -now demanded for the Capitoline Jupiter. Vespasian's greed soon caused -this tax to be swept into his private treasury; and this first tax, -inaugurated and imposed by the emperor upon the Judæans, was called the -Judæan fiscal tax (Fiscus Judaicus). On the other hand, those Judæans -who had been friendly to Rome, and had given Vespasian assistance -during the war, were richly recompensed. Berenice was received with the -highest honors at the Imperial court. Titus' passion for this beautiful -woman was so great that once, in a fit of jealousy, he ordered the -strangulation of a Roman Consul, Cacina, his own table-companion. To -flatter his vanity the Council of the Areopagus, the Six Hundred and -the people of Athens erected a statue to Berenice, dedicated to "the -great Queen, daughter of the great King, Julius Agrippa." He was on the -eve of making her his wife, when an indignant outburst from the people -of Rome forced him to let her depart. Her brother Agrippa shared her -fall. - -More fortunate was Josephus, whom Vespasian and Titus could not -sufficiently reward for his services. He accompanied the emperors -on their triumphal processions, looked on the humiliation of his -nation with revolting coldness, and showed undisguised delight in the -death of her heroes. Vespasian not only granted him extensive landed -possessions, but also placed his private palace at his disposal, and -raised him to the citizenship of Rome. So high did he stand in the -favor of the imperial house, that he was anxious to adopt their name, -and is known to posterity as "Flavius Josephus." On the other hand, he -was hated by the Judæan patriots, who exerted themselves to disturb him -in the tranquil enjoyment of his possessions. - -But the war against the Zealots did not terminate with the fall of the -last fortress. They transplanted their hatred of Rome whithersoever -their flying feet carried them--to the provinces of the Euphrates, -to Arabia, Egypt, and Cyrene. The Zealots who had taken refuge in -Alexandria persuaded their co-religionists of that city to revolt -against their rulers. Many of the Alexandrian Judæans, still smarting -from the severe persecutions which they had suffered some years -previously from the Romans, were ready for revolt; but this mad scheme -was opposed by the wealthy members of the community and the Council. -They turned indignantly upon the Zealots, delivering six hundred into -the hands of the governor, Lupus, who executed them upon the spot. -Others fled to Thebes, where they were pursued, seized, and put to -the torture to make them acknowledge the emperor's authority. But -unflinchingly they bore the most horrible agonies, men and boys vying -with each other in steadfast adherence to their Zealot principles, and -dying at last under torture. Vespasian, fearing that Egypt might become -a new center of revolt, ordered the Temple of Onias to be closed, -thus taking from the people their religious focus. The annual gifts, -dedicated to the service of the Sanctuary, found their way, as a matter -of course, into the imperial treasury. - -Some of the Zealots who had fled to the towns of Cyrenaica, now -attempted to endanger their peace. Jonathan, one of their number, -collected a multitude of the lower classes about him, and leading them -into the Lybian Desert, announced some miraculous interposition. But -here, again, the chief Judæans denounced their fanatical brethren to -Catullus, the Roman governor, who seized them, and had many of them -executed. Jonathan, however, evaded their pursuit for some time, and -at last, when captured, revenged himself by accusing many of the -wealthy Judæans of being his accomplices. He was thrown into chains -and sent to Rome. In the imperial city he ventured to declare that -Josephus and some of the Roman Judæans were disloyal to the emperor. -Titus indignantly refused to believe this, and appeared to defend his -favorite, whose innocence, together with that of his co-religionists, -he clearly established. Jonathan was then scourged and burnt alive. - -Thus ended the Zealot movement which had spread with evil results among -a large portion of the Judæan people in the Roman Empire. But the -Zealots who had escaped to North Arabia to the vicinity of Medina were -the most fortunate; for they succeeded in founding a community of their -own, which lasted until the seventh century. Upon another occasion, -they played no unimportant part. - -So great was the sensation produced throughout the Roman Empire by this -long and desperate resistance of the Judæans, that several writers -felt themselves called upon to give a detailed description of the -war. The heathen authors were, of course, partial in their treatment -of the subject; and, with due deference to the feelings of the Roman -generals, underrated the heroism of the Judæans. But Josephus, who, -in spite of his Roman proclivities, had some spark of patriotism -left, could not brook hearing his people stigmatized as cowards; so, -collecting all the facts of the long struggle that had come under his -own notice, he wrote an account of the war in seven books, at first in -the Syro-Chaldaic tongue, and afterwards in Greek (75-79). But this -version could not turn out to be any more impartial, seeing how deeply -his own interests had been involved. He laid his work before Titus, -who gave him permission to offer it to the public, a clear proof that -the Emperor was satisfied with its tendency. Justus of Tiberias had -preceded Josephus with a history of the Judæan war, in which he accused -that historian of hostility to Rome, of having been party to the revolt -in Galilee, and of having invented his descent from the Hasmonæan house. - -When the war of the sword was at an end, the war of the pen was carried -on by the two writers. But Justus can hardly be commended for exemplary -conduct; for he had once led a revolt in Galilee, and had then headed -a sally against the neighboring Greek population; after which he -presented himself boldly before Agrippa. Berenice having obtained -his pardon, he was taken into the king's service and most generously -treated. But for some later offense he was imprisoned, and banished, -then recalled, pardoned, and made the king's secretary. He was at -length banished again for some unknown reason. Justus, having received -a thoroughly Greek education, was able to write the history of the war -in a more correct and elegant style than it was possible for Josephus -to do. - -Jeremiah, uttering his lamentations amidst the ruins of Jerusalem, -fitly ends the first period of Jewish history; whilst Flavius Josephus, -writing the story of his people in the quiet of Cæsar's palace, -concludes the second period. - - - - -THE TALMUDIC EPOCH. - - - - -CHAPTER XIII. - -THE SYNHEDRION AT JABNE. - - Foundation of the School at Jabne--Jochanan ben - Zakkai--The Last of the Herodians--Judæa and Rome--The - Tanaites--Gamaliel II. appointed Patriarch--The Power - of Excommunication--Deposition and Restoration of the - Patriarch--Steps towards Collecting the Mishna--Eliezer - ben Hyrcanus--Joshua ben Chananya--Akiba and his - System--Ishmael--Condition of the Synhedrion. - - 70.117 C. E. - - -The disastrous result of the war which had been waged against the -Romans during a period of four years, the destruction of the State, -the burning of the Temple, the condemnation of the prisoners to labor -in the lead-works of Egypt, to be sold in the slave-markets, or to -become victims in the fights with wild beasts in the arena--all -these calamities came with such crushing force on the remaining Jews -that they felt utterly at a loss as to what they should do. Judæa -was depopulated; all who had taken up arms, whether in northern or -southern, whether in cis- or trans-Jordanic Judæa, were either dead or -enslaved and banished. The infuriated conquerors had spared neither the -women nor the children. The third banishment--the Roman Exile (Galut -Edom), under Vespasian and Titus--had commenced amid greater terror -and cruelty than the Babylonian Exile under Nebuchadnezzar. Only a -few were spared--those who openly or secretly sided with the Romans, -partisans of Rome, who, from the very commencement, had been devoid -of patriotic feelings; the friends of peace, who thought that Judaism -had a different task from that of combating the Romans by force of -arms, thoughtful and careful men, who looked upon a contest with Rome -as national suicide; and lastly those who, through party strife, had -been forced to lay down their arms and to make separate terms with the -Romans. This small remnant in the land of Judæa and the Jews of Syria, -who had always hoped that Titus would respect the Temple (the center of -worship and religion), were moved deeply, and thrown into despair at -the destruction of the sanctuary protected by God. Their despair led -to various results. Some were driven to lead an ascetic life, to deny -themselves meat and wine; others were led thereby to join Christianity, -seeking thus to fill the void in their hearts which was caused by the -cessation of burnt-offerings. Judaism was threatened by the greatest -danger; deprived, as it was, of its support and rallying-point, it -appeared in imminent danger of stagnation or of falling to pieces. The -communities in Syria, Babylon, and Persia, in Asia Minor, Rome, and -in Europe generally, had until now turned their eyes to Jerusalem and -the Temple, whence they drew their instructions and laws. The only -independent congregation, that of Alexandria, had become helpless -through the destruction of the Temple of Onias. What was to be the -future of the Jewish nation, of Judaism? The Synhedrion, which had -given laws to the entire community, and had regulated its religious -life, had disappeared with the fall of Jerusalem. Who would step into -the breach, and render a continued existence a possibility? There now -appeared a man who seemed made to save the essential doctrines of -Judaism, to restore some amount of strength to the nation, so that it -might continue to live, and the threatened decay be averted. - -This man was Jochanan, the son of Zakkai. He labored, like the prophets -during the first exile in Babylon, but by other means, to maintain -the life of the Jewish nation; he reanimated its frozen limbs, and -infusing fresh energy into its actions, consolidated its dispersed -members into one whole. Jochanan, if not a disciple of Hillel, was -yet an heir to his mind. For forty years he is said to have been a -tradesman. In other cases, too, we shall see that the great leaders -in Jewish history did not follow the study of the Law as a means of -subsistence or of gain. During the existence of the State, Jochanan -sat in the Synhedrion, or taught within the shadow of the Temple: his -school at Jerusalem is said to have been an important one. He was the -first man who successfully combated the Sadducees, and who knew how -to refute their arguments. During the stormy days of the revolution, -he, owing to his peaceful character, joined the party of peace, and on -several occasions he urged the nation and the Zealots to surrender the -town of Jerusalem, and to submit to the Romans. "Why do you desire to -destroy the town, and to give up the Temple to the flames?" he would -say to the leaders of the revolution. - -Notwithstanding the respect in which he was held, his well-meant -admonitions were ignored by the Zealots. The spies whom the Roman -general placed in the besieged city of Jerusalem, and who reported to -him what took place, did not fail to announce that Jochanan belonged to -the friends of Rome, and that he counseled the chiefs to make peace. -The news from the town was conveyed on small pieces of paper, which -were shot on arrows into the Roman camp. Induced either by fear of -the Zealots, or by the desire of obtaining a place of safety for the -Law, Jochanan formed the idea of taking refuge in the camp of Titus. -To depart from the town was, however, very difficult, as the Zealots -kept up a constant watch; Jochanan, therefore, aided by a leader of the -Zealots, named Ben-Batiach, determined to have himself conveyed out -of the town as a corpse. Having been placed in a coffin he was carried -out of the city gates, at the hour of sunset, by his pupils Eleazer and -Joshua. Titus received the fugitive in a friendly manner, and gave him -permission to make some request of him. Jochanan modestly requested -that he might be permitted to establish a school at Jamnia (Jabne), -where he could give lectures to his pupils. The district in which this -town lay belonged to the private domains of the imperial house, to -which it had been bequeathed by the last will of Salome, the sister of -Herod. Titus had nothing to urge against the harmless wish of Jochanan, -for he could not foresee that by this unimportant concession he was -enabling Judaism, feeble as it then appeared, to outlive Rome, which -was in all its vigor, by thousands of years. - -Jochanan settled with his disciples in Jamnia, a city not far from the -Mediterranean Sea, and situated between the port Joppa, and the former -city of the Philistines, Ashdod. Jochanan was unable to settle down to -his occupation for some space of time, during which the bitter strife -was raging before the walls of Jerusalem, and within its streets and -its Temple. When the news arrived that the city had fallen, and that -the Temple was in flames, Jochanan and his disciples mourned and wailed -as if they had lost a dear relative through death. Jochanan, however, -unlike his followers, did not despair, for he recognized the truth -that Judaism was not indissolubly bound up with its Temple and its -altar. He rather consoled his mourning disciples for the loss of the -place of expiation with the fitting remark that charity and love of -mankind would take the place of burnt-offerings, as it is said in the -Bible--"for I take pleasure in mercy and not in burnt-offerings." This -liberal view of the value of burnt-offerings made it clear, however, -that it was absolutely necessary for a fresh center to be established -in lieu of the Temple. Jochanan therefore formed a sort of Synhedrion -in Jabne, of which he was at once recognized as the President. The -newly created Synhedrion was certainly not composed of seventy members, -and no doubt had a totally different sphere of action from the one in -Jerusalem, which during the revolution had exercised control over the -most important political events. The Synhedrion of Jamnia in the first -place gave to its founder plenary power in all religious matters such -as the Council had possessed in Jerusalem, and with this were connected -the judicial functions of a supreme court. It was only by unbounded -authority that Jochanan could compass the formation and consolidation -of a Synhedrion, under the unfavorable conditions of the time. Jochanan -had to oppose the general opinion that the Synhedrion as a body should -have control only in the hewn-stone hall of the Temple, and that -outside this spot it lost its judicial character and ceased to be the -representative of the nation. When, therefore, Jochanan dissociated the -functions of the Synhedrion from the site of the Temple, and removed -it to Jabne, he had actually released Judaism from the observance of -the rite of burnt-offerings, and rendered it independent. Without any -opposition whatsoever, Jabne by this means took the place of Jerusalem, -and became the religious national center for the dispersed community. -The important functions of the Synhedrion, by which it exercised a -judicial and uniting power over the distant congregations, such as -the fixing of the time for the new moon and the festivals, proceeded -from Jabne. It enjoyed some of the religious privileges of the Holy -City. The Synhedrion now bore the name of the Beth-Din (Court of -Justice)--the President was called Rosh-beth-din, and was honored by -the title of Rabban (general teacher). Jochanan gave over to the Court -of Justice the supervision of arrangements for the calendar, which -had formerly been one of the offices of the President. By this means -the watchers who were looking out for the reappearance of the new moon -needed no longer follow the President about in order to give him the -information, but had only to attend the sittings of the assembly. This -change was an important step, as it rendered the Synhedrion independent -of the person of its President. - -Jochanan made altogether nine changes, most of which affected such -arrangements as had been rendered valueless through the destruction -of the Temple. He, however, retained various religious customs as a -remembrance of the Temple. He promoted the continuance and preservation -of Judaism through the renewal of the study of the Law, and thus -rendered firmer the weakened foundations of Jewish communal life. -The school at Jabne he influenced through his disciples, whom he -imbued with his spirit and his learning. Five of his distinguished -pupils are known to us by name, but only three of them won lasting -renown--Eliezer, and Joshua (who had carried Jochanan in a coffin out -of Jerusalem), and also Eleazer ben Arach. The latter was the most -eminent and important amongst them, and of him it was said, "If weighed -in the scale, he would outweigh all his fellow-scholars." Jochanan -loved to incite them to independent thought by deep-reaching questions. -Thus he gave them as a theme for thought, "What should man endeavor -most eagerly to obtain?" The one answered "a genial manner," the other -"a noble friend," a third "a noble neighbor," the fourth "the gift of -knowing in advance the result of his actions." Eleazer answered that -"man's best possession is a noble heart." This remark won the approval -of his master; it was an answer after his own mind, for in it all else -was included. - -What was the character of the teachings which Jochanan imparted to -his pupils in the school? Hillel, the most respected of the teachers -of the Law, the highly-honored ideal in times to come, had given to -Judaism a special garb and form, or rather had given it the character -of the Law, which had always been peculiar to it. He was the first to -develop and confirm a special theory, a sort of Jewish theology or -nomology (science of religious laws). He was the founder of Talmudic -Judaism. From the midst of contending parties, which were tearing one -another to pieces, Hillel had drawn the Law into the quiet precincts -of the school-house, and had endeavored to bring into harmony those -precepts which were apparently opposed to the Law. Those which had been -considered as only customary and traditional were regarded as human -laws, and were looked upon by the Sadducees as innovations. Hillel had -shown these to be of Biblical origin. His seven explanatory rules, or -laws of interpretation, had on the one hand confirmed the laws which -had been introduced by the Sopheric and Pharisaic teachers, and on the -other hand had given them new scope to develop. - -The written Law (that of the Pentateuch) and the oral Law (the -Sopheric) from his time ceased to be two widely sundered branches, but -were brought into close relations with each other, although the new -rendering certainly did violence to the words of Scripture. But as -the text was explained, not on a philological basis, but in order to -elucidate the laws, it was not possible to keep simply to the written -words; it was necessary to interpret them so as to render them suited -to the new conditions of life. Under the term Oral Law was included -everything which had been handed down from the Fathers, and it formed -to a certain extent a hereditary law. The various restrictions which -the Sopheric teachers had placed around the Law, the legal decisions -which had been introduced by the Synhedrion, the customs which had been -observed from generation to generation, the extensions deduced from -meager verses of the Pentateuch, all these elements were not written -down, but were committed to memory. They were put into the form of -short sentences, called "Halacha." They were not arranged or classified -according to subjects, but were strung together without connection, or -handed down separately, sometimes joined to the name of the authority -from whom they were derived. A marvelous memory was needed to retain -these Halachas or oral teachings. Jochanan ben Zakkai was the man who -best knew these laws. He handed them down to his pupils, and pointed -out to them their connection with the written law; he showed them how -to draw deductions therefrom, the laws handed down being the material, -and their mode of treatment the form. These deductions were obtained -by two methods, the one showing how the ordinances of the Law were -to be obtained from the words of Scripture (Midrash), and the other -served to apply the oral Law to new questions as they arose (Talmud). -Thus a fruitful field for the extension of the Law and for ingenious -combinations was opened, which was later on freely cultivated. Jochanan -ben Zakkai, however, thought much more of the material of the Law than -of its form. - -He taught not only those doctrines of Judaism which appertained to -the Law, but also those portions of the Holy Scriptures which had no -direct bearing on the Law. He gave lectures on the writings of the -prophets and historians in the form of discourses, which had for some -time past been in use both in and out of the synagogue. These lectures -were either edifying, comforting, or bitter, sharp, and ironical, and -applied the words of the prophets about Edom and Esau, to hated Rome -and its tyranny. This kind of exposition of Scripture had a name, -"Agada" or "Hagadah." Its chief subjects consisted in explaining -historical events, prophetic utterances, and in bringing to mind the -past, and treating of the future of Judaism. The Agada investigated -the meaning of the Law, examined into the general moral truths of -Judaism, deftly united the present with the past, and shadowed the -present conditions of life in past experiences. The Halacha forms the -chief trunk of the Law, the Midrash the suckling roots, which drew -their nourishment from the words of Scripture. The Talmud formed the -wide-spreading branches, and the Agada was the blossom which scented -and colored the simple fabric of the laws. - -In his Agadic dissertations Jochanan endeavored to illuminate the -ordinances of the Law by the light of the understanding, and to combine -them into general truths, but in a clear and simple manner, utterly -dissimilar from the exaggerated method of the Alexandrian-Jewish -teachers, who endeavored to extract the dazzling light of the Grecian -mode of thought from Holy Writ. - -Amongst other things, Jochanan explained very quaintly why the use of -iron is forbidden in erecting an altar. Iron is the symbol of war and -dissension; the altar, on the contrary, is the symbol of peace and -atonement; therefore iron must be kept away from the altar. He deduced -therefrom the high value of peace, the advantages of peace between -man and wife, between one city and another, and between one nation -and another. These were the principles which had induced him to side -with the Romans against the revolutionaries. In this way he explained -various laws, and rendered them comprehensible, when they seemed -obscure or in any way extraordinary. Jochanan was wont to hold converse -also with Pagans who had knowledge of the Jewish Law, either from the -Greek translation or from their intercourse with the Jews, refuting -the objections which they raised, and dispelling or making clear by -suitable comparisons the peculiarities which occur in the Holy Writings. - -Besides Jochanan, who was the most influential and the chief personage -of his time, there was a group of teachers of the Law. They were all -at an advanced age at the period of the destruction of the State, and -were without doubt members of the Jamnian Synhedrion. Most of them, of -whom nothing important is recorded, are known only by name. Among these -were Chanina, the deputy of various High Priests (_Segan ha-Cohanim_), -who has preserved for us traditions from the time of the Temple. He -belonged to the lovers of peace, and exhorted his contemporaries to -pray for the well-being of the ruling power (that of the Romans), "for, -if no fear thereof existed, then one man would swallow another alive." -Zadok, another teacher, was a disciple of Shammai, and in anticipation -of the fall of the Temple he fasted for forty years, whereby he ruined -his health. Nachum, the Mede, who had been previously member of a -college of the Law in Jerusalem, Dossa ben Archinas, with his brother -Jonathan, the latter a clear-headed and argumentative youth, and Abba -Saul must also be mentioned. - -Lastly, there belonged to this circle Nachum of Gimso (Emmaus), and -Nechunya ben Hakana. The first has been recorded by tradition as the -hero of strange adventures, and even the name of his birthplace Gimso -has been explained, so as to put into his mouth the words "This also is -for good" (Gam-su-l'-toba). He is represented in the world of legend as -a scholar to whom many disagreeable experiences happened, all of which -proved of good to him. Nachum developed a special mode of teaching, -which consisted in explaining the oral law from the written text, -according to certain particles which the lawgiver had purposely used -as indications when drawing up the Law. These particles, according to -his idea, not only served as syntactical signs in the sentences, but -as signs for enlarging and diminishing the circle within which each -law should work. Nachum's rules formed a new and fruitful addition -to those laid down by Hillel; they were carefully cultivated and -developed, and received the name "the rules of extension or exclusion" -(Ribbuj-u-m'ut). Nechunya ben Hakana was, however, an opponent of -Nachum's system; he approved only the explanatory rules as propounded -by Hillel. - -Jochanan ben Zakkai, the head not of the State but of the community, -appears to have acted as a shield from a political point of view. -His kindly and gentle disposition, in which he resembled Hillel, he -displayed even to the heathens. It is related of him that he always -greeted them in a friendly manner. Such friendliness offers a striking -contrast to the hatred felt by the Zealots towards the heathens, both -before and after the revolution, which increased after the destruction -of the Temple. The verse (Proverbs xiv. 34), "The kindness of the -nations is sin," was taken literally by the people of that time, and -was specially applied to the heathen world. "The heathens may do -ever so much good, yet it is accounted to them as sin, for they do -it only to mock us." Jochanan alone explained this verse in a sense -expressive of true humanity: "As the burnt-offering atones for Israel, -so mercy and kindness atone for the heathen nations." This kindliness -of Jochanan may have contributed to the result that, notwithstanding -the fresh outbreaks amongst the Jews in Cyrene and Egypt, which the -Emperors Vespasian and Titus had to put down, they did not persecute -the Jews in any extraordinary degree. It is expressly stated in ancient -records that the Roman authorities removed the contempt which formerly -attached to the Jews, and that the murder of a Jew was punished by -death. The personality of Jochanan may have served them as a guarantee -for the peaceful disposition of the mother-country. - -Hope alone gave to him and his circle of fellow-pupils and disciples -fresh courage, the hope or rather the assurance that Israel should -not be lost. The dreary present did not veil from him the promised -and brighter future. The present was in truth sufficiently overcast. -The pasture lands had been taken away from those who had survived the -national disasters, and given to strangers. Thereby those who had -formerly been rich had fallen into poverty. The very poorest had to -pay the Jews' tax (Fiscus Judaicus). The land, which before the war -had been so flourishing, was strewn with ruins. Every joy had departed -from Israel; even weddings were performed in a silent manner. Jochanan -described the comfortless position of the times in an address to the -people. He once saw a Jewish maiden of a rich house, picking up a -scanty nourishment of barley-corn from amongst the horses' hoofs. -At this he exclaimed, "Unhappy nation, you would not serve God, and -therefore you must serve foreign nations; you would not offer half a -shekel for the Temple, and therefore you must pay thirty times as much -to the State of your new enemies; you refused to keep the roads and -paths in order for the pilgrims, and, therefore, you must now support -the watch-lodges in the vineyards, which the Romans have seized." - -Agrippa and Berenice, the remaining members of the house of Herod, -who kept up close connections with those in power, appear to have -contributed greatly to the alleviation of the sorrows of the conquered -Jews. Princess Berenice, whose beauty seemed to bid defiance to time, -long held Titus captive by her charms, and it wanted but little for the -Jewish princess to become a Roman empress. The prejudice of Roman pride -disturbed the project of a marriage between Titus and Berenice, and -compelled the Emperor's son to break the bonds which had bound him for -years. Berenice had to leave the royal palace, and probably returned to -her brother in Palestine. But as Titus had not yet given up the hope -of making her his wife, her voice still had weight with him, and it -probably was often raised in favor of her co-religionists, to whom she -was attached. The last Jewish king, Agrippa, also stood in favor with -Vespasian, for the great services which he had rendered to his house. -It appears that the Emperor had added Galilee to his territories; -Agrippa had a Jewish governor, whom he sent alternately to the two -Galilæan capitals, Tiberias and Sepphoris. To this ruler it was no -doubt due that the district of Galilee recovered itself more rapidly, -and became sooner repeopled than Judæa, which was governed by a Roman -ruler. - -The period during which Jochanan worked in his new sphere of action -cannot be stated with certainty. He united in himself the qualities -of the prophet Jeremiah and the prince Zerubbabel, who had been in -exile. Like Jeremiah he mourned over the destruction of Jerusalem, and -like Zerubbabel he unrolled a new future. Both Jochanan ben Zakkai -and Zerubbabel stood at the threshold of a new epoch, both laid the -foundation-stone of a new edifice in Judaism, for the completion of -which the subsequent generations have worked. Jochanan died on his bed -in the arms of his pupils. He had previously had a conversation with -them, which gives an insight into his mind. His pupils were surprised -to find their courageous master frightened and depressed in the hour of -his death. He remarked that he did not fear death, but the having to -appear before the Eternal Ruler, whose justice was incorruptible. He -blessed his pupils before his death with these words--"May the fear of -God influence your actions as much as the fear of man." - -Immediately after the death of their master, his chief disciples held -council as to the place where they might continue the work of teaching -the Law. Most of them thought of remaining in Jabne, where there lived -a circle of men acquainted with the traditions of the past. Eleazar ben -Arach, the favorite pupil of Jochanan, however, insisted on removing -the school to Emmaus (Gimso), a healthy and pleasant town, three -geographical miles distant from Jabne. Believing that he was absolutely -needful to his fellow-students, and being persuaded by his wife that -they would soon follow him, he separated from them, and remained in -Emmaus. Solitary and cut off from the opportunity of exchanging ideas -with others, he is said to have so utterly forgotten what he once knew, -that amusing anecdotes are related of his subsequent ignorance. To -Arach was applied the saying, "Repair to the place of the Law, and do -not fancy that thy comrades will follow thee, and that they can uphold -the Law only through thee; do not rely too much on thy penetration." -Whilst Arach, from whom so much was hoped, was thus forgotten, his -companions continued the work of their master, and became renowned in -generations to come. Gamaliel, Joshua, and Eliezer came to the fore as -important personages. - -It was first necessary to give a chief to the community, which, though -small, was yet respected by the Jews of all countries. Gamaliel was -chosen; he was the descendant of Hillel, and his ancestors had presided -over the Synhedrion throughout four generations. It must have been -necessary to remove political difficulties to enable the son of the man -who had been concerned in the uprising against the Romans, to attain so -high a rank. Gamaliel took the title Nasi (Prince--among the Romans, -Patriarch). He had his seat in Jabne, and was also sufficiently versed -in traditions to preside in the school. Although the town of Jabne was -of first importance, the members of the new college established some -schools outside of the town of Jabne, but in its neighborhood. Eliezer -taught at Lydda; Joshua at Bekiin, on the plains between Jabne and -Lydda; other pupils of Jochanan also opened schools; and each attracted -a circle of disciples, and was called by the title Rabbi (Master). -The Patriarch was called Rabban (General Master), to distinguish him -from the other teachers. The Law therefore was not left unheeded after -the death of the founder of the Jabne Synhedrion; it received, if -possible, even more attention; but the unity which had hardly been -established threatened to disappear altogether. The disputes between -the adherents of the schools of Hillel and Shammai, over which blood -had been shed before the destruction of the Temple, and which had only -been quelled by the war of the revolution, broke out afresh, and the -more severely, as the uniting influence proceeding from the Temple now -no longer existed. The contentions between the schools, which extended -to various practical matters, brought about wide divergence in the -views with regard to the Law and life. One teacher held some things -to be permissible which another forbade; and in one place things were -done which were not allowed in another. Thus Judaism seemed to have -two bodies of laws, or, according to the words of the Talmud--"The one -Law had become two." Important questions of life, sometimes involving -serious consequences, such as those concerning marriage, were affected -by these differences. The younger generation, relieved from the -necessity for mutual forbearance occasioned by the late war, had no -very strong desire to make peace, but contested the disputed questions -with great acrimony. The endeavor to terminate these quarrels, which -threatened the destruction of all unity, was the life-task of Gamaliel, -but his policy brought him into open collision with his friends. - -Little is known of his private affairs, but this little shows him to -have possessed a high moral character and a powerful mind. Gamaliel -owned land, which he lent to be cultivated on condition that he -received a part of the harvest. He also gave corn for sowing purposes, -but when he was repaid he only accepted the lowest prices, in order -to avoid even the appearance of taking interest. He displayed great -tenderness to his favorite slave Tabi, whom he would willingly have -set free could he have done so, and had not the Law disapproved of -manumission. On the death of the slave he mourned for him as for a -relative. Gamaliel appears to have had some mathematical knowledge. In -fixing the new moon and the holidays dependent on it, he was guided -more by astronomical calculations than by the evidence of witnesses -that they had or had not seen the new moon. Such reckonings, exact even -to a fraction, were handed down in the house of the Patriarch. Gamaliel -often made journeys in order to visit the various congregations, to -be an eye-witness of their condition, and to keep them all in order. -His journeys took him over Judæa, into Galilee, and as far as Acco -(Ptolemais). Although he was not of robust health, he did not spare -himself the greatest exertions, when he could benefit his people. His -rule as Patriarch occurred in a very troubled time, both within and -without, and this circumstance caused him to insist on his dignity -most strictly. His character was thereby misunderstood, and he was -accused of forming selfish and ambitious plans. Gamaliel directed -his chief energies to raise the patriarchal dignity that it should -become the center of the Jewish community, so as to maintain by his -authority the threatened unity of the Law, and the religious and moral -condition of the people. In the contests between the disciples of the -schools of Shammai and Hillel he decreed that votes should be taken -with regard to each law in question, and that the decision should be -determined by the majority of votes in the college, in order to protect -by authority the threatened unity of the Law against all attacks. The -desire for unity seems to have been more generally felt, the more the -opposition between the two schools increased, and the more the two -sets of followers, who clung to the Halachas bequeathed to them by -their teachers, sought to develop their doctrines. Contemporaries did -not disguise from themselves the fact that the Law might easily be -subject to confusion through these differences. A fear was expressed -that the time would soon come when men would refer in vain to the -Holy Writings or to the Oral Law for a decision, and when one account -would contradict the other. The Synhedrion of Jabne, therefore, once -more subjected contested matters to discussion and decision. It began -with the fundamental propositions of Hillel and Shammai, in order to -fix by voting such rules as should hold good in all cases. But it was -not easy to obtain unity; for three and a half years the contest is -said to have lasted in the vineyards of Jabne, both parties insisting -on the exclusive correctness of their own traditions--the Shammaites -being especially stubborn and immovable, and, like the founder of -their school, not disposed to yield. Then a voice, heard by chance -(Bath-Kol), which was usually considered as a communication from heaven -in difficult cases, is said to have sounded through the school-house in -Jabne--a voice which said, "The teachings of both schools are the words -of the living God, but practically the laws of Hillel only are to carry -weight." Joshua, a man of calm disposition, alone expressed himself -against any decision arrived at by the Bath-Kol. "We do not require -a miraculous voice," he said, "for the Law is not given for heavenly -beings, but for men, who in questionable cases can decide by taking -a majority, and a miracle cannot in such cases give the decision." -Eliezer also was not satisfied with the conclusion arrived at, but this -opposition had only slight results. Hillel's expositions, deductions, -and explanatory rules at length attained the authority due to them. -As the followers of Shammai held with the Zealots, the enemies of the -Romans, and the Hillelites with the peace party, the revolution was -in some measure ended by this act of the Synhedrion of Jabne. But it -was not intended to exercise compulsion against the Shammaites, and so -entirely to reorganize their religious life according to the decision -arrived at; on the contrary it permitted them to follow their own -convictions. "Every man according to his choice may follow the school -of Hillel or of Shammai, but the decisions of the school of Hillel -shall be the only accepted interpretation of the Law." Rabbi Gamaliel -watched most carefully over the union of the two parties, which was -probably his work, and withstood any attempt to oppose the decisions -of the Synhedrion; he was supported by the venerable Zadok, to whom he -gave the place of honor at his right hand at all meetings, and who, -having beheld the Temple in its glory, was considered as an authority. - -There seems to have been another regulation in use besides the above, -but the connection of the two is not very clear. The Patriarch of -Jabne made a rule that only such persons should be admitted to the -school-house whose uprightness had been proved; and for this purpose -he placed a porter at the doors of the school, in order to prevent the -admission of those who were unworthy. It appears that he desired to -exclude such as pursued the study of the Law with wrong intentions; -some, perhaps, had sought admission to the school from vanity or other -ignoble motives. Two warnings, the one by Jochanan ben Zakkai, and the -other by Zadok, against those who took part in the study of the Law -from self-interest, appear to confirm this supposition. The former -said, "If you have acquired much of the Law, do not be proud of it, for -you are made for that purpose." The latter said, "Do not use the Law as -a crown in order to shine with it, nor as a spade in order to dig with -it." Such low ideas Gamaliel endeavored to keep out of the circle of -the school. - -Both arrangements, the employment of the authority of the Patriarch in -maintaining the Halachic decisions, and the precautions for admitting -members and disciples, met with opposition, which at first was only -timidly expressed. The Patriarch endeavored to keep down contests by -the use of excommunication, which he employed with great energy, and -with that entire disregard of consequences which arises from deeply -rooted conviction. The excommunication (Nidui) had not at that time -the gloomy severity of later ages, but was of a mild form; forbidding -the interdicted man to hold any close intercourse with others until -he had penitently submitted to the required demands. During the -interdict, which lasted at least thirty days, the sinner wore a black -mourning-garb and kept several mourning observances; if he died -during this period without having submitted or repented, the Court of -Justice had a stone laid on his coffin. Gamaliel had the courage to -excommunicate several of the most important personages of his time, -whereby he made many bitter enemies. He acted thus even towards his -own brother-in-law, Eliezer ben Hyrcanus. Deeply impressed by the -unfortunate results which disunion must bring to Judaism, threatened as -it already was by various half-Jewish, half-Christian sects, Gamaliel -did not hesitate to proceed with severity against trifling offenses, -in order to avoid the destruction of religious unity. There was once -a discussion about an oven of peculiar structure, which a decision of -the majority had pronounced liable to become unclean, like earthenware -vessels. Eliezer, following a special tradition, did not wish to -yield to this decision, and acted in opposition to it; at Gamaliel's -instigation, Eliezer was excommunicated. - -Gamaliel thought that he had united the two schools, and had brought -about peace, when his power was destroyed by a man from whom he had -not expected any energetic opposition. Joshua, who was of a yielding -disposition, and apparently the least dangerous of the opponents -of the severe Patriarch, became his worst enemy. Joshua was just -as discontented with some of Gamaliel's regulations as Eliezer had -been, but he did not venture to show his disapproval on account of -his poor and miserable condition, and when he happened to utter any -contradictory opinion he quickly withdrew it again. Gamaliel had -received the report of two untrustworthy witnesses in order to fix the -commencement of the month of Tishri, on which depended the dates of the -chief festivals, including the Day of Atonement. Joshua showed that -the Patriarch had committed an error in this act, and demanded that -the college should change the date of the holiday. Gamaliel remained -firm, and sent an order to Joshua that on the day which, according -to Joshua's calculation, was the Day of Atonement, the latter should -appear before him in workaday clothes, with his staff, knapsack, and -money-bag. This dictatorial proceeding seemed so harsh to Joshua, that -he complained of it to his most important colleagues, and appeared -determined to oppose it. Those, however, who saw the necessity for -unity persuaded him to yield. The venerable Dossa ben Harchinas -convinced him that the arrangements of a religious chief must be -uncontested even if they are erroneous, and that every man must follow -them. Joshua allowed himself to be persuaded, and submitted to the -Patriarch. His appearance filled Gamaliel with astonishment. He greeted -him heartily, and said to him, "Welcome, my teacher and pupil--my -teacher in wisdom, my pupil in obedience. Happy is the age in which -great men obey inferior ones." But this reconciliation was not of long -duration. The severe proceedings of the Patriarch had raised a hostile -party against him, which began secretly to act in opposition to him. He -knew of this opposition party, and referred to it in public addresses. -It is related of him that his mode of opening the sittings of the -Synhedrion varied. If none of his opponents were present he would ask -the assembly to propound questions; if, however, any of his enemies -were present he would not give this invitation. The opposition party -seem therefore to have put him in a dilemma at these meetings. Gamaliel -may have had reason to consider Joshua as the chief of this party, and -often made him feel the power of his own higher position by offensive -demeanor and severe treatment. One day the mutual ill-feeling led to -an outbreak, and caused a change in the Synhedrion. The Patriarch had -once again offended Joshua by his severe manner, and accused him of -secret opposition to one of the Halachas. As Joshua at first denied -the fact, Gamaliel was so angered that he cried out, "Then stand, so -that witnesses may give evidence against you." This was the form of an -indictment. The school-house was full of people, amongst whom there -arose a tumult at this contemptuous treatment of a member who was -respected and loved by the people. The opposition party took courage, -and gave utterance to their dissatisfaction. They called out to the -Patriarch, "Who is there that has not constantly felt thy severity?" -The school was turned into a tribunal, and the college deposed Gamaliel -on the spot from the dignity of Patriarch. With his fall ended the -regulations made by him. The porter was removed from the door of the -school, to which all could now gain unobstructed admission. The -members of the Synhedrion immediately sought for another Patriarch, so -that this important office might not be unoccupied. They had too much -tact to heap fresh contumely on the late Patriarch by choosing Joshua, -his chief opponent, and Eliezer, who had a claim to the honor, lay -under an interdict. Akiba seemed fitted for the post by his intellect -and character. He had quickly risen from ignorance and poverty, had -rapidly passed the intervening steps between the degrees of pupil -and master, and had obtained admiration even from the profoundest -teachers of the Law. But his greatness was only of yesterday; he had no -distinguished ancestors to show that he was worthy of the dignity of -Patriarch. The college therefore chose a very young member, Eleazar ben -Azariah, who at that time must have been only in his sixteenth year. -The choice was made on account of his noble descent from a long line of -ancestors, which reached to Ezra, the regenerator of Judaism, a further -motive for his election being his immense riches and the consideration -in which he was held by the Roman authorities. Eleazar was not wanting -in character and understanding, and was therefore considered worthy to -succeed Gamaliel. - -This deposition and election had great results, and the day on -which these events took place was considered of such importance by -after-comers that it was known by the simple designation, "that -day." It seems that the college of the Synhedrion, perhaps on the -suggestion of Joshua, again revised those laws which, through the -influence of Gamaliel, had been decided according to the spirit of -the school of Hillel. The college, which at that time consisted of -the extraordinary number of seventy-two members, therefore undertook -the revision of one-sided laws, and examined those who were in -possession of traditions. More than twenty persons are recorded to -have given testimony before the college as to the traditions which -had been handed down. In many points the majority of the college -took middle ground between the opposing doctrines of the schools of -Shammai and Hillel, and they decided "neither like the one nor like -the other." With regard to other contested questions it appeared that -Hillel himself, or his school, had renounced their own views, and had -been inclined to follow the Shammaites. The witnesses with regard -to the Halachas seem to have been formally examined, and perhaps -their evidence was even written down. The testimony of witnesses on -this day bears the name Adoyot (evidence of witnesses), or Bechirta -(best choice), and the code drawn up is without doubt the earliest -collection. One recognizes in its contents the ancient and primitive -form of the traditions. The laws are put together quite promiscuously, -and without any other connection than the name of the person who handed -them down. - -The day of the assembly of witnesses was also of general importance, -on account of two questions which were discussed. The first question -arose thus. A heathen of Ammonite descent came before the meeting, -asking whether he could be legally accepted as a proselyte. Gamaliel -had turned him away with the sentence of the written law, "Moabites and -Ammonites may not be received into the congregation of God, even in the -tenth generation." The disputants treated the question with warmth, and -Gamaliel endeavored to have his view carried. Joshua, however, carried -his view that the sentence of the Law no longer applied to those times, -as, through the aggressions of their conquerors, all nations had become -mixed together and confused beyond recognition. The second question -concerned the holiness of the two writings ascribed to King Solomon, -Ecclesiastes (Kohelet), and the Song of Songs (Shir Hashirim). The -school of Shammai had not recognized them as holy. This old contest -was now taken up by the College of Seventy-two, which had not approved -of the decisions of Hillel, but it is not clearly known with what -result. Later on these Halachas were included in the collection (Canon) -of the Holy Writings, after which the Canon was completed and several -writings in the Hebrew language were rejected as Apocrypha, such as the -proverbs of Sirach, the first book of the Maccabees, and several others. - -It is a noble characteristic of Gamaliel, which his contemporaries -readily recognized, that notwithstanding the many insults he received -on "that day," he did not for one moment feel a desire, from petty -revenge, to retire from his office of teacher. He took part in the -discussions as before, little prospect as there was for him to carry -through his ideas in the midst of an assemblage which was so opposed -to him. But in the eager controversies of the day he no doubt became -convinced that his great severity had estranged the others from him, -and that he had thereby suppressed many a true opinion; he felt his -courage broken and he determined to yield. He therefore went to -the most respected members of the Synhedrion, to apologize for his -offensive demeanor. He visited his chief opponent, Joshua, who was -following his handicraft of needle-making. Gamaliel, who had grown -up in riches, could not suppress his surprise at seeing so learned a -man engaged in such heavy work, and said, "Is it thus thou makest thy -living?" Joshua took the opportunity frankly to put before him the -indifference shown to the sad condition of several worthy men--"It is -bad enough," said Joshua, "that thou hast only just discovered it. Woe -to the age, whose leader thou art, that thou dost not know of the cares -of the learned and what difficulty they have to support themselves." -Joshua had uttered the same reproach when Gamaliel had admired his -astronomical knowledge; he had modestly repudiated his admiration, -and pointed out two pupils who possessed distinguished mathematical -attainments, but who hardly had bread and clothes. Gamaliel at last -besought his enraged opponent to forgive him, out of consideration for -the highly honored house of Hillel. Joshua thereupon expressed himself -as satisfied, and promised to work for Gamaliel's reinstatement in the -position of Patriarch. The next step was to induce the newly-elected -Nasi to give up his dignity, upon which he had only just entered. There -was a certain amount of delicacy in making the suggestion to him. -Akiba, who was ever ready to be of service, undertook the delicate -commission, the execution of which, however, was not made at all -difficult for him. For hardly had Eleazar, the newly-elected Patriarch, -heard that peace was made between Gamaliel and his chief enemy, than he -was immediately prepared to return to private life; he even offered to -pay a visit to Gamaliel, attended by the whole College. The arrangement -made between the Patriarch and Eleazar was that the former should -always preside for the first two weeks, and hold the classes, and that -the latter, as Vice-President, should do the same in the third week. - -In this way the strife ended; it had arisen neither from ambition nor -pride, but only from an erroneous view of the Patriarch's functions. -These disagreements were soon forgotten, and thenceforward Gamaliel -lived in peace with the members of the Synhedrion. Perhaps the position -of affairs under the Emperor Domitian had diverted the public attention -from internal matters, and caused the necessity for union to be felt, -in order to avert the dangers which threatened from without. - -Gamaliel represented in this circle of scholars that desire for -unity and authority which might regulate from one center the entire -religious and national life of the people. His brother-in-law, -Eliezer, son of Hyrcanus, represented the other party, namely, those -who maintained their own views and refused to submit to universally -binding enactments. From his earliest youth Eliezer had devoted himself -to the acquirement of Halachas, and these he impressed so firmly on -his memory that, as he himself said, not a grain of them should be -lost. His teacher, Jochanan, therefore called him "a sealed cistern -which lets no drop pass." It was in accordance with this method that -Eliezer taught at Lydda (Diospolis), a place which had formerly been a -race-course. When he was questioned as to a law, he either replied as -he had been taught by his teachers, or openly acknowledged "I do not -know; I have not been told." During his stay once in Cæsarea Philippi -in Upper Galilee, thirty questions were put to him for decision, to -which he replied, "To twelve of these I can give the decision which has -been handed down to me; for the other eighteen I have no tradition." -Being asked whether he only taught what had been handed down to him, -he replied, "You compel me now to impart something which has not been -communicated to me; for know that in my whole life I have never taught -a single word which has not been handed down to me by my teachers." -In order to escape troublesome questions which he did not know how -to answer, he would put cross-questions from which could be seen his -disinclination to discuss the matter. He was once asked whether an -illegitimate child could succeed to property, and he asked in return, -"Whether it would be legally considered as a brother." To the question -whether one might paint a house white after the destruction of the -Temple, he put the cross-question whether one would paint a grave, thus -keeping firm to his rule never to pronounce a decision which had not -been made certain to him by oral tradition. To the keenest deductions -he usually opposed the simple reply, "I have not heard it." In order -to maintain this peculiar view, he seems to have impressed on his -pupils, "Keep your children from searching (Higayon); let them rather -be brought up on the knees of the wise." - -Eliezer was therefore the conservative element in the Synhedrion; he -was the organ of tradition, which retained the Halachas precisely as -it received them; he was the "sealed cistern" which did not permit one -drop of water to run away, nor one fresh drop to find entrance. His -contemporaries and successors gave him the honored name of "Sinai," a -living tablet of the Law, inscribed with unchangeable precepts. Greatly -as he was respected, however, as a faithful keeper of the traditional -Law, he nevertheless was somewhat isolated on account of his clinging -exclusively to traditions. His colleagues had gone too far on the road -pointed out by Hillel to be satisfied with merely keeping the Law; -they desired also to extend and develop it. Eliezer necessarily came -into collision with the tendency of the times. He was most strongly -opposed to his brother-in-law, Gamaliel, and his method of exclusion -in striving for unity. On the one side was authority supported by a -powerful will, which kept down any revolt against the law adopted; and -on the other side was the secure knowledge which finds its sanction -in the past. Such opposites could not be easily reconciled, nor was -Eliezer the man to give up his convictions. He was in fact reproached -for his unbending character, which refused to submit to others, and -which made him express his opinions in harsh terms. The respect which -was felt for him personally made it difficult to inform him of the -fact that he was excommunicated, but Akiba once more undertook the -office of conveying the unpleasant news. Dressed in black, he went to -Eliezer and gently broke to him the sentence, and addressed him in -these words, "It appears to me that thy comrades shun thee." Eliezer -understood the hint, and took the blow without murmuring; he submitted -to the excommunication, and lived apart from his friends. He took only -a distant interest in the discussions pursued in Jamnia. When he heard -any important decision, he used to look among the treasures of the -Halachas in order to confirm or dispute it. - -Without exercising any influence over affairs or taking part in the -development of the Law, Eliezer lived his last years in flourishing -material circumstances, but in a dreary state of mind. In his misery -he gave utterance to a sentence which is in marked contrast to the -sentiments of his comrades. "Warm thyself," he said, "at the fire of -the wise, but beware of the coals that thou dost not burn thyself, for -their bite is as that of the jackal, their sting like the scorpion's, -their tongues like the tongues of snakes, and their words are burning -coals." These are the bitter words of a pained spirit, but they do not -deny to his opponents a measure of justification. - -A striking contrast to the stubbornness of Eliezer, and the no less -unbending despotism of Gamaliel, is offered by Joshua ben Chananya. He -was the yielding, pliable, peaceable element in this newly constituted -Jewish body. He protected the Law and the people from one-sided and -exaggerated ideas, and became the promoter of the study of the Law and -the benefactor of his people. As a young Levite of the choir he had -seen the glory of the Temple, and had sung the psalms in its halls. -Together with his teacher he had left Jerusalem, and after the death of -the latter had founded a school in Bekiin. Here he taught his pupils, -and carried on the humble handicraft of making needles, by which he -maintained his family. Through his twofold occupation Joshua was -brought into communication both with scholars and the common people; -and he endeavored to unite the two, and was the only man who possessed -power over the minds and will of the masses. He was personally so ugly -that an empress's daughter once asked him how it was so much wisdom was -incorporated in so ugly a form. Whereupon Joshua answered that wine was -not kept in casks of gold. - -Besides an acquaintance with tradition, he seems to have possessed some -astronomical knowledge, which enabled him to calculate the irregular -course of the comets. This knowledge was once of great use to him -when he was on a journey. He had started on a voyage with Gamaliel, -and had laid in more provisions than were usually necessary for the -journey. The ship took an erratic course for some time, because its -captain, deceived by the sight of a certain star, had steered in a -wrong direction. Gamaliel's provisions having been consumed, he was -astonished that this was not the case with his companion, but that, -in fact, he could even spare some for him. Thereupon Joshua informed -him that he had calculated on the return of a star (a comet), which -reappeared every seventy years, and which would mislead the ignorant -sailor, and that therefore he (Joshua) had provided himself with extra -food for this emergency. This astronomical knowledge of Joshua appears -the more surprising, as the cycles of the comets were known not even -to the learned of antiquity. But Joshua was yet more distinguished -for his modesty and gentleness than for knowledge and wisdom, and -these qualities he displayed also in teaching. He was opposed to all -exaggeration and eccentricity, and gave heed to the circumstances of -daily life when making a legal decision. - -Joshua warmly expressed his disapproval of the numerous measures which -the school of Shammai had introduced before the destruction of the -Temple, under the name of "the eighteen rules," and which rendered -impossible all closer relations or friendly communications with the -heathens. He said, "On that day, the school of Shammai went beyond all -bounds in their decisions; they behaved as one who pours water into a -vessel containing oil; the more water one pours in, the more oil runs -off," which meant that, by introducing a number of superfluous details, -the really important things were lost. Joshua seems also to have -opposed the unmeasured deductions of the Hillelite school. He said that -the regulations respecting the Sabbath, festive offerings, and misuse -of holy things, have but slight foundation in Holy Writ, but have many -Halachas in their support. - -The balanced and calm character of Joshua rendered him especially -fitted for the part of intermediary between the Jewish nation and -Roman intolerance. He was the only teacher who sought and enjoyed -the confidence of the Roman rulers; without betraying his trust to -the Romans, he yet persuaded the opposing forces to be mutually more -yielding. The death of Gamaliel, and the hostile attitude of the Jews -towards the Romans during the last years of the Emperor Trajan and the -early years of Hadrian's reign, seem to have torn Joshua away from his -petty trade, and to have put the public leadership into his hands. -It is not improbable that he assumed the patriarchal position; at -least the circumstance that he removed the ban from Eliezer after the -latter's death, an act which could be performed only by a patriarch, -or one equal in authority, affords some ground for this supposition. -Joshua's activity during the last years of his life forms an important -part of the history of his times. - -Amongst the personages of this period, Akiba ben Joseph was -unquestionably the most talented, original and influential. His -youthful days and mental development are shrouded in darkness, as -is often the case with characters who leave their mark in history; -but legends have cast sufficient light to show the obscurity of his -descent. According to one legend, he was a proselyte, and a descendant -of Sisera, who fell through a woman's deceit. Another legend represents -him as a servant of Kalba-Sabua, one of the three richest men of -Jerusalem, who, by their provisions, wished to prevent for many years -the famine occasioned by the siege. The legend adds that the daughter -of one of these wealthy men of Jerusalem, named Rachel, had bestowed -her love on Akiba, on the condition that he should follow the study -of the Law. In those days this meant to acquire culture, and thus, in -his fortieth year, Akiba entered a school, in order to take his first -lessons to obtain the knowledge in which he was deficient. During the -period of his studies the daughter of Kalba-Sabua had remained faithful -to him, living in the greatest poverty, to which her father in his -anger had reduced her by casting her adrift. Of these stories so much -is certain, that Akiba was very ignorant until he was well advanced in -years, that he and his wife lived under very straitened circumstances, -and he related later on that during the period of his ignorance, he -hated those who were versed in the Law. - -Meanwhile his slumbering mind did not develop so quickly as the -legend relates. One source declares that he was one of the pupils of -Eliezer during many years, without ever showing himself worthy of -receiving an instructive reply from him. His teacher appears to have -regarded him with a certain amount of contempt. Perhaps the peculiar -system, pursued by Rabbi Akiba with regard to the newer Halachas, also -excited Eliezer's disapproval. Akiba had learned this new system under -Nachum of Gimso (or Emmaus), under whom he studied, not, indeed, for -two-and-twenty years, as the legend relates. Akiba raised what was -incomplete and fragmentary in this school to a complete system, and -thus he stands at a turning-point in Jewish history. - -The peculiar system of Akiba was built on certain principles, and in -fact he may be considered as the only systematic Tanai. In this system -the law was not considered as a dead treasure incapable of growth or -development, or, as it was in the eyes of Eliezer, a wealth of mere -memories, but it formed an everlasting quarry in which, with proper -means, new treasures might always be found. New laws were also no -longer to be formulated by the voice of a majority, but were to be -justified by and founded on the written documents of the Holy Word. As -the fundamental doctrine of his system, Akiba maintained that the style -of the Torah, especially in parts relating to the laws (Halachas), was -quite different from that of other writings. Human language, besides -the indispensable words employed, requires certain expressions, -figures of speech, repetitions, and enlargements--in fact it takes a -certain form which is almost unnecessary for conveying the writer's -meaning, but which is used as a matter of taste, in order to round -off the sentences and to make them more finished and artistic. In the -language of the Torah, on the other hand, no weight is put on the form; -nothing is superfluous, no word, no syllable, not even a letter; every -peculiarity of expression, every additional word, every sign is to be -regarded as of great importance, as a hint of a deeper meaning that -lies buried within. Akiba added a number of explanatory and deductive -rules to those of Hillel and Nachum, and his additions afforded fresh -means of development for the traditional law. When a deduction had been -obtained by the correct use of the rules, such conclusion might again -be employed as the foundation for fresh deductions, and so on, in a -continuous chain. - -Akiba was not to be restrained in this course by any consequences -whatsoever. He had opened up a new path with his system, and a new -point of view. The Oral Law, of which it had been said that it hung -on a hair and had no firm ground in Holy Writ, was thus placed on a -firmer basis, and the dissensions concerning the Halachas were to a -considerable degree diminished. Akiba's contemporaries were surprised, -dazzled, and inspired by his theories, which were new and yet old. -Tarphon, who had at one time been the superior of Akiba, said to -him, "He who departs from thee departs from life eternal; for what -has been forgotten in the handing down, that dost thou give afresh -in thy explanations." It was acknowledged that the Law would have -been forgotten or neglected, had not Akiba given it his support. With -exaggerated enthusiasm, it was said that many enactments of law, which -were unknown to Moses, were revealed to Akiba. - -Just as Akiba had recognized and confirmed the worth of the traditional -law, he also assisted in reducing it to a methodical system and order. -He laid the foundation for the possible collection of the rich material -at hand. It has already been stated that the Halachas were strung -together without connection or systematic grouping; it was therefore -necessary, in order to retain the entire mass, to maintain years of -intimacy with those who were acquainted with the Halachas, to be -untiringly industrious, and to have a faithful memory. Akiba, however, -facilitated the study of the Halachas by arranging them in groups, and -thus assisted the memory. The arranging of the Halachas he carried -out in two ways. He put them together according to their context, so -that all Halachas concerning the Sabbath, marriage laws, divorces, and -property should form independent wholes. Thus the entire matter was -divided into six similar parts, each part bearing the name Masechta -(Textus--Division). These divisions he arranged according to numbers, -so as to give a useful aid to the memory; thus, from four causes -injuries to property might occur; five classes of men could be excluded -from the tithes of the priests; fifteen classes of women were prevented -by consanguinity from intermarrying with their brothers-in-law; -thirty-six kinds of sins are recorded in the Holy Writings as being -punished by extermination. The collection of the Halachas, instituted -by Akiba, was called the Mishna, or more fully Mishna of Rabbi Akiba, -to distinguish it from the later collection; in Christian circles it -was known under the name of Akiba's Deuterosis. It was also called -Midoth (Measures), probably on account of the numbers which form the -basis of arrangement. This Mishna or Midoth, though arranged, was not -written down; the contents remained as before traditional, but an -easier method was employed in classifying them. It is hardly probable -that Akiba alone completed and arranged all this material. His pupils -no doubt assisted in this collection which, later on, formed the -foundation of the code that terminated the whole traditional system. - -The older Mishnas (Mishna Rishona) were often separated from the later -(Mishna Acharona, or Mishna of Rabbi Akiba), and the latter were taken -as the norm. The name of the new founder of the Oral Law became, -through his peculiar mode of teaching, one of the most celebrated in -the Jewish communities far and wide. His mysterious descent and his -lowly origin only heightened the interest felt in him. The number of -his hearers is exaggerated by tradition, which fixes it at twelve -thousand, and even double that number, but a more modest record -represents them as amounting to three hundred. Accompanied by this -numerous band of disciples, Akiba again visited his wife Rachel, who -for some years had lived apart from him in the greatest poverty. The -scene of their meeting is touchingly described, and her hard-hearted -father, Kalba-Sabua, proud of such a son-in-law, is said to have -bequeathed to him his whole property. From this time Akiba lived in -great riches with his wife, who had previously been so poor that she -slept on a bed of straw. His gratitude to his sorely tried wife was in -proportion to the sacrifices which she had made for him. - -Akiba had his fixed domicile in Bene-Berak, where his school was -situated. The position of this spot, which, through him, became so -celebrated, is supposed to be southeast of Joppa. Others place it -yet more to the south, near Ashdod; but Akiba was a member of the -Synhedrion in Jabne, and it was but seldom that any measure was -determined without him. - -In the development of Jewish law, in which Akiba had wrought such -changes, Ishmael ben Elisha took an important part. He demanded the -explanation of the written law from the common-sense view, and was thus -one of the chief opponents of Akiba's system. According to Ishmael, -the divine precepts of the Torah are expressed in human language, in -which various figures of speech, linguistic repetitions and oratorical -modes of expression occur, on which, however, no weight should be -laid, as they are a mere matter of form. He thus put aside the various -deductions of Akiba, which were based on an apparently superfluous -(pleonastic) word, or even letter of the alphabet. Akiba deduced, for -example, the punishment of death by fire against the adulterous married -daughter of a priest from one letter of the alphabet, on which Ishmael -remarked--"On account of one letter of the alphabet thou wouldst -inflict death by burning!" Ishmael had his own school, which was known -under the name of Be-Rabbi Ishmael. He there developed the rules -which were to be employed in explaining and applying the Written Law. -He amplified Hillel's seven rules of interpretation into thirteen, by -subdividing one into several, while he rejected another, and on his own -authority added one which was quite new. - -The thirteen deductive rules of Ishmael are recognized as the complete -form, but the system of Akiba, although partly opposed to it, was not -thereby excluded from use, for both were equally employed by succeeding -teachers. There is but little else known of Ishmael. He belongs to a -circle which, doubtless for political reasons, was relegated by the -Synhedrion from Jabne to Usha. He subsequently paid for his love for -his nation and the Law with his life. Akiba, though an opponent of the -theories held by him, gave a funeral address in praise of him, and was -impressed with the idea that a similar fate would soon befall himself. - -These five men--Gamaliel, the arranger; Eliezer, the strict upholder -of tradition; Joshua, the conciliator; Akiba, the systematizer; and -Ishmael, the clear thinker, were the center-point of that period; they -formed the rays which, starting from one point, diverge in order to be -finally reunited in another. - -The maintaining and cultivation of the inherited Law was a point of -union for all men of activity and intelligence, and to it they turned -all their energy, mind and power. The numerous teachers of this second -generation of Tanaites were called the Armed (Baâle Trêssin), because -the Synhedrion and schools constituted a battle-field on which the -combatants contested for the Law (machai nomikai). The group was -composed partly of members of the Synhedrion who had a voice in every -decision; partly of ordained members who, through the ceremony of -"laying on of hands," were elevated to the rank of "wise men," from -whose midst the college was wont to fill up vacancies; and, lastly, -there were disciples who sat on the ground as listeners at "the feet -of the masters." - -Amongst the most important members was Tarphon of Lydda; he was rich -and generous, passionate and hasty--a zealous enemy of the Jewish -Christians. Further, there were Eliezer of Modin, an authority on -Agadic explanations; and José, the Galilæan, whose heart was soft -and full of love for humanity. There was also Isebab, the clerk of -the Synhedrion; Chuzpit, the public orator or interpreter; Judah -ben Baba, the Chassidæan (he probably belonged to the order of the -Essenes); Chananya ben Teradion, who, together with those just named, -suffered the death of a martyr. Besides these were Eleazar Chasma -and Jochanan ben Gudgada, both of whom were celebrated on account of -their deep mathematical knowledge and their poverty, but they were -put in possession of lucrative posts by the patriarch at the express -intervention of Joshua; Jochanan ben Nuri, a zealous disciple of -Gamaliel; Joseph ben Kisma, an admirer of the Romans; and, lastly, -Ilai and Chalafta, both of whom became better known through their -sons. From the class of disciples only four distinguished themselves -in history, Samuel, the younger, and three others--all of whom were -named Simon. The disciples consisted of those who, for some reason, -had not been amongst the ordained, and who were thus excluded from -certain functions, such as membership of the Synhedrion and the -holding of certain judicial offices. To these was denied the title -of Rabbi--equivalent to the title of doctor in our times, but not -corresponding to the title of Reverend. The title of Rabbi was, in -fact, first used from the time of the destruction of the Temple, and -was probably introduced by the disciples of Jochanan ben Zakkai, who -were called master by their adherents. - -Samuel the Younger (Hakaton) was a man of rare modesty and abnegation, -a "true disciple of Hillel"; he was chiefly known for his condemnation -of the Jewish Christians, and for the prophetic glance, which, when on -his death-bed, he cast into the gloomy future. He uttered the prophetic -words: "Simon and Ishmael are doomed to destruction; the nation is -threatened with anarchy, and heavy persecutions will follow." Those -around knew not what to make of his utterances, but he foresaw the -coming troubles under Hadrian. Samuel died childless, and the Patriarch -himself delivered an address in his memory. - -Simon ben Nanos was renowned on account of his intimate acquaintance -with the law of the individual, and Ishmael recommended all those who -were learned in the Law to cultivate an acquaintance with ben-Nanos. -Simon ben Asai was an enemy to marriage, and, together with Simon ben -Zoma, he became absorbed in the theosophic speculations of the times. -Amongst the great number of teachers of the Law, of whom many lost -their lives, only one is named as having deserted his people, and thus -having attained to undesirable notoriety. This was Elisha ben Abuya, -better known by his apostate name Acher, who became a persecutor of the -Law and of those who adhered to it. Outside of Judæa, and particularly -in Babylon, there existed centers for the growth of spiritual activity. -Judah ben Bathyra, who taught in Nisibis, a town in Babylon, was -probably a descendant of the family Bene Bathyra, which, in the time -of King Herod, had been at the head of the Synhedrion. In Nahardea, -Nehemia is named as the teacher of the traditional Law in Beth-Deli. -From this center there seems to have originated, as will be shown later -on, the chief opposition to Trajan's plans for conquest in the district -of the Euphrates. In Asia Minor, likewise, the study of the Halachas -was pursued, though the names of its teachers have not been preserved. -Cæsarea, the capital of Cappadocia (also called Mazaca), appears to -have been the chief seat of this branch of study. Rabbi Akiba, during -his journey in Asia Minor, found in the latter place a man learned in -traditions, who held a discussion with him concerning the Halachas. -The Jews of Egypt, who had closed the temple of Onias at the command -of Vespasian, and had thus lost their seat of learning, appear to have -pursued their studies of the Halachas in Alexandria. They continued to -occupy themselves with the translation of such writings as resembled -the Holy Writ or the Apocryphal Literature. Sirach translated the -sayings of his grandfather into Greek, and others translated the book -of Susannah and the Letter of Baruch. Additions were also made to the -Books of Esther and Daniel. These later additions to Hebrew poetry -were considered by Christians as part of the Bible. In Judæa, however, -no attention was paid to these foreign schools, but the Synhedrion of -Jabne was regarded as the supreme authority. - - - - -CHAPTER XIV. - -INNER LIFE. - - Inner Life of the Jews--Sphere of Action of the Synhedrion - and the Patriarch--The Order of Members and Moral - Condition of the Common People--Relation of Christianity - towards Judaism--Sects--Jewish Christians--Pagan - Christians--Ebionites--Nazarenes--The Gnostics--Regulations - of the Synhedrion against Christianity--Proselytes at - Rome--Aquilas and his translation of the Bible--Berenice and - Titus--Domitian--Josephus and the Romans. - - -The Synhedrion of Jamnia had become the heart of the Jewish nation, -whence life and activity streamed forth to the most distant -communities. Thence proceeded all arrangements and decisions relating -to religious matters, which were to become popular, and the observance -of which was to be ensured. The nation regarded the Synhedrion as -a remnant of the State, and paid to the Nasi (the President), a -member of the house of Hillel and a descendant of David, an amount of -reverence such as might be shown to royalty. The Greek title Ethnarch, -which means Ruler of the People, and which approaches nearest to the -description of a king, seems to show that with the Patriarchate was -associated the princely dignity. Therefore the people were proud of the -house of Hillel, because through its members the ruling power remained -in the house of David, and thus the prediction of the patriarch Jacob -was verified, "that the scepter should not depart from the tribe of -Judah." After the Patriarch came his representative Ab-beth-din, -and the Chacham (the Wise), whose special office is not known. The -Patriarch had the right of appointing judges and the officers of -the congregation, and probably supervised their actions. The Roman -government had not yet interfered with the communal arrangements of -the Jews so far as to cause the judicial offices to be performed by -Romans. The authority of the Patriarch left the power of the teacher, -however, undiminished in certain of the schools; they could confer on -their disciples the dignities of judge or teacher of the people, and -the assent of the Patriarch was not required. The master laid his hand -on the head of the pupil, and this ordination was called _Semicha_, or -_Minui_, and meant Nomination, Ordination, or Promotion. The ordained -bore the title _Zaken_ (Elder), which was almost equivalent to that -of Senator, for through this ordination they obtained the right of -membership of the Council when the choice should fall on them. - -The chief activity of the Patriarch was felt at the public meetings of -the Synhedrion. He occupied the highest place, supported by the chief -members who were seated around in a half-circle. Behind these members, -whose number at this time was probably seventy, there were several rows -of the ordained, behind whom stood the pupils, and at the back the -people seated on the ground witnessed the proceedings. - -The Patriarch opened the meeting either by introducing some subject of -discussion from the Laws, or by inviting the members to speak by the -formula "Ask." If he himself spoke