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diff --git a/43056-8.txt b/43056-8.txt deleted file mode 100644 index e0652ef..0000000 --- a/43056-8.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,19602 +0,0 @@ -Project Gutenberg's History of the Jews, Vol. I (of 6), by Heinrich Graetz - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org - - -Title: History of the Jews, Vol. I (of 6) - -Author: Heinrich Graetz - -Release Date: June 29, 2013 [EBook #43056] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HISTORY OF THE JEWS, VOL. I (OF 6) *** - - - - -Produced by David Edwards, Charlie Howard, and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - - - - - - - - - -HISTORY OF THE JEWS - - - - - HISTORY OF THE - JEWS - - BY - HEINRICH GRAETZ - - VOL. I - - FROM THE EARLIEST PERIOD TO THE DEATH OF SIMON - THE MACCABEE (135 B. C. E.) - - [Illustration] - - PHILADELPHIA - - THE JEWISH PUBLICATION SOCIETY OF AMERICA - - 5717-1956 - - - - - Copyright, 1891, by - - THE JEWISH PUBLICATION SOCIETY OF AMERICA - - _All rights reserved. No part of this book may be - reproduced in any form without permission in - writing from the publisher: except by a reviewer - who may quote brief passages in a review to be - printed in a magazine or newspaper._ - - - PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA - - - - -PREFACE. - - -It is a matter of especial satisfaction to me that my work, "The -History of the Jews, from the Earliest Times to the Present Day," -should be rendered accessible to the English-reading public in a -compact form and by means of an adequate translation; for in countries -where English is spoken, books are not only bought, bound, and placed -in libraries, but are also read, taken to heart, and acted upon. It is -therefore to be expected that the English-speaking people, which has -never disregarded but has at all times recognised and appreciated the -peculiar character of the Jewish race, will feel an increased sympathy -for it, on reading the alternations of its sublime and tragical history. - -English readers, to whom the forefathers of the Jews of to-day--the -patriarchs, heroes, and men of God--are familiar characters, will the -better understand the miracle which is exhibited in the history of -the Jews during three thousand years. The continuance of the Jewish -race until the present day is a marvel not to be overlooked even by -those who deny the existence of miracles, and who only see in the most -astounding events, both natural and preternatural, the logical results -of cause and effect. Here we observe a phenomenon, which has developed -and asserted itself in spite of all laws of nature, and we behold -a culture which, notwithstanding unspeakable hostility against its -exponents, has nevertheless profoundly modified the organism of nations. - -It is the heartfelt aspiration of the author that this historical work, -in its English garb, may attain its object by putting an end to the -hostile bearing against the Jewish race, so that it may no longer be -begrudged the peculiar sphere whereto it has been predestined through -the events and sorrows of thousands of years, and that it may be -permitted to fulfil its appointed mission without molestation. - -This translation, in five volumes, is not a mere excerpt of my -"[German: Geschichte der Juden]" (like my "[German: Volksthümliche -Geschichte der Juden]"), but a condensed reproduction of the entire -eleven volumes. But the foot-notes have been omitted, so as to render -the present work less voluminous for the general reader. Historical -students are usually acquainted with the German language, and can read -the notes in the original. - -In this English edition the "History of the Present Day" is brought -down to 1870, whilst the original only goes as far as the memorable -events of 1848. The last volume will contain a survey of the entire -history of the Jewish nation, together with a comprehensive index of -names and events. - -In conclusion, I cannot refrain from expressing my gratitude to one -whose life-task it is to further with rare generosity all humane and -intellectual interests, and who has caused this translation to be made -and published. At the risk of wounding his modesty, I must mention, -as the Mæcenas of this work, Mr. Frederick D. Mocatta, whose name is a -household word in every Jewish circle. - - H. GRAETZ. - - BRESLAU, _January, 1891_. - - * * * * * - -To the foregoing words of the author I merely wish to add, that while -the first volume, as far as the period of the Hasmonæans, has been -translated by me, the other volumes have for the greater part "been -done into English by various hands," and have afterwards been revised -and edited by me. - -My cordial thanks are due to Mr. Israel Abrahams, whose scholarly -co-operation has enabled me to cope with the difficulties presented by -Hebrew and Jewish names and technicalities. - - BELLA LÖWY. - - LONDON, JANUARY, 1891. - -PREFACE TO THE SOCIETY'S EDITION. - - * * * * * - -Owing to necessary revision by the American editors, there has been a -delay in the publication of this work beyond the time announced for its -appearance. - -It is hoped that in the future such delay may be avoided. - - THE PUBLICATION COMMITTEE. - - _June, 1891._ - - - - -CONTENTS. - - - CHAPTER I. - - THE EARLIEST PERIOD. - - The Original Inhabitants of Canaan--Gigantic Anakim and - Rephaim--The Phoenicians--Israel's Claim to Canaan--The - Patriarchs--Hereditary Law--Emigration to Egypt--Tribal - Union--Bright and Dark Sides of the Egyptians--Moses, - Aaron and Miriam--The Prophetic Sage--Call of Moses as - Deliverer--Opposition--Exodus from Egypt--Passage of the - Red Sea--Wandering in the Desert--Revelation on Mount - Sinai--The Decalogue--Relapse--Concessions--Crisis-- - Circuitous Wanderings--Victories over Populations of Canaan on - Trans-Jordanic Side--Commencements of Hebrew Poetry--Death of - Moses _page_ 1 - - - CHAPTER II. - - OCCUPATION OF THE LAND OF CANAAN. - - Joshua's Succession--Passage of the Jordan--Conquest of - Jericho--The Gibeonites--Coalition of Canaanite Cities against - the Israelites--Settlement in the Land--Isolation of the - Tribes--Allotments--The Tribe of Levi--The Ark of the Covenant - at Shiloh--Condition of Canaan at the time of the Conquest-- - Climate and Fertility--Intellectual Activity--Poetry of - Nature--Remnants of Canaanite Populations--Death of Joshua - _page_ 32 - - - CHAPTER III. - - NEIGHBOURING NATIONS. - - The Phoenicians, Aramæans, Philistines, Idumæans--Their Customs - and Mythology--The Moabites and Ammonites--Intercourse of the - Israelites with their Neighbours and Adoption of their Manners-- - Disintegration of the Tribes--Consequent Weakness--Temporary - Deliverers _page_ 53 - - - CHAPTER IV. - - THE JUDGES. - - Animosity of the Idumæans--Othniel, a Deliverer--Eglon, King - of Moab--The Canaanite King, Jabin--Sisera, his General--The - Prophetess and Poetess Deborah--Barak--Victory near Tabor-- - Early Hebrew Poetry--Sufferings through Nomads--The Hero - Gideon Jerubbaal--Victory in the Plain of Jezreel--Commencement - of Prosperity--Abimelech--Feud with the Shechemites--Jair the - Gileadite--Hostilities of the Amalekites and the Philistines-- - Jephthah--Samson--Zebulunite Judges _page_ 60 - - - CHAPTER V. - - ELI AND SAMUEL. - - Importance of the Judges--Public Feeling--Sanctuary in Shiloh-- - Eli and his Sons--Defeat by the Philistines--Capture of the - Ark--Destruction of Shiloh and the Sanctuary--Flight of the - Aaronites and Levites--Death of Eli--The Ark in Philistia and - in Kirjath Jearim--Prophecy re-awakened--Samuel in Ramah--The - Order of Prophets or Singers--Popular revulsion--The tribe of - Judah--Repeated attacks of the Philistines--Meeting at Mizpah-- - Samuel's activity--Nob as a place of Worship--Increase in the - power of the Philistines and Ammonites--The Tribes desire to - have a King--Samuel's course of action _page_ 68 - - 1100?-1067 B. C. E. - - - CHAPTER VI. - - THE APOGEE. - - Establishment of a Kingdom--Saul--His Position and Character-- - His secret Election at Mizpah--Humiliating Condition of the - Nation under the Philistines--Declaration of War--Assemblage - in Gilgal--Battle of Michmash--Defeat of the Philistines-- - Severity of Saul--Victory over the Ammonites--Saul's Election - as King confirmed--His Court and Attendants--His Officers and - Standing Army--Victory over the Amalekites--Disputes between - Saul and Samuel--Saul's Attacks on the neighbouring People--War - with the Gibeonites--Place of Worship in Gibeon--War against - the Philistines in the Valley of Tamarinths--Goliath and David-- - Meeting of Saul and David--Saul's Jealousy turns into Madness-- - The Persecution of David--Saul's last Battle against the - Philistines--Defeat and Death _page_ 82 - - 1067-1055 B. C. E. - - - CHAPTER VII. - - DAVID AND ISHBOSHETH. - - Burning of Ziklag--Defeat of the Amalekites--Judah elects - David as King--Abner and Ishbosheth--War between the houses - of Saul and David--Murder of Abner--Death of Ishbosheth-- - David recognised as sole King--Capture of Zion--Fortification - of Jerusalem--War with the Philistines--Victory of David-- - The Heroes--Alliance with Hiram--Removal of the Ark of the - Sanctuary to Jerusalem--The High-Priest--Choral Services of - the Temple--Internal Government of Israel--The Gibeonites and - Rizpah--Mephibosheth _page_ 106 - - 1055-1035 B. C. E. - - - CHAPTER VIII. - - DAVID. - - War with the Moabites--Insult offered by the King of the - Ammonites--War with the Ammonites--Their Defeat--Battle - of Helam--Attack of Hadadezer--Defeat of the Aramæans-- - Acquisition of Damascus--War with the Idumæans--Conquest of - the town of Rabbah--Defeat of the Idumæans--Conquered races - obliged to pay tribute--Bathsheba--Death of Uriah the Hittite-- - Parable of Nathan--Birth of Solomon (1033)--Misfortunes of - David--Absalom--Wise Woman of Tekoah--Reconciliation of David - and Absalom--Numbering of the Troops--Pestilence breaks out - in Israel--Absalom's Rebellion--Murder of Amasa--Sheba's - Insurrection--David and Nathan--Adonijah _page_ 125 - - 1035-1015 B. C. E. - - - CHAPTER IX. - - SOLOMON. - - The new King's Rule--Solomon's Choice--Poetic Allegory--Murder - of Adonijah and Joab--The Court--Alliance with Egypt--Tyre-- - Solomon's Buildings--The Plan of the Temple--The Workmen-- - The Materials--Description of the Temple--The Ceremony of - Consecration--Reorganisation of the Priesthood--The King's - Palace--The Throne--Increase of National Wealth--The Fleet-- - The Seeds of Disunion--Jeroboam--Idolatry permitted-- - Estrangement from Egypt--Growth of surrounding Kingdoms-- - Solomon's Fame--His Death _page_ 156 - - 1015-977 B. C. E. - - - CHAPTER X. - - SECESSION OF THE TRIBES. - - Accession of Rehoboam--Jeroboam's return--The King at Shechem-- - The Secession of the Ten Tribes--Election of Jeroboam--New - Alliances--Rezon and Shishak--Fortification of Shechem-- - Jeroboam's Idolatry--Ahijah's rebuke--Religion in Judah-- - Abijam--Asa--Nadab--Baasha--Wars between Asa and Baasha-- - Defeat of Zerah--Benhadad--Elah--Zimri--Omri--Civil war-- - Samaria built--Omri's policy--Alliances with Ethbaal and Tyre-- - Ahab: his character--Jezebel--The Priests of Baal--Elijah-- - Naboth's vineyard--Elijah at Carmel--War with Benhadad--Death - of Ahab and Jehoshaphat--Ahaziah's Accession--Jehoram--Elijah - and Elisha--Jehu--Death of Jezebel _page_ 179 - - 977-887 B. C. E. - - - CHAPTER XI. - - THE HOUSE OF DAVID AND THE JEHUIDES. - - Athaliah's rule--Early years of Joash--Proclamation of Joash - by Jehoiada--Athaliah slain--Religious Revival--Elisha-- - Repairing of the Temple--Death of Jehoiada and of his Son-- - Invasion of Israel by Hazael--Jehoahaz--Murder of Joash, King - of Judah--Jehoash, King of Israel--Defeat of the Aramæans-- - Amaziah--Conquest of Edom--Death of Elisha--Amaziah defeated - by Jehoash--Jeroboam II.