first, he uttered some sentences -softly to the Meturgeman, who then developed and explained them in an -oratorical manner. Any person had the right to put questions: while -the discussion was being held the assembly would divide into groups -and debate on the matter. The president had the right to close the -discussion, and to bring about its conclusion by saying, "The subject -has been sufficiently discussed." After the conclusion no one was -permitted to return to theoretical discussions. It appears that the -ordained members also had the right of voting. In voting on criminal -cases all votes were taken, the youngest members beginning, so that -they, by coming first, might not be guided by the most influential men; -in other matters this method was reversed. Such was the procedure at -meetings of the Synhedrion when questions were to be answered, disputed -laws to be settled, new arrangements introduced, or old ones to be set -aside. - -The Patriarch also exercised an important function in fixing the dates -of the festivals. The Jewish Calendar was not permanently fixed, but -had to be regulated from time to time. The year was in fact partly -solar, partly lunar, the festivals being dependent on the course of the -moon, and on the influence of the sun on the harvests, and the varying -course of the solar and lunar years had to be equalized. Thus, when -the solar year exceeded the lunar by a month, which occurred every two -or three years, a month was inserted, and this leap-year contained -thirteen lunar months. The length of the months was also uncertain; -a month, according to tradition, was to commence when the new moon -became visible, and this period was decided partly by astronomical -calculations and partly by the evidence of actual witnesses. As soon -as the witnesses reported to the Synhedrion that the first streak of -the young moon was visible, that day was fixed as the first day of the -month, provided it concurred with calculations made. If no witnesses -presented themselves, the doubtful day was counted in the current -month. The month thus contained twenty-nine or thirty days. The new -moon was celebrated in a solemn manner, and was announced in earlier -times by means of bonfires, which could easily be used in a mountainous -country throughout the land. Burning torches were seen on the Mount of -Olives, as also on Mount Sartaba (Alexandrion), and on Mount Tabor, -and so on, as far as Beth-Beltis, on the Babylonian frontier. On the -doubtful day between the two months the Babylonian community looked -out for the signal, and repeated it for the benefit of those who lived -afar. The congregations in Egypt, in Asia Minor and in Greece, however, -could not use bonfires, they were uncertain as to the day on which the -new moon fell, and, therefore, they kept two days instead of one. The -intercalary month was announced by the Patriarch in a circular letter -to the community. - -The Patriarch Gamaliel introduced the use of set prayers. Although some -of the prayers were very ancient, and were used in the Temple at the -time of the burnt-offerings, yet the chief prayers of those days were -not formulated, but each man was left to pray in whatever words his -feelings dictated to him. Gamaliel introduced the daily prayers, the -eighteen _Berachoth_ (blessings), which are used in the synagogues at -the present day. It is not known by whom the prayers were introduced -for the Sabbath and the Festivals. Prayers were universally considered -as a substitute for offerings, and were called "the offerings of the -heart." The public service was very simple; there were no official -readers, any one who had attained a certain age and was of good repute -could pray; the congregation called on him to do so, and he was named -"the delegate of the community." He stood before the ark in which lay -the scrolls of the Law, and, therefore, to pray was called "to go -before the ark." - -The Law, with the exception of the sacrificial system, was strictly -enforced. The tithes were paid to the descendants of Aaron, the corners -of the fields were left standing for the poor, and every three years -the poor-tithes were paid. In remembrance of the Temple, for whose -restoration the most earnest hopes were awakened, many observances -were retained, which could only be of meaning there. All those who -fulfilled strictly the requirements of the Law, giving up the tenth -part of all the fruits which they possessed, formed a sort of order -(_Chaburah_), the members of which were called fellows (_Chaberim_). - -In contradistinction to this order were the peasants--the slaves of -the soil. A striking picture is given of the neglected mental and -moral state of these peasants, to which the frequent rebellions during -the last years of the Jewish state no doubt contributed. They only -observed such laws as appealed to their rude senses, and knew nothing -of a higher life. The members of the order would not eat or live with -them, and even kept aloof from them, that their clothes might not be -made unclean by contact. It was said by contemporaries that the hatred -between the two classes was stronger than that felt between Jews and -heathens. - -Thus left to themselves and cut off from the higher classes and from -all share in communal life, without a leader or adviser, the peasants -easily fell under the influence of young Christianity. Jesus and his -disciples had especially turned towards the unprotected class, and had -there found the greater number of their followers. How flattering it -must have been to these neglected beings to hear that on their account -the Messiah had come, that he had been executed so that they might -have a share in the good things of which they had been deprived, more -especially of happiness in a better world. The Law deprived them of -their rights, while Christianity opened the kingdom of heaven to them! - -The teachers of the Law, absorbed in the task of upholding the Law and -Jewish life, overlooked the element from which a mighty foe to the Law -would arise. Before they realized it they found an enemy on their own -ground, who was desirous of obtaining the treasure which they had -watched with such devotion. The development of Christianity as a branch -of Judaism, drawing sustenance from its roots, constitutes, so long as -its followers belonged to the Jewish people, a part of Jewish history. - -Of the small group of a hundred and twenty persons, who, after the -death of Jesus, had formed his sole followers, a Christian community -had been formed, especially through the energy of Paul. He endeavored -to win over the heathens by the belief in the resurrection of Christ, -and the Jews by the belief that the actual appearance of the Messiah -had proved the inefficacy of the Jewish Law. Christianity could no -longer be contemptuously overlooked, but began to be a new element in -history. But the doctrine of Paul that the Jewish Law was unnecessary, -had sown the seed of dissension in primitive Christianity, and the -followers of Jesus were divided into two great parties, which were -again divided into smaller sects, with special views and modes of life. -Sectarianism did not show itself for the first time in Christianity, -as is supposed, in the second century, but was present at its very -commencement, and was a necessary result of fundamental differences. -The two great parties, which were arrayed in sharp opposition, were, on -the one hand, the _Jewish_ Christians, and, on the other, the _Pagan_ -Christians. The Jewish Christians, belonging to the original community, -which was composed of Jews, were closely connected with Judaism. They -observed the Jewish laws in all their details, and pointed to the -example of Jesus, who himself had lived according to Jewish laws. They -put these words into the mouth of the founder of the religion, "Sooner -shall heaven and earth disappear, than that an iota or a grain of the -Law shall not be fulfilled"; further, "I have not come to destroy the -Law of Moses, but to fulfil it." They entertained a hostile spirit -towards the Pagan Christians, and applied to them one of the sayings -of Jesus, "He who alters any, even the most trivial of the laws, and -teaches mankind accordingly, shall be the last in the kingdom of -heaven; but he who obeys them, and teaches them, shall be considered -great in the kingdom of heaven." Even the devotion of Jewish Christians -to Jesus was not of a nature to separate them from Judaism. They -considered him as a holy and morally great man, who was descended in -the natural way from the race of David. This son of David had advanced -the kingdom of heaven because he taught men to live modestly and in -poverty, like the Essenes, from whose midst, in fact, Christianity had -sprung. From their contempt of riches and preference for poverty they -bore the name of Ebionites or Ebionim (poor), which was travestied by -their Christian opponents into a nickname meaning "poor in spirit." -Fearing to be eclipsed by the other party, the primitive Jewish -Christian community sent out messengers to the foreign communities, in -order to impress on them not only the Messianic character of Jesus, -but also the duty which they owed to the Law. Thus they founded -Judæo-Christian colonies, of which that at Rome in time became the -chief. - -In opposition to these were the heathen Christians. As the term "Son -of God," as used in the language of the prophets, contained an idea -entirely incomprehensible to them, they interpreted it according to -their own mode of thought, as meaning God's actual Son, a conception -which was as clear and acceptable to the heathen as it was strange -and repulsive to the Jews. When once the idea of a Son of God was -accepted, it became necessary to eliminate from the life of Jesus -all those traits which appertained to him as a human being, such as -his natural birth from parents, and thus the statement developed -that this Son of God was born of a virgin through the Holy Ghost. -The first great difference between the Ebionites and the heathen -Christians lay in their views concerning the person of Jesus; the one -honoring him as the son of David, the other worshiping him as the Son -of God. The second point turned on the stress to be laid on the laws -of Judaism. The heathen party paid but little attention to the laws -relating to the community of property and contempt for riches, which -were the chief ends of Ebionite Christianity. The heathen or Hellenic -Christians had their chief seat in Asia Minor, namely, in seven cities, -which, in the symbolical language of that time, were called the seven -stars and the seven golden lamps. Ephesus was the chief of these -heathen Christian congregations. Between the Ebionite and Hellenic -congregations, which possessed in common only the name of the founder, -there arose strained relations and a mutual dislike, which became -more bitter with time. Paul and his disciples were fiercely hated by -the Jewish Christians. They did not cease, even after his death, to -use expressions of contempt against the circumcised apostle who only -spread error. Admiring the unity and solidarity which prevailed in the -Jamnian Synhedrion, in contrast to the dissensions which reigned in the -Christian community, a Jewish Christian wrote: "Our fellow-tribesmen -follow to the present day the same law concerning the unity of God and -the proper mode of life, and cannot form a different opinion of the -meaning of the Scriptures. It is only according to prescribed rules -that they endeavor to bring into agreement the sayings of Scripture, -but they do not permit a man to teach unless he has learnt beforehand -how to explain the Holy Scriptures. They have but one God, one Law, -one hope. If we do not follow the same course, our word of truth will, -through the variety of opinion, be shattered. This I know, not as a -prophet, but because I see the root of the evil; for some of the -heathens have put aside with the Law the prophecies in agreement with -it, and have adopted the unlawful and absurd teachings of an enemy -(Paul)." These words are placed in the mouth of Peter, the second of -the apostles. But the Ebionites not only called Paul's predictions and -instructions, of which he thought so much, unlawful and absurd, but -gave him a nickname, which was meant to brand him and his followers. -They called him Simon Magus, a half-Jewish (Samaritan) wizard, who is -said to have bewitched all the world with his words. He was said also -to have been baptized, but it was asserted that he had not received -his position as apostle through the Holy Ghost from Jesus' disciples, -but had sought it through bribes to the Ebionite community. The honor -was not only absolutely refused to him, but Simon Peter had threatened -him with damnation, for his heart was full of deceit, bitterness, and -injustice. The freedom from the Jewish Law inaugurated by Paul was -characterized as unbridled license, as the teaching of Balaam, which -brought in its train the worship of idols and the pursuit of vice. -The leaders of the heathens did not hesitate to reply in a similar -strain, and perhaps repaid their opponents with even greater hatred -when, to religious opposition, there was added the dislike of the -Romans and Greeks to the Jews, even after they had become followers -of Jesus. In the larger Christian congregations the two sects often -fell into distinct groups and became isolated from each other. In the -circular letters, which the chiefs of the various Christian parties -were accustomed to send to the communities, they made use of sharp -or condemnatory observations against the opponents of the opinions -which they held to be the only true ones. Even the stories of the -birth of Jesus, his works, sufferings, death and resurrection, which -were written down, under the title of the Evangels, only in the first -quarter of the second century, were colored by the views of the two -parties, who put teachings and sayings into the mouth of the Founder -of Christianity, not as he had uttered them, but according to their -own views. These narratives were favorable to the Law of the Jews and -to the Jews themselves, when they emanated from the Ebionites, and -inimical towards both in the accounts written by the followers of Paul, -the heathen Christians. The evangelists were thus polemical writers. - -The division between the Ebionites and the heathen Christians was by -no means confined to religious belief, but had a political background. -The Jewish Christians hated Rome, the Romans, the Emperor, and their -officials as much as the Jews did. One of their prophets (said to be -John, an imitator of the visions of Daniel), who had composed the first -Christian Revelation or Apocalypse, was inspired with the deepest -hatred towards the town of seven hills, the great Babylon. All the -evil in the world, all the depredations and plagues, all the contempt -and humiliation were announced and invoked in this first Christian -Revelation against sinful Rome. They did not imagine that she would, -at a future time, become the capital of Christianity. On the other -hand, the followers of Paul not only recommended subjection to the -Roman Empire, but even declared it to have been appointed by God. The -Christian party, without any regard for those Jews who were imbued with -a love of liberty, continually recommended that taxes and tithes should -be handed to the Romans. This submission to the existing power, this -coqueting with sinful Rome, which the Jewish Christians thought doomed -to destruction, was another source of disunion amongst various sects of -Christians. - -Between the Jews and the Jewish Christians there existed at first -tolerable relations. The former called the latter Sectaries (Minim, -Minæans). Even the Tanaite and Ebionite teachers mixed freely with -each other. The strict Rabbi Eliezer, who refused to the heathens -their share and part in life everlasting, had had an interview with -the Jewish Christian, Jacob of Kephar-Samia, and quietly listened to -his version, as he had received it from Jesus. Once, Bendama, a nephew -of Ishmael, having been bitten by a snake, determined to let himself -be cured by means of an exorcism uttered by Jacob. The transition from -Judaism to Christianity was not a striking one. It is probable that -various members of Jewish families belonged to the Jewish-Christian -belief without giving rise to dissensions or disturbing the domestic -peace. It is related of Hanania, the nephew of Joshua, that he had -joined the Christian congregation at Capernaum; but that his uncle, who -disapproved, removed him from Christian influences, and sent him to -Babylon. - -But the Jewish Christians, also, did not remain content with the -simple idea of Jesus as the Messiah. They gradually and unconsciously, -like the heathen Christians, adorned him with God-like attributes, -and endowed him with miraculous powers. The more the Jewish-Christian -conception idealized Jesus, the more it became separated from Judaism, -with which it still thought itself at one. There arose mixed sects from -among the Ebionites and Hellenites, and one could perceive a gradual -descent from the law-abiding Ebionites to the law-despising Antitaktes. -The Nazarenes came next to the Ebionites. They also acknowledged -the power of the Jewish law in its entirety; but they explained the -birth of Jesus in a supernatural manner--from the Virgin and the Holy -Ghost--and ascribed to him God-like attributes. Other Jewish Christians -went further than the Nazarenes, and gave up the Law, either in part -or altogether. After such proceedings, a total breach between Jews -and Jewish Christians was inevitable. At length a time arrived when -the latter themselves felt that they no longer belonged to the Jewish -community, and therefore they entirely withdrew from it. The letter of -separation which the Jewish community sent to the parent body is yet in -existence. It calls on the Jewish followers of Jesus to separate wholly -from their fellow-countrymen. In the Agadic method of that period, the -Epistle to the Hebrews sets forth that the crucified Messiah is at the -same time the expiatory sacrifice and the atoning priest. It proves -from the Law that those sacrifices whose blood was sprinkled in the -Holy of Holies, were considered the holiest, and the bodies were burnt -outside the Temple. "Therefore"--thus continues the Jewish-Christian -monitor--"Jesus, also, that he might sanctify the people through his -own blood, suffered without the gate (of Jerusalem). Let us, therefore, -go forth unto him without the camp (the Jewish community), bearing his -reproach, for we have not here an abiding city (Jerusalem as the symbol -of the Jewish religion), but we seek after the city which is to come." -When once a decided step had been taken to divide the Nazarenes and the -cognate sects from the Jewish community, a deadly hate arose against -the Jews and Judaism. Like the heathen Christians, the Nazarenes -reviled the Jews and their ways. As the written Law was holy to them -also, they directed their shafts against the study of Halachas amongst -the Tanaites, who in those days were the very life of Judaism. In -Jewish-Christian, as in Jewish circles, men were accustomed to view -all events from the point of view of Holy Writ, and to draw counsel -from the explanations and references in the prophecies. The Nazarenes, -therefore, applied to the Tanaites, whom they called Deuterotes, and -more especially to the schools of Hillel and Shammai, a threatening -verse of Isaiah (viii. 14): "It shall be a stone of stumbling and the -downfall of both the houses of Israel." "By the two houses the prophet -meant the two scholastic sects of Shammai and Hillel, from whose midst -the Scribes and Pharisees had arisen, and whose successors were Akiba, -Jochanan, the son of Zakkai, then Eliezer and Delphon (Tarphon), and -then again Joseph the Galilean and Joshua. These are the two houses -which do not recognize the Savior; and this shall, therefore, bring -them to downfall and destruction." Yet another verse from the same -prophet, which runs, "They mock the people through the word" (Is. xxix. -21), the Nazarenes applied to the teachers of the Mishna, "who contemn -the nation through their bad traditions." They place taunts in the -mouth of Jesus against the teachers of the Law, which might, perhaps, -apply to one or another of them, but which as applied to the whole body -were a calumnious libel. They make him say, "On the seat of Moses (the -Synhedrion) sit the Scribes and Pharisees; all that they say you must -follow and do; but their works ye shall not do, for they speak and do -not act in accordance.... All their works they do so that people may -notice them. They use wide phylacteries and fringes on their garments. -They love to have the chief place at meals and in the synagogues, to -be greeted by other men in the public places, and to be called Rabbi, -Rabbi.... Woe to you, ye hypocritical Scribes and Pharisees, who devour -the substance of the widow under the pretense that ye pray long; -therefore shall ye receive punishment; ... woe to you, that ye tithe -the herbs of the ground--both dill and cummin, and that ye leave undone -the weightier matters of the Law, judgment, mercy and faith. The one -must be done, but the other should not be omitted. You blind souls who -strain at gnats and swallow camels, ... who cleanse the outside of the -cups and platters and leave them within full to the brim with extortion -and corruption." - -Thus the leaders of the Jewish Christians were opposed to the Judaism -of the Torah, and thus, without actually desiring it, they played into -the hands of the Hellenes. The teaching of Paul thus gained more and -more ground, and came at last to be considered as true Christianity, as -the catholic, the universal religion. It was, therefore, natural that -the various sects of Ebionites and Nazarenes should gradually disappear -amongst the ever-increasing numbers of the heathen Christians, and -that they should become few in numbers and miserable in condition--an -object of contempt both to Jews and Christians. A peculiar phenomenon -was offered in this contest of opinions, that the further the Jewish -Christians departed from the Law, the nearer did the Hellenes approach -to it. In the various epistles and letters which the Christian teachers -sent to the congregations, or to their various representatives, they -could not sufficiently denounce those who sought to make way for the -Law and the Jewish teachings. - -Meanwhile, Christianity developed a number of sects with most curious -titles, and of the most eccentric tendency. Half a century after the -destruction of the Temple, the two forms of religion in the Old World -(Judaism and Paganism) underwent a transformation and partial union. -Judaism being without a state or point of centralization, endeavored -to consolidate itself, whilst the Pagan world, in the full flush of -its power, became disintegrated, and a disturbance was caused in men's -minds which led to the most extraordinary results. - -To the two elements borrowed from Judaism and Christianity there were -added others from the Judæan-Alexandrian system of Philo, from Grecian -philosophy, and, in fact, from all corners of the earth, whose source -can hardly be determined. It was a confusion of the most opposite modes -of thought and teachings, Jewish and heathen, old and new, true and -false, the lofty and the low, all in close juxtaposition and fusion. -It seemed as though on the advent of Christianity into the world, -all the most decided teachings of ancient times had bestowed a part -of their contents on it, in order to obtain thereby importance and -duration. The old question--whence did evil arise in this world--and -how its existence could be reconciled with the idea of a good and just -providence, occupied in the liveliest manner all minds which had been -made acquainted with Jewish dogmas by means of the Christian apostles. -It was only through a new conception of God that it seemed possible -to solve this question, and this new belief was pieced together from -the most varied religious systems. The higher knowledge of God, His -relation to the world and to religious and moral life, was called -Gnosis; those who thought that they possessed it called themselves -Gnostics, and understood thereby highly gifted beings, who had -penetrated the secrets of creation. - -The Gnostics, or more correctly, the Theosophists, who hovered between -Judaism, Christianity and Paganism, and who borrowed their views and -forms of thought from these three circles, were drawn also from the -adherents of these three religions. So powerful must have been the -charm of the Gnostic teaching, that the authorities of the Synagogue -and the Church enacted numberless rules and ordinances against it, -and were yet powerless to prevent Gnostic teachings and formulæ -from gaining ground amongst the Jews and the Christians. Gnosticism -spread throughout Judæa, Egypt, Syria, Asia Minor, and flourished -especially in Rome--the capital of the world--where all religious views -and creeds found followers. The language of the Gnostics was of a -mystic-allegorical character, often borrowed from Jewish and Christian -confessions of creed, but treated in an entirely different manner. Some -of the Gnostic sects exemplified the peculiarities of the tendency -of those times. One sect called themselves Cainites, for no other -reason than that its disciples, in defiance of the Biblical narrative, -regarded the fratricide Cain as superior to Abel. The Cainites also -honored the depraved Sodomites, Esau, in spite of his savagery, and -the ambitious Korah. The Ophites and Naasites were filled with similar -love of opposition to the Biblical accounts, but they assigned to it -a better motive than that of the Cainites. They took their name from -the Greek word Ophis and the Hebrew Nahash (Naas) serpent, and honored -this animal very highly, because in the Bible the serpent is considered -as the origin of evil, and, according to the ideas of those times, was -looked upon as the symbol of evil, and as the form taken by Satan. The -Ophites gave thanks to the serpent, by whose means the first human pair -were led into disobedience against God, and thus to the recognition of -good and evil and of consciousness in general. - -Varied and contradictory as were the tendencies of the Gnostic sects, -they yet had doctrines in common. The fundamental Gnostic doctrines -concerned the actual knowledge of God, which its founders developed -in opposition to the idea of God formulated by Judaism. The Gnostics -pictured to themselves the Divine Being as divided into two principles -of a God and a Creator, the one subordinate to the other. God they -called Silence or Rest, and depicted him as enthroned in the empyrean -heights, without relation to the world. His fundamental attributes -were grace, love, mercy. From him proceeded emanations which revealed -a portion of his essence; these emanations were called æons (worlds). -Beneath this highest of all beings they set the Creator of the world -(Demiurge), whom they also called Ruler. To him they assigned the -work of creation; he directed the world, he had delivered the people -of Israel, and given them the Law. As to the highest God appertain -love and mercy, which harmonize with freedom, so to the fundamental -character of the world's creator appertain justice and severity, which -he causes to be felt through laws and obligations. According to the -usual practice of the age, the Gnostics found a passage of Scripture to -illustrate these relations between the God of justice and the God of -grace. Isaiah vii. 6 reads: "We will go up to Judah, and instal another -king, the son of the good God (Tab-El)." They depict the Creator as -forming the world out of primeval matter by means of wisdom (Achamot). -"Wisdom," as it is expressed in their allegorical language, "became -allied with primeval matter which existed from eternity, and a variety -of forms were brought forth; but wisdom became thereby bedimmed and -darkened." According to this exposition, the Gnostics assumed that -there were three original Beings--the highest God, the Creator, and -Primeval Matter, and from these they developed the various conditions -and stages in the spiritual and actual world. All that is good and -noble is accounted an emanation from God; justice and law come from the -Creator; but what is imperfect, bad, or crippled in this world is the -result of the primeval matter. - -In correspondence with this Gnostic division of the three powers of the -world, there are also amongst mankind three classes or castes, which -are in the service of these three principles. There are spiritual men -(Pneumatics); they are as a rule and law to themselves, and do not -need guidance or guardianship; to this class belong the prophets, and -the possessors of the true Gnosis. There are, secondly, material men -(Psychics), who are in the service of the lawgiving Demiurge; they -stand under the yoke of the Law, by means of which they keep themselves -aloof from what is worldly, without, however, rising to the height of -spiritual men. Lastly, there are earthly men (Choics), who, like the -lower animals, are bound in the fetters of earth and matter. As types -of these three classes of men the Gnostics gave the three sons of Adam; -Seth was the origin of the Pneumatic, Abel the type of the law-abiding -man, and Cain the picture of the earthly man. Some of the Gnostics also -classified the three religions according to this scheme--Christianity -was the offspring of the highest God, Judaism of the Demiurge, and, -lastly, Paganism was a product of earthly matter. - -A by no means insignificant number of Jews allowed themselves to be -blinded by the uncertain light of the new teachings, in which truth -and falsehood were so wonderfully commingled, and to be thus drawn -away from the parent body. The secession of one man, Elisha ben Abuya, -subsequently had very sad results. The reasons which induced this -teacher of the Law, who was not behind his fellows in knowledge, to -fall away, give proof of the important influence exercised by the -false teachings of theosophy on Jewish circles. Legend has, however, -embellished the story, in order to explain how one who was versed in -the Law could take so strange a step as to despise the Law. It is not -to be doubted that Elisha ben Abuya was well acquainted with Gnostic -literature, as also with Grecian songs, and with the writings of the -Minæans. It is also certain that he knew of the fundamental doctrine of -the Gnostics, which represented God as a dual being, and that, like the -Gnostics, he despised the Jewish Law. He is also said to have adopted -practically the evil Gnostic morality, and to have given himself up to -a dissolute life. Having thus fallen away from Judaism he received, as -a mark of his apostasy, the name Acher (another), as though by going -over to other principles he had really become another man. Acher was -considered in Jewish circles as a striking example of apostasy--as a -man who employed his knowledge of the Law to persecute it the more -energetically. - -Against such incursions as were committed by Christianity Judaism had -to defend itself, in order to maintain its existence and continuance. -Inimical powers thronged its Temple, desecrated the holy things, dimmed -its clear belief in God, falsified and misapplied its teachings, -turned away its disciples, and filled them with hate and contempt for -what they had formerly honored. The time of the Hellenists in the -Maccabean period, who had first brought dissension into the house of -Israel, seemed to have returned with renewed horror. Once again sons -conspired against their own mother. The narrow circle of the Tanaites -felt the danger most severely; it hoped for nothing good from the -teachings of the Minæans, and recognized that their writings exercised -a seductive influence on the masses. Tarphon (Tryphon) spoke of -this dangerous influence with the deepest conviction. "The Evangels -(Gilion), and all the writings of the Minæans deserve to be burnt, -even with the holy name of God, which occurs therein; for Paganism is -less dangerous than the Jewish-Christian sects, because the former -does not recognize the truths of Judaism from want of knowledge, -whilst the others, on the contrary, deny what they fully know." He -would therefore rather flee for safety to a heathen temple than to the -meeting-house of the Minæans. Ishmael, whose character was less violent -than that of Tarphon, displayed the same feeling against that Jewish -Christianity which had shown itself so false to its origin. He said -that one need not hesitate to burn the name of God in the Evangels, -for these writings only stir up anger between the Jewish people and -its God. Those who professed Christianity were also reproached with -seeking to damage their fellow-countrymen with the Roman authorities -by tale-bearing and accusations. Perhaps by this means the Jewish -Christians sought to recommend themselves to their superiors, and to -show that they had no connection with the Jews. Their contemporaries -therefore always considered the name Minæans as meaning tale-bearers. - -It is related as a fact that high officers of one of the emperors, -probably Domitian, came into the school of Gamaliel, in order to -find out what instruction was given with regard to the heathens. The -Synhedrion of Jamnia must have occupied itself with the question -what position the Jewish Christians should occupy in the Jewish -community, and whether they should in fact be considered as Jews at -all. There is no resolution of the Synhedrion extant with regard to -the Minæans, but the regulations which were introduced with regard to -them give evidence as to its existence. An actual line of separation -was drawn between Jews and Jewish Christians; the latter were placed -below the sect of Samaritans, and in some respects below heathens. -It was forbidden to partake of meat, bread, and wine with the Jewish -Christians, as had been the case shortly before the destruction of -the Temple with regard to the heathens, and to the same end--that of -preventing closer intercourse with them. The Christian writings were -condemned, and were put on a par with books of magic. Even to enter -into business relations, or to receive menial services, was strictly -forbidden, especially the use of magical cures which the Christians -performed on animals or men in the name of Jesus was prohibited. A -form of curse (which bore the name of Birchath ha-Minim) was likewise -employed against the Minæans in the daily prayers, as also against -the informers. The Patriarch, Gamaliel, confided the composition of -this prayer to Samuel the Younger. This circumstance confirmed the -idea that the various ordinances against the Jewish Christians, even -if not proceeding direct from the Patriarch, yet had his consent. -The form of curse appears to have been a sort of trial of faith in -order to recognize those who secretly adhered to Christianity. For, -in connection with it, it was decreed that whosoever refrained at the -public prayers from pronouncing the curse, or from praying for the -restoration of the Jewish State, was to be dismissed from his office -of precentor. The Synhedrion published all the enactments against the -Jewish Christian sects by circular letters to the communities. On the -part of the Christians the Jews were accused of cursing Jesus three -times a day--namely, at the morning, afternoon, and evening prayers. -This reproach is quite unfounded, and, like many another made against -the Jews, is based on a misunderstanding. The curse uttered in the -prayers was not directed against the founder of the Christian religion, -nor against the entire body of Christians, but against the Minæan -informers. - -The separation of the Jewish Christian sects from the Jewish community -did not efface the results of the influence which for a time they had -exercised. Certain Gnostic, that is to say semi-Christian views, had -found their way into Jewish circles. Ideas regarding the primeval -forces, the æons, the predestined differences of caste among men, even -the teaching as to the two-fold existence of God as a God of kindness -and a God of justice, had been adopted by many, and had become so -firmly fixed as to find expression in the prayers. Certain expressions -were employed in the prayers which bore reference to the Gnostic or -Christian ideas. Forms of prayer as, "The good praise thee, O God; Thy -name is named for good"; the repetition of the expression, "Thee, O -God, we praise"; the use of two names,--all these bore a reference to -the Theosophic theory, which dwelt on the grace of God at the expense -of His justice, and thus endangered the fundamental principles of -Judaism. An impetus was given to this train of thought by researches -into the chapter concerning the creation of the world, and the throne -of God as described in the Prophet Ezekiel, (_Maas'se Bereshith_, -_Maas'se Merkaba_). The exploration of this dubitable ground gave -full scope to the imagination, and, with the assistance of the Agada, -allusions were detected and made to apply to any subject, however far -it might lie outside the true meaning of the text. Researches into such -themes, the darker the more attractive, became a favorite occupation; -such profound meditations, in the mystic language of metaphor, were -called "entering into paradise." Various teachers of the Law are said -to have been admitted to this higher wisdom, but it was not denied that -this occupation brought with it many dangers for the Jewish religion. -These dangers are hinted at in the statement that of those who devoted -themselves to the study, Ben Soma and Ben Asai brought upon themselves -respectively the one an attack of madness, the other early death, Acher -fell away from Judaism, and Akiba alone fortunately escaped the danger, -as, in spite of his theosophic researches, he yet remained on the -territory of Judaism. - -In point of fact Akiba had formed the purest conception of God, of his -rule, and of the duty of man; and thus offered a sharp contrast to -the ideas of the Gnostics. He uttered a saying which is noteworthy on -account of its comprehensiveness and its brevity. He said: "There is a -providence in all things; free will is given to man; the world is ruled -by kindness, and the merit of man consists in the multitude of good -deeds" (that is to say, not merely in knowledge). Every word in this -saying bears witness against the errors of that time. As the far-seeing -Tanaites did not shut their eyes to the dangers arising to Judaism from -these inquiries into the highest truths, they made preparations to -avert the same. Akiba especially insisted on placing boundaries to the -unregulated theories which led to a falling-off from Judaism and to -the wildest immorality. He was of opinion that the passages concerning -the theory of creation and the cloud-chariot of Ezekiel should not be -expounded before the whole people, but should be reserved for a few -chosen hearers. Those who could be initiated into higher wisdom must -have the knowledge to understand hints and dark sayings, and, above -all, must have passed their thirtieth year. Akiba endeavored to put an -end to the study of literature which was opposed to Judaism, by denying -to those who took part in it a portion in the future world, as was -decreed against those who denied the resurrection and the divinity of -the Jewish Law. The introduction of such forms of prayer as bore the -impress of the teachings of the Minæans was wholly repressed. These -measures against the introduction of Gnostic Christian theories bore -fruit; the pure beliefs of Judaism, with regard to God, His relation to -the world, and the moral conditions of men, remained in Jewish circles -untainted, as fruitful ideas for the future. To the Tanaites of this -period must be given the credit that, like the prophets of old, they -protected Judaism from the falsehoods and errors which threatened to -overwhelm it. Following the natural instinct of self-preservation, -they, on the one hand, shut out the Jewish Christian sects from the -Jewish community, and, on the other hand, strengthened Judaism, and -armed it with a strong power, which upheld it in the storms which, -through centuries, threatened it with destruction. - -Thus strengthened and concentrated, Judaism was enabled to exercise -some external influence. If Christianity, which had sprung from such -slight elements, was proud of the vast number of Pagans who had joined -it, and given up their national deities for the sake of an unknown -God, Judaism had yet more reason to be proud. A great part of the -conquests which Christianity gained in the Pagan world were due to -the Jewish religion, whose fundamental truths and moral teachings had -often facilitated the conversion of the heathens. It was only through -the truths of Judaism that those apostles who desired to convert -the heathens laid bare the inconsistent perversions of the Greeks -and Romans, for they made use of the words of scorn employed by the -prophets against the worship of idols, and the immorality arising -therefrom. But Judaism celebrated its independent triumphs over -Paganism, which appear the more brilliant when it is remembered that it -lacked all the means and advantages which facilitated the conversions -from Paganism to Christianity. The Christians sent out zealous -messengers, and, following the example of Paul, sought to make converts -by eloquence and so-called miraculous cures. They imposed no heavy -duties on the newly-made converts, and even permitted them to retain -their former habits of life, and, in part, their old views, without -separating themselves from their family circle, their relations, or -from intercourse with those dear to them. - -With Judaism it was different; it possessed no eloquent proselytizing -apostle; on the contrary it dissuaded those who were willing to come -over, by reminding them of the heavy ordeal through which they would -have to pass. Jewish proselytes had to overcome immense difficulties; -they were not accounted converts unless they submitted to the operation -of circumcision; they had to separate from their families and from the -friends of their youth in eating and drinking and in daily intercourse. -Nevertheless, it is an extraordinary fact that during the half-century -after the destruction of the Jewish State, there were everywhere -conversions of heathens to Judaism, both in the East and in Asia -Minor, but especially in Rome. The question arose as to whether the -Ammonites could be admitted to the community, or whether the Biblical -command with regard to the Moabites and Ammonites, which forbade their -admission into a congregation of God, still held good. Further, a -contest arose as to whether proselytes from Tadmor (Palmyra) could be -admitted, the prejudice against them being strong. An entire portion -of the Law treats of proselytes (_Masechet-Gerim_), and in the daily -prayers the true converts were included (_Gere-ha-Zedek_). Several -converted Pagans acquired a knowledge of the Halachas. Akiba had two -proselytes amongst his disciples. - -The greatest number of converts were to be found in Rome, and this in -spite of the hatred felt for the Jews by the Romans. The clear-headed -historian, Tacitus, could not explain the fact that the Romans of -his time could submit to circumcision, could renounce their country, -disregard their parents, their children and relations, in order to -go over to Judaism. The severe laws of the Emperor Domitian against -proselytes suggest an inference as to their frequent occurrence. -Josephus relates, as an eye-witness, that in his time, amongst the -heathens, there arose great enthusiasm for Jewish customs, and that -many of the people observed the Feast of Dedication (Chanuka), the -Sabbath, and the dietary laws, and that a strong feeling existed in -favor of the Jewish religion. "If each man thinks of his own country -and his own family," says Josephus, "he will find that my assertion is -correct. Even if we do not fully value the excellence of our laws, we -should respect them, on account of the numbers of people who respect -them." Different opinions were held as to the admission of proselytes -by the severe Eliezer and the mild Joshua. Whilst the former held -circumcision to be absolutely necessary for admission to Judaism, -the latter considered a baptism, that is, bathing in the presence of -qualified witnesses, to be sufficient. The milder view seems to have -prevailed. Many of those Romans who joined Judaism, probably did not -undergo the operation. The historian, Josephus,--who, in his "Apology -for Judaism and the Jewish Race," and, perhaps, also by his intimacy -with the higher grades of Roman society, endeavored to gain over the -heathens to the Jewish religion, and was, probably, successful in his -attempts,--did not consider circumcision as imperative. - -The pride of Judaism was the proselyte Akylas (Aquila). He came from -the district of Pontus, and owned rich estates. Well acquainted with -the Greek language, and with philosophy, Akylas, at a mature age, -forsook the heathen customs in order to join the heathen Christians, -who were proud of such a disciple. Soon, however, he gave up -Christianity, in order to go over to Judaism. This secession was as -painful an event to the Christians as his former conversion had been -a joyful one, and they spread evil reports concerning him. As a Jew, -Akylas associated with Gamaliel, Eliezer and Joshua, and with Akiba, -whose disciple he became. The proselyte of Pontus became strongly -attached to Judaism, and observed a yet higher degree of Levitical -purity than even the Patriarch. After the death of his father, when -the heritage was divided between him and his brothers, he would not -take the equivalent for the idols which became his brothers' share, but -threw the money into the sea. - -Akylas became celebrated through his new Greek translation of the Holy -Scriptures. The license with which the Christians treated the old Greek -version appears to have awakened him to the necessity of a simple but -fixed form of translation. As the Christians read the Holy Scriptures -at their service, and employed the Alexandrian translation of the -so-called Seventy (Septuaginta), they were anxious to deduce from this -text numerous references to Christ. They changed various sentences and -added others, in order to obtain the desired prophecies about Christ -from the Greek text, which they held sacred. Several passages may be -found employed by the teachers of the Church in confirmation of the -teachings of Christ, which cannot be found either in the Hebrew or -in the original form of the Greek text. The Gnostic sects, for their -part, did not fail to make the needful additions, so as to give their -teachings the authority of the Bible. The school of one Artemion is -expressly named as having defaced the Greek translation. The Jews, on -the other hand, startled at the alterations made in order to confirm -the Christian point of view, did not hesitate to introduce changes of -their own in order to remove all apparent allusions to Christ. The -Septuagint was, therefore, the meeting-place for violent encounters, -and the traces of the contest are plainly to be seen in the maimed -condition of the text. - -A good Greek translation of the Bible was likewise a necessity for -every Greek-speaking Jew. At that time it was a universal custom to -interpret the portions read from the Bible into the language of the -country. On these grounds, Akylas, who had a perfect knowledge of -the Hebrew and Greek languages, began a new translation, in order to -counteract the unlicensed violence done to the text. For this purpose, -while translating, he kept strictly to the original Hebrew text, and -with excessive caution rendered word for word, without regard to the -fact that thereby the sense became incomprehensible to the Greek -readers. The literalness of Akylas' translation, which has become -proverbial, extended to such particles as have a twofold sense in -Hebrew, and these ambiguities he desired to retain in his rendering. He -wished to make the meaning contained in the Hebrew perceptible in its -Greek form. It was known in Greek as the "Kat' akribeian" (the perfect -fitting). This translation, on account of its exactness, set at rest -all doubts, and comforted the consciences of the pious. The teachers of -the Law used it universally for public readings. The Ebionites, to whom -the older translation was also objectionable, employed that of Akylas -in their services. An Aramæan translation was made partly from that of -Akylas on account of its simplicity, and was called Targum Onkelos. - -A great sensation was at that time created in Rome by the conversion to -Judaism of Flavius Clemens and his wife Flavia Domitilla. Flavius was -a cousin of the Emperor Domitian; he was also a member of the Senate, -and Consul. His wife was also a near relative of the Emperor. Their -two sons had been named as Cæsars by Domitian, therefore one of them -would have become emperor. What a brilliant prospect for the Jews that -a near relative of the Emperor Titus should reconstruct the Temple -which the latter had destroyed! Although Clemens probably kept his -adherence to Judaism secret, yet it was known to the Jews in Rome, and -to the leaders in Palestine. On receipt of the news, together with the -information that a decree of extermination had been passed against the -Jews residing in the provinces of the Roman Empire, the four chiefs, -the Patriarch Gamaliel and his coadjutor Eliezer, the son of Azariah, -Joshua and Akiba, set out on the journey to Rome. When not far from -the capital of the world they heard the thousand-voiced noises of the -city, and were painfully affected when they thought of the desolate -silence which reigned on the Mount in Jerusalem. They shed tears at the -contrast. Akiba alone maintained his cheerful demeanor, and consoled -his sorrowing friends with the words: "Why do you weep? If God does so -much for His enemies, what will He not do for His favorites?" - -In Rome they were treated with great reverence, both by the Jews -and the proselytes, and they had an opportunity of answering many -religious questions. But they had arrived at an unfavorable moment. -Domitian was at the height of his bloodthirsty tyranny. - -The period of favor towards the Jews on the part of the Flavian house -was at an end. Even Titus, Domitian's predecessor, had already wiped -away from his mind the recollection of all he owed to them. His love -for the Jewish Princess Berenice he suppressed. When Titus became sole -ruler, Berenice journeyed a second time to Rome to remind him of his -promise of marriage; but she came too soon or too late. Titus at that -time played the part of a reformed sinner, and wished to show the -Romans that he had put aside the past. He banished Berenice from Rome, -who, as was said, left, but with a broken heart. Berenice personified -the relation of Rome to the Jewish people, who were first in high -favor, and afterwards cast into banishment and misery. It is not known -for how long a time the Jewish Princess survived her disgrace. Titus -showed no more gratitude to her brother, Agrippa II. He left to Agrippa -his kingdom or principality as it had hitherto existed, but did not -enlarge it as his father had done. Domitian, the third of the Flavians, -had no reason for displaying any favor to Agrippa. When the latter, -the last of the Judæan kings, died (92), the Emperor appropriated his -territories, and made them into a province of Syria. - -Domitian, who, like Titus at his accession, had promised to bring back -a golden era, became, during the course of his government, just as -sinful and bloodthirsty as Tiberius, Caligula, and Nero. He was worthy -of his nation and his times, of which the poet Juvenal said--"It would -be difficult to avoid satirizing them." The Jews had to suffer bitterly -under this reign of blood. Domitian insisted on the payment of the -Jews' poll tax, and levied it in the most humiliating manner, and -under circumstances of peculiar severity. Severe, however, as he was -towards the Jews, Domitian was doubly hard towards the proselytes, and -suffered them to feel the full weight of his tyrannical power. Those -who were accused of a bias for Judaism were, by the emperor's command, -dragged before a tribunal, and if their fault was proved against them, -they were visited with the full punishment of the Roman law against -irreligion. Proselytes were, therefore, despoiled of their property, -sent into exile, or condemned to death. Tacitus relates, in his -inimitable style, that executions not only took place from time to time -and at long intervals, but that they occurred in continuous succession. -At this time (95) Flavius Clemens was condemned to death, Domitian -having heard of his leaning towards Judaism. Neither his relationship -with Domitian nor his high rank could protect him. The four teachers -of the Law from Palestine, who had come to Rome on his account, and -who expected a brighter future from him, were witnesses of his death. -His wife, Domitilla, who was exiled to the island of Pandataria, is -said to have declared to the teachers of the Law that Clemens had been -circumcised before his death. - -Josephus, the Jewish historian, with his friendly feelings towards -Rome, appears to have taken part in the lawsuit against Flavius Clemens -and the other Jewish proselytes. He stood in high favor with the -Emperor Domitian and the Empress Domitia; but owing to the position -which, during the last Jewish war, he assumed towards the Romans, -he became so hated by his countrymen that constant complaints about -him were made to the emperor. Once he was even accused of treason to -Domitian by the teacher of his own son. In his spare time Josephus -occupied himself with a comprehensive work on Jewish history from its -commencement to the period before the war, and this he completed in -twenty books in the thirteenth year of Domitian's reign (93). With -much trouble and at great expense he had collected and used non-Jewish -sources, had brought them into unison with the historical accounts of -Holy Writ, and thus erected a national monument, by which the deeds -and thoughts of the Jewish nation became known to the cultured world. -But soon after he erected for himself a monument of shame. Justus -of Tiberias, his former enemy, had meanwhile written his history of -the Judæan wars, in which he represented Josephus as an enemy to the -Romans, a statement which might have led to unpleasant consequences. -Josephus felt that his honor was attacked and his life threatened. Not -much was needed for the suspicious tyrant Domitian to cast a man from -the highest grade of his favor to the abyss of a disgraceful fall. -In order to justify himself against the accusations of his enemy, -Justus of Tiberias, Josephus appended to his history a description of -the events of his own life, describing his conduct during the war. -To clear himself from the imputations cast on him, he represents his -own character in a most unfavorable light, as though he had always -held with the Romans and betrayed his own people. But in his fourth -work, published in 93 or 94, Josephus, though he could not entirely -redeem his character, yet clearly evinced his deep love for his -religion and his race, and thereby earned for himself the thanks of -his people. In two books against the Greeks and against Apion, he -opposes, with deep conviction, the accusations made against Judaism -and the Jewish race, and upholds the religious and moral superiority -of the Jewish law. These two books are probably intended to win over -enlightened heathens to Judaism. Josephus points out with joy that -many of the heathens amongst the Greeks and Romans already honored the -God of Israel and followed His laws. These books were dedicated to -his friend Epaphroditos, a learned Greek, who was strongly inclined -towards Judaism. No doubt Josephus endeavored personally to win over -proselytes. He must have associated with Flavius Clemens, as he lived -in the Flavian palace. When Domitian carried into effect the sentences -pronounced against his cousin Clemens and the followers of Judaism, -it is probable that a prosecution was commenced against Josephus for -having led them astray. A philosophical essay concerning the laws of -Judaism, which he promised to publish in his last books, remained -unwritten, as his thread of life was cut short probably by Domitian. -The Jewish patriots, however, were so embittered against Josephus that -they did not express any sorrow at his death, which was probably that -of a martyr. Nor was it referred to by the four teachers of the Law, -who left oral traditions as to the death of Flavius Clemens. - -A complete contrast to the character of Domitian was presented by his -successor Nerva. Just, wise and humane, he was only wanting in the -freshness and courage of youth, in order to give effect to his wise -ordinances, and to restore the Roman empire, shattered as it had been -by Domitian's cruelty and caprice. - -The Jews and proselytes immediately felt the effect of the change -of ruler. During the short period of his reign--which only lasted -sixteen months, from September 96, till January 98--Nerva, who had -to put an end to various perversions and abuses in the constitution, -yet found time to occupy himself with the Jews. He permitted every -man to acknowledge his faith as a Jew, without thereby incurring the -punishment of an atheist. The Jews' tax also, if not quite set aside, -was levied with kindness and forethought, and accusations against those -who avoided this tax were not listened to. This act of toleration -on Nerva's part appears to have been of so great importance that a -coin was struck in order to commemorate it. This coin, which is still -preserved, represents on the one side the Emperor Nerva, and on the -other a palm-tree (symbol for Jews), with the inscription, "Fisci -Judaici calumnia sublata" ("Accusations on account of the Jews' tax -are at an end"). It is probable that the four Tanaites, who were still -in Rome at the time of the death of Domitian and the accession of -Nerva, had furthered this favorable turn of events by opposing the -complaints against Judaism, and by inducing those in power to form a -better opinion of it. This reign, which was of but too short duration, -terminated the period of favor shown towards the Jews, and with Nerva's -successor there began afresh the old hatred between the Romans and the -Jews, and soon both nations again stood, sword in hand, arrayed against -one another. - - - - -CHAPTER XV. - -REVOLT OF THE JEWS AGAINST TRAJAN AND HIS SUCCESSORS. - - Trajan and Asia--Revolt of the Jews--Hadrian--The Jewish - Sibylline Books--The Attempted Rebuilding of the Temple--The - Ordinances of Usha--Bar-Cochba--Akiba's Part in the - War--Bar-Cochba's Victories--Suppression of the Revolt--Siege - and Fall of Bethar. - - 96-138 C. E. - - -Nerva had chosen the Spaniard Ulpianus Trajan as his successor. -This emperor, who was nearly sixty years old, set about realizing -his favorite idea of annexing the territories lying between the -Euphrates and Tigris and the Indus and Ganges to the Roman Empire, so -as to win laurels similar to those obtained by Alexander the Great. -In the Parthian lands he had an easy conquest; for this ancient -kingdom--partly of Greek and partly of Persian origin--was torn -asunder by the various pretenders to the throne, and offered but -little resistance to the conqueror. Only the Jews, who lived in great -numbers in this district, under the leadership of the Prince of the -Captivity, possessed a certain amount of independence, and offered -resistance to the Roman conqueror. The Babylonian Jews beheld in Trajan -the descendant of those who had destroyed the Temple and condemned -their brethren to miserable slavery, and armed themselves as if for a -holy war. The town of Nisibis, which had always possessed a numerous -Jewish population, displayed such obstinate resistance that it could be -subdued only after a lengthy siege. The district of Adiabene, on the -center branch of the Tigris, obeyed a ruler whose ancestors, scarcely -a century before, had adopted Judaism. Mebarsapes, who was now on the -throne of Adiabene, was, perhaps, also inclined towards Judaism. He -fought bravely against Trajan, but was overcome by the Roman forces. -Trajan, unlike any of his predecessors, witnessed after a very short -space of time the glorious results of his campaign. Conquests seem to -have met him half-way. When he withdrew into his winter quarters in -Antioch (115-116), in order to receive homage, the chief campaign was -almost at an end. In the spring he again set forth, in order to crush -any opposition, and to carry into effect the long-cherished plan of -conquering the Jews. But hardly had Trajan set out when the conquered -people on the twin rivers revolted again. The Jews had a great share -in this uprising; they spread anarchy through a great portion of -the Roman Empire. Not alone the Babylonian Jews, but also the Jews -of Egypt, Cyrenaica, Lybia, and those in the island of Cyprus were -seized with the idea of shaking off the Roman yoke. As if possessed -by an overwhelming power, the Jews of this far-lying district seized -their weapons, as though to show the enemy that their power was not -destroyed nor their courage broken, and that they were not willing to -share the weakness and degradation of the times, and to sink without an -effort amongst the masses of enslaved nations. Such unanimous action -presupposes a concerted plan and a powerful leader. From Judæa the -rebellion spread through the neighboring countries to the Euphrates -and Egypt (116-117). In half a century after the fall of the Jewish -State a new race had arisen, who inherited the zealous spirit of their -fathers, and who bore in their hearts a vivid remembrance of their -former independence. The hope of the Tanaite teacher, "Soon the Temple -will be rebuilt," had kept alive a love of freedom in the Jewish -youths, who had not lost the habit of using weapons in the schools. -A legend relates that Trajan's wife (Plotina) had given birth to a -son on the ninth of Ab, and lost it on the feast of Dedication, which -the Jews kept in memory of the victory of the Hasmonæans, and she -had interpreted their sorrowing as the hatred of an enemy, and their -rejoicing as joy for her loss. The Empress therefore wrote to Trajan, -"Instead of subduing the barbarians, you should rather punish the Jews -who revolt against you." - -In Judæa the leaders of the rebellion appear to have been two -courageous men from Alexandria, Julianus and Pappus. The former seems -to have been the Alabarch of Alexandria, or his relative, and a -descendant of the celebrated Alexander Lysimachus. He and his companion -enjoyed a princely position amongst the Jews. The meeting place of the -revolutionary troops in Judæa was the plain of Rimmon, or the great -plain of Jezreel. There exists but a dim picture of the proceedings, -and only the issue of the revolt is known with certainty. In Cyrene, -whose Jewish inhabitants had been encouraged to revolt against the -Romans immediately after their defeat, the rebellion was at its height. -They had a leader named Andreias, also called Lucuas, one of whose -names was, perhaps, of an allegorical nature. - -The Egyptian Jews, who in former times had been loyal to the Romans, -this time made common cause with the rebels, and conducted operations -as in every other revolution. They first attacked the neighboring -towns, killed the Romans and Greeks, and avenged the destruction of -their nationality on their nearest enemies. Encouraged by the result, -they collected in troops and attacked the Roman army under the Roman -general Lupus, who commanded the legions against the Jews. In the -first encounter the wild enthusiasm gave the Jews an advantage over -the Romans, and Lupus was defeated. The results of this victory were -scenes of horror and barbarity on both sides, as was naturally the -case in a racial war between people who carried in their hearts an -ancient hatred which, when it came to a fiery outburst, could only be -quenched by blood. The heathens who had taken flight after the defeat -of the Roman army marched against Alexandria. The Jewish inhabitants -who could bear arms, and who had joined in the revolt, were taken -prisoners and killed amidst fearful tortures. The conquering Jewish -troops felt themselves filled with a desire for revenge. In despair -they invaded the Egyptian territories, imprisoned the inhabitants, and -repaid cruelties with fresh cruelties. The Greek and Roman fugitives -took to their boats, in order to escape pursuit on the bosom of the -Nile; but armed Jews followed close behind them. The historian Appian, -at that time an official in Alexandria, sought safety by taking flight -at night, and would have fallen into the hands of his Jewish pursuers, -had he not missed his way along the coast. The short description of his -flight and his unexpected deliverance gives some idea of the terror -excited by the Jewish populations, who had suffered so long at the -hands of their enemies. The Jews are said to have eaten the flesh of -the captive Greeks and Romans, to have smeared themselves with their -blood, and to have wrapped themselves in the skins torn off them. These -horrors are quite foreign to Jewish character and customs, but it is -probably true that the Jews made the Romans and Greeks fight with wild -animals or in the arena. This was a sad reprisal for the horrible -drama to which Vespasian and Titus had condemned the captive Jews. In -Cyrenaica 200,000 Greeks and Romans were slain by the Jews, and Lybia, -the strip of land to the east of Egypt, was so utterly devastated that, -some years later, new colonies had to be sent thither. - -In the Island of Cyprus, which had for a long time previous been -inhabited by Jews, who owned synagogues there, a certain Artemion -headed the uprising against the Romans. The number of rebels was very -great, and was probably strengthened by the discontented heathen -inhabitants of the island. The Cyprian Jews are said to have destroyed -Salamis, the capital of the island, and to have killed 240,000 Greeks. - -Trajan, who was then in Babylon, greatly feared the outbreak of a -revolt, and sent an army, proportionate in numbers to the anticipated -danger. He entrusted an important force by land and sea to Martius -Turbo, in order that he might quell the smouldering troubles of war -which existed in Egypt, Cyrenaica, and on the island of Cyprus. - -In the district of the Euphrates, where the Jews, notwithstanding the -nearness of the Emperor's crushing army, had taken up a threatening -position, he gave the chief command to his favorite general, Quietus, -a Moorish prince of cruel disposition, whom he had appointed as his -successor. It is not known who led the Jews of Babylon. Maximus, a -Roman general, lost his life in the battle; Quietus had received orders -to entirely annihilate the Jews of his district, so great was the -fear and hatred of the Emperor of a nation whose power he seems in no -way to have rightly estimated. Thus Trajan had to oppose the Jews on -three sides, and had they united and mutually supported each other, -the colossal Roman empire would perhaps have received a deadly blow. -Martius Turbo, who had to oppose the Egyptian and Cyrenean revolts, -went himself in his ships to the threatened spots, which he reached in -five days. He avoided meeting the hostile forces in a sudden attack, -coolly calculating that this would only give the victory to a people -who were guided more by enthusiasm for an idea than by principles -of military tactics. He preferred to weaken the rebels by repeated -onslaughts, which gradually wearied them and thinned their ranks. -The Jews, however, did not submit without making a brave defense. -The heathen authorities, who were against the Jews, acknowledge that -it was only after a contest of long duration that the Romans became -masters of the situation. It was inevitable that the Romans should -conquer in the end, as they had greater multitudes and greater skill in -war, and especially as their cavalry had to encounter only half-armed -foot-soldiers. Turbo displayed an amount of cruelty to the captives -which was not strange to the Romans. The legions surrounded the -prisoners and cut them to pieces, the women were lashed, and those who -offered resistance were killed. The ancient Alexandrian synagogue, -a marvel of Egyptian architecture, a basilica, was destroyed. From -that time, says a Jewish source, the glory of Israel departed. In the -massacre which Martius Turbo set on foot amongst the African Jews, the -same source relates that the blood of the slain stained the sea to -the island of Cyprus. This refers to the sea of blood which the Roman -general shed amongst the Cyprian Jews. - -Turbo, after the end of this African revolt, led his legions against -Cyprus. Concerning the particulars of this war, authorities are silent. -The contest, however, must have been a bitter one, for a deadly hatred -arose in Cyprus against the Jews. This hatred was expressed in a -barbarous law, according to which no Jew might approach the island of -Cyprus, even if he suffered shipwreck on that coast. - -The war of destruction waged by Lucius Quietus against the Babylonian -and Mesopotamian Jews is but little known in its individual features. -Only so much is certain, that he destroyed many thousands, and that he -laid waste the towns of Nisibis and Edessa, which were inhabited by -Jews. The houses, streets and roads were strewn with corpses. As a -reward for the great services rendered by this general in fighting the -Jews, Trajan named him governor of Palestine, with unlimited power, -so that he might suppress the revolt in the Jewish fatherland. Trajan -himself was unsuccessful in his encounters; he had to leave Babylon, -give up the siege of the town of Atra, and relinquish the idea of -converting the Parthian land into a Roman province. - -Through the failure of his favorite plan, the emperor fell ill, and -was brought to Antioch, and he died a few months later at Cilicia. His -desire that his faithful general, Quietus, should succeed, was also not -fulfilled. His astute wife, Plotina, set aside his last wishes, and -assured the army that Trajan had, before his death, accepted his near -relation, Ælius Hadrian, as his son and successor. - -Hadrian, at his accession (August, 117), found that various nations -were on the eve of a rebellion, and that others were taking measures -to break the fetters of all-powerful Rome. Hardly had the report of -Trajan's death been spread than the flames of rebellion burst forth -both in the East and the West, and the wish of the nations to free -themselves from the Roman yoke, in a violent manner, made itself known. - -The Parthian lands, where Trajan had just established the semblance of -the Roman rule, some of the districts of Asia Minor, whose agricultural -wealth had been appropriated by the officers of the emperor, Mauritania -and Sarmatia, and distant Britain--all seized upon this moment of -weakness to strive for independence. - -The Jews of Palestine, whose hatred towards the Romans was yet -stronger, had already organized a rebellion, for the suppression of -which Quietus had been sent out by Trajan, after he had completed -his work in the lands of the Euphrates. He had not yet succeeded in -mastering the revolt when Hadrian became ruler. Historians are silent -as to the nature of the war in Judæa. The Jewish sources call this -second rebellion "the war of Quietus" (Polemos shel Kitos). It appears -to have taken an unfavorable turn for the Jews, for fresh signs of -public mourning were added to those observed for the destruction of the -Temple by the teachers of the Law. It was forbidden that brides should -wear wreaths on their weddings, or that the Jews should learn Greek. It -is not clear whether this prohibition was directed against the Greek -language or the Greek customs; as little is it possible to discover -the connection between this war and a distaste for what was Greek. -Perhaps the Greeks of Palestine became false to their allies, and left -the Jews in the lurch. The Synhedrion of Jamnia appears to have been -destroyed under Quietus, but the Jewish people were soon delivered -from the merciless oppressor, whose plans for their annihilation could -not be carried into effect. The new emperor himself put an end to his -general's career. Hadrian, who had more ambition than warlike courage, -and whose innermost aspiration was for the nimbus of royal authority -rather than for a rough and troublesome military existence, drew back -at the prospect of so many revolts, and from the chance of a long and -wearisome war. Already envious of the reputation of his predecessor, -with whom he had no sympathy, and whom the Senate had been unwearied -in granting triumphs, Hadrian, for the first time, swerved from the -hard and fast line of Roman politics, and was inclined to be yielding. -In the same spirit, he permitted the Parthians to be ruled by their -own prince, renounced all claims on them, and appears to have made -concessions to the other provinces, and to have granted the Jews their -apparently harmless requests. Amongst these they expressed a wish for -the removal of the heartless Quietus and the restoration of the Temple. -The all-powerful general was deposed; and though the jealousy of the -emperor with regard to this great and powerful ruler was a chief reason -for his removal, it yet was made to appear as if it were done to favor -the Jews, and to do away with their chief grievance. Before Quietus -fell into disgrace he was about to pronounce sentence of death on the -two Jewish leaders, Julianus and Pappus, who had fallen into his hands; -they were to be executed in Laodicea. He had said to them, "If your -God is powerful, as you assert, He may rescue you from my hands." To -which they replied, "Thou art scarcely worthy that God should perform a -miracle for thy sake, who art not even an independent ruler, but only -the servant of one higher." At the very moment when the two prisoners -were being led to a martyr's death, the order came from Rome which -deposed their executioner from the governorship of Judæa. - -Quietus left Palestine, and was soon afterwards executed at the command -of Hadrian. The day of the release of Julianus and Pappus, 12th Adar -(Feb.-March, 118), was celebrated as a memorable event, and the college -appointed it as a half-holiday, under the name of Trajan's day (Yom -Trajanus). It is not to be doubted that the Jews made the re-erection -of the Temple on its former site a condition of their laying down -arms. A Jewish source relates this fact in clear terms, and Christian -accounts positively aver that the Jews on several occasions endeavored -to restore the Temple, and this can only refer to the early years of -Hadrian's reign. The superintendence of the building of the town, -Hadrian is said to have entrusted to the proselyte Akylas. Great was -the delight of the Jews at the prospect of again possessing a holy -fane. Fifty years had elapsed since the destruction of the Temple, just -the same period as had formed the interval between the destruction of -the first sanctuary and the return from Babylon. The keenest hopes were -aroused by Hadrian's assent. A Jewish-Alexandrian poet expresses in -Greek verse the feelings which filled every breast. The unknown poet -places his words in the mouth of a heathen prophetess, the Sibyl, the -sister of Isis. She first recites, in enigmatic references, the names -of a long line of Roman conquerors from the time of Cæsar-- - - ... and after him there came - As king a man who wore a silver helm--the name - He bore was of a sea--a worthy man, far-seeing, - And 'neath thee--thou good and splendid raven-locked, - And 'neath thy race, this happened for all times, - That there arose a god-like race, indwellers of heaven, - Who e'en on earth surround the town of God, - And unto Joppa surround it with high walls, - And boldly raise their towers to heaven's heights. - No more the death sound of the trumpet's cry-- - No more they perish at the foe's rash hands; - But trophies shall float in the world o'er evil. - Torment thy heart no more, nor pierce with sword thy breast, - Thou godly one, too rich, thou much-loved flower, - Thou light so good and bright, desired and holy goal! - Dear Jewish land! fair town, inspired of songs, - No more shall unclean foot of Greeks within thy bounds - Go forth. - But in honor thy faithful ones shall hold thee; - And they shall serve thy board with holy words, - With varied offerings, and with welcome prayers. - Those who remorseless send ill words to heaven - Shall cease to raise their voices in thy midst, - Shall hide away until the world has changed. - For from the heavenly land a happy man comes forth, - Within whose hands a scepter given by God; - And over all he rules with glory, and to the good - Again he giveth riches, bereft of them by others gone before, - The towns by fire leveled to the very earth, - And burnt the homes of men who once did evil. - But the town beloved of God he made - Brighter than stars or sun, and than the moon, - Adorned them brightly, and reared a holy Temple. - -The great expectations formed with regard to the restoration, which -had appeared like a pleasant dream, paled before the stern reality. -Scarcely had Hadrian taken a firm footing in his kingdom and calmed -the unruly nations, when, like other weak princes, he began to -diminish his promises, and to prevaricate. One report relates that the -Samaritans--who were jealous that the object of their aversion, the -Temple of Jerusalem, should again rise from the dust--endeavored to -represent to the Emperor the danger of such a restoration; as their -forefathers had formerly demonstrated to the Persian rulers, so they -endeavored to prove to the Roman emperor that the building of the -Temple was a mere subterfuge to bring about a total separation from -Rome. Hadrian, however, would probably have come to this conclusion -without the interposition of the Samaritans. In any case, while he -did not venture wholly to retract his word, he began to bargain. It -is said by some that he gave the Jews to understand that the Temple -must be erected on a different place from that on which stood the -ruins of the former building, or that it must be built on a smaller -scale. The Jews, who well understood this temporizing, and saw therein -only a retractation of the imperial promise, were not inclined to let -themselves be played with. - -When matters had reached this pass, many people armed themselves and -assembled again in the valley of Rimmon, on the plain of Jezreel. When -the royal epistle was read out the masses burst into tears. A rebellion -and an embittered war seemed imminent. But there were still lovers of -peace amongst the people, who recognized that a rebellion, under the -circumstances then existing, would be dangerous. At the head of this -party was Joshua. He was immediately sent for to tranquillize the -excited populace by his influence and eloquence. Joshua addressed the -people in a manner which has always appealed to the masses. He related -a fable, and drew a moral which applied to existing circumstances: "A -lion had once regaled himself on his prey, but a bone remained sticking -in his throat. In terror he promised a great reward to any one who -would extract the bone. A crane with a long neck presented himself, -performed the operation and claimed his reward. The lion, however, -said mockingly, Rejoice that thou hast withdrawn thy head unharmed from -the lion's jaws. In like manner," said Joshua, "let us be glad that we -have escaped unscathed from the Roman, and not insist on the fulfilment -of his promise." Through these and similar exhortations he prevented -an immediate outbreak. But the nation was filled with the idea of -rebellion, and adhered to it in a manner worthy of a better fortune. - -Joshua was the chief leader of the people in the time of Hadrian, and -appears to have performed the duties of Patriarch, for Gamaliel had -probably died at the commencement of Hadrian's reign. The honors paid -to his dead body show the high esteem in which he was regarded by the -people. Joshua, Eliezer, and his disciples mourned for him; Akylas -the proselyte--as was customary at royal funerals--burnt clothes and -furniture to the amount of seventy minas. When reproached for this -extravagance he said, "Gamaliel is worth more than a hundred kings, -from whom the world gains nothing." A striking contrast to this display -was afforded by the simplicity of the shroud which Gamaliel had -expressly ordered before his death. It was customary at that time to -clothe the corpse in costly garments, an expense which fell so heavily -on those of small means, that many deserted their dead relations in -order to avoid the outlay. To prevent such expense, Gamaliel ordered -in his last will that he should be buried in simple white linen. From -that time greater simplicity was observed, and it became the custom at -funeral feasts to drink a cup to the memory of Gamaliel. He left sons, -but the eldest, Simon, appears to have been too young to undertake the -patriarchate, which, therefore, devolved on Joshua probably (as his -representative, Ab-bet-din). After Gamaliel's death Joshua was desirous -of abolishing various ordinances which the former had enforced, but he -was opposed by Jochanan ben Nuri, who was supported by most of the -Tanaites. - -It is hardly possible to doubt that the Jamnian Synhedrion removed to -Upper Galilee after the death of Gamaliel, and Usha (El-Uz) in the -vicinity of Shefaram (Shefa-Amar), between Acco and Safet, became -the seat of the Synhedrion. Ishmael is mentioned amongst those who -emigrated to Usha. Here the Synhedrion made various enactments of high -moral and historical importance, which took the form of laws, under the -title of Ordinances of Usha (Tekanoth Usha). One of these laws decreed -that a father must support his young children--the boys until their -twelfth year, and the girls until they married. Before this time the -provision for children had been left to the option of parents. Another -law enacted that if a father during his own lifetime gave up all his -property to his son, it followed, as a matter of course, that the son -must support both his father and the wife of his father. A third law -limited the reckless devoting of the whole of a man's property to -charitable purposes, which custom prevailed at that time. This law -prescribed that only a fifth part of the property might be given away. -Isebab, who afterwards died the death of a martyr, was desirous of -dividing his whole property amongst the poor, but Akiba opposed him, -referring him to this law respecting property. One decision of Usha -seems to have been directed against Gamaliel's severe employment of the -interdict. It decreed that no member of the College should in future -be excommunicated unless he actually despised and revolted against -the whole Law, like King Jeroboam. This circumstance shows that the -unity of the Law was so established that a difference of opinion no -longer implied, as formerly, a total break, and Joshua, no doubt, had -contributed to this result. - -The tolerable relations between Hadrian and the Jews did not last much -more than a decade. He could not forget that he had been compelled -to make concessions to the despised nation, and the latter could not -forget that he had broken faith with them, and had deprived them of -their fairest hopes. This mutual antipathy displayed itself during -Hadrian's journey through Judæa. The emperor, urged by vanity, and -a desire to be called the father of his country, and impelled by a -restlessness and want of occupation, which drove him from one spot -to another, had visited nearly all the provinces of the great Roman -empire, for the purpose of seeing everything with his own eyes. -Hadrian's petty curiosity led him to concern himself with all manner -of things, to desire to be considered as a philosopher, and better -informed than his contemporaries in all matters. Whether he judged the -condition of other provinces correctly may be doubted; he certainly -was deceived in his hasty judgment of the Jews. During his visit to -Judæa (130), it is probable that those people, such as the Romans, -Samaritans, and Christians, who disliked the original inhabitants -(the Jews), approached him with subservience, in order to greet him -as a demi-god, or even as a god. A pantomimic conversation, which was -held between a Christian and a representative of Judaism, Joshua ben -Chananya, in Hadrian's presence, describes their respective positions. -The former showed by gestures that the God of Israel had hidden His -face from the Jews; the latter showed, by a movement of the arm, -that God still stretched forth His hand to protect Israel, and this -pantomime Hadrian desired to have explained to him. He seems to have -had many interviews with Joshua. Several conversations between Hadrian -and the Tanaite have been handed down, of which one appears to be -credible. He asked him, "If you are as wise as you assert, tell me -what I shall behold this night in my dreams." Joshua replied, "Thou -wilt dream that the Persians (Parthians) will subdue thee, and compel -thee to guard low animals with a golden scepter." This retort was well -chosen, for the superstitious emperor feared the Parthians beyond all -nations, and did his utmost to maintain peace with them. - -Hadrian thought that he had nothing to fear from Judæa. He informed -the Roman Senate of the peaceful disposition of the Jews, and they -perpetuated their credulity by various coins, in which the emperor is -represented dressed in a toga, raising a kneeling Jew from his humble -position. Three boys (probably emblematic of the districts of Judæa, -Samaria, and Galilee) hand him palm branches. He thus cherished the -expectation that racial and religious differences would soon disappear, -and that the inhabitants would merge their identity in that of the -Romans. In order to induce such a state of things he drew up a plan, -which could not have been more unfortunately conceived. Jerusalem was -to be rebuilt, but as a pagan city. Whilst he repaired to Egypt to -commit other follies, the desecration of the holy city was commenced. -The Jews naturally did not remain unmoved at this act, which was to -erase their name as a nation and a religious body from the book of the -living, and a bitter feeling overcame them. Joshua again appears to -have endeavored to bring about a reconciliation in order to frustrate -the thoughtless plan of the emperor, and to allay the discontent of the -people. Though an aged man, he traveled to Egypt in order to induce the -emperor to alter his mind. - -But his prudent suggestions were ridiculed; the emperor would only -mock at the Jewish, Samaritan, and Christian religions, with which he -thought himself thoroughly acquainted. He wrote at this time to his -brother-in-law, "No president of the synagogue (Rabbi) of the Jews, no -Samaritan, no Christian priest, honors anything but Serapis. Even that -patriarch who has come to Egypt [probably Joshua] was compelled by some -to worship Serapis, and by others to worship Christ." Joshua returned -to Judæa after his fruitless visit, and appears to have died soon after -of grief and old age. It was justly said of him that with his death -wisdom and prudent moderation came to an end. After his decease there -occurred wide-spread movements and contests in Judæa, which were among -the most memorable in its history, and there was no one to stem the -tide. - -So long as Hadrian remained in Syria (130-131) the malcontents did not -commence the revolt for which they had probably been long preparing. -The weapons prepared by the Jewish smiths for the Romans were made (in -anticipation of their being used against themselves) weak and useless. -In the hollow chalk mountains of Judæa the insurgents silently prepared -underground passages and refuges, which were used as secret armories -before the war, and afterwards as secret ambushes, from which the enemy -could be attacked. Akiba seems to have developed a silent but effective -activity in his preparation for a revolt. After the death of Joshua he -was recognized as the head of the Jewish community. Hadrian, lulled -into security, discovered the conspiracy only when it broke out at the -various points of the Roman empire, so skilfully had the Roman spies -been deceived. When the revolt was about to commence everything was in -readiness. There were stores of arms, means of communication, warriors, -and even a powerful leader, who, through his strange position, infused -religious enthusiasm and warlike courage. It was considered as a -favorable sign for their daring undertaking that two of the stations -of the Roman legions had been destroyed. Cæsarea and Emmaus had been -swallowed up some years before by an earthquake. Cæsarea was the Roman -capital of Judæa, the dwelling-place of the governor, and, like Rome, -it brought down the hatred of the Jews on itself. The peculiar idea was -entertained, that, as the greatness of Cæsarea had dated from the time -of the destruction of Jerusalem, so from the fall of Cæsarea Jerusalem -would again attain to power. Emmaus had been the dwelling-place of -eight hundred soldiers of Vespasian who had served there; it therefore -had been used as a second citadel. - -The chief hero of the revolt was Bar-Cochba, who inspired the Roman -empire in its then state of weakness with as much terror as Brennus and -Hannibal had formerly done. - -Not a trace, however slight, can be found of the descent and early life -of this much reviled and misunderstood personage. Like the hero of -every revolution, he suddenly appeared as the perfect incarnation of -the nation's will and the nation's hate, spreading terror around, and -standing as the center-point of an eventful movement. His real name was -Bar-Kosiba, doubtless from the town of Kosiba, and was not a nickname -meaning "son of lies." Bar-Cochba was a symbolical Messianic name which -Akiba had given him. When Akiba, actively engaged in the deliverance of -the Jewish people, first saw Bar-Cochba, he was so impressed with the -appearance of the man that he said, "That is a Messianic king." Akiba -applied to him the verse of Scripture, "Kosiba has arisen as a star -(Cochba) in Jacob." Akiba was confirmed, by the imposing personality of -Bar-Cochba, in his hopes that the Roman power would soon be overthrown, -and that the splendors of Israel would once more shine forth, and he -looked forward through this means to the speedy establishment of the -Messianic kingdom. He cited the verse of the prophet Haggai with regard -to this (ii. 21), "Yet a little and I will shake heaven and earth." - -All did not, however, share Akiba's pious enthusiasm. Jochanan ben -Torta, a teacher of the Law, replied dubiously to his high-flying -hopes, "Sooner shall grass grow from thy chin, Akiba, than that the -Messiah will appear." The respect and attention, however, which Akiba -displayed towards Bar-Cochba were sufficient to surround him with a -halo, as of a higher God-given power, which gave him unquestioned -authority, and increased the means at his disposal. - -There is no record in Jewish sources of miracles performed by the -Messianic king for the gratification of the populace. But an account -of the enemy relates how Bar-Cochba puffed forth burning tow from his -mouth to give himself the appearance of spitting fire. The Jewish -accounts speak of his enormous bodily strength. They relate that he -cast back with his knees the huge stones thrown by the Romans by means -of machines on the Jewish army. There is no hint given that he pursued -any selfish end by his Messianism; he was actuated only by the wish -to win back freedom for his people, to restore the tarnished glory of -the Jewish state, and to throw off at once and for ever the foreign -rule which, during two centuries, had interfered with the interests of -Judaism. So energetic a mind, combined with great military talent, even -though it failed to secure a favorable result, should have received -juster recognition from posterity, and certainly does not deserve the -prejudice which it met with from interested contemporaries. The Jewish -warriors from all countries poured forth to aid the Messianic king, and -the revolt became one of great dimensions. Even the Samaritans joined -their former opponents, as the chronicles relate. Heathens themselves -made common cause with the Jews, impelled by a desire to shake off the -unbearable Roman yoke. It seemed as if the whole Roman empire were -about to receive a heavy blow, by which the various members of its -gigantic body were to be rent asunder. From these facts the number of -the warriors cannot be considered as exaggerated if the Jewish sources -put them down as 400,000, whilst the Pagan historian Dio Cassius rates -them even at 580,000. Bar-Cochba felt so confident in his own courage -and the numerous warriors at his command, that he is said to have -uttered the blasphemy, "Lord, if thou dost not help us, at least do not -help our enemies, and we shall not be defeated." - -Tinnius Rufus, the Governor of Judæa, was not prepared for the enormous -military power opposed to him, and he soon had to retreat before the -troops of the warlike Messiah. Rufus withdrew from one citadel to -another, and in one year (132-133) fifty fortified places and 985 -cities and villages fell into the hands of the rebels. It appears that -the whole of Judæa, together with Samaria and Galilee, were evacuated -by the Romans, and fell into the possession of the Jews. When Hadrian -received the first news of the revolt in Judæa, he laid no great weight -upon it; but when one report after another of the defeat of the Roman -troops reached him, he sent relays and his best generals to the scene -of action; these, however, had no better fortune than Rufus. It is not -to be doubted that Jerusalem fell into the hands of the Jewish victors, -who may have contemplated the restoration of the Temple; but in the -midst of the war, and continually harassed by the Roman legions, they -had no time to undertake so extensive a work. Bar-Cochba, in order to -announce national independence, performed a sovereign act of power by -causing Jewish coins to be struck. These were called Bar-Cochba coins, -and also coins of the Revolution. - -Notwithstanding the deep hatred entertained by the Jews for their -enemies, they did not avenge themselves upon such as fell into their -hands. It was only against the Jewish Christians who lived in Judæa -that Bar-Cochba displayed his hostility, because they were considered -as blasphemers and as spies. This hatred against the Jewish Christians -was increased because they refused to take part in the national war, -and were the only idle lookers-on at the fearful spectacle. One of the -oldest Christian sources relates that Bar-Cochba had demanded of the -Christians to deny Jesus, and to take part in the war with the Romans, -and that those who refused to do so were punished with heavy penalties. - -When the State was restored and all laws again came into force, the -Jewish authorities felt themselves justified in summoning those -of their countrymen before the justice-seat who not only denied -the Law but held it up to ridicule. It is nowhere related that the -Christians were compelled to recognize and believe in Bar-Cochba as -a new Christ. Such compulsion seems to have been foreign to the new -Jewish State. Later Christian chronicles, in their usual manner, have -greatly exaggerated the floggings to which the Jewish Christians were -subjected, until they assumed the proportions of actual persecution, -accompanied by death and martyrdom, for which there is no historical -basis. The Evangelists, who, before the appearance of Bar-Cochba, had -spoken of the warlike preparations, and all events of the time, in a -veiled but perfectly comprehensible manner, alone relate the position -of the Jewish population towards the Christians. They seem to hint -that even in the midst of Christianity there was great dissension, and -that some who were eager for the cause of liberty, reported their more -indifferent coreligionists with much zeal to the Jewish authorities. -These Evangelists make Jesus utter a prophecy which foretold a coming -change, as though he, amidst these stormy days, would appear in the -flesh at the Last Judgment. - -This prophecy of Jesus displays the gloomy tendency of the times of -Bar-Cochba. The words run: - - For many shall come in my name, saying, I am Christ; and shall - deceive many. And when ye shall hear of wars and rumors of - wars, be ye not troubled: for such things must needs be; but - the end shall not be yet. For nation shall rise against nation, - and kingdom against kingdom: and there shall be earthquakes in - divers places, and there shall be famines and troubles: these - are the beginnings of sorrows. But take heed to yourselves: for - they shall deliver you up to councils; and in the synagogues - ye shall be beaten: and ye shall be brought before rulers and - kings for my sake, for a testimony against them. And the gospel - must first be published among all nations. But when they shall - lead you, and deliver you up, take no thought beforehand what - ye shall speak, neither do ye premeditate; but whatsoever shall - be given you in that hour, that speak ye: for it is not ye - that speak, but the Holy Ghost. Now the brother shall betray - the brother to death, and the father the son; and the children - shall rise up against their parents, and shall cause them to be - put to death. And ye shall be hated of all men for my name's - sake: but he that shall endure unto the end, the same shall be - saved. - -Thus a father of the Church comforted the Christian community in Judæa. -It appears that the Synhedrion of the time of Bar-Cochba introduced -some innovations in order to work against the increasing spread of the -worship of Jesus amongst the Jewish Christians, and to promote a means -of recognizing those who were for them or against them. It had been the -habit for centuries past never to pronounce the sacred name of God, -IHW, but to substitute the word Lord (Adonaï). The Christians, however, -had accustomed themselves to call Jesus "Lord." To counteract this, the -Synhedrion enacted that the name of God should be used as in ancient -times, and that this name should be introduced even into the formula of -greeting. - -The newly founded kingdom of Bar-Cochba had already subsisted during -two years (132-134). With deep concern Hadrian beheld the continuous -progress of the Jewish revolution. It had taken a course and an extent -which opened up a vista of unlooked-for results. Every auxiliary force -which he had sent to join in the contest suffered defeat, and every -fresh general left his reputation on a Jewish battle-field. Hadrian was -obliged to summon his greatest general, who at that time was repressing -the revolt of a nation who loved freedom equally well, namely, the -Britons. Julius Severus was recalled to Judæa, as he seemed to be the -only man who could measure swords with the great hero, Bar-Cochba. -Severus, on his arrival, found the military position of the Jews so -secure and inaccessible that he did not venture to give them battle -immediately. The chief stronghold of the Jews during this war was the -district around the Mediterranean Sea which had for its central point -the town of Bethar (Bither). This fortress, the ruins of which are -still to be seen, is only one Roman mile (four-fifths of a geographical -mile) distant from the sea. - -Besides Bethar, Bar-Cochba had fortified several other towns, which -were probably placed under special commanders. In the north, at the -foot of the Galilean highlands, at the entrance to the great plain of -Jezreel (Esdraelon) there were three cities, which formed a triangle -of fortresses from the Mediterranean to the Sea of Galilee. To the -west near Acco there was Cabul, or Chabulon; three miles from this, -towards the southeast, there was the fortified town of Sichin, near -to Sepphoris, in a fruitful plain. About three miles further, to the -east of Galilee, and on the lake of the same name, stood Magdala -(Tarichæa). All three towns, Cabul, Sichin and Magdala, are described -as having been densely populated, and they formed the outposts which -were to prevent the invasion of the Romans on the side of Syria and -Upper Galilee. The inhabitants of Sepphoris appear to have secretly -maintained their devotion to the Romans, as they had formerly done -under Vespasian and Trajan. Full confidence was not placed in them, -but the more reliable towns of the neighborhood were chosen as -meeting-places. A second line of fortifications was in the middle -of the Jewish territory, and was greatly favored by the conformation -of the ground. One of the chief fortresses which Bar-Cochba probably -again put in a state of defense was Tur-Simon, doubtless named after -Simon the Hasmonæan. This fortress was also said to have so numerous a -population that, every Friday, three hundred large baskets of loaves -were distributed amongst the army. Here, according to legend, the -revolt broke out, on account of an offense given by the Romans to the -inhabitants. - -Julius, whose rapid glance no doubt perceived the difficulty of -obtaining a victory, owing to the strong fortifications, the number of -warriors and their fanatical courage, avoided a decided battle, which -would have been desired by Bar-Cochba, who relied on the number and -devotion of his troops. Like Vespasian, Severus purposely prolonged -the war by divers attacks. He reckoned more especially on the scarcity -of food which must inevitably ensue in a land-locked territory, when -the hands which should hold the plow were engaged with the sword. He -contented himself with depriving the enemy of food, with attacking the -separate bodies of Jewish troops, and harassing them with his cavalry. -These tactics fully succeeded, more especially as all prisoners were -immediately put to death. - -The particulars of this revolutionary war were no doubt as memorable as -those of the war with the Zealots, but no account has been preserved -to tell posterity of the death-struggle of the Jewish nation. The -heroic deeds of the Zealots--Bar-Giora and John of Gischala--have been -immortalized by their greatest enemy, against his will, but no pen was -found to commemorate on the tablets of history the warlike deeds of -the last of the Jewish heroes. It almost seemed that the remembrance -of their prowess, destined as the new generations were to forget the -arts of war, was to be totally forgotten Only a few traits have been -preserved to us of the war, which bear witness, not only to the courage -of the Jews but also to their all-defying enthusiasm for the cause of -their race. - -If, as the geographical position of Judæa demanded, the first attack -of the Romans was made on the north, on the Syrian and Phoenician side, -the three northernmost citadels of Cabul, Sichin and Magdala must have -been first attacked. The Jewish sources which have handed down the -details of the war, as given by survivors, relate the manner of the -destruction of these three cities, and the circumstances which led -to their downfall. Cabul fell through internal dissensions; Sichin -through sorcery, by which an unlooked-for attack was probably meant; -lastly, Magdala, the birthplace of the penitent Mary Magdalene, fell, -weakened through the vices of its inhabitants. After the fall of the -three strongholds on the borders, the war was virtually at an end, -just as in the first revolution, after the subjection of Jotapata and -Gischala, the land was considered as subdued. The plain of Rimmon -seems to have been another seat of the war, for the Roman legions had -to traverse this plain in order to reach the interior of the land. On -this plain a terrible battle seems to have taken place, which became -the subject-matter of many a legend. The next campaign of the Romans -was evidently directed against the cities in the mountains. Legend -relates how 100,000 Romans marched into the citadel of Tur-Simon with -drawn swords, and how, during three days and nights, they massacred -the inhabitants. The fifty fortified places occupied by the Jews fell -one after another into the hands of the enemy, and the Roman generals -gave battle to the Jewish army on fifty-two, or, according to some -authorities, on fifty-four occasions. The circle drawn round Bethar, -where Bar-Cochba and the flower of his army had retreated, became ever -narrower. All fugitives had betaken themselves to his side, in order -to escape the sword of destruction and to find a place of refuge. On -this spot, where the two greatest generals of the time--Julius Severus -and Bar-Cochba--were opposed, the decisive conflict was to take place. - -Bethar was, no doubt, filled to overflowing by the contingents who -came in from all sides. The sources could not speak with sufficient -hyperbole of this final scene of the defense; they relate, amongst -other things, that several hundreds of schools existed in Bethar, and -that the numbers of the pupils were so great that they boasted that -they could overthrow the enemy with their writing-reeds. The siege -of Bethar probably lasted for a year, and the duration of the whole -war was about three years and a-half. We are left in uncertainty as -to the various incidents of the siege, as also regarding the causes -which led to the fall of the citadel. A Jewish authority relates that -the river Joredethha-Zalmon faithlessly deprived the besieged of its -waters, which may mean that the summer heat dried it up. A somewhat -vague account from Samaritan sources recounts that the food-supplies, -which had been secretly conveyed into the town, were suddenly cut off; -this agrees with the Jewish accounts, which relate that Bethar fell -through the stratagems of the Samaritans. The Jewish sources assert -that Eleazar of Modin prayed in sackcloth and ashes that Bethar might -be spared; and perhaps his piety inspired the besieged with endurance -and courage. - -Hadrian, or his general, being wearied with the long contest, was -about to raise the siege, when a Samaritan promised to aid him, and -told him that Eleazar was the guardian spirit of the citadel, adding -that "so long as that hen cackles in ashes Bethar is impregnable." -Thereupon the Samaritan, passing through a subterranean passage, -approached Eleazar whilst he was engaged in prayer, and whispered -in his ear. The spectators, whose suspicions were aroused by this -secrecy, led him to Bar-Cochba and related the incident. The spy, -when questioned, declared: "If I tell thee the truth, my master will -kill me; and if I keep it from thee, thou wilt kill me; but I would -rather die by thy hand than by my masters." Bar-Cochba, suspecting a -traitorous understanding between Eleazar and the enemy, summoned him -to appear, and questioned him as to his meeting with the Samaritan. -Eleazar, who had been absorbed in his devotions, and had hardly noticed -the Samaritan, could only reply that he knew nothing of the matter. -Bar-Cochba, who thought that he was being deceived, struck Eleazar a -blow with his foot, and, enfeebled as he was by fasting, Eleazar fell -down dead. Then a voice was heard: "Thou hast lamed the arm of Israel -and blinded his eyes; therefore shall thine arm and thine eye lose -their power." - -The Samaritan sources describe the conquest of Bethar as similar to -that of Jerusalem. Hadrian, they assert, who had laid siege to the -city, had already raised the siege, as the inhabitants had obtained -supplies, which they showed to the enemy. Then two Samaritan brothers, -who were held imprisoned by the Jews, contrived to throw over the wall -a letter wrapped in linen to Julius, saying that if the exits were -guarded the inhabitants of the town would certainly die of starvation. -He followed their advice, and entered the city on a Sabbath. So much is -certain, that the Romans, introduced by a traitor into a subterranean -way, massacred the people of Bethar. This is described with fearful -detail. Horses were said to wade to the nozzle in blood--a river of -blood flowed into the distant sea, carrying bodies along with it. One -can scarcely credit the numbers said to have been slain, and yet they -are confirmed both by Jewish and by Greek historians. The authentic -historian Dio Cassius relates that besides those who died of hunger -and fire, there fell half a million Jews. - -The loss of the Romans was equally great, and Hadrian did not dare -employ in his message to the Senate the usual formula, "I and the -army are well." The Senate did not decree the Emperor a triumph, but -a medal was struck in commemoration of the services rendered by the -army. This coin bore the inscription, "Exercitus Judaicus. Thanks to -the army victorious over the Jews." Bethar fell, as tradition relates, -on the 9th Ab, the date on which the Temple had twice been reduced to -ashes. The end of the mighty Bar-Cochba is not known. One who brought -his head to the Roman General boasted that he had killed him. His body, -however, was found crushed by a snake. On this the conqueror said, "Had -not God's hand killed him, a human hand could not have injured him." -Hadrian established three military stations to capture the fugitives, -in Chamath (Ammaus near Tiberias), in Kephar Lekitaja, and in Bethel. -Whoever escaped the one garrison was captured by the other. Thus all -the warriors were destroyed, all towns and villages laid waste, and the -land was literally converted into a desert. The prisoners, mostly women -and children, were dragged by thousands to the slave markets of Hebron -and Gaza, where they were sold. There were, however, some fugitives who -lived in caves in order to escape the enemy. But even this miserable -existence was not permitted to them. Heralds announced that to those -who voluntarily yielded themselves up, mercy would be granted. Many -listened to the temptation, but were carried off to the plain of -Rimmon, and the victors were commanded to massacre their prisoners -before Hadrian tasted food. Many fugitives, however, fled to Arabia, -whence that country obtained its Jewish population, which afterward -played so important a part in its history. Hadrian also caused foreign -Jews to feel the weight of his anger, and imposed on them a tax -much heavier than that exacted by Vespasian. In memory of this last -revolt, the Jews, as a sign of mourning, decreed that brides should no -longer be carried in beautiful sedan-chairs into the houses of their -bridegrooms. - - - - -CHAPTER XVI. - -CONSEQUENCES OF THE WAR OF BAR-COCHBA. - - Turnus Rufus persecutes the Jews--The Ten Martyrs--The Book of - Tobit--Relations between Judaism and Christianity--The Return - of the Schools to Palestine--The Synod at Usha--Meïr--Simon ben - Jochai--The Babylonian Synhedrion--Antoninus Pius and Aurelius - Verus--The Revolt against Rome--The Patriarchate of Simon. - - 135.170 C. E. - - -Hadrian, who during the war had lived in a terror-stricken condition, -did not content himself with merely crushing all revolt, but he desired -to root out the possibility of a future uprising. For this purpose -he caused a number of laws to be brought into operation, every one -of which was intended to destroy Judaism, the spiritual life of the -nation, in the hearts of the survivors. Hadrian named Rufus as the -executor of his edicts--a man incapable of attacking an armed foe, -but more competent to carry on a war of petty persecution and spying. -Severus having been sent back to Britain at the end of his campaign, -Rufus had the plow drawn over the town of Jerusalem and the Temple -Mount, as a sign that another city should be built there. This occurred -on the eventful 9th Ab, perhaps a year after the fall of Bethar. - -Hadrian had the city rebuilt more towards the north, where formerly -the suburbs had been. He populated the newly erected city with a -colony of soldiers who had served their time, Phoenicians and Syrians. -The city, Ælia Capitolina, was built in the Grecian style, with two -market-places, a theater, and other public buildings, and was divided -into seven quarters. Thus Hadrian succeeded in his preconceived -plan of turning Jerusalem into a heathen city. On the Temple Mount a -column was erected in honor of Hadrian, and a heathen temple in honor -of Jupiter Capitolinus. Other statues of Roman, Greek, and Phoenician -gods adorned, or rather defiled, Jerusalem. In all public edicts -Jerusalem figured under its new name Ælia, and so completely was its -identity forgotten, that a hundred years later a governor of Palestine -asked a bishop, who said he came from Jerusalem, where that town was -situated. At the south gate leading to Bethlehem a swine's head was -erected in half relief, as a special annoyance to the Jews, and it was -forbidden them on pain of death to pass within the outer wall of this -city. Hadrian erected a shrine to Jupiter on Mount Gerizim, where the -Samaritans formerly had had their temple, a place they considered as -holy. On Mount Golgotha, opposite Jerusalem, a temple was erected to -Venus, and in a cave at Bethlehem a statue of Adonis was worshiped. -Hadrian followed the old policy of the Syrian Antiochus Epiphanes, -who desecrated the Jewish holy places from prejudice and revenge, and -endeavored to graft Paganism on Judaism by force of arms. He thought -most effectually to break down the stubborn independence of the Jews if -he could succeed in weaning them from their peculiar religious life. -A decree was issued in Judæa which inflicted the severest punishments -on all those who permitted themselves to be circumcised, to keep the -Sabbath, or to follow the Jewish law. Only in one point did Hadrian -differ from Epiphanes--he did not compel the worship of the Roman -gods. All customs and habits which bore ever so slight a tinge of a -religious character were, however, interdicted, such as the letter -of separation for divorced wives, marriages on Wednesday, and other -customs. This extension of the edict may have been a commentary of the -Roman authorities in Judæa, who were better acquainted with the spirit -of the Jews, and determined to enforce the imperial command in order to -attain the desired end. The weary years through which Judaism passed, -from the fall of Bethar till after the death of Hadrian, were called -the epoch of Religious Compulsion, Danger and Persecution. The stern -decrees, and a sterner enforcement of them, were a heavy blow for those -who remained. The more conscientious were undecided how to behave in -their critical position, whether they should keep to the hard and fast -line of custom, or whether, in consideration of their thinned ranks, -they should save their own lives by yielding to the exigencies of the -moment. - -There was probably no actual Synhedrion at that time to take up the -question and give them the guidance they desired. The surviving -teachers of the Law assembled in a garret in Lydda, and deliberated on -this question of life and death. Amongst the members present at this -assemblage were Akiba, Tarphon, and Joseph the Galilean. Doubtless -Ishmael, who resembled R. Joshua in character, was also present on -that occasion. There was a difference of opinion with regard to this -important question. The strict elements appear to have considered that -every Jew, rather than become guilty of the slightest infringement of -a law, however heavy (important) or light (less important), should be -ready to die the death of a martyr. Ishmael supported the opposite -view. He considered that, outwardly and under compulsion, one might -transgress the Law in order to preserve one's life, for the Torah -enacted that its followers should live by it and not die through it. -The assembly at Lydda, as usual, adopted the middle course, that a -difference should be made between important precepts and those which -were less weighty. The matter was put to the vote, and the decision was -reached, that in order to avoid death by torture, all laws might be -broken, with the exception of those prohibiting idolatry, adultery, and -murder. This decision, which gives evidence of the desperate condition -in which the Jews at that time found themselves, appears also to have -contained a secret clause, that in case of need the Law might be evaded -or neglected, but that it should be observed as far as it was possible -to do so. There were many who obeyed, but who dissimulated in presence -of the Roman spies and overseers. It was touching to note the petty -tricks and pious frauds by which they endeavored to avoid death and yet -to satisfy their conscience. The mental tortures which they suffered -daily and hourly made them skilful in discovering loopholes of escape. -Even Akiba on one occasion when he saw himself surrounded by Roman -spies, gave a sign to his disciples to say the Shema softly and almost -inaudibly, for the Roman authorities ruthlessly fulfilled the letter -of their edict. A Roman inspector (quæsitor), who surprised a certain -Artaban, as he was fastening Mezzuzoth to the door-posts, compelled -him to pay 1000 denars for this act. Another man, Elisha, probably -a survivor of the Essenes, was condemned to have his skull broken, -because he was putting on Tephillin. It was dangerous even to wear the -Jewish garb. Two pupils of Joshua therefore adopted the dress of the -country, and when questioned on the subject they replied, "that to -oppose the Imperial behest would be to commit suicide." - -Ishmael describes this dreary time, when martyrdom and death dogged -their every step, in the following words: "Since sinful Rome has -inflicted severe laws on us, disturbed us in the performance of our -religious duties, and especially prohibited the act of circumcision, we -really ought not to marry, in order that we may not have children. But -then the race of Abraham would die out. Therefore it is better that, -for a time, the religious laws should be transgressed, rather than -that a state of things should be brought about which the people would -not submit to." - -There were, however, many whose conscience did not permit them to make -use of the freedom permitted by the Lyddan Assembly, or to employ the -subterfuges which were adopted by others. They observed rigorously the -religious precepts, even at the risk of suffering martyrdom. One of the -younger witnesses of this sad time describes, almost in a dramatic way, -the ruthlessness of the Roman authorities, who inflicted some cruel -punishment for each religious ceremony. "Why shouldst thou be flogged? -Because I used a lulab. Why shouldst thou be crucified? Because I ate -unleavened bread at Passover. Why should ye be condemned to death -by fire or by the sword? Because we read the Torah, and permitted -our children to be circumcised." Yet more terrible were the deaths -inflicted on the accused by the Roman tribunals, which can only be -paralleled by those inflicted by the Inquisition. Red-hot balls were -placed in the arm-pits, or spiked tubes passed under the nails, or damp -wool was laid on the heart of one who was being burnt to death, or the -skin was taken off--horrors which cause an involuntary shudder at their -mere enumeration. - -Notwithstanding the watchfulness of the Roman officials, it would have -been possible to deceive them, had there not been Jewish renegades who -betrayed to the Roman overseers the various stratagems and devices -employed. These spies probably belonged to an unscrupulous class of -men, who would do anything for gain, or they were Jewish Christians, -who by this means thought to find favor with the Roman authorities, -and to show that they were distinct from the Jews. Lastly, there were -those who considered it a good work to assist in the destruction of the -Jewish Law. Amongst these was Acher, who was imbued with contempt for -the Law. It is said that he gave information to the Roman authorities -to enable them to distinguish between religious ceremonies and those -which were of no moment. For example, if the Jews were compelled to -work on the Sabbath, and one had to carry a load, in order to ease his -conscience, would get an assistant, and thus lessen the desecration of -the Sabbath, Acher would draw attention to this ruse. Thus the Roman -spies, who initiated the overseers in the various rites, were keen to -notice every attempt at a religious observance. - -Hadrian or his representatives directed their strictest attention to, -and inflicted the severest punishments in, two especial cases--the -assembling of schools and the ordination of disciples. It may have been -suggested to him that the continuance of the Law depended on these -two functions. If the instruction of pupils by the teachers could be -stopped, and the ordination of pupils as independent teachers could be -prevented, then naturally a stoppage must occur in the life-current of -Judaism. It must be confessed that the Roman policy was well carried -out by its supporters, and that they knew how to strike at the most -vital point of Judaism. Severe sentences of death were inflicted upon -those teachers who maintained schools, and on those who ordained -disciples; even the communities were made answerable for them. The town -and its environs, where an ordination took place, were condemned to -destruction. It is possible that Acher instigated this persecution; at -any rate, it is related of him that he handed over the teachers of the -Law to death, and that he frightened away disciples from the study of -the Law. - -Amongst the friends of peace who even advised subservience to these -decrees was José ben Kisma, who honored patience as the highest virtue, -and hoped to effect more by submission than by bold opposition and -useless self-destruction. He once met Chanina ben Teradion, who -belonged to the party who were determined to give up their life for the -Law. He was teaching his pupils from a scroll of the Law, which he held -in his lap. José said warningly, "Seest thou, my brother, that even -Heaven is favorable to the Roman empire. The Temple is destroyed; the -pious are cut down, the best men are exterminated, and yet this empire -exists! How canst thou dare to teach against the Imperial law? It would -not surprise me if thou wert condemned to the stake together with the -holy books." José was in high favor at the court of the Governor of -Judæa, and when he died several persons of high rank followed his body. - -Most of the Tanaites were of a different opinion, and decided rather -to suffer death than to give up their meetings at the schools; they -considered it of greater importance to study the Law than to observe -religious precepts. A special ordinance was passed in the garret at -Lydda that to teach was far more important than to merely practise the -Law. As far as compulsory abstention from religious observances was -concerned, the teachers of the Law had set an example of submission -for the time being; but in order to preserve the knowledge of the Law -itself they pressed forward to a martyr's death, as though that must be -the holiest part of Judaism, to be defended even at the expense of life. - -An old account speaks of ten martyrs who bled for the Law. But the -names of only seven have been preserved; of the others the accounts -are untrustworthy. The first to be executed was Ishmael, son of the -high priest Elisha, who formulated the Thirteen Rules; with him was a -certain Simon (of which name there were several). Elisha was unwilling -to advise others to undergo martyrdom, but he joyfully underwent it -himself. Akiba gave addresses, in which he described how Ishmael and -Simon, both free from sin, had served as examples, and fallen by the -hands of the executioner; and in conclusion he exhorted his scholars -with these words, "Prepare for death, for terrible days are awaiting -us." Akiba's turn soon came, for he held discourses in secret. On the -third day of Tishri he was thrown into prison. In vain had Pappos ben -Judah, one of those who advised submission at any price, warned him to -give up his meetings with his pupils, because the eyes of spies were -directed to the most secret places. Chance brought him and this very -Pappos together in prison. Pappos lamented that he was only condemned -for a worldly matter, and that he could not comfort himself with the -idea that he was suffering for a great cause. Rufus, the governor and -executioner, acted towards Akiba, whom he considered as the head and -leader, with even greater severity than towards the others. He kept him -for a long time in the prison, which was so securely guarded that no -one could gain admission. The remaining teachers of the Law, who felt -utterly deserted and helpless without Akiba, took all possible pains -to obtain his advice in doubtful cases. Once they gave 300 denars to a -messenger, who could only with great difficulty obtain access to Akiba. - -At last, however, the hour of his execution came. Rufus inflicted the -cruelest tortures on him, and caused his skin to be torn off with -irons. The great martyr, whilst under torture, recited the Shema with -a peaceful smile on his face. Rufus, astonished at his extraordinary -courage, asked him if he was a sorcerer, that he could so easily -overcome the pain he was suffering. To which Akiba replied, "I am -no sorcerer, but I rejoice that I am permitted to love God with my -life." Akiba breathed forth his soul with the last words of the prayer -which contains the essence of Judaism--God is ONE. Akiba's death, -which was as remarkable as his life had been, left a terrible void. -His contemporaries mourned, for with him was destroyed the arm of the -Law and the source of wisdom. He left one son and several disciples, -who honored his name, and considered his mode of teaching as the only -permissible one. - -The fourth martyr who heroically bore his death was Chanina ben -Teradion. Regardless of the warnings of José ben Kisma, he continued to -hold his lectures until he was dragged to the tribunal. He was asked -why he had acted in opposition to the imperial command, and he boldly -answered, "Because God has so commanded me." He was wrapped up in a -scroll of the Law and burnt on a stake of fresh rushes. Chanina's wife -was also sentenced to death, and his daughter condemned to degradation. - -The martyrdom of Chuzpit, the speaker (Meturgeman) of the Synhedrion -of Jamnia, and Isebab, the secretary of the Synhedrion, are merely -noted without details; doubtless they were discovered teaching the Law. -Judah ben Baba is said to have been the last of the martyrs. Before his -death he resolved to invest the seven remaining pupils of Akiba with -the necessary authority to continue the propagation of the traditional -Law. He selected for the function the valley between Usha and Shefaram, -but despite this secrecy he was surprised by the Romans. His disciples -refused to leave him, and it was only after repeated entreaties that -they fled. The enemy found the old man alone, and he gave himself up -to death without opposition. He was pierced by lances. From fear of -Rufus's bloodthirsty vengeance, the usual address was omitted at the -funeral of Judah ben Baba. Neither the name nor the mode of death of -the remaining martyrs is known with certainty. Thus ends the second -generation of Tanaites; it was rich in great men, rich in great minds, -and rich in trouble and sorrow. The end of Bar-Cochba's revolt formed -the turning-point of this epoch, and the fact that a temple to Jupiter -Capitolinus occupied the site of the ancient Jewish Temple seemed to -the Jewish Christians to presage the last day and the return of the -Messiah. - -Hadrian and Rufus's cruel measures were directed not against the -survivors alone, but also against the dead. The heaps of dead bodies -were not permitted to be interred, but the horrible sight was intended -as a warning to the survivors, that they should no longer dream of -deliverance from the Roman yoke. The rulers did not trouble themselves -as to the pestilential condition of the air, or the depressing effect -of beholding so many corpses lying in the sunshine; or perhaps they -rejoiced that pestilence and despair should be added to the horrors -inflicted on the Jewish nation. To pious and gentle hearts the thought -was unbearable that the remains of those who had fallen, which were -especially to be honored by Jewish custom, should be left as a prey to -wild beasts and birds and to decay in the sunlight. It appears that a -pious man desired to impress on the survivors who had made peace with -the Romans, and who lived in seclusion, the necessity of interring -the corpses in the darkness of the night, even at the cost of their -own happiness and peace. To this end he composed a book--the Book of -Tobit--in which great weight is laid on the duty of secretly interring -the bodies of those whom the tyrants doomed to disgrace; and at the -same time it was hinted that the danger attending this duty would bring -a rich reward. In evidence of this the case was cited of the pious -Tobit, who after suffering many misfortunes as the result of his labor -of love, was in the end rewarded with rich blessings. The contents of -the Book of Tobit undeniably indicate that it was composed in the reign -of Hadrian. - -Hadrian's severe persecution also fell upon the Jewish -Christians--perhaps on all Christians--although they had separated -from the Jewish community; for the reason that the Roman authorities -did not consider the differences of dogma between Jews and Christians. -The Evangelists paint in the darkest colors the horrors of persecution -with which the Christians were attacked. "Then you will behold the -terrors of desolation (predicted by the prophet Daniel) where they -should not be; he who is in Judæa will flee to the mountains; woe to -the pregnant and to the sucklings. Pray, however, that your flight may -not take place in winter or on a Sabbath." - -Both sects of Christians were anxious to be recognized as a body -separate from the Jews, both politically and religiously, so as to -avoid the doom impending over the latter. Two teachers of the Church, -Quadratus and Aristides, are said to have handed to Hadrian a petition, -in which they demonstrated that Christianity had no connection with -Judaism. From this time dates the unity and identity of most of the -Jewish-Christian and heathen-Christian sects. The Jewish Christians -gave up the Jewish laws which they had hitherto kept, in a greater or -less degree, adopting the dogmatic precepts of Christianity as they had -been developed under heathen-Christian views, and as proof of their -sincere convictions, they for the first time placed an uncircumcised -bishop at the head of the community. From the time of Hadrian all -connection between Jews and Christians ceased, and they no longer -occupied the position of two hostile bodies belonging to the same -house, but they became two entirely distinct bodies. - -Through the war against Hadrian and the edict of persecution a terrible -time had arisen for Judæa. The towns were destroyed, the land laid -waste, the inhabitants were killed either on the battle-field or on -the scaffold, or led a miserable life as refugees, while some were -scattered in more hospitable territories. - -The disciples of the Law, more especially the seven disciples of Akiba, -had, with broken hearts, sought refuge in Nisibis and Nahardea, and if -the persecution had lasted longer, Babylon would even at this time have -attained that importance for Judaism which it reached a century later. -Hadrian's death, which occurred three years after the fall of Bethar, -brought about a favorable turn. The pious beheld in the miserable -death of this emperor, who, next to Antiochus Epiphanes, became the -incarnation of the Jews' hatred, and the mention of whose name was -always accompanied by the curse, "May God reduce his remains to dust," -a divine visitation for the evils he had wrought on the Jewish nation. -Those who had escaped destruction endeavored to obtain from Hadrian's -successor the revocation of the cruel edicts. Titus Aurelius Antoninus, -who received the name of Pius, although the adopted son of Hadrian, -was of a somewhat more humane and beneficent character, and a milder -treatment seemed likely at his hands. A noble Roman lady of Cæsarea or -Antioch, who had pity on the sufferings of the Jews, advised them to -petition the Roman authorities that the persecutions might cease. This -lady was perhaps the wife of Rufus, and is said to have had inclination -towards Judaism. Following this advice, a few men, headed by Jehudah -ben Shamua, repaired to the governor to beg for mercy. In the gloomy -darkness of their desolation they lamented--"O heavens, are we not -your brothers, the sons of the same father? Why do you inflict on us -unendurable sufferings?" Such lamentations appear to have induced the -governor to petition the Emperor to pursue a milder course of conduct -towards the Jews. - -On the 15th Ab (August) the joyous news is said to have come that -the heaped-up corpses of the Jewish warriors might be buried. On the -28th Adar (March, 139 or 140), the yet more joyful tidings came that -the decrees of Hadrian were revoked, and this day was commemorated -in the calendar. A Roman source relates that the Emperor Antoninus -Pius conceded to the Jews the rite of circumcision; but they were not -permitted to perform it on other nationalities; that is, they were not -allowed to make proselytes. Thus the persecution on account of religion -was ended. Antoninus Pius, however, did not repeal the law forbidding -the Jews to enter Jerusalem. - -This unexpected end of the persecution recalled the fugitives to -their native land. The seven disciples of Akiba--the only heirs to -the spiritual heritage of former times--who, for the most part, had -emigrated to Babylon, now returned. These were Meïr, Judah ben Ilai, -José ben Chalafta, Jochanan of Alexandria, Simon ben Jochai, Eleazar -ben Jacob (or ben Shamua) and Nehemiah. They repaired directly to -the plain of Rimmon, made notable during the Revolution, to consider -the introduction of a leap year, the calendar probably having become -incorrect. At the first meeting a fierce contest ensued, probably with -reference to one of the Halachas of Akiba, but the dispute terminated -in a friendly settlement. - -They reassembled in Usha, the native town of Judah, which even previous -to the revolution of Bar-Cochba, had been, for a short time, the seat -of the college, and they invited all the remaining teachers of the -Law in Galilee to meet there. Many came at the invitation, and the -inhabitants of Usha endeavored to provide the guests with all that -they required. The business of the Synod was to reinstate and renew -the traditions which had fallen into disuse during the persecutions. -After several days passed in Usha, the chief organizers of the meeting -dismissed their guests with solemn addresses. Judah thanked the -strangers, who had taken the trouble to come to the meeting from a -distance of several miles. The other members of the council thanked -the inhabitants of Usha for the hospitality displayed towards them. -Thus did the nation, whose destruction had seemed imminent, again -revive, and the Law was once again the curative measure, bringing with -it health and strength. - -The members of the Tanaite circle pursued the work of their -predecessors with great self-sacrifice, in order to restore the broken -chain of tradition, but their numbers were less, and their mental -activity inferior to that of the former generation. The chief of those -who took part in affairs were Simon II., son of the Patriarch Gamaliel, -Nathan of Babylon, Meïr and Simon ben Jochai. The first of these, -as was related, escaped in a wonderful manner from the massacre at -Bethar, as also from the persecution with which he was threatened. The -quæsitor, who had been appointed by Rufus to imprison him, gave him a -hint of the threatened danger, on which Simon escaped and took refuge -in Babylon. How long he remained there, and under what circumstances he -assumed his hereditary dignities, is not known. - -Simon seems to have been desirous of raising the dignity of Patriarch -to special importance and grandeur, probably in imitation of the -Babylonian Prince of the Captivity. He does not appear to have been at -the first Synod in Usha, nor to have taken part in the discourses given -there from time to time, but to have taken up his residence at Jabne, a -place endeared to him by the memory of his father, in the neighborhood -of which he probably owned property. The disciples of Akiba, the chief -supporters of the Law, appear to have preferred Usha--or they desired -to proclaim their independence of the patriarch. Thus Simon, in order -not to remain alone, had to repair to the Galilean Synod. The College -was completed by Nathan and Meïr as speaker. The patriarch had almost -brought on himself the fate of his father through disregarding the -equality which reigned amongst the members of the College. Of his -bearing towards the traditional law only so much is known, that he -taught the universally acknowledged Halachas, and the doubtful ones he -had referred to himself. In contested cases he gave the preference to -former decisions, and laid no weight on theoretical discussions. On the -authority of the numerous teachers of the Law in past times certain -practices had obtained amongst their surroundings and had become an -authority amongst the people, and these practices Simon desired to -maintain. The decision of a court of justice, in such cases where a -mistaken judgment was given, was to hold good, for otherwise Simon -feared that respect for such decisions would cease. His high-mindedness -Simon showed in the beautiful saying, "The world subsists on three -conditions, truth, justice and peace." - -The most original personage of this period was unquestionably Meïr, -whose great intellect, thoroughness of purpose and knowledge remind us -of his teacher Akiba. His real but forgotten name was Miasa or Moise -(the Greek for Moses). According to an unauthenticated legend he was -said to be descended from a converted family, from the Emperor Nero in -fact, who was believed in the East to have escaped his murderers and to -have become converted to Judaism. - -It is certain that Meïr's birthplace was in Asia Minor, probably in the -Cappadocian Cæsarea. He made his livelihood through writing and copying -Holy Writ. He was so intimately acquainted with the orthographical -rules of the Hebrew language, which render the transcription of the -Holy Books almost a science, that he once wrote from memory the whole -book of Esther without making a mistake. By this means he earned three -shekels per week, two-thirds of which he devoted to his family and -one-third to the support of poor fellow-students. He married Bruria -(or Valeria), the learned daughter of Chanina ben Teradion, whose -Halachic knowledge was praised even by Joshua. Meïr was for a time a -pupil of Ishmael, but his simple mode of teaching did not please him so -well as the more intelligent method of Akiba, whose system, which was -ultimately adopted by him, exercised the most decided influence over -his mode of thought. Akiba soon ordained his favorite pupil, and gave -him the preference over Simon, but on account of his youth he did not -meet with much respect as an independent teacher. Meïr was severe on -such petty conduct, which did not look to the qualifications of a man, -but to his age. "Look not," he said wittily, "to the vessel, but to -its contents. Many a new vessel contains old wine, but there are old -casks which do not contain even new wine." Several sensible sayings -are recorded of him; he became celebrated as a writer of fables, and -composed 300 on the fox alone--a favorite subject of Eastern imagery. -The submission to God of Meïr and his wife on the occasion of the death -of their two children has become known through a poetical account of -the event. It is related that his two sons, having died suddenly on the -Sabbath, during their father's absence at the school, his tender-hearted -wife did not tell him of the deaths, in order that he might not be -grieved by sad tidings on the holy day. When the Sabbath was over she -asked him whether that which was lent must necessarily be returned to -the lender, and on receiving an affirmative answer she led him to where -their two children lay dead, and consoled him with what he had said, -that they had only been confided to their care, and were now reclaimed -by the owner. Meïr's modesty was as great as his submissiveness to God. -His favorite saying was, "Occupy thyself less with gain than with the -Law, and be humble to all men." - -His contemporaries and successors could not sufficiently praise -Meïr's wisdom and character. José depicts him to his townspeople, the -inhabitants of Sepphoris, as a pious, morally strict and holy man. It -became proverbial that "He who touches Meïr's staff becomes wise." He -obtained his deep knowledge of men by mixing with those against whom -prejudice prevailed. He even sought out the apostate and traitor Acher, -in order that he might be instructed by him. When Meïr was reproached -for his intimacy with a traitor to the Law, he said, "When I see a -juicy pomegranate I enjoy its contents and throw away the skin." - -One Sabbath he accompanied Acher, who was on horseback, whilst Meïr was -on foot, discussing a rendering of the Scriptures. Suddenly Acher said -to him, "Thou canst go thus far and not farther, for here is the limit -of thy Sabbath walk. Return." Meïr, seizing the opportunity, said to -Acher, "Return thou also." But Acher said, "If for all sinners there be -pardon, for me the gates of mercy are closed, because I have turned the -gifts given me by God to evil uses." Later, when Acher was ill, Meïr -again endeavored to win him over, and flattered himself that he had -induced Acher to repent before his death. A legend relates that Meïr -spread his mantle over Acher's grave, from which there arose a pillar -of smoke, and in imitation of a verse of Scripture (Ruth iii. 13) he -exclaimed, "Rest here in the night; in the dawn of happiness the God of -mercy will deliver thee; if not, I will be thy redeemer." - -Meïr also was intimate with a heathen philosopher, Euonymus of Gadara. -In Jewish circles it was said, "Be not surprised to find amongst the -heathens a knowledge of God, for God had inspired Balaam and Euonymus, -two of the greatest philosophers of heathendom, with His wisdom, so -that they might teach the people." When Euonymus mourned for the death -of his parents, Meïr visited him in order to condole with him, for he -held that a heathen who occupied himself with the Torah was as worthy -as a high priest of Judaism, for it says in Holy Writ, "These laws man -shall observe in order to live," by which Meïr explained that Jews were -not exclusively appointed to enjoy eternal happiness. - -Through intercourse with men of learning Meïr appears to have become -acquainted with the Stoic philosophy, which was at that time the ruling -power in the Roman world. But all the perfections which, according to -philosophy, were due to the Stoic theory, he attributed to the Torah, -which helps man to attain the ideal, if he devotes himself to it from -pure love and without interested motives. "The Torah," he says, "makes -him who familiarizes himself with it worthy to all the world; he -becomes the favorite of all; it inspires him with love to God and man; -clothes him in modesty and fear of God; makes him pious, honest, and -true; removes him from sin; brings him near to virtue; endows him with -kingly dignity; makes him moral, long-suffering, forgetful of injury, -and raises and carries him above all things." This was his ideal of a -truly wise man. In treating the Halachic traditions Meïr copied his -teacher Akiba's system of dialectics. The rules of deduction used by -his predecessors he employed as formulas which could establish or -abolish legal enactments. His contemporaries relate of him that they -could never reach the real meaning of Meïr's decisions, because he -brought forward a number of proofs for and against an ordinance, and -he was able through similes and deductions to turn a law, as it was -laid down, into one of an opposite meaning. Whether these sophistic -arguments were to be taken seriously, or whether they were only -intended by the speaker for dialectic purposes in order to show both -sides of the question, is not now known, as even those who lived in -former times were doubtful on the subject. - -Yet the injurious method of treating the Halachas, which was called -Talmudic dialectics, became later on still more developed; in fact, -the closer apprehension of the Halachas was deemed impossible without -it. Nevertheless, Meïr's exposition of the Law was decidedly serious -and strict. Amongst other things he asserts that he who gives his -wife less dowry than is usual, acts wrongly; for he thereby makes -divorce more easy to obtain. Further, he asserts that any one who in -the smallest degree should deviate from the law laid down for divorce -would render the act illegal, and his children from the second marriage -would be considered as illegitimate. Meïr further controverted the law -which was universally respected, that what was forbidden or permitted -should be inferred from such cases as most commonly occurred in life, -without regard to exceptional circumstances; he considered that certain -circumstances should conscientiously be reckoned exceptional. For this -reason when he heard that some Samaritans continued to worship idols, -which according to Hadrian's edict they had formerly been compelled -to do, when they brought him libations of wine, he refused to permit -the use of wine amongst his hearers. This abstinence, had it been -consistently observed, would have put an end to much industry and -pleasure and rendered them legally impossible. For other misdeeds, as -for example usury, he imposed heavy fines. But his regulations were -not carried out, his contemporaries and succeeding generations did not -acknowledge Meïr's ordinances and imposts in their entirety. He was, -however, most severe against himself, and once said--"Even if I hold -something as permissible to others, I cannot allow it to hold good for -myself, if I am convinced that my colleagues would be of a different -opinion." As in the treatment of Halachas, so in ordinary things, Meïr -followed in the footsteps of Akiba; he completed the collection of -the Mishnas, but appears to have arranged their component parts more -according to their contents than their number. These arrangements of -Meïr and his colleagues made no pretense to being a code, but each -teacher of the Law having a circle of disciples, treated the material -before him in the manner which seemed most suitable and convenient to -himself. Meïr had assembled a not insignificant number of pupils round -him, who were drawn towards him by his intelligent renderings and -interesting lectures. He was in the habit of alternating the dry matter -of the Halachas with the attractive Agadahs, and of illustrating them -by fables. - -Amongst Meïr's disciples was one named Symmachos ben Joseph, who -adopted and exaggerated his method to such an extent that it was said -of him that he could argue well, but could not come to any practical -decision. It was even said of him that his forefathers could not have -been present at the Revelation on Sinai. After Meïr's death both -Symmachos and his disciples were excluded from the school, because -they did not seek for truth, but only to dispute sophistically. It is -probable that Meïr repaired to the Synhedrion of Usha when important -questions were under discussion. He did not live on good terms with the -Patriarch Simon. - -Simon ben Jochai of Galilee was as striking but not so many-sided -a personage as Meïr, and he was falsely reported to be a worker of -miracles--a mystic and a Cabbalist. Few facts of his life are known, -but we may infer from what is recorded that he was rather of a -matter-of-fact than of an imaginative turn of mind. Nothing is known -of Simon's youth, and later, after his return with others from the -exile imposed on them under Hadrian's rule, his activity seems to have -spent itself on the newly organized Synhedrion at Usha. In opposition -to his father, Jochai, who stood in favor with the Roman authorities, -the son was a decided enemy of Rome, and was not much liked by them. -For uttering a truthful censure on the Roman Governor, he was sentenced -to death, and could save himself only by flight, and upon this fact -legend has seized in order to surround Simon with wonders and miracles. -Amongst the various legal decisions, sayings and remarks which have -been preserved of him there is no trace of a mystical tendency. On the -contrary his reasoning with regard to biblical laws was always of a -simple nature. The system of following out the reasoning of the Law, -and thence drawing deductions, was peculiar to Simon. - -This was an improvement on Akiba's system, which consisted in drawing -from pleonastic words, syllables and letters, the principles of -legal deductions. The following are instances of Simon's method. The -Bible forbids the distraint of a widow's goods; Simon restricted the -reference to cases of poor widows. Simon drew his conclusion in the -following manner:--The biblical law which enacts that a widow should -be spared all legal seizure of goods could only apply to poor widows. -A rich woman had no cause for being so spared. Further, that the -prohibition against intermarrying with the seven Canaanite races must -also be extended to all idolatrous nations, as the law was actually -intended to prevent the people from being drawn into idolatry. - -Another opinion of Simon's shows how far removed he was from all -exaggerated religious theories. He had a curious saying that the -fulfilment of the Law was only possible to those who lived on manna -or the tithes. Unlike most teachers of the Law, Simon pursued no -occupation or business; he was at that time the only man whose -life's business was the study of the Law. Simon's dwelling-place and -school-house were in the fertile oil district of Tekoa, in Galilee. He -had his circle of disciples, and because he survived his colleagues he -became the only authority of the following period. - -Another important name was that of Judah ben Ilai of Usha, whose -character bore a similarity to that of Joshua. Modest, wise, -diplomatic, eloquent, he knew how to bridge over the breach which -existed between the Roman and the Jewish nature. He was therefore -especially designated "the wise," or "the first speaker." Judah -was not a man of property, but, like Joshua, he supported himself -by an occupation of which he was not ashamed. He often used the -expression--"The work honors the laborer. He who does not teach his son -a handicraft designs him to be a robber." His mode of teaching had no -especially pronounced characteristics. - -As with Judah we have no distinctive features recorded, so also of -the life of José ben Chalafta of Sepphoris but little is known. He -also followed a trade, and one of the lowest kind. He was a worker -in leather. Unlike his contemporaries, José devoted himself to the -collection of the annals of Jewish history, and left an account from -the creation of the world to the war of Bar Cochba, under the name of -Seder Olam. He endeavored to fix the various dates correctly from the -historical records of the Bible. He tried to render clear the doubtful -passages, and to fill up the gaps in traditions. On the other hand, -from the time of Alexander the Great, we find that this chronicle of -José gives independent and trustworthy, but very scanty information. - -But little that is noteworthy is known of the other disciples of -Akiba. Besides the Galilean circle of scholars there was yet another -in the extreme south of Judæa (Darom) who continued Ishmael's mode of -teaching; only two members of this circle, Josiah and Jonathan, are -known. - -Nathan, a Babylonian, and a son of the Prince of the Captivity, was a -man of special interest. It is not known where he received instruction -in the Halachas, nor what occasioned him to remove to Judæa, or to -give up the more favorable position that he occupied in his native -country. The foreign teachers of the Law at this period were Judah ben -Bathyra of Nisibis, who appears to have sheltered the fugitives from -Judæa; also Chananya, nephew of Joshua, in Nahar-Pakod, who had been -sent by his uncle to Babylon, so as to remove him from the influence -of the Jewish Christians; and, lastly, Matiah ben Charash in Rome, who -first transplanted the knowledge of the Jewish Law from Asia to Europe. - -Whilst the teachers of the Law in Galilee endeavored to reanimate the -body of the nation, to re-establish the Synhedrion, and to secure -and spread traditions by collecting and classifying them, but little -was needed to cause a deep schism which threatened to separate the -Babylonian congregation entirely from the main body. - -The wisdom of the Patriarch Simon II. deftly avoided this breach. -Chananya established a sort of Synhedrion in Nahar-Pakod, probably in -the neighborhood of Nahardea, of which he was the president, whilst -a certain Nechunyan, perhaps the Prince of the Captivity, appears to -have supported him. The Babylonian community, until then under the -control of Judæa, and now left uncared for through the destruction of -all religious institutions in the fatherland, welcomed a Synhedrion -in their midst as of joyful import, and gratefully accepted its -ordinances and decisions. Chananya immediately introduced a leap -year, and the celebration of the festivals as had been customary in -Judæa. But when the Synhedrion had been established in Usha it was no -longer possible to continue the existence of a body which threatened -the unity of Judaism, and tended to divide it into an eastern and -western Judaism. In order to avoid such a division the Patriarch Simon -sent two ambassadors, Isaac and Nathan, with flattering messages to -Chananya, with the unusual superscription, "To his holiness Chananya." -The president of the Babylonian Synhedrion, who had not expected such -friendliness, received the Jewish ambassadors in the kindest manner, -and introduced them with flattering speeches to the assembly. Having -secured the confidence of the nation, they named the ultimate reason -of their embassage. At the public service they read from the Book of -Laws, "Such are the feast days of Chananya" (instead of God). Another -read from the prophets--"From Babylon shall the light go forth, and the -word of the Lord from Nahar Pakod" (instead of Zion and Jerusalem). The -audience, whose attention was drawn through these ironical allusions, -and who felt that an independent Synhedrion in Babylon would be -contrary to the spirit of the Law, felt their consciences disturbed. -Chananya vainly endeavored to weaken the impression by implicating the -ambassadors. They replied that to establish an opposition Synhedrion -in Babylon was tantamount to building an altar, at which Chananya and -Nechunya would officiate as unauthorized priests, and was in fact -equal to disavowing the God of Israel. Chananya, however, doubted the -continuance of a Synhedrion in Judæa, saying that the teachers of -the Law there did not enjoy any authority, to which the ambassadors -replied, "The little ones whom thou hast deserted have meanwhile grown -up." Chananya, however, did not relinquish his design until Judah ben -Bathyra, in Nisibis, pointed out to him that in holy things unqualified -obedience must be paid to the Judæan Synhedrion. Finding no response -or interest anywhere, he countermanded the festivals as arranged by -himself, and the Babylonian Synhedrion came to an end. - -Dissensions arose at the College of Usha, which threatened to have -similar results to the contest between Gamaliel and Joshua. The -Patriarch Simon, in order to increase his dignity, endeavored to -introduce a special etiquette, in order to remove the equality -previously existing between all officials. In the absence of the -Ab-beth-din Nathan and the speaker Meïr, he instituted a new order of -rank, which would definitely recognize him as the superior head. This -distinction lay herein, that at all public sittings of the Synhedrion -the people, who were accustomed to rise at the entrance of the -president and other important officials, and to remain standing until -the sign was given them to be seated, should reserve this mark of honor -in future for the President alone; in honor of his substitute only the -first rows were to stand until he had taken his seat; and still less -ceremony was to be observed towards the speaker (the Chacham). - -When Nathan and Meïr for the first time attended the meeting and -noticed the new arrangements they secretly determined to conspire -against Simon, and to deprive him of his office. For this purpose, -however, the consent of the nation, with whom the appointment of -Patriarch rested, became necessary. They determined to puzzle Simon -by difficult questions (on the Halachas), and he seems to have been -inferior to them in knowledge of traditional lore, and when they -had revealed his weakness before the whole assemblage they intended -proposing the deposition of a Patriarch who was not conversant with all -branches of the Law. They also determined that Nathan, who belonged to -the family of the Prince of the Captivity, and who was also of the race -of David, should become Patriarch, and that Meïr should be second in -rank as substitute. This plot, however, was betrayed to Simon, and the -conspirators found him prepared. - -The Patriarch, on revealing the scheme against him, succeeded in having -the two expelled from the Synhedrion. But they made their absence felt -by writing difficult questions and distributing them amongst the -assembly, whom they thereby placed in an awkward position. Referring -to these two José afterwards said, "We are in the house of the Law, -but the Law is outside." They were readmitted, but Simon arranged that -their names should not be recorded in the ordinances enacted by him. R. -Nathan subsequently made peace with the Patriarch, but the breach with -Meïr endured. Simon at length excommunicated him, but Meïr was not as -submissive as he who, without a word, had accepted Gamaliel's sentence. -Referring to a former resolution of the Synhedrion in Usha, that no -member could be excommunicated, Meïr replied, "I do not care for your -sentence until you prove to me on whom, on what grounds, and under what -conditions it can be imposed." In proud recognition of his own worth, -Meïr is said on his death-bed to have uttered the words: "Tell the -sons of the Holy Land that their Messiah has died in a foreign land." -According to his last will, his body was buried on the sea-shore. - -Simon's patriarchate was not free from the disturbances and oppressions -which the Roman officials permitted themselves to perpetrate towards -the Jewish people. The mutual hatred of Jews and Romans, which had -followed from the revolt of Bar-Cochba and Hadrian's persecution, -was so great that the powerful victors could not do otherwise than -make their power felt by those whom they had conquered. Simon ben -Gamaliel notes the daily tortures and oppressions: "Our forefathers -only scented trouble from afar; we, however, have suffered from them -through many days, years, periods, and cycles; we have more right to -become impatient than our forefathers. If, as formerly, we desired to -record our troubles and temporary relief on a scroll, we should not -find space enough." The hatred of the Romans on the one hand, and the -endurance of the Jews on the other, appear to have ended in a fresh -revolution in Judæa, which took place in the last year of the reign -of the Emperor Antoninus Pius (161), but its rise, scene of action, -and results are not known. The attempt at a new call to arms appears -to have been connected with the warlike preparations commenced by the -Parthians against Rome. Though often deceived, the Judæans still hoped -for the help of the Parthians, as a means of deliverance from the Roman -yoke. Simon b. Jochai, who heartily despised the hypocritical policy of -the Romans, said, "When thou seest a Persian (Parthian) steed tied to -an Israelite tombstone, then canst thou believe in the advent of the -Messiah." Meanwhile, the badly-organized revolt was soon suppressed by -the Governor of Syria before the Parthians could come to the rescue. -The Parthian war, which lasted several years (161-165), began shortly -after the death of the Emperor Antoninus Pius, when the Roman Empire -for the first time was governed by two rulers, the philosophical but -impractical Marcus Aurelius Antoninus and the dissolute Verus Commodus. -At the first attack the Parthians, under their king Vologeses, entered -Syria, defeated the governor, Atidius Cornelianus, who had just -repressed the Jewish revolt, put his legions to flight, and devastated -the country. The second emperor, Verus, was sent with fresh troops -to the East, though he was eminently unfitted to conduct a war. The -conquest of the Parthians was therefore undertaken by capable generals, -whilst the emperor gave himself up to dissipation in Antioch, Laodicea, -and Daphne. - -Fresh persecutions appear to have been instituted by the Emperor Verus -against the Jews of Palestine. First they lost the right of using -their own courts of justice. It is not certain whether Jewish judicial -functions were set aside, or whether the Jewish judges were deposed. -Simon ben Jochai thanked God for the interference of the Romans, as -he, like his contemporaries, did not feel himself fitted to exercise -judicial rights. Notwithstanding that the chiefs of the Synhedrion had -taken no part in the revolution, they yet seem to have been suspected -and watched by the Roman authorities. A conversation was once reported -which took place between Judah, José and Simon ben Jochai at Usha, -where, it appears, a discussion was held with regard to the Roman -policy. Judah, who, like Joshua, endeavored to calm those who stood -around, had been praising Rome for her actions. "How useful this nation -has been; everywhere it has erected towns with market-places; it has -put bridges over rivers, and built bath-houses for the preservation of -health." José kept silent, neither giving praise nor blame. Simon ben -Jochai, on the other hand, could not repress his displeasure. "What -the Romans do," he said, "they only do for the sake of selfishness -and gain. They keep houses of bad repute in the cities, misuse the -bathing-places, and levy toll for the bridges." A proselyte, Judah, -repeated this, perhaps without desiring to make mischief. Judah, -however, the eulogist of Rome, was loaded with honors, José was -banished to Laodicea, and Simon was condemned to death. In consequence -of these events the Synhedrion at Usha seems to have been dissolved, -for the most important members were withdrawn, and its proceedings -watched. - -Simon, who had taken refuge, as before stated, in a cave, became the -hero of various miracles. He is said to have spent years in this cave, -supporting himself on carob-beans and spring water, in consequence -of which his skin became full of boils. When he learnt that affairs -had taken a favorable turn, probably through the death of the Emperor -Verus (169), he took this as a sign that he might venture out, and by -bathing in the warm springs of Tiberias his shattered health became -restored. Out of gratitude he declared the town of Tiberias, which -had hitherto been avoided by the pious, because buildings had been -erected over graves, as clean and suitable for a dwelling-place. This -aroused the anger of the pious who lived in Magdala (Tarichea), who -considered this decision as a frivolous innovation. After his return -Simon ben Jochai was asked to repair to Rome, and to intercede with -the Emperor Marcus Aurelius for the abolition of the laws against the -Jews. Simon took as his companion on this journey Eleazar, the son of -José, probably because he was acquainted with the Latin language. When -they arrived in Rome, assisted by various influential Roman Jews, they -probably succeeded in obtaining from Marcus Aurelius the concession -sought. Christian teachers also addressed petitions to the Emperor and -requested him to show mercy on Christendom. The legend relating to -Simon attributes the attainment of the emperor's favor to a miracle; -he had, namely, delivered the daughter of the emperor, Lucilla, from a -demon (Bartholomaion), and out of gratitude the emperor permitted him -and his followers to take from the state archives whatever they chose, -and they took out the inhuman decree against the Jews and destroyed it. -There appear to have been actual grounds for this story, for Eleazar -ben Joseph, Simon's friend, boasted that he had seen in the room the -vessels of the Temple, the frontal of the high priest, and the curtain -of the Holy of Holies, which Titus had carried off as trophies, and -which could be seen only by those especially favored. - - - - -CHAPTER XVII. - -THE PATRIARCHATE OF JUDAH I. - - The Patriarch Judah I.