--Death of Amaziah _page_ 213 - - 887-805 B. C. E. - - - CHAPTER XII. - - END OF THE HOUSE OF JEHU AND THE TIME OF UZZIAH. - - Condition of Judah--The Earthquake and the Famine--Uzziah's - Rule--Overthrow of Neighbouring Powers--Fortification of - Jerusalem--Navigation of the Red Sea--Jeroboam's Prosperity-- - The Sons of the Prophets--Amos--Prophetic Eloquence--Joel's - Prophecies--Hosea foretells Ultimate Peace--Denunciation of - Uzziah--Zechariah, Shallum, Menahem--Last Years of Uzziah-- - Contest between the King and the High Priest--Uzziah usurps the - Priestly Functions--Uzziah's Illness _page_ 228 - - 805-758 B. C. E. - - - CHAPTER XIII. - - THE DOWNFALL OF THE KINGDOM OF THE TEN TRIBES; THE HOUSE OF - DAVID, AND THE INTERVENTION OF THE ASSYRIANS. - - King Menahem--The Babylonians and the Assyrians--Pekah-- - Jotham's reign--Isaiah of Jerusalem--His style and influence-- - His first public address--Later speeches--Their immediate - and permanent effect--His disciples--Their characteristics-- - Zechariah--His prophecies _page_ 246 - - 758-740 B. C. E. - - - CHAPTER XIV. - - THE END OF THE KINGDOM OF THE TEN TRIBES, AND THE HOUSE OF DAVID. - - The Reign of Ahaz--His Character--Alliance between Pekah and - Rezin--Tiglath-Pileser and Assyria--Ahaz seeks Assyrian Aid-- - Isaiah's Opposition--Defeat of Pekah and Rezin--Introduction of - Assyrian Worship--Human Sacrifices--The Second Micah--Samaria - after Pekah's Death--Assyria and Egypt--Hoshea--Samaria taken - by Shalmaneser--The Exile--Hezekiah--His Early Measures--His - Weakness of Character--Isaiah's Efforts to Restrain Hezekiah - from War with Assyria--Arrangements for the Defence--Change of - Policy--Isaiah Predicts the Deliverance--Micah--Rabshakeh's - Embassy--Hezekiah's Defiance--His Illness and Recovery--The - Destruction of Sennacherib's Army--Merodach-baladan--Hezekiah's - Rule--The Psalmists--Death of Hezekiah _page_ 257 - - 739-696 B. C. E. - - - CHAPTER XV. - - THE LAST KINGS OF JUDAH. - - Manasseh--Fanatical Hatred of Hezekiah's Policy--Assyrian - Worship Introduced--The Anavim--Persecution of the Prophets-- - Esarhaddon--The Colonisation of Samaria--Amon--Josiah--Huldah - and Zephaniah--Affairs in Assyria--Regeneration of Judah - under Josiah--Repairing of the Temple--Jeremiah--The Book of - Deuteronomy--Josiah's Passover--Battle at Megiddo _page_ 281 - - 695-608 B. C. E. - - - CHAPTER XVI. - - END OF THE KINGDOM OF JUDAH. - - Effects of Josiah's Foreign Policy--Jehoahaz--Jehoiakim-- - Egyptian Idolatry introduced--The Prophets--Uriah the Son - of Shemaiah--Jeremiah's renewed Labours--Fall of Assyria-- - Nebuchadnezzar--Baruch reads Jeremiah's Scroll--Submission of - Jehoiakim--His Rebellion and Death--Jehoiachin--Zedekiah-- - Siege of Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar--The Siege raised owing to - the Intervention of Egypt--Defeat of the Egyptians--Renewal - of the Siege--Capture of Jerusalem--Zedekiah in Babylon-- - Destruction of the Capital--Jeremiah's Lamentations _page_ 298 - - 608-586 B. C. E. - - - CHAPTER XVII. - - THE CONSEQUENCES OF THE DESTRUCTION. - - The National Decay--The Fugitives--Enmity of the Idumæans-- - Johanan, Son of Kareah--The Lamentation--Nebuchadnezzar - appoints Gedaliah as Governor--Jeremiah Encourages the People-- - Mizpah--Ishmael Murders Gedaliah--The Flight to Egypt-- - Jeremiah's Counsel Disregarded--Depopulation of Judah--The - Idumæans make Settlements in the Country--Obadiah--Condition of - the Judæans in Egypt--Defeat of Hophra--Egypt under Amasis-- - Jeremiah's Last Days _page_ 317 - - 586-572 B. C. E. - - - CHAPTER XVIII. - - THE BABYLONIAN EXILE. - - Nebuchadnezzar's treatment of the Exiles--The Exiles obtain - grants of land--Evil-Merodach favours Jehoiachin--Number of the - Judæan Exiles--Ezekiel's captivity in the first period of the - Exile--Moral change of the People--Baruch collects Jeremiah's - Prophecies and compiles the Histories--The Mourners of Zion-- - Proselytes--The Pious and the Worldly--The Poetry of the Time-- - Psalms and Book of Job--Nabonad's Persecutions--The Martyrs - and the Prophets of the Exile--The Babylonian Isaiah--Cyrus - captures Babylon--The Return under Zerubbabel _page_ 329 - - 572-537 B. C. E. - - - CHAPTER XIX. - - THE RETURN FROM BABYLON, THE NEW COMMUNITY IN JUDÆA, EZRA AND - NEHEMIAH. - - The Journey to Jerusalem--The Samaritans--Commencement of the - Rebuilding of the Temple--Interruption of the Work--Darius-- - Haggai and Zechariah--Completion of the Temple--Contest between - Zerubbabel and Joshua--Intermarriage with Heathens--The Judæans - in Babylonia--Ezra visits Jerusalem--Dissolution of the Heathen - Marriages--The Book of Ruth--Attacks by Sanballat--Nehemiah-- - His Arrival in Jerusalem--Fortification of the Capital-- - Sanballat's Intrigues against Nehemiah--Enslavement of the - Poor--Nehemiah's Protest--Repopulation of the Capital--The - Genealogies--The Reading of the Law--The Feast of Tabernacles-- - The Great Assembly--The Consecration--Departure of Nehemiah-- - Action of Eliashib--Withholding the Tithes--Malachi, the Last - of the Prophets--Nehemiah's Second Visit to Jerusalem--His - measures _page_ 354 - - 537-420 B. C. E. - - - CHAPTER XX. - - THE SOPHERIC AGE. - - Enmity of the Samaritans against the Judæans--The Temple on - Mount Gerizim--The High-Priest Manasseh--The mixed language of - the Samaritans--Their veneration for the Law of Moses--Judaism - loses its national meaning--The Jubilee and Sabbatical Year-- - Almsgiving--The Council of Seventy--The Assyrian Characters-- - The Schools and the Sopherim--Observance of the Ceremonies--The - Prayers--The Future Life--The Judæans under Artaxerxes II. and - III.--Their Banishment to the Caspian Sea--Johanan and Joshua - contend for the office of High-Priest--Bagoas--The Writings of - the Period--The Greeks and Macedonians--Alexander the Great - and the Judæans--Judæa accounted a Province of Coelesyria-- - Struggles between Alexander's Successors--Capture of Jerusalem - by Ptolemy--Judæa added to the Lagidean-Egyptian Kingdom--The - Judæan Colonies in Egypt and Syria and the Greek Colonies in - Palestine _page_ 389 - - 420-300 B. C. E. - - - CHAPTER XXI. - - SIMON THE JUST AND HIS DESCENDANTS. - - Condition of the Judæans under the Ptolemies--Simon effects - Improvements--His Praises are sung by Sirach--His Doctrines-- - The Chasidim and the Nazarites--Simon's Children--Onias II. and - the Revolt against Egypt--Joseph, Son of Tobias--His Embassy - to Alexandria--He is appointed Tax-collector--War between - Antiochus the Great and Egypt--Defeat of Antiochus--Spread of - Greek Manners in Judæa--Hyrcanus--The Song of Songs--Simon - II.--Scopas despoils Jerusalem--The Contest between Antiochus - and Rome--Continued Hellenisation of the Judæans--The Chasidim - and the Hellenists--José ben Joezer and José ben Johanan--Onias - III. and Simon--Heliodorus--Sirach's Book of Proverbs against - the Errors of his Time _page_ 420 - - 300-175 B. C. E. - - - CHAPTER XXII. - - THE TYRANNICAL CONVERSION TO HELLENISM AND THE ELEVATION OF THE - MACCABEES. - - Antiochus Epiphanes--His Character--His Wars with Rome-- - He appoints Jason to the High-Priesthood--Introduction of - the Greek Games--Jason sends Envoys to Tyre to take part in - the Olympian Games--Affairs in Jerusalem--Antiochus invades - Egypt--Report of his Death in Jerusalem--Antiochus attacks - the City and defiles the Temple--His Designs against Judaism-- - His Second Invasion of Egypt--The Persecution of the Judæans-- - The Martyrs--Mattathias and his five Sons--Apelles appears - in Modin--The Chasidim--Death of Mattathias and Appointment - of Judas Maccabæus as Leader--His Virtues--Battles against - Apollonius and Heron--Antiochus determines to Exterminate the - Judæan People--Composition and Object of the Book of Daniel-- - Victory of Judas over Lysias _page_ 442 - - 175-166 B. C. E. - - - CHAPTER XXIII. - - VICTORIES AND DEATH OF JUDAS MACCABÆUS; JONATHAN THE HASMONÆAN. - - Return of Judas to Jerusalem--Reconsecration of the Temple--The - Feast of Lights--Fortification of the Capital--The Idumæans - and Ammonites defeated by Judas--Ill-treatment of the Galilean - Judæans--Measures against Timotheus--Death of Antiochus-- - Embassy of the Hellenists to Antiochus V.--Battle at Bethzur-- - Retreat of Judas--Affairs in Jerusalem--Alcimus--Intervention - of the Romans--Nicanor's Interview with Judas--Battle of - Adarsa--Death of Judas--Results of his Career--Condition - of the People after the Death of Judas--The Chasidim, the - Hellenists, and the Hasmonæans--Jonathan--His Guerilla Warfare - against Bacchides--Death of the High-Priest Alcimus--Truce - between Jonathan and Bacchides--Jonathan as High-Priest--His - far-sighted Policy--His Captivity and his Death _page_ 471 - - 165-143 B. C. E. - - - CHAPTER XXIV. - - THE JUDÆANS IN ALEXANDRIA AND THE GOVERNMENT OF SIMON. - - The Judæan Colonies in Egypt and Cyrene--Internal Affairs of the - Alexandrian Community--King Philometor favours the Judæans-- - Onias and Dositheus--The Temple of Onias--Translation of - the Pentateuch into Greek--Struggle between the Judæans and - Samaritans in Alexandria--Affairs in Judæa--Independence of - Judæa--Simon's League with the Romans--Overthrow of the Acra - and of the Hellenists--Simon's Coinage--Quarrel between Simon - and the Syrian King--Invasion by Cendebæus--Assassination of - Simon _page_ 503 - - 160-135 B. C. E. - - - - -HISTORY OF THE JEWS - - - - -CHAPTER I. - -THE EARLIEST PERIOD. - - The Original Inhabitants of Canaan--Gigantic Anakim and - Rephaim--The Phoenicians--Israel's Claim to Canaan--The - Patriarchs--Hereditary Law--Emigration to Egypt--Tribal - Union--Bright and Dark Sides of the Egyptians--Moses, - Aaron and Miriam--The Prophetic Sage--Call of Moses as - Deliverer--Opposition--Exodus from Egypt--Passage of the - Red Sea--Wanderings in the Desert--Revelation on Mount - Sinai--The Decalogue--Relapse--Concessions--Crisis--Circuitous - Wanderings--Victories over Populations of Canaan, on - Trans-Jordanic Side--Commencements of Hebrew Poetry--Death of - Moses. - - -It was on a spring day that some pastoral tribes passed across the -Jordan into a strip of land which can only be regarded as an extended -coast-line of the Mediterranean. This was the land of _Canaan_, -subsequently called _Palestine_. The crossing of the Jordan and the -entry into this territory were destined to become of the utmost -importance to mankind. The land of which the shepherd tribes possessed -themselves became the arena of great events, so enduring and important -in their results, that the country in which they took place became -known as the _Holy Land_. Distant nations had no conception that the -entry of the _Hebrew_ or _Israelite_ tribes into the land of Canaan -would have such momentous consequences. Even the inhabitants of -Palestine were far from recognising in this invasion an occurrence -fraught with vital significance to themselves. - -At the time when the Hebrews occupied this territory it was inhabited -by tribes and peoples dissimilar in descent and pursuits. The primary -place was held by the aborigines, the _Anakim_ and _Rephaim_, a -powerful race of giants. Tradition represents them as the descendants -of that unruly and overbearing race which, in primæval times, attempted -to storm the heavens. For this rebellious attempt they had been doomed -to ignominious destruction. - -Their reputed descendants, the powerful natives of the country--who by -some of the ancient nations were called _Emim_, "terrible men"--were -unable to maintain themselves; notwithstanding their imposing figures, -they were destroyed by races of inferior stature. The rest were obliged -to migrate to the East-Jordanic lands, to the south, and also to the -south-west of the West-Jordanic region. This remnant of the _Anakim_ -filled the Israelite spies with such abject terror that they made the -entire nation despair of ever obtaining possession of the country. This -gave rise to the proverb, "Who can stand before the children of Anak?" -"We were," said the spies, "in our own eyes as grasshoppers, and so -we appeared unto them." These giants were eventually overcome by the -Israelite dwarfs. - -Another group of inhabitants which had settled in the land between -the Mediterranean and the Jordan was that of the _Canaanites_, whom -the Greeks called Phoenicians. These Phoenicians appear to have pursued -the same employment in their new country as they had followed on the -banks of the Red Sea or the Persian Gulf. Their chief pursuits were -navigation and commerce. The position which they had selected was -eminently favourable to their daring expeditions. The great ocean, -forming a strait at the Pillars of Hercules, and separating Europe -from Africa, as the Mediterranean Sea, has here its extreme limit. -At the foot of the snow-topped Lebanon and its spurs, commodious -inlets formed natural harbours that required but little improvement -at the hand of man. On this seaboard the Canaanites built the town -of Sidon, situated on a prominent crag which overhangs the sea. They -afterwards built, on a small rocky island, the port of Tyre (Tor, -which subsequently became celebrated); they also built Aradus to the -north of Sidon, and Akko (Acre) to the south of Tyre. The neighbouring -forests of the Lebanon and the Anti-Lebanon supplied them with lofty -cedars and strong cypresses for ships. The Canaanites, who became the -first mercantile nation in the world, owed much of their success to -the advantage of finding on their coast various species of the murex -(_Tolaat shani_), from the fluid of which was obtained a most brilliant -and widely celebrated purple dye. The beautiful white sand of the river -Belus, near Acre, supplied fine glass, an article which was likewise -in much request in the Old World. The wealth of the country lay in the -sands of the sea-shore. The Canaanites, on account of their extensive -trade, required and introduced at an early period a convenient form -of writing, and their alphabet, the Phoenician, became the model for -the alphabets of ancient and modern nations. In a word, the narrow -belt of land between the Mediterranean and Mount Lebanon, with its -spurs, became one of the most important points on the face of the -globe. Through the peaceful pursuits of commerce the Canaanites were -brought into contact with remote nations, who were gradually aroused -from a state of inactivity. They became subdivided into the small -nationalities of Amorites, Hittites, Hivites, and Perizzites. The -Jebusites, who inhabited this district, were of minor importance; they -dwelt on the tract of land which afterwards became the site for the -city of Jerusalem. Of still less account were the Girgashites, who had -no fixed residence. All these names would have remained unknown had not -the Israelites entered the land. - -But this people had not taken a footing in the country with the mere -object of finding pasture land for their flocks; their pretensions -were far greater. Chief of all, they claimed as their patrimony the -land where the graves of their forefathers were situated. The first -patriarch, Abraham, who had emigrated from Aram, on the borders of the -Euphrates, had, after many wanderings through the country, acquired in -Hebron, as an hereditary burial-place, the Cave of Machpelah, or the -"Double Cave," together with the adjoining field and trees. There his -wife Sarah had been interred, then he himself, and after him his son, -the patriarch Isaac. - -The third patriarch, Jacob, after many vicissitudes and wanderings, had -purchased a plot of land near Shechem, and had taken that important -city "with his sword and with his bow." The city was in the very heart -of the territory of the Hivites, and its capture had taken place in -consequence of a breach of peace, through the abduction and dishonour -of Jacob's daughter. The land was henceforth regarded as the property -of the patriarch, and he only reluctantly quitted it at the outbreak -of a famine, in order to proceed to Egypt, where corn was plentiful. -On his death-bed, Jacob impressed upon his sons that they should -deposit his remains in the family tomb of the "Double Cave." Not alone -did Canaan contain the graves of the three patriarchs, but also the -altars which they had erected and named in various places, in honour of -the Deity whom they worshipped. The Israelites were therefore firmly -convinced that they had a right to the exclusive possession of the land. - -These claims derived further strength from the tradition left by -the patriarchs to their descendants as a sacred bequest, that the -Deity, whom they had been the first to recognise, had repeatedly and -indubitably, though only in visions, promised them this land as their -possession, not merely for the sake of showing them favour, but as the -means of attaining to a higher degree of culture. This culture would -pre-eminently consist in Abraham's doctrine of a purer belief in the -_One God_, whose nature differed essentially from that of the gods whom -the various nations represented in the shape of idols and by means of -other senseless conceptions. The higher recognition of the Deity was -designed to lead Abraham's posterity to the practice of justice towards -all men, in contradistinction to the injustice universally prevailing -in those days. It was affirmed that this higher culture was ordained -by the Almighty as "the way of God," and that as such it should be -transmitted by the patriarchs to their families as a bequest and as a -subject of hereditary instruction. They also received the promise that -through their posterity, as the faithful guardians of this teaching, -all nations of the earth should be blessed, and should participate -in this intellectual advancement of Israel; and that with this same -object the land of Canaan had been allotted to Israel, as especially -adapted for the purposes of the hereditary law. Hence it was that the -Israelites, while in a foreign country, felt an irrepressible yearning -for their ancestral land. Their forefathers had impressed them with the -hope that, though some of their generations would sojourn in a land -which was not their own, a time would surely come when Israel should -return to that land which was the resting-place of their patriarchs, -and where the patriarchal altars had been erected and consecrated. -This promise became identified with all their positive expectations, -and with their conviction that the acquisition of Canaan was secured -to them on condition that they performed the duties of worshipping -the God of their fathers, and observed the ways of justice and -righteousness. The nature of this worship and "the way of justice" -was not clearly defined, nor did they require such a definition. -The lives of the patriarchs, as commemorated by posterity, served as -a sufficient illustration of the family law. Abraham was especially -held up as a model of human excellence. Differing from other nations -who _worshipped_ their primæval ancestors, his descendants did not -revere him as a performer of marvellous deeds, nor as one exalted -to the eminent degree of a god or a demi-god. Not as a warrior and -a conqueror did he live in the memory of his descendants, but as a -self-denying, God-fearing man, who joined true simplicity and faith -to nobleness in thought and in action. According to their conception, -Abraham the Hebrew, although born of idolatrous parents in Aram, on the -other side of the Euphrates, and although brought up amidst idolatrous -associations, had obeyed the voice which revealed to him a higher God, -and had separated himself from those around him. When disputes arose, -he did not obstinately insist upon his claims, but renounced his rights -for the sake of living at peace with his fellow-men. So hospitable -was he, that he would go forth to invite the passing wayfarers, and -delighted in entertaining them. He interceded for the sinners of Sodom -and the neighbouring cities, when their cruel and inhuman acts had -brought on them the punishment of Heaven; and he prayed that they might -be spared for the sake of any few righteous men amongst them. - -These and other remembrances of his peace-loving and generous -disposition, of his self-abnegation, and of his submission to God, were -cherished by his descendants, together with the conviction that such a -line of conduct was agreeable to the God of their fathers; that for the -sake of these virtues God had protected Abraham, as well as his son and -his grandson, because the two latter had followed the example of their -predecessor. This belief that God especially protects the virtuous, the -just, and the good, was fully confirmed in the life of the patriarch -Jacob, to whom the additional name ISRAEL was given. His life had been -short and toilsome, but the God of his fathers had delivered him from -all his sorrows. Such remembrances of ancestral piety were retained by -the sons of Israel, and such family traditions served to supplement and -illustrate their hereditary law. - -The growth of Israel as a distinct race commenced amidst extraordinary -circumstances. The beginning of this people bore but very slight -resemblance to the origin of other nations. Israel as a people arose -amidst peculiar surroundings in the land of Goshen, a territory -situated in the extreme north of Egypt, near the borders of Palestine. -The Israelites were not at once moulded into a nation, but consisted of -twelve loosely connected shepherd tribes. - -These tribes led a simple life in the land of Goshen. The elders -(_Zekenim_) of the families, who acted as their chiefs, were consulted -on all important occasions. They had no supreme chieftain, nor did -they owe allegiance to the Egyptian kings; and thus they habitually -enjoyed the freedom of a republic, in which each tribal section was -enabled to preserve its independence without falling into subjection -or serfdom. Although they did not become intermixed with the ancient -Egyptians, who in fact had an aversion to shepherds--perhaps on account -of the oppression they had in former ages endured from such shepherds -(the Hyksos)--yet opportunities for contact and mutual communication -could not be wanting. Some families of Israel had abandoned their -pastoral pursuits, and devoted themselves to agriculture or industrial -occupations, and were therefore brought into connection with the -inhabitants of towns. It seems that the members of the tribe of Ephraim -stood in closer social contact with the original inhabitants. This -intercourse had a favourable influence upon the Israelites. - -The Egyptians had already gone through a history of a thousand years, -and attained to a high degree of culture. Their kings, or Pharaohs, had -already built populous cities, and erected colossal edifices, temples, -pyramids and mausoleums. Their priests had acquired a certain degree of -perfection in such arts and technical accomplishments as were suited -to the requirements of the country, as for example, architecture and -hydraulic constructions, the kindred science of geometry, the art of -medicine, and the mystery of embalming for the perpetual preservation -of the remains of the departed; also the artistic working of objects -in gold, silver and precious stones, in order to satisfy the luxurious -demands of the kings. They also knew the art of sculpture and the use -of pigments. They studied chronology, together with astronomy, which -was suggested by the periodical overflow of the Nile. The all-important -art of writing had been invented and perfected by the Egyptian priests. -They first used stones and metals to commemorate