--His Authority and - Reputation--Completion of the Mishna--The Last Generation - of Tanaites--Condition of the Jews under Marcus Aurelius, - Commodus, Septimius Severus, and Antoninus Caracalla--Character - and contents of the Mishna--Death of Judah. - - 175.219 C. E. - - -The last generation of the Tanaites had come back to the same point -from which they first had started, thus completing the whole circle. -In the same way as the first had found complete expression in a single -personality, Jochanan ben Zaccai, so also the last culminated in one -standard-bearer, who formed the central point of his times. The former -had been followed by several disciples, each possessing his peculiar -school, tendency, and system; and thus the material of tradition was -divided into a multiplicity of fractional parts. It was the Patriarch -Judah, the son of Simon II., who reunited them, and thus brought the -activity of the Tanaites to a conclusion. He was the chief authority -of the last generation, compared with whom the other teachers of the -Law were of no importance; he abandoned the old tendencies and prepared -the way for a new departure. In spite of the important position which -he occupies in Jewish history but little is known of Judah's life. It -was during a time of great affliction, when the calamitous consequences -of the Bar-Cochba war were still being felt, that his superior talents -and great parts developed themselves. He so distinguished himself by -mature questions and striking answers that his father and the college -advanced him to the foremost rank of the disciples while he was still -in his first youth. As though he felt that his vocation was to be the -collecting and arranging of the most dissimilar opinions, Judah did not -confine himself to any one school, but sought the society of several -teachers of the Law. This it was that saved him from that one-sidedness -and narrowness of mind which is given to upholding, with more fidelity -than love of truth, the words of one teacher against all other -doctrines. The most important of his teachers were Simon ben Jochai and -Eleazar ben Shamua, whose school was so crowded with students that six -of them were obliged to content themselves with one seat. - -Judah was elevated to the dignity of Patriarch upon his father's -decease, and the cessation of the persecutions after Verus's death. He -was blessed with such extraordinary gifts of fortune that it used to -be said proverbially, "Judah's cattle-stalls are worth more than the -treasure-chambers of the King of Persia." Living very simply himself, -he made but small use of this wealth for his personal gratification, -but employed it in the maintenance of the disciples who during his -Patriarchate gathered around him in numbers from at home and abroad, -and were supported entirely at his cost. At the time of the awful -famine, which, together with the plague, raged for several years -during the reign of Marcus Aurelius throughout the whole extent of -the Roman empire, the Jewish prince threw open his storehouses and -distributed corn to the needy. At first he decided that those only -should be succored who were occupied in some way with the study of the -Law, thus excluding from his charity the rude and uneducated populace. -It was only when his over-conscientious disciple, Jonathan ben Amram, -refused to derive any material benefit from his knowledge of the Law, -exclaiming, "Succor me not because I am learned in the Law, but as you -would feed a hungry raven," that Judah perceived the mistake of trying -to set bounds to his charity, and he thenceforth distributed his gifts -without distinction. On another occasion Judah also yielded to his -better convictions and overcame his nature, which seems not to have -been entirely free from a touch of harshness. The daughters of Acher, -a man who had held the Law in contempt, having fallen into distress, -came to Judah for help. At first he repulsed them uncharitably, -remarking that the orphans of such a father deserved no pity. But when -they reminded him of their father's profound knowledge of the Law, he -immediately altered his mind. - -Distinguished by his wealth and his intimate knowledge of the -subject-matter of the Halachas, he succeeded without trouble in doing -that which his predecessors had striven in vain to accomplish, namely, -to invest the Patriarchate with autocratic power, unfettered by the -presence of any rival authority, and to transfer the powers of the -Synhedrion to the person of the Patriarch. The seat of the principal -school and of the Synhedrion during the time of Judah, and after Usha -had lost its importance (a short time previously it seems to have -been the neighboring town of Shefaram), was first at Beth-Shearim, -northeast of Sepphoris, and later on at Sepphoris itself. Judah chose -this latter town for his residence, on account of its elevated and -healthy situation, in the hopes of recovering from a complaint from -which he had suffered for several years. In Sepphoris there seems -to have existed a complete council of seventy members, which was -entrusted with the decision of religious questions according to the -adopted routine. Judah's reputation was so great, however, that the -college itself transferred to him the sovereign power which up till -then had belonged to the whole body or to individual members. It was -rightly observed of Judah that since the time of Moses, knowledge of -the Law and possession of authority had not been united in any one -person as in him. A most important function which was conferred upon -this Patriarch, or rather which he got conferred on him, was that of -appointing the disciples as judges and teachers of the Law. He was -allowed to exercise this power without consulting the College, but -on the other hand the nominations of the high Council were invalid -without the Patriarch's confirmation. The nomination of spiritual -guides of the communities, the appointments to the judicial offices, -the filling up of vacancies in the Synhedrion, in a word, all Judæa -and the communities abroad, fell in this manner into dependence on the -Patriarch. That which his father and grandfather had striven in vain to -accomplish, came about, so to speak, at his touch. In his time there -was no longer a deputy (Ab-Beth-Din), nor a public speaker (Chacham). -Judah, the Prince (ha-Nassi), alone was all in all. Even the Synhedrion -itself had resigned its authority, and continued to exist henceforward -only in name; the Patriarch decided everything. By reason of his great -importance he was called simply Rabbi, as if, when compared with him, -no teacher of the Law were of any consequence, and he himself were the -personification of the Law. - -He soon further increased his powers by deciding that even the most -capable were not competent to pronounce on any religious question -without having first been expressly authorized by him. How great was -the importance of this act may be seen from the circumstance that -the foreign communities, as well as those of Judæa, were obliged to -put themselves in direct communication with the Patriarch in order -to obtain their officials, judges, and teachers. The community of -Simonias, which lay to the south of Sepphoris, begged the Patriarch to -send them a man who should give public lectures, decide questions of -law, superintend the Synagogue, prepare copies of authentic writings, -teach their sons, and generally supply all the wants of the community. -He recommended to them for this purpose his best pupil, Levi bar Sissi. -It may be seen from this example how great were the requirements -demanded of the instructors of the people. Another disciple of Judah, -Rabba bar Chana by name, a native of Cafri in Babylon, was obliged to -obtain the authorization of the Patriarch before being able to decide -any questions of religion and law in his native land. In the same -manner a third of his disciples, Abba Areka, also a native of Babylon, -who later on became a great authority with the Babylonian communities, -obtained this influence solely by Judah's nomination. One dignity -alone, that of the Prince of the Captivity in Babylon, was on an equal -footing with the Patriarchate, and Judah was all the more jealous -thereof on account of its being conferred and upheld by the Parthian -authorities, while his office was at most merely tolerated by the Roman -rulers. - -Invested with this autocratic power, Judah manifested unusual severity -towards his disciples, and displayed so great an irritability with them -that he never pardoned the least offense offered, even in jest, to his -dignity. The course of conduct which he enjoined upon his son from his -death-bed, namely, to treat his scholars with strict severity, was the -one which he himself had pursued all through the Patriarchate. Among -the numerous Babylonians who crowded to the Academy at Sepphoris was -a distinguished disciple, by name Chiya (an abbreviation of Achiya), -whom his contemporaries could hardly praise enough for his natural -gifts, his pious conduct, and his untiring endeavors to spread the -teachings of religion among the people. Judah himself valued him very -highly, and said of him: "From a land far off there came to me the -man of good counsel." But even him the Patriarch could not pardon an -insignificant jest. Judah had once said to him, "If Huna, the Prince -of the Captivity, were to come to Judæa, I should certainly not carry -my self-denial so far as to abdicate my office to him, but I would -honor him as a descendant in the male line from David." When Huna died -and his body was taken to Judæa, Chiya observed to the Patriarch, -"Huna is coming." Judah grew pale at the news, and when he found that -Chiya was referring to the corpse of Huna, he punished the joke by -excluding Chiya from his presence for thirty days. Judah showed himself -equally sensitive in his conduct towards Simon Bar-Kappara, one of his -disciples, who, with his knowledge of the Law, combined at the same -time poetical talent and a vein of delicate satire; as far as is known, -he was the only Hebrew poet of that period. The little that remains of -the productions of Bar-Kappara's muse indicates ready manipulation of -the Hebrew tongue in a regenerated form, and in all its pristine purity -and vigor; he composed fables, of which, however, no trace now remains. -On the occasion of a merry meeting, the witty Bar-Kappara indulged in -a jest at the expense of a certain Bar-Eleaza, the rich but proud and -ignorant son-in-law of the Patriarch. All the guests had put questions -to Judah, except the simple-minded Bar-Eleaza. Bar-Kappara incited him -to ask one as well, and in a whisper suggested one to him in the form -of a riddle. This riddle, to which no answer has been found to the -present day, contained in all likelihood allusions to certain persons -closely connected with Judah. It ran somewhat as follows:-- - - She looks from heaven on high, - And ceaseless is her cry, - Whom wingéd beings shun; - Youth doth she fright away. - And men with old age gray, - And loud shriek they who run. - But whom her net hath lured - Can ne'er of the sin be cured. - -In all simplicity, Bar-Eleaza propounded this riddle. Judah must have -seen, however, by the satirical smile on Bar-Kappara's lips that it -was intended to banter him, and he therefore exclaimed angrily to -Bar-Kappara: "I refuse to recognize you as an appointed teacher." -It was not till later on, when Bar-Kappara failed to obtain his -appointment as an independent teacher of the Law, that he realized to -the full the meaning of these words. - -One of the most celebrated of the Babylonian disciples, Samuel by name, -by whose medical treatment Judah had been cured of his long illness, -was unable to obtain the nomination necessary in order to become a -teacher of the Law. Judah was once desirous of excusing himself for -this slight to Samuel, to whom he owed the restoration of his health, -whereupon the latter answered him pleasantly, that it was so decreed in -the book of Adam, "that Samuel would be a wise man, but not appointed -Rabbi, and that thy illness should be cured by me." Chanina bar Chama, -another disciple, who, later on, was also regarded as an authority, -once remarked that a word which occurred in the Prophets ought to be -pronounced otherwise than Judah read it. Offended thereat, Judah asked -him where he had heard this; to which Chanina answered, "At the house -of Hamnuna, in Babylon." "Well, then," retorted Judah, "when you go -again to Hamnuna, tell him that I recognize you as a sage"; which -was equivalent to telling Chanina that Judah would never authorize -him to be a teacher. This irritability of the Patriarch, who was in -all other respects a noble character, was his one weak point. It is -possible, indeed, that this susceptibility was the result of his -ill-health. However that may be, it did not fail to arouse a certain -dissatisfaction and discontent, which never found public expression on -account of the deep reverence in which the Patriarch was held. - -Once at a banquet, when the wine had loosened men's tongues and made -the guests oblivious of respect, the twin sons of Chiya gave utterance -to this feeling of discontent. These highly talented youths, by name -Judah and Chiskiya, whom the Patriarch himself had incited to gaiety -and loquacity, expressed it as their opinion "that the Messiah could -not appear until the fall of the two princely houses of Israel--the -house of the Patriarch in Judæa, and that of the Prince of the -Captivity in Babylon." The wine had caused them to betray their most -secret thoughts. - -In consideration of the altered circumstances of his time, Judah, by -virtue of his independence and authority, abolished several rites and -customs which seemed to the people to be hallowed by age, and carried -through his design with perseverance, regardless of all consequences. -Contrary to the principles of his teacher and predecessor, who had -treated the Samaritans as heathens, Judah decreed that the evidence -of a Samaritan in matters concerning marriage was admissible and of -equal weight with the testimony of an Israelite. The views of these -teachers of the Law of Moses, who agreed on the chief principles of -their religion, varied in other matters according to the predominance -of friendly or inimical feelings towards the heathens. For some -time past difficulties had been constantly occurring between the -Jews and the Samaritans. Eleazar, the son of Simon ben Jochai, and -a contemporary of Judah, who had made himself acquainted with the -Samaritan Torah, reproached them with having altered certain passages -of the holy text. The peaceable relations between Jew and Cuthæan since -the war of Hadrian were gradually changed to a state of ill-feeling, -which was as bitter on the one side as on the other. One day when -Ishmael b. José was passing through Neapolis (Shechem) in order to -go and pray at Jerusalem (for which purpose the Jews seem to have -required the permission of Marcus Aurelius), the Samaritans jeered -at the tenacity of the Jews, saying that it was certainly better to -pray upon their holy mount (Gerizim) than upon the heap of ruins at -Jerusalem. Traveling through the land of Samaria must have now become -less dangerous than it had formerly been. The teachers of the Law had -frequently to pass through the strip of land lying between Judæa and -Sepphoris. Although the seat of the Synhedrion was now in Galilee, and -Sepphoris was thus to a certain extent the center of the entire Jewish -community, nevertheless Judæa was, for various reasons, regarded as -holier than the northern district. The patriarch could not officiate in -person when the appearance of the new moon was announced, but had to -send a representative for the purpose (which office Chiya once filled); -the place where the announcement was made was at this time Ain-tab, -probably in the province of Judæa. This trifling superiority was still -left to that district, the scene of so many holy ceremonies and ancient -memories. The journey to Ain-tab was made through Samaria. - -On another point, also, Judah deviated from the ancient customs and -the Halachic laws: he rendered less oppressive the laws relating to -the year of release and to the tithes. In spite of the fall of the -Jewish state, and of the numerous catastrophes which had befallen the -Jews, these laws still continued in unimpaired force, and were doubly -oppressive to a people impoverished by the disturbances of war, by -taxes, and by the extortion of money. The Patriarch therefore turned -his attention to this matter, and determined, if not entirely to -abrogate, at least to moderate the harshness of these laws. Furthermore -he decreed that the territory of certain border cities, which had up -till then been considered as forming a part of Judæa, should henceforth -not enjoy the privilege of sanctity which attached to Jewish ground. -This in so far constituted a relief, as these cities were thereby -exempted from the payment of tithes, and doubtless also from the laws -relating to the year of release. For the most part these border cities -were inhabited by Greeks and Romans, and had not always been subject -to Jewish rule. These alleviations of the burdens of the people drew -down reproaches on the Patriarch from certain of his relatives, to -whom he replied that his predecessors had left this duty to him. He -had even the intention of entirely abolishing the laws relative to the -year of release, but was unwilling to take so important a step without -first consulting such persons as were likely to entertain scruples -on this point. At that time Pinchas ben Jaïr was regarded as the -model of austere piety. He was a son-in-law of Simon ben Jochai, and -possessed so gloomy a disposition as to cause him to entertain doubts -as to the efficacy of any human institutions. He used to remark that, -"since the destruction of the Temple the members and the freemen are -put to shame, those who conform to the Law are confused, violence and -sycophancy carry the day, and no one cares for those who are deserted; -we have no hope but in God." In particular, Pinchas adhered strictly -to the prescriptions of the law relating to the tithes, and for this -reason never accepted any invitation to a meal. It was with this same -Pinchas that Judah took counsel relative to the abolition of the year -of release. It is probable that a year of scarcity necessitated the -adoption of some such measure. To the Patriarch's question, "How goes -it with the corn?" Pinchas answered reprovingly, "There will be a very -good crop of endives," meaning that if necessary it was better to live -on herbs rather than abrogate the Law. In consequence of Pinchas' -dislike of this scheme Judah abandoned his project entirely. But the -Zealot, having noticed some mules in the court of the Patriarch's -house, to keep which was not in exact accordance with the Law, refused -to accept Judah's invitation, and left him on the spot, vowing never to -come near him again. - -But the most important of Judah's acts, a work on which reposes -his claim to an enduring name, and whereby he created a concluding -epoch, was the completion of the Mishna (about 189). Since the -completion, two generations before, of the oldest compilation under -the name of Adoyot, the subject-matter of the Law had accumulated to -an enormous extent. New cases, some drawn from older ones, others -deduced from the Scripture, had helped to swell the mass. The various -schools and systems had left many points of law in doubt, which now -awaited decision. Judah therefore based his compilation on Akiba's -partially arranged collection of laws as taught and corrected by Meïr, -retaining the same order. He examined the arguments for and against -every opinion, and established the Halachic precepts according to -certain ordinances and principles. He endeavored to observe a certain -systematic order in dealing with the various traditional laws relating -to the prayers, to benedictions, taxes on agricultural produce, the -Sabbath, festivals and fasts, marriage customs, vows and Nazarites, -civil and criminal jurisdiction, the system of sacrifices, levitical -purity, and many other points. His efforts were not, however, crowned -with complete success, partly on account of the various parts of his -subject being by their nature incapable of connection, and partly -by reason of his desire to retain the order and divisions already -employed. The style of Judah's Mishna is concise, well rounded, and -intelligent, and is thereby well adapted to impress itself firmly on -the memory. He in no way intended his Mishna, however, to be regarded -as the sole standard, having in fact only composed it, like his -predecessors and contemporaries, for his own use, in order to possess -a text-book for his lectures. But by reason of his great authority with -his disciples and contemporaries his compilation gradually obtained -exclusive authority, and finally superseded all previous collections, -which for that reason have fallen into oblivion. It retained the -ancient name of _Mishna_, but at first with the addition of the words -"di Rabbi Judah." Gradually, however, these words were dropped, and -it began to be considered as the sole legitimate, recognized and -authorized Mishna. His disciples disseminated it through distant lands, -using it as a text-book for their lectures, and as a religious and -judicial code. This Mishna, however, like the older compilations, was -not committed to writing, it being at that time regarded as a religious -offense to put on paper the precepts of tradition; it was thus handed -down for many centuries by word of mouth. The Agadas only were now and -then collected and written down, and even this was severely censured -by various teachers of the Law. It is true that scarce or remarkable -Halachas were sometimes written upon scrolls by certain teachers, but -this was done so secretly, that they acquired from this circumstance -the name of "Secret Scrolls." - -In his old age Judah undertook another revision of his compilation, and -made certain alterations which brought his Mishna into harmony with his -new views. Various additions were also made after his death by his son. -The language in which the Mishna is written is Hebrew in a rejuvenated -form, interspersed with many Aramaic, Greek, and Latin words in general -use. Judah evinced a predilection for the Hebrew tongue, despising -Syriac, which was then indigenous to Galilee, on account of its -characteristic inexactness. Syriac, he asserted, was superfluous in -Judæa, and that either Hebrew or Greek should be spoken by every one. -As a matter of fact, the Hebrew language was in nowise foreign to the -population of Judæa, especially to such of them as lived in the towns. -Even Judah's female domestic slave and tyrant was so well acquainted -with Hebrew that many a foreign scholar applied to her for information -respecting certain words of which he was ignorant. The Hebrew language -was so easily and fluently spoken that many legal terms and delicate -distinctions, which were the outcome of the spirit of the times, found -their way into Jewish circles, and were there provided with proper -Hebrew equivalents. - -Thus tradition was at last codified and sanctioned. During the four -centuries since the time of the Maccabees, when the doctrine of the -father, as handed down to the son, had first begun to acquire an -influence on the development of history, tradition had remained, so -to speak, in suspense. Accepted by the Pharisees, rejected by the -Sadducees, confined by Shammai's school within narrow boundaries, -extended in its application by the school of Hillel, and greatly -enriched by the followers of the latter, it was through Judah that -tradition first acquired a settled form, and was able to exercise, by -means of its contents and its mode of exposition, a spiritual influence -during a number of centuries. Concurrently with the Bible, the Mishna -was the principal source of intellectual activity and research; it -sometimes even succeeded in entirely supplanting the Scripture, and in -asserting its claim to sole authority. It was the intellectual bond -which held together the scattered members of the Jewish nation. The -Mishna--the child of the Patriarchate--by which it had been brought -into the world and endowed with authority, slew, so to speak, its own -parent, for the latter dignity lost by degrees its importance and -influence. - -The appearance of the Mishna brought the line of Tanaites to a -conclusion, and put an end to independent teaching. "Nathan and -Judah are the last of the Tanaites," says a Sibylline chronicle, -the apocryphal book of Adam. The Mishna necessitated henceforth -the employment of a new method of study, which possessed but little -similarity with the Tanaite mode of teaching. - -The period of the compilation of the Mishna was by no means a happy one -for the Jews. Marcus Aurelius, the best and most moral of the Roman -emperors, bore them no good will; he seems even to have cherished a -special aversion to them. When he came to Judæa, in the summer of -175, after the death of the rebel Avidius Cassius, he found the Jews -clamorous; they had not come respectfully to pay him homage, but to ask -exemption from the heavy taxes imposed on them; and he, greatly vexed -at this want of reverence, is reported to have exclaimed, "At last I -have discovered a people who are more restless than the Marcomani, the -Quadi, or the Sarmati!" In Judah's time, the communities in Judæa were -subjected to a tax, called the "crown money" (aurum coronarium), which -was so oppressive that the inhabitants of Tiberias took to flight in -order to escape its burden. There is not in existence a single law of -Marcus Aurelius in favor of the Jews. - -But few Jews can have taken part in the short-lived rebellion of -Avidius Cassius (175). With the sensual and bloodthirsty blockhead, -Commodus (180-192), the son of the Emperor philosopher, ends the series -of good or tolerable emperors, and there opens a succession of tyrants -who cut one another's throats. In his reign Judæa was doubtless exposed -to all sorts of extortions and oppression. The barbarous, savage and -dissolute Pescennius Niger, who after the murder of the two preceding -rulers set up as emperor in company with Severus and a third candidate -(193,) and took up his residence in Antioch, displayed especial -harshness to the Jews. Once when they prayed him to lighten their -burden of taxes, which had now become intolerable, he answered them in -the following words: "You ask me to relieve your lands of their taxes; -would that I were able to tax the very air that you breathe!" - -In the war that ensued between him and Severus, the latter was -victorious, and his opponent's adherents paid heavily for their -mistake. During his short stay in Palestine (200), after he had -wasted, but not subdued, the country of the Parthians, Adiabene, and -Mesopotamia, Severus promulgated several laws, which were certainly -not favorable to Palestine. Amongst these laws was one forbidding -heathens, under penalty of severe punishment, to embrace Judaism, or -even Christianity. He permitted those, however, who were "imbued with -the Jewish superstitions" to hold unpaid municipal offices and to be -invested with the dignities of the magistracy; but they were obliged -to submit to the claims made on them by reason of their occupation of -these posts, such as providing costly plays and supporting various -other heavy expenses, as long as no violation of their religion was -thereby occasioned. - -The numerous bands of marauders which had collected together during -the war between Severus and Niger do not seem to have been entirely -suppressed in Judæa, but continued to exist in this land after the -departure of Severus. The Romans, who regarded these marauders as -highwaymen, dispatched troops to hunt them out of their hiding-places -in the mountains, but were unable to disperse them entirely. Two -famous teachers of the Law of this period, Eleazar, the son of Simon -ben Jochai (who in his time had been hostile to the Romans), and -Ishmael, the son of José the Prudent, were induced to aid the Romans, -to keep a watch over the Jewish freebooters, and to deliver them into -the hands of the Roman authorities, who put them to death. Public -opinion, however, was loud in its blame of these men for thus allowing -themselves to become the tools of the Roman tyrants against their own -countrymen. Joshua b. Karcha (according to certain authorities the -son of Akiba) reproached Eleazar most bitterly for his behavior. "Oh, -thou vinegar!" he exclaimed, "the produce of wine (unworthy son of a -worthy father), how much longer dost thou intend to deliver up God's -people to the executioner?" When Eleazar attempted to excuse himself -by saying that he only desired "to clear the vineyard of thorns," -Joshua retorted: "Let the lord of the vineyard root out the thorns -himself." Later on Eleazar repented of his share in the pursuit of -the Jewish freebooters, and is said to have done penance in the most -painful manner. Although he was an Halachic authority, to whom at -times the Patriarch submitted, the feeling which he had excited by -affording assistance to the Romans was so bitter that he was afraid -that after his death the last honors would be denied his corpse by -the teachers of the Law. He therefore enjoined upon his wife not to -bury him immediately, but to allow his body to remain in a room for -several days. When after his death Judah the Patriarch sought his widow -in marriage, she rejected his suit, annoyed probably at the slight -inflicted on her husband, and answered him: "A vessel intended for holy -purposes must not be put to profane uses." - -Ishmael ben José was also visited with the disapprobation of the people -on account of his prosecution of the Jewish marauders. His excuse that -he had received an order from the Roman authorities, of which he was -unable to relieve himself, was met by the retort: "Did not thy father -flee? Thou also then wast able to escape." - -Judah, the Patriarch, was a witness of all these sad scenes after -having held his office for more than thirty years. With great -equanimity he prepared to die, awaiting his dissolution with -tranquillity. He summoned his sons and learned comrades before him, -and informed them of his last wishes. He conferred the dignity of -Patriarch on Gamaliel, his elder son, and appointed Simon the younger -to the office of Chacham (speaker). To both of them he recommended his -widow, who was doubtless their stepmother, and commanded them to pay -her all respect after his death, and to make no alterations in his -domestic establishment. He strongly impressed on the future Patriarch -the policy of treating his disciples with severity, but recommended -a departure from his principle of only allowing two disciples to be -ordained, and suggested that all who were capable and deserving should -be admitted to ordination. He particularly enjoined on Gamaliel the -obligation of conferring the dignity of teacher, first and foremost -on Chanina bar Chama, to whom he believed himself indebted. His two -servants, José, of Phaeno, and Simon the Parthian, who served him with -great affection during his lifetime, were commanded to take charge -of his corpse after his death. He besought the Synhedrion to bury -him without any great pomp, to allow no mourning ceremonies to be -performed for him in the towns, and to re-open the Assembly of Teachers -after the short interval of thirty days. Many of the inhabitants of -the neighboring towns had gathered in Sepphoris at the news of the -Patriarch's approaching death, in order to show him their sympathy. -As if it were impossible that he could die, the populace threatened -to put to death whosoever should announce the sad news to them. The -suspense and agitation were, in fact, so great that some violent -explosion of the grief of the crowd was apprehended. The intelligence -of the Patriarch's death was, however, indirectly communicated to the -people by Bar-Kappara. With his head veiled and his garments torn, he -spoke the following words: "Angels and mortals contended for the ark -of the covenant; the angels have conquered, and the ark has vanished." -Hereupon the people uttered a cry of pain and exclaimed "He is dead," -to which Bar-Kappara made answer, "Ye have said it." Their lamentations -are said to have been heard at Gabbata, three miles from Sepphoris. A -numerous funeral train accompanied Judah's corpse from Sepphoris to -Beth-Shearim, and memorial sermons were preached for him in eighteen -different synagogues. Even the descendants of Aaron paid the last -honors to his corpse, although this was in direct opposition to the -Law. "For this day," it was said, "the consecrated character of the -priests is suspended." Synhedrion and priests readily subordinated -themselves to him who represented the Law in his own person. After his -death he was called "the Holy" (ha-Kadosh), though later generations -seem to have been unable to offer any explanation of the title. - -History has little more to relate of Judah's successor, Gamaliel III -(about 210 to 225) than that he faithfully executed his father's -commands. Such of his sayings as have been preserved are well worthy -of consideration, as throwing a strong light on the state of the -times. "It is good to be occupied in the study of religion, if some -secular business is carried on at the same time; the labor devoted -to both prevents sin from gaining ground. The study of the Law, when -prosecuted without some other occupation, must ultimately be lost and -is productive of sin. He who attends to the affairs of the community -should do so for the sake of his duty to God, and without any selfish -motives of his own; then will the merit of his forefathers second his -efforts, and his righteousness will endure to all eternity. To you, -however," he said to his disciples, "I promise as great a reward as -if your efforts had been directed to practical ends. Act cautiously -in all your relations with the (Roman) powers that be, for they only -flatter you to further their own purposes; they are your friends when -they can derive any benefit from your friendship, but they never -stand by you in trouble. Do God's will in such a manner that you -prefer His will to yours; then will he make your will His own." The -admonition thus given to his disciples, to exercise caution in their -dealings with the Roman authorities, and not to allow themselves to be -seduced by their promises, evidently contained an underlying political -meaning. For after the death of the harsh Severus, the Roman empire -acquired, and outwardly retained, for nearly a quarter of a century, -through the influence of three emperors and their Syrian mothers, a -certain Syrian appearance which was nearly allied with that of Judæa; -servile Rome adopted Syrian habits, and filled her Pantheon with -Eastern gods. By this means the gulf existing between Roman and Jew -was to a certain extent narrowed. Julia Domna (Martha), the wife of -Severus, was a native of Emesa in Syria, and her son Caracalla, who was -officially called Antoninus (211-217), was in nowise ashamed of his -Syrian descent. It was he who extended the full right of citizenship -to every inhabitant of the Roman Empire, and although this law was -merely intended to allow the imposition of heavier taxes on the -population of the provinces, it had the good effect of abolishing the -marked distinction between Roman and non-Roman. Although Caracalla -and his pretended son Elegabalus so disgraced the purple and humanity -itself by their vices, that Roman history of this period has nothing -to relate but assassinations and unnatural excesses such as allow of -no other explanation than the derangement of the minds of these two -emperors, there was still a certain method in their madness. They -contemplated the gradual effacement of Roman gods and Roman customs by -the introduction of Syrian fashions. It does not appear that Caracalla -possessed special tenderness for the Jews. This much is certain, -however, that the condition of the Jews under this emperor was at -least tolerable, and that, although they enjoyed no especial favors, -they at any rate had not to complain of excessive oppression. This -intermediate and tolerable position of the Jews, equally removed from -happiness and persecution, is described by Jannaï, one of Judah's -disciples, in the following words: "We neither enjoy the happiness of -the wicked, nor endure the misfortunes of the just." - -A certain religious law which this same Jannaï was at this time induced -to repeal, proves that the condition of the Jews of Palestine was not -too enviable during the period in question. They were obliged to pay -their taxes, even during the year of Release, in natural produce, -destined for the use of the standing army. Up till then they had been -exempted, by virtue of a special favor originally accorded them by -Julius Cæsar, from delivering these supplies in every seventh year, -by reason of the fact that no harvest was gathered in this year, it -being the one during which the land was commanded by the Law to be -left fallow. In consequence of this dictatorial measure, and probably -during Caracalla's campaign in Parthia (in 216, which just happened to -be a year of Release), Jannaï, who was the authority of that period, -issued a proclamation, in which he declared that henceforward it would -be permissible to cultivate the land during the year of Release. He -laid especial stress on the circumstance that it was only permissible -to transgress the Law relative to the year of Release on account of the -payment of the tax being required of them, and that its abrogation was -in nowise intended. - -The youthful emperor Elegabalus, formerly priest of the Sun-god -in Emesa, whom Mæsa, his crafty grandmother, had put forward as -Caracalla's son, was entirely devoid of any predilection for the Jews, -although appearances seem to lend color to the opposite view. This -living epitome of all vices, who disgraced the Roman world for four -years (218-222), and who seems to have possessed no other vocation in -history than publicly to degrade his heathen gods and Roman Cæsarism, -and to convince every one of their worthlessness, seems, in fact, to -have done and attempted many things in his methodical madness that bear -a Jewish complexion. He offered himself for circumcision, and refused -to partake of pork, only in obedience, however, to the commands of his -Sun-god. He proposed to introduce the Jewish, Samaritan, and Christian -worshipers publicly into Rome, but to subordinate them to his Sun-god, -Baal. - -During the reigns of these two emperors, Caracalla and Elegabalus, -the younger contemporaries of Judah had ample time to continue his -work. The Mishnaic compilation had not, in fact, included many laws, -partly because they were not possessed of absolute legal force, and -partly because they were as special cases included in the general -formulæ. These neglected Halachas were collected by Judah's successors, -as a supplement to the Mishna. Among these collectors may be named -Jannaï, whose academy was at Acbara; Chiya, and his twin-sons, Judah -and Chiskiya, Bar-Kappara, Levi bar Sissi, Ushaya the elder, surnamed -"the father of the Mishna"; and finally Abba-Areka (Rab); all of -them half-Tanaites. Judah's compilation had, however, obtained so -undisputed an authority that its votaries considered every word of -it to be sacred, and contended that not a line ought to be added to -it. The new compilation therefore possessed but a secondary value in -comparison with the principal Mishna, and their mutual relations were -of such a character that the former were referred to as "the apocryphal -Mishnas" (Matnita boraïta, or simply Boraïta), in the same way as the -books not included in the canonical Bible are called "the Apocrypha" -(apocryphal books). The compilations of Chiya and Ushaya alone acquired -an authority nearly equal to that of the principal Mishna, on account -of their contents. - -The distinctive feature of the Mishna, which was accepted as the -recognized code, is the severely legal and even judicial character -which it impressed on Judaism for all time. Everything comprised in -Judaism--the commandments and prohibitions, the precepts contained in -the Pentateuch and those deduced from it--all are considered by the -Mishna as edicts and decrees of God, which may neither be criticized -nor questioned; they must be carried out in strict accordance with the -letter. It is impossible not to perceive that the conflicts which had -convulsed Judaism, the violent attacks of Hellenism under Antiochus -Epiphanes, the bitter opposition of the Sadducees, the allegorical -misinterpretation and the subtleties of the Alexandrian philosophers, -and, finally, the attitude of hostility to the Law assumed by Pauline -Christianity and the Gnostics, had all assisted to bring out and -accentuate the strictly legal character of the Jewish faith. In -direct opposition to the tendency of the Alexandrian and Gnostic -schools to give especial prominence to the view that God's love was -the characteristic feature of Judaism, the Mishna, the first positive -code of Judaism, cautions its readers against this opinion, and orders -silence to be imposed on one who desired to express this view in -prayer: "Thy love extendeth even to the nest of the bird." For this -reason everything in the Mishna is legally ordered, little being left -to personal decision; there it is settled how much a pauper may demand -of public charity, and even how many children a father ought to bring -into the world in order to fulfil his duty of helping to populate the -earth, "which God did not create to be desolate." In general the Mishna -assumes that the whole of the Torah, including such of the precepts -of the Law as do not appear immediately in the Pentateuch, is composed -of ancient traditions, received by Moses on Sinai, communicated by -him to Joshua, who handed them down to the Elders, who in their turn -transmitted them to the Prophets, who finally handed them down to -the members of the great assembly. All such laws as do not appear in -the Pentateuch are designated in the Mishna by the term, "the saying -of those learned in the Scripture" (_Dibre Soferim_), although its -component parts are not rigorously divided into these two categories. -It is true that in the Mishna the remembrance of the dissatisfaction of -many Tanaites is still apparent, especially in the complaint that the -numerous decisions which Joshua arrived at by means of interpretation, -"resemble mountains hanging by a hair," that is to say, are -far-fetched; but, nevertheless, the Mishna holds up as an inviolable -standard all the Halachic laws which had been in force up to this time. - -There repeatedly occurs in the Mishna the assertion of the equivalence -of all religious commands and duties. The maxims of Rabbi, its -compiler, might fitly be placed on the first page as an inscription: - - "Which road should man choose? One which is creditable to the - traveler, and honorable in the eyes of mankind. Be as exact - in thine observance of the minor precepts as of the most - important, for thou knowest not what reward is attached to each - command. Balance the (temporal) loss sustained in consequence - of the performance of a duty with its (spiritual) reward, and - the gain of a transgression with its disadvantages. Bear always - three things in mind, so that thou commit no offense: There is - an Eye that sees all, an Ear that hears all, and a Hand that - inscribes all thy deeds in a book." - -The Mishna is pervaded with these views from beginning to end. The -reward of a conscientious observance of the precepts of the Law will -be the participation in a future world, which awaits every Israelite -unless he refuse to believe in a resurrection, or in the revelation of -the Torah by God, or unless he live (or think) as an Epicurean. But -pious conduct is also rewarded in this world. He who conscientiously -fulfils one religious duty will be favored by Heaven, his life will be -lengthened, and he will be allowed to enjoy a share of the Holy Land. -At the same time the attempt is made to establish a reconciliation -between the worldly promises held out by the Bible and the reward of -the world to come, a dogma which first assumed a distinct form in the -period following the Captivity. The discharge of certain duties secures -the enjoyment of reward on earth and in the world to come; such are -the veneration of parents, charity, timely attendance at the school, -hospitality, the endowment of (indigent) brides, the accompanying of -corpses to the grave, devout prayer, peace-making, and especially the -pursuit of religious studies (Talmud Torah). As to future punishment, -the Mishna is unacquainted therewith, as also with a hell. For crimes -and transgressions, mention is made of judicial punishment during this -life only, varying of course with the seriousness of the offense; -thus there were scourging, and execution by the Synhedrion in four -degrees (by sword, by the rope, by fire, and by stoning), and finally -a premature death at the hand of God (Kharat). The most heinous and -atrocious sins were expiated by death, and lesser ones by repentance -and the Day of Atonement, while pardon was obtained for sins of -negligence by sacrifice. Of course, crimes committed against persons -were not expiated until their victims were indemnified, satisfied, and -appeased. Every righteous and moral deed, as well as every misdeed, -possessed its religious importance; but the religious point of view was -not predominant over, but subordinate to, the secular. - -The Mishna regarded as the greatest virtue the study of the doctrines -of Judaism and the knowledge of the Law or of the Halachas (Talmud -Torah). Occupation in these subjects possessed peculiar merit or -justification (Zechut Torah); it protected and advanced a person here -and hereafter. "He who is acquainted with the Bible and tradition, -and is careful of his behavior, will not easily fall into sin." The -learning, appropriation, retention, and theoretical comprehension and -advancement of the existing principles of religion--that is to say, the -conservation and furtherance of Judaism in the path of orthodoxy--gave -the direction to the ideas and tendencies of that period. For this -reason, he who is learned in the Law holds a very high rank, and -although he be a bastard, takes precedence of a high priest who is -ignorant of it. A disciple must honor his teacher even more than his -father, or in case of conflict in his duty to one or the other, must -first fulfil his duty to the former; for a wise teacher brings man to -life in the world to come. It is incumbent on a father to teach his -son the Torah, or to provide for his instruction in it. The Mishna -does not decide the question as to whether a father ought to instruct -his daughters in the Torah, but advances two opposite views on this -subject: one advocated by Ben-Azai, who is in favor of the practice, or -at least considers it permissible; the other, defended by the austere -Eleazar ben Hyrcanus, who condemns it; "to initiate one's daughters -in the Torah is as good as to initiate them in prostitution." This -latter theory, which finally prevailed, exercised a most pernicious -influence in after-times; for while every community was careful to -provide elementary and advanced schools for its boys, the girls were -systematically kept in complete ignorance. - -But although great weight was laid by the Mishnaic code on the exact -observance of the letter of the Law, a something higher than this -observance of the Law was recognized as piety; namely, the possession -of a certain elevation of mind, of which the boundaries were far more -widely extended than those of the Law. A conscientious man should -keep his word in questions relating to property, although he be not -bound thereto by the terms of the written law. He who pays his debt in -the year of release, although not under a legal obligation to do so; -he who pays to the heirs of a proselyte the debt due to the latter, -without being legally compelled to satisfy their claim; and generally -he who abides by his word--these are the men in whom the sages delight. -It is true that there are certain prescribed forms of prayer, but it -is lawful, nevertheless, to pray in any language; the principal thing -is to pray with devotion and earnestness. Men ought to thank Heaven -for bad fortune as well as for good. The Mishna displays altogether a -tendency to emphasize the spiritual value of religion. The sounding of -the cornet on the New Year, the Festivals, and the Atonement Day of -the year of Jubilee, as prescribed by the Law, ought not to remain an -outward, material deed, but ought rather to create a certain frame of -mind which raises the soul to God. As illustrations of this view the -following instances are cited: it was not the fact of Moses lifting up -his hands which gave the Israelites the victory over Amalek, nor the -erection of a brazen serpent in the wilderness which cured them of the -bites of the scorpions, but the turning of their hearts to God. But -this tendency of the Mishna remains only a tendency, and received no -wide development; more confidence is placed in an obligatory law than -in a conscience which creates its own standard. - -Besides the juridical feature, and perhaps as a consequence of it, -the Mishna possesses another peculiarity which is more formal than -essential; it is characterized by a desire to devise and group -together all possible sorts of cases, however remote they may be, in -order to apply the most dissimilar laws to their decision (a species -of casuistry). This peculiarity, which in after-times exerted an -influence at once favorable and prejudicial to advancement, and -which was conducive at the same time both to logical acuteness and -to sophistry, seems to have first made its appearance in the public -academies of Jabne and Usha, and in the numerous other schools. It was -probably the ingenious Meïr and his disciples who most contributed to -its cultivation. As if it were not sufficient to consider and decide -such cases as really occurred, according to the already existing laws -and principles of the Pentateuch and tradition, teachers occupied -themselves in depicting fantastic and intricate situations, simply to -show, for example, that it was occasionally possible for several laws -to apply to a single act. The Mishna admitted all these hypothetical -cases constructed by the schools, and perhaps added to their number. -This casuistic peculiarity was especially employed in order to give a -clear idea of certain cases where cumulative punishments or atonements -were incurred. - -It is noteworthy that the Mishnaic compilation contains no Halachas of -a character hostile to the Jewish professors of Christianity; it does -not touch on this subject in any place, not even declaring whether it -is allowed or prohibited to eat meat cooked by the Minæans. It appears -that the danger with which Judaism had been threatened by the Jewish -Christians, since the destruction of the Temple until the Bar-Cochba -war, had already been averted, and that danger was now no longer -to be dreaded. On the other hand, and in order to avoid the least -appearance of participation in idolatry, the Mishna contains numerous -laws directed against heathenism and intercourse with the heathens. The -teachers of Christianity immediately experienced the want of some such -protective laws for the preservation of the Christian communities, and -Tertullian, one of the Fathers of the Church (a younger contemporary -of Judah the Patriarch, and the first Christian author who wrote -in Latin), expressed a desire that the Christians should be kept -apart from the heathens just as strictly as the Jews were by the -prescriptions of the Mishna; the reason for this was that heathenism -had continued to make its way into Palestine since the Bar-Cochba war, -and had gained possession not only of coast towns, but even of inland -places. It was necessary, therefore, to regulate the conduct of the -people accordingly. The Mishna devotes a special treatise (Aboda Zara) -to this subject; it prohibits the intercourse with heathens for three -days before their principal public festivals, such as the kalends of -January, the Saturnalia, the anniversary of the accession or the death -of the emperor. It also commands the people not to frequent such of -the shops of the heathens as are decorated with laurel wreaths. The -Jews are forbidden to sell ornaments or other objects for the use of -idols to the heathens, or to let to them any houses in Palestine, -because they would be desecrated by the introduction of images of -idols. On account of the hatred entertained against them by the heathen -inhabitants of Palestine, the Jews are further commanded not to allow -themselves to be attended during any illness by the heathens, or even -to allow their beards to be shaved by the latter; and in particular -are ordered not to remain alone with them in any lonely spot, lest -they should be secretly murdered by them. The Roman heathens having -introduced the barbarous custom of setting men to fight with wild -beasts, the Mishna interdicts the sale to them by the Jews of bears, -lions, and all other animals by which any injury can be caused, and -further prohibits the Jews from building their basilica, places of -execution, or stadia, because they serve to promote the shedding of -innocent blood. In order not to pander to the unnatural vices (sodomy) -of the heathens, the Jews are commanded not to commit any animals to -their charge; the Mishna even forbids the Jewish midwives or nurses to -offer their services to the heathen women, because they would thereby -help to bring into the world a new child of idolatry. All enjoyment -derived from objects of reverence to the idolaters is interdicted, -and the Jews are not even allowed to sit in the shade of an image of -an idol, and are particularly forbidden to drink of the wine of which -a portion has been, or may have been, offered by a heathen to his -gods. Most of the laws relative to the separation of the Jews from the -heathen world, introduced with great zeal and precipitancy shortly -before the destruction of the Temple, are retained and extended by the -Mishna. Notwithstanding all its hatred of the heathens generally, and -especially those in Palestine (the Mishna paid but little attention -to foreign countries), the Jewish legislation was unable to entirely -belie the distinctive trait of Judaism, its universal love of mankind. -Together with these hostile laws, there was also adopted one which was -favorable to the heathens, due probably to the initiative of Rabban -Gamaliel I: their poor were given access to the fields, and possessed, -equally with the Jews, the right of gleaning. A special treatise, -called "The Sayings of the Fathers" (Pirke Aboth), is devoted to the -teachings of a higher morality, and contains the maxims and short -sentences of the sopheric teachers and sages from the earliest times. -These laws of morality, however, are concealed, and, as it were, -overgrown by a mass of law relating to the ritual. - -With the completion of the Mishna and the almost equally important -Boraïtas, the Tanaites had accomplished their task of imparting a -settled form and lasting shape to the hitherto uncertain and transitory -matter of tradition; they had called it to life, and presented it to -the Jewish nation as common property. After completing their task -with noble assiduity, untiring zeal, and unexampled self-denial, they -disappeared from the scene, leaving to future generations the result of -their efforts, from which to receive their education and imbibe a love -of their religion and nationality. - - - - -CHAPTER XVIII. - -THE FIRST AMORAIM. - - Judah II.--Friendliness of Alexander Severus towards the - Jews--Joshua ben Levi--Hillel instructs Origen in Hebrew--The - _Hexapla_--The Palestinean Amoraim--Chanina--Jochanan--Simon - ben Lakish--Joshua, the Hero of Fable--Simlai, the - Philosophical Agadist--Porphyry comments on the Book of Daniel. - - 219.280 C. E. - - -After the extinction of the Tanaites and the death of the younger -contemporaries of the compiler of the Mishna and of his son Gamaliel -III, a happier period commenced: happy abroad by reason of the -favorable political situation brought about by the friendly attitude -assumed towards the Jews by one of the best of the Roman emperors; -happy at home through the agency of a series of vigorous-minded men, -who imbued the ancient customs and manners with a new and healthy -spirit. The most prominent men and the lights of this epoch were: in -Judæa, the Patriarch Judah II, son of Gamaliel; Jochanan, the principal -authority of these times; and Simon b. Lakish, the Teacher, robust of -hand and brain; and in Babylonia, Abba-Areka and Samuel. These men were -the pioneers of a new movement, connected, it is true, with the labors -of the Tanaites, inasmuch as it was grounded upon their work, but yet -went beyond it in range. A sketch of the leading personalities of this -period will not perhaps be considered superfluous. - -But little is known of the early life and training of Judah the -Patriarch. His youth was passed in a time when religious strictness -had acquired so predominant an importance, that the family of the -Patriarch himself was open to censure in case any of its members acted -contrary to prescribed law. Judah was walking one Sabbath-day, with -his brother Hillel, in Biri, wearing a pair of shoes decorated with -golden buckles, which seems to have been prohibited in that town. -They were sharply censured by the populace on this account, and, not -daring to explain that the act was not contrary to the Law, they -were obliged to take off their shoes and give them to their slaves. -On another occasion, when the two sons of the Patriarch were one day -bathing together in Kabul, the people called out to them "that in -their city it was not lawful for two brothers to bathe together." When -Judah succeeded his father in the office of Patriarch (about 225) -he transferred the seat of this dignity from Sepphoris to Tiberias, -and this city, formerly avoided on account of its uncleanliness, was -thus invested by him with considerable importance; it outlived all -the other cities of Judæa, however rich in memories, and was the last -retreat of the ancient traditions. The announcement of the appearance -of the new moon, which on account of a certain preference shown to -the south of Judæa had formerly been made there, was now ordered by -Judah to be made at Tiberias. The south of Palestine, formerly the -principal scene of historical events, was henceforward bereft of its -supremacy, and was obliged to abandon its rôle to the once-despised -Galilee. Like his grandfather, Judah II was held in great reverence -by his contemporaries, and was also called simply Rabbi or Rabbenu. -He likewise was often severely censured, but accepted the blame more -patiently than his ancestor. - -It was probably the second Judah, as the Jewish narratives positively -assert, that was beloved by a Roman emperor, from whom he received -numerous marks of favor. Accident, which in the guise of the Prætorian -guards generally gave the casting vote at the election of the emperor, -elevated Alexander Severus (222-235), an unknown Syrian youth in his -seventeenth year, to the position of ruler of the world. In public, he -gave evidence of a more pronounced friendliness to Judaism than any -of his predecessors. In his private apartment there was placed, next -to the representations of Orpheus and Christ, a picture of Abraham. -This emperor was so deeply impressed with the truth of the golden -rule of pure philanthropy, "Do not unto others what thou wouldst not -they should do unto you" (esteemed as the essence of the whole Jewish -religion before the time of Jesus), that it was always on his lips, -and was placed by him as a motto on the imperial palace and the public -buildings, and proclaimed by a herald to the soldiers whenever he -desired to reprimand them for attacks on the property of foreigners. -On all occasions he set up the Jews and Christians as patterns to the -depraved Romans, and was desirous of seeing the highest dignities of -the state awarded upon the same principles as those which governed the -admission of Jewish and Christian religious leaders to ordination. He -was well disposed towards the Christians, but seems to have possessed -a greater predilection for the Jews and Judaism. The inhabitants of -Antioch and Alexandria, whose frivolous character caused them to be -better pleased with immoral emperors than with an austere ruler like -Alexander Severus, derided him in epigrams, and gave him the nicknames -of the "Syrian Head of the Synagogue" (Archisynagogus, that is, -Rabbi) and "High Priest." The emperor's mother, Mammæa, however, had -a preference for Christianity, and was a protectress of Origen, one -of the Fathers of the Church. For these reasons, the Patriarch Judah -possessed during this period an almost royal authority, and was even -able to exercise anew criminal jurisdiction; not quite openly, it is -true, but still with the prior knowledge of the emperor. The latter -seems to have made the acquaintance of the Jewish Patriarch during his -frequent visits to Antioch on the occasion of his campaign in Persia -(231-234). Judah probably prevailed upon him to protect, or rather to -revive, the privileges of the Jews. Among these was the right of again -entering the city of Jerusalem, and of filling the office of judge, -both of which rights had been denied to them by Hadrian. Jewish fable -relates many things concerning the sincere attachment of the Emperor -Severus (Asverus), son of Antoninus, or simply Antoninus, to Judaism -and the Jews. But although much of this is doubtless exaggerated -and embellished, the Talmud contains many narratives concerning the -relations existing between the Patriarch and the Emperor which are -certainly historical. Thus it is related of him that he presented a -golden candlestick to a synagogue (probably that of Tiberias), and -granted the Patriarch a field in the district of Gaulanitis, most -likely for the support of the disciples. - -It is quite in the spirit of this emperor of Syrian origin, -prepossessed as he was in favor of foreign religions, that he should -have requested the Patriarch, as the story runs, to recommend to him a -learned man to aid him in building an altar on the model of that in the -Jewish Temple, and in the preparation of incense according to the rules -of the Jewish code, for which purpose Judah is said to have recommended -his intimate friend Romanus. The thirteen years during which the Roman -world submitted to the rule of a good emperor were a happy time for -the Jewish nation, for the sovereign conferred many marks of favor -upon this people, lately despised and persecuted. The position of the -Jews was indeed so favorable that the opinion was commonly expressed -that Daniel, who had cast a prophetic glance on the succession of the -empires of the world, had predicted this state of things in the words: -"When they (the Jews) succumb, some small help will still be extended -to them," which were considered to refer to Severus Antoninus, who -manifested a love for the Jews. This favorable situation contributed -towards the substitution of a more friendly spirit in place of the -variance with and profound dislike of the Romans which had prevailed -for centuries. - -The Christians complained at this time that the Jews were much more -favorably disposed towards the heathens than towards themselves, -although possessing much more in common with themselves than with the -heathens. The barrier erected by the Jews, in consequence of their -hatred of the Romans, was partly overthrown, and the rigor of the -separation of the two nations was relaxed. The family of the Patriarch -were permitted, on account of their association with the highest -dignitaries of the state, to dress their hair according to the Roman -fashion, to learn Greek, and to do various other things which had -formerly been prohibited. The life of the Jews assumed altogether a -happier aspect: they began to decorate their rooms with paintings, and -religious scrupulousness took no exception. - -To the influence exercised by these friendly relations with the rulers -must probably also be ascribed the fact that the Patriarch abolished, -or intended to abolish, many of the stricter rules which had formerly -been carried out with the utmost severity. In the stormy days of the -first rebellion against the Romans, when the wave of racial hatred ran -high between Jews and Græco-Roman heathens, a Synod, in order to put -a stop to all intercourse with the heathens, had forbidden the Jews -to purchase or make use of their oil and various other articles of -food. In Palestine, this restraint did not fall heavily on the Jewish -inhabitants, as the land produced all that was necessary to satisfy -the daily wants of the people, and the oil exported from Galilee -afforded a sufficient supply to the neighboring countries. But the war -of Hadrian devastated Judæa and deprived it of all its oil plantations; -the daily need of oil thus gradually compelled this strict prohibition -to be disregarded. But the legal permission was still wanting, and, -although numbers had dispensed with it, there still remained many -who complied strictly with the law, as yet unabolished. Judah II -therefore used his best endeavors to obtain a majority favorable to the -abrogation of this law, and prided himself greatly on accomplishing -his purpose; it is probable that he had to sustain a severe conflict -in order to gain his object. When Simlaï, the Patriarch's assessor, -who was constantly traveling between Galilee and Babylon, brought -the news that permission had been granted to the Jewish inhabitants -of countries bordering on the Euphrates (who had always been restive -under restraints imposed upon them) to make use of the oil of the -heathens, this innovation appeared so daring to Abba-Areka (the -principal Babylonian authority), that he refused to believe the report. -Samuel, however, who desired to see the authority of the Patriarch -generally recognized even in Babylon, compelled him to make use of this -permission. - -Another alleviation proposed by the Patriarch, according to which the -onerous marriage with a deceased brother's widow was to be evaded in -certain cases by a bill of divorce, to be given before death, was not -agreed to by his College. He was also desirous of permitting the use of -bread made by the heathens. Finally, he proposed to abolish the fast of -the month of Ab, instituted in commemoration of so many catastrophes, -according to some authors in totality, according to others in certain -cases only. The contemporary teachers of the Law, however, were opposed -to these alterations; but, on the other hand, they agreed with him -in abolishing a mark of affliction introduced during the period of -adversity under Hadrian: henceforward it was allowable for brides to -ride in state-litters on their wedding-day. - -In spite of the reverence felt by the teachers of the Law for the -Patriarch Judah, they were not blind to his weaknesses, and he was -obliged to submit to numerous attacks on their part. The Patriarchate -had acquired in his hands an almost royal power, and was even entitled -to a body-guard, ready to enforce the commands of the Patriarch. This -power, although not abused by Judah, was all the more displeasing to -the teachers of the Law, since he, on his side, conferred no particular -favors on the learned classes, but rather exerted himself to abolish -the distinction between the learned and illiterate in all civil -relations. He further subjected the teachers of the Law to a share of -the communal burdens. Simeon ben-Lakish, one of those outspoken men who -carry their love of truth even to the length of disrespect of persons, -was especially opposed to this leveling policy, and gave vent to -offensive sallies against the Patriarch. Once, in the lecture-hall, he -put forward the proposition: That in case the Patriarch should render -himself guilty of a crime, it would be necessary to sentence him, like -any ordinary man, to the punishment of scourging. Upon this it was -observed by Chaggai, that in such a case he would have to be absolutely -deposed, and debarred from taking office again lest he should employ -his power in revenging himself upon the authors of his disgrace. -This discussion was manifestly an attack upon Judah's possession of -extraordinary power. Angry at these remarks, and carried away by his -first impulse, he immediately despatched his Gothic slaves to seize -the fault-finder; but Jochanan, the Principal of the school, succeeded -eventually in appeasing his wrath. Once the Patriarch complained -to Ben-Lakish of the rapacity of the Roman authorities, which -prevailed for a lengthened period in all the provinces of the Roman -empire during the reign of anarchy which followed after the death of -Alexander Severus. In most of the provinces there had arisen emperors, -anti-emperors, and usurpers, who, during the short span of their reign, -assumed the character of ruler of the world, and conducted themselves -in the countries subject to their sway with true Roman rapacity. "Pray -for me," said Judah to Ben-Lakish, "for the rule of the Romans is -evil." To which the latter replied: "If thou take nothing, nothing will -be taken from thee." This remark was probably intended as a rebuke for -the covetousness of which it is impossible to acquit Judah. - -The Patriarchs seem to have commenced about this time to draw a -revenue from the communities. This had become a necessity, as the -impoverishment of Palestine had followed in the wake of its heavy -taxation. A great part of the pasture lands had fallen into the -hands of the heathens dwelling in the country, to whom the Jewish -proprietors had been obliged to sell. Through this impoverishment the -means of maintaining the school-houses and the pupils were greatly -diminished. The income of Judah, unlike that of his grandfather, -proved insufficient for the purpose, and he was therefore obliged -to open up new sources of income in order worthily to support the -dignity of Patriarch. He sent messages abroad to make collections -amongst the rich Jews. One of the most important teachers of the Law -in Lydda, named Joshua ben Levi, made a special journey to Rome for -this purpose. In Rome some wealthy Jews were known to live. These -willingly contributed to the support of the institution which replaced -the Synhedrion, and which was the last remnant of an independent state, -and the representative of which was supposed to be descended from or -connected with the royal house of David. It is related that the Jewish -ship-owners and merchants gave up the tenth part of their gains to the -support of the disciples in the school of Tiberias. This grant was -called the Patriarch's tax, and the mission-tax (Apostole), also crown -money (aurum coronarium). - -Meanwhile, however greatly Judah's avarice may have been blamed, -he still stood high in the favor of the populace, by reason of the -simplicity of his manners and attire, which caused his proud and almost -royal dignity to be forgotten. He was accustomed to wear linen clothes, -and to dispense with all etiquette in his reception of ceremonious -visits, thereby calling down upon himself the reproaches of his -friends, who expressed their opinion that a ruler ought to appear in -magnificence, and to maintain an imposing demeanor. - -How great a reverence was felt for Judah may be seen from the fact -that, on his death, no less honors were paid to his body than had been -shown to his grandfather, Judah I. In direct opposition to the Law, -a descendant of Aaron was compelled to take charge of his corpse; it -being alleged that it was permissible in this instance to lay aside the -holy character of his priesthood. - -Hillel II., the brother of the Patriarch, was possessed of great skill -in the Agadic exposition of the Scriptures, and seems to have been a -profoundly moral man. Among the many maxims said to have been uttered -by him, the following is especially worthy of note: - - "Separate not thyself from the rest of the community; put not - overmuch trust in thyself (in thy piety) before thy death; - judge not thy neighbor until thou hast been placed in his - position." - -It was probably owing to Hillel's profound knowledge of the Scriptures -that he was visited by Origen, the philosophical Father of the Church, -who desired to consult him concerning certain difficult passages in the -Bible. Origen called him the Patriarch Jullos. - -The spirit of investigation awakened by the Fathers of the Church, -Pantæus and Clemens of Alexandria, in the Christian school of -Alexandria, which sought to connect the Old and the New Testament, -revived the necessity of an acquaintance with the Hebrew language, in -order to explain by the help of the knowledge of the original text, the -glaring contradictions existing in many places between the views of the -Old Testament and the now inflexible dogmas of Christianity. It was -Origen who felt most the need of this knowledge, and he was unremitting -in his efforts to acquire the Hebrew tongue, and in his recommendations -to others to study it. He regarded the Jews as his masters in the -knowledge of Hebrew and the correct exegesis of the Scripture: he -admitted having learnt from Jews the exact sense of various difficult -passages in the Bible, during his long but intermittent residence in -Judæa (from about 229 to 253). Being desirous of writing a Commentary -on the Psalms, he took the trouble to have them explained to him by -a Jew, according to the traditions. At that time the study of the -Halachas had not yet superseded that of Biblical exegesis. - -Besides Hillel and Simlaï there were other Jewish teachers well -acquainted with the original text, who confuted the Christian teachers, -and laughed at them for the absurdly childish arguments which they -drew from their corrupt Greek translation, the Septuagint. They were -especially diverted at the credulity of the Christians, by whom every -apocryphal book was invested with the garb of antiquity. Such books as -the histories of Tobias, of Judith, and of Susannah were admitted into -the collection of the Holy writings, upon which loose foundation was -erected the fragile fabric of their religion. - -In order to protect the creed of the Church from this ridicule, Origen -undertook the gigantic task of revising the Septuagint version, -mutilated and crowded as it was with errors of all kinds. His immediate -object was to afford the Christian teachers an insight into the -differences existing between the translation and the original text, -and so better to enable them to conduct their discussions with the -Jews. To this end, he compared the translations of Akylas, Symmachos, -Theodotion, and three others which had appeared in the meantime; and -in order to allow of a convenient survey, he placed them in columns, -the Hebrew text, with its pronunciation in Greek letters, figuring at -the head. These parallel texts were known by the name of the Hexapla -(sixfold). It was labor lost, however, to compare the wretched and -intentionally corrupt Greek translation with the original Hebrew text. -The Septuagint continued to exist in its mutilated form, and was even -worse confounded by reason of Origen's industry, for many passages -belonging to other translations were often accidentally introduced into -its text. - -The activity of the Palestinean teachers was directed to another -object; their cares were bestowed neither on the study of the Bible nor -on the establishing of the doctrines of faith; both these subjects lay -outside their sphere of activity. Their chief energies were devoted -to the study of the oral law in its definite form, the Mishna. This -work had been composed in a brief and laconic style, and, besides, -it contained many passages which were incomprehensible, the words or -subject-matter having passed out of everyday use. For these reasons -the comprehension of the Mishna required peculiar study and erudition. -The principals of the schools applied themselves, in the first place, -to the elucidation of the terse and frequently obscure text of the -Mishna. From this aspect of their labors they received the name of -Amoraim (Amoraï, Expounder). But far from being satisfied with this -arid work, or with remaining contentedly in this dependence, they -gradually emancipated themselves, made new departures, and believing in -good faith that they were standing on the ground of the Mishna, went -far beyond its boundaries. As the Tanaites had treated the text of the -Bible, so also did the Amoraim treat that of the second code; they -dissected it, and resolved it into its constituent parts, so that under -their hand it was dissipated, becoming new matter and acquiring a new -form. - -The first generation of the Amoraim, following immediately upon the -Tanaites and semi-Tanaites, constitutes in many points a parallel with -the second generation of the Tanaites. Like the latter it consisted -of a series of talented teachers, who attained a great age, and whose -labors were continued during half a century. Like the latter, again, -it possessed different schools and systems, and was divided into -various opinions concerning the explanation of the Law. But it does -not afford the spectacle of violent controversies; for it already -possessed a common and recognized formula, a settled standard, to which -all authorities subordinated themselves. The oldest of the Amoraim -was Chanina b. Chama, of Sepphoris (from about 180 to 260). He was -descended from an ancient and noble family, and followed the profession -of physician; the science of medicine, inborn in the Levites, being -generally cultivated by teachers of the Law. The method of teaching -adopted by him was very simple. He was an Amora in the fullest sense -of the primitive meaning of the term; he expounded the Mishna or the -Boraitas with the help of such comments only as had been handed down -to him by tradition, without allowing himself to make any independent -deductions. If new cases occurred which were not indicated in the -Mishna, he did not decide them according to his own lights, but took -counsel with learned colleagues, or even with disciples, however -obvious the decision may have been. Chanina occupied the same position -among the Amoraim as Eleazar b. Hyrcanus among the Tanaites; he was -entirely receptive, never creative. This point of view, however, -according to which the Mishna was regarded as dead stock, was not -acceptable to the younger and more zealous men; Chanina was therefore -deserted, even by his own disciples, who proceeded to found new -academies. - -Notwithstanding this, Chanina was regarded with great veneration both -by Jews and Romans, on account of his piety. Once, when he went, -with Joshua b. Levi, a younger contemporary, to visit the Proconsul -(Anthypatos), in Cæsarea, the latter rose respectfully at their -approach, replying to his friends, who expressed astonishment at his -behavior, that "they appeared to him like angels." He reproved more -boldly and fearlessly than any other teacher, the deeply-rooted faults -of his community, and tried to rid it of that erroneous belief which -willingly accepts the most incredible miracles, in order to be relieved -of all responsibility. Chanina's unsparing utterances concerning the -people of Sepphoris present at the same time a faithful picture of the -customs of the period. On one occasion Sepphoris and the surrounding -districts had been so devastated by the plague that many of the -inhabitants of all parts of the town had been carried off by it; the -only quarter not visited by it was that in which Chanina resided. The -men of Sepphoris wished to make him responsible for this plague, on the -ground that he had not performed any miracle to avert it; whereupon he -replied: "In the time of Moses there was only one Zimri (who debauched -a heathen woman), and yet twenty-four thousand fell by the plague; -ye, however, possess many Zimris, and complain notwithstanding." -Another time, Judæa was visited by a continued drought and lack of -rain. Chanina had arranged the prescribed fasts and offered up public -prayers, yet the much desired rains did not set in; whereupon the -people complained anew, and referred to Joshua b. Levi, the envoy to -Rome, whose prayers for rain for the south of Judæa had been crowned -with success. On the next opportunity Chanina sent for Joshua from -the south, and united with him in prayer, but again without success. -Seizing upon this occasion, he reprimanded his fellow-countrymen for -their superstitious belief in the power of a human being to work -miracles; "Thus do ye see," exclaimed he, "that it is neither Joshua -who causes rain, nor Chanina who hinders it; the inhabitants of Lydda -are kind-hearted and humble, therefore heaven sends them rain; ye, -however, are hard-hearted and callous, and therefore heaven withholds -rain from you." Chanina retained his modesty and self-denial all -through his life, and justly recognizing the merits of others, rejoiced -in his later years over the fame of those who had surpassed him. He -attained an extreme old age, and saw three Patriarchs--the elder Judah, -his teacher; Gamaliel, Judah's son, and Judah II. - -In opposition to the conservative Chanina stands Jochanan bar Napacha -(born 199, died 279). Deprived of both father and mother, who died -in his early youth, he used to say in later life, that he ought to -be thankful for this misfortune, as he would not have been able to -fulfil the strict duties of filial love in the manner required by the -Law. He was so handsome of figure that the Talmudical source, usually -so sober, involuntarily becomes poetical in trying to describe his -beauty: "Let him who desires to form an idea of Jochanan's beauty take -a newly-wrought silver goblet, fill it with ruddy garnets, crown its -brim with a wreath of red roses, and place it between light and shadow; -its peculiar reflection of light will then represent the glory of -Jochanan's dazzling beauty." This beauty, however, partook more of a -feminine character, for he possessed no beard, the expression of manly -dignity. His eyebrows were also so long as to overshadow his eyes. -When he was grown up he attended the school of the elder Judah, but -admitted that he had understood but little of the profound Halachic -discussion, by reason of his youth. As he was not rich, possessing only -a small plot of land, he applied himself to business, in conjunction -with Ilpha, a fellow-disciple, when a warning was given to him to -devote his whole energies to the study of the Law, in which it was -asserted that he would acquire great distinction. For this reason he -abandoned his trade, and again followed the lectures of celebrated -teachers of the Law. He sold his little plot of ground in order to -obtain the wherewithal to study, exhibiting no concern with regard to -any provision for his old age. It seems, however, that later on he was -maintained at the expense of the Patriarch, Judah. Jochanan frequented -the company of the teachers of various schools, in order to acquire -a diversified knowledge of the subject-matter of the Law. He became -the principal assistant of the Patriarch, Judah II, and was the most -productive Amora of his time. Through the influence of a large body -of disciples, his sayings form a considerable element of the Talmud. -His method of teaching was to search deeply into the meaning of the -Mishna, to subject every paragraph to severe analysis, and to compare -each maxim with the others; he arrived by these means at the inference -that the Mishna was not possessed throughout of legal force. He also -laid down certain rules concerning the manner of arriving at a definite -decision in those cases where two or more Tanaites were of different -opinions. - -Through his influence Tiberias, with its mild air, its fertility and -its curative waters, became the meeting-place of a numerous body of -disciples, who flocked to him from far and wide. His academy was even -attended by mature and finished scholars from Babylon, although the -newly-founded schools of that country possessed excellent masters. Over -a hundred Amoraim are known who accepted Jochanan's decisions as of -full legal force, and who taught them in their schools. - -An intimate friend of the Patriarch, he supported him in his endeavors -to modify certain ancient usages. Jochanan was himself not very -particular on this head, and by far less strict than the Babylonian -school, which came into existence during his lifetime. In opposition -to the existing custom, he permitted the acquirement of Greek: by -men, because they were thereby enabled to protect themselves against -traitors, and by women, because the Greek language was an ornament to -the sex. He entertained great esteem for Greek civilization in general, -and ranked it on an equality with Judaism. He expressed himself -beautifully on this subject: "For that Shem and Japhet, the two sons -of Noah, did cover their father's nakedness with a mantle, Shem (symbol -of Judaism) hath obtained a shawl with fringes (Talith), Japhet (the -type of Greek civilization) the philosopher's mantle (Pallium)." It -was Jochanan who permitted the innovation of decorating rooms with -paintings. He was never able to reconcile himself to the Roman rule, -and was unsparing in his denunciation of the insolent arrogance and -heartless violence of the authorities. He regarded as symbolical of the -Roman Empire, the fourth beast in Daniel's vision of the four empires -of the world, which was a perennial mine of discovery for the Biblical -exegete, and was even more diligently explored by the Christians -than by the Jews. The small horn which grew out of the fourth -beast represents, according to his explanation, wicked Rome, which -annihilated all previous empires; the eyes resembling human eyes, -which were visible in this horn, indicate Rome's envious glances at the -wealth of others. If any one is rich, the Romans immediately elevate -him to the office of president of the council charged with the supply -of provisions, or make him a member of the municipal senate, in order -that his fortune may be answerable for everything. Another striking -maxim of this sort uttered by Jochanan was the following: "If thou art -proposed as a member of the senate, choose rather as thy dwelling the -desert of the Jordan." He permitted people, in exceptional instances, -to emigrate from Judæa, in order to escape from the heavy burden of the -municipal offices. - -Jochanan's character was marked by a profound morality; the slave who -waited upon him was allowed to partake of all the dishes prepared for -his master. He had the misfortune to lose his ten sons; the unfortunate -father carried about with him a small bone of his last son, in order to -console all such as had to bewail a similar disaster, by the relation -of his extraordinary misfortune. "Behold all that now remains of the -last of my ten sons," he was wont to explain to them. A daughter -alone was left to Jochanan; thus, an orphan from his birth, he died -almost childless. He is said to have had periods of insanity in his -extreme old age, occasioned by grief at the death of his friend and -brother-in-law, Ben-Lakish, of which he believed himself to be the -cause. - -Simeon Ben-Lakish, Jochanan's contemporary friend, brother-in-law -and opponent, was in many ways his counterpart, and was altogether a -peculiar personage, in whom were united the most opposite qualities; -rough physical strength was coupled with tenderness of sentiment and -acuteness of mind. Resh-Lakish, for such was his abbreviated name, -seems to have been born at Bostra, the capital of the Saracens, about -the year 200, and to have died in 275. As Jochanan's constant comrade, -he had seen the Patriarch Judah I. in his youth, and had been brought -up in the school of his successors. The sources of the Talmud are -never tired of dilating on his gigantic strength and enormous size. He -once engaged himself at the Circus in the capacity of slaughterer of -wild beasts, his duty being to protect the spectators of these highly -popular combats from the fury of the animals. Ben-Lakish probably only -chose this low and dangerous occupation out of necessity. Tradition -is at some pains to reconcile and to transform into a beautiful -picture the glaring contrasts existing in Resh-Lakish, his rude -strength and his study of the Law. But his scrupulous integrity is -even more renowned than his enormous physical strength. It is related -that he used to avoid the company of persons of whose honesty he was -not fully convinced, for which reason unlimited credit was usually -accorded to all whom Ben-Lakish honored with his society, without -any further inquiry. His earnest and gloomy countenance was never -brightened by a smile, for he considered cheerfulness to be frivolous, -so long as the holy people were subject to the power of the heathens. -We have already noticed his love of truth and his candor, which he -carried almost to insult in his animadversions on the abuses of the -Patriarch. In Biblical exegesis he adopted the method of finding -ingenious explanations, in which study he surpassed his older comrade -and brother-in-law. "When he considered Halachic questions," says a -source of the Talmud, "it was as though he were grinding the mountains -against one another." Ben-Lakish possessed a certain originality in -the study of the Agada, and advanced peculiar views, which were only -estimated at their proper worth in later times. It was often questioned -in the schools at what period the sufferings of Job had occurred, -the other circumstances of this remarkable drama were also debated, -and the most contrary views found expression. Resh-Lakish seems to -have come to an accurate conclusion in advancing the opinion that Job -had existed at no period, that he had never lived, and was simply an -ingenious moral creation (Mashal). This view appeared very strange to -his contemporaries, who were unable to comprehend such a conception. -The names of the angels were regarded by Ben-Lakish as not having been -originally Jewish, but as being a foreign element transplanted into -Judaism, which had, in fact, been brought by the Jewish nation from -Persia. He was wont to contradict the assertions of those who extolled -the past at the expense of the present, who declared hyperbolically -"that a nail of the ancients was worth more than the whole body of -their descendants"; or, in another form, "that if the ancients were -angels, we, on the contrary, are only asses"; he used to say that -the existing generation possessed greater merit, for the reason that -although heavily oppressed, they still pursued the study of the Law. -Although a friend of Jochanan from his youth, and drawn still closer -to him by the ties of family alliance, Ben-Lakish was nevertheless at -variance with him during his last years. - -The name of Joshua ben-Levi, who formed, with Jochanan and Ben-Lakish, -the triumvirate of the Palestinian Amoraim, is more renowned in the -world of legend than in history, where, indeed, but little is related -of him. The son of Levi ben-Sissi, he conducted a school at Lydda, -in the south of Judæa. It is true that the inhabitants of Lydda were -not in over-good repute with the Galileans, who pronounced them proud -and superficial. But Joshua's reputation in no way suffered from this -circumstance, and his authority was greatly respected. To his opinions -on the Halachas was accorded for the most part the force of law, -even in those cases where the other two members of the triumvirate -entertained different views. Joshua himself admits, however, that he -forgot many traditions during the period in which he was occupied with -the organization of the communities of Southern Judæa. The situation -of the communities of this district had, in fact, been so unsettled -ever since the catastrophe in the time of Hadrian, that Jochanan and -Jonathan were obliged to journey thither in order to restore peace and -order. Joshua also on one occasion visited Rome, in the capacity of -collector of revenues for the Patriarch. He had there an opportunity -of observing a fact which exhibited in strong relief the contrasts -existing in the capital of the world. He saw a statue enveloped in -drapery, in order to protect it against heat and cold, while near by -sat a beggar who had hardly a rag to cover his nakedness. He is said to -have expected the Messiah to appear in the capital of the world, where -he supposed that he existed in the guise of a servant, waiting among -the beggars and cripples at the gate, and expecting every moment to -be called upon to effect the deliverance of Israel. According to the -legend, Joshua ben-Levi was regarded as one of those choice spirits -who were admitted to the most intimate intercourse with the prophet -Elijah, and over whom death itself was obliged to relinquish its power. -He wrested the sword from the angel of death, went to Heaven alive, -measured the expanse of the Heavens, of Paradise, and of Hell, and -forwarded the results of his investigation to Gamaliel through the -medium of the destroying angel himself, who was obliged to submit to -his orders. - -An original path in the explanation of the Agada was struck out -by Simlaï; he it was who first considered this collection worthy -of profounder study. Born at Lydda, he had quitted this desolate -region, and had settled down at Nahardea, where the new school of the -Babylonian Amoraim was first coming to its prime. He entertained the -most friendly relations with the Patriarch Judah II. He possessed -but small weight in questions relating to the study of the Law, and -his Halachic attainments were not esteemed in Palestine. He was the -first to collect together all the commands contained in the Jewish -Law, numbering 613, of which 365 are prohibitions, and 248 affirmative -precepts. David, according to Simlaï, reduced these 613 commands to the -following eleven virtues: honesty, justice, truthfulness, abhorrence -of calumny, of malice and of injuring one's neighbor, despising the -wicked, reverence of the worthy, sanctity of oaths, unselfish lending -without interest, and forbearance from bribery. Isaiah summed them up -in six, as follows: to be just in our conduct, honest in our speech, -to despise self-interest, to keep our hand from bribery, our ear from -wicked insinuations, and our eye from base desires. The Prophet Micah -reduced the commands of the Law to three leading principles: the -exercise of justice, love of charity, and humility; while the second -Isaiah brought them down to two, which are, to cherish justice and to -exercise charity. Finally, the Prophet Habakkuk expressed them all in a -single formula: "The just man lives by his faith." This was the first -attempt to reduce the whole Law of Israel to principles. A beautiful -parable, in which Simlaï indicates the part played by every nation in -the history of the world, affords evidence both of the wide extent of -his views and of his poetical talent. - -Possessed of a profound knowledge of the Scripture, and gifted with an -elevated mind, Simlaï was especially qualified to enter into discussion -with the Fathers of the Church, and to shake the arguments which they -drew from the Old Testament in support of the dogmas of Christianity. -In these discussions Simlaï gave evidence of a sound exegesis, free -from misinterpretations. During the time of the first generation of -Amoraim, Christianity had entered upon a new stage; in opposition to -the tendency of the primitive Christians (Ebionites and Nazarenes), a -universal Catholic Church had come into existence, whose fundamental -doctrines (dogmas), collected from all quarters, some Pauline, others -anti-Pauline, others heathen, were generally assented to by the -majority of Christians. The various sects of primitive Christians and -Gnostics were vanquished, being either embodied in the incorporated -Catholic Church or rejected as heretical. This creation of a Catholic -Church and the unification of the Christian religion, accomplished in -the midst of all this diversity and schism, were largely brought about -by the Bishops of Rome. These arrogated to themselves, on the strength -of their seat in the capital of the world, the supremacy over all the -other bishops and patriarchs, expelled them from the community for -unorthodox opinions (as in the case of the discussion concerning the -celebration of the Passover), and gradually obtained recognition as -chief-bishops and Popes. After the completion of this work the spirit -of research also made its appearance among the Christians, and the -traditions of the Church were subjected to a thorough investigation. - -New dogmas had made their appearance, which the authorities sought to -establish and secure. The rigid doctrine of the Unity of God, derived -by Christianity from the parent religion, had in course of time, and -in proportion as the new Church glorified the Messiahship of Jesus, -given rise to a doctrine of duality: Father and Son, or the Creator -of the World, and the Logos. To these was soon added a third. The -primitive Jewish view of the inspiration by God of the Prophets and -other pious persons, which was, in this signification, characterized as -holy inspiration (Ruach-ha-Kodesh), crystallized in Christianity into -the dogma of the Holy Ghost considered as a person, and regarded as an -equality with God and Christ and as having originally co-existed with -them. Without being aware of the fact, Christianity, which considered -itself a truly spiritual and refined Judaism, had adopted an entirely -different idea of God, in fact, a sort of tritheism. The more the -Christian dogma of the Trinity was at variance with the very essence of -Judaism, the more trouble was taken to establish that it was supported -by the Old Testament, in order to give it thus the stamp of antiquity. -This proof, however, was not to be furnished by straightforward means, -and thus the Fathers of the Church of the Palestinean and Alexandrian -schools, being acquainted with Hebrew, were obliged to take refuge -in all sorts of allegorical interpretations. Wherever the Scriptures -contained several denominations for God, they professed to see an -indication of the Trinity in the letter of the text itself. Even the -simple opening words of the Pentateuch, "In the beginning God created -heaven and earth," were interpreted by this Christology in proof of -Christ's co-operation in the creation of the world; for "the beginning" -was interpreted to mean "wisdom," or the "Word" (Logos), being -synonymous with Christ, and this sentence was thus found to contain -the profound secret that "God created the world in Christ"! As long as -the leading spirits of Christianity remained ignorant of the Hebrew -sources, they were not in a position to hold any serious conference -on matters of religion. It was only when the Fathers of the Church -applied themselves, like Origen, to the acquirement of a clearer Hebrew -text, that polemical discussions on Christological themes became more -frequent. - -Simlaï, in particular, defended the doctrine of the unity of God -against the Christian dogma of the Trinity, and adduced the proofs for -his contention with consummate skill. His opponent in this theoretical -dispute was perhaps Origen, who was for a long time a resident in -Palestine. By the help of a sober method of interpretation Simlaï -established the fact that all the passages of the Holy Scripture -which appear to afford an argument in support of the Trinity, in -reality bring out and emphasize so strongly the unity of God, that -any misconception appears impossible. Jew and Christian who, like -quarrelsome brothers, had cherished feelings of animosity to each other -during the time they had lived under one roof, now contented themselves -with carrying on religious controversies. - -The attacks upon Christianity during this period had the effect of -producing a certain acquaintance with Jewish literature even in the -heathens, who turned it to account in their efforts to restrain the -growth of Christianity. In Daniel, the Christian dogmatists had -discovered a Sibylline book, with vague insinuations and mystic -numbers, which they contended contained prophecies relating to the -Christian economy and to the appearance of Christ on the Day of -Judgment. In opposition to these views the heathen philosopher Porphyry -wrote a polemical commentary on the book of Daniel, which is certainly -the only Biblical commentary composed by a heathen. This neo-Platonist, -who was possessed of moderate but mystic views, bore the oriental name -of Malchus, and was a native of Batanea, formerly a Jewish province. He -asserted in his commentary that the book of Daniel is the work of an -author who lived during the time of the persecution of Judaism and the -Jews by the Syrian monarch, Antiochus Epiphanes, and that the ambiguous -expressions in which it abounds are only allusions to that period, -and in nowise prophecies, still less oracular proofs of the facts of -Christianity. - - - - -CHAPTER XIX. - -THE JEWS OF THE PARTHIAN EMPIRE. - - Increasing importance of the Jewish Community in - Babylonia--The Prince of the Captivity--The Babylonian - Amoraim--Abba Areka (Rab) and his royal friend Artaban--Samuel - and King Shabur--Important Political Changes under the - Neo-Persians--Anarchy in Rome--Zenobia and the Jews. - - 219.279 C. E. - - -During the Patriarchate of Judah II. many important events occurred -in the Jewish community of Babylonia, which contributed to place that -country in the foreground of Jewish history. After the loss of their -mother, the children of Israel had found a second in Babylonia, and had -never yet experienced a stepmother's treatment at her hands. Babylonia, -the Italy of the East, whose capital had in ancient times, like Rome, -first been the ruler of the world, and then the point of attack of -uncivilized tribes in their migrations; whose name still exercises a -certain magic in the distance, even after its fall; Babylonia, which -had already been the temporary abode of the Jewish race, now became for -a long period the permanent scene of Jewish activity. Judæa, on the -other hand, gradually fell into the background. The peculiar formation -of the country between the Euphrates and the Tigris facilitated the -separation of Judaism from its primitive scene of action, and brought -about the transplantation of Jewish genius into a foreign zone; by -reason of the abundant opportunities of employment which the land -afforded, similar to those to which they had been accustomed, it -became a second fatherland for the homeless nation. The great number -of the Jews who had inhabited this district time out of mind; their -independence, which had suffered no restraint at the hands of the -Parthian and Persian rulers; the luster imparted to their situation by -the possession of a political chief; their inherent, self-contained -vitality, unweakened by suffering and petty annoyances, all these -things contributed to invest their character with a peculiar quality -and to further the evolution of new parts and tendencies. The sojourn -in Babylonia imbued the Jewish mind with that particular form of keen -intelligence which discovers an answer to every question, a solution to -every riddle, and is discouraged by no difficulties. The Jews of this -country acquired studious, plodding, energetic habits; the successive -leaders and principals of the schools showed them the paths of profound -wisdom and impressed on them the seal of elevated thought. - -The word Babylonia, as used in Jewish history, is capable of a broad -and a narrow interpretation, and possesses, in fact, three different -meanings. In the broadest sense in which it occurs it includes the -whole district between the Zagros mountains and the Euphrates, from the -sources of the twin-river Tigris-Euphrates to the Persian Gulf. In a -narrower sense it signifies the strip of land enclosed between the two -rivers, where their beds begin to converge towards each other and at -last actually unite, and where numerous canals formerly intersected the -country and connected their streams: the southern part of Mesopotamia, -the ancient province of Babel, and a portion of the former kingdom of -Chaldæa. Babylonia, as understood in this narrow sense, was principally -inhabited by Jews, and for this reason was also known by the name of -"the land of Israel." Finally, in its most limited sense, Babylonia -designates a small district on the eastern bank of the Euphrates, of -which the center-point seems to have been the town of Pumbeditha. This -district extends from Nahardea in the north to Sora in the south, a -distance of twenty-two parasangs (sixty-eight miles). The fixing of -the boundaries of Jewish Babylonia is not a matter of indifference for -history, as in former times it constituted a matter of conscience. -Even in Judæa the natives of Babylonia of Jewish origin were admitted -to possess the most unsullied purity of descent, and to have refrained -from all intercourse with heathens, slaves, or persons born out of -wedlock; Judæa was far behind Babylonia in this respect. An old proverb -says: "In the matter of descent, the Jewish population of the (Roman) -countries is to that of Judæa, as adulterated dough is to pure meal, -but Judæa itself is only as dough when compared with Babylonia." - -The Jewish province in Babylonia was divided into several smaller -districts, each of which was known by the name of its capital. Thus -there existed the districts of Nares, Sora, Pumbeditha, Nahardea, -Nahar-Pakod, Machuza, and some others, all of them possessed of some -characteristic, such as a peculiar dialect, or particular customs or -manners, or even distinct weights and measures. Four of these towns -were distinguished as prominent centers, each having in turn been -at the head of the entire province. The first place was occupied by -Nahardea (also called Naarda, of which name there were both a town -and a district); this was a fortified city situated on the Euphrates -and a canal called the Naraga, and was entirely inhabited by Jews; it -lay on the boundary-line of Jewish Babylonia. During a certain period -Nahardea was a Babylonian Jerusalem; here were situated, in the time of -the continuance of the Temple, the treasure-chambers of the Babylonian -communities for the reception of the gifts to the Temple, which it was -customary to convey to Jerusalem under a strong escort. A few miles to -the south of Nahardea lay Firuz-Shabur (afterwards Anbar), a fortified -and thickly-populated town, and the most important in the country -after Ctesiphon, the capital. - -Near by lay Pumbeditha, situated on one of the numerous canals of the -Euphrates, and adorned with many palaces. Pumbeditha was none the less -a thoroughly Jewish town, with a Jewish congregation, and was regarded -as the capital of Jewish Babylonia. Within its territory lay several -smaller towns and fortified castles, which nestled in the shadow of -the capital. The inhabitants of Pumbeditha were considered acute and -cunning, and were even notorious for their deceit and dishonesty. "If a -man of Pumbeditha accompany thee," said a proverb, "change thy lodging." - -Sixteen geographical miles (twenty-two parasangs) south of Pumbeditha -was situated the town of Mata-Mechassia. It lay on the shore of a broad -lake, Sora, which was in reality the Euphrates, widening out over the -low-lying country; from its position on this lake the town also derived -the name of Sora. It was inhabited by a mixed population of Jews and -heathens. The region round Sora was one of the most fruitful parts of -the whole country; by reason of its low situation it was inundated -every year by the Euphrates and its tributaries and canals, and the -overflow produced an Egyptian fertility. Pumbeditha was distinguished -for its magnificent buildings and the cunning of its population, -while Mata-Mechassia was noted for the poverty and honesty of its -inhabitants. A proverb expresses this contrast in the following words: -"It is better to live on the dunghills in Mechassia than in the palaces -of Pumbeditha." - -With these three towns of the Euphrates, Nahardea, Pumbeditha, and -Mata-Mechassia, a fourth contested the supremacy: this was Machuza, -situated on the Tigris, at a distance of hardly twelve miles from -Ctesiphon, the capital of the Parthians. Machuza, also called -Machuza-Malka, from the King's Canal (Nahar Malka) which flows in -proximity to the Tigris, was situated on an eminence, and was fortified -with two strong walls and a moat. Close by stood a castle, called Akra -di Coche, which served as a bulwark to the capital, Ctesiphon. In spite -of the importance which Machuza and its castle must have possessed -for the Parthian and Persian rulers, it was, nevertheless, entirely -inhabited by Jews, and an Amora expressed his surprise that the gates -of its fortress were not provided with the prescribed Mezuzas. - -The most noted families of Machuza were descended from proselytes, for -which reason their features differed from those of the remainder of the -Jewish population of Babylonia. They are described as having been very -frivolous, addicted to pleasure and good cheer, and more devoted to -the affairs of this world than to those of the next; they were called -on this account "candidates for hell." It is related of the women of -Machuza that they indulged in pleasure and idleness. Once, when a -Palestinean teacher of the Law brought from Judæa to Nahardea a Halacha -allowing women to wear golden head-bands set with precious stones -on the Sabbath, it was remarked that only four-and-twenty women in -that town availed themselves of this permission, while in one quarter -alone of Machuza there were eighteen who appeared with most costly -head-bands. The proximity of Ctesiphon, and its wealth, had probably -some influence on the luxurious propensities and the manners of the -inhabitants of Machuza. This city also, which was the residence of the -king, and the newly-built town of Ardashir, which lay close by, were -thickly populated with Jews. The entire district of Babylonia, with -its numerous canals, resembled an island, and its wonderful fertility -made of the whole country one extensive garden. There was so great a -multitude of date plantations that it used to be said proverbially of -the Babylonians: "A basketful of dates for a denar, and yet they do not -apply themselves to the study of the Law!" - -The occupations followed by the Babylonian Jews were agriculture, -trades of all descriptions, and, what is of course natural in a country -dependent on its canals for irrigation, the digging and cleaning of -these artificial waterways; they also bred cattle, carried on commerce, -undertook voyages, and cultivated certain of the fine arts. - -The greatness of their numbers invested the Babylonian Jews with a -certain amount of independence, and they seemed in this country almost -as if in a land of their own. Their situation with regard to the rulers -of the land was very favorable, as they were only called upon to pay -a poll-tax (Charag) and a land-tax (Taska); there was at this period -much vacant ground in the region of the Euphrates, and any one could -take possession of a plot on becoming answerable for the land-tax in -respect thereof. The Jews possessed their own political chief, who was -called the Prince of the Captivity (Exilarch, Resh-Galutha); he was a -dignitary of the Persian empire, and the fourth in rank from the king. -His position with regard to the Persian kings was that of a feudatory. -The Resh-Galuthas were, in fact, vassals of the Persian crown, but -were simply confirmed, not chosen, by the monarch. Their badges of -office were a silken cloak and a golden girdle; in later times they -were surrounded by a princely luxuriousness, rode in a state carriage, -possessed their own train of attendants, and an outrider to announce -their approach. When they were received in solemn audience by the -king, the royal attendants showed them the greatest respect, and they -treated with the ruler on a footing of equality. According to the usage -of Eastern princes, they were entertained with music at the moment -of rising from or going to bed, a custom which was severely censured -by the strict teachers of the Law, on account of the mourning for -Jerusalem. - -The Princes of the Captivity were descendants of the house of David, -for which reason the people gladly acknowledged their sway, since -it honored itself and felt honored in its princes. An old chronicle -gives the full details of their names and numbers. They traced back -their descent as far as Zerubbabel, the grandson of the Jewish King -Jojachin, who is supposed to have returned to Babel, and to have become -the ancestor of a long line of descendants. It is not until the second -century that a Resh-Galutha, by name Achiya, is visible through the -deep obscurity of antiquity. Another, Mar-Huna, in the time of Judah I, -commanded that his body should be brought to Palestine, in order to be -buried in holy ground. From that time forward, however, the succession -of the Princes of the Captivity can be traced in an unbroken chain till -the eleventh century. They exercised considerable influence upon the -development of Jewish history in Babylonia. Their relations with the -people are indicated in a few occasional passages only. - -The Resh-Galutha was the supreme judge of the Jewish communities, both -in civil and in criminal cases; he either administered justice in -person, or delegated his office to judges of his own nomination. The -ordinary coercive measure employed in cases of disobedience was the -bastinado, according to Eastern custom. The princes were also entrusted -with the police of the cities, the control of weights and measures, -the inspection of canals, and the guardianship of public safety, to -all of which various charges they appointed their own officers. It is -nowhere indicated what revenues the Princes of the Captivity derived -from the people; it is most probable that the primitive Asiatic custom -of making presents to the sovereign obtained. It is not until later -times that mention is made of regular yearly revenues drawn by them -from certain regions and cities. They enjoyed an honorable public -distinction which was only conferred upon such rulers as were descended -from David; this consisted of having the scrolls of the Law brought -to them when they had to read a portion of the Torah aloud, whereas -every one else was obliged to go to the scrolls. Wealthy by reason of -the income accruing from their extensive lands, they also possessed -many slaves and a numerous suite of attendants; even free men placed -themselves under their patronage, wearing, as sign of their fealty, the -arms of their masters on their garments. The Princes of the Captivity -were most sensitive with regard to these distinctive marks, refusing to -pardon even the scholars whom they themselves supported, if they laid -aside or even only covered over these badges. There was too much power -in the hands of the Prince, and this power was too little restrained -or regulated by law or tradition, for cases of arbitrariness and abuse -of authority not to be forthcoming. Numerous complaints were made -of the arrogance, arbitrary encroachments, or violent deeds of many -of the Princes of the Captivity or their servants; they deposed the -principals of the schools, appointing others in their places who were -often without merit. But what power has ever restrained itself within -the bounds of justice and equity? In prehistoric times, that is to say, -before the knowledge of the Law had been carried to Babylonia and there -domesticated, the ignorance of the Princes of the Captivity in matters -of religious practice appears to have been so profound, that it was -possible to transgress the laws relating to food in their house with -the greatest impunity. But history tells also of meritorious persons -among their numbers, who in later times combined a knowledge of the -Jewish law with the possession of Jewish virtues, and whose names -became a source of glory to the nation. The Princes of the Captivity -often united with their political power the authority of teachers -of the Law, equaling in this respect the Palestinean Patriarchs. As -certain of these latter attempted to acquire political influence, -in order not to be inferior to the Resh-Galutha--in which attempt, -however, they were not always successful--many of the Princes of the -Captivity endeavored in turn to obtain the dignity of teacher. All -these various circumstances, the great number of the Jewish population -of Babylonia, their independence, and the concentrated power of the -Princes, stamp the history of the Jews of this region with a peculiar -character; new needs arose in this country which were unknown in Judæa; -new needs produced new regulations and Halachas, and thus the Law -entered upon a new development in which, as already intimated, Babylon -played the most important part. - -During the patriarchate of Judah I, the young students of Babylon had -crowded in greater numbers than in former times to the academies of -Galilee, as if desirous of catching the last rays of the setting sun -of religion in the mother-country, in order to enlighten therewith the -land of their birth. Chiya of Cafri and his two wonderful sons, his -relatives Abba-Areka and Chanina-bar-Chama, Abba and his son Samuel, -were all celebrated disciples of Judah's school; they were either -directly or indirectly the instructors of Babylonia. It is true that -Chiya and his sons, Judah and Chiskia, did not return to their native -country, but died in Galilee, where they were honored as saints; but -Chiya exercised the greatest influence on the education of his disciple -and nephew, Abba-Areka. Before the return to Babylonia of Abba-Areka -and Samuel from the academy of Judah I in Judæa, an otherwise unknown -person, Shila by name, occupied the post of principal of the school -(Resh-Sidra) in Nahardea. But with the appearance of these two men, who -were endowed with all the qualities requisite in order to become the -founders of new schools, extensive alterations were introduced; they -initiated a new departure, and raised Babylonia to the level of Judæa. - -Abba (born about 175, died 247), who is known in history by the name -of Rab, had completed his education, after the death of his father -Aibu, at the academy of Judah I in Tiberias. Great astonishment was -expressed at the early development of the wonderful talents of this -youth. Through Chiya's intercession, Rab obtained a somewhat restricted -advancement, which the Patriarch Gamaliel III afterwards refused to -extend. Great things were expected of him in his home, and when the -news of his return from Palestine was known, Samuel, who had already -returned, and his friend Karna, went to meet him on the bank of the -Euphrates canal. The latter overwhelmed him with questions, and even -Shila, the principal of the school, bowed to his superior knowledge. -After Shila's death Rab ought to have succeeded him in his office, but -he refused the post in favor of his younger friend, Samuel, whose home -was in Nahardea. - -The Prince of the Captivity of that period seems to have shown special -regard for such Babylonians as were learned in the Law, in his -appointments to the offices within his gift. He nominated as supreme -judge in Cafri one of his relations, Mar-Ukba, whose wealth, modesty, -character, and knowledge of the Law well fitted him for this post. He -also appointed Karna as judge, who, not being rich, was obliged to be -indemnified for his loss of time by the suitors. To Abba-Areka was -given the post of inspector of markets (Agora-nomos), carrying with it -the control of the weights and measures. - -The arbitrariness of the rule of the Exilarch is well illustrated by -the following example. Abba-Areka had been commanded to control the -prices of the market, and to prevent the necessaries of life from -becoming too dear. Having refused to obey this order, he was thrown -into prison and kept there until Karna upbraided the Prince of the -Captivity with thus punishing a man who was full of the "juice of -dates" (genius). Abba-Areka had occasion, by reason of his position as -Agoranomos, to journey to the various districts of Jewish Babylonia, -and he thus became known throughout the country. Artabanus IV -(211-226), the last Parthian monarch of the house of Arsaces, who had -probably made his acquaintance on one of his circuits, esteemed him so -highly that he once sent him a present of some valuable pearls. Between -the last Parthian King and the first Babylonian Amora there existed the -same friendly relations as between the Jewish Patriarch and the Roman -Emperor of his time. Artabanus was afterwards deposed by Ardashir, and -with him ended the dynasty of Arsaces. When Rab heard of the fall of -Artabanus, he exclaimed sorrowfully, "The bond is broken." - -Abba discovered with surprise during his journeys the unbounded -ignorance of the Jewish laws into which those communities remote -from the capital had fallen. In one place nothing was known of the -traditional prohibition forbidding meat to be eaten with milk. In order -to repress these transgressions and to remove this ignorance, Rab -extended many laws, and forbade even what was otherwise allowed. In -this way there arose many restrictions which, owing to his authority, -acquired the force of law. The negligence existing throughout the -district of Sora gave him the idea of founding an academy in that very -place, in order that the knowledge of the Law might become more widely -spread through the passage to and fro of the disciples. His efforts -were crowned with complete success. If the development of the Law -has greatly contributed to the preservation of Judaism, this result -is for the most part due to the labors of Abba-Areka. With but few -intermissions, Sora was the seat of Jewish science for nearly eight -centuries. - -The academy, which bore, as was customary, the name of "Sidra," was -opened by Abba about the year 219. Twelve hundred disciples, attracted -by Abba-Areka's reputation, flocked together from every district of -Babylonia. More than a hundred celebrated disciples and associates -afterwards disseminated his maxims and decisions throughout the land. -The throng of auditors was so great that he was obliged to enlarge his -lecture-room by enclosing a garden belonging to a recently deceased -proselyte, which he acquired for this purpose as vacant ground. -The reverence entertained for him by his disciples was so profound -that they called him simply "Rab," the Teacher, in the same way as -the Patriarch Judah was called Rabbi or Rabbenu, and this is the -appellation by which he is generally known. His school was called -Be-Rab (Be abbreviated from Beth, _house_), which afterwards became -the general name for a school. His authority extended beyond the -boundaries of Babylonia; even Jochanan, the most celebrated of the -teachers of Judæa, wrote to him, "To our teacher in Babylonia," grew -angry whenever any one spoke slightingly of Rab, and admitted that the -latter was the only person to whom he would have willingly subordinated -himself. Rab was accustomed to maintain such of his numerous disciples -as were without means, for he was very wealthy, and owned land, which -he cultivated himself. The excellent arrangements which he adopted -permitted his auditors to devote themselves to the study of the Law -without neglecting their livelihood. In two months of the year (Adar -and Ellul), at the commencement of autumn and spring, they assembled -at Sora. During these two months, which were called "months of -assembly" (Yarche Kalla), lectures were delivered every day from the -early morning on; the auditors hardly allowed themselves time enough -to swallow their breakfast. The ordinary name for the public lectures -was Kalla. Besides these two months, Rab devoted the week before -the principal festivals to public lectures, in which not only the -disciples, but the whole populace, were interested. The Prince of the -Captivity used also to arrive in Sora about this time to receive the -homage of the assembled crowd. The throng was generally so great that -many were unable to get lodgings in the houses, and were consequently -obliged to sleep in the open air, on the shore of lake Sora. These -festival lectures were termed Rigle. The Kalla-months and the -Rigle-week had also certain influences upon civil life; the judicial -powers suspended their operation during these periods, and creditors -were forbidden to summon their debtors before the court. Rab thus -provided at one and the same time for the instruction of the ignorant -multitude, and for the further advancement of the deeper study of the -Law by the education of disciples. - -Nothing is known of any peculiar method employed by Rab. His mode of -teaching consisted of analyzing the Mishna, which he had brought with -him in its latest state of perfection, of explaining the text and the -sense of every Halacha, and of comparing them with the Boraitas. Of -these decisions and deductions, which are known by the name of Memra, -there exists a great number from Rab's hand, and they, together with -those which proceeded from Samuel and Jochanan, the contemporary -principals of the schools, form a considerable part of the Talmud. -For the most part he was more inclined than his fellow Amoraim to -render the Law severer, and to forbid such legal acts as verged on -the illegal, at least in the opinion of the multitude of Babylonian -Jews, who were incapable of nice discrimination. Most of Rab's decrees -received the force of law, with the exception of those, however, -which affected municipal law, for his authority was more respected in -questions of ritual than of civil law. - -With the most determined energy he undertook the amelioration of the -morals of the Babylonians, which, like their religion, had fallen to a -very low ebb among the lower classes. The ancient simplicity of married -life which had formerly obtained was now superseded in Babylonia by a -hollow and brutal immorality. If a young man and woman met, and were -desirous of uniting in marriage, they summoned the first witnesses at -hand, and the marriage was concluded. Fathers gave their daughters in -marriage almost before they arrived at majority, and the bridegroom -either did not see his bride until after the decisive step had been -taken, when, doubtless, he often repented of his act, or else he lived -in the house of his intended father-in-law in a too intimate relation -with his betrothed. The law, instead of condemning this immorality, -had afforded it the protection of its authority. Rab combated these -prevailing customs with the full force of a moral ardor. He forbade the -solemnization of marriage which had not been preceded by a courtship, -and enjoined on fathers not to marry their daughters without the -consent of the latter, and therefore still less before their majority. -He further admonished all who were desirous of marrying to make the -acquaintance of the maiden of their choice before their betrothal, lest -when disappointed, their conjugal love should turn to hate, and finally -he forbade the young men to live in the house of their betrothed -before marriage. He baffled all the legal artifices which could be -employed by a husband to make a divorce retrospective by withdrawing -the support of the law from such cases. All these moral measures -became laws of general application. Rab also increased the reputation -of the courts of justice; every one was obliged to appear on being -summoned before the court, and the bailiffs were invested with official -authority; the punishment of excommunication was introduced for cases -of refractoriness. This punishment was very severe in Babylonia, -and consequently produced great effects. The transgressions of the -offender were publicly announced, and he was avoided until he had made -expiation. In Babylonia, where the Jewish population formed a little -world of its own, this punishment was sufficient to procure obedience -and respect for the laws. Rab's energies were thus employed in two -directions; he refined the morals, and aroused intellectual activity in -a country which, as the sources express it, had formerly been "a vacant -and unprotected fallow field." Rab surrounded it with a two-fold hedge, -severity of manners and activity of mind. He was in this respect for -Babylonia what Hillel had been for Judæa. - -Rab's virtues, his patience, conciliatory disposition, and modesty, -also put one in mind of Hillel. He had a bad wife who opposed him in -everything, but he bore her vexations with patience. In his youth Rab -had acted badly towards Chanina, the head of the school in Sepphoris, -and was therefore unceasing in his efforts to obtain his pardon. His -forgiving disposition caused him to lose sight of his exalted station. -Once, when he thought he had given offense to a man of the lower -classes, he repaired to the latter's house on the eve of the Day of -Atonement, in order to become reconciled with him. Whenever he was -followed to his school by a crowd of people on the days of his lectures -he used to repeat a verse of Job, in order to prevent his pride from -rising too high: "Though the excellency of man mount up to the heavens, -yet he shall perish forever." Before repairing to the court he was -wont to exclaim: "I am prepared to meet my death; here the affairs of -my house concern me not, and I return empty-handed to my home; may -I be as innocent on my return as I was when I set out." He had the -satisfaction of leaving a son, Chiya, who was exceedingly learned in -the Law, and of marrying his daughter to a relative of the Prince of -the Captivity. His descendants by this daughter were worthy and learned -princes. His second son, Aibu, was not intellectually distinguished. -To him his father recommended certain rules of life, among others a -preference for agriculture: "Rather a small plot of land than a great -magazine for goods." - -For eight and twenty years, until his old age, Rab devoted himself to -the Sidra at Sora (219-247). When he died all his disciples accompanied -his body to its last resting-place, and went into mourning for him. At -the suggestion of one of them Babylonia mourned for him a whole year, -and the practice of wearing wreaths of flowers and myrtles at weddings -was suspended. All the Jews of Babylonia, except one, Bar-Kasha of -Pumbeditha, mourned for the loss of their great Amora. - -Much more original and versatile than Rab was his friend, his Halachic -opponent, and his fellow-worker in the task of elevating the Jewish -population of Babylonia, Samuel or Mar-Samuel, also called Arioch and -Yarchinai (born about 180, died 257). In a certain sense this highly -talented man was an epoch-maker in the history of the doctrine of -Judaism. Nothing more is known of his youth than that he once ran away -from his father. As a young man he followed the usual course, and went -to Judæa in order to complete his education at the academy of the -Patriarch Judah I. It has already been narrated how he there cured a -disease of the eyes from which the ailing Patriarch suffered, and how -he was nevertheless refused his nomination as a teacher by the latter; -how he returned to his home before Rab, and was elevated after Shila's -death to the dignity of Resh-Sidra. - -Mar-Samuel was of an even character, avoiding enthusiasm and -demonstrativeness. While his contemporaries confidently expected the -renewal of miracles as of old before the appearance of the Messiah, -he propounded the view that everything would still follow its natural -course, but that the subjection of Israel to foreign rulers would come -to an end. His intellectual energies were employed in three branches of -knowledge: the explanation of the Law, astronomy, and medicine. - -As an Amora he was inferior to Rab in the knowledge of the laws of -the ritual, but far surpassed him in his acquaintance with the Jewish -civil law. Samuel developed and enriched the Jewish law in all its -branches, and all his decisions have obtained Halachic force. None of -his decrees, however, were possessed of such important results as the -one by which he declared the law of the land to be just as binding on -the Jews as their own law (dina d'malchuta dina). The object of this -precept was not to bring about a compulsory toleration of the foreign -legislation, but to obtain its complete recognition as a binding -law, to transgress which would also be punishable from the religious -point of view. This was an innovation which, after all, could only be -approved by reason of the relations existing between the Babylonian -Jews and the Persian states. Samuel's principle of the sanctity of -the law of the land was a manifest contradiction of older Halachas, -which treated foreign laws as arbitrary, and did not consider their -transgression to be punishable. But the Amoraim had already succeeded -in reconciling so many conflicting laws that these old and repellent -decisions, and this new and submissive principle, were able to exist -side by side. In the sequel Samuel's recognition of the laws of the -country was a means of preservation to the dispersed nation. On the one -hand it reconciled the Jews to living in that country into which they -had been cast by remorseless fate. Their religious consciousness did -not feel at variance with the laws set up for their observance, which -were seldom humane. On the other hand, the enemies of the Jews, who -in all centuries took as their pretext the apparently hostile spirit -of Judaism, and advised the persecution and complete extermination -of the Jewish nation, could be referred to a Jewish law, which, with -three words, invalidated their contention. The Prophet Jeremiah had -given to the families which were exiled to Babylon, the following -urgent exhortation as to their conduct in a foreign land: "Seek the -peace of the city whither ye have been carried away captives." Samuel -had transformed this exhortation into a religious precept: "The law of -the state is binding law." To Jeremiah and Mar-Samuel Judaism owes the -possibility of existence in a foreign country. - -Samuel possessed altogether a particular affection for Persian customs, -and was consequently in exceedingly good repute at the Persian court, -and lived on confidential terms with Shabur I. His contemporaries -called him therefore, although it is not known whether as a mark of -honor or of censure, "The king Shabur," and also "Arioch," the Arian -(partizan of the neo-Persians). His attachment to the Persian dynasty -was so great that it supplanted the affection for his fellow-countrymen -in his heart. When Shabur extended his conquests to Asia Minor, 12,000 -Jews lost their lives on the occasion of the assault of Mazaca-Cæsarea, -the Cappadocian capital. Samuel refused to go into mourning for the -victims, giving as his reason that they had fought against Shabur. He -thus formed a peculiar type; living in the midst of the full tide of -Judaism, immersed in its doctrines and traditions, he raised himself -beyond the narrow sphere of his nationality, and was ever ready to -extend his sympathies to other peoples and to take note of their -intellectual efforts. Rab, entirely taken up with the affairs of his -own nation, refused to allow the customs of the Persians to exert -any influence on those of the Jews, and even forbade these latter to -adopt any practice, however innocent, from the Magi: "He who learns -a single thing of the Magi merits death." Samuel, on the other hand, -learnt many things of the Persian sages. With his friend Ablaat, he -used to study astronomy, that noble science which brings mortal man -into closer proximity with the Deity. The low-lying plain between the -Euphrates and the Tigris, whose wide-extended horizon is unbounded by -any hill, was the cradle of astronomy, which, however, soon degenerated -in this region into the pseudo-science of astrology. By reason of the -ideas instilled into him by his Jewish education, Samuel attached no -importance to the art of casting nativities, and only occupied himself -with astronomy under its most elevated aspect. He used to boast that -he was "as well acquainted with the ways of the heavens as with the -streets of Nahardea." He was unable, however, to calculate the erratic -movements of the comets. It is impossible to determine the extent of -his astronomical acquirements, or to discover whether he was in advance -of his times or simply on a par with his contemporaries. Mar-Samuel -turned his knowledge of astronomy to practical account; he drew up a -settled calendar of the festivals, for the purpose of delivering the -Babylonian communities from continual uncertainty with regard to the -exact days on which the festivals would fall, and in order to relieve -them of their dependence on Palestine for the determination of the -time of the appearance of the new moon. Probably out of regard for the -Patriarch, and in order not to destroy the unity of Judaism, Samuel -refrained from communicating his calendar to the general public, and -allowed the computation of the festivals to retain its former character -of a secret art (Sod ha-Ibbur). He was blamed by certain persons, -however, for having in any way interfered with the calculation of the -calendar. The extent of Samuel's knowledge of medicine is even less -known; he boasted of being able to cure all diseases but three. An -eye-salve of his invention was in great request. - -Between Samuel and the founder of the Sora academy there subsisted a -fraternal harmony, although the Sidra of Nahardea was eclipsed by Rab. -In his modesty he willingly subordinated himself to Rab. The celebrated -Shila family was possessed of the precedence in the ceremony of paying -homage to the Prince of the Captivity; by them it was relinquished to -Samuel, and he, in his turn, surrendered it to his comrade in Sora, -contenting himself with the third place. After Rab's death Samuel was -recognized as the sole religious chief of Babylon, and continued in -this capacity for ten years. At first Jochanan, of Judæa, hesitated -whether to acknowledge him as an authority. In the letter which the -principal of the schools of Tiberias sent to Babylonia, he addressed -Rab by the title of "our teacher in Babylonia," while Mar-Samuel -he called simply "our comrade." The teachers of Judæa did not, in -fact, give him credit for the requisite knowledge of the Halachas, -basing their conclusion upon the fact that he occupied himself with -other branches of science. It was in vain that Samuel sent to Judæa -a festival calendar calculated for sixty years; Jochanan remarked -slightingly, when the fact came to his knowledge: "At any rate he is -well acquainted with arithmetic." It was not until Samuel forwarded -several scrolls, filled with investigations of certain little-known -diseases of animals, that he began to be respected. - -It was during this period (the third century) that there occurred -simultaneously in the Roman and Parthian empires certain political -catastrophes which were attended with the most important results. -Through their influence history acquired an altered aspect, and -considerable changes were effected in the state of things existing -in these two countries and their dependencies. It was impossible -for Jewish history to remain unaffected by these events. During the -reign of the noble Alexander Severus occurred the overthrow of the -Parthian dynasty, which, beginning with Arsaces, had subsisted during -four centuries. A new and more vigorous race seized the scepter, and -this change of dynasty gave rise to many revolutions both at home and -abroad. The author of these changes was Ardashir, or Arbachshter, as -he was called in his own language, a descendant of the race of ancient -Persians (Arians). Such of the Persians as still remained true to their -nationality, nourished a hatred against the impure dynasty of Arsaces, -on account of the semi-Grecian origin of its members, their leaning to -Greek views in matters of religion, their contempt for the national -faith, and finally, their impotence to check the ever-increasing -conquests of the Romans. It was with them that Ardashir united himself -and conspired to overthrow Artabanus, the monarch who entertained so -great a reverence for Rab. A decisive battle was fought, in which -Artabanus succumbed, and the neo-Persian dynasty of the Sassanides -was founded by the conqueror. The race which thus obtained the upper -hand is known in history by the name of the neo-Persians; the Jewish -authorities called them Chebrim (Chebre), and a deteriorated residue of -the stock still subsists in India under the name of the Guebres. This -revolution was attended by results as important in matters of religion -as in politics. In place of the indifference with which the ancient -rulers had regarded the primitive worship of fire, Ardashir manifested -an ardent enthusiasm for it. He proudly called himself "the worshiper -of Ormuz, divine Ardashir, the King of the Kings of Iran, the offspring -of a heavenly race." He ordered such of the parts of the ancient -Persian law (the Zend-Avesta) as were still extant to be collected, -and commanded them to be regarded as the religious code. Zoroaster's -doctrine of the twin principles of light and darkness (Ahura-Mazda and -Ahriman) was everywhere enforced; the Magi, the sacerdotal caste of -this cult, recovered their credit, their influence, and their power, -while the partisans of the Greeks were persecuted with fire and sword. -The fanaticism which was thus aroused in the Magians also caused them -to direct their hostile attacks against the Christians, who resided -in great numbers in the districts of Nisibis and Edessa in upper -Mesopotamia (conquered by the Romans), and who possessed their own -schools. - -The Jews were not entirely exempt from the attacks of this fanaticism, -and only escaped severe persecution through their solidarity, their -centralization, and their powers of defense. In the first intoxication -of victory the neo-Persians deprived the Jewish courts of the criminal -jurisdiction which they had been permitted to exercise until then; -the Jews were admitted to no offices, and were not even allowed to -retain the supervision of the canals and rivers, but they do not seem -to have complained very bitterly of these measures. They were even -compelled to submit to restraints upon their freedom of conscience. -On certain festivals, when the Magi worshiped light in their temple -as the visible representation of God (Ahura-Mazda), the Jews were not -suffered to maintain any fire on their hearths, nor to retain any -light in their rooms. The Persians forced their way into the houses -of the Jews, extinguished every fire and collected the glowing embers -in their consecrated braziers, bringing them as an offering to their -temple of fire. They also dug the corpses out of the graves, because, -according to their notion, dead bodies lying in the bosom of the earth -desecrated this "Spenta Armaita" (holy soil). For these various reasons -the majority of the teachers of the Law were not greatly prepossessed -in favor of the neo-Persians. When Jochanan heard that they had -triumphantly invaded Jewish Babylonia, he was greatly concerned for -the fate of his Babylonian brethren, but his anxiety was allayed by -the assurance that the Persians were very poor and would therefore -easily allow themselves to be bought off with bribes. By reason of -their semi-savage state he referred to them as "the abandoned people -into whose hands the Babylonian communities had been delivered." Levi -bar Sissi, who was continually traveling to and fro between Judæa and -Babylon, was anxiously questioned by the Patriarch Judah II as to the -character of the conquering race. With obvious prepossession in favor -of the vanquished Parthians, he described them and the victorious -neo-Persians in the following words: "The former are as the armies of -King David, but the latter resemble the devils of hell." Little by -little, however, the fanaticism of the neo-Persians moderated, and -there sprang up between them and the Jews so sincere a friendship -that on their account the latter relaxed the severity of the Law, and -even assisted now and again at their banquets. The teachers of the -Law permitted the Jews to deliver up fuel which the Magi demanded of -them on the occasion of the Festival of Light, and ceased to consider -this act as a furtherance of idolatry, though it would certainly have -been regarded as such by the old Halacha in similar cases. Even Rab, -the essence of strictness, acquiesced in the demand of the Magi, and -allowed the lamps to be brought from the open street into the houses on -the Sabbath on the occasion of the Festival of the Hasmonæans, in order -not to give offense to the prejudices of the ruling sacerdotal class. -This mutual toleration, doubtless, first made its appearance under the -rule of Shabur I (242-271), the liberal-minded monarch whose friendship -with Samuel has already been mentioned. This magnanimous king assured -Samuel that during the many wars which he had waged against the Romans -in countries thickly populated with the Jews, he had never spilt Jewish -blood, except on the occasion of the capture of Cappadocia, when -12,000 Jews had been put to death as a punishment for their stubborn -resistance. - -The radical changes which occurred about this time in the Roman empire -were also attended with important effects and reactions on Jewish -history. The death of Alexander Severus was the signal for anarchy, -the many-headed hydra, to rage in all its terror in Rome and the Roman -provinces. During the short space of half a century (235-284) the -throne was occupied by nearly twenty emperors and as many usurpers, -who willingly laid down their lives to obtain the gratification of -their desire to wear the purple, if only for a day, and to decree -executions by the hundred. From nearly every nation which Rome had -subjugated there arose an emperor who enslaved the Italian Babylon. -The time of retribution had come; the birds of prey were contending -for the putrefying body of the State. It was during the time of Samuel -(248) that the thousandth anniversary of Rome was celebrated by the -assassin-emperor Philip, an Arab by birth and a robber from his -childhood; but Rome was powerful wherever its legions were stationed, -except in Rome itself, the city whose senate was obliged to accept -with smiling face the humiliations which it experienced at the hands -of the soldier emperors, and to sanction them in servile humility by -Senatus-Consulta. The Roman empire was invaded on the one hand by -the Parthians, on the other by the Goths, as if in fulfilment of the -sibylline threats of punishment. - -Valerianus had undertaken a campaign with the intention of recovering -the districts which had been conquered by Shabur. Rome now experienced -the further disgrace of seeing her emperor fall into his enemy's power, -and suffer all the humiliations of slavery at the hands of the haughty -victor. In the eastern provinces, in the neighborhood of the mighty -Persian empire, disorder and dissolution had reached a still higher -degree. A rich and adventurous native of Palmyra, Odenathus by name, -had collected a band of wild and rapacious Saracens around him, and -he and his troops made frequent incursions from his native city into -Syria and Palestine on the one side, and the region of the Euphrates on -the other, plundering and laying waste the country through which they -passed. Odenathus had already assumed the title of Senator. Why should -he not become the emperor of the Romans, like his fellow-countryman -Philip? Odenathus was known in Jewish circles as the robber captain, -"Papa bar Nazar," and to him was applied the passage in Daniel's -vision: "The little horn coming up among the greater horns, and having -eyes like the eyes of man, and a mouth speaking great things." The -predatory incursions of this adventurer were accompanied by results -which were highly detrimental to the Jews of Palestine and Babylonia. -He demolished the ancient city of Nahardea (259), which had formed -the central point of the Jewish communities ever since the time of -the Babylonian exile. It was many years before this town was able to -recover itself from this destructive blow. The Amoraim of Nahardea, -Samuel's disciples, were obliged to take to flight; they emigrated -to the region of the Tigris. They were--Nachman, a son-in-law of the -Prince of the Captivity, Sheshet, Rabba b. Abbuha, and Joseph b. Chama. - -On the occasion of the destruction of Nahardea by Odenathus, Samuel's -daughters, doubtless together with many others, were taken prisoners -by the enemy and brought to Sepphoris. The freebooters speculated -on heavy ransoms, which appeared to them more lucrative than the -sale of the captives in the slave market, for it was well known that -the Jews spared no expense in order to procure the release of their -fellow-countrymen. Samuel's daughters had derived so much benefit -from their father's profound knowledge of the Halacha that they -succeeded in escaping the application of a strict law, which placed all -maidens who had been taken prisoners on the same footing with those -who had been dishonored, thus incapacitating them from contracting a -spotless marriage. Before it was known whose daughters they were they -had already recovered their freedom, and their assertion that their -innocence had received no taint at the hands of the rough warriors -was readily believed. When Chanina heard in Sepphoris that they were -Samuel's daughters he strongly enjoined a relation of theirs, Simon b. -Abba, to marry one of them. - -Odenathus, the destroyer of Nahardea, gradually became a petty Asiatic -prince of Palmyra or Tadmor, the oasis which King Solomon had converted -into a city. The Roman empire was so feeble and tottering that it -was this hitherto disregarded warrior who was obliged to oppose a -bulwark to the conquests of the Persians on Roman territory. The great -services which he thus rendered to the empire compelled his recognition -(264) as co-emperor by Gallienus, a monarch characterized by his -weakness and love of satire. Odenathus did not long enjoy this high -dignity, for in 267 he fell by the hand of an assassin, instigated, -as the story went, by Zenobia, his wife. After his death the regency -devolved upon Zenobia, her two sons being still minors. Through her -influence Palmyra, the city of the desert, was transformed into the -home of imperial pomp, culture, and refined taste. A Christian report -represents the empress Zenobia as a Jewess, but the Jewish authorities -make no mention of this fact. No colors seem to be vivid enough for the -Roman accounts of Zenobia in order to paint the picture of her strange -personality. The palace of this second Semiramis, the ruins of which -still bear witness to refined and artistic taste, was the meeting-place -of original-minded geniuses, with whom the queen delighted to hold -philosophical intercourse. - -At her court resided Longinus, the refined and philosophical lover -of the fine arts, who in his æsthetic work on the Sublime was unable -sufficiently to express his admiration of the poetical contents of -the Biblical account of the Creation, "Let there be light." Paul -of Samosata, Bishop of Antioch, when accused of heresy, also found -shelter at her court. Zenobia, his patroness, also seems to have had -some leaning towards the fundamental truth of Judaism. The Jews were, -nevertheless, not particularly well disposed towards the court of -Palmyra. Jochanan, although not blind to the beauties of Greek, gave -utterance to the most unfavorable opinions concerning the Palmyrene -state: "Happy will he be who sees the fall of Tadmor." Subsequent -generations were at a loss to explain this aversion. - -There can be no doubt that many Jews took up arms against Zenobia, -whose rule must also have extended over Judæa. It is related that a -certain Zeïra bar Chanina having been brought up before Zenobia to -receive sentence for an offense which seems to have been of a political -nature, two of Jochanan's disciples, Ami and Samuel, presented -themselves before the empress, in order to intercede on his behalf and -obtain his liberation. They were most ungraciously received, however, -by Zenobia. "Do you think," said she, "that because God has worked -so many miracles for your nation you can hazard everything, simply -putting your trust in Him?" Another occurrence, which is related by -the same authority, seems also to have taken place during Zenobia's -reign. A certain Ulla bar Kosher, of whom no further mention is made in -history, was prosecuted for a political offense, and fled to Joshua ben -Levi in Lydda. So much importance must, however, have attached to his -capture that a troop of soldiers surrounded Lydda, and threatened to -destroy the city if the fugitive were not delivered up to them. In this -sad dilemma in which the life of a single individual must either be -sacrificed or the safety of an entire community endangered, Joshua ben -Levi prevailed upon Ulla to give himself up. He justified this course -of conduct by referring to a Mishnaic law which permits the surrender -to the political power of a culprit specially designated, in the case -of many lives depending on such compliance. But the Jewish conscience, -symbolized by the prophet Elijah, refused to take any part in bringing -about the death of a man. Elijah, the ideal of pure zeal for Judaism, -appeared to Joshua ben Levi and inspired him with remorse for having -allowed himself to deliver up the culprit; he ought not to have relied -solely on the simple preceptive law, but should also have been mindful -of the "Mishna of the Pious," which widened and elevated their views -concerning the precepts of duty. - -Zenobia's reign, after enduring brilliantly for several years -(267-273), was brought to a termination by Aurelian, who gained a -hard-earned victory over the haughty empress, and brought her in golden -fetters to Rome to figure in his triumph. Jochanan lived to see the -fulfilment of his wish regarding Tadmor, and died a few years after its -fall (279). - - - - -CHAPTER XX. - -THE PATRIARCHATE OF GAMALIEL IV. AND JUDAH III. - - The Amoraim in Palestine--Ami and Assi--The Brothers Chiya and - Simon bar Abba in Tiberias--Abbahu in Cæsarea--The Emperor - Diocletian--Complete Separation from the Samaritans--Character - and Political Position of Abbahu--Huna in Babylonia--Chama's - Generosity--Huna's Contemporaries and Successors--Judah ben - Ezekiel--Chasda of Cafri--Mar Sheshet--Nachman bar Jacob--Zeïra. - - 279.320 C. E. - - -The period during which Christianity emerged from the position of -a persecuted community and acquired that of an established church, -marks a crisis in the development of the history of the world, and -forms an epoch of transition also in the history of the Jews. The -influence exerted by the mother-country began gradually to decline. It -was Babylonia that now occupied the universal interest, while Judæa -became a holy antiquity; it still possessed the power of arousing -glorious memories, but was no longer the scene of memorable deeds. The -teachers of this generation, indeed, were not few, including in their -numbers the disciples of Chanina, Jochanan, and Resh-Lakish; and the -youth of Babylonia, smitten with a holy longing, still preferred the -schools of Palestine to those of their native land. But only very few -of the principals of the schools were possessed of any eminence, and -the most important of them, Ami, Assi, Chiya b. Abba, and Zeïra, were -all Babylonians by birth. Abbahu, the only one who was a native of -Judæa, was a person of much originality, but of no authority in the -Halacha. The superiority of Babylon was so readily acknowledged that -Ami and Assi, the leaders of Judæa, of their own accord subordinated -themselves to Rab's successor. The Babylonian novices excelled their -masters in the knowledge of the Law; Sora and Pumbeditha took the -lead of Sepphoris and Tiberias. Even the Patriarchs of this period, -Gamaliel IV and Judah III, possessed but an insignificant knowledge of -the Law, and were both obliged to receive instruction from Amoraim. -Under Judah the duty of examining witnesses concerning the appearance -of the new moon degenerated into a mere pretense and a formality. When -Ami expressed a desire that this duty should be seriously fulfilled, -the Patriarch informed him that he had often understood from Jochanan, -that as soon as, according to astronomical calculation, the thirtieth -day was ascertained to be the beginning of the new month, it was -permissible to press a witness into declaring that he had perceived the -new moon, although this was not the case. The accurate calculation of -the Festivals gradually made this burdensome custom of the examination -of witnesses so superfluous that Judah's successor was able to entirely -abrogate this duty of the Patriarchate. Of more importance appeared to -Judah the ordering of the affairs of the communities and the schools, -and to this point he devoted his entire attention. He commissioned -the three principal Amoraim, Ami, Assi, and Chiya, to undertake a -journey through the cities of Judæa, in order to inspect the various -institutions of a religious or educational character, and to restore -them in those places where they were falling into decay. In one town, -where the envoys found neither teachers of the people nor of the young, -they summoned the elders to bring before them the guardians of the -city. On the armed guard of the town being brought into their presence, -the envoys of the Nasi exclaimed: "These are in nowise the guardians -of the city, but its destroyers; the true guards are the teachers of -the young and of the people; 'If God protect not the house, in vain -watcheth the warder.'" - -The Patriarchate of Judah III falls in the reign of Diocletian and -his co-emperor, who, by the strength of their rule and their sincere -devotion, delayed for a time the decline of the Roman empire. -Diocletian was not unfavorably disposed towards the Jews. He was, -perhaps, all the more tolerant to them in proportion as he hated -and persecuted the Christians; these latter he considered as the -sole cause of the dissolution of the Empire, on account of their -persistent struggle against the Roman state religion, and their zeal -for conversion. The rigorous edicts which this monarch considered it -necessary to decree during the last years of his reign (303-305), -and which aimed at compelling the Christians to adopt the worship of -idols, at closing their churches, and at prohibiting their meetings for -divine service, did not include the Jews within their terms, although, -curiously enough, the Samaritans do not seem to have escaped their -action. Nevertheless, the enemies of the Jews appear to have exerted -themselves in order to prejudice Diocletian against them. The emperor -was secretly informed that the Patriarch and his companions made merry -over his obscure parentage and his surname Aper (Boar), concerning -which the emperor was especially sensitive. The story relates that -the emperor, highly exasperated, commanded the Patriarch and the -most distinguished members of the community to appear before him on -a Saturday night, at Paneas, about twenty miles from Tiberias. As -this command was not communicated to them until late on Friday, they -found themselves in the desperate dilemma of undertaking a journey on -the Sabbath, or disregarding the imperial summons. On their arrival -at Paneas, Diocletian ordered them to bathe themselves for several -days previous to appearing before him in audience. This insult was -intended as an allusion to the uncleanliness with which the Jews were -reproached. When at last they were brought before the emperor, the -Patriarch and his companions assured Diocletian of their loyalty and -faithfulness, and they are said to have convinced him that they had -been iniquitously calumniated, whereupon he graciously dismissed them -(about 297 or 298). - -By reason of the constraint of sacrificing to the gods, under which -Diocletian laid both Samaritans and Christians, the former were -completely and forever excluded from the Jewish community. A peculiar -fate controlled the relations of these two kindred and neighboring -races, and prevented them from living on good terms for any length -of time. At any moment which appeared favorable to mutual advances, -trifling circumstances were sure to arise which widened the breach -between them. After the destruction of the Temple the two peoples lived -in tolerably good relations with one another; the Samaritans were -admitted to be in many respects strict Jews. The war of Hadrian united -Jew and Samaritan even more closely, and this friendly relation took so -deep a root, that Meïr's decision to regard the Samaritans as heathens -never gained general acceptance. Daily intercourse and business -connections had bound them closely to each other. Even Jochanan did not -hesitate to partake of meat prepared by the Samaritans. His successors -were, however, more severe, and contrived to bring about a separation -from the Samaritans. The occasion of this rupture is said to have been -as follows: Abbahu having once ordered some wine from Samaria, an -observation was made to him by an old man that the Law was no longer -strictly observed in that country. Abbahu communicated this intimation -to his friends, Ami and Assi, who investigated the matter there and -then, and determined to declare the Samaritans as heathens, irrevocably -and in every respect. This was perhaps the last resolution arrived at -by the Synhedrion. No mention is made of the Nasi in connection with -this decree, thus affording a further proof of the insignificance -of the authority enjoyed by him, and of the depth to which the -Patriarchate had fallen. This disunion had the effect of weakening both -Jews and Samaritans. Christianity, shrewder and more active than its -parent, Judaism, and more refined and supple than Samaritanism, its -sister, gained the empire of the world soon after this rupture, and -Jew and Samaritan alike felt its superior power. Golgotha, raised upon -the height of the Capitol, pressed with a two-fold burden on Zion and -Gerizim. - -Notwithstanding the slight respect in which the Patriarchate of Judah -III (280-300) was held, a phenomenon makes its appearance for the first -time, which betrays indeed the poverty that existed in Palestine, but -on the other hand shows the adherence of the Jews to the Patriarchal -house of David, the last remnant of their ancient glory. It had always -been the custom to announce to such communities as were situated at a -distance, the resolutions arrived at by the Synhedrion, and especially -the period of the festivals, by means of special messengers (Shaliach -Zion, Apostoli). As a rule, men of merit and members of the Synhedrion -were chosen to fill this honorable post, for they represented the -highest authorities, and were also required to explain and apply the -various resolutions. The more the numbers of the Jews in the Holy -Land were lessened by revolts and wars, and the greater the part of -the country that fell into the hands of the heathen, the more also -that extortionate taxes spread poverty far and wide, the greater -difficulty the Patriarchs found in defraying the expenses of their -office from their own private means. They were obliged to turn to the -wealthy communities of other countries to request contributions for -their support. Originally, perhaps, these aids constituted a voluntary -contribution (aurum coronarium), forwarded by the communities as a -proof of allegiance on the occasion of the accession of a Patriarch as -prince of the Jews. About this time, however, Judah III found himself -obliged to send messengers to raise a regular tax (canon, pensio). Such -an envoy was Chiya bar Abba, whom the Patriarch Judah authorized and -sent abroad armed with peculiar powers: "We send you an excellent man, -who possesses equal authority with ourselves until he return unto us." -This same Chiya was, in fact, an excellent man, as poor in means as he -was rich in character. It was only on account of grievous necessity -that he allowed this post to be conferred on him by the Patriarch, and -its acceptance constituted in so far a sacrifice that he was obliged to -quit the Holy Land, which he had chosen as his residence in preference -to his native country. During a long period he was supported by a rich -and charitable family of Tiberias, named Silvani (Beth-Silvani), who -furnished him, as a descendant of Aaron, with the tithes of the produce -of their property. On a certain occasion, however, Chiya forbade them -to commit a deed which another teacher of the Law declared to be -lawful; and they, in return, made him feel his dependency on their -tithes. Upon this he determined never again to accept tithes from any -one, and, in order to avoid temptation, he resolved to quit Judæa. - -It is in this Amora that a singular fault may first be remarked, -which later on became more general, and produced the most disastrous -consequences. Chiya b. Abba, namely, was so absorbed in the study of -the oral Law, that in his devotion to it he neglected the reading of -the written Law, the Bible. Being once asked why the word "good" does -not occur in the first Decalogue, he made reply that he hardly knew if -this word really did not occur in that place. Chiya bar Abba was of a -gloomy disposition, and in the Halacha he followed the severe tendency -which refused even to allow Jewish maidens to acquire the culture -of the Greeks, although Jochanan himself had permitted it, and even -encouraged it to a certain extent. - -It may be noticed, as a sign of the times, that the heads of the -schools at Tiberias were not natives of the country, but Babylonians -who had emigrated thither from their own land. Ami and Assi occupied -the post formerly filled by Jochanan, their master. They delivered -their lectures in the peristyles, which certainly dated at least from -the period of the Herods. But these buildings, which had been crowded -with listeners in Jochanan's time, now testified to the declining -importance of the Holy Land. Babylonia was the goal of such of the -youth of Judæa as were desirous of studying. Ami and Assi only bore the -modest title of "the Judges, or the respected descendants of Aaron in -the Holy Land," and of their own accord subordinated themselves to the -Babylonian authorities. - -Of greater importance and originality was Abbahu of Cæsarea on the -Sea, who was a striking contrast to Chiya and Simon, Abba's sons. He -was wealthy, kept Gothic slaves, and had ivory seats in his house; -his trade was the manufacture of women's veils. He understood Greek -perfectly, which was the case with but few of his contemporaries; he -frequented the society of educated heathens, and had his daughter -taught Greek. He considered the knowledge of this language as an -ornament to an educated girl, and supported his opinion by citing -Jochanan's permission. The austere Simon bar Abba, who was hostile to -all worldly education, reproved this conduct in the following terms; -"He attributes this permission to Jochanan, because his daughter is -learning Greek." In answer to this attack upon his veracity, Abbahu -protested that he had really received this tradition from Jochanan's -lips. By reason of his familiarity with contemporary civilization, -which many people regarded as sinful, a verse of Ecclesiastes was -applied to him: "It is good that thou takest up this (the study of the -Halacha) and neglectest not that (the learning of the Greeks), for the -pious are able to fulfil all duties." The Greek language was in fact so -current among the Jews of Cæsarea, that they even recited the passage -of Scripture relative to the unity of God (the Shema) in this tongue. - -Abbahu was held in great esteem by the Roman Proconsul, and probably -also by the Emperor Diocletian, on account of his profound learning, -which was heightened by the charm of a dignified figure and a generous -character. By means of this influence with the authorities he was -enabled to avert many severe measures. A case of this description -affords at the same time an insight into the general state of things at -this period. Ami, Assi, and Chiya bar Abba, having once pronounced a -severe punishment on a woman named Thamar, who was doubtless guilty of -some breach of chastity, were denounced by her to the then Procurator, -on a charge of encroaching on the jurisdiction of the Romans. The -Jewish judges, fearful for the consequences of this denunciation, -besought Abbahu to exert his influence on their behalf. He, however, -answered that his efforts had failed to produce any effect, by reason -of the existing desire of revenge, perhaps also on account of the -beauty of the culprit. His reply was couched in characteristic terms, -being so conceived that, at first, the words do not convey their -actual meaning. The import of this document was in brief as follows: -"I have settled everything as regards the three slanderers--Eutokos, -Eumathes, and Talasseus--but I have labored in vain on behalf of the -obstinate and refractory Thamar." The language of this letter, which -is a model of the style of that period, is for the most part pure -Hebrew embellished by a play upon words; the Greek proper names are -translated into the approximate Hebrew terms. This style, when handled -with skill, invests the Hebrew tongue with an inimitable charm; but it -easily degenerates into empty pomp and trifling, which was already in -Abbahu's age to some extent the case. - -By reason of his extensive acquirements Abbahu was well fitted to -engage in polemics against Christianity. During the time of Diocletian, -Christianity had strained every nerve to obtain the empire of the -world. The Roman legions were in part composed of soldiers who had -adopted this religion, and Christianity therefore redoubled its efforts -to obtain proselytes. Setting itself up in opposition to Judaism and -heathenism, it brought down upon itself severe punishment at the hands -of Diocletian and his co-emperor Galerius, on account of its arrogance. -The Jews were possessed of intellectual weapons, and these they -employed as long as they were permitted their free use. Like Simlaï, -Abbahu attacked the Christian dogmas in the most uncompromising manner, -and grounded his opposition, according to the manner of the time, upon -a verse in the Bible (Numbers xxiii. 