the renown of their -monarchs; and they afterwards employed the fibre of the papyrus shrub, -which was originally marked with clumsy figures and subsequently with -ingeniously drawn symbols. Of these several attainments the Israelites -seem to have acquired some notion. The members of the destitute tribe -of Levi in particular, being unencumbered by pastoral service or by -landed possessions, appear to have learnt from the Egyptian priests the -art of writing. Owing to their superior knowledge, they were treated by -the other tribes as the sacerdotal class, and hence they held, even in -Egypt, the privileged distinction of their priestly position. - -The residence of the Israelites in Egypt was of great advantage to -them. It raised them, or at least a portion of them, from a rude state -of nature to a higher grade of culture. But what they gained on the -one hand, they lost on the other; and in spite of their arts and -accomplishments, they would in time have fallen into a more abject -condition. Amongst no people which had advanced beyond the first stage -of Fetish worship, had idolatry assumed such a hideous development, -or so mischievously tainted the habits, as was the case with the -Egyptians. By combining and intermingling the gods of the various -districts, they had established a complete system of polytheism. As -a matter of course they worshipped goddesses as well as gods. What -made the mythology of the Egyptians especially repulsive, was the fact -that they placed the deified beings of their adoration, from whom they -expected help, far below the level of human beings. - -They endowed their gods with the shape of animals, and worshipped -the inferior creatures as divine powers. Ammon, their chief god, was -represented with ram's horns, the goddess Pecht (Pacht) with a cat's -head, and Hathor (Athyr), the goddess of licentiousness, with a cow's -head. Osiris, who was worshipped throughout Egypt, was represented in -a most loathsome and revolting image, and the universally honoured -Isis was often pictured with a cow's head. Animals being scarce in the -Nile region, great value was attached to their preservation, and they -received divine homage. Such honours were paid to the black bull _Apis_ -(_Abir_) in Memphis, to the white bull _Mnevis_ in Heliopolis, to the -lustful goats, to dogs, and especially to cats; also to birds, snakes, -and even mice. The killing of a sacred bull or cat was more severely -punished than the murder of a human being. - -This abominable idolatry was daily witnessed by the Israelites. The -consequences of such perversions were sufficiently deplorable. Men who -invested their gods with the shape of animals sank down to the level -of beasts, and were treated as such by the kings and by persons of the -higher castes--the priests and soldiers. Humanity was contemned; no -regard was paid to the freedom of the subjects, and still less to that -of strangers. The Pharaohs claimed to be descended from the gods, and -were worshipped as such even during their lifetime. The entire land -with its population was owned by them. It was a mere act of grace on -their part that they granted a portion of the territory to cultivators -of the soil. - -Egypt, in fact, was not peopled by an independent nation, but by -bondmen. Hundreds of thousands were forced to take part in compulsory -labour for the erection of the colossal temples and pyramids. The -Egyptian priests were worthy of such kings and gods. Cruelly as -the Pharaohs harassed their subjects with hard labour, the priests -continued to declare that the kings were demi-gods. Under the weight -of this oppression the people became devoid of all human dignity, -and submitted to the vilest bondage without ever attempting to -relieve themselves from the galling yoke. The repulsive idolatry then -prevailing in Egypt had yet further pernicious consequences. The people -lost the idea of chastity, after they had placed the brute creation -on an equality with their deities. Unspeakable offences in the use of -animals had become of daily occurrence, and entailed neither punishment -nor disgrace. The gods being depicted in unchaste positions, there -appeared to be no need for human beings to be better than the gods. -No example is more contagious and seductive than folly and sin. The -Israelites, especially those who were brought into closer contact with -the Egyptians, gradually adopted idolatrous perversions, and abandoned -themselves to unbridled license. This state of things was aggravated -by a new system of persecution. During a long period, the Israelites -residing in the Land of Goshen had been left unmolested, they having -been looked upon as roving shepherds who would not permanently settle -in Egypt. But when decades and even a century had passed by, and -they still remained in the land and continued to increase in numbers, -the council of the king begrudged them the state of freedom which was -denied to the Egyptians themselves. The court now feared that these -shepherd tribes, which had become so numerous in Goshen, might assume -a warlike attitude towards Egypt. To avoid this danger, the Israelites -were declared to be bondmen, and were compelled to perform forced -labour. To effect a rapid decrease in their numbers, the king commanded -that the male infants of the Israelites should be drowned in the Nile -or in some of the canals, and that only the female infants should be -spared. The Israelites, formerly free in the land of Goshen, were now -kept "in a house of bondage," "in an iron furnace"; here it was to be -proved whether they would conform to their hereditary law, or follow -strange gods. - -The greater part of the tribes could not stand this trial. They had a -dim knowledge that the God of their fathers was a being very different -from the Egyptian idols; but even this knowledge seemed to decrease -from day to day. Love of imitation, sore oppression, and daily misery -made them obtuse, and obscured the faint light of their hereditary law. -The enslaved labourers did not know what to think of an unseen God -who only lived in their memories. Like their masters, the Egyptians, -they now lifted their eyes to the visible gods who showed themselves -so merciful and propitious to Israel's tormentors. They directed their -prayers to the bovine god Apis, whom they called _Abir_,[1] and they -also offered to the he-goats.[2] The daughter of Israel, growing up -to womanhood, sacrificed her virtue, and abandoned herself to the -Egyptians.[3] It was probably thought that, in the images of the -grass-eating animal, honour was paid to the god of the patriarchs. -When the intellect is on a wrong track, where are the limits for its -imaginings? The Israelites would have succumbed to coarse sensual -idolatry and to Egyptian vice, like many other nations who had come -under the influence of the people of the land of Ham, had not two -brothers and their sister--the instruments of a higher Spirit--aroused -them and drawn them out of their lethargy. These were MOSES, AARON -and MIRIAM.[4] In what did the greatness of this triad consist? What -intellectual powers led them to undertake their work of redemption, -the elevating and liberating effect of which was intended to extend -far beyond their own times? Past ages have left but few characteristic -traits of Moses, and barely any of his brother and sister, which -could enable us to comprehend, from a human point of view, how their -vision rose step by step from the faint dawn of primitive ideas to -the bright sunlight of prophetic foresight, and by what means they -rendered themselves worthy of their exalted mission. The prophetic -trio belonged to that tribe which, through its superior knowledge, -was regarded as the sacerdotal tribe, namely, the tribe of Levi. -This tribe, or at least this one family, had doubtless preserved the -memory of the patriarchs and the belief in the God of their fathers, -and had accordingly kept itself aloof from Egyptian idolatry and its -abominations. - -Thus it was that Aaron, the elder brother, as also Moses and Miriam, -had grown up in an atmosphere of greater moral and religious purity. -Of Moses the historical records relate that after his birth his mother -kept him concealed during three months, to evade the royal command, and -protect him from death in the waters of the Nile. There is no doubt -that the youthful Moses was well acquainted with Pharaoh's court at -Memphis or Tanis (Zoan). Gifted with an active intellect, he had an -opportunity of acquiring the knowledge that was to be learnt in Egypt, -and by his personal and intellectual qualities he won the affections of -all hearts. But even more than by these qualities, he was distinguished -by his gentleness and modesty. "Moses was the meekest of men," is the -only praise which the historical records have bestowed upon him. He is -not praised for heroism or warlike deeds, but for unselfishness and -self-abnegation. - -Influenced by the ancient teaching, that the God of Abraham loved -righteousness, he must have been repelled by the baseless idolatry of -animal worship and by the social and moral wrongs which then were rife. -Shameless vice, the bondage of a whole people under kings and priests, -the inequality of castes, the treatment of human beings as though they -were beasts or inferior to beasts, the spirit of slavery,--all these -evils he recognised in their full destructive force, and he perceived -that the prevailing debasement had defiled his brethren. Moses was the -open antagonist of injustice. It grieved him sorely that Israel's sons -were subjected to slavery, and were daily exposed to ill-treatment -by the lowest of the Egyptians. One day when he saw an Egyptian -unjustly beating a Hebrew, his passion overcame his self-control, -and he punished the offender. Fearing discovery, he fled from Egypt -into the desert, and halted at an oasis in the neighbourhood of Mount -Sinai, where the Kenites, an offshoot of the tribe of Midianites, were -dwelling. Here, as in Egypt, he witnessed oppression and wrong-doing, -and here also he opposed it with zeal. He gave his aid to feeble -shepherdesses. By such action he came into contact with their grateful -father, the priest or elder of the tribe of the Midianites, and he -married Zipporah, the daughter of that priest. - -His employment in Midian was that of a shepherd. He selected fertile -grazing plots for the herds of Reuel, his father-in-law, between the -Red Sea and the mountain lands. In this solitude the prophetic spirit -came upon him. - -What is the meaning of this prophetic spirit? Even those who have -searched the secrets of the world, or the secrets of the soul in its -grasp of the universe, can give only a faint notion and no distinct -account of its nature. The inner life of man has depths which have -remained inscrutable to the keenest investigator. It is, however, -undeniable that the human mind can, without help from the senses, -cast a far-seeing glance into the enigmatic concatenation of events -and the complex play of forces. By means of an undisclosed faculty of -the soul, man has discovered truths which are not within the reach of -the senses. The organs of the senses can only confirm or rectify the -truths already elicited. They cannot discover them. By means of the -truths brought to light by that inexplicable power of the soul, man has -learned to know nature and to make its forces subservient to his will. -These facts attest that the power of the soul owns properties which go -beyond the ken of the senses, and transcend the skilled faculties of -human reason. Such properties lift the veil of the dim future, and lead -to the discovery of higher truths concerning the moral conduct of man; -they are even capable of beholding a something of that mysterious Being -who has formed and who maintains the universe and the