19): "If a man say of himself, 'I -am God,' he lieth; 'I am the son of man,' he will repent it; 'I go to -heaven,' he will not confirm it." The doctrine of the Ascension was -especially a disputed point between the teachers of the Church and -the synagogue, and its defender in Cæsarea was Jacob the Minæan, a -physician by profession. In order to authenticate the Ascension, the -Christians brought forward the Agadic tradition, according to which -Enoch ascended into heaven without dying: in the words of the Bible, -"and he (Enoch) was not, for God took him." They used this ambiguous -phrase in support of their opinion. Abbahu, however, proved by parallel -verses that, according to the true exegesis, the expression contained -in this verse amounted to nothing more than a figure of speech for "to -die." In the succeeding generation Abbahu might, perhaps, have paid -with his life for his bold truthfulness and his exact interpretation. - -Abbahu was one of those modest, gentle, yielding characters who are -the less conscious of their own merit in proportion as it is great. -When it was proposed to ordain him as Rabbi, he withdrew in favor of -Abba of Acco, desiring first to see the distinction conferred upon the -latter, who by this promotion would have been able to free himself -from the burden of debt with which he was oppressed. Another event -brings out yet more strongly evidence of his unassuming disposition. -He was once delivering discourses, concurrently with Chiya b. Abba, in -a strange town, the subject being treated by the latter according to -the Halachic method, while he adopted the more edifying style of the -Agada. As was only natural, the popular discourses of Abbahu, being -intelligible to all, were better attended than Chiya's lectures, which -were more difficult of comprehension. The latter having manifested some -irritation at the neglect which fell to the lot of his discourses, -Abbahu attempted to console him in the following words: "Thy teaching -resembles the most precious stones, of which there are but few good -judges; mine, on the contrary, is like tinsel, which delights every -one." In order to appease him still further, Abbahu showed his offended -companion all possible attention and marks of honor throughout the day; -nevertheless, Chiya was unable to forget the slight which he considered -had been inflicted on him. This anecdote cannot be regarded as -altogether unimportant, proving as it does the decay of serious studies -in Judæa at this time. The Halacha, the study of which wrinkled the -brow and exercised the mind, no longer found listeners, and was obliged -to quit the field before the light-winged Agada. Abbahu was even -unwilling to lay any stress upon his modesty. He once exclaimed: "With -all my boasted humility, I am still far behind Abba of Acco, for he is -not even angry with his expositor (Meturgeman) when the latter dares -to make his own additions to the analyses which are whispered to him." -A flaw had thus made itself apparent in that method of teaching, which -had formerly invested the discourses with so much solemnity and merit. -Instead of being merely the organ of the lecturer, the Meturgeman -permitted himself to introduce his own views into the expositions. A -complaint was made that the interpreters only accepted their office -out of conceit, in order to display their fine voice or their flowery -language. This condition of things was aptly described in the following -verse: "It is better to hear the severity of the wise than the song of -fools." From this habit of the interpreters, the lectures degenerated -into an empty word jingle. - -Abbahu's generous and thoroughly noble views may also be gathered -from another characteristic sketch, which at the same time affords -a faithful picture of the customs of the period. It was usual on -the occasion of a drought, an event of not uncommon occurrence in -Judæa, for the most meritorious member of the community to offer up -the prescribed prayers for rain. The person who on one occasion was -recommended to Abbahu as the most worthy, happened to be a man of -the worst fame, known to the wits as the "five sins" (Pentekaka). -Being summoned before Abbahu, and questioned by the latter respecting -his occupation, he admitted his infamous calling. "I am," said he, -"a go-between; I clean out the play-house, carry the clothes to the -bathers, divert the bathers with jokes, and play upon the flute." "And -hast thou never done a good deed in all thy life?" demanded Abbahu. -"One day," said Pentekaka, "when I was cleaning the theater, I saw a -woman leaning against a column and weeping. In answer to my inquiry as -to the cause of her grief, she told me that her husband was a prisoner, -and that there was nothing left for her to do in order to procure his -release but to sacrifice her honor. As soon as I heard this," continued -Pentekaka, "I sold my bed, my coverlet, everything that I had in the -world, gave the proceeds to the woman, and said to her: 'Go, free thy -husband without paying the price of sin.'" At these words Abbahu could -not contain himself, and exclaimed to Pentekaka, that medley of sublime -virtue and vulgar dishonor: "Thou alone art worthy to pray for us in -our trouble." - -The theater at this period participated in the general immoral tone -of the times, and was by no means a nursery of culture or refinement; -buffoons diverted the crowd, and Judaism was often laid under -contribution to furnish a subject for their coarse jokes. Abbahu, who -was acquainted with events which occurred outside the Jewish world, -complained of the frivolous manner in which Jewish institutions were -held up to ridicule, and cites, among others, the following examples. -A camel was brought into the theater in mourning trappings; thereupon -ensues the following dialogue: "Why is the camel in mourning?" "Because -the Jews, who strictly observe the Sabbatical year, cannot even get -herbs to eat, and are obliged to live upon thistles. The camel mourns -because its food is thus snatched away." Enter Momus (the buffoon) with -his head shaved. "Why does Momus mourn?" "Because oil is dear." "And -why is oil so dear?" "Because of the Jews. They consume everything on -the Sabbath that they have earned during the week; not even wood enough -remains for them to cook their food; they must, therefore, burn their -bed, and being without a bed, must sleep upon the ground and wallow -in the dust; in order to avoid uncleanliness, they use a great deal -of oil, and that is the reason that oil is so dear." Thus had the -degenerate Greeks prostituted the art of Aristophanes! - -Abbahu also possessed a certain reputation in the study of the Law, but -did not rank as an authority; his province was the Agadic exegesis. -By reason, however, of his influence in the political world, his -colleagues flattered him to excess--fearing to correct him even when he -committed errors in teaching. It appears that Cæsarea, where Ushaya the -elder had formerly established a temporary school, was now elevated by -Abbahu to a par with Tiberias as an academical city, where the greatest -Amoraïm of Palestine assembled. The synagogue in Cæsarea, whence had -proceeded under Nero the first movement of revolt against the Romans, -resulting eventually in the loss of independence to the Jewish state, -was perhaps Abbahu's academy, and it appears to have still borne the -fatal name of "the Revolution synagogue" (Kenishta di-meradta). In the -same way as Simon bar Abba was accustomed to misfortune, Abbahu was -attended by good luck, which did not forsake him even in his old age. -He had two promising sons, Abimaï and Chanina. The latter was sent -by him to Tiberias for the purpose of perfecting his education; but -instead of applying himself to study, Chanina spent his time in burying -the dead, whereupon his father reprimanded him in a letter which is -remarkable for its laconic brevity: "Has Cæsarea, then, no graves, that -I should be obliged to send thee for this purpose to Tiberias? Study -must precede practical work." Abbahu was the last important personage -of Judæa during Talmudical times. For fifteen successive centuries -it had given birth to intellectual giants, judges, generals, kings, -prophets, poets, soferim, patriots, teachers of the Law. It now ceased -to produce, and brought forth no new celebrities into the world. When -Abbahu died, says the legend, the statues of Cæsarea wept for him. - -In Babylonia, on the contrary, the lively ardor and activity begun by -Rab and Samuel, the founders of the study of the Law in their native -land, continued to increase after their death. During the half-century -over which their labors had extended, the study of the Law had taken -so deep a root that the plant throve better in foreign than in its -native soil. A lively emulation to acquire a knowledge of the Law, -and to regulate their life by this standard, possessed all classes -of society. It was accounted the highest honor to be recognized as a -master of the Law (Zorba-me-Rabbanan), and the greatest disgrace to be -reckoned among the ignorant. The immorality which had formerly obtained -in Jewish Babylon vanished together with the gross ignorance, and -domestic and public life fashioned itself according to the ideal which -had been inculcated with such enthusiasm by the two great teachers, Rab -and Samuel. Babylonia assumed, in many respects, the rôle of the Holy -Land, even as regards the contributions to the priests, which seem, -however, to have been applied to the uses of the teachers of the Law: -learning was of more account than the priesthood. Babylonia had become -a regular Jewish state, whose constitution was the Mishna, and whose -public props were the Prince of the Captivity and the school assembly. -This impetus to a higher life also communicated itself to the princes -of the captivity, and they likewise applied themselves to the study -of the Law. Nehemia and Ukban, Rab's grandchildren, and Nathan, their -father, were appointed Resh-Galutas in this generation; by reason of -their intimate knowledge of the Halacha they received the title of -honor of Rabbana. This happy movement, which permeated all classes -of Jewish society in Babylonia, was a sign that Judaism was not yet -dead, but still possessed sufficient vigor to put forth new shoots. -It was furthered to the utmost of their power by the successors of -Rab and Samuel, of whom the most prominent were: Huna, who was the -chief teacher of the Sora academy, and at the same time was regarded -as religious head both in Babylon and abroad; Judah ben Ezekiel, who -founded a new school in Pumbeditha, and introduced a new method of -studying the Halacha; Nachman b. Jacob, who transferred his academy -to Shekan-Zib on the Tigris, after the destruction of Nahardea (259); -and finally Chasda, Sheshet, and Rabba bar Abbahu. Almost all of these -Amoraïm possessed their own peculiar tendency, and thus variety and -diversity were introduced into the narrow circle of scholars in the -Babylonian schools. - -Huna was born about 212, at Dio Kart, and died in 297. He was Rab's -successor in Sora, and the authority of this period, to whom, as -already narrated, the Amoraïm of Judæa voluntarily subordinated -themselves. The story of his life presents at once a perfect picture -of the manners of this period, and shows how indefatigable zeal for -the Law went hand in hand with secular occupations, with agriculture -and other industries. Although related to the Prince of the Captivity, -Huna was not originally wealthy. He cultivated his small field with his -own hands, and was not ashamed of his labor. He used to remark to his -visitors, who came to him to judge their differences, "Bring me a man -to till my ground and I will be your judge." Often he returned home -from the field with his spade upon his shoulder. He was once perceived -in this condition by Chama b. Anilaï, the richest, and at the same -time the most charitable and generous man in Babylonia. This liberal -man almost realized the ideal in his exercise of the Jewish virtue of -being a father to the poor. Bread was baked day and night in his house -for the relief of the poor, doors were placed on all sides, so that all -who were needy might enter, and he who came hungry into the house left -it satisfied. When Chama went out he held his hand continually in his -purse, so as not to be obliged to keep those who felt ashamed to ask -for charity in a painful situation while he was searching for his money. - -At the time of the famine he caused wheat and barley to be left -about at night for such persons as were prevented by their sense of -honor from mixing with beggars. If an extraordinary tax was to be -levied, Chama was certain to take a large share of the burden upon -his own shoulders. This beneficent person possessed so much modesty, -notwithstanding his extraordinary wealth, that whenever he met Huna -returning from his labor, with his spade upon his shoulder, he begged -to be allowed to carry it for him, out of reverence for the principal -of the school. Huna, however, never permitted him to do this: "Thou art -not accustomed to do such a thing in thine own town, therefore will I -not allow it here." - -Later on Huna grew rich, and had his fields cultivated by laborers, -who received a portion of the crops; his cattle grazed on the steppes -of South Babylonia. He employed his wealth in the most noble manner. -On stormy days, when the winds which blow from the Syrian desert -devastated the country and covered the city with ruins, he used to -go about in a litter, in order to inspect the houses in Sora, and -pull down any walls which might be in a falling condition. If the -proprietors were not in a position to build their houses up again, Huna -would have it done at his own expense. During the hours of meals, all -the doors in his house were left open, and it was announced in a loud -voice that all who were needy might enter and be satisfied. Other tales -are related of his eager and assiduous charity. The indigent scholars -who attended his school, which was situated in the neighborhood of -Sora were maintained at his expense during the months of study, -although their numbers were anything but small. Eight hundred attended -his lectures, and there were thirteen expositors placed in different -parts of the building, whose duty it was to make the discourse audible -and intelligible to the whole assembly. The profound reverence with -which his noble character, his erudition, and his modesty inspired his -friends, was nevertheless incapable of blinding them to his faults, -however small they were. The teachers of the Law were extremely severe -with regard to one another's conduct, and were unrelenting towards any -of their number who did not come up to the ideal of the Law. - -It was during the time of Huna that public life in Babylonia, which -was in most intimate connection with the schools, became organized -in a manner that was unchanged for almost eight centuries. Gradually -and involuntarily there was formed a hierarchy of the principal and -subordinate dignitaries. The school, which met, as already mentioned, -during certain months of the year, was called the Metibta (session), -and the principal member of this assembly was known as the Resh-Metibta -(Director). Next in rank to the President came the Reshe-Kalla -(Professors), whose duty consisted in elucidating during the first -three weeks of the Kalla month, the theme which the Principal would -take as the text of his discourses. The judicial offices were separated -from the professorships; as justice was still meted out, according to -ancient custom, before the gates of the city, the judges were called, -by reason of this circumstance, the _Dayane-di-Baba_ (Judges of the -Gate). In matters of theory they were subordinate to the Principal; -they were appointed by the Prince of the Captivity, on whom they were -dependent in matters of practice. - -For forty years Huna presided over the Metibta, and by reason of his -undisputed authority, Babylonia became completely independent of Judæa. -He boldly acted upon the principle which his master Rab had been unable -to carry through, and placed Babylonia on a footing of equality with -Judæa as regarded the Law. "We consider being in Babylon just the same -as being in the Holy Land," was a principle first established by Huna. -He thus broke the last tie that united the land of the captivity to the -mother-country, or perhaps it would be more accurate to say that he -merely gave expression to the actual state of things, for, as a matter -of fact, Babylonia far surpassed Judæa. Only as a mark of respect, or -in case it was desired to obtain a solemn sanction of an opinion, was -it usual in Babylonia to obtain a decision from the Holy Land. During -the period over which Huna's labors extended, the Sora Metibta bore -sway in Babylonia. - -Huna died suddenly (297) when over eighty years of age, leaving his -fame and his virtues to his son Rabba. The highest honors were paid to -his remains by his friends and pupils. The funeral discourse opened -with the following words: "Huna deserved that the Holy Spirit should -descend upon him." His corpse was carried to Judæa, probably in -execution of his dying wish; there it was met by the most distinguished -men, such as Assi and Ami, who procured its interment in the vault of -Chiya, another Babylonian. It gradually became a pious custom to be -buried in Judæa's holy earth, to which was attributed an expiatory -power. The resurrection was confidently expected to take place in that -country, which, it was also believed, would be the scene of the coming -of the Messiah. Those who had died in unhallowed countries would roll -about in the light, loose earth, until they reached the Holy Land, -where they would again be revivified. In place of living inhabitants, -who were continually decreasing, Judæa was becoming every day more -thickly populated with corpses. The Holy Land, which had formerly been -one immense temple, inspiring great deeds and noble thoughts, was now a -holy grave, which could render nothing holy but death. Of the numerous -sanctuaries which had formerly existed, the dust alone now remained -as an object of veneration. The entire central region of Judæa, the -mountains of the King, was so exclusively inhabited by heathens, that -it was proposed to declare it exempt from the tribute to the priests. - -The antithesis and complement to Huna was his younger comrade, Judah -ben Ezekiel (born 220, died 299). Although he had been a disciple of -Rab, Judah seems to have inclined more to Samuel, whose characteristics -he inherited. He possessed a strongly marked personality, and was -highly talented, but at the same time had so many angles and edges -that he was continually coming into collision with persons and -circumstances. He was the descendant of an ancient Jewish stock, which -was, perhaps, able to trace back its origin to families mentioned -in the Bible, and for this reason he was unusually susceptible on -the point of nobility of blood and purity of descent. A friend of -simplicity in most matters, he vehemently attacked all who gave the -preference to artificial refinement. Although he held the Holy Land -in great reverence, he nevertheless blamed those who left Babylonia -in order to be educated in the schools of Judæa, and was unrelenting -towards such of his friends and pupils as emigrated thither. Judah -founded for the first time an academy in Pumbeditha, which city, -since the destruction of Nahardea, had become the center for northern -Babylonia, as Sora was for the south. The Pumbeditha school, which, -under Judah, was second only to the Soranian, attained in later times -to the position of the leading academy. For nearly eight centuries it -asserted its pre-eminence with but few intermissions, and was almost -the last remnant of Jewish antiquity which beheld unmoved the birth of -a new epoch. - -True to the character of the inhabitants of his native city, Judah -ben Ezekiel allowed the intellect to predominate so greatly over the -heart, that he only consecrated one day in each month to prayer, the -rest of the time being devoted to the study of the Law. He had already -been distinguished by Samuel as the "acute," and later on became the -creator of that acute system of dialectics which in former times had -gained a transitory acceptance in Judæa, and now became current in -and indigenous to Babylonia. This system differed materially from -that employed by the Tanaites, for it went direct to the heart of -the matter, while the other clung to the formulæ of the rules of -interpretation. Judah's discourses were confined solely and simply -to the treatment of matters of jurisprudence, as occult comparisons -and distinctions, deductions and applications, here find their proper -place, and theory and practice go hand in hand. The remaining portions -of the Mishna were neglected at Judah's school; he seems, in fact, -to have experienced a sort of aversion to studying such parts of -it as contained Halachas treating of the laws of Levitical purity -which had fallen into disuse. Under Judah's influence, the extensive -subject-matter of the Law shrank to the contracted dimensions of a -sphere in which nothing was included but what was applicable to reality -and everyday life. He introduced the precise custom of communicating -not only the matter of the traditions, but even the names of the -persons who had handed them down. Nevertheless, it is remarkable -that his own brother, Rami (R. Ami), questioned the accuracy of the -traditions handed down by him, and even gave him the lie direct. -"Accept not the decrees," he would often exclaim, "which my brother -Judah puts forward under the name of Rab or Samuel; but thus and -thus were they handed down." In another respect also, Rami was the -opponent of his brother; he quitted Babylonia and emigrated to Judæa, -although Judah severely censured such a course, which, he considered, -constituted no slight crime against religion. He even regarded the -return of the Babylonian exiles under Ezra and Zerubbabel as a -violation of the Law, and considered that it had better never have come -about; for the prophet Jeremiah had impressed on the captives that they -should also die in Babylon. The only excuse which he found for the -pious Ezra and his emigration was the assertion that the latter had led -to Judæa such families as were of doubtful origin, in order to prevent -their intermarrying with those whom he left behind. - -As has already been mentioned, another of Judah's peculiarities was -an extreme severity with regard to the purity of the race. He was -so particular on this point that he delayed marrying his son Isaac -long after the latter had reached maturity, because he was not -certain whether the family from which he desired to procure him a -wife was spotless beyond all dispute. Upon this point his friend Ulla -pertinently remarked: "How do we know for certain that we ourselves are -not descended from the heathens who violated the maidens of Zion at -the siege of Jerusalem?" Judah's punctiliousness with regard to purity -of descent caused him many a vexation. There once came to Pumbeditha -a distinguished citizen of Nahardea, who claimed to be descended -from the Hasmonæans, perhaps from the unfortunate king, Hyrcanus II, -who had resided in Babylonia for several years. This Nahardean, who -was connected with the most esteemed families of his native town, -was exceedingly vexed that Judah ben Ezekiel should be conceded the -priority on every occasion, and once exclaimed scornfully: "Who is -this Judah bar Sheveskeel?" When this tale came to Judah's ears, he -excommunicated the Nahardean for his irreverence, and when he heard -that the latter actually called all persons slaves, he was so carried -away by his passion that he publicly stigmatized him as a descendant -of slaves. In consequence of this insult, the Nahardean complained -to Nachman, the son-in-law of the Prince of the Captivity. Nachman, -who was as overbearing as Judah was passionate, sent the latter a -summons to appear before him to justify his conduct. The Principal of -Pumbeditha was not a little astonished at thus being called upon to -give an account of his conduct to Nachman, who was not only younger, -but of less consequence than himself. Huna, however, with whom he took -counsel, prevailed upon him to comply with this summons out of regard -for the Prince of the Captivity. - -Owing to his profound learning, his acuteness of intellect, and his -estimable character, Judah enjoyed undisputed authority both in -Babylonia and abroad. When Huna died Judah was chosen by the Sora -Metibta as their Principal (297); under him and his successor there was -but a single academy which was recognized by every one. His authority -was recognized even in Judæa. He once excommunicated a certain -distinguished member of the Metibta whose reputation was attacked. When -the latter visited him on the occasion of his last illness, he openly -stated that he was proud of having spared not even such a man out of -regard for his position. As Judah died without having raised the ban, -it was necessary to appeal to the Patriarch, in accordance with the -custom which obtained in such cases. Judah had only held the office of -general Resh-Metibta for two years when he died at a ripe old age. - -The college elected in Judah's place the octogenarian, Chasda of Cafri -(born 217, died 309). He was one of Rab's disciples, and entertained -so great a reverence for his teacher that he committed to memory all -the decisions which the latter had ever given, and promised a reward -to any one who would communicate to him any unknown trait of "our -great master," as he called him. Chasda is known as the most fortunate -of the Amoraïm. Originally poor, he was afterwards blessed with such -extraordinary gifts of fortune that his wealth became proverbial. -Sixty marriages were celebrated in his house, and it is said that -no member of his family died during his lifetime. Although he had -attended Huna's discourses, his method of instruction rather resembled -that employed by Judah; he was extremely fond of acute explanations. -Chasda's superiority over Huna, which he caused the latter to feel on -one occasion, contributed to the creation of an estrangement between -the two, which, it is said, lasted for forty years. In consequence -of this difference Chasda appears to have withdrawn from Sora to the -neighboring town of Cafri, but there he felt isolated and slighted. -Once when the college of Sora appealed to him for his opinion of some -dubious case, he took offense and exclaimed: "What! do you even pick up -damp wood? Probably you expect to find a treasure beneath it." While -Huna still held the post of Principal, Chasda erected a school in -Sora at his own expense (293), but he still retained the position of -disciple with regard to the former, and gave no decisions in practice. -It was not until Judah's death that he was appointed Principal of the -college; he held this office for ten years, and died in 309 at the age -of ninety-two. - -His Halachic opponent was Mar-Sheshet, who like himself had been a -disciple of Rab and a pupil of Huna. Sheshet's memory was so retentive -that he knew by heart not only the whole Mishna, but also all the -Boraïtas. Whenever Chasda and Sheshet met, the former was dismayed at -his opponent's imposing array of Boraïtas, while the latter trembled -at Chasda's subtle expositions. He was, in fact, a sworn enemy of -that hair-splitting style of teaching which Judah had introduced into -the Pumbedithan school, and which had quickly degenerated into mere -subtilty. Whenever a person started any specious objection, Sheshet -would ironically inquire: "Comest thou not from Pumbeditha, where they -can pass an elephant through the eye of a needle?" Sheshet's relations -with the Resh-Galuta of this period afford a striking proof of the -neglect into which religious practices had fallen in the house of the -Prince of the Captivity, and of the uncouth barbarity which still -continued to rule there. Whenever the Resh-Galuta invited Sheshet to -partake of his hospitality he was met by a repeated refusal. Upon -being urged to explain the cause of this incivility, Sheshet answered -that the slaves of the Resh-Galuta had not yet abandoned the custom -of cutting the meat that was to be served in the banquet from living -animals. Although the Prince of the Captivity may have been ignorant of -this barbarous habit of his servants, it is nevertheless apparent that -he paid no great attention to the religious conduct of his household. -It was not unusual for the slaves of the Prince of the Captivity to -indulge in practical jokes at the expense of the teachers of the Law -who visited their master, often shutting them up in the dungeons. -Nothing further is known of Sheshet, except that after the destruction -of Nahardea he founded a school at Silhi on the Tigris. - -The youngest member of this circle of the Amoraim was Nachman ben -Jacob, one of Samuel's disciples (born about 235, died 324). He was -the representative of that haughty self-reliance of the Babylonian -Jews, which was founded upon their prosperity, their independence, -and the certainty of a livelihood. He was a son-in-law of the Prince -of the Captivity, whose daughter, Yalta, he had married after the -death of her first husband, and he possessed to the full the pride, -ostentation, and arrogance characteristic of the princely house. Like -any oriental prince, he was attended by eunuchs, ready at a moment's -notice to make their master's exalted position felt by any one who -should dare depreciate his reputation. He had been appointed chief -judge by his father-in-law, and was so proud of this dignity, that -when his colleagues attempted to place themselves on an equality with -him, he forcibly reminded them that he alone was competent to act -as judge. He even did not hesitate to decide many cases without the -assistance of his colleagues, although it was considered an arrogant -act to sit in judgment alone. His character was devoid of gentleness -and humanity. Once when the slaves of the Resh-Galuta had forcibly -dispossessed an old woman of some building materials, in order to erect -a tabernacle therewith, he was appealed to by the latter to award her -redress for this violation of the Law: "The Prince of the Captivity and -his doctors," said she, "are sitting in a stolen tabernacle." Nachman, -however, scarcely listened to her; whereupon she pointedly exclaimed, -"I am the daughter of a man (Abraham) who possessed 318 slaves, and -cannot even find a hearing for my complaint!" To this remark Nachman -returned a harsh answer, and finally decreed that at most she was -only entitled to compensation for the stolen materials. He was even -less considerate in his treatment of his slaves, whose sense of human -dignity he outraged in a manner revolting to morality. His female -slaves were not permitted to contract any lasting union, but were given -in turn to different men, according as such changes were considered to -afford a better chance of profit. In this he was entirely unlike his -master, Samuel, who united his male and female slaves in lawful wedlock -for life. - -Even the teachers of the Law were treated by Nachman with imperiousness -and disdain. His wife, Yalta, the daughter of the Prince of the -Captivity, had, contrary to custom, committed her child by her first -husband to the custody of a nurse, so as to be able to marry Nachman. -She even exceeded her husband in pride, and possessed all the whims -and insolence of a petty oriental princess. She exacted homage of -the learned men with whom her husband associated; and when, on one -occasion, Ulla withheld his respects, she insulted him of set purpose. -He was in the habit of making frequent journeys between Palestine and -Babylonia, and was probably also poor. It was with reference to these -two points that Yalta observed of him, "Travelers are full of twaddle, -and rags of vermin." - -Jewish jurisprudence is indebted to Nachman for an important decision, -the account of the origin of which affords some indication as to the -state of morality at this period. According to the principles of the -old Jewish code, when a person was summoned before the court to answer -for a debt, and insufficient evidence was forthcoming against him, -he was only allowed to purge the charge by an oath, if he partially -admitted the claim; if he repudiated it altogether, no oath could be -administered. This law was based upon the assumption that every one -was actuated by motives of patriarchal probity, which rendered them -incapable of the audacity of openly repudiating a just claim. But this -simple honesty could no longer be assumed to exist; on the contrary, -it had been supplanted by a certain wily cunning, which succeeded, by -reason of the wide-spread knowledge of the Law, in availing itself of -the letter in order to evade the spirit. It was for this reason that -Nachman, profiting by experience, introduced the oath of purgation -(Shebuot hesset) in those cases where the claim was totally denied, and -this decision eventually obtained the force of law. As has already -been mentioned, Nachman emigrated from Nahardea after its destruction, -and established himself in Shakan-Zib, the inhabitants of which were -notorious for their love of mockery. It is not related whether he again -transferred his residence to Nahardea, after that city was restored. - -A connecting link between Judæa and Babylonia, of which two countries -the former was slowly declining while the latter was gradually coming -to the fore, was formed by Zeïra, who was the highest authority -in Judæa during the following generation. The history of this man -brings into prominent relief the opposition existing between the -mother-country and the Babylonian colony. He had been a pupil of Huna -and Judah, but was dissatisfied with the method of teaching employed -in Babylonia, and yearned for the simple method of the Amoraïm, which -obtained in the schools of Galilee. He hesitated to quit Babylonia, -however, in deference to Judah's dislike of emigration. When, at last, -he stole away, so to speak, from his native country, his longing to -behold the Holy Land was so irresistible, that he ventured to cross the -Jordan by a rope, so as not to lose time in searching for a bridge. A -Christian who was witness of the traveler's haste, remarked reprovingly -to Zeïra: "You Jews have not yet abandoned your old fault of -precipitancy, which showed itself among you at Mount Sinai"; whereupon -the latter rejoined: "Ought I to delay a single moment to enter the -Holy Land, the sight of which was not even vouchsafed to Moses and -Aaron, our teachers?" - -Arrived at Tiberias, Zeïra endeavored to forget the minute analysis -which constituted the Babylonian method of teaching. The legend adds -that he fasted for forty days, in order to give weight to his prayers, -in which he entreated that the hateful Babylonian system might vanish -entirely from his memory. Judæa and its peculiar method, on the other -hand, seemed to him to be surrounded with a halo of glory, and "the -atmosphere of the Holy Land appeared to him pregnant with wisdom." The -characteristic tendency of Babylonia, however, had gained so strong -a hold on his mind that he was unable to free himself from it, even -in Judæa. However greatly he strove to acquire the simplicity of the -Judæan method, he never succeeded in entirely eradicating the influence -of the Babylonian rational analysis, and it was on account of this very -superiority which he himself failed to recognize, that he was held -in high esteem by the Amoraïm of Judæa. The dignity of teacher was -conferred upon him within a very short time. His modesty was so great, -however, that, like King Saul, he hid himself, and only consented to -be ordained when it was represented to him that remission of sins -was attached thereto. In the encomium which it had become customary -to recite on the occasion of an ordination, allusion was made to -Zeïra's small, insignificant figure, in the following terms: "Without -brilliancy, without glitter, but not without charm." He became one of -the authorities of Judæa, together with Ami, Assi, and Abbahu, all of -whom he outlived. At his grave a poet recited an elegy, which shows -better taste than most of the verses produced on similar occasions; it -ran somewhat as follows:-- - - "To him whom fruitful Sinear hath borne, - The Holy Land a crown of wisdom lent; - And sad Tiberias droops her head, to mourn - For him who was her chiefest ornament." - - - - -CHAPTER XXI. - -THE TRIUMPH OF CHRISTIANITY AND ITS RELATIONS TO JUDAISM. - - Hillel II.--His Calendar--Heads of Judæan Schools: Jonah, José, - and Jeremiah--The Expansion of Christianity--Constantine--The - Decadence of the Jewish Schools in Babylonia--The Pumbeditha - School--Development of Talmudical Dialectics--The Persian Queen - Ifra and her son Shabur II.--The Emperor Julian--Favor shown - towards the Jews--Proposed Rebuilding of the Temple--Roman - Tolerance. - - 320.375 C. E. - - -The period during which Christendom asserted its triumphant sway marked -a decisive crisis in the history of nations, and closed also an epoch -in Jewish history. The harvest which had slowly and invisibly been -maturing during the preceding centuries was now ripe. Christianity, -although hated and persecuted, had still remained defiant, and at -last disarmed its enemies by drawing them within the circle of its -influence. The Roman Empire, which seems to have felt an instinctive -dread of its approaching dissolution through the religion of Christ, -submitted to baptism, thus prolonging its assigned length of existence -by the space of a century and a half. Heathenism, which was nourished -by and in turn bred irrational ideas, deceit, and immorality, was -obliged to surrender its life of shams, and make room for another form -of religion. - -The new religion which thus pressed triumphantly to the fore, -possessed innumerable advantages over heathenism, in that it laid -down in theory as a fundamental principle, a worthier conception of -God and a purer morality, although it was very far from conforming -in practice to these tenets. At the same time as Rome and Italy lost -their importance and retained only a shadow of their former greatness, -Judæa and Tiberias, which had taken the place of Jerusalem, sank into -insignificance. Like Italy, the seat of heathen civilization, Judæa was -impoverished and stunted by Christianity. By means of the political -power to which this religion now attained--the possession of the -imperial dignity placing the axe of the lictors and the sword of the -legions under its command--Judæa was soon deprived of its intellectual -life, and the school of Tiberias lost the power of attraction which it -had so long exercised, and sank into decadence. - -While Babylonia was raised during the next fifty years to the pinnacle -of its fame by the exertions of three original Amoraïm, Rabba, Abayi, -and Raba, the Judæan Amoraïm of this period were of no importance. -The few men of these times whose names have survived are Chaggai, -who became an authority by reason of his age, Jonah II and José, the -disciples and successors of Ami and Assi. The sole recognized authority -of Judæa was Jeremiah; but he was an emigrant from Babylonia, where -he had been so little appreciated that he had been turned out of -the schools. The office of Patriarch also sank at this period into -complete insignificance, its holder, Hillel II, having in imitation -of his great-grandfather Hillel, self-denyingly resigned a portion of -his power. It is remarkable that at the same time as the Patriarchate -lost all consequence in Judæa, it acquired a showy splendor abroad, as -if the corpse were being adorned before being lowered into the grave. -During the last century of the existence of the office, the Patriarchs -received the pompous titles of "Highness" (_illustres_), "Worshipful" -(_spectabiles_), "Famous" (_clarissimi_), which titles they enjoyed -in conjunction with the highest dignitaries of the State, with whom, -to all appearances, they were thus placed on an equality. "Let him who -dares to publicly insult the illustrious Patriarchs be visited with -severe punishment," commands an imperial edict, which, although dating -from a later period, rests nevertheless on the earlier legislation -affecting the Patriarchs. - -The Emperor Constantine, who had aggrandized the Church, and laid the -dominion of the earth at her feet, had at the same time given her the -doubtful blessing, "By the sword thou shalt live." He had originally -placed Judaism, as a religion, on an equal footing with the other -forms of worship existing in the Roman Empire. For, before adopting -the Christian faith, and determining above all things to put a stop -to religious persecutions throughout his dominions, Constantine had -published a sort of edict of toleration, wherein he had commanded that -every man should enjoy the right of professing any religion without -thereby becoming an outlaw. The Jews were likewise included in this act -of toleration, and their patriarchs, elders, and the principals of the -schools and synagogues enjoyed the same privileges as the Christian -ecclesiastics and the heathen priests. These decisions continued in -force, and in later times were sanctioned by new laws, although another -spirit began to sway the newly-founded Byzantine court. The rule was -established that the members of the synagogue who dedicated themselves -to the Law, the Patriarchs, Priests, and other religious officials, -should be relieved from all municipal and other onerous offices. Taking -as models the constitution of the Roman priesthood, and the Christian -system of bishops, the Patriarch of Judæa was regarded as the chief -of all the Jews in the Roman Empire. Constantine's impartial justice, -however, lasted but a short time. The more Christianity asserted its -influence over him, the more did he affect the intolerance of that -religion, which, forgetful of its origin, entertained as passionate a -hatred of Judaism and its adherents as of heathenism. Sylvester, Bishop -of Rome, Paul, afterwards Bishop of Constantinople, the new capital, -and Eusebius of Cæsarea, the first historian of the Church, did not -fail to incite the inhabitants of the empire against the Jews. Judaism -was stigmatized as a noxious, profligate, godless sect (_feralis_, -_nefaria secta_) which ought to be exterminated from the face of -the earth wherever possible. An imperial edict was published to the -effect that the Jews were no longer to make converts, those entering, -as well as those receiving newcomers into the faith being threatened -with punishment (315). Finally the proselytism of the Christians -was afforded the aid of the State, and the Jews were forbidden to -pronounce upon such of the members of their community as apostatized -the punishment which Christianity was, however, permitted to inflict in -a terribly aggravated degree upon its own adherents who left its fold. -"All who dare attack the apostates with stones or in any other manner, -shall be delivered to the flames, together with their accomplices." It -was impossible, in fact, that Jews without fixed opinions should not -be tempted by Constantine's decided leaning towards Christianity, and -the prospect of profit, to change their religion. The Church expressly -aimed, by all sorts of promises, at seducing the weaker members of the -Jewish community from their faith, laying especial emphasis on the -disadvantages which would accrue from adherence to Judaism, and on the -benefits which the apostate would derive from the State. "Why do you -suffer death for your God? See to what punishments and pillagings He -has condemned you! Come to us; we will make you dukes, and governors -and captains." "The sinful Roman Empire, the son of thy mother, -attempts to make the faithful waver," such were the texts from which -the public orators of the synagogue had henceforth to preach. The -privileges of the Jews were abolished by Constantine--as, for instance, -in the city of Cologne--and it was decreed by him that, with the -exception of two or three men, all of them were liable to be called -upon to fill the burdensome municipal offices. - -Then the world witnessed the hitherto undreamt-of spectacle of the -first general convocation of Nice, consisting of several hundred -bishops and priests, with the emperor at their head (325). Christianity -thought to celebrate its triumph, but only succeeded in betraying its -weakness and internal disunion. For on the occasion of this, its first -official appearance, in all the splendor of its plenitude of spiritual -and temporal power, there remained no trace of its original character. -The Essenean doctrine of humility, brotherly love, and community of -possessions; the Pauline zeal for morality and sound opinions; the -ardor of the Alexandrian school for scientific erudition;--all had -vanished. Dogmatical disputes, whether Christ the Son was equal to -the Father, whether he resembled or differed from him, disputes all -the more bitterly carried on because of the impossibility of settling -the question either way,--these were the points which henceforward -constituted the foreground of the history of the Church which was -destined to represent the history of the world. At the Council of Nice -the last thread was snapped which connected Christianity with its -parent stock. The festival of Easter had up till now been celebrated -for the most part at the same time as the Jewish Passover, and indeed -upon the days calculated and fixed by the Synhedrion in Judæa for -its celebration; but in future its observance was to be rendered -altogether independent of the Jewish calendar, "For it is unbecoming -beyond measure that on this the holiest of festivals we should follow -the customs of the Jews. Henceforward let us have nothing in common -with this odious people; our Savior has shown us another path. It -would indeed be absurd if the Jews were able to boast that we are -not in a position to celebrate the Passover without the aid of their -rules (calculations)." These remarks are attributed to the Emperor -Constantine, and even though they may not have been uttered by him, -they were nevertheless the guiding principle of the Church which was -now to decide the fate of the Jews. - -The first utterance of Christianity on the very day of its victory -betrayed its hostile attitude towards the Jews, and gave rise to -those malignant decrees of Constantine and his successors, which -laid the foundation of the bloody persecutions of subsequent -centuries. Constantine re-enacted--undoubtedly at the instigation of -the clergy--the law of Hadrian, which forbade the Jews to live in -Jerusalem. Only on the anniversary of the destruction of the city were -they allowed, on making certain payments to the officials, to mourn on -the ruins of the Temple. The clergy further succeeded in obtaining a -law from Constantine prohibiting the Jews from making converts among -the slaves. Christianity claimed the monopoly of expansion, and forbade -Judaism to increase its influence either by making proselytes or by -converting its slaves. Constantine seems, however, to have protected -the Jews against the arrogance of such of their brethren as had gone -over to Christianity; these converts, for the most part possessed of -no fixed opinions, attempted to revenge themselves on their former -fellow-countrymen and co-religionists. One of these apostates, Joseph -by name, seems at this period to have vigorously persecuted the -Palestinean Jews. He had been one of the assessors of the Patriarch in -the Synhedrion of Tiberias, and had been entrusted with the honorable -office of delegate and envoy to the communities of Cilicia. There he -had frequently associated in secret with a bishop, and had obtained the -writings of the New Testament to read. The Cilician Jews raised doubts -as to his orthodoxy, and as, in addition to this, he was not greatly -beloved, on account of his high-handed treatment of the teachers and -religious dignitaries, some of whom he even degraded, certain of -the Cilicians entered his residence by surprise, and discovered him -reading the gospel. How is it possible to blame the Jews of Cilicia -for venting upon his person their indignation at his deceit? They are -said to have thrown him into the river Cydnus, and he is supposed to -have escaped death only by a miracle. Nothing now remained for Joseph -but to publicly announce his adoption of Christianity. If he is to -be believed, many Jews, including the most learned and worthy among -them, nourished at this period a secret predilection for Christianity. -Joseph even relates a thoroughly incredible tale of the aged Patriarch -(probably Judah III), according to which the latter was a secret -adherent of the religion of Jesus, and feeling a desire to be baptized, -he invited a bishop from the neighborhood of Tiberias, under pretext of -obtaining his medical advice. - -The Christian clergy of Palestine, and probably the bishop Eusebius, -who stood in high favor with the emperor, took care that Joseph should -be well rewarded for his apostasy. Constantine conferred upon him -the dignity of Comes, which carried with it a sort of immunity from -punishment in case of misdemeanor or violation of the law. He was -also granted permission by the emperor to build the first churches -of Galilee--at Tiberias, Sepphoris (Dio-cæsarea), Nazareth, and -Capernaum--where but few Christians had hitherto resided. - -The Patriarch's son and successor, Hillel II, who is said to have -been still a minor at the death of his father, was defamed by Joseph -with a twofold purpose; he desired, in the first place, to brand with -infamy, simply by the force of calumny, a fellow-countryman of exalted -position who had sufficient reason to hate him; and secondly, he wished -to attest the miraculous power of the sign of the cross. He is said to -have been appointed guardian and tutor to the young Patriarch, of whom -he related that, being led astray by his youthful companions, he had -abandoned himself to a life of indulgence, and had even seduced honest -and virtuous women by the use of magical arts. This same Patriarch, -Hillel II, who flourished from about 320 to 365, was, however, one of -the most estimable successors of the elder Hillel; he was certainly no -votary of Christianity, and was favored by an emperor who likewise had -reason to dislike the arrogant Church. - -It was in reality under Constantius (327-330), the fratricide and -arch-persecutor of heretics, that the Christian rule was introduced -into the Roman empire, and that the misfortunes of the Jews commenced. -If the champions of the Church had not been blinded by vindictiveness -and dogmatism, they would necessarily have perceived that by accepting -the support of the political power they were acknowledging the -authority of a master and turning the spear against their own breasts. -The emperor Constantius could boldly exclaim, "Let my will be religion -and the law of the Church!" It was not the fathers of the Church who -decided questions of religion in the last instance, but the eunuchs -and the serving-women of the court. How could the Jews expect humane -treatment when the members of the Church, from the emperor down to the -most humble of his subjects, were prompted by a spirit of fanaticism -to persecute one another on account of verbal disputes? At the very -beginning of Constantius' reign, the Jewish teachers of the Law were -banished; in consequence of this decree several of them emigrated to -Babylonia. Among those who were exiled there were two who are known -by name: Dimé and Isaac bar Joseph. These persecutions seem to have -been aggravated in the course of time; the teachers of the Law were -threatened with death, whereby the stream of emigration from Judæa was -naturally increased. Abin and Samuel bar Judah were among the later -emigrants (337-338). The consequences of these events were the decline -of the Academy of Tiberias and the general decay of active teaching. -Up till then there had still existed a sort of Synhedrion, employing -the usual method of voting at its meetings; Haggai, Jonah, and José are -named as members of it. - -The sentiment of hostility, nourished by Constantius against the -Jews, also manifested itself in several laws concerning them. The -causes of this persecution remain involved in complete obscurity, -and it is impossible to ascertain whether the apostate Joseph, that -second Acher, was in any way connected therewith. Marriages between -Jews and Christian women, which appear to have been of not infrequent -occurrence, were punished with death under the emperor Constantius -(339). Of even greater consequence was the law concerning slaves which -was promulgated by him. Whereas his father had only forbidden the -admission of slaves into the Jewish community, and had simply punished -the transgression of this prohibition by declaring forfeited all -slaves so admitted, Constantius decreed (339) that the circumcision -of a Christian slave entailed the pain of death and the entire loss -of fortune. He even forbade the reception of heathen slaves into the -covenant of Judaism. The grounds for this law were twofold: it was -desired that Judaism should receive no increase through its adoption by -slaves, and also that Christians should not serve Jewish masters, "the -assassins of God." This preposterous view has been held by the Church -ever since, and prevails even at the present day, although in another -form. These restraints and rigors were by no means legal, for the Jews -were still reputed citizens of the Roman empire, and in consequence -of this equality with the other inhabitants, ought not to have been -subject to any exceptional laws. But what were right and law to this -emperor, who, as unscrupulous as he was weak, was swayed by the eunuchs -and the ecclesiastics of the court? His conceits and caprices were law. -Constantius, or the ecclesiastics of his court, were the founders of -the Christian State. - -The sufferings of the Jews became unbearable when Constantius sent -his cousin and co-emperor Gallus to the East to operate against -the ever-increasing power of the Persians (351). Gallus, who was -addicted to debauchery, abandoned the conduct of the war to his -legate Ursicinus. The latter, during three long years, worked more -dire distress in Judæa than any imperial master. As the Roman legions -were quartered in the cities of Judæa, Ursicinus made it the duty of -the Jewish inhabitants to furnish the provisions necessary for their -maintenance, and prosecuted his demands so inexorably that the Jewish -communities were thereby driven to violate the laws of their religion. -The Roman military officials demanded, for example, that the troops -should be supplied with new bread, even on the Sabbath and the feast -of unleavened bread. The communities of Judæa were so disheartened -that the teachers of the Law vied with one another in granting -indulgences and mitigating the severity of the Law. The two authorities -of Tiberias, Jonah and José, taught that it was lawful to bake for -Ursicinus' army on the Sabbath; and the teachers of Neve, a Gaulanite -town, permitted leavened bread to be baked for the legions during -Passover. In their distress the religious representatives quieted -their consciences with the excuse, which they deluded themselves into -believing, that the enemy did not expressly demand the transgression -of the Law, but simply required the regular supply of the army. But -Ursicinus' intention appears really to have been to institute a -religious persecution, for at Senbaris, a small town situated about -four miles from Tiberias, he burnt a scroll of the Law which had been -consecrated to the public use, and this act could not relate in any -way to the service of the army. Besides this, an intolerable weight -of taxes burdened the Jews of Palestine, who were for the most part -greatly impoverished. Among these burdens were the supply of natural -produce (corn and cattle), the payment of a poll-tax, of the tribute, -and, in addition thereto, of a tax levied on every trade, and of all -sorts of fines. The complaints which were uttered against these onerous -taxes found an echo in the pulpit. "In the same way as when a garment -hanging on a hedge of thorns has been disengaged from one side, it is -immediately torn by the other, so does it happen to us under the rule -of Esau (Rome). No sooner have the supplies of produce been carried off -than it is the turn of the poll-tax, and before this has been paid, the -tribute is demanded. Wicked Esau behaves with artful cunning towards -Israel. Thou hast stolen or killed. Thou hast not stolen? Who stole -with thee? Thou hast not killed? Who was thy accomplice? Pay down thy -fines, provide supplies, pay the poll-tax and other imposts." - -These multitudinous oppressions with which the Jews were visited -by the first Christian emperors, inspired them with the courage of -despair and roused them to a fresh revolt. Although but little is -known of this rebellion and its consequences, the accounts appearing -to be but lightly sketched, it is possible nevertheless to collect -some isolated particulars. The seat of the revolt was at Sepphoris, -where, under cover of the night, the Jews surprised the Roman troops -stationed there, slaughtered them, and gained possession of their -weapons. According to one account the Jews were led by a chief of the -name of Patricius or Patrick (Netira), whom they raised to the position -of prince. Masters of the mountain town of Sepphoris, they ventured -upon extensive incursions into the surrounding country, with a view to -revenging themselves on their enemies for the outrages to which they -had so long been subjected. Similar revolts must also have occurred -at this time in the two most important towns of Judæa, Tiberias and -Lydda, as well as at various other places. Thus the revolt acquired not -inconsiderable dimensions, and for this reason Constantius was obliged -to reinforce his colleague Gallus with fresh legions. With the aid of -these troops the latter completely suppressed the rebellion, but showed -so little mercy to the vanquished that not even the children were -spared. Many thousands of Jews fell as the victims of an insurrection -in which prudence had been overcome by despair. Sepphoris was razed to -the ground, and Tiberias, Lydda, and the other cities which had joined -the rebellion were partially destroyed (352). - -As had always been the case after similar rebellions, those who had -taken part in the revolt were hunted down, so that none of them might -escape punishment; the inhabitants of Sepphoris, being the originators -of the rising, were most rigorously sought out by Ursicinus. In order -to escape this persecution they made themselves unrecognizable by -masking their faces, and by this means escaped detection for a while. -At last, however, traitors came forward and informed the authorities -of the deceit practised by the Sepphorians, and the latter were -accordingly seized and executed on the spot. Many of the refugees had -meanwhile hidden themselves in the subterranean passages of Tiberias, -where they were safe from the Romans. Huna relates: "When we took -refuge in the subterranean passages, we had torches with us; if they -showed but a feeble light, we knew that it was day, while when they -burned more brightly we perceived that night was at hand." According to -this, the refugees must have passed some time in these caverns. - -Meanwhile Constantius appears to have re-enacted Hadrian's edict -against the Jews, for the discharge of religious duties was prohibited, -and even the computation of the calendar and trade in articles of -religious use were forbidden. When it was desired to inform Raba, -who was at this period the principal of the schools in Machuza, of -the intended intercalation of a month, and of the restraint laid on -the exercise of religion, it was necessary to adopt a mysterious and -enigmatical style, and to make use of obscure allusions. The news was -communicated in the following terms: "Men came from Reket (Tiberias), -and the eagle (the Romans) caught them; for they held in their hand -that which is fabricated at Luz (a blue-purple color for fringes). But -by God's mercy and their own merits, they have nevertheless escaped -in safety. The successors of Nachshon (Patriarch) desired to appoint -a supporter of the months (intercalated month), but the Arameans -(Romans) would not allow it; notwithstanding this, they assembled -and intercalated the month of the death of Aaron (Ab)." This secret -epistle to Babylonia betrays the distress which existed in Judæa at -this period. The dispersed and weakened Synhedrion must have been -prevented from inserting the usual supplementary month in the spring -(Adar), and must have been compelled to transpose it to some unusual -season which had not been sanctioned by the Law. On one occasion, about -this period, the Jews were forbidden to observe the Day of Atonement, -and were accordingly compelled to postpone it till the Sabbath. This -condition of distress in which Judæa was plunged was not at all altered -when the barbarous Gallus was put to death at Constantius' command, -and Ursicinus fell into disfavor (354). The adherents of Judaism were -regarded at the imperial court of Constantinople as simple atheists, -by reason of their refusal to recognize Jesus. This view gave rise -to the law (357) that all Christians who joined the "blasphemous" -communities of the Jews should incur the punishment of the forfeiture -of their possessions. The creatures of Constantius, Eusebius the -chamberlain among others, had specially aimed at the confiscation of -property, and they burdened the Jews with illegal taxes, heavy beyond -measure, hoping to exterminate them by impoverishment and exhaustion. -New tables of taxes had already been drawn up, with a view to still -further increasing their severity, on the pretext that as the Jews were -atheists they deserved no protection. They were delivered from this -oppression in an unexpected manner by the Emperor Julian, who differed -as greatly from his brother Gallus, as from his cousin and co-emperor, -Constantius. - -The miserable condition of Judæa was the occasion of an act of -self-renunciation on the part of the Patriarch Hillel, which has not -yet been thoroughly appreciated. The custom had prevailed up till now -of keeping secret the computation of the new moon and the leap year, -and of making known the times of the festivals to the communities in -the neighboring lands by announcing them by messengers. During the -persecutions under Constantius this method had proved itself to be -impracticable and useless. Whenever the Synhedrion was prevented from -fixing the date of the leap year, the Jewish communities in distant -countries were left in utter doubt concerning the most important -religious decisions. In order to put a stop to all difficulty and -uncertainty, Hillel II introduced a final and fixed calendar; that is -to say he placed at every one's disposal the means of establishing -the rules which had guided the Synhedrion up till then in the -calculation of the calendar and the fixing of the festivals. With -his own hand the Patriarch destroyed the last bond which united the -communities dispersed throughout the Roman and Persian empires with -the Patriarchate. He was more concerned for the certainty of the -continuance of Judaism than for the dignity of his own house, and -therefore abandoned those functions for which his ancestors, Gamaliel -II and Simon his son, had been so jealous and solicitous. The members -of the Synhedrion favored this innovation; they only desired that the -second day of the festivals, which had always been celebrated by the -communities not situated in Palestine, should not now be disregarded. -José addressed to the Alexandrian communities an epistle containing the -following words: "Although we have made you acquainted with the order -of the festivals, nevertheless change not the custom of your ancestors" -(_i. e._ to observe the second day of the festivals). The same -recommendation was also made to the Babylonians: "Adhere closely to the -customs of your fathers." This advice was conscientiously followed, and -the second day is observed by all the non-Palestinean communities even -at the present time. - -The method of calculating the calendar introduced by Hillel is so -simple and certain that up to the present day it has not required -either emendation or amplification, and for this reason is acknowledged -to be perfect by all who are competent to express an opinion on the -subject, whether Jews or non-Jews. The system is based upon a cycle -of nineteen years, in which seven leap years occur. Ten months in -every year are invariable, and consist alternately of twenty-nine and -thirty days; the two autumn months only which follow Tishri (the most -important of all the months) are left variable, as being dependent -on certain circumstances in astronomy and Jewish law. This and other -computations rest, however, on rules so simple, and are so plain and -easy, that the veriest tyro is thereby enabled to draw up a calendar -for a hundred, or even a thousand years. It has not been ascertained -how much of this system was invented by Hillel, and how much he owed to -tradition, for it is indisputable that certain astronomical rules were -regarded as traditional in the patriarchal house; in any case, Hillel -appears to have made use of Samuel's calendar. This calendar and the -year of its introduction are now known. It was published in the 670th -year of the Seleucidean era, the 359th of the common reckoning. - -The oppression which thus fell upon the inhabitants of Palestine, -and which gave rise to Hillel's calendar, augmented the importance -and influence of Babylonia, and although Christianity could boast of -having broken up the academies and destroyed, so to speak, the Temple -of the Law in Judæa, the destruction was nevertheless merely local. In -Babylonia the study of the Law acquired so vigorous an impetus that -the achievements of ancient times were almost eclipsed; the study of -the Law was now celebrating the period of its maturity. Two methods -of instruction in the traditions especially had developed, namely, -that of receiving the authentic terms of the traditions and handing -them down in exactly the same words, and that of making a fruitful -application of the same, and of further amplifying them. Each of these -methods was represented by one of the academies of Babylonia; Sora was -receptive, Pumbeditha creative. Altogether Sora can be regarded only -as a continuation of the academies of Judæa, as a sort of Babylonian -Tiberias; and although the spirit which reigned there underwent a -change under the influence of the Babylonian method, still the Soranian -school never furthered the cause of study to any appreciable extent. -It was Pumbeditha that raised learning to its highest level. The acute -scholars of Pumbeditha, produced by Judah ben Ezekiel's Academy, held -sway at this period over Babylonia and the dependent countries. The -leaders and representatives of this movement formed a triumvirate, -consisting of Rabba, and his comrades and disciples, Abayi and Raba. It -was these three that gave the finishing touch to the work of completing -the Talmud, or rather who raised the study of the Halacha to the rank -of an intellectual system of dialectics. - -Rabba bar Nachmani (born about 270, died 330) possessed, like the -family to which he belonged, certain original qualities. He was of a -family from Mamal or Mamala, a city of Galilee, the inhabitants of -which were for the most part descendants of Aaron, and members of the -family of Eli; they asserted that they participated in the curse with -which this house had been visited, and which prevented any of its -members from ever attaining extreme old age. Whoever went to Mamala was -astonished at seeing so many persons with black hair; a grey-haired man -was a rarity. - -Rabba had three brothers, whose names were Kailil, Ushaya, and -Chananya; all of them lived in the greatest poverty, which misfortune -they also ascribed to the curse resting on the house of Eli. Ushaya, -the younger, and Chananya, who had returned to Judæa, obtained -a precarious living as shoemakers. By reason of the scarcity of -customers, they were sometimes obliged to sell their work to -prostitutes. Nevertheless, their minds remained so pure and chaste -that they were never reproached with a single immodest glance; they -were consequently held in high esteem, and were known as the "saints -of the land of Israel." These two brothers applied themselves to -the Agada, the favorite study in Judæa, while Rabba, their sober -brother, who as a child had shown signs of great acuteness of mind, -evinced a predilection for the Halacha, in which province his labor -was epoch-making. He had determined to remain in Babylonia, and his -brothers, unable to quiet their apprehensions concerning his lot, used -all their endeavors to persuade him to come to Judæa. "It is not all -one," ran their message to him, "whether one dies in or out of Judæa; -for the Patriarch Jacob attached great weight to being buried in the -Holy Land. Although thou art learned, still it is better to have a -master than to educate thyself. And if thou thinkest that there is no -teacher of importance to be found in the academies of Judæa, we inform -thee that thou wouldst indeed find such a one here." In consequence -of this pressing invitation, and contrary to the principles of Judah, -his teacher, Rabba emigrated to Judæa. Some time after, however, he -returned to Babylonia, probably because he was dissatisfied with the -Judæan method of teaching. Rabba's worldly affairs are described -as most miserable, and are frequently contrasted with Chasda's -uninterrupted happiness. - -After the death of his teacher Judah in 299, the Pumbedithan College, -which was composed of lovers of dialectics, esteemed Rabba to be the -only person worthy of occupying the vacancy thus created in the school. -He was therefore offered the honor of becoming Judah's successor, but -his exceeding modesty induced him to decline the post. The vacancy -was eventually filled by Huna ben Chiya, whose wealth was so immense -that he furnished his audience in the lecture-room with gilded seats. -Although the greater number of the disciples frequented Sora, the -Pumbedithan Academy nevertheless counted 400 students. Both Rabba -and his friend Joseph associated themselves with the local academy, -and subordinated themselves to the principal, in order to prevent the -school from being deprived of the reputation which it had at last -succeeded in gaining. When it came to be known in what manner Huna ben -Chiya had acquired his wealth, which had been amassed by the farming -of tolls, he was given to understand that the dignity of teacher must -not be stained by association with that hateful trade, and that he must -give up either one or the other. Having abandoned the calling of farmer -of tolls, he was recognized by the college, which followed Rabba's -example, as a worthy principal of the academy. Joseph was the only -person who refused to acquiesce in the appointment. The not altogether -spotless reputation of its principal, however, threatened to become -a cause of ruin to the Pumbedithan Academy; care was therefore taken -after the death of Huna to make a better choice, in order to enlist -the sympathy of the people and to attract a numerous audience. Two men -appeared worthy to fill this post, Rabba bar Nachmani and Joseph ben -Chiya, the one distinguished for Talmudical dialectics, and the other -for Halachic erudition. The choice between the two was so difficult -that it was determined to take counsel of Judæa, and the following -question was accordingly asked: "Who possesses the superiority, Sinai -(man of learning), or the remover of mountains (man of acuteness)?" In -Tiberias, where the acute method of teaching, although not hated, was -nevertheless held in low esteem, the decision was given in favor of the -former. But Joseph entertained scruples against accepting this dignity. -His nativity had once been cast by a Chaldean, who had informed him -that he would obtain a position of great authority, but would not be -able to retain it longer than two years and six months, after which he -would die. In spite of the legal prohibition forbidding credence to be -given to the wisdom of the Chaldeans, the most noted teachers of the -Law were unable to free themselves from its influence; daily example -was stronger than the Law. Joseph having refused the post thus offered -to him, it was conferred upon Rabba (309), and in him the Pumbedithan -Academy found its ideal. - -Rabba restored anew to the academy its extinguished fame, and -attracted to his discourses a crowd of students, amounting at times -to as many as 1200. He did not confine his lectures to the practical -part of jurisprudence alone, as Judah had done, but treated of all -the subjects contained in the Mishna; he sought to reconcile the -various contradictions existing in the Mishna, the Boraitas, and the -additions made by the Amoraic authorities (Memra), and generally to -introduce clearness into the study of the Halacha. He even turned -his attention to the remote subject of the laws of Levitical purity, -which he succeeded in making comprehensible; but in this branch of -study, which had vanished out of every-day life, he stood quite -alone, a fact that he frequently lamented. He was distinguished by a -desire to enter deeply into the motives not only of the Pentateuch, -but also of the Sopheric and Mishnaic laws, and to draw conclusions -from them. The formulæ which he employed as an introduction to these -investigations ran as follows: "Wherefore has the Law commanded this?" -or "Why are such-and-such things prohibited by the teachers of the -Law?" His luminous conception and treatment of his subject invested -it with life, while the variety which he succeeded in imparting to -a dry theme by means of the occasional introduction of an Agadic -sentence made it both interesting and captivating. At times he would -entertain the students with interesting anecdotes before beginning -his discourse, and as soon as he thought that he had put them in a -cheerful temper, he would begin to treat of more serious and weighty -subjects. His guiding principle was that the soul must be prepared -for the reception of serious thoughts, and that this receptivity was -best awakened by cheerfulness. Rabba often put catch questions to his -pupils, or expressed paradoxical opinions, in order to test their -judgment or sharpen their intellect. Rabba holds the same important -position among the Amoraim, as Akiba among the Tanaites. He collected -scattered and fragmentary subjects under general heads. For this reason -the reverence in which he was held by the teachers of the Law equaled -that which was entertained for the founder of Babylonian Jewish life. -But in proportion as he was beloved by this circle, he was obnoxious -to the populace of Pumbeditha. His fellow-countrymen could not forgive -this severe censor for the sharp, reproachful words with which, in -his honesty and stern morality, he strove to combat their deceits -and artifices. Once, on the occasion of a drought, when Rabba had -proclaimed a public fast, and had ordered prayers to be offered up, -without succeeding in obtaining rain, he exclaimed reproachfully to the -populace: "It is not because we leaders of the people are worse than in -the time of my master Judah, that Heaven refuses to gratify our wishes; -nor is it because we are less diligent in the study of the Law. But -what can be done by the representatives of the people when the entire -race is degenerate?" - -On account of their needy circumstances Rabba and another Amora, -Ada, appear to have become the colleagues (Chacham) of Mar-Ukban, a -grandchild of Rab, and at that time Prince of the Captivity, at whose -expense they were probably supported. While the principals of the -Soranian Academy were wealthy, often supporting the entire expenses of -the schools, and maintaining a large number of disciples from their -own purse, those of Pumbeditha generally possessed but small means. -This circumstance necessitated the establishment of an academical fund -at Pumbeditha, to which the communities and the Prince of the Captivity -probably contributed. - -In Rabba's time the Babylonian Jews were the victims of a transitory -persecution, which, although insignificant when compared with those -which had occurred in the Roman empire, was nevertheless calculated -to arouse the sufferers from their feeling of profound safety. It was -during the long reign (310-380) of Shabur II, the new king of the -Sassanian dynasty, who had been acknowledged as ruler while yet unborn, -that the friendly relation in which the Jews had stood to the Persian -court became disturbed, and it is possible that they would have been as -cruelly