combined action -of all its forces. A soul devoted to mundane matters and to selfishness -can never attain to this degree of perfection. But should not a soul -which is untouched by selfishness, undisturbed by low desires and -passions, unsoiled by profanity and the stains of every-day life,--a -soul which is completely merged in the Deity and in a longing for -moral superiority,--should not such a soul be capable of beholding a -revelation of religious and moral truths? - -During successive centuries of Israel's history there arose pure-minded -men, who unquestionably could look far into the future, and who -received and imparted revelations concerning God and the holiness -of life. This is an historical fact which will stand any test. A -succession of prophets predicted the future destiny of the Israelites -and of other nations, and these predictions have been verified by -fulfilment. These prophets placed the son of Amram as first on the list -of men to whom a revelation was vouchsafed, and high above themselves, -because his predictions were clearer and more positive. They recognised -in Moses not only the first, but also the greatest of prophets; and -they considered their own prophetic spirit as a mere reflection of his -mind. If ever the soul of a mortal was endowed with luminous prophetic -foresight, this was the case with the pure, unselfish, and sublime soul -of Moses. In the desert of Sinai, says the ancient record, at the foot -of Horeb, where the flock of his father-in-law was grazing, he received -the first divine revelation, which agitated his whole being. Moved and -elated--humble, yet confident, Moses returned after this vision to his -flock and his home. He had been changed into another being; he felt -himself impelled by the spirit of God to redeem his tribal brethren -from bondage, and to educate them for a higher moral life. - -Aaron, who had remained in Egypt, likewise had a revelation to meet his -brother on Mount Horeb, and to prepare himself jointly with him for -the work of redemption. The task of imbuing the servile spirit of the -people with a desire for liberty seemed to them far more difficult than -that of inducing Pharaoh to relax his rigor. Both brothers therefore -expected to encounter obstacles and stubborn opposition. Although -both men were already advanced in years, they did not shrink from -the magnitude of the undertaking, but armed themselves with prophetic -courage, and relied on the support of the God of their fathers. First -they turned to the representatives of families and tribes, to the -elders of the people, and announced their message that God would take -pity on Israel's misery, that He had promised them freedom, and that He -would lead them back to the land of their fathers. The elders lent a -willing ear to the joyful news; but the masses, who were accustomed to -slavery, heard the words with cold indifference. Heavy labour had made -them cowardly and distrustful. They did not even desire to abstain from -worshipping the Egyptian idols. Every argument fell unheeded on their -obtuse minds. "It is better for us to remain enthralled as bondmen -to the Egyptians than to die in the desert." Such was the apparently -rational answer of the people. - -The brothers appeared courageously before the Egyptian king, and -demanded, in the name of the God who had sent them, that their -people should be released from slavery, for they had come into the -country of their own free will, and had preserved their inalienable -right to liberty. If the Israelites were at first unwilling to leave -the country, and to struggle with the uncertainties of the future, -Pharaoh was still less inclined to let them depart. The mere demand -that he should liberate hundreds of thousands of slaves who worked -in his fields and buildings, and that he should do so in the name of -a God whom he knew not, or for the sake of a cause which he did not -respect, induced him to double the labours of the Hebrew slaves, in -order to deprive them of leisure for thoughts of freedom. Instead of -meeting with a joyful reception, Moses and Aaron found themselves -overwhelmed with reproaches that through their fault the misery of the -unfortunate sufferers had been increased. The King only determined to -give way after he and his country had witnessed many terrifying and -extraordinary phenomena and plagues, and when he could no longer free -himself from the thought that the unknown God was punishing him for his -obstinacy. In consequence of successive calamities, the Egyptian king -urged the Israelites to hasten and depart, fearing lest any delay might -bring destruction upon him and his country. The Israelites had barely -time to supply themselves with the provisions necessary for their long -and wearisome journey. Memorable was the daybreak of the fifteenth of -Nisan (March), on which the enslaved people regained their liberty -without shedding a drop of blood. They were the first to whom the -great value of liberty was made known, and since then this priceless -treasure, the foundation of human dignity, has been guarded by them as -the apple of the eye. - -Thousands of Israelites, their loins girded, their staves in their -hands, their little ones riding on asses, and their herds following -them, left their villages and tents, and assembled near the town of -Rameses. Strange tribes who had lived by their side, shepherd tribes -akin to them in race and language, joined them in their migration. They -all rallied round the prophet Moses, obeying his words. He was their -king, although he was free from ambition, and he may well be called the -first promulgator of the doctrine of equality amongst men. The duty -devolving on him during this exodus was more difficult to discharge -than his message to the king and to the people of Israel. Only few -amongst these thousands of newly liberated slaves could comprehend the -great mission assigned to them. But the masses followed him stolidly. -Out of this horde of savages he had to form a nation; for them he had -to conquer a home, and establish a code of laws, which rendered them -capable of leading a life of rectitude. In this difficult task, he -could reckon with certainty only on the tribe of Levi, who shared his -sentiments, and assisted him in his arduous duties as a teacher. - -Whilst the Egyptians were burying the dead which the plague had -suddenly stricken down, the Israelites, the fourth generation of the -first immigrants, left Egypt, after a sojourn of several centuries. -They journeyed towards the desert which divides Egypt from Canaan, -on the same way by which the last patriarch had entered the Nile -country. But Moses would not permit them to go by this short route, -because he feared that the inhabitants of Canaan, on the coast of the -Mediterranean, would oppose their entry with an armed force; he also -apprehended that the tribes, whom their long bondage had made timorous, -would take to flight on the first approach of danger. - -Their first destination was Mount Sinai, where they were to receive -those laws and precepts for the practice of which they had been set -free. Pharaoh had, however, determined to recapture the slaves who -had been snatched from his grasp, when, in a moment of weakness, he -had allowed them to depart. When the Israelites saw the Egyptians -approaching from afar, they gave way to despair, for they found -themselves cut off from every means of escape. Before them was the -sea, and behind them the enemy, who would soon overtake them, and -undoubtedly reduce them again to bondage. Crying and lamenting, some -of them asked Moses, "Are there no graves in Egypt that thou hast -brought us out to die in the desert?" However, a means of escape -unexpectedly presented itself, and could only be regarded by them as a -miracle. A hurricane from the north-east had driven the water of the -sea southwards during the night, so that the bed had for the greater -part become dry. Their leader quickly seized on this means of escape, -and urged the frightened people to hurry towards the opposite shore. -His prophetic spirit showed him that they would never again see the -Egyptians. They rapidly traversed the short distance across the dry bed -of the sea, the deeper parts of the water, agitated by a storm, forming -two walls on the right and the left. During this time, the Egyptians -were in hot pursuit after the Israelites, in the hope of leading them -back to slavery. At daybreak, they reached the west coast of the sea, -and, perceiving the Israelites on the other side, they were hastening -after them along the dry pathway, when the tempest suddenly ceased. -The mountain-like waves, which had risen like walls on both sides, now -poured down upon the dry land, and buried men, horses, and chariots -in the watery deep. The sea washed some corpses to the coast where -the Israelites were resting in safety. They here beheld a marvellous -deliverance. The most callous became deeply impressed with this sight, -and looked with confidence to the future. On that day they put their -firm trust in God and in Moses, His messenger. With a loud voice they -sang praises for their wonderful deliverance. In chorus they sang-- - - "I will praise the Lord, - For He is ever glorious. - The horse and his rider He cast into the sea." - -The deliverance from Egypt, the passage through the sea, and the sudden -destruction of their resentful enemy were three occurrences which the -Israelites had witnessed, and which never passed from their memories. -In times of the greatest danger and distress, the recollection of this -scene inspired them with courage, and with the assurance that the God -who had redeemed them from Egypt, who had turned the water into dry -land, and had destroyed their cruel enemy, would never desert them, -but would "ever reign over them." Although the multitude did not long -retain this trustful and pious disposition, but fell into despondency -at every new difficulty, the intelligent portion of the Israelites -were, in subsequent trials, sustained by their experiences at the Red -Sea. - -The tribes, delivered from the bonds of slavery, and from the terrors -of long oppression, could peaceably now pursue their way. They had yet -many days' journey to Sinai, the temporary goal of their wanderings. -Although the country through which they travelled was a sandy desert, -it was not wanting in water, and in pasture land for the shepherds. -This territory was not unknown to Moses, their leader, who had formerly -pastured the flocks of his father-in-law here. In the high mountains -of Sinai and its spurs, the water in the spring-time gushes forth -copiously from the rocks, forms into rills, and rushes down the slopes -towards the Red Sea. Nor did the Israelites suffer through want of -bread, for in its stead they partook of manna. Finding this substance -in large quantities, and living on it during a long time, they came to -consider its presence as a miracle. It is only on this peninsula that -drops sweet as honey exude from the high tamarisk trees, which abound -in that region. These drops issue in the early morning, and take the -globular size of peas or of coriander seeds; but in the heat of the -sun they melt away. Elated by their wonderful experiences, the tribes -now seemed prepared to receive their holiest treasure, for the sake of -which they had made the long circuitous journey through the desert of -Sinai. From Rephidim, which lies on a considerable altitude, they were -led upwards to the highest range of the mountain, the summit of which -appears to touch the clouds.