persecuted as the Christians, had it not been that Ifra-Ormuzd, -the king's mother, was prepossessed in favor of Judaism and the Jews. -The account briefly narrates that a body of troops marched into -Pumbeditha, whereupon Rabba and Joseph took to flight. A serious charge -had been brought against Rabba, the king or his councillors having been -secretly informed that, by means of Rabba's discourses during the Kalla -months, his 1200 students had been induced to evade the payment of the -poll-tax. A royal bailiff was sent out with orders to seize the person -of the principal of the Pumbedithan Academy. Being warned in advance, -Rabba fled, and in order to escape detection he wandered about in the -surrounding country. His death was caused by fright at the rustling -of the wind in the trees, which the fugitive mistook for the tramp of -advancing soldiery. Abayi and Raba, his most distinguished disciples, -together with the rest of the members of the academy, went in search -of his corpse, which they eventually found covered over and hidden by -birds. They mourned during seven days for this highly esteemed Amora -(330). The charge, which was the occasion of Rabba's death, does not -seem to have been further prosecuted. The queen-mother, Ifra, even sent -a purse of denars to his successor, leaving it to him to make the best -and most pious use of it, whereupon he employed it in ransoming Jewish -prisoners. - -Rabba's successor and friend, Joseph ben Chiya (born about 270, died -about 333), was sickly and sensitive, and possessed a passionate -disposition. He was aware of his failings and complained that they -prevented him from enjoying life. He seems to have been very wealthy, -and to have possessed fields, palm-trees and vineyards, from which -latter--as he cultivated them more carefully than was generally the -case--he obtained better wine than was commonly produced. Upon being -afflicted with blindness, he grieved less for the loss of his sight -than on account of his being thereby relieved from performing various -religious duties. - -Joseph was exceptional among the principals of the Pumbedithan Academy, -inasmuch as he attached more weight to the acquisition of a knowledge -of the Mishna and the Boraïtas by committing them to memory, than to -the drawing of ingenious conclusions. For this reason he was known by -the title of "Sinai" and "Possessor of Storehouses." Besides studying -the Halacha, he turned his attention to the Targum or Chaldaic -translation of the Holy Scriptures. The Torah, and probably also -isolated portions of the Prophets, which were used for public reading -(Haftara), had long ago been translated into the Aramaic dialects--both -the Syriac and the Chaldaic. There existed various Chaldaic -translations of the Torah for the use of those who were ignorant of -Hebrew: one of these, based probably on the favorite Greek version of -Akylas, bore the name of _Targum Onkelos_; the Syrian translation, -employed by such of the Jews of Syria and Mesopotamia as spoke Syriac, -was called _Peshito_ (the simple). The greater portion of the Prophets, -however, had not been translated, and it was Joseph who first took in -hand a Chaldaic translation thereof. Some persons believed that this -was a work of piety, as Joseph was prevented by his blindness from -reading, and was unwilling to recite the Hebrew text by heart, on -account of the prohibition against oral quotation of the written Law. -He therefore set about translating the Prophets on his own account, in -order to be able to quote any desired passage in Chaldaic. Joseph's -translation was incorporated in the Targum, and was accepted as a -decisive authority on questions relating to the explanation of doubtful -words. - -He was exceedingly severe in maintaining discipline in his capacity -of principal of the Academy; he flogged one of the students--Nathan -bar Assa--for journeying on foot from the Academy to Pumbeditha on -the second day of one of the festivals. The few years during which -he retained his office were in many ways embittered. He was stricken -by a severe illness, through which he lost his memory, and it was -consequently often necessary for his pupils to remind him that he -himself had formerly taught them the very facts which he was then -disputing. Although they endeavored to spare his feelings when drawing -his attention to his absurd mistakes, nevertheless, in his irritation, -he regarded these corrections as a slight, and complainingly exclaimed: -"Be indulgent with an old man whom misfortune has caused to forget all -he learnt; and forget not that the fragments of the first tables of the -Law were preserved by the side of the unbroken tables." - -Joseph's hard lot may be considered as typical of the decay of the -method of teaching which depended on the power of memory. It heaps up -the treasures of learning and tradition, guarding every atom of its -hoard as painfully as a miser, and warns off all influences exerted -by the employment of the intellect, as if they might obscure its -mirror-like purity; but in an unlucky moment the store that has been -laboriously collected suddenly vanishes; memory is extinguished, and -there remain no means of recovering the lost treasures. - -The Soranian school, the home of culture, also began to decline, -through neglecting to further the development of the Law. After -Chasda's death, the post of principal was held for twelve years -(309-320) by Huna's son, Rabba or Rab Abba; but the studious youths -were more strongly attracted by the rising star of the Pumbedithan -Academy. For this reason Rabba's modesty is the only circumstance in -connection with which any remembrance of him is retained. After the -death of Rabba bar Huna, the Soranian Academy was deserted, and it was -not frequented until half a century later, when it began to regain its -lost renown. - -After Joseph's death, the college was embarrassed as to whom it -should appoint as his successor. There were four who seemed worthy to -occupy this post, being all equally esteemed; they were Abayi, Raba, -Zeïra II, and Rabba bar Matana. The college accordingly determined to -vote for the one who should give the most striking answer, to which -no objection could be offered, to a question that was raised. Abayi -was victorious in this intellectual tournament, and was chosen as -principal. Abayi, whose surname was Nachmani (born about 280, died -338), was an orphan; his father Kailil had died before, his mother -immediately after, his birth. A governess took the place of his mother, -while Rabba, the sagacious Amora of Pumbeditha, filled that of his -father. In after-life, Abayi spoke with gratitude and emotion of his -foster-mother, and gave her name to several healing medicaments. To -his uncle Rabba, Abayi owed his knowledge of the Law and his skill in -Talmudical dialectics. Like Raba, his contemporary Amora, he aroused -great expectations during his early youth, and it used to be said of -them, "The bud shows what the melon will be." Abayi appears to have -possessed but a moderate fortune. Like the majority of the Babylonian -teachers of the Law, however, he had a small field of his own, which -he cultivated by the agency of a freeman. His character was mild and -yielding, and he retained these qualities in his intercourse with -the various classes of society. His maxim was: that man should be -sagacious in the fear of God, gentle and conciliatory in his speech, -and at peace with his brethren, with his relations, in fact, with all -the world, even with the heathen abroad, so that he might be beloved -and esteemed, and possess influence over his fellow-men. At this time -opinions, words, and deeds, were still one and the same. Abayi's -integrity was even acknowledged by such of the Samaritans as dwelt in -Babylonia. Having once lost an ass which was found by some Samaritans, -it was brought back by them to its owner, though he was not able to -mention any special mark by which it could be recognized. "If thou wert -not Nachmani," said they to him, "we should not have restored the ass -even if it had borne some particular mark." Under Abayi's direction of -the Pumbedithan Academy (333-338) the number of students diminished -to about two hundred, and therefore in remembrance of the crowd of -scholars who had flocked thither during the time of his predecessors, -Rab and Huna, he called himself an "orphan of orphans." It was not -that less interest and pleasure than formerly were now felt in study, -but that Abayi possessed a rival in Raba, who had founded a school -of his own in Machuza on the Tigris, whither he had attracted many -students. Both of these teachers brought the Pumbedithan method to its -greatest perfection. Rivaling one another in talent and ingenuity, they -discovered answers to questions which Rabba and Joseph had been unable -to solve. - -The traditions which had been handed down no longer afforded material -for discussion, every point which they presented having already been -thoroughly elucidated; new themes were therefore propounded and solved -by the help of recognized formulæ. These subtle Talmudical dialectics -received the names of their most proficient adepts, and were known as -the "Havayot (reflections) d'Abayi ve Raba." - -Before his death, Abayi heard of the cruel persecutions to which his -coreligionists in Judæa were subjected under Constantius. The fugitives -who conveyed this sad news to Babylonia, also brought with them new -Halachas, from the circle of which Jochanan was the head, and thus -inspired the learned students of Babylonia with new vigor. - -Abayi died in the prime of life (338). After his death, the office of -principal was conferred upon Raba bar Joseph bar Chama of Machuza (born -299, died 352), without any discussion, as if this was expected as a -matter of course. Raba was wealthy, talented and acute, but possessed -his weak points, which caused him to be considered inferior to his -fellow Amoraim, although he surpassed them in acuteness of intellect. -He was well acquainted with his own character, and described himself -in the following words: "I have always cherished three wishes, of -which, while two have been fulfilled, the gratification of the third -has not been vouchsafed to me. I desired Huna's learning and Chasda's -wealth, and obtained both; but Rabba bar Huna's unassuming modesty -was not allotted to me." Although he was superior to the majority of -his fellow-countrymen, his character was tainted, nevertheless, with -certain peculiarities of the Machuzans; he was luxurious, proud and -overbearing, and although his fellow-countrymen did not enjoy the -best of reputations in Babylonia, he flattered them to excess. He was -exceedingly desirous of winning and retaining their favor. "When I -became judge," he relates, "I was afraid that I should no longer retain -the attachment of the Machuzans, but as they recognize my impartiality -in giving judgment, all must either hate or all love me." Abayi seems -to have reproved this tendency of Raba to sacrifice moral dignity for -the acquisition of popular favor. "When a teacher of the Law," said -he, "is too greatly beloved by his fellow-citizens, it is not because -of his great merit, but on account of his indulgence, which causes him -to refrain from calling attention to their vices, and from earnestly -reprimanding them." - -It has already been mentioned that the inhabitants of Machuza were -descended for the most part from proselytes, for which reason the -aristocratic Babylonian Jews forbore to contract marriages with them. -As the Machuzans thus seemed to be at a loss how to obtain wives, -Zeïra II declared in a public discourse that it was allowable for them -to marry persons who had been born out of wedlock. This permission, -however, implying as it did a sort of degradation of the Machuzans, -was so offensive to their pride, that they almost stoned him to death -with the fruits with which the booths were decorated (the incident -occurring during the celebration of the feast of Tabernacles), just as -King Alexander Jannæus had once been attacked in the outer court of -the temple. Raba could hardly find words severe enough with which to -blame Zeïra's candor: "Who would give utterance to so inconsiderate a -decision in a community containing so many descendants of proselytes!" -In order to enlist the favor of the populace still more strongly on -his side, he demonstrated, in opposition to Zeïra's theory, that -proselytes might marry even the daughters of priests, and he succeeded -by this flattery in charming the Machuzans so greatly that they -overwhelmed him with presents of silken stuffs. In after-times Raba -attempted to restrict the equality which he had accorded somewhat too -freely to the proselytes, probably on account of its having caused -displeasure in various circles; at the same time he remarked that -proselytes might ally themselves with bastard families. This decision -having caused dissatisfaction, Raba appeased his fellow-countrymen with -the following words: "I only meant well towards you, and leave you free -to act either way." - -Another of Raba's failings was that, although exceedingly wealthy, he -was not entirely free from covetousness, which he allowed to become -apparent on several occasions. A proselyte of Machuza, Issor by name, -had deposited with Raba a sum of 12,000 sus (denars), in order to -bequeath it to his son, who was being brought up as a student of the -Law. Issor having fallen ill, Raba resolved to keep possession of this -money as property to which there was no heir, a proselyte being unable -to leave his fortune to a son born before his adoption of Judaism, as -the Talmudical law does not recognize such offspring as a son. At all -events, the principal of the schools--familiar as he was with all the -intricacies of the Law--was determined to nullify Issor's disposal -of his fortune in favor of his son. Meanwhile, another person who -was equally well acquainted with the Law, suggested to the anxious -father that, although he was prevented from making over the money in -question to his son by will, he was, nevertheless, at liberty to do so -by declaring before witnesses that the money belonged to the latter. -Raba was greatly incensed at the man who offered this counsel, and -complained as bitterly of this secret advice as if he had thereby been -deprived of a lawfully acquired fortune. Raba's conduct also violated -an accepted Halacha which treats of a similar case. According to this -law, although a man is not obliged to hand over to such of the sons as -may have become proselytes, the property committed to his keeping by -a heathen, of which the latter had not otherwise disposed, an offense -is, nevertheless, committed against the higher laws of morality by -withholding it from them. - -Another example of Raba's selfish conduct is afforded by the fact -that he exacted a higher rent from the tenants of his fields than -was customary in Babylonia. At times his behavior towards persons of -slender means was marked by a harshness which was in glaring opposition -to the doctrines of charity and pity, inculcated equally by the -Halachas and the Scriptures. - -The conduct of his brother Saurim was even more heartless; he posed -as a moral censor, and whenever any of the poorer members of the -community appeared to him not to be religious enough he made slaves -of them, and compelled them to carry him about in his gilded litter. -Even to this conduct Raba offered no objection, but sanctioned his -brother's arbitrary proceedings by referring to a long-forgotten law, -which countenanced the treatment of the Jews as slaves, in case they no -longer lived in accordance with the Law. - -During this period the simple manners and the honesty which had -obtained among the Jews of Babylonia in former times, fell to a low ebb -with many of them, and made room for luxury, vanity, and thirst for -power. Many a teacher of the Law was clad in gorgeous garments and was -carried about in a gilded litter. They no longer felt themselves one -with the people from whom they had risen, but constituted a particular -caste, a patrician class, who mutually protected and maintained one -another's interests, looking down with pride and contempt on the -lower orders of the populace. Raba himself admitted that whenever he -was called upon to decide a point of law in which a person of the same -class of society as himself was concerned, he was unable to sleep -until he succeeded in interpreting the law in his favor. If a member -of the school brought his produce to market, he was invested with the -privilege of being allowed to sell before any one else, in order that -he might obtain higher prices. The cause of a member was always heard -first in the court. The teachers of the Law of such communities as paid -their taxes in a lump sum, were exempt from all imposts. Raba allowed -the associates, in places where they were not known, to declare their -rank, in order that they might enjoy the advantages attaching thereto. -What a contrast to former times, when the Tanaites hesitated, at the -risk of their lives even, to derive any benefit from their knowledge of -the Law! Raba went to extreme lengths in according privileges to the -doctors of the Law. He permitted the associates to pass themselves off -as worshipers of fire in order to escape payment of the _charag_. - -The course of conduct thus pursued by the learned classes gradually -awoke a dislike of them among the people. The lower classes spoke of -them contemptuously as "those scholars." The mockery expressed by -this epithet must have been so bitter that on their side the teachers -of the Law branded as heretics (Epicureans) all who made use of the -expression. Scholarship thus no longer obtained recognition. "What do -we profit by the scholars?" the people asked themselves; "all their -knowledge is employed for their own benefit." At the head of this -opposition to the Rabbis stood the family of the physician, Benjamin -of Machuza, which seems to have been possessed of great importance, as -Raba paid great attention to its members. "What advantage do we really -derive from the teachers of the Law?" said they jeeringly; "they can -neither allow us to eat ravens, nor forbid us to eat pigeons?"--meaning -that in spite of all their dialectics they were unable to proceed -beyond the circle of established customs. Although Raba declared this -utterance of Benjamin Assia to be heretical, it does not appear that -he excommunicated him, but rather that he treated him with great -consideration; it is probable that the latter belonged to the retinue -of the Prince of the Captivity. - -Meanwhile the zeal for the study of the Law had greatly increased. -Disciples crowded in even greater numbers than formerly to Raba's -academy in Machuza, neglecting in their ardor their business pursuits. -Raba was obliged to warn them against this excess: "I pray you do not -come to my school in the spring and autumn months, lest you should -neglect the time of the harvest and of the preparation of wine and -oil, and so be troubled throughout the year by the cares of life." -Raba's discourses were even more popular than Abayi's by reason of the -clearness of his explanations, the exactitude of his distinctions, -and the boldness of his treatment of the subject-matter of tradition. -Raba showed a decided preference for analyzing the Mishna to the bare -study of its dry subject-matter. The former method offered a wide field -for the employment of dialectical powers, while the Mishna, taken in -its simplest sense, became a mere matter of memory. On this account -Raba placed the Amoraïm above the Tanaites; the former explained, -or explained better, such points as were doubtful to the latter. He -was accustomed to say that a grain of pepper (acuteness) was better -than a basketful of melons. In contrast to Zeïra I, who was adverse -to that method of teaching which encouraged ingenious reasoning, and -valued highly the simplicity of the Mishna, Raba declared that "whoso -breaketh stones injureth himself thereby (Eccles. x. 9); thus are they -characterized who know merely the Mishna; but he who splitteth wood -warmeth himself; such are they who are acquainted with the Talmud." -The true Talmud, the attractive collection of nice questions, answers, -comparisons and distinctions, the lofty flight of thought, which, -starting from a point, passes with the quickness of lightning over -the intermediate steps of a chain of reasoning, the dialectic form -of the Talmud is the product of this period. The triumvirate, Rabba, -Abayi, and Raba, were Talmudists in the real meaning of the word, _i. -e._, dialecticians. In this sense the Talmud was the creation of the -Pumbedithan and Machuzan schools. In Judæa there was scarcely a notion -of it. By reason of his extensive acquirements, his profound intellect, -and perhaps also on account of his wealth, Raba remained the sole -authority during his continuance at the head of the academy. Questions -were referred to him even from Judæa, when the frequent persecutions -under Constantius and Gallus involved the Holy Land in the deepest -misery. - -This period was by no means the happiest for the Jewish subjects of -the Persian crown; they were not spared during the obstinate struggle -between Rome and Persia. A Persian army was stationed at Machuza, and -had to be maintained by the inhabitants of the town. As the population -was entirely Jewish, this duty was attended with many inconveniences. -Shabur II was no friend of the Jews. In ancient times numerous Jewish -families had been transported to Armenia, and now lived there in their -own cities; of these, Shabur led an immense multitude (estimated at -71,000) into captivity, and colonized them in Susiana and Ispahan. -This latter city, which had formerly been the capital of the Persian -empire, received the name of Jehudia, from the many Jews who settled -there after the captivity. Shabur appears to have oppressed the Jews -of Babylonia in no less degree, for Raba was obliged to expend -considerable sums of money in preventing persecution. His friends -extolled his good luck in being, to a certain extent, exempted from -the misfortunes to which the Jewish people had been predestined, -seeing that up till then he had been subjected to no extortions. To -these congratulations Raba replied as follows: "You know not how much -I am obliged to do in secret for Shabur's court!" On one occasion it -was with great difficulty that he managed to escape a personal danger -which threatened him in his capacity of principal of the schools. He -had ordered a Jew to be flogged for having held carnal intercourse -with a Persian woman, and the chastisement had caused the death of the -culprit. The case happening to come to Shabur's knowledge, he commanded -a heavy punishment to be inflicted on Raba for having exercised the -criminal jurisdiction. The latter appears to have escaped the penalty -by flight, but his house was pillaged. All further consequences of this -occurrence were averted by Ifra, the queen-mother, who is reported to -have said to her son: "Do not meddle in any way with the Jews, for God -grants them whatever they pray for." In striking contrast with her -son, Ifra-Ormuzd entertained a special liking for the Jews, and in -particular for the teachers of the Law, to whom at times she vouchsafed -a glance into the most secret recesses of her heart. In the same way -as she had formerly sent a purse of gold to Joseph, she now forwarded -400 golden denars to Raba. Rami, a contemporary, was of opinion that -this present ought to be refused, as it was not lawful to receive alms -of the heathens. Notwithstanding this, Raba accepted the money, but -distributed it amongst the heathen poor. The queen-mother Ifra also -sent an animal for sacrifice to the principal of the school in Machuza, -which she requested might be offered up according to the Jewish rites, -in order to prove her adoration of the only God. Raba did not live to -see either the introduction of the calendar by Hillel, or the short -period during which prosperity smiled upon the Jews. He died after -holding his office for fourteen years. - -After Raba's death the importance of Machuza began to decline, and -Pumbeditha, which had unwillingly surrendered the palm to Raba, now -occupied its former position. It is remarkable that from this time -forward mediocrity began to reign, as if intellectual activity needed -recreation after so many exertions. Not one of Raba's successors was -sufficiently able to compensate for his loss. The principals of the -Babylonian schools, Nachman ben Isaac, Papa, and Chama of Nahardea, -were possessed of no conspicuous importance; the Pumbedithan spirit of -severe analysis and ingenious dialectics was indeed cultivated, but in -nowise advanced. - -Nachman ben Isaac (born about 280, died 356) was chosen as the leader -of the Pumbedithan Metibta, but merely on account of his advanced age, -his extraordinary piety, and perhaps also of his independence. His -tenure of office only extended over four years, and was not rendered -memorable by any noteworthy feature. During this period a new academy -was founded at Nares, in proximity to Sora, situated on the canal of -the same name. - -The founder of this new academy, of which he became the principal, was -Papa bar Chanan (born about 300, died 375). He had early been left an -orphan, was wealthy, and by trade a brewer of beer from dates. His -friend, Huna ben Joshua, equally wealthy, and his partner in business, -became a teacher at this academy. But the two together were not able to -fill the void which Raba's death had occasioned. It is true that the -members of the Machuzan academy gathered around them; but opportunities -soon arose of effecting comparisons, the results of which were -anything but favorable to the new chiefs. - -The following anecdote will serve to indicate the character of the -principal of the Nares academy. Certain of the younger teachers of the -Law had come to Nares in order to be present at Papa's lectures. This -latter, however, left his subject in so confused a condition, that -they secretly began to make signs one to the other. Papa, seeing this, -was exceedingly mortified, and said to them: "Let those present depart -from here in peace." Another member, one Simaï bar Ashi (father of the -Ashi who became famous later on), used to importune Papa with questions -which quite exceeded his modest capabilities. Papa, in despair lest he -should be put to shame before his pupils, would throw himself down in -prayer, and beseech the merciful God to preserve him from the terrible -feeling of confusion. Simaï, having been an unobserved witness of -this fervent prayer, made up his mind that henceforward he would keep -silence, and no longer involuntarily mortify Papa. - -In the Halacha, Papa was the representative of a school which was so -devoid of self-dependence, that its partisans did not even hold an -opinion of their own concerning the views of others. Whenever two or -more conflicting opinions left the meaning of a precept of the Law in -doubt, Papa would say: "Let us adopt both views, or act according to -all these opinions." Papa remained at his post during nineteen years -(355-375), and the stupor into which all minds were thrown during this -period was only dissipated by his successor. Pumbeditha possessed a -principal of equal insignificance in Chama of Nahardea, whose character -a single anecdote will suffice to indicate. King Shabur asked him -whether the practice of burying the dead was founded on the Torah, or -whether it was simply an ancient custom. The question arose from the -usage of the Persians, who neither buried nor burned the corpses of -their dead. Chama, however, could bring forward no passage of Scripture -in support of burial. Acha ben Jacob, a member of the household of the -Prince of the Captivity, and therefore privileged to say many things, -expressed the following opinion of this principal: "The world is -delivered into the hands of fools; why did he not instance the verse, -'And thou shalt bury him on the same day'?" - -In the course of the twenty-one years (356-377) during which Chama held -office, a change occurred in the Roman Empire which was not without -weighty consequences for the communities of Judæa and Babylonia. A -nephew of the Emperor Constantius, Julian, effected a revolution which, -however, was only temporary. Emperor Julian was one of those masterful -characters who impress their names indelibly on the memory of man. -It was only an early death and the hatred of the ruling Church which -prevented him from obtaining the title of "Great." Although a member -of Constantine's family, the fratricidal sword of the Constantines -hung over his head, and he was compelled by fear of death to give -hypocritical adhesion to the Christian religion, which he hated. Almost -by a miracle he was created co-emperor by his uncle Constantius, -who hated him from the bottom of his heart, and had already held a -council about his death. A military revolt in his favor, and the -unexpected death of his enemy Constantius, put Julian in possession of -exclusive power. Known in the history of the Church as the Apostate -(Apostata, Parabata), Julian made it the duty of his life to realize -the ideal, which association with his teachers, Libanius and Maximus, -had suggested to him, and which had been further ennobled by his rich -mind. His favorite thoughts were to protect the oppressed of all -nations and religions, to promote the well-being of all his subjects, -more especially by alleviating the burden of taxes, to revive the -philosophical sciences, which had been condemned by the Christian -emperors, to restore the ancient religion, freed, however, from its -most conspicuous blemishes, which had rendered it so contemptible -and ridiculous; finally, to confine Christianity, which had gained -so much power during so short a period, within its proper limits. -Mindful, however, of the persecution to which he himself had been -subjected, he refrained from retaliating on the Christians, in spite -of their mania for persecution. Still, he was desirous of restraining -their encroachments, and therefore deprived them of their influence -in civil and scientific matters, and attempted to lower them in the -appreciation of the learned classes by the employment of the weapons -of the intellect and delicate satire. He called Jesus a Galilæan whom -credulity had exalted to a god, and spoke of the Christians by the -nickname of Galilæans. For this reason he was all the more friendly -toward the Jews, and was the only emperor after Alexander Severus who -evinced serious interest in Judaism. He was led by more reasons than -one to prefer Judaism. Brought up in the Christian religion, he had -become acquainted with Judaism through the Holy Bible, and the more -Judaism was hated and persecuted by Christianity, the greater was the -reverence with which he regarded it. The emperor even admitted that -he had been greatly shocked by the cruel oppression to which the Jews -were exposed during the reign of Constantius, when their religion was -branded as blasphemous by victorious Christianity. Julian was greatly -impressed by the God of Judaism, as described in Holy Writ, and -acknowledged him as the "Great God." He refused to believe, however, -that beside Him there existed no other gods. He especially admired the -benevolence of the Jews, and was astonished that they cared for their -poor with such zeal that no beggars existed among them. He was also -desirous of deeply mortifying the Christians by the preference which -he exhibited for the Jews, for the former were at great pains to prove -the superiority of their religion by the abasement of the latter. He -entertained a particular predilection for the sacrificial cult, and -for this reason he was especially pleased with the Jewish system of -sacrifices, with the solemn pomp of the Temple and the priests. The -emperor reproached the Christians with having rejected the God and -the worship of Judaism, but he particularly blamed them for having -discarded the sacrificial service. It was true that the Jews did -not then offer sacrifices, but this was only because they no longer -possessed a Temple. Finally, the idea may have occurred to Julian to -dispose the Babylonian Jews in his favor for the Persian war which now -occupied his whole attention. He desired, if not to obtain their active -support, at least to prevent them from offering fanatical resistance. - -Julian's reign, which lasted not quite two years (November, 361 to -June, 363) was a period of extreme happiness for the Jews of the Roman -Empire. The emperor favored them, relieving them from oppression, and -from the disgrace which the taunt of blasphemy entailed. He called -the Patriarch Hillel his venerable friend, and honored him with an -autograph letter, wherein he assured him of his good-will, and promised -to try and put an end to the wrongs of the Jews. He also addressed -an epistle to all the Jewish communities of the empire, and made -preparations for rebuilding the Temple in Jerusalem, which had become -a Christian city since the time of Constantine. The imperial missive, -which stands out in glaring contrast with the course of treatment -adopted by the first two Christian emperors, is remarkable enough to -merit being preserved. The letter (written at Antioch in the autumn of -362 or the winter of 363) ran as follows: - - "TO THE JEWISH CONGREGATIONS.--More oppressive for you in the - past than the yoke of dependence was the circumstance that new - taxes were imposed upon you without previous notice, and you - were thus compelled to furnish an immense quantity of gold to - the imperial treasury. I learnt much by personal observation, - but still more by the tax-rolls which were being preserved to - your detriment, and which I happened to light upon. I myself - abolished a tax which it was intended to impose upon you, and - thus put a stop to the injustice of attempting to cast such a - slur on you; with my own hands did I commit to the flames the - tax-rolls against you which I came across in my archives, in - order that for the future no one might spread such a charge of - blasphemy against you. My brother Constantius, the Glorious, - was not so much to blame for this as those barbarians in - thought and godless in spirit who invented such a system of - taxation. With my own arm have I hurled them to deepest ruin, - so that not even the memory of their fall shall remain with us. - Being on the point of according you yet greater favor, I have - exhorted my brother, the venerable Patriarch Julos (Hillel), - to put a stop to the collection of the so-called Apostole from - you, and henceforward let no one further oppress your nation - with the collection of such imposts, so that everywhere in - my empire you may be free from care; and thus, in the full - enjoyment of peace, may you address your fervent prayers for - my empire to the Almighty Creator of the Universe, who has - supported me with His strong right hand. It seems to be the - fact, that those whose lives are passed in anxiety are indolent - of spirit, and do not dare raise their hands in supplication - for the prosperity of their country. But those who are exempt - from all care, and are glad with their whole hearts, are - able to direct their sincere prayers for the welfare of the - empire to the Most High, who can best further my rule as I - propose to reign. Thus should you do in order that, on the - happy termination of the Persian war, I may be able to visit - Jerusalem, the Holy City, which shall be rebuilt at my expense, - as you have desired to see it restored for so many years: then - will I unite with you in giving praise to the Almighty." - -It is not related what impression was produced by this gracious letter, -which, more winning even than Cyrus' missive to the Babylonian exiles, -came as a drop of refreshing dew after long drought. A single account, -which is borrowed from Jewish tradition, relates that the Jews applied -to Julian the following verse (Daniel xi. 34): "Now when they shall -fall, they shall be holpen with a little help." Daniel is thus supposed -to have prophesied that after the Jewish nation had suffered at the -hands of Gallus, Julian would extend help to them by his support and -his promise to rebuild the Temple. - -Meanwhile Julian did not forget to act upon his promise. Although -abundantly occupied with the preparations for the Persian war, he had -nevertheless at heart the restoration of the Temple of Jerusalem from -its ruins. For this purpose he appointed a special chief overseer in -the person of his best friend, the learned and virtuous Alypius of -Antioch, and exhorted him to spare no expense during the rebuilding. -The governors of Syria and Palestine received orders to aid Alypius -with everything that was necessary. The building materials were already -prepared, and workmen were assembled in great numbers for the purpose -of clearing away the ruins which had lain heaped upon the site of the -Temple ever since its destruction, nearly three hundred years before. -The Jews do not seem to have interested themselves in the rebuilding -of the Temple, for the Jewish authorities maintain a complete silence -concerning this fact, and the stories of the ardor of the Jews for the -rebuilding which are related by the later Christian reports are purely -fictitious. The distant communities are said to have forwarded sums of -money toward the restoration of the Temple, and it is even asserted -that women sold their jewelry and brought stones in their laps. But -all this was quite unnecessary, for Julian had amply provided both -building materials and workmen. The Christians also spread the report -that Julian only pretended to be kindly disposed towards the Jews in -order to entice them into heathenism. Especially spiteful is the story -that the Jews destroyed several churches in Judæa and the neighboring -countries, and threatened to inflict as much evil on the Christians as -they themselves had suffered at the hands of the Christian emperors. -The report that about this period the Christians of Edessa massacred -the entire Jewish population of that city is more credible. It may be -assumed as a certainty that the hope of re-establishing their state, -which had occasioned two or three revolutions, and had cost so many -victims, was extinguished in the hearts of the Jews. The restoration -of their former magnificence was now only expected at the appearance -of the Messiah. Without the latter a Temple would have seemed utterly -absurd, according to the views which were entertained at this period, -and still less would it have been possible for a Roman emperor to be -regarded as the Messiah. The opinion was generally accepted that "God -had bound the Jewish nation by oath not to climb over the wall (_i. -e._, re-establish the State by force), nor to rebel against the ruling -nations, but to bear their yoke patiently until the coming of the -Messiah, and not to attempt to bring about that period by violence." - -Meanwhile the Christians looked with envious eyes upon the commencement -of the work (spring, 363). The indifference of the Jews seems, however, -to have contributed more than anything else to the suspension of the -rebuilding, on account of the various obstacles which were encountered. -On the occasion of the pulling down of the ruins, and the excavation -of the foundations, a fire broke out by which several workmen lost -their lives. This subterranean conflagration doubtless occurred in the -passages which had formerly existed beneath the Temple, and had its -origin in the gases which had long been compressed there, and which, on -being suddenly released from pressure, ignited on coming into contact -with the air above. These sudden explosions occurred repeatedly, and -disheartened the workmen, so that they gradually gave up work. If -the Jews had interested themselves more warmly in the rebuilding, -it is hardly probable that they would have allowed themselves to be -discouraged by such an obstacle, which was anything but invincible; -ardent enthusiasm shuns no sacrifice. But deprived of the warm -participation of the Jews, Alypius also became less enthusiastic, -and waited for further commands from the emperor. Julian, however, -is said to have accused the Christians of having caused the fires to -break out in the underground passages, and to have threatened to build -a prison for Christians out of the ruins of the Temple on his return -from the war. But this story, which, like most of those relating to -this event, is drawn from Christian sources, is utterly untrustworthy. -The Christian authorities of the following generation relate the most -wonderful tales of the miracles which are said to have happened during -this impious rebuilding, the purpose of all of which was to warn the -obdurate Jews and to glorify Christ. - -The issue of the Persian war--unhappy as it was for Julian--was also -calculated to deprive the Jews of their short-lived exultation, and to -prepare a new triumph for the Christians. Julian had concentrated the -whole of the Roman forces, and had availed himself of every possible -expedient in order not to be inferior in strength to his opponent, -Shabur II. Shabur on his side had set himself the task of freeing Asia -from the Roman rule. Julian, however, was dreaming the golden dream -which had lured many a Roman general, from Crassus and Cæsar downwards, -to the region of the Euphrates. His ambition was to plant the Roman -eagle on the further side of the Tigris. - -Once again Europe and Asia stood face to face. The scene of the war -was laid, for the most part, in the province of Jewish Babylonia. It -is impossible to determine which side was espoused by the Jews. The -town of Firuz-Shabur, which contained many Jewish inhabitants, was -obstinately besieged for three days, compelled to capitulate, and -finally burnt. The inhabitants escaped in small boats by the canals of -the Euphrates. The conduct of the Jewish inhabitants of Firuz-Shabur -towards Julian therefore remains uncertain. But the town of Bitra -(more correctly Birtha), which was inhabited entirely by Jews, and -was surrounded by a low wall, displayed a spirit of hostility; it was -completely abandoned by its population, and the soldiers, giving vent -to their martial passion, burnt it to the ground. The town of Machuza -(Maoga-Malka), which was to a certain extent a suburb of Ctesiphon, was -held by a Persian garrison; it was most hotly besieged, and offered -so determined a resistance that the entire military force of the -Romans hardly sufficed to effect its fall. Machuza, the seat of Raba's -academy, whose proud Jewish inhabitants rivaled those of the capital -in magnificence, fell ten years after Raba's death (363) under the -blows of the Roman catapults, and became a heap of ruins. After the -war it was again rebuilt. In spite of the progress which Julian made -into the enemy's country, he did not succeed in reaching Ctesiphon. He -lost not only the fruits of his victories, but even his life, through -his rashness. He was struck down by an arrow, said to have been shot -by a Christian belonging to his own army. Calmly, and as becomes a -philosopher, Julian breathed his last. It is related that a few minutes -before his death he exclaimed: "Thou hast conquered, O Galilæan!" - -The death of Julian in the neighborhood of the Tigris (June, 363) -deprived the Jews of the last ray of hope for a peaceful and unmolested -existence. His favor was, however, so far attended with good effect, -that the edicts promulgated against the Jews by Constantine and -Constantius were not immediately renewed; Julian's ordinances remained -in force in so far as they did not affect the privileges of the -Jews. Jovianus, Julian's successor (June, 363 to February, 364), -was compelled to conclude an ignominious peace with the victorious -Shabur; he lived too short a time to be able to effect any changes. -He permitted his subjects to freely declare their adherence to any -religion they chose, without thereby incurring any disadvantage. Once -again the Roman empire was divided between two rulers, Valentinian I -(364-375), and Valens (364-378). The latter, who was Emperor of the -East, was an Arian, and had suffered too severely from the powerful -Catholic party to be intolerant himself. He protected the Jews and -bestowed honors and distinctions upon them. His brother, Valentinian I, -the Emperor of the West, likewise chose the policy of tolerance in the -struggle between Catholics and Arians, and permitted the profession of -either religion without political disadvantages being thereby incurred -(371). This toleration was also extended the Jews. - - - - -CHAPTER XXII. - -THE LAST AMORAÏM. - - Decline of the Roman Empire--Ashi and the Redaction of - the Talmud--Jezdijird II--The Jews under the Emperors - Theodosius I and his successors--The extinction of the - Patriarchate--Chrysostom and Ambrosius--Fanaticism of the - Clergy--Jerome and his Jewish Teachers--Mar-Zutra--Fifth and - Sixth Generations of Amoraïm--The Jews under Firuz--Jewish - Colonies in India--Completion of the Babylonian Talmud--Its - Spirit and Contents. - - 375.500 C. E. - - -The period during which the Roman empire was approaching a state -of complete dissolution marks an epoch of decay and regeneration, -destruction and rejuvenescence, ruin and reconstruction, in the history -of the world. The storm, which burst in the north, under the wall of -China, brought down a black thunder-cloud in its train, and shattered -the giant tree of the Roman empire, which, sapless and leafless, had -only continued to exist thus far by the force of gravity; nothing now -remained but a wreck of splinters, the toy of every capricious wind. -The uncouth Huns, the scourge of God, drove before them horde upon -horde, tribe upon tribe, whose names the memory refuses to retain -or the tongue to utter. The period of the migration of the nations -confirms almost literally the words of the prophet: "The earth staggers -like a drunken man, and her sins lie heavy upon her; she falls and -cannot rise, and the Lord Zebaoth punishes the bands of heaven in -heaven, and the kings of earth upon earth." Small wonder indeed that in -the Goths, the first wave of the migration of tribes which inundated -and devastated the Roman empire, the Jews did not fail to discover Gog -from the land of Magog, of whom a prophet had said: "Thou shalt ascend -and come like a storm, thou shalt be like a cloud to cover the land, -thou and all thy bands, and many people with thee" (Ezekiel xxxviii. 9). - -In this remarkable alternation of disappearance of nations and their -formation, the conviction forced itself upon Jewish thinkers that -the Jewish people was eternal: "A nation arises, another vanishes, -but Israel alone remains forever." The barbaric tribes, the avengers -of the long-enslaved nations, settled on the ruined sites of the -Roman empire, wild plants only to be cultivated by the master-hand of -history, uncouth savages, to be civilized by earnest teaching. In this -iron time, when no man could be certain of the next day, the leaders -of Judaism in Palestine and Babylonia felt deeply the necessity of -placing the treasure which had been confided to their hands in safety, -so that it might not be imperiled by the accidents of the day. An epoch -of collection commenced, during which the harvest which had been sown, -cultivated, and reaped by their forefathers was brought under shelter. -The subject-matter of tradition, which had been so greatly augmented, -enriched and purified by a long series of generations and the diversity -of schools, was henceforward to be set in order. This tendency of -compilation and arrangement was represented by Ashi. - -Rabbana Ashi (born 352, died 427) was the son of Simaï, and the -descendant of an ancient family. He so early gave evidence of -complete maturity of mind, that while still a youth he restored the -long-desolate Soranian academy to its former place of honor. He was -certainly not more than twenty when he became principal of that school. -Coming of a wealthy family, Ashi possessed many forests, the wood of -which he had no compunction in selling to feed the holy fire for the -worship of the Magi. It is remarkable that nothing is known of the -history of his youth and education; there is even no indication of -the reason which induced him to infuse new life into the half-decayed -Soranian academy; probably Sora was his native town. He pulled down and -rebuilt the school which had been erected several centuries previously -by Rab, and which was already beginning to exhibit signs of decay; and -in order that no delay should occur in the rebuilding, he brought his -bed on the site, and remained there night and day until the gutters of -the house had been put up. The Sora school was built on an elevation -so that it might overlook the whole city. Ashi's splendid qualities -so impressed his contemporaries that he was regarded as the supreme -authority, a position to which no person had been able to attain since -Raba's death. Ashi united thorough knowledge of the entire body of -the Law, characteristic of Sora, with Pumbedithan dialectics, and -thus satisfied all claims. His contemporaries conferred upon him the -distinguishing title of Rabbana (our teacher). During the fifty-two -years over which his public labors extended, seven principals succeeded -each other in Pumbeditha. Nahardea, which had made no figure since its -destruction by Ben-Nazar (Odenath), also began to come into some repute -again on account of the academy opened there by Amemar (390-420). But -none of these teachers really disputed the supremacy with Ashi, and -Sora again occupied the honorable position into which it had been -placed by Rab. The oldest Amoraim, Amemar and Mar-Zutra, voluntarily -subordinated themselves to Ashi's authority, and resigned to him the -task of restoring unity. The most distinguished among them, even the -two successive Princes of the Captivity of this period (Mar-Kahana and -Mar-Zutra I), submitted to his orders. It was in Sora that the Princes -of the Captivity now received the homage of the delegates of all the -Babylonian communities; this ceremony had formerly taken place, first -at Nahardea, and then, during the prime of its academy, at Pumbeditha. -This homage was paid every year on a Sabbath, at the commencement of -the month of Marcheshvan (in the autumn), and this Sabbath was known -as the "Rigle" of the Prince of the Captivity. The extraordinary -assemblies of the people, which met at the command of the Prince of the -Captivity, were henceforward also held in Sora, and for this reason -the Patriarchs were obliged to repair to that town, even though they -had fixed their residence in some other place. Ashi had thus made Sora -the center of Jewish life in Babylonia, and had connected it with -everything of public or general interest. The splendor with which its -numerous assemblies invested it, was so great that Ashi expressed -surprise that the heathen Persians could be witnesses of it all, and -not feel themselves moved to embrace Judaism. - -In consequence of this concentration of power in his own person, -Ashi was enabled to undertake a work, the consequences of which were -incalculable, both as regards the fate and the development of the -Jewish people. He began the gigantic task of collecting and arranging -the explanations, deductions, and amplifications of the Mishna, which -were included under the name "Talmud." The immediate motive which -suggested this undertaking was undoubtedly the consideration that -the immense accumulation of matter, the result of the labor of three -generations, ought not to be allowed to vanish from memory through -lack of interest. This would certainly be the case if some means were -not provided of impressing it easily upon the mind. Ashi even then -complained of the diminution of the power of memory in his time as -compared with times gone by, without, however, taking into account that -by reason of the accumulation of matter the memory was infinitely more -charged than formerly. His successful treatment of this exuberant -material was rendered the easier by the fact that he was permitted to -work at it for more than half a century. Every year on the occasion of -the assembly of all the members, disciples, and pupils during the Kalla -months, certain tractates of the Mishna, together with the Talmudical -explanations and corollaries, were thoroughly gone into, and thus in -about thirty years more than fifty of them were completely arranged. -In the latter half of his period of office Ashi went through the whole -of the matter which had thus been put in order for the second time. -What remained after this double process of winnowing and testing was -accepted as of binding force. - -This arrangement of the bulky matter of the Talmud was not committed -to writing. The conservation in writing of oral tradition, the -incarnation, as it were, of what is spiritual, was still regarded -as a crime against religion, more especially at this period, when -Christendom had taken possession of the Holy Scriptures as its own -spiritual property, and considered itself as the chosen part of Israel. -According to the views of the times, Judaism was now possessed of no -distinguishing feature, except the Oral Law. This thought frequently -found expression in a poetical form--"Moses requested permission to -commit to writing the Mishna or Oral Law, but God saw in advance that -the nations would one day possess a Greek translation of the Torah, -and would affirm: 'We are Israel; we are the children of God,' while -the Jewish people would also declare, 'We are God's children,' and He -therefore gave a token for this purpose: 'He who possesses my secret -(mysterion) is my son.' This secret is the Mishna and the oral exegesis -of the Law. Therefore did the prophet Hosea say: 'Were I to write the -fulness of the Law, Israel would be accounted as a stranger.'" - -It is not at all astonishing that this multitude of ordered details -could be retained by the memory, for before the time of Ashi they had -been retained though not yet reduced to order. By his compilation of -the Talmud, Ashi completed the work which had been begun by Judah two -centuries previously. But his task was infinitely more difficult. The -Mishna embraced only the plain Halacha in artistically constructed -paragraphs of the Law. The Talmud, however, gave also the living -part of the development of the Law and its spiritual tenor, and this -with dialectic exactitude. The first impulse to the compilation of -the Talmud marks one of the most important epochs in Jewish history. -From this time forward the Babylonian Talmud (Talmud Babli) became -an active, potent, and influential element. Ashi, however, did not -entirely complete this gigantic task; for, although he directed his -ardor wholly to the work of compilation, the creative power was not -so completely conquered either in him or his contemporaries, that -they were content to entirely restrict their energies to the work of -compilation. On the contrary, Ashi solved many of the questions which -had been left doubtful, or had been unsatisfactorily answered by the -preceding Amoraïm, and his decisions are as forcible and ingenious -as they are simple; in fact, one often wonders how they could have -been overlooked by his predecessors. About this time the Jerusalem or -Palestinean Talmud was compiled and concluded. The name of the compiler -is not known. The latest authorities whose names have been preserved -are Samuel bar Bun and Jochanan bar Moryah, contemporaries of Ashi. - -The period of Ashi's activity falls within the reign of Jezdijird -(400-420), a king of the Sassanian dynasty, who was favorably disposed -towards the Jews. The Magians gave to this noble prince the surname of -"Al Hatim" (the sinner), because he refused to surrender his own will -and allow himself to be ruled by them. He was exceedingly well affected -towards the Jews, and at the same time favorably disposed towards the -Christians. On the days of homage there were present at his court the -three representatives of the Babylonian Jews: Ashi, of Sora; Mar-Zutra, -of Pumbeditha; and Amemar, of Nahardea. Huna bar Nathan, who, if he -was no Prince of the Captivity, must nevertheless have been possessed -of considerable influence, held frequent intercourse with Jezdijird's -court. This mark of attention on the part of a Persian king, who -proclaimed himself the child of the Sun, a worshiper of Ormuz, and the -King of the Kings of Iran, may be regarded as a proof of high favor. - -Ashi was devoid of all exaggerated enthusiasm, and seems to have -attempted to suppress the hope of the coming of the Messiah, which kept -the minds of the Jews in greater suspense than ever at this time of -the migration of nations and of universal revolution, when sin-laden -Rome was suffering the punishment of God. An ancient sibylline saying, -attributed to the prophet Elijah, was current, according to which the -Messiah would appear in the eighty-fifth jubilee (between 440 and 470 -of the common era). Such messianic expectations were always certain -of creating enthusiasts, who aimed at converting their silent belief -into fact, and without exactly intending to deceive, attempted to -carry away such of the crowd as were of like opinions, and to excite -them to such a pitch that they would willingly sacrifice their lives. -In point of fact such an enthusiast did appear during Ashi's time in -Crete, and he gained as adherents all the Jewish congregations of -this important island, through which he had traveled in a year. He -promised them that one day he would lead them dry-footed, as Moses -had formerly done, through the sea into the promised land; he is said -to have adopted the name of the great lawgiver. For the rest, this -Cretan Moses was able to convince his followers so thoroughly of his -divine mission, that they neglected their business, abandoned all their -property, and only waited for the day of the passage through the sea. -On the appointed day, Moses the Messiah marched in front, and behind -him came the entire Jewish population of Crete, including the women -and the children. From a promontory projecting out into the sea, he -commanded them to throw themselves fearlessly into the ocean, as the -waters would divide themselves before them. Several of these fanatics -met their death in the waves; others were rescued by sailors. The false -Moses is said, however, never to have been found again. It was against -such false hopes as these, whose consequences were so sad, that Ashi -warned the Jews. At the same time he suggested another interpretation -of the prophecy which had been set in circulation: "It is certain," -said he, "that the Messiah cannot appear _before_ this time, before -the eighty-fifth jubilee, but after the lapse of this period the -hope, although not the certainty, of his coming may be entertained." -Ashi died, greatly respected by his contemporaries and the Jews of -after-times, at a ripe old age (427), two years before the capture of -Carthage by Genseric. This Prince of the Vandals, who wrested from -Rome her accumulations of spoil, also carried to Africa the vessels of -the Temple, which Titus had added in triumph to the plunder of so many -nations. Like the sons of Judæa, the Temple vessels wandered much. - -By reason of the Patriarchate, Judæa was still regarded as their head -by the Jewish communities of the Roman Empire. During this period it -presents an even more gloomy picture of complete decay than formerly. -The oppression of hostile Christianity bore all too heavily upon the -country, and stifled the impulse to study. Tanchuma bar Abba, the -chief supporter of the later Agada, is the last Halachic authority of -Judæa. There also, as in Babylonia, the last Amoraïm collected the -traditions and planned and arranged the Jerusalem, or, more correctly, -the Judæan or Western Talmud (Talmud shel Erez-Israel, Gemara di Bene -Ma'araba). But so defective is the history of Judæa that not even -the names of the compilers or the originators of the movement are -known. Doubtless the example of Babylonia suggested the making of this -collection. Only so much is certain, that Tiberias, the seat of the -Patriarchate and of the School, was the birthplace of the Jerusalem -Talmud. - -It was during this period that the Patriarchate, the last remnant of -former times, met with complete destruction. Three patriarchs are -mentioned by name: they are Gamaliel V, successor of Hillel II, his son -Judah IV and Gamaliel, the last (370-425). But only indistinct traces -of their activity can be recognized. It is true that they still bore -the pompous rather than influential title of Highness, together with -its attendant privileges, and that they still drew voluntary subsidies -from the communities of the Roman empire, which their envoys were wont -to collect from the congregations. But their authority was considerably -diminished. The sole influence of the Patriarchs now consisted in the -one fact, that they excluded from the Jewish community its apostate -members, who had gone over to Christianity either voluntarily or -through deceit or persuasion. But even this power proud Christianity -refused to recognize. By means of the secular arm, the Bishops -compelled the Patriarchs and the heads of the communities, who bore the -name of Primates, to readmit into the community such of the members as -had been excommunicated. But Theodosius the Great (379-395), although -continually incited by the Catholic clergy, Ambrosius, among others, to -persecute the Arians and other heretics, consistently protected the -Jews against their fanatical attacks. He promulgated a law confirming -to the Patriarchs and Primates the right of excommunicating the members -of their community, and forbidding the secular authorities to meddle -with the domestic affairs of the Jews. He proved to Gamaliel V his -justice towards the Jews by condemning to death the consular agent -Hesychius, whom the Patriarch had accused before him of surreptitiously -gaining possession of important documents. For the rest, nothing more -is known of the circumstance to which these documents referred. - -Theodosius frequently had to restrain the religious zeal of the -Christians, which regarded as heroism such deeds as the disturbance of -the religious devotions of the Jews, the pillaging or destruction of -the synagogues, or their appropriation and conversion into churches. -The principal fanatics against the Jews at this period were John -Chrysostom of Antioch, and Ambrosius of Milan, who attacked them with -the greatest fierceness. - -The former, who had been called from the solitude of the cloister to -the ministry, thundered against the Jews from the pulpit with his -bombastic and cynical eloquence; even made them the subject of six -successive sermons. The behavior of the Jews of Antioch, however, -was indeed too provoking: without any active endeavor on their part, -Christians became interested in their customs, their divine service, -and their court of law. On Sabbaths and festivals many Christians, -especially of the female sex, ladies of rank and women of lower -position, met together regularly in the synagogues. They listened -with devotion to the blowing of the cornet on the Jewish New Year, -attended the solemn service on the Day of Atonement, and participated -in the joys of the Feast of Tabernacles. They were all the more -attracted by the fact that all this had to go on behind the backs of -the Christian priests, and that the neighbors had to be entreated not -to betray them. Christians preferred to bring their lawsuits before -Jewish judges, the form of the Jewish oath appearing more imposing and -forcible to them. It was against such voluntary honoring of Jewish -institutions by the Christians that Chrysostom directed the violence of -his Capuchin sermons, bestowing all manner of harsh names upon them, -and proclaiming the synagogues as infamous theaters, dens of robbers, -and even still worse places. - -Ambrosius, of Milan, was a violent official, ignorant of all theology, -whom a reputation for violence in the church had raised to the rank -of bishop; he was even more virulent against the Jews. Once when the -Christians of Rome had burnt down a synagogue, and the usurper Maximus -commanded the Roman Senate to rebuild it at the expense of the State, -Ambrosius called him a Jew. The Bishop of Callinicus, in Northern -Mesopotamia, having caused a synagogue situated in that district to -be burnt to the ground by monks, Theodosius ordered him to build it -up again at his own expense, and punished all who had participated in -the act (388). Hereupon Ambrosius' anger was most violently inflamed, -and in the epistle which he addressed to the emperor he employed such -sharp, provoking terms, that the latter was thereby led to revoke his -order. Ambrosius accused the Jews of despising the Roman laws, and -mockingly taunted them with the fact that they were not permitted to -set up any emperor or governor in their midst, nor to enter the army or -the Senate, nor even to eat at the table of the nobles; they were only -there for the purpose of bearing heavy taxes. To this pious misconduct -Theodosius endeavored to put a stop by means of laws. Starting from -the premise that Judaism was not prohibited from existing in the Roman -empire by any law, he was desirous of extending to it the protection -of the law against violent attacks. He therefore enjoined the Comes -of the East to severely punish the Christian religious rioters and -desecrators of synagogues (393). But of what avail could the imperial -edicts and commands be against the tendency of the times to be -malignant, to accuse of heresy, and to persecute? The Jews could not -complain, for they were not treated any worse than the adherents of the -various Christian sects whose opponents had gained the upper hand. The -savageness which the invasion of the barbarians had introduced into the -historical parts of the world tainted the province of religion with -its contagion; Vandalism reigned everywhere, in the Church as well as -in the State. Meanwhile the exceptional position of the Jews in the -Roman empire had been either re-established or confirmed by Theodosius -I. Constantius' law relative to the possession of slaves was revived -afresh; any Jewish slave-owner who admitted his slaves into the pale of -Judaism was to be severely punished. The privilege of exemption from -the onerous municipal offices on the grounds of religious scruples, -which the Jews had succeeded in obtaining under his predecessors, was -abolished by Theodosius. - -This emperor bequeathed his dominions to his two sons, and thus -lastingly divided the Roman world into two parts, and into two -different camps, thereby intensifying the strained and unsympathetic -relations of the different parties to each other. Henceforward the -Jews of the Roman empire belonged to different masters, part of them -being subjects of the eastern, others of the western empire. Arcadius, -the eastern or Byzantine emperor (395-408), was a monarch merely in -name; his all-powerful chamberlains, Rufinus and Eutropius, were -extremely favorable to the Jews. Rufinus loved money, and the Jews -had already discovered the magic power of gold to soften obdurate -hearts. Numerous laws were therefore promulgated in their favor. One -of these laws decided (396) that the Jews should remain possessed of -independence in the matter of choosing their own market inspectors -(Agoranomos), and that whosoever should dare encroach on this right -should be liable to severe punishment by imprisonment. Another law of -the same year protected the "illustrious patriarchs" from insult. In -Illyria synagogues were attacked, probably by the clergy, who would -have liked to see the Jewish houses of prayer as completely destroyed -as the heathen temples; thereupon Arcadius (or Eutropius) commanded the -governors to resist this movement with all possible energy (397). In -the same year he also re-enacted and confirmed the law of Constantius, -whereby the patriarchs, as also all the religious officials of the -synagogue, were exempted from the burden of the magistracy, as were -the Christian clergy. Another right was also preserved to the Jews by -Arcadius' administration (February, 398); they were allowed to retain -the privilege of submitting their lawsuits to the patriarch and other -Jewish arbitrators, if both parties consented to this course, and the -Roman authorities were obliged to execute these judgments, without -prejudice to the fact, however, that in so far as their religion -was not concerned, they were subject to the Roman law. We must not -be surprised by a capricious change under the arbitrary rule of the -Byzantine court: a law was published in 399, subjecting all Jews, even -the religious superiors, to the Curial burdens. This had, perhaps, some -connection with Eutropius' fall in the same year. - -Not much is known of the course of conduct pursued towards the Jews by -the Emperor of the West, the feeble Honorius, or his master, Stilicho. -The abolition of exemption from the Curies pronounced against the -communities of Apuleia and Calabria does not prove that a systematic -hostility already existed against the Jews. Another law (of April, -399) forbade, in the name of the Western Emperor Honorius, and under -severe penalty, the collection of the patriarch's tax throughout -the whole extent of the prefecture. Such sums as had already been -received were confiscated to the imperial treasury. The motive of -this prohibition may, however, have been that the Western Emperor -regarded with envious eye the withdrawal of such considerable sums -into the prefecture of his brother. But as if the legislation of this -period desired to ridicule its own capriciousness, this prohibition -was revoked five years later, and the Jews were henceforward permitted -to collect the Patriarch's tax as before, and to forward it without -concealment (404). While on the one hand Honorius forbade the Jews -and the Samaritans to take any share in the military service, on the -other hand, he protected the Jews from molestation on the part of -the authorities, and decided by an edict that the Jews should not be -summoned before the court on the Sabbath or the festivals (409). - -The Middle Ages really begin for Judaism with Theodosius II -(408-450), a good-natured but monk-ridden emperor, whose weakness -afforded impunity to the fanatical zeal of many a bishop, and offered -encouragement to cruelty. Edicts of this emperor prohibited the Jews -from building new synagogues, from exercising the office of judge -between Jewish and Christian suitors, and from possessing Christian -slaves; they also contained other prohibitions of less interest. It -was under this emperor that the Patriarchate finally fell, although -Gamaliel (Batraah), the last of the patriarchs, enjoyed great -distinction at the imperial court, such as none of his predecessors -had ever possessed. Beside the title which had long been borne by -the Patriarchs, the high dignity of Prefect (_Præfectura_), together -with a diploma of honor (_codicillus honorarius_), had been bestowed -upon him, and although these were but hollow honors, they were of -great importance at a time when appearances constituted everything. -It is not known what was the particular merit for which Gamaliel -gained this distinction, but it was probably on account of his medical -acquirements. He was a physician, and was credited with the discovery -of a much-approved remedy for diseases of the spleen. In this elevated -position Gamaliel considered himself privileged to be lax in his -observance of the emperor's exceptional laws against the Jews. He -therefore built new synagogues, exercised jurisdiction in disputes -between Jews and Christians, and disregarded other similar imperial -commands. In consequence of this, Theodosius deprived him of all his -higher dignities, took from him his diploma of honor, and suffered him -to retain only such distinctions as he had enjoyed as Patriarch (415). -But Theodosius in nowise abolished the Patriarchate during Gamaliel's -lifetime; it was not until after the latter's death that this occurred, -his male heirs having died, it appears, at an early age (425). Thus, -with Gamaliel (Batraah) the last remnants of the noble stock of the -house of Hillel disappeared. For three and a half centuries this house -had stood at the head of the spiritual affairs of Judaism; many of its -members had been promoters of the Law, of liberty, and of national -feeling, and the history of their lives had become an important part -of the history of the Jewish nation. Fifteen Patriarchs had succeeded -each other during this lapse of time; two Hillels, three Simons, four -Judahs, and six Gamaliels. - -During the reign of Theodosius in the East, and Honorius in the West, -Cyril, Bishop of Alexandria, notorious for his love of quarreling, his -violence, and his impetuousness, was suffered to illtreat the Jews and -to drive them out of that town. He assembled the Christian mob, incited -them against the Jews by his excessive fanaticism, forced his way into -the synagogues, of which he took possession for the Christians, and -expelled the Jewish inhabitants half naked from the town which they -had come to regard as their home. Disdaining no means, Cyril handed -over their property to be pillaged by the mob, ever greedy of plunder -(415). Thus the Christians inflicted on the Jews of Alexandria the same -fate as 370 years before had fallen to their lot at the hands of the -heathens. The Prefect Orestes, who took this barbarous treatment of -the Jews greatly to heart, was powerless to protect them; all he was -able to do was to lodge a charge against the bishop, but the latter -gained his cause at the court of Constantinople. How great was the -fanaticism of this bishop may be seen from what occurred in Alexandria -soon after the expulsion of the Jews. Not far from this city was a -mountain called Nitra, where dwelt an order of monks whose thirst for -the crown of martyrdom had almost made wild animals of them. Incited -by Cyril, these monks fell upon Orestes, and almost stoned him to -death as a punishment for not sanctioning the expulsion of the Jews. -It was this same fanatical band that tore to pieces the body of the -celebrated philosopher Hypatia, who had charmed the world by her -profound science, her eloquence, and her purity. Only one member of -this unlucky community of Jews, Adamantius by name, a teacher of the -science of medicine, was induced by this disaster to allow himself to -be baptized; he repaired to Constantinople, and was there granted the -right to settle in Alexandria. All the rest willingly bore banishment -and affliction for the sake of their convictions. - -Not so resolute were the Jews of the little town of Magona (Mahon) -in the Spanish island of Minorca, in the Mediterranean. Severus, the -bishop of that place, burnt their synagogues, and harassed them with -attacks in the streets, until at last he succeeded in compelling many -of them to embrace Christianity. The Jews had settled early--probably -in the time of the Roman Republic--in Spain and in the surrounding -islands, and lived there in friendly relation with the original -inhabitants. Even after the Iberians had become Christians, the -husbandmen still caused the produce of their fields to be blessed by -the Jews. It was in Spain that the Christian clergy first aroused the -fanaticism of the Christian population against the Jews. The same -bishop Osius (Hosius) of Cordova, who had sat in the Council of Nice, -and had convoked a council at Illiberis (Elvira, near Granada), also -succeeded in passing a resolution which prohibited the Christians, -under pain of excommunication, from trading with the Jews, contracting -marriages with them, or causing them to bless the produce of their -fields. Nothing now remained for the Jews of Christian countries but -to take up the weapons of mockery; they accordingly made merry over -their enemies behind their backs, which has everywhere and at all times -been the manner in which the weaker party has attempted to lighten its -burdens. At times also they made use of coarse jokes to express their -feelings with regard to Christianity. Such jokes were most usually -made on the occasion of the feast of Purim, when the cheerfulness of -the festival led to intoxication, and intoxication to irresponsible -expressions and demonstrations. On this day the Jews in their -merriment were accustomed to hang Haman, their arch-enemy, in effigy -on a gallows, and this gallows, which used afterwards to be burned, -took, accidentally or intentionally, the form of a cross. Naturally -the Christians complained of profanation of their religion, and the -Emperor Theodosius II directed the ruler of the province to put a stop -to such misconduct by the threat of severe punishment, without being -able, however, to repress it. On one occasion this carnival pleasantry -is said to have led to horrible consequences. The Jews of Imnestar, -a small Syrian town between Antioch and Chalcis, having erected one -of these Haman's gallows, were accused by the Christians of having -suspended a Christian lad crosswise upon it, and of having flogged him -to death. Thereupon the emperor ordered the culprits to be punished -(415). - -The Christians of Antioch were not inferior to their brethren of -Alexandria in fanaticism. They once begged the emperor not to remove -the bones and relics of their martyr Ignatius, as they afforded their -city as great a protection as strong walls. They also, on their side, -avenged the deed of the Jews of Imnestar, by forcibly dispossessing -their Jewish fellow-citizens of their synagogues. It is a remarkable -phenomenon that the prefects and rulers of the provinces for the most -part expressed themselves in favor of the Jews against the clergy. The -Syrian prefect notified the emperor of this robbery of the synagogues, -and must have painted this act of injustice in very vivid colors, for -he thereby moved Theodosius II, steeped as he was in monkish bigotry, -to issue an injunction to the inhabitants of Antioch, ordering them -to restore the synagogues to their owners. But this decision was -denounced by Simon Stylites, who led a life of extreme asceticism in -a sort of stable not far from Antioch. From the height of his column -he had renounced the world and its ways, but his hatred of the Jews -was sufficient, nevertheless, to cause him to interpose in temporal -matters. Hardly had he heard of Theodosius' command relative to the -restoration of the stolen synagogues, than he addressed an insulting -letter to the emperor, informing him that he acknowledged God alone, -and no one else, as master and emperor, and demanded the withdrawal -of the edict. Theodosius hardly stood in need of such intimidation; -he revoked his command, and even removed the Syrian prefect, who had -raised his voice in favor of the Jews (423). - -The bigotry of Theodosius II operated also on Honorius, Emperor of the -West, and by their absurd laws both of them placed the Jews in that -exceptional position in which the newly-formed German states found -them. The Jews were no longer allowed to hold any public offices, or -to fill any military posts such as they had formerly been permitted to -occupy. All that now remained open to them were the doubtful honors of -the municipal offices; but not content with having deprived them of -their position of equality, Theodosius restricted the free employment -of their property for religious purposes, as if the fortunes of the -Jews belonged to the emperor. After the extinction of the patriarchal -house the Jewish communities had not discontinued their practice of -forwarding the taxes of the Patriarch; they were handed over to the -primates, who most probably employed them in supporting the schools. -Suddenly there appeared an imperial decree directing the primates to -deliver up to the imperial treasury such sums as had already been -received for the Patriarch's taxes, and commanding that for the future -they should be collected by imperial officials after exact computation -of their amount, and even that the moneys received from the Western -empire should be handed over to the treasury (May 30, 429). New Rome -had inherited all the knavery and covetousness of Ancient Rome. In -the same manner as the heathen emperor Vespasian had appropriated the -Temple dues, so now did this Christian emperor seize upon the taxes -of the Patriarch, thus adding to the injury of the robbery an insult -to the conscience, for that which had been voluntarily offered out of -piety was now imposed as a compulsory tax for the benefit of foreign -interests. - -In spite of the affliction which fell to the lot of Judaism in the -Eastern empire, and more especially in Judæa, whereby the study of -the Talmud was retarded, the spirit of investigation had not become -quite extinct in Judæa. The reigning distress offered no scope for the -profundities of the Halacha, but furthered the study of the cheerful -Agada, which, diving deep into the joyful and gloomy situations of -past ages, poured the balm of consolation on fretted and desperate -spirits, and lulled them with the magic of hope. The more clear-sighted -were fully conscious of this decay of serious studies, and expressed -their discontent. Notwithstanding the prevailing injustice of the -times, a lively interest in the Hebrew language and in the knowledge -of the Bible was still felt in Palestine. It is indisputable that this -interest in the language was greatly heightened by the controversies -which were sustained with Christians, and to such a pitch was it -excited at this period, that by its help Christianity arrived at an -understanding of the primitive text of the Bible. Tiberias was the -home and the model of this branch of knowledge; Lydda is the only -other town which is mentioned beside it. Hieronymus (Jerome, 331-420), -called by the Church the Holy, the founder of a nunnery in Bethlehem, -being actuated, like Origen, by a thirst for knowledge, was at pains -to become acquainted with the Bible in its original form, and for -this reason went in quest of Jewish teachers, such as Bar-Chanina and -others in these cities. Under their guidance, Hieronymus' acquirements -were by no means small, for he succeeded in expressing himself freely -in Hebrew. From this circumstance it may fairly be concluded that the -knowledge of the holy tongue and of the Bible was more assiduously -cultivated in Judæa than has generally been assumed. Bar-Chanina -was obliged, however, to avoid publicity, and to go in secret to -Hieronymus' cell, there