[5] To this spot Moses led the Israelites -in the third month after the exodus from Egypt, and appointed their -camping ground. He then prepared them for an astounding phenomenon, -which appealed both to the eye and the ear. By prayer and abstinence -they were bidden to render themselves fit for lofty impressions, and -worthy of their exalted mission. With eager expectation and anxious -hearts they awaited the third day. A wall round the nearest mountain -summit prevented the people from approaching too close. On the morning -of the third day a heavy cloud covered the mountain top; lightning -flashed, and enveloped the mountain in a blaze of fire. Peals of -thunder shook the surrounding mountains, and awakened the echoes. All -nature was in uproar, and the world's end seemed to be at hand. With -trembling and shaking, the old and the young beheld this terrifying -spectacle. But its terror did not surpass the awfulness of the words -heard by the affrighted people. The clouds of smoke, the lightning, the -flames and the peals of thunder had only served as a prelude to these -portentous words. - -Mightily impressed by the sight of the flaming mountain, the people -clearly heard the commandments which, simple in their import, and -intelligible to every human being, form the elements of all culture. -Ten words rang forth from the mountain top. The people became firmly -convinced that the words were revealed by God. Theft and bearing false -witness were stigmatised as crimes. The voice of Sinai condemned evil -thoughts no less than evil acts; hence the prohibition, "Thou shalt not -covet thy neighbour's wife ... nor any possession of thy neighbour." -The Indians, the Egyptians, and other nations famous for their colossal -structures, had, during more than two thousand years, gone through many -historical experiences, which shrink into utter insignificance, when -compared with this one momentous event. - -The work accomplished at Sinai by an instantaneous act remained -applicable to all times by asserting the supremacy of ethical life and -the dignity of man. This promulgation of the Law marked the natal hour -of the "distinct people," like unto which none had ever existed. The -sublime and eternal laws of Sinai--coming from a Deity whom the senses -cannot perceive, from a Redeemer who releases the enthralled and the -oppressed--were revealed truths treating of filial duty, of spotless -chastity, of the inviolable safety of human life and property, of -social integrity, and of the purity of sentiment. - -The Israelites had been led to Mount Sinai as trembling bondmen; -now they came back to their tents as God's people of priests, as a -righteous nation (_Jeshurun_). By practically showing that the Ten -Commandments are applicable to all the concerns of life, the Israelites -were constituted the teachers of the human race, and through them all -the families of the earth were to be blessed. None of the others could -then have surmised that even for its own well-being an isolated and -insignificantly small nation had been charged with the arduous task of -the preceptive office. - -The Sinaitic teachings were not of an ephemeral nature, even in regard -to their form. Being engraven on tables of stone, they could be easily -remembered by successive generations. During a long period these -inscribed slabs remained in the custody of the Israelites, and were -called "the Tables of the Testimony," or "the Tables of the Law." Being -placed in an ark, which became a rallying centre, round which Moses -used to assemble the elders of the families, these tables served as -a sign of the Sinaitic Covenant. They formed a link between God and -the people who had formerly been trodden under foot, and who were now -bidden to own no other Lord save the One from whom the Law had gone -forth. It was for this reason that the ark, as the repository of the -tables, was designated "the Ark of the Covenant." The ethical truths of -Sinai became henceforth the basis for a new system of morality, and for -the national constitution of the Israelites. These truths were further -developed in special laws which had a practical bearing upon the public -and private affairs of the people. Slave-holders and slaves were no -longer to be found amongst the Israelites. The selling of Israelites as -slaves, and perpetual servitude of an Israelite became unlawful. A man -who forfeited his liberty was liable to be held in service during six -years, but in the seventh year he regained his freedom. Wilful murder -and disrespect to parents were punishable with death. The sanctuary -could give no protection to criminals condemned to die. The murder of -a non-Israelitish slave involved condign punishment. A gentile slave -ill-treated by his master recovered his liberty. A man committing an -offence on the virtue of a maiden was bound to make her his wife, -and to pay a fine to the father of the injured woman. Equitable and -humane treatment of the widow and the orphan was enforced; a similar -provision was ordained for the benefit of strangers who had joined one -of the tribes. The Israelites, in fact, were bidden remember their -former sojourn in a foreign land, and to refrain from inflicting upon -strangers the inhuman treatment which they themselves had formerly -endured. - -This spirit of equity and brotherly love, pervading the ancient code -of laws, could not at once change the habits of the people. The duties -involved in these laws were too spiritual and too elevated to have -such an effect. Moses having temporarily absented himself to make -preparations for the reception of the Sinaitic law, the dull-witted -portion of the people imagined that their God was abandoning them in -the desert, and they clamoured for the rule of a visible Godhead. -Aaron, who had taken the lead in the absence of Moses, timorously -yielded to this impetuous demand, and countenanced the production of a -golden idol. This image of Apis or Mnevis received divine homage from -the senseless multitude who danced around it. Moses, on descending from -Mount Sinai, ordered the Levites to put to death some thousands of the -people. Nothing but the exercise of extreme rigour could have repressed -this worship of idols. - -With the object of protecting the people from a relapse into idolatry, -and of supporting them during their state of transition from barbarism, -they were allowed to form a conception of the Deity--though not by -means of an image--through some material aid which would appeal to -the senses. On Sinai they had beheld flashes of lightning with flames -of fire, and from the midst of a burning cloud they had heard the Ten -Commandments. An emblem of this phenomenon was now introduced to remind -the people of the presence of the Deity as revealed at Sinai. It was -ordained that a perpetual fire should be kept alight on a portable -altar, and be carried before the tribes during their migrations. Not -the Deity Himself, but the revelation of the Deity at Sinai, should -thereby be made perceptible to the sense of vision. The performance of -sacrificial rites was a further concession to the crude perceptions of -the people. - -The spiritual religion promulgated at Sinai did not intend sacrifices -as the expression of divine adoration, but was meant to inculcate a -moral and holy life; the people, however, had not yet risen to this -conception, and could only be advanced by means of education and -culture. The other ancient nations having found in sacrifices the -means of propitiating their deities, the Israelites were permitted to -retain the same mode of divine service; but its form was simplified. -The altar became an integral part of the sanctuary, in which no image -was tolerated. The only objects contained therein were a candelabrum, -a table with twelve loaves, symbolising the twelve tribes; and there -was also a recess for the Ark of the Covenant. Altar, sanctuary and -sacrificial rites required a priesthood. This primæval institution, -too, was retained. The Levites, as the most devoted and best informed -tribe, were charged with sacerdotal functions, as during the sojourn -in Egypt. The priests of Israel, unlike those of the Egyptians, were -precluded from holding landed property, as such possessions might have -tempted them to misuse their prerogatives and neglect their sacred -duties. For this reason it was prescribed that their subsistence -should be derived from the offerings made by the people. Collaterally -there existed a custom, dating from remote patriarchal ages, which -demanded that the first-born son of every family should attend to -the performance of sacrificial rites. This prerogative could not be -abruptly abolished, and continued for some time alongside of the -Levitical priesthood, though both of them stood in the way of the pure -Sinaitic teachings. The materialism of the age demanded indulgent -concessions, combined with provisions tending to the refinement of -popular habits. Only through the aid of the spiritually gifted could -the understanding of the subordinate nature of sacrifices be preserved -in the consciousness of the people. - -During the forty years of their wandering in the desert, the Israelites -sought pastures for their flocks within the mountain region and its -neighborhood. - -During these migrations Moses instructed the people. The older -generation gradually passed away. Their descendants, obedient to the -teachings of the lawgiver and his disciples, formed a docile, pious, -and valiant community, and became proficient in the knowledge of their -laws. - -Moses now surrounded himself with councillors, who were the chiefs -of seventy families. This system became a model for later forms of -administration. The Council of Elders participated in important -deliberations, and assisted in the management of public business. On -the advice of Jethro, his father-in-law, Moses appointed inferior and -higher judges, who respectively had under their jurisdiction ten, a -hundred, and a thousand families. The people had the right of electing -their own judges, whose appointment they then recommended to Moses. -These judges were charged to maintain strict impartiality in cases -of litigation between members of the tribes of Israel, or between -Israelites and strangers. Nor was it within the discretion of the -judges to make distinctions between persons of high and low degree. -They were also commanded to keep their hands clean from bribes, and -to give their verdicts according to the principles of equity, "for -justice belongs unto God," and has its source in God himself. Brotherly -love, community of interests, equality before the law, equity and -mercy were the high ideals which he held before the generations which -he had trained. The inculcation of these laws and teachings marked an -eventful era in the nation's history. As such it was characterised -by the prophets, who called it "the bridal time of the daughter of -Israel," and the season of "her espousals, when she went after her -God in the land which was not sown." Israel's wanderings had nearly -come to a conclusion and the younger generation was well fitted for -the attainment of the object of its settlement. A further sojourn in -the desert would have inured the people to habits of restlessness, -and might have reduced them for ever to the nomadic condition of the -Midianites and the Amalekites. They appear to have made an unsuccessful -raid in a northern direction, along the old caravan roads. In a -second defeat some of them were captured by their enemies. But this -discomfiture was apparently avenged by combatants belonging to the -tribe of Judah, who were aided by men of the tribe of Simeon, and by -Kenites, with whose assistance they seized several cities. - -The other tribes were prepared to effect an entrance into the country -by following a circuitous route on the eastern side. This expedition -might have been shortened if the Idumeans, who dwelt on the mountain -ranges of Seir, had permitted the Israelites to pass through their -territory. Apparently the Idumeans were afraid that the invading -Israelites would dispossess them of the land, and they therefore -sallied forth to obstruct the direct road. Their opposition forced the -tribes of Israel to make a long detour round the country of Idumea, -and to turn to the east of the mountain ranges of Seir in order to -approach Canaan from the opposite side. Not being permitted to attack -the Idumeans and the kindred tribes of the Ammonites, the Israelites -had to traverse the border of the eastern desert in order to reach the -inhabited regions at the source of the Arnon, which flows into the Dead -Sea. - -Moses now sent conciliatory messages to Sihon, to request that the -people might pass through his territory on their way to the Jordan. -Sihon refused his consent, and marched an army to the borders of the -desert to oppose the advance of the invaders. The Israelites of the new -generation, animated with youthful prowess, put themselves in battle -array, and routed the hostile troops, whose king they slew at Jahaz. - -This victory was of incalculable importance to the Israelites; it -strengthened their position and inspired them with self-reliance. They -at once took possession of the conquered district, and henceforth -abandoned their nomadic life. Whilst the Israelites felt confident -of success in conquering the Land of Promise, the Canaanites, on the -other hand, were terror-stricken at the defeat of the mighty Sihon. -The Israelites could now move about freely, being no longer incommoded -by the narrow belt of the desert, nor by the suspicions of unfriendly -tribes. Dangers having given way to a state of security, this sudden -change of circumstances aroused in their bosoms virtuous emotions, -together with ignoble passions. - -The people of Moab now perceived that their feeble existence was -threatened by their new neighbours. Balak, their king, felt that he -could not cope with the Israelites in the open field of battle, and -he preferred to employ the arts of Balaam, the Idumean or Midianite -magician, whose maledictions were supposed to have the power of calling -down distress and destruction on an entire people or on a single -individual. Balaam having been struck with amazement at the sight of -Israel's encampment, the intended maledictions were changed on his -lips into blessings. He averred that no "enchantment avails against -Jacob, and no divination against Israel," a glorious future having -been assured to that people. But he advised the king to have recourse -to a different charm, which might have a pernicious effect upon the -Israelites, namely, to beguile them to the vice of profligacy by means -of depraved temple maidens. - -Balak accepted this advice. The Israelites, during their migrations, -had lived on friendly terms with the wandering Midianites, and -entertained no suspicions when admitting the latter into their -encampments and tents. Counselled by Balaam and instigated by Balak, -many Midianites brought their wives and daughters into the tents of the -Israelites, who were then invited to join the idolatrous festivities -at the shrine of Baal-Peor. On such occasions it was the custom for -women to sacrifice their virtue in the tents, and the guerdon of -dishonour was then presented as an oblation to the idols. Many an -Israelite was led into profligacy by these allurements, and partook of -the sacrificial feasts, two sins which tended to sap the foundation -of the doctrine revealed on Sinai. Unhappily no one in Israel seemed -willing to obey the command of Moses by checking this outbreak of -vice. Phineas, Aaron's grandson, was the only man whose heart revolted -against these excesses. Seeing that a Midianite woman entered a tent -with a chief of the tribe of Simeon, he stabbed both of them to death; -and thus was the raging plague turned away from the people. - -On the other hand, there was now witnessed a significant change in -Israel. The unexpected and eventful victories had aroused amongst -them the melodious power of song, the first indication of that -talent, without which no nation can attain to a superior degree of -culture. The first songs of the Hebrew muse were those of war and -victory. The authors (_moshelim_) of warlike hymns rose at once in -public estimation, and their productions were preserved in special -collections, as for example, in the Book of the Wars of God. - -Hebrew poetry, in its early stages, was deficient in depth and -elegance, but it had two characteristics which in the course of time -were developed to the highest stage of refinement. With regard to -form, it exhibited a symmetry in the component parts of each verse -(_parallelismus membrorum_). The same train of thought was repeated -with appropriate variations in two or even three divisions of the -verse. In the treatment of a theme, the muse of early Hebrew poetry -displayed a tendency to irony, this being the result of a twofold -conception, namely, that of the ideal aspect by the side of antithetic -reality. - -The Israelites, seeking to arrive at the goal of their wishes and -to gain possession of the Land of Promise, could not tarry in the -fertile region between the Arnon and the Jabbok. They had to prepare -for crossing the Jordan. But now the evil consequences of having -triumphed over Sihon and Og became manifest. The tribes of Reuben and -Gad announced that they wished to remain in the conquered land, because -its verdant pastures were well adapted for their numerous flocks and -their herds of cattle and camels. In making such a demand it appeared -that these tribes desired to sever their lot from that of their -brethren, and to live as independent nomads. Oppressed with this cause -of anxiety, Moses reproached them bitterly for their defection, but -felt constrained to grant them the conquered land under the condition -that a contingent of their combatants should assist the warriors of -the brother-tribes, and follow them across the Jordan. This allotment -of land to the two tribes caused an unexpected territorial division. -The land possessed by these tribes became known as the Trans-Jordanic -territory (_Eber ha-Jarden_ or _Peraea_). In the process of time this -concession proved more injurious than beneficial. - -The rest of the tribes were on the eve of crossing the Jordan, when -their great leader Moses was removed by death. The thirty days which -the Israelites spent in mourning were not an excessive sacrifice. -His loss was irreparable, and they felt themselves utterly bereft. -Amongst all lawgivers, founders of states, and teachers of mankind, -none has equalled Moses. Not only did he, under the most inauspicious -circumstances, transform a horde of slaves into a nation, but he -imprinted on it the seal of everlasting existence: he breathed into the -national body an immortal soul. He held before his people ideals, the -acceptance of which was indispensable, since all their weal and woe -depended upon the realisation or non-realisation of those ideals. Moses -could well declare that he had carried the people as a father carries -his child. His patience and his courage had rarely deserted him; his -unselfishness, and his meekness of disposition were two prominent -qualities, which, together with his clear prophetic vision, eminently -fitted him to be the instrument of the Deity. Free from jealousy, he -wished that all Israelites might be prophets like himself, and that -God would endue them with His spirit. Moses became at a subsequent -epoch the unattainable ideal of a prophet. Succeeding generations -were elated by the thought that this brilliant example of humanity -had watched the infant state of the people of Israel. Even the death -of Moses served as an enduring lesson. In the land of Moab, in the -valley facing Mount Peor--which was held sacred by the population of -that district--he was quietly entombed, and to this day no one has -known the spot where he was buried. It was designed that the Israelites -should not deify him, but should be kept from following the idolatrous -practice of other nations, who deified their kings, and their men of -real or presumed greatness, as also the founders of their religions. - -Sad at heart on account of the death of their beloved leader, who was -not permitted to conduct them into the Land of Promise, but comforted -by the lofty recollections of the redemption from Egyptian bondage, -the passage through the sea, and the revelation on Sinai, encouraged -also by the victories over Sihon, Og, and the Midianites--the tribes of -Israel crossed the Jordan, on a day in the bright spring-time, and were -conducted on their journey by Joshua, the faithful disciple of Moses. - - - - -CHAPTER II. - -OCCUPATION OF THE LAND OF CANAAN. - - Joshua's Succession--Passage of the Jordan--Conquest of - Jericho--The Gibeonites--Coalition of Canaanite Cities - against the Israelites--Settlement in the Land--Isolation of - the Tribes--Allotments--The Tribe of Levi--The Ark of the - Covenant at Shiloh--Condition of Canaan at the time of the - Conquest--Climate and Fertility--Intellectual Activity--Poetry - of Nature--Remnants of Canaanite Populations--Death of Joshua. - - -On crossing the Jordan and entering Canaan, the Israelites met with -no resistance. Terror had paralysed the tribes and populations who -then held the land. Nor were they united by any tie which might have -enabled them to oppose the invaders. Although mention is made of -thirty-one kings, besides those who ruled near the coast-line of the -Mediterranean, these rulers were petty chiefs, who were independent of -each other, and each of them governed only a single township with the -adjoining district. They remained passive, whilst the Israelites were -encamping near Gilgal, between the Jordan and Jericho. The fortress of -Jericho, exposed to the first brunt of an attack from the Israelites, -could expect no help from elsewhere, and was left entirely to its own -resources. The tribes of Israel, on the other hand, were headed by a -well-tried leader; they were united, skilled in warfare, and eager for -conquest. - -Joshua, the son of Nun, of the tribe of Ephraim, was accepted as the -rightful successor of the great Prophet. Moses, having laid his hands -upon the disciple, had endowed him with his spirit. Yet Joshua was -far from being a prophet. Practical in his aspirations, he was more -concerned in affairs of immediate necessity and utility, than in ideals -of the future. In his early years, when overthrowing the Amalekites -near Rephidim, he had given proof of courage and good generalship. His -connection with the tribe of Ephraim, the most distinguished amongst -the tribes, was likewise of advantage to his position as a commander. -The Ephraimites, with their pride and obstinacy, might otherwise have -withheld their allegiance. This tribe having yielded obedience to him, -the other tribes readily followed the example. - -The first place to be attacked was Jericho. This city was situated in -an exceedingly fertile mountain district. Here throve the lofty palm -tree and the precious balsam shrub. Owing to the proximity of the Dead -Sea, the climate of Jericho has, during the greater part of the year, -a high temperature, and the fruits of the field ripen earlier there -than in the interior of the country. The conquest of Jericho was, -therefore, of primary importance; this city was strongly fortified, and -its inhabitants, timid under open attack, felt secure only within the -precincts of their defences. The walls of Jericho, according to the -scriptural narrative, crumbled to pieces at the mighty and far-sounding -shouts of Israel's warriors. They entered the city, and, meeting with -little resistance, they slew the population, which was enfeebled by -depraved habits. After this easy victory the warriors of Israel became -impetuous, and they imagined that a small portion of their force was -sufficient to reduce Ai, a scantily populated fortress, which lay