to instruct him, for by reason of the hostile -use to which the Christians turned their knowledge of the Hebrew -language, it had latterly been forbidden to the Jews to teach them. -Hieronymus not only learnt the pronunciation of Hebrew and the literal -meaning of the Bible, but was afforded a more profound insight into the -interconnection of the text by the aid of tradition. He succeeded so -well in catching the form of the Agadic exposition, that at times he -was able to carry it over with taste and ingenuity into the sphere of -Christianity. - -The Jews were several centuries ahead of their Christian contemporaries -as regards judging and distinguishing between authentic canonical -writings and spurious apocryphal collections. The Council of Nice, -which had thought to unite parties by means of authoritative decisions, -had decided the dispute as to the holy character of doubtful writings, -and had incorporated several apocryphal books in the canon. The Jews -with whom Hieronymus held conferences on matters exegetical, offered -such sound remarks on the worthlessness of several portions of the -Apocrypha that even at this day, when knowledge has made such immense -strides, they must be acknowledged as correct. Among others, a Jewish -teacher of the Law ridiculed the additions to Habakkuk, according -to which an angel transported the prophet by the hair from Judæa to -Chaldæa. He demanded where in the Old Testament could be found a -counterpart to this story of one of the holy prophets, possessed of a -body subject to the power of gravity, traversing so immense a distance -in a moment. In spite of the unpropitious state of the times, the Jews -of Palestine were not afflicted with that want of judgment which in -naïve faith accepts without discrimination as holy anything that is put -forward as such; they had not extinguished the light of discernment in -the temple of their faith. This power of judgment was a result of the -study of the Halacha, which afforded a counterpoise to the incapacity -of discrimination which is a consequence of credulity. Thus even in -its old age Judæa fostered the Hebrew tongue, which it had given to -its sons as an indissoluble bond of union in foreign countries. The -use of the holy language in prayer, lecture, and study constituted the -intellectual unity of the Jewish nation. - -Christianity had caught up a few rays of the setting sun of Judæa, and -treasured them up in the Church as a light from heaven. The knowledge -of Hebrew, which Hieronymus had acquired from Jewish teachers, and -by means of which he had been enabled to produce a Latin translation -(Vulgata) of the Bible, deviating from the distorted Septuagint and -approaching more nearly to the Hebrew text, sufficed for more than -a thousand years, and was extended and amended with the renaissance -of learning at the commencement of modern times. But with every step -forward that Christianity took, it increased the gap which divided it -from Judaism, and the eloquence of many centuries was required before -recognition was again obtained for the fact that Christianity had -had its origin in Judaism. To such an extent had blood-relationship -been obliterated by religious zeal, that even Hieronymus, who had sat -at the feet of Jewish masters, and had found "the Hebrew truth" in -the Old Testament, was unable to free himself from the deep-rooted -hatred of the Jews. His enemies having reproached him with heresy on -account of his Jewish studies, he convinced them of his orthodoxy by -his hatred of the Jews. "If it is requisite to despise the individuals -and the nation, so do I abhor the Jews with an inexpressible hate." -In this he was not alone, for his opinions were shared by a younger -contemporary, Augustine, the Father of the Church. This profession of -faith concerning the hatred of the Jews was not the private opinion -of an individual author, but an oracle for the whole of Christendom, -which readily accepted the writings of the Fathers of the Church, who -were revered as saints. In later times this profession of faith armed -kings and populace, crusaders and herdsmen, against the Jews, invented -instruments for their torture, and constructed funeral pyres for -burning them. - -It is remarkable that in spite of their repression on the part of the -state, the Jews living in Cæsarea, the residence of the Governor, -joined in the fashionable folly of the stadium. There existed among -them charioteers, horse-racers, jockeys, and parties supporting -the green or the blue, as at Rome, Ravenna, Constantinople, and -Antioch. But as in those times every act in life bore the stamp of -the confessional, religious disputes also became mixed up with the -struggles of the partisans of the various colors. The victory or the -defeat of a Jewish, Samaritan, or Christian charioteer was at the -same time the occasion of an attack by his co-religionists upon their -opponents. - -In Babylonia, where up till now the Jews had enjoyed quiet and -independence but seldom disturbed, troubles and persecutions also -began to increase. It was for this reason that a dearth of prominent -personages began to make itself felt. Creative power declined, and made -way for the tendency to reproduce and establish what had already been -produced. The Jewish history of this country moved within a narrow -circle; the principals of the schools succeeded one another, taught, -and died, and it was only by the appearance of persecutions that a sad -variety was imparted to its course. Of Ashi's six successors at the -Academy of Sora (427-456), not one accomplished anything worthy of -remark. - -Some small importance was possessed, however, by Ashi's son, Mar, who -also bore the name Tabyome. He happened to be at Machuza at the time -when he heard the news of the occurrence of a vacancy at the head of -the Soranian Metibta. He hurried off to Sora, and arrived there just -in the nick of time, for the members of the academy were assembled for -the election. Delegates were sent to confer with him on the choice of -Acha of Diphta, and were detained by him, as were also others who were -sent after them, until they were ten in number; whereupon he delivered -a lecture, and was hailed as Resh-Metibta by all the members present -(455). Acha was exceedingly hurt by this slight, and applied to his -own case the following saying, "He who is unlucky, can never attain to -luck." - -In the same year a persecution of the Jews broke out with unprecedented -rigor in the Babylonian countries. It was the commencement of a long -series of bloody attacks which the Jews had to suffer at the hands of -the last of the neo-Persian kings, and which rendered their position -as sad as that of their co-religionists of the Roman Empire. Jezdijird -III (440-457), unlike his predecessor of the same name, instituted a -religious persecution of the Jews; they were forbidden to celebrate the -Sabbath (456). The reason of this sudden change in the conduct of the -Persian ruler towards the Jews, who had always been sincerely attached -to him, is probably to be found in the fanaticism of the Magi, whose -influence over many of the Persian monarchs was not less than that of -the spiritual advisers of the eastern emperors over their masters. -The Magi of this period appear to have learnt their proselytism and -their love of religious persecution from the Christians. Besides this, -Christianity had by its proselytism provoked the Magi to resistance. -The Manicheans who had compounded Jewish, Christian, and Persian -religious ideas into a medley of their own, made accusations of heresy -as common in Persia as in the Roman Empire. Jezdijird persecuted both -Manicheans and Christians. Sooner or later the light-worship of the -Persians was bound to take offense at Judaism, and to place the Jews -upon the list of its enemies. The chronicles are silent concerning the -conduct of the Jews with regard to the prohibition of the celebration -of the Sabbath; conscientious Jews, however, cannot have failed to -obtain opportunities of evading it, and for this reason the names of no -martyrs have survived this persecution. The constraint was continued -about a year, as Jezdijird was killed a short time after; a civil war -was carried on by his sons Chodar-Warda and Firuz for the possession of -the crown. - -Mar bar Ashi was the sole authority of this period; and although all -his decisions, with the exception of three, received the force of law, -he does not seem to have acquired any special repute in the Soranian -Academy. He continued his father's work of completing the Talmudical -collection, and included the latter's decisions therein. He and his -contemporaries must have felt themselves all the more impelled to -complete the work of compilation, as the persecution they had gone -through made them feel that the future was precarious. Nothing more is -known of Mar bar Ashi's character than a trait of conscientiousness, -which stands out in strong contrast with Raba's partiality towards -members of his own class. He relates as follows: "When an associate -appears before me in court, I refuse to exercise the functions of my -office, for I regard him as a near relation, and might involuntarily -show partiality in his favor." - -After Mar's death the Jews of the Persian Empire were the victims of a -fresh persecution under Firuz (Pheroces, 457-484), which was far more -terrible than that which had occurred under his father, Jezdijird. -This persecution is said to have been occasioned by the desire for -vengeance entertained by this monarch, who was swayed by the Magi -against the whole Jewish community, because certain of them were said -to have killed and flayed two Magi in Ispahan. As a punishment for this -deed Firuz put to death half the Jewish population of Ispahan, and had -the Jewish children forcibly brought up in the Temple of Horvan as -worshipers of fire. The persecution extended also to the communities -of Babylonia, and continued for several years, until the death of the -tyrant. Mar-Zutra's son, Huna-Mari, Prince of the Captivity, and two -teachers of the Law, Amemar bar Mar-Janka and Meshershaya bar Pacod, -were thrown into prison, and afterwards executed (469-70). They were -the first martyrs on Babylonian soil, and it is a significant fact that -a Prince of the Captivity bled for Judaism. - -A few years later the persecution was carried to a still wider extent; -the schools were closed, assemblies for the purpose of teaching -prohibited, the jurisdiction of the Jews abolished, and their children -compelled to embrace the religion of the Magi (474). - -The city of Sora seems to have been destroyed at this period. Firuz, -whose system of persecution puts one in mind of Hadrian, invented a -new means of torture, which had not occurred to that emperor, which -was to remove the young from under the influence of Judaism, and to -bring them up by force in the Persian religion. For this reason he was -branded by the Jews of after times, like Hadrian, with the name of "the -wicked" (_Piruz Reshia_). The immediate result of this persecution was -the emigration of Jewish colonists, who settled in the south as far as -Arabia, and in the east as far as India. - -This emigration of the Jews to India is expressly marked as occurring -about the time of Firuz's persecution. An otherwise unknown person, -Joseph Rabban by name, who is recognizable as a Babylonian by reason -of this title, arrived in the year 4250 of the Jewish era (490), with -many Jewish families, on the rich and busy coast of Malabar; he -must accordingly have started on his journey before this date, and -therefore have emigrated under Firuz. Airvi (Eravi), the Brahmin king -of Cranganor, welcomed the Jewish strangers, offered them a home in his -dominions, and suffered them to live according to their peculiar laws, -and to be ruled by their own princes (Mardeliar). The first of these -chiefs was their leader Joseph Rabban, upon whom the Indian monarch -conferred special rights and princely honors, to be inherited by his -descendants. He was allowed, like the Indian princes, to ride upon an -elephant, to be preceded by a herald, accompanied by a musical escort -of drums and cymbals, and to sit upon a carpet. Joseph Rabban is said -to have been followed by a line of seventy-two successors, who ruled -over the Indo-Jewish colonists, until quarrels broke out among them. -Cranganor was destroyed, many of the Jews lost their lives, and the -remainder settled in Mattachery, a league from Cochin, which acquired -from this fact the name of Jews'-town. The privileges accorded by -Airvi to the Jewish immigrants were engraved in ancient Indian (Tamil) -characters, accompanied by an obscure Hebrew translation, on a copper -table, which is said to be extant at the present day. - -As soon as the terrors of persecution had ceased with Firuz's death, -the ancient organization was again restored in Jewish Babylonia; the -academies were re-opened, principals appointed, and Sora and Pumbeditha -received their last Amoraïc leaders--the former in the person of -Rabina, the latter in José. These two principals and their assessors -had but one end in view, the completion and termination of the work -of compiling the Talmud begun by Ashi. The continual increase of -affliction, the diminished interest which probably on that account -was extended to study, the uncertainty of the future, all these -causes forcibly suggested the completion of the Talmud. Rabina, who -held office from 488 to 499, and José, who discharged the duties of -principal from 471 to about 520, are expressly mentioned in the old -chronicles as "the close of the period of the Amoraïm" (_Sof Horaah_). -There is no doubt, however, that the members of the two academies, -whose names have been preserved, also had a part in this work, and -that they therefore are to be regarded as the last of the Amoraïm. -The most important among them was Achaï bar Huna of Be-Chatim, near -Nahardea (died 506), whose decisions and discussions are distinguished -by characteristic peculiarities, and bear witness to a clear and sober -mind, and to great keenness. Achaï was known and esteemed for these -qualities beyond Babylonia. An epistle received by the Babylonian -academy from Judæa, which, as far as is historically known, was -probably the last addressed by the deserted mother-country to its -daughter colony, speaks of him in terms of greatest reverence: "Neglect -not Achaï, for he is the light of the eyes of the exiles." Even -Huna-Mar, the Prince of the Captivity, must have possessed Talmudical -acquirements, for the chronicle, which is by no means favorable to the -princes of the Captivity, numbers him among this series of teachers -of the Law, and concedes to him the title of Rabbi. His history, with -which certain important events are connected, belongs to the following -period. - -In conjunction with these men, Rabina and José accomplished the -completion of the Talmud, that is to say, they sanctioned as a complete -whole the collection of all previous transactions and decisions -which they had caused to be compiled, and to which no additions or -amplifications were henceforward to be made. The definite completion of -the Babylonian Talmud (called also the Gemara) occurred in the year of -Rabina's death, just at the close of the fifth century (13th Kislev or -2nd December, 499), when the Jews of the Arabian peninsula were sowing -the first seeds of a new religion and laying the foundations of a new -empire, and when the Gothic and Frankish kingdoms were rising in Europe -from the ruins of ancient Rome. The Talmud forms a turning-point in -Jewish history, and from this time forward constitutes an essential -factor therein. - -The Talmud must not be regarded as an ordinary work, composed of -twelve volumes; it possesses absolutely no similarity to any other -literary production, but forms, without any figure of speech, a world -of its own, which must be judged by its peculiar laws. It is extremely -difficult to give any sketch of its character because of the absence of -all common standards and analogies. The most talented could, therefore, -hardly hope to succeed in this task, even though he had penetrated -deeply into its nature, and become intimately acquainted with its -peculiarities. It might, perhaps, be compared with the literature -of the Fathers of the Church, which sprang up about the same time; -but on closer examination even this comparison fails to satisfy the -student. It is, however, of less consequence what the Talmud is in -itself, than what was its influence on history, that is to say, on the -successive generations whose education it chiefly controlled. Many -judgments have been passed on the Talmud at various times and on the -most opposite grounds. It has been condemned, and its funeral pyre has -been ignited, because only its unfavorable side has been considered, -and no regard has been paid to its merits, which, however, can be -rendered apparent only by a complete survey of the whole of Jewish -history. It cannot be denied, however, that the Babylonian Talmud -is marred by certain blemishes, such as necessarily appear in every -intellectual production which pursues a single course with inflexible -consistency and exclusive one-sidedness. These faults may be classed -under four heads. The Talmud contains much that is immaterial and -frivolous, of which it treats with great gravity and seriousness; it -further reflects the various superstitious practices and views of its -Persian birthplace, which presume the efficacy of demoniacal medicines, -of magic, incantations, miraculous cures, and interpretations of -dreams, and are thus in opposition to the spirit of Judaism. It also -contains isolated instances of uncharitable judgments and decrees -against the members of other nations and religions, and finally it -favors an incorrect exposition of the Scriptures, accepting, as it -does, tasteless misinterpretations. The whole Talmud has been made -responsible for these defects, and has been condemned as a collection -of trifles, a well of immorality and falsehood. No consideration has -been paid to the fact that it is not the work of any one author, who -must answer for every word of it, or if it be, that that author is the -entire Jewish nation. More than six centuries lie petrified in the -Talmud as the fullest evidence of life, clothed each in its peculiar -dress and possessing its own form of thought and expression: a sort -of literary Herculaneum and Pompeii, unmarred by that artificial -imitation which transfers a gigantic picture on a reduced scale to a -narrow canvas. Small wonder, then, that if in this world the sublime -and the common, the great and the small, the grave and the ridiculous, -the altar and the ashes, the Jewish and the heathenish, be discovered -side by side. The expressions of ill-will, which are seized upon with -such avidity by the enemies of the Jews, were often nothing but the -utterance of momentary ill-humor, which escaped from the teacher, and -were caught up and embodied in the Talmud by over-zealous disciples, -unwilling to lose a single word let fall by the revered sages. They are -amply counterbalanced, however, by the doctrines of benevolence and -love of all men without distinction of race or religion, which are also -preserved in the Talmud. As a counterpoise to the wild superstitions, -there are severe warnings against superstitious heathen practices, to -which a separate section is devoted. - -The Babylonian Talmud is especially distinguished from the Jerusalem -or Palestine Talmud by the flights of thought, the penetration of -mind, the flashes of genius, which rise and vanish again. An infinite -fulness of thought and of thought-exciting material is laid up in the -mine of the Talmud, not, however, in the shape of a finished theme -which one can grasp at a glance, but in all its original freshness of -conception. The Talmud introduces us into the laboratory of thought, -and in it may be traced the progress of ideas, from their earliest -agitation to the giddy height of incomprehensibility to which at times -they attain. It was for this reason that the Babylonian rather than -the Jerusalem Talmud became the fundamental possession of the Jewish -race, its life's breath, its very soul. It was a family history for -succeeding generations, in which they felt themselves at home, in -which they lived and moved, the thinker in the world of thought, the -dreamer in glorious ideal pictures. For more than a thousand years the -external world, nature and mankind, powers and events, were for the -Jewish nation insignificant, non-essential, a mere phantom; the only -true reality was the Talmud. A new truth in their eyes only received -the stamp of veracity and freedom from doubt when it appeared to be -foreseen and sanctioned by the Talmud. Even the knowledge of the Bible, -the more ancient history of their race, the words of fire and balm of -their prophets, the soul outpourings of their Psalmists, were only -known to them through and in the light of the Talmud. But as Judaism, -ever since its foundation, has based itself on the experiences of -actual life, so that the Talmud was obliged to concern itself with -concrete phenomena, with the things of _this_ world; so it follows -that there could not arise that dream-life, that disdain of the world, -that hatred of realities, which in the Middle Ages gave birth to and -sanctified the hermit life of the monks and nuns. It is true that the -intellectual tendency prevailing in the Babylonian Talmud, aided by -climatic influences and other accidental circumstances, degenerated -not infrequently into subtilty and scholasticism; for no historical -phenomenon exists without an unfavorable side. But even this abuse -contributed to bring about clear conceptions, and rendered possible the -movement toward science. The Babylonian Amoraïm created that dialectic, -close-reasoning, Jewish spirit, which in the darkest days preserved the -dispersed nation from stagnation and stupidity. It was the ether which -protected them from corruption, the ever-moving force which overcame -indolence and the blunting of the mental powers, the eternal spring -which kept the mind ever bright and active. In a word, the Talmud was -the educator of the Jewish nation; and this education can by no means -have been a bad one, since, in spite of the disturbing influence of -isolation, degradation and systematic demoralization, it fostered in -the Jewish people a degree of morality which even their enemies cannot -deny them. The Talmud preserved and promoted the religious and moral -life of Judaism; it held out a banner to the communities scattered in -all corners of the earth, and protected them from schism and sectarian -divisions; it acquainted subsequent generations with the history of -their nation; finally, it produced a deep intellectual life which -preserved the enslaved and proscribed from stagnation, and which lit -for them the torch of science. How the Talmud made its way into the -consciousness of the Jewish people, how it became known and accessible -to distant communities, and how it became a stumbling-block to the -enemies of Judaism, will be told in subsequent pages. - - - - -INDEX. - - - Abayi, principal of Pumbeditha, 583-5. - - Abba-Areka. See Rab. - - Abbahu, 531-43. - character, 540 f. - learning, 537-9. - favors study of Agada, 540, 543. - polemics against Christianity, 540 f. - - Ab-bet-din, 404. - - Abtalion, 71. - - Acher (Elisha ben Abuya), apostasy, 358, 377. - malice against the Jews, 425 f. - relation to Meïr, 437. - - Adam, book of, 462. - - Adiabene, princes of, converted to Judaism, 216 ff. - help the Judæans in the revolution, 264. - resist Trajan, 393 f. - - Administration of justice, reform of, 50. - - Adoyot == evidence of witnesses, 343. - == older compilation of the Mishna, 460. - - Adultery, suspected, ritual of, abolished, 238. - - Aelia Capitolina == Jerusalem, 421. - - Agada (Hagadah), favorite study in Judæa, 576, 623. - subject-matter, 328 f. - - Agape, 223. - - Agora-nomos, 512 f., 616. - - Agrippa I, 174-96. - career in Rome, and character, 175 f. - favorite of Caligula, 176 f., 189. - of Claudius, 190. - fortifies Jerusalem, 195. - liberality to the Greeks, 193 f. - made king, 177, 190. - patriotism, 189, 191, 195. - popularity, 191. - prosperity of his reign, 191 f. - reading the Torah in the Temple, 192. - death, 196. - - Agrippa II, 235 f. - aids the Roman army, 264. - alleviates the condition of Galilee after the war, 333. - appointed king of Chalcis, 235. - career and character, 235 f. - conduct during the war, 288. - depravity of his house, 236. - fall, 317. - flees from Jerusalem, 258. - hostile to his people, 236. - how treated by Titus, 388. - meets Vespasian, 285. - recommends peace with Rome, 257 f. - sends troops to Jerusalem to preserve peace, 259. - treachery against his people, 302. - - Akiba ben Joseph, 342 ff. - classifies the Halachas, 353 f. - combats Gnosticism, 381 f. - disciple of Nachum Gimso, 351 f. - legends about his early life, 351. - martyr, 428. - method and system, 352 f., 441. - new founder of the Oral Law, 354. - part played in the revolt of Bar Cochba, 408 ff. - seven disciples, 429, 433. - - Akylas (Aquila), 385 ff. - at the funeral of Gamaliel, 404. - Greek translation of the Bible, 386 f. - - Albinus, procurator of Judæa, 248. - - Alexander Jannæus, 38-47. - accession to the throne, 39. - campaign in the trans-Jordanic land, 44. - coins, 46. - crucifies 800 Pharisees, 45. - cruelties in Gaza, 41. - death, 47. - desecrates the ceremony of libation, 43. - employs mercenaries, 39. - forces Judaism upon the conquered, 46. - massacres 6000 people in the precincts of the Temple, 43. - - Alexander Jannæus, relation to the Pharisees, 39, 42, 44, 47. - revolts against him, 44. - wanting in generalship, 39. - - Alexander II, 70-75. - conflict with Hyrcanus II and Pompey, 70-73. - decapitated, 75. - - Alexander, son of Herod, executed, 112 f. - - Alexander, Alabarch of Alexandria, 175 f., 190. - - Alexander Polyhistor, favorable representation of the Jews, 179. - - Alexander Severus, conditions after his death, 526 f. - kindly disposed towards Judaism and Christianity, 481 f. - relation to Judah II, 482. - - Alexandra, mother of Mariamne, 81, 91 f., 94. - executed, 105. - - Alexandria, in Egypt, Jews in, 178 ff. - adopt foreign views and practices, 13 f. - deprived of citizenship, 182. - hostility against them, 178-87. - massacre of Jews, 263. - outrages by Christians against them, 618 f. - play leading role, 12. - restored to their rights by Claudius, 191. - Talmudic schools, 359. - teachers, 329. - - Allegorical method of interpretation, 208 ff. - leads to apostasy from Judaism, 209. - - Altar, why the use of iron is forbidden in erecting, 329. - - Ambivius, Marcus, procurator of Judæa, 135. - - Ambrosius, fanaticism against the Jews, 613 f. - - Amemar, principal of Nahardea, 606. - - Ami, 531, 534, 537. - - Ammonites, discussion about their admission into the Jewish - community, 343, 383 f. - - Amoraim, the first, 479 ff. - the last, 630 f. - method, 490. - in Palestine, 531 ff. - - Anan, high priest, 172. - attempts to revive Sadducæism, 248. - executed by the Zealots, 296. - - Anan, his family, 237. - - Ananel, chosen high priest by Herod, 90. - - Andreias (Lucas), leader of the revolt against Trajan in Cyrene, 395. - - Anti-Judæan movement, 178-89. - - Antigonus, son of Aristobulus II, 80-89. - character compared with that of Herod, 84-6. - contest with Herod, 84-8. - decapitated by Mark Antony, 89. - plot against the Idumæans, 80. - proclaimed king, 83. - - Antigonus, son of Hyrcanus, murdered, 36 f. - rumors about his death, 38. - - Antipas I, son of Herod, appointed successor of his father, 114. - dies in exile, 177. - marries Herodias, wife of his brother Herod, 173. - - Antipater, father of Herod, 59-80. - descent, 59. - instigates Hyrcanus II to break the agreement, 59 f. - made governor of Judæa, 67. - poisoned, 80. - - Antipater, son of Herod, 112-16. - adopted as royal prince, 112. - character, 173. - conspires against his father, 114. - executed, 116. - - Antoninus Pius, Jewish revolt against him, 447. - revokes the decrees of Hadrian against the Jews, 432. - - Antony, Mark, assists Herod, 87 f. - defeat of, at Actium, 96. - gives the district of Jericho to Cleopatra, 93. - and Judæan ambassadors against the Idumæans, 81. - - Apion, hatred of the Jews, 180, 390. - heads an anti-Judæan embassy to Rome, 186. - - Apocalypse (of John), 369. - - Apocrypha, and apocryphal additions, 344. - considered by Christians as part of the Bible, 359, 488, 624. - - Apollos of Alexandria (Jewish Christian), 231. - - Arabia, Jewish fugitives in, 419. - - Arcadius, favorable to Jews, 615 f. - - Arch of Titus, 314. - - Archelaus, son and successor of Herod, 120-8. - bloody inauguration of his reign, 121 f. - character of his reign, 121 f. - - Aretas, king of the Nabathæans, interferes between Hyrcanus II and - Aristobulus II, 59-61. - - Aristobulus I, 35-8. - adheres to the Sadducees, 36. - assumes the title of king, 35. - campaign against the Ithuræans and Trachonites, 37. - coins, 35. - death, 38. - forces Judaism upon the conquered heathen, 37. - imprisons his mother and three of his brothers, 36. - preference for Hellenism, unpopular, 36. - - Aristobulus II, 56-75. - contest with Hyrcanus II, 57-75. - death, 75. - fight with Pompey, 64 f. - led a captive to Rome, 67-73. - - Aristobulus III, appointed high priest by Herod, 91. - assassinated, 92. - - Aristobulus, son of Herod and Mariamne, executed, 112 f. - - Aristobulus, brother of Herod II, 197. - - Aristocracy, Judæan, corruption of, 147. - cowardice and servility, 142, 298. - opposed to war with Rome, 256, 274. - - Armenia, Jews in, 591. - - Arsaces, dynasty of Parthia, 513, 523. - - Artemion, leader of the Jewish revolt against Trajan in Cyprus, 397. - - Ascension (of Christ), doctrine of, 539 f. - - Ashi, 605-11. - principal of Sora, 605 ff. - redactor of the Talmud, 607-9. - view on the coming of the Messiah, 610 f. - - Asia Minor, Talmudic schools in, 358 f. - - Assi, 531, 534, 537. - - Assidæans. See Essenes. - - Astronomy, 521. - - Augustine, hatred of the Jews, 625. - - Augustus (Octavianus), 101-3. - death, 135. - extends the territory of Judæa, 103. - - Augustus (Octavianus), favors shown to the Jews of Egypt, 102. - to those of Rome, 103. - gracious to Herod, 101, 103. - - - Baâle Trêsin, 356. - - Babylonia, becomes second home of the Jews, 503. - different meanings of the word in Jewish history, 504. - division of the Jewish province in it, 505 ff. - - Babylonia, Jews in, 503. - become heads of schools in Judæa, 537. - decline of learning, 626. - effect of the sojourn of the Jews in it on their mind and - character, 504. - martyrs, 629. - occupations, 508. - persecutions, 508 f., 591 f., 627-30. - political condition, 508 ff. - progress, 544. - purity of descent, 505. - resist Trajan, 393 f., 397. - study the Law in Judæa, 511 f., 518, 531. - surpass the Jews in Judæa, 503. - - Babylonian colony of Jews in Galilee, devoted to the Herodian - family, 274. - part played in the war with Rome, 275. - - Babylonian prince of captivity. See Princes of Captivity. - - Babylonian schools. See Schools. - - Babylonian Synhedrion, 143 f. - - Bar-Cochba, 409 ff. See Revolt against Hadrian. - - Barnabas (apostle), 227. - - Barnabas, Jose of Cyprus, 219. - - Bassus, procurator of Judæa, 315. - - Bath-Kol, 337. - - Be-Rab, 514. - - Bechirta, 343. - - Bekiim, seat of a school, 348. - - Bene-Bathyra, chosen president of the Synhedrion by Herod, 90. - in Nisibis, 358. - - Bene-Berak, seat of Akiba, 355. - - Berachoth, eighteen, introduced by Gamaliel II, 363. - - Berenice, daughter of Salome and wife of Aristobulus, 112. - - Berenice, sister of Agrippa II, 235 ff. - alleviates the sorrows of the conquered Jews, 332 f. - - Berenice, fall, 388. - honored at Athens with a statue, 317. - intercession with Florus, 254. - relation to Vespasian and Titus, 299 f., 317. - - Beth-Din, after the fall of Judæa, 325. - - Bethar, 416 ff. - - Bethshean, conflict between Jews and heathens in, 262 f. - - Beth-Shearim, seat of the Synhedrion, 452. - - Bible, interpretation of by Christians, 488 f., 499, 501. - knowledge of, among Jews and Christians, 623 ff. - cultivated in Judæa, 623 ff. - neglect of, 536 f. - - Birchath ha Minim, 379 f. - - Bishops of Rome, 500. - - Boëthus and Boëthuseans, 108, 237. - - Boraita, 470 f. - - Bruria, wife of Meïr, 436. - - Burial in Judæa, merits attributed to, 548, 576. - - - Cæsar and Judæa, 75-77. - benevolence to the Jews, 76. - - Cæsarea, affray between Jews and Syrian-Greeks, 246, 252, 262. - founded by Herod, 106 f. - Jews deprived of their civil rights, 247. - Jews join in the races of the stadium, 626. - - Cæsarea Philippi, 138. - - Caiaphas, Joseph, high priest, 163, 172. - - Cainites (Gnostic sect), 375. - - Calendar, 362. - of Hillel II, 573 f. - of Mar-Samuel, 521 f., 574. - - Caligula demands divine honors, 183, 187. - orders his statue to be put in the Temple of Jerusalem, 188 f. - reason of his hatred of the Jews, 187. - relation to Agrippa I, 176 f. - to Judæa, 174 f. - treatment of a Jewish embassy from Alexandria, 187. - - Camith, family of high priests, 237. - - Canon of Holy Writings completed, 344. - - Cantheras, family of high priests, 237. - - Caracalla, tolerable condition of the Jews under rule of, 468 f. - - Catholic Church, when created, 500. - - Census on Passover in Jerusalem, called the census of crushing, 251. - of Quirinus, 129 ff. - census taken by Rome for taxation, 129, 133. - - Chama, principal of Pumbeditha, 594 f. - - Chama ben Anilaï, model of Jewish charity, 545 f. - - Chanina, deputy of the high priest (Segan ha-Cohanim), 330. - - Chanina ben Chama, 490-2. - - Chanina ben Teradion, 427. - died a martyr under Hadrian, 429. - - Chares, leader in the war of revolution at Gamala, 289. - - Chasda of Cafri, principal of the school of Babylonia, 552 f. - - Chebrim (Guebres), 523. - - Chiya, 454 f. - - Chiya bar Abba, 536 f. - - Chrestus (Christian Apostle), 202, 231. - - Christianity and Christians, 141 ff. - ascendancy of, 531, 535. - beginning, 141 ff. - compared with Judaism, 383. - composite nature of its teachings, 373 f. - controversies with Jews, 499 ff., 539 f. - creation of the Catholic Church, 500. - dogmas, 500 f. - fanaticism against Jews, 613, 618 ff. - essence: Essenism intermingled with foreign elements, 142, - 170 f., 366. - hatred of Judaism, 562, 625 f. - methods of proselytizing, 562. - peculiarities, 168 f. - persecuted by Diocletian, 533 f., 539. - proselytism, 169, 364, 533. - sectarianism, 365, 373. - separation from Judaism, 431, 563 ff. - split into a Judaic Christian and heathen-Christian sect, 232, - 365 ff. - triumph over the Roman empire and paganism, 559 ff. - union with the Roman empire and its results, 566. - - Christianity, why it gained converts, 383. - - Christianity and Christians, Jewish, attitude towards the Law, 365. - called Ebionites, 168 f., 220. - Nazarenes, 168. - condemned by Samuel Hakaton, 358. - discussed in the Synhedrion of Jabne, 379 f. - divisions, 370. - incursions in Judaism, 378. - measures taken against, 382, 412 f. - not referred to in the Mishna, 476. - persecuted by Hadrian, 430 f. - points of difference from pagan Christianity, 365 ff. - relation to Jews and Judaism, 390, 412. - union with pagan Christians, 431. - - Christian emperors, their attitude to Jews and Judaism, 561 ff., - 566 ff., 602 f., 612 ff. - - Christian school of Alexandria, 488. - - Christians in Antioch, honor Jewish institutions, 613 f. - - Chrysostom, fanaticism against the Jews, 613 f. - - Churches, first, which were built in Galilee, 565. - - Chuzpit, public interpreter (Meturgeman) and martyr under Hadrian, - 357, 429. - - Cicero, hostility against the Jews, 68-70, 179. - - Circumcision, prohibited, 422, 424. - - Citizenship, Roman, full right of, extended by Caracalla, 468. - - Civil war in Judæa, 295. - See also War of Revolution. - - Claudius banishes the Jews from Rome, 202. - favorably disposed towards the Jews of the Roman empire, 191. - friendship to Agrippa I, 190. - relation to Judæa, 197. - - Clemens, Flavius, convert to Judaism, 387. - executed, 389. - - Cleopatra, queen of Egypt, antagonism to Herod, 92, 94. - death, 102. - hostile to the Judæans, 102. - - Cleopatra, mother of Ptolemy VIII, relation to Judæa, 10, 40 f. - - Clergy, Christian, fanaticism against the Jews, 612 ff. - - Coins struck, in honor of Agrippa I, 190, 194. - by Alexander Jannæus, 46. - by Alexander II, 70. - by Antigonus, 83. - by Aristobulus, 35. - by Bar-Cochba, 411. - in honor of Hadrian, commemorating his victory over Bar-Cochba, 419. - by Hadrian, 407. - by Hyrcanus, 12. - Roman, commemorating the overthrow of Judæa, 314. - commemorating Nerva's act of toleration to the Jews, 392. - by Salome Alexandra, 48. - of the war of revolution, 292. - by the Zealots, 268, 269. - - Commands, the six hundred and thirteen of the Jewish Law, 499. - - Consecration, feast of, celebrated in the Jewish community of - Egypt, 6. - - Constantine, discriminations against the Jews, 562 ff. - edict of toleration, 561. - forbids the Jews to make converts, 562. - re-enacts the decrees of Hadrian against the Jews, 564. - - Constantius, oppresses the Jews, 566 f. - forbids the Jews to make converts and to marry Christian women, 567. - - Coponius, first procurator of Judæa, 129, 135. - - Council, the Great, when called Synhedrion, 71. - See Synhedrion. - - Council of Nice, 563. - incorporates apocryphal books in the Canon, 624. - - Crassus plunders the Temple, 74. - - Ctesiphon, 506 f. - - Cumanus, procurator of Judæa, 241 ff. - - Cypros, wife of Agrippa I, 175. - - Cyprus, revolt against Trajan, 397. - - Cyrene, uprising of the Jews in, 331. - revolt against Trajan, 395. - - Cyril of Alexandria, fanaticism against the Jews, 618 f. - - Cyzicenus, Antiochus, King of Syria, hostility to Judæa, 9. - defeated by Hyrcanus I, 10, 40. - - Daniel, book of, how considered by Christians and Porphyry, 502. - applications made of his prophecies and visions, 494 f., 527, 598. - - Dead, burial denied to, by Hadrian, 430. - - Dedication, feast of (Chanuka), observed by the heathen, 384. - - Dio Cassius, account of the war of Bar-Cochba, 418 f. - - Diocletian, attitude towards the Patriarch, 533 f. - not unfavorably disposed towards the Jews, 533. - persecutes Christians and Samaritans, 533 f., 539. - - Diogenes, Sadducæan and favorite of Alexander Jannæus, 42, 45, 55. - - Divorce, ordinance of Meïr concerning, 439; - restricted, 50. - - Documents in Judæa, dated according to the reign of the Roman - emperors, 134. - - Domitian, 345. - decrees against the Jews, 387-9. - persecution of proselytes to Judaism, 384, 389. - - Drusilla, sister of Agrippa II, apostate, and wife of the procurator - Felix, 235 f., 245. - - - Earthquake in Judæa, 61. - - Easter, Christian, and Jewish Passover, separated by the Church, 563. - - Ebionites, 168 f., 220, 366. - See also Christianity, Jewish. - - Ecclesiastes (Kohelet), book of, discussion concerning its holiness, - 343 f. - - Egypt, Jews in, revolt against Trajan, 395-8. - See also Alexandria. - - Eighteen things, the, of Shammai, concerning the relation of Jews - to the heathen, 270. - - Eleazar ben Ananias, gives the first impulse to the uprising - against Rome; - leader of the Zealots, 256, 270. - - Eleazar ben Arach, disciple of Jochanan ben Zakkai, 326, 334. - - Eleazar ben Azariah, 345. - elected patriarch of Jabne, 342. - - Eleazar ben Dinai, leader of a band of Zealots, 238. - - Eleazar ben Jair, leader of the Sicarii, 239, 315. - - Eleazar of Modin, killed by Bar-Cochba, 417 f. - - Eleazar ben Poira, reprimands Hyrcanus I, 32. - - Eleazar, son of Simon ben Jochai, 457. - delivers the freebooters to the Romans, 464 f. - - Eleazar, head of the Zealots, his part in the war of revolution, - 258 f. - - Eleazar ben Simon, ultra-Zealot, 270. - - Elegabalus, emperor, favorable attitude towards Judaism, 469 f. - - Eliezer ben Hyrcanus, character, 346 f. - disciple of Jochanan ben Zaccai, 334, 346. - excommunicated by Gamaliel, 339 f. - upholder of tradition, 356. - - Eliezer of Modin, authority on Agadic explanations, 357. - - Embassies, Judæan, to Rome, 126 f., 197 f., 449. - from Alexandria, 184 ff. - - Emigration of Jews to India, 629 f. - - Essenes, 23-31. - ablutions and celibacy, 25 f. - ceremonies of initiation, 31. - communism, 25, 145, 150. - dress, 26. - derivation of the name, 26. - disapprove of oath, 27 f., 108. - of war, 25. - final aim, 28 f. - idea of the Messiah, 145. - mysticism, 28. - occupy themselves with cures, exorcisms, etc., 29. - origin, from the Assidæans, 24. - number, 30. - prophetic power ascribed to them, 100. - relation to Christianity, 219 f. - to the Pharisees, the Temple and national life, 30. - settlement, 25. - strict observance of the Sabbath and the Levitical laws of - cleanliness, 24 f. - - Eusebius, fanaticism against the Jews, 527, 562. - - Excommunication (Nidui), 339. - laws about, 552. - in Babylon, 517. - - Exile, Roman (Galut Edom), compared with that of Babylonia, 321. - - Exorcism, practice of, in Christianity, 170. - - - Fadus, procurator of Judæa after Agrippa I's death, 197 f. - - Fathers of the Church, hatred of the Jews, 525 ff., 562, 613, 620, - 623 ff. - - Felix, governor of Galilee, 242 f. - of Judæa, 245 f. - - Festivals, calculations of the dates of, 325, 340, 362 f., 532, 573. - second day celebrated by the Jews outside of Judæa, 363, 573. - - Festus, procurator of Judæa, 247 ff. - - Firuz (Pheroces), persecutes the Babylonian Jews, 628-30. - - Fiscus Judaicus (Jewish taxes for Rome), 316. - - Flaccus, governor of Egypt, persecutes the Jews, 181-3. - - Florus, Gessius, procurator of Judæa, 249 ff. - avarice, 250, 253. - cruelty, 254. - indulgent to the Sicarii, 250. - treachery, 255. - - Fulvia, Roman convert to Judaism, 136. - - Funeral, expenses and outfit of, 404. - - Future life, in the Mishna, 473. - - - Gabinius, Aulus, in Judæa, 70 f. - - Galba, emperor, 299. - - Galilee adopts many heathen superstitions, 148. - corruptness of its language, 148 f. - description of, 272. - mental condition at the time of Jesus, 148 f. - stricter morality and observance of laws and customs than in - Judæa, 148. - - Galilee in the war of revolution, 272 ff. - Gischala, focus of the revolution in Galilee, 272. - taken by the Romans, 290. - Mount Tabor, 290. - - Galilean fugitives in Jerusalem, 291. - - Galilee recovers after the fall of Judæa, 333. - - Gallus, Cestius, Governor of Syria, 250 f., 257. - battle with the Zealots, 265 f. - - Gamala, 273, 289 f. - - Gamala, besieged, 289 f. - focus of the revolution in Galilee, 273. - - Gamaliel I, president of the Synhedrion, 192 f. - - Gamaliel II, president of Jabne, 334 ff. - arranger, 356. - character, 336, 344. - contest with Joshua, 340 ff. - death and funeral, 404. - deposed, 341. - employs excommunication, 339. - in Rome, 387, 392. - reinstated in the dignity of patriarch, 345. - severity, 338 ff. - two regulations, 338 f. - work for the union of the schools, 335 ff. - - Gamaliel III, sayings, 467 f. - - Gamaliel IV, 532 ff. - - Gamaliel V, 612. - - Gamaliel the last, 612, 617. - - Genseric, prince of the Vandals, and the vessels of the Temple, 611. - - Mt. Gerizim, temple of Jupiter erected on, 422. - - Gischala, 272, 290. See also Galilee. - - Gnosticism and Gnostics, 374-81. - combated by Akiba, 381. - doctrines, 375 ff. - influence on Jewish circles, 377, 380 f. - sects, 374 f. - - Gratus, Valerius, procurator of Judæa, 135 ff. - - Greek culture and language, attitude of the Rabbis to, 400, 537 f. - - Greek Jews become preachers and missionaries of Christianity, 220 f. - - Greek translations of the Bible, 385 ff., 488 f. - - Greeks of Alexandria, hostility of, to Jews and Judaism, 178 ff. - - - Habakkuk, book of, apocryphal additions to, 624. - - Hadrian, 399-432. - and the Christians, 430 f. - cruel measures against the dead, 430. - death, 432. - decrees against the Jews, 421. - - Hadrian disappoints the Jews concerning the restoration of the - Temple, 403 f. - inaugurates a religious persecution against the Jews, 426. - journey through Judæa, 406. - makes Jerusalem a pagan city, 407. - policy against the Jews after the war of Bar-Cochba, 422. - yielding to the Jews, 400 f. - - Halacha, 328 ff. - compilers of, 470. - relation to Agada and Midrash, 329. - systematic grouping of, by Akiba, 353 f. - - Havayot d'Abayi ve Raba, 585. - - Heathen, difference of attitude towards them between Hillelites - and Shammaites, 270. - laws concerning them, 476-8. - relaxing of the laws against them, 525 f. - - Hebrew language, knowledge of, cultivated in Judæa, 623 ff. - spoken by the population of Judæa, 461 f. - - Hebrews, epistle to, 371. - - Helen of Adiabene, proselyte and benefactress in Jerusalem, 218 f. - - Helkias and Ananias, sons of Onias, and generals of Cleopatra, 10, - 40 f. - - Hereditary sin, doctrine of, 229. - - Herod, 77-120. - betrothed to Mariamne, 81. - building of the Temple, 109-11. - children, 119. - cities and buildings erected by him, 105-7. - cringing policy towards Rome, 89, 127. - cruelty, 87, 89, 115. - death, 116 f. - discord in his family, 119 f., 177. - disease, 111, 115 f. - distrust of his people, 108, 111. - escapes from Judæa to Rome, 83. - executes Hyrcanus, 96. - exhausts the people by taxation, 107. - governor of Coelesyria, 79. - governor of Galilee, 77. - introduces games into Jerusalem, 105. - judgment of Augustus on him, 116. - last bloody orders with regard to the nobles of Judæa, 116. - love of pomp and display, 105, 109. - proclaimed king of Judæa by the Senate of Rome, 86. - relation to his children, 112-4, 116. - relation of the Pharisees to him, 114 f. - struggle for the crown of Judæa, 87 f. - suicidal attempt, 116. - before the Synhedrion, 78. - will concerning Judæa, 119 f. - - Herod II, 173. - death, 199. - prince of Chalcis in Lebanon, 190, 196 f. - titular king of Judæa, 197, 199. - - Herod Antipas, tetrarch of Galilee and Peræa, 137. - beheads John the Baptist, 147. - - Herodias, wife of Antipas, 175. - dies in exile, 177. - - Hieronymus (Jerome), studies Hebrew with Rabbis, 623 f. - - High priests, frequent change of, 137, 249. - right of appointment reserved by Rome, 172. - - High-priesthood, corruption and degradation, 236 f., 246, 249. - dignity of, inherent in certain families, 237. - strife for it, 237. - - Hillel, 96-130. - appointed president of the Synhedrion by Herod, 96. - character, 96 f. - death, 30. - descent from David, 96. - disciple of Shemaya and Abtalion, 96, 98. - his expositions attain authority, 338. - founder of Talmudic Judaism, 327. - gives the Oral Law a rational basis, by introducing the seven - rules, 98. - maxims, 97. - modifies the laws concerning the year of release, 100. - part played in the Paschal controversy, 99. - presidency hereditary in his family, 130. - - Hillel, school of, 131. - - Hillel II, 560. - act of self-renunciation, 572 f. - and Joseph, the apostate, 565 f. - calendar, 573 f. - - Hillelites, belong to the peace party, 256. - - History, cultivated under the Hasmonæans, 15 f. - - Honorius, emperor of the West, laws of, against the Jews, 616 f. - - Huna, principal of the school of Sora, 545-8. - charity, 546 f. - death, 548. - - Huna ben Chiya, principal of the school of Pumbeditha, 576 f. - - Huna-Mari, Prince of the Captivity and martyr, 629. - - Hypatia, 619. - - Hyrcanus I, John, 1-34. - ambitious, 13. - assures the independence of Judæa, 11. - campaign against the Parthians, 5. - coins, 12. - compared to Solomon, 1, 11, 34. - condition of the people under his reign, 13-17. - destroys the Samaritan temple on Mt. Gerizim, 8. - embassy sent by him to Rome, 4 f., 9. - employs mercenaries, 7. - expels the Hellenists and destroys Samaria, 11. - extends the boundaries of Judæa, 11 f. - forces Judaism on the Idumæans, 8. - reprimanded by Eleazar ben Poira, 32. - relation to the religious parties, 31 ff. - wars, 7-11. - - Hyrcanus II, 57 ff. - contest with Aristobulus II, 57-66. - arrangement between them, 58. - broken by Hyrcanus, 59. - characters of both contrasted, 57 f. - interference of Rome, 61 ff. - part played by Antipater, 59 ff. - rise of a republican party in Judæa, 63. - his ears mutilated by the Parthians, 82. - executed by Herod, 96. - - Hyrcanus, son of Alexander Jannæus, high priest, 48. - - - Idumæans forced to accept Judaism, 8 f. - part played by them in the war of revolution, 295, 298, 301. - - Images, Roman, introduced by Pilate into Jerusalem, 139. - of the emperor put up in the synagogues of Alexandria, 183. - - Independence, Judæan, when lost, 66. - - Indo-Jewish colonists, 629 f. - - Informers, 425 f., 464 f., 570. - - Iron, its use in the erecting of an altar, why forbidden, 329. - - Isebab, martyr under Hadrian, 429. - - Ishmael ben Elisha, 355 f. - clear thinker, 356. - death (martyrdom), 356, 427. - mildness, 423 f. - system, 355 f. - view, his, on Jewish Christianity, 378. - - Isidorus, leader of an uprising against the Jews in Alexandria, 181. - - Izates, prince of Adiabene, convert to Judaism, 216 f. - - - Jabne (Jamnia), seat of the school and Synhedrion after the fall - of Jerusalem, 324 ff. - See Schools and Synhedrion. - - James, brother of Jesus, 169, 222. - - Jerusalem after the war of Bar-Cochba, 421 f. - Jews forbidden to enter it, 422, 564. - ploughed, 421. - See also War of Revolution. - - Jesus of Nazareth, 148-68. - addresses himself to the neglected and the outcast, 152, 165. - adopts Essene principles, 150 f., 154. - aim and purpose, 151, 155. - attitude towards Judaism and the heathen world, 155 f. - before the court of justice, 163 f. - before Pilate, 164. - character, 149. - claims to be the Messiah and son of God, 158 f. - condition of Galilee at his time, 148. - death and its effects, 165. - descent, 148. - disciple of John the Baptist, 148. - disciples, his, to which class they belonged, 153 f., 160. - education and mental culture, 148 f. - - Jesus in Jerusalem, and why he went there, 160-3. - merits, his, wherein they consist, 156. - miraculous deeds, 156 f. - reason of opposition to him, 161 f. - religiousness, 149 f. - resurrection, belief in his, 168. - Rome's part in his death, 164 f., 171. - teachings, 150, 154 ff. - victim to a misunderstanding, 165. - when public sentiment rose against him, 159. - work, 152 f., 157. - - Jesus ben Sapphia, leader in the revolution at Tiberias, 274. - - Jews in Alexandria. See Alexandria. - - Jews in Armenia, 591. - - Jews and Christians, connection between them severed, 431. - - Jews and heathen, hatred between them, 262 ff., 313 f. - - Jews prohibited from entering Jerusalem, 422, 564. - - Jews, inner life of, after the fall of Judæa, 322, 360-5. - - Jews, moral and religious condition of the middle class of, 146, 151. - - Jews in Rome, 67-9. - after the war of revolution, 316. - religious persecution of, 137 f. - - Jews and Samaritans, hatred between them, 135, 243 ff. - - Jews, significance of their dispersion in the Roman empire and in - Parthia, 200 f. - - Jews' tax (fiscus Judaicus), 332. See Taxes. - - Jezdijird, king of Persia, friendly attitude towards the Jews, 609 f. - - Jezdijird III, persecutes the Jews of Babylonia, 627 f. - - Job, book of, view of Simon ben Lakish on, 497. - - Jochanan bar Napacha, 492-5. - - Jochanan ben Zakkai, 322-33. - abolishes the ritual of suspected adultery, 238. - abolishes the sin-offering for the shedding of innocent blood, 239. - becomes vice-president of the Synhedrion, 240. - burnt-offerings, his view on their value, 324. - character, 331. - combats the Sadducees, 323. - compared with Jeremiah and Zerubbabel, 333. - death, 333. - disciples, 326. - establishes the school of Jabne, 324 f. - heir of Hillel's mind, 323. - holds converse with pagans, 329. - joins the peace party, 323. - nine changes made by him, 326. - school, his, at Jerusalem, 323. - teachings, 326 ff. - why he sided with Rome, 329. - work, his, after the fall of Judæa, 322 ff. - - John the Baptist, an Essene, 145 ff., 150. - beheaded by Herod Antipas, 147. - not hindered in his work by the Pharisees, 147. - - John of Gischala, leader in the revolution, character, 273, 296 f. - death, 314. - conduct as general, 290, 304. - - John, son of Zebedee, 169, 222. - - Jonathan, leader of the Sadducees, 31, 33. - - Jonathan, son of Uziel, 131. - - José, principal of the school of Pumbeditha, completes the - compilation of the Talmud, 630. - - José ben Chalafta, 442. - - José, the Galilean, 357. - - José ben Kisma, 426 f. - - Joseph the Apostate, 564 ff. - - Joseph ben Chiya, principal of the school of Pumbeditha, 577 f., - 581-3. - - Joseph of Gamala, leader in the revolution, 289. - - Joseph ben Gorion, general in the war of revolution, 271. - - Joseph ben Matthias. See Josephus. - - Josephus, Flavius (Joseph ben Matthias), 276 ff. - accused with the Synhedrion, 281. - adherent of Agrippa II, 278, 280. - associates with the Essenes, 276. - character, 280, 282 f., 288, 302. - death, 391. - devoted to Rome, 277. - education, 276 f. - governor of Galilee during the revolution, 271 ff., 277. - history of the war, written by him, 319. - John of Gischala, compared to, 285 f. - - Josephus, Flavius, promoter of the revolution, 278. - religious zeal, 279. - sows discord in Galilee, 281, 283. - surrenders to Vespasian, 288. - weakens Galilee, 283, 286. - uprising against him in Galilee, 280. - writings, his, 389 f. - - Joshua, disciple of Jochanan ben Zakkai, 326, 337. - - Joshua ben Chananya, 404 f. - character, 348 ff. - conciliator, 356. - conversations with Hadrian, 406 f. - dissuades from rebellion, 403, 407. - establishes the school of Bekiim, 348 ff. - intermediary between the Jewish nation and Roman intolerance, 350. - supposed to have been patriarch, 350. - - Joshua ben Gamala, high priest, establishes schools, 249. - executed by the Zealots, 296. - - Joshua ben Levi, 486, 492, 497 f., 530. - - Joshua, son of Perachia, 20. - - Joshua Phabi, high priest, deposed by Herod, 107. - - Jotapata, fortress in Galilee, 286 f. - - Jovianus, emperor, grants toleration, 602. - - Judæa, annexed to Syria, 73, 128. - condition after Agrippa I's death, 197 ff. - condition after the war of revolution, 332, 360. - confusion of, after Herod's death, 119, 123-5. - divided by Herod among his three sons, 119. - divided into five legislative provinces, 71. - divided by Vespasian into lots, 312. - recovers its full extent under Agrippa I, 190. - sufferings of, under Constantius, 568 f. - uprisings against Rome, 73, 88, 123 ff., 198, 242, 246, 255. - when it lost its independence, 66. - - Judah I, patriarch (Rabbi), 450-67. - assumes autocratic authority, 452 f. - attitude towards the Samaritans, 457. - changes introduced by him, 457-9. - charity, 451. - completes and compiles the Mishna, 460. - death, 465-7. - education, his, 450 f. - severity and irritability, 454-6. - - Judah II, 479-87. - and Alexander Severus, 482. - character, 485-7. - death, 487. - moderation of laws introduced by him, 483 f. - - Judah III, 533 ff. - - Judah IV, 612. - - Judah ben Baba, martyr under Hadrian, 429. - - Judah ben Ezekiel, principal of the schools of Pumbeditha and Sora, - 549, 552. - method, 550. - opinion, his, on the returning of the Jews from Babylonia to - Judæa, 551. - - Judah ben Ilai of Usha, 442. - - Judah ben Tabbai, president of the Great Council, 49. - resigns the presidency, 54. - "Restorer of the Law," 49. - - Judah ben Zippori, 115. - - Judaism, and Greek philosophy, efforts to reconcile them, 208 f. - converts to, 383 f. - leaning of Romans towards it, 136. - movement against it, 178-89. - and paganism, 186, 203 ff., 373. - - Judas "the Galilean," 125, 133, 239, 258. - - Judas Iscariot, 163. - - Julian, emperor, 595-603. - attitude toward Christianity and Judaism, 596 f. - attempts to restore the Temple of Jerusalem, 599-601. - epistle to the Jewish communities, 597 f. - ideal, his, of government, 595 f. - - Julianus, leader of the revolt against Trajan in Judæa, 395. - - Justus, son of Pistus, historian of the Judæan war, 319 f. - leader of the revolution in Tiberias, 274. - opponent of Josephus, 390. - - - Kalba-Sabua, father-in-law of Akiba, 351, 355. - - Kalla == Talmudic lectures, 515. - - Kingdom of God, 143. - of heaven, 145, 167, 226. - - - Lampo, leader of an uprising against the Jews in Alexandria, 181. - - Law, oral (tradition), 327 ff. - acquires a settled form through Judah I, 462. - becomes a distinguishing feature of Judaism, 608. - meaning of the term, 327. - observance, its, enforced after the fall of Judæa, 363 f., 479 f. - study of (Talmud Torah), highly esteemed, 473 f. - set above its practice, 427. - and the priesthood, 544. - forbidden by Hadrian, 426 f. - - Laws, dietary, observed by the heathen, 384. - - Laws concerning the heathen (Aboda Zara), 476-8. - - Laws against the Romans relaxed under Alexander Severus, 483. - - Laying on of hands, 356. - - Libation of water, ceremony of, on the Feast of Tabernacles, 43, 51. - - Libertini, 68. - - Literature, Judæan, character of, under Hyrcanus I, 15. - Judæan-Grecian, 204 ff. - - Longinus, Cassius, in Judæa, 80, 197. - - Longinus, philosopher, 529. - - Lydda, assembly of, after the war of Bar-Cochba, 423. - seat of a school, 346, 497, 530. - - - Maas'se Bereshith, M. Merkaba, 381. - - Maccabees, first book of, written in Hebrew, 16. - - Machuza, city in Babylonia, 506 f. - seat of a school, 584. - decline, 593. - - Magi of the Neo-Persians, attitude toward the Jews, 627 f. - - Malich poisons Antipater, father of Herod, 80. - - Malo, Apollonius, calumniator of the Jews, 178 ff. - - Manicheans, 627. - - Mar bar-Ashi, principal of the school of Sora, completes the - compilation of the Talmud, 628. - - Mar-Sheshet, 553 f. - - Mar-Zutra, 606. - - Marcus Aurelius, 447. - attitude toward the Christians, 449. - averse to the Jews, 463. - permits the Jews to enter Jerusalem, 458. - - Mariamne, granddaughter of Hyrcanus and wife of Herod, 93. - executed, 104 f. - - Mariamne, daughter of Simon and wife of Herod, 107. - - Mariamne II, sister of Agrippa II, 235. - - Marriage, lax customs of, among the Babylonian Jews, 516 f. - - Marriages between Jews and Christians forbidden by Constantius, 567. - - Marsus, governor of Syria, 195 f. - - Martyrdom and martyrs, Jewish, under Hadrian, 425-8. - in Babylonia, 629. - - Masada, fortress, in the war of revolution, 292 f., 315 f. - - Masechta, meaning of, 354. - - Mata, city in Babylonia, 506. - - Matthias ben Margalot, 115. - - Meïr (Miasa or Moise), 434 ff. - method, 438, 476. - ordinances, 439. - relation to Acher, 437. - to the philosopher Euonymus, 437 f. - wisdom, 437. - - Memra, term for decisions and deductions, 515. - - Menachem, the Essene, deputy of Hillel, 100. - - Menachem ben Jair, leader of the Sicarii, 239, 243, 258. - executed, 261. - - Mercenaries employed in Judæa by Hyrcanus I, 7. - by Alexander Jannæus, 39. - - Messiah, ideas of, entertained by the various parties, 144. - Joshua ben Levi's idea of, 498. - scene of his coming expected to be Judæa, 548. - suffering, idea of, 166 f. - - Messianic hopes, 610 f. - part they played in the war of revolution, 291 f. - what promoted them, 142 ff. - - Messiahs, false, 198, 240 f., 247, 409 ff., 610 f. - - Metibta == Talmudic school, 547. - - Meturgeman (interpreter), 541. - - Middle Ages, when they began for Judaism, 617. - - Midrash, 328 f. - - Migration of nations, 604 f. - - Minim, Minæans == Jewish Christians, 369, 377 ff. - - Mishna, 460 ff. - character, 471 ff. - tendency, 474 f. - ethical and spiritual importance of, 462. - judicial feature (legalism), 471-6. - style, 489. - teaching with regard to future life, 473. - - Mishna of Rabbi Akiba, 354. - di Rabbi Judah, 460 ff. - - Mishna Rishona and Acharona, 354. - - Monobaz, prince of Adiabene, converted to Judaism, 216 f. - - Monuments erected in Judæa in honor of Roman emperors, 106, 138. - - Moses, false Messiah in Crete, 611. - - - Naasites. See Ophites. - - Nachman ben Jacob, 554-7. - - Nachum Gimso, teacher of Akiba, 330 f. - - Nahardea (Naarda), becomes the Jerusalem of Babylonia, 505. - seat of a school, 358, 443, 498, 522. - demolished by Odenathus, 527. - - Nahar-Pakod, seat of the Babylonian Synhedrion, 443. - - Nares, school of, 593 f. - - Nasi. See Patriarch. - - Nathan of Babylon, 434, 442 f. - - Nazarenes. See Christianity. - - Nechunya ben Hakana, 330 f. - - Neo-Persians, their attitude toward Jews and Christians, 523-6, - 627 ff. - - Nero, death, 297. - in Greece, 284. - and the house of Herod, 245. - - Nerva, emperor, friendliness toward the Jews, 391 f. - - New Hebrew (Mishnic) dialect, 461. - how distinguished from old Hebrew, 15. - - New moon, fixing the time of, 325, 336, 362 f., 532, 572. - manner of announcing it, 362 f. - - Nicator, Demetrius, king of Syria, 5 f. - - Nicolaus of Damascus, friend and historian of Herod, 90, 114. - favorable representation of the Jews, 179. - - Niger, hero in the war of revolution, 264, 296. - - Nisibis, 358. - - - Oath of allegiance to Herod refused by the Shammaites, 108. - - Oath of purgation (Shebuoth hesset), 556. - - Octavianus. See Augustus. - - Odenathus and the Jews, 527 ff. - - Onkelos Targum, 387, 581. - - Ophites (Naasites), Gnostic sect, 375. - - Ordinances of Meïr, 439. - of Usha, 405. - - Ordination, 361. - prohibited by Hadrian, 426. - - Origen, 501. - and Hillel II, 487. - work in the interpretation of the Bible (Hexapla), 488 f. - - Osius (Hosius), bishop of Cordova, fanaticism against the Jews, 620. - - Otho, emperor, 299. - - - Palmyra (Tadmor), 528. - - Papa bar Nachman, principal of the school of Nares, 593 f. - - Papus, leader of the revolt against Trajan in Judæa, 395. - - Parthians, relation of, to Judæa, 82, 447. - - Parthia, conquered by Trajan, 393. - - Parthian empire, Jews in, 503 f. - - Parties, religious, when appeared, 17. - See Pharisees and Sadducees. - - Parties of war and peace, 256 ff., 321. - See also War of Revolution, Sicarii, Zealots. - - Passover of the "Crushing," 251. - - Patriarch (Nasi), title assumed by Gamaliel, 334. - - Patriarchate, attitude of the Roman government to it, 360 f., - 597 f., 613, 616 f. - authority and functions, 360-3. - decay of, 535, 560. - extinction of, 612. - influence of, impaired by Christianity, 612 f. - tax of, 486 f. - titles and privileges of, 560 f., 612, 617 f. - - Patriarchs, enumeration and names of, 618. - - Paul (Saul of Tarsus), 219 ff. - - Paul (Saul of Tarsus), abrogates the Law, 226 f., 229. - character, 223. - conception of Christianity as the very opposite to Judaism, 230. - conversion to Christianity, and its psychological process, 224-6. - Christianity, his, different from that of Peter, 230. - at Damascus, 226 f. - doctrines, 225 ff. - energy, 365. - fanaticism against the Nazarenes, 221 f., 224. - hated by the Jewish Christians, 367 f. - hereditary sin, his doctrine of, 229. - new direction and stability to Christianity, given by him, 223. - missionary travels, 227 f. - quarrel between him and the Judaic-Christian apostles, 231. - resurrection of Christ, his belief in, 225. - teachings, his, gain the victory, 373. - what favored his success among the heathen, 228. - - Paul, bishop of Constantinople, intolerance of, 562. - - Paul of Samosata, 529. - - Persecutions, religious, of the Jews, 136 f., 568 ff., 616 f., 622. - - Perso-Roman war, 601 f. - - Pescennius, Niger, emperor, harshness of, against the Jews, 463 f. - - Peshito (Syriac translation of the Bible), 582. - - Peter, Simon (Kephas), 169, 222, 231. - - Petronius, governor of Syria, 188. - - Phabi, family of high priests, 237. - - Pharisees (Parushim), 17 ff. - adherents to the Law, 19. - and Alexander Jannæus, 39, 42, 44. - attitude toward Herod, 114 f. - cardinal principle: preservation of Judaism, 18. - Divine providence, emphasis laid upon, 18. - guardians of Judaism and strict morality, 20. - mildness in the administration of justice, 20. - name, derivation of, 18. - relation to the Essenes, 30. - and to other parties, 17-20. - reward and punishment after death, their doctrine of, 19. - - Pharisees, tradition, importance ascribed to, 19. - - Phasael, brother of Herod, 80. - commits suicide, 82. - - Pheroras, brother of Herod, 112. - - Philip, tetrarch of Batanæa and Trachonitis, 137 f. - - Philo, the Alexandrian, 191 ff. - compared with Hillel and Jesus, 214. - defends Judaism, 212 f. - ambassador to Rome, 184 ff. - faithful to Judaism, 210 f. - life, his, 185. - philosophical system, 211 ff. - principal aim, 188. - visits Jerusalem, 194. - - Phineas ben Samuel, made high priest by the Zealots, 294 f. - - Pilate, Pontius, procurator of Judæa, 138 ff. - cruelty, 171. - introduces Roman emblems and insignia into Jerusalem, 139. - possesses himself of the treasury of the Temple, 140. - - Pinchas ben Jaïr, 459 f. - - Pirke Aboth, 478. - - Poetry, why not produced under the Maccabees, 15. - - Pompey in Judæa, 63-7. - enters the Holy of Holies, 66. - - Poppea Sabina, favors Judaism, 248. - - Porphyry on the book of Daniel, 502. - - Posidonius, Stoic, slanders Judaism, 178. - - Possession by evil spirits, belief in, 29. - - Prayers, formulated, introduced by Gamaliel II, 363. - - Prayers for rain, 541. - - Priestly vestments, kept in charge of the Roman procurators, 129. - - Princes of Captivity in Babylonia (Resh Galutha), arbitrariness, 513. - arrogance, 555. - neglect of religion, 554. - position, dignity and authority, 508-11. - - Procurator in Judæa, authority and duties, 128 f. - - Procurators of Judæa, Albinus, 248. - Ambivius, 135. - Bassus, 315. - Coponius, 135. - Cumanus, 241. - Fadus, 197. - Felix, 242. - Festus, 247. - Flaccus, 181. - Florus, 249. - Gratus, 135. - Pilate, 138. - Rufus, Annius, 135. - Rufus, Tinnius, 411. - Rufus, Turnus, 421. - Silva, 316. - - Prosbol, 100. See also Hillel. - - Proselytes to Judaism, 215 ff. - discussion about their admission, 384 f. - Jews forbidden to make, 433, 562. - persecuted by Domitian, 389. - - Ptolemaïs, besieged by Alexander Jannæus, 40. - - Ptolemy VIII, Lathurus, enmity against Judæa, 10 ff., 40. - - Pumbeditha, capital of Jewish Babylonia, 506. - center of North Babylonia, 549. - rise of its school, 575 ff. - - Purim, celebration of, 620 f. - - - Quietus, Lucius, general under Trajan in the revolt of Mesopotamia, - 397-9. - in Judæa, 399 f. - - Quirinus, governor of Syria, takes a census in Judæa, 129 ff. - - - Rab (Abba-Areka), 470, 484. - Agoranomos in Babylonia, 512 f. - and Artabanus IV, king of Parthia, 513. - career, 511 ff. - compared to Hillel, 517. - descendants, 518. - establishes the school of Sora, 513 ff. - humility, 517 f. - method of teaching, 515. - reforms introduced by him, 516 f. - strictness, 513, 515 f., 526. - - Raba, principal of the school of Machuza, 584-93. - character, 586-8. - method, 590. - - Rabba bar Nachmani and his brothers, 575-81. - - Rabban, title, 325, 335. - - Rabbana, title, 544, 606. - - Rabbi, title, 335, 357. - of Judah I, 453. - of Judah II, 480. - - Rabina, principal of the school of Sora and last Amora, completes - the compilation of the Talmud, 630 f. - - Reket, name for Tiberias, 571. - - Release, year of, laws of, modified, 100, 458 f., 469. - - Religious persecutions. See Persecutions. - - Restoration of the Law. See Simon ben Shetach. - - Resurrection, a matter of contention between the various schools, 225. - expected to take place in Judæa, 548. - - Resurrection of Christ, 225. - - Revolts, Jewish, under Antoninus Pius, 447. - under Constantius, 569 f. - under Hadrian, 399-446. - under Trajan, 393-9. - - Rigle == festival season of lectures, 515. - == time of paying homage to the Prince of Captivity, 607. - - Rimmon, Plain of, headquarters during the revolts against Trajan - and Hadrian, 395, 403, 416. - - Rome adopts Syrian habits, 468. - - Roman eagle over the entrance to the Temple, 111, 115. - - Roman empire, decline of, 527, 560, 604 f. - division of, by Theodosius, 615. - - Rufus, Annius, procurator of Judæa, 135. - - Rufus, Tinnius, procurator of Judæa, 411. - - Rufus, Turnus, general of Hadrian and oppressor of the Jews, 421. - - Rules, seven, of Hillel, 356. - thirteen of Ishmael, 356. - - - Sabbath, observed by the heathen, 384. - - Sabinus, plunders the treasury of the Temple, 123. - - Sacrifices, daily, cease, 305. - - Sadducees (Zadukim), 17 ff. - attitude toward the daily sacrifices and the laws of cleanliness, - 23, 52. - consider the Pentateuch only as binding, the tradition as of - subordinate value, 22. - deprived of their seats in the Synhedrion, 50. - - Sadducees, difference between them and the Pharisees in points of - ritual, 22 f. - form the aristocracy, 21. - laxity toward false witnesses, 22. - officers of state and army taken from among them, 21. - place the national interests above the Law, 21. - persecuted under Salome Alexandra, 55. - repudiate the idea of judgment after death, 21. - relation to the Pharisees, 17 f. - rigor in the administration of justice, 22. - - Salome Alexandra, wife of Alexander Jannæus, and regent, 47-56. - champion of the Pharisees, 39. - coins, 48. - death, 56. - entrusts the management of affairs to the Pharisees, 48. - last independent ruler of Judæa, 56. - protects the Sadducees, 55. - prosperity of the country under her reign, 48. - restoration of the Law, 49-53. - - Salome, sister of Herod, 93, 119, 128. - bequeaths her possessions to the Empress Livia, 128. - hatred of Mariamne, 104, 112. - - Samaritan Messiah, 171. - Torah, 457. - - Samaritans, relation to the Jews: of friendliness, 534. - of hatred, 402 f., 457 f. - completely excluded from the Jewish community, 534 f. - join the Jews in the war of revolution, 268. - in the revolt against Hadrian, 410. - treachery against the Jews, 417 f. - - Samaritans persecuted by Diocletian, 533 f. - worship idols, 439. - - Samuel the younger (Hakatan), 357 f. - - Samuel, Mar (Arioch), 518 ff. - attitude toward the heathen, 520. - character, 519. - decree concerning the law of the land, 519 f. - learning and versatility, 521 f. - and Shabur I, 520. - - Sassanides, dynasty of, 523. - - Satan and demons, belief in, among the early Christians, 170. - - Scaurus, legate of Pompey, arbitrates between Hyrcanus II and - Aristobulus II, 61. - - Schools of the Talmud, 324 ff. - - Schools of Babylonia, 544 ff. - decline, 593 ff. - deterioration of manners of the teachers, 588 f. - estrangement between the teachers and the people, 588 ff. - hierarchy and dignitaries, 547. - independence of the schools of Judæa, 548. - opposition to the schools of Judæa, 557. - superiority over the schools of Judæa, 531 f., 537, 544, 560. - teachers, 454. - two methods of instruction, 574. - - Schools in Judæa, 324 ff. - in Jabne, 324 ff. - in other places, 335. - decline of the Judæan schools, 543, 548 f., 560. - oppressed by hostile Christianity, 611. - - Schools, Babylonian and Judæan, their different methods, 557 f. - - Schools outside of Judæa and Babylonia, in Asia Minor and - Alexandria, 358 f. - - Schools of Shammai and Hillel, 101, 335 f. - - Schools, prohibited by Hadrian, 426. - - Second day of feasts, celebrated by the Jews outside of Judæa, - 363, 573. - - Secret scrolls, 461. - - Seder Olam, 442. - - Sepphoris, capital of Galilee, 137. - destroyed under Constantius, 570. - seat of the principal school and the Synhedrion under Judah I, 452. - sympathizes with Rome, 276, 283, 414. - - Septuagint, 625. See also Greek translations of the Bible. - - Seth, family of high priests, 237. - - Severus, emperor, laws against Jews and Christians, 464. - - Severus, bishop of Magona (Mahon), fanaticism against the Jews, 619 f. - - Severus, Julius, general of the Roman army against Bar-Cochba, 414 ff. - - Shabur I, 520, 526. - - Shabur II, 580 ff. - and Chama of Nahardea, 594 f. - oppresses the Jews in Babylonia, 591 f. - - Shaliach Zion, 535. - - Shammai, 100 f. - hatred of the heathen, 132. - school of, 131 ff. - forms the nucleus of the Zealot faction, 133, 256. - erects a barrier between Jews and heathen, 270. - harsh and repellant to proselytes to Judaism, 132. - has the majority in the Synhedrion, 132 f. - rigor, 131 ff. - - Shammaites and Hillelites, 270. - - Shechem (Neapolis), 7, 457. - - Shemaya, 71. - president of the Synhedrion, 79. - - Shila, principal of the school of Nahardea, 512. - - Sibylline books and sayings, 95, 204 f., 402, 462, 610. - - Sicarii, revolutionary party, 239, 242. - cruelty, 249, 261. - nefarious practices, 239. - put a Roman garrison to death, 258. - - Sidetes, Antiochus, of Syria, besieges Jerusalem, 3 f. - expedition against the Parthians, 5. - - Sidra == school, 514. - - Silas, the Babylonian, hero in the war of revolution, 264. - - Silva, procurator of Judæa, 316. - - Simlaï, 498 ff. - controversies with the Fathers of the Church, 501 f. - - Simon Bar-Giora, patriot and leader in the war of revolution, 264. - character, 293. - death, 314. - heroism, 313. - in Jerusalem, 297 f. - - Simon ben Gamaliel, president of the Synhedrion, 240. - sides with the war party, 269. - - Simon II, patriarch, 443 f. - ambition, 444 f. - patriarchate, 445. - - Simon ben Jochai, 434, 447 ff. - ambassador to Rome, 449. - rational system, 440 f. - - Simon Bar-Kappara, wit, 455 f., 466. - - Simon ben-Lakish (Resh Lakish), 49-57. - and Judah II, 488 f. - view on the book of Job, 497. - - Simon Magus, a nickname of Paul, 368. - - Simon ben Shetach, brother-in-law of Alexander Jannæus, 39. - crucifies 80 women for witchcraft, 54. - mediator between the Pharisees and Sadducees, 42. - president of the Synhedrion, 54. - promoter of instruction, 50. - "Restorer of the Law," 49. - his son condemned through false witnesses, 54 f. - - Simon, martyr under Hadrian, 427. - - Simon Stylites, fanaticism against the Jews, 621. - - Sin offering for shedding of innocent blood abrogated, 239. - - Sirach, 359. - - Song of Songs (Shir-Hashirim), discussion about its holiness, 343 f. - - Sopheric teachers, 327. - - Sora, seat of the school of Rab, 512 ff. - becomes the chief school of Babylonia, 548. - decline of the school, 583. - regains its reputation under Ashi, 605-7. - - Sora and Pumbeditha, schools of, compared, 574 f. - - Stephen, 221. - - Strabo, favorable representation of Jews and Judaism, 179 f. - - Swine, breeding of, why it was forbidden by the Synhedrion, 60. - - Swine's head put up in the gate of Jerusalem, 422. - - Sylvester, bishop of Rome, hatred of the Jews, 562. - - Symmachus, disciple of Meïr, 440. - - Synagogues in Jerusalem, 201. - - Synhedrion (Great Council): - Synhedrion of Babylonia, 443 f. - Synhedrion of Jabne, 321 ff. - authority and sphere of action, 325, 337, 360. - destroyed by Quietus, 400. - dignitaries, 360 f. - Synhedrion of Jabne, position of the patriarch in it, 361 ff. - procedure of its meetings, 361 f. - Synhedrion of Jerusalem, acquires great importance under - Gamaliel I, 192. - letters and mandates, 192 f. - limitation of its authority by the procurator, 71, 129. - overthrow of, by the Zealots, 296. - presidency of, passes over from the high priest to the - Pharisees, 48 f. - regains its former supreme authority during the war of - revolution, 269. - removal from the Hewn-stone Hall to the Commercial Hall of - Bethany, 239. - reorganization, 50. - weakness exhibited by, during the war of revolution, 271. - Synhedrion of Usha, 405. - dissolved by persecutions, 448. - - Syria, anarchy in, 6. - - Syrian habits adopted by Rome, 468. - - - Tabernacles, feast of, ceremony of libation of water, 43, 51. - - Tacitus, 384. - - Talmud, Babylonian, 328 f. - characterization of, 632-5. - its influence upon Jewish life and history, 634 f. - its nature and relation to the Mishna, 591. - redaction, 605-9, 630-2. - redaction not committed to writing, 608. - - Talmud, Jerusalem, redaction of, 609, 612. - - Talmud, Babylonian and Jerusalem, compared, 634. - - Talmudic epoch, 321 ff. - - Talmudic Judaism, 327 f. - - Talmudic schools, 335. - - Tanaites, 356 ff. - end of the second generation, 429. - last generation, 450. - the last, 462. - - Tanchuma bar Abba, last Halachic authority of Judæa, 611 f. - - Targumim, 387, 581 f. - - Tarphon (Tryphon) of Lydda, 357. - on Jewish Christianity, 378. - - Taxes, for the patriarch and the maintenance of the schools, - 486 f., 535 f. - prohibited by Honorius, 617. - - Taxes for Rome, 134, 388, 391, 463, 469, 572, 598. - collectors of, ostracized, 134. - method of their collection, 129 f. - withheld, 257 f. - under Hadrian, 420. - - Taxes for the Temple, 52 f., 201. - from Babylonia, 505. - those of Asia Minor seized upon, 68. - - Taxes paid by the Jews in Babylonia, 508. - - Temple of Jerusalem, becomes the common center of the Jews, 201. - the hotbed of the revolution, 259. - destruction of by the Romans, 307 f. - that of Herod, 109-111. - restoration of, attempted by Hadrian, 401 f. - and Julian, 599-601. - when the visible signs of divine mercy ceased to appear in it, 237. - vessels of, 449, 611. - - Temple of Onias in Egypt, closed by Vespasian, 318. - - Temple, Samaritan, on Mt. Gerizim, destroyed by Hyrcanus I, 8. - - Tertullian, 476. - - Theater, Greek, Judaism ridiculed in, 542 f. - - Theodosius I, protects the Jews against Christian fanaticism, 612 f. - - Theodosius II, hostility against the Jews, 617 ff. - seizes upon the taxes for the patriarch, 622. - - Theudas, false Messiah, 198, 240. - - Tiberias, focus of the revolution, 272. - foundation of, 137. - seat of the patriarch, 480. - seat of a school, 493 f. - - Tiberius, emperor, expels the Jews from Rome, 202. - lightens the burdens of taxation in Judæa, 135. - mildness towards the Jews, 172. - persecutes the Jews in Rome, 136 f. - - Tiberius, Alexander, nephew of Philo, apostate, governor of Egypt, 300. - governor of Jerusalem, 198 f. - orders a massacre of the Jews in Alexandria, 263 f. - treachery against Judæa during the war of revolution, 302. - - Tigranes, king of Armenia, threatens Judæa, 55 f. - - Tithes, paid after the fall of Judæa, 363. - - Titus, 285, 388. - cruelty, 304, 308, 312. - at Gischala, 290. - humanity to the Jews of Antioch, 313. - - Titus, arch of, 314. - - Tobit, book of, its object, 430. - - Tradition. See Law, Oral. - - Trajan, 393. - - Trajan day (Yom Trajanus), 401. - - Treasury of the Temple, plundered by Pilate, 140. - - Trinity, dogma of, 500 ff. - - Triumvirate, Roman, and Herod, 81. - of teachers at Pumbeditha, 575 ff. - - Tur-Simon, fortress in the war of bar-Cochba, 415 f. - - Turbo, Martius, general under Trajan, suppresses the revolt in - Egypt, 397 f. - - - Usha (El-Uz), assembly of, 433. - seat of the Synhedrion, 405, 444 f. - - - Valens, emperor, protects and honors the Jews, 603. - - Valentinian I, grants toleration, 603. - - Valerianus, emperor, 527. - - Varus, quenches a revolt in Judæa, 123, 125 f. - - Varus, representative of Agrippa II in Cæsarea, cruelty and - treachery, 274 f. - - Verus Commodus, emperor, persecutes the Jews, 447 f. - - Vespasian, 284 f. - avarice, 316, 318. - attitude towards the Jews of Rome after the revolution, 316 f. - campaign in Galilee, 286 ff. - character of his warfare, 285, 297 ff. - proclaimed emperor, 300. - - Vessels of the Temple, fate of, 449, 611. - - Visible signs of divine mercy, when, ceased to appear in the - Temple, 237. - - Vitellius, emperor, 299. - - Vitellius, governor of Syria, kindness of, to the Jews, 172 f. - - Vulgata, 625. - - - War of the Revolution, the Judæan, with Rome, 233 ff. - character and chief cause of, 234. - cruelties, 315. - differences in the attitude of the parties, 292. - encounter between Cestius Gallus and the Zealots, 265 f. - first campaign, 264 ff. - heroism of the Jews, 306. - internal strife between the various parties of Judæa, 295, 298, 301. - Judæa divided into lots, 312. - leaders, 270 f. - prisoners of war, fate of, 311 f., 321. - starting point of the revolution, 259. - tactics pursued by the Romans, to weaken Judæa by internal - strife, 297. - traitors, 302, 304 f. - triumph of Vespasian and Titus in Rome, 314 f. - Zealots, ultra, obtain the reins of the government, 271. - the war in Galilee, 272 ff. - the war at Jerusalem, 291 ff. - beginning of the siege by Titus, 301, 303. - destruction of the city, 309. - famine, 304, 306. - number of killed, 309. - pestilence, 306. - population of the city during the war, 292. - resistance after the fall of the Temple, 309. - struggle around the Temple, 305 ff. - stubborn defense, 304 f. - See also Galilee, Josephus, Judæa, Zealots. - - Wisdom, book of, 205-8. - - Wisdom, of the Chaldeans, influences the Rabbis, 577 f. - - "Wise men," 356. - - Witnesses in law courts, how questioned, 50, 53. - - Wood-carrying, feast of, 52 f., 260. - - Women, education of, 474. - - Worship, public, after the destruction of the Temple, 363. - - - Zabina, Alexander, usurps the throne of Syria, 6. - - Zadok, disciple of Shammai, and leader of the Zealots, 133. - - Zadok, teacher at Jabne, 330, 338 f. - - Zaken, title, 361. - - Zealots (Kannaim), called also Galileans, 133. - attitude towards the Synhedrion, 293 ff. - comprised at first the followers of Shammai, 133. - conflict with the Sicarii, 261. - in Cyrenaica, 318. - establish a community in North Arabia, 319. - in Egypt, 317 f. - fate after the war, 315-19. - licentiousness, 238 f. - last ones, how they fell, 316. - - Zealots, part played by them in the war, 258 ff. - principles and purpose, 133. - religious and republican party, 133. - self-confidence, 291 f. - struggle about the high priesthood, 294 f. - watchword, 133. - - Zeïra, 557 f. - - Zend-Avesta, 524. - - Zenobia, 529 f. - - Zerubbabel, supposed ancestor of the Princes of Captivity in - Babylonia, 509. - - - - -Transcriber's Notes: - - -Punctuation and spelling were made consistent when a predominant -preference was found in this book; otherwise they were not changed. - -Simple typographical errors were corrected. - -Ambiguous hyphens at the ends of lines were retained. - -Inconsistent use of small-caps and Proper caps in names unchanged. - -Inconsistent use of periods after Regnal numbers not changed. - -The Index was not checked for correct page references. - -Text uses both forms of these words and phrases: - - "Ruach ha-Kodesh" and "Ruach-ha-Kodesh"; - "Galilæan" and "Galilean"; - "A. C." and "C. E." (to indicate "A. D."); - "repellent" and "repellant"; - "coreligionists" and "co-religionists"; - "instal" and "install"; - "Agora-nomos" and "Agoranomos"; - "subtlety" and "subtilty"; - "Amoraïm" and "Amoraim". - -Text mostly used "Tanaites", so infrequent occurrences of "Tanaïtes" -have been changed. - -Page 505 says that "twenty-two parasangs" are "sixty-eight miles," -but page 506 says they are "sixteen geographical miles". According to -current understanding of "parasang," the former is more nearly correct. - - - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of History of the Jews, Vol. II (of 6), by -Heinrich Graetz - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HISTORY OF THE JEWS, VOL. 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