at a -distance of two or three hours' journey to the north. Joshua therefore -sent a small detachment of his men against Ai, but at the first -onslaught they were repulsed, and many of them were slain on the field -of battle. This defeat spread terror among the Israelites, who feared -that they were forsaken by God, whilst it gave new courage to the -Canaanites. It was only by the entire army's drawing up and employing a -stratagem that Joshua succeeded in taking Ai. Bethel, situated in the -vicinity, likewise fell by a ruse into the hands of the Ephraimites. -These two mountain fastnesses having been captured, the inhabitants -of the adjoining towns and villages became even more faint-hearted. -Without awaiting an attack, they abandoned their homes, and fled to the -north, the west and the south. The country, being more or less denuded -of its inhabitants, was now occupied by the conquerors. The Gibeonites, -or Hivites, in the tract of land called Gibeon, freely submitted to -Joshua and his people. They agreed that the Israelites should share -with them the possession of their territory on the condition that -their lives should be spared. Joshua and the elders having agreed to -these terms, the compact, according to the practice of that age, was -ratified by an oath. In this way the Israelites acquired possession -of the whole mountain district from the borders of the great plain to -the vicinity of Jerusalem, the subsequent metropolis of Palestine. The -borderland of the plain separated the original inhabitants of the north -from those of the south, and neither of these populations was willing -to render help to the other. The southern Canaanites now became more -closely allied. The apprehension that their land might fall an easy -prey to the invaders overcame their mutual jealousies and their love -of feud; being thus brought into closer union with each other, they -ventured to engage in aggressive warfare. Five kings, or rather chiefs -of townships, those of Jebus (Jerusalem), Hebron, Jarmuth, Lachish and -Eglon, joined together to punish the Gibeonites for submitting to the -invaders, for whom they had opened the road, and whom they had helped -to new conquests. The Gibeonites, in face of this danger, implored -the protection of Joshua, who forthwith led his victorious warriors -against the allied troops of the five towns, and inflicted on them a -crushing defeat near Gibeon. The beaten army fled many miles towards -the west and the south, and in their flight they were struck down by -a hailstorm. This day of battle appears to have been regarded as one -of signal triumph, its achievements were remembered even five hundred -years later, and were commemorated in a martial song:-- - - "Joshua spake: - 'O Sun, stand thou still near Gibeon, - And thou, O Moon, near the valley of Ajalon!' - And the sun stood still, - And the moon remained at rest, - Until the people had chastised the foes."[6] - -The passage of the Jordan, auspicious beyond expectation, and the -rapid succession of victories were new wonders which could fitly be -associated with those of former days. They afforded rich themes for -praise, which was not dedicated to the great deeds of the people, but -to the marvellous working of the Deity. - -The victory at Gibeon opened access to the south, and the Israelites -could now freely move their forces in that direction; but there were -still some strongholds in the south which they were unable either to -capture or to keep in subjection. - -The principal work--the subjection of the central portion of -Canaan--being now accomplished, the tribes of Israel ceased to form -one combined army, and in this severance they were probably influenced -by the example of the children of Joseph. The latter, who were divided -into the tribes of Ephraim and Manasseh, claimed to have precedence in -the ranks of Israel. This claim may be traced back, as has already been -shown, to their sojourn in Egypt, and also to the fact that Joshua, -the leader of the Israelites, was descended from Ephraim. Hence it was -that the children of Joseph sought to obtain possession of the central -mountain range, which abounded in springs and had a very rich soil. -Shechem, the ancient town of the Hivites, being situated between Mount -Gerizim and Mount Ebal, had a good supply of water on every side, and -became the principal city of the land. But the two divisions, Ephraim -and Manasseh, were unwilling to content themselves with this desirable -district (which was named "Mount Ephraim"). As Joshua was one of their -own tribe, they expected from him the favours of a partisan, and that -he would yield to all their demands. They alleged, therefore, that -the territory allotted to them was insufficient for their numerous -families. They desired to possess not only the fine and fertile plain -which extended many miles to the north, but also the land, lying -beyond, round Mount Tabor; but they did not find Joshua so yielding as -they had anticipated. With a touch of irony he told them that, since -they were so numerous, they ought to be able to conquer Mount Tabor, -in the land of the Perizzites and the Rephaites, and clear away the -forest. Disappointed by this reply, they withdrew from the expeditions -of the combined tribes, and contented themselves with the extent of -territory which had originally been allotted to them. Owing to this -withdrawal from the common cause, the other tribes were induced to -follow a similar course, and to acquire, independently of each other, -the land necessary for their respective settlements. Four tribes fixed -their attention upon the north, and four upon the south and the west. -The expedition, from which the sons of Joseph had retired, was hazarded -by the four tribes of Issachar, Zebulon, Asher, and Naphtali. They -descended into the plain of Jezreel, where they left a portion of their -settlers. Another portion pushed on to the northern hill regions, which -touched the base of the lofty mountain range. These tribes were even -less prepared than the children of Joseph for engaging in warfare with -the inhabitants of the plain, to whose rapidly moving war-chariots -they could have offered no resistance. The children of Issachar were -satisfied with the pasture land in the great plain, and they had no -desire to throw themselves into fortified cities. The men of this tribe -appear to have placed themselves under the supremacy of the Canaanites, -for they loved a peaceful life, and, as they found the land fertile, -they readily bore the imposition of tribute. Zebulon, the twin tribe of -Issachar, was more active, and appears to have conquered for itself a -safe settlement in the north of Mount Tabor. The remaining two tribes, -Asher and Naphtali, seem to have met with greater difficulties in -gaining a firm footing among the neighbouring Canaanite population, -who were more combative and also more closely united. These warriors -concentrated themselves at Hazor, where Jabin, the local king, ruled -over several districts. This king summoned the inhabitants of the -allied cities to take up arms and destroy the invading Israelites. The -tribes of Asher and Naphtali, unable to cope with the enemy, hastened -to invoke Joshua's assistance. At that time mutual sympathy was still -keen among the tribes, and Joshua found them ready to bring speedy -relief to their brethren in the north. With these auxiliaries, and with -the men of Asher and Naphtali, Joshua surprised the Canaanites, who -were allied under King Jabin, near Lake Merom, defeated them, and put -the remainder to flight. This was the second great victory he gained -over the allied enemies. Through the battle of Merom, the two tribes -succeeded in firmly establishing themselves in the region situated on -the west side of the upper course of the Jordan and the east side of -the Mediterranean Sea. Asher and Naphtali, being settled at the extreme -north, occupied the position of outposts, the former being placed at -the west, and the other at the east, of the plateau. - -At the same time four other tribes acquired their settlements in the -south; and they relied upon their own efforts unaided by the entire -army of the people. The small tribe of Benjamin, more closely connected -with the children of Joseph, was probably assisted by the latter in -obtaining a narrow and not very fertile strip of land near the southern -frontier line. This was the district of the Gibeonites, with some -additions on the east and the west. - -The Canaanites, who dwelt in the western plain towards the seaboard, -also had iron chariots, on which account the Israelites did not -venture to attack them soon after their invasion. Still there was no -alternative for the rest of the tribes, but to seek their homes in the -western region. Judah was the most numerous and the mightiest of these -tribes, and was joined by the children of Simeon, who subordinated -themselves like vassals to a ruling tribe. - -At the southern extremity, near the desert, the Kenites, kinsmen and -allies of the Israelites, had been domiciled since the days of Israel's -wandering through the wilderness. By the friendly aid of this people -the Judæans hoped to succeed more easily in gaining new dwelling-places. -They avoided a war with the Jebusites, with whom possibly they had made -a compact of peace, and spared the territory in which Jerusalem, the -subsequent capital, was situated. - -The first place they captured was the ancient town of Hebron, where -Caleb distinguished himself by his bravery. Hebron became the chief -city of the tribe of Judah. Kirjath-Sepher, or Debir, was taken by -Othniel, Caleb's half-brother. Other leaders of this tribe continued -the conquest of various other cities. In the earlier days, the tribe -of Judah seems to have lived on friendly terms with the original -inhabitants of the land and to have dwelt peaceably by their side. The -extensive settlement of Judah was better suited for pasture than for -agriculture. The new settlers and the old inhabitants had therefore no -inducements for displacing each other, or for indulging in a deadly -strife. The large tract of land was parcelled out into small plots, and -the Canaanites and the Amalekites retained their homesteads. - -The tribe of Simeon had no independent possessions, not even a single -town which it could claim as its own, and was altogether merged in -the tribe of Judah. The Simeonites dwelt in towns of Judah, without, -however, having a voice in the deliberations of the tribe. The -scantiest provision seems to have been made for the tribe of Dan, -the number of families belonging to this tribe being apparently very -small. Nor does it appear to have received such aid from a brother -tribe as was given to Issachar and to Simeon. The Danites seem to -have been followers of the tribe of Ephraim. This tribe selfishly -allowed the Danites to acquire an insecure portion in the south-west -of its own territory, or, rather, a small portion in the land of the -Benjamites. It now devolved upon the Danites to conquer for themselves -the land on the plain of Saron, which extends towards the sea, and -to establish themselves there. The Amorites, however, prevented them -from accomplishing this design, and forced them to retreat into the -mountains; but here the sons of Ephraim and the Benjamites refused them -the possession of permanent dwelling-places. The Danites were therefore -during a long time compelled to lead a camp-life, and at last one -section of this tribe had to go in search of a settlement far away to -the north. - -The conquest of Canaan had proceeded with such rapidity as to impress -the contemporaries and the posterity of the people with the opinion -that this success was the work of a miracle. Not quite half a century -before the Israelites had been scared away from the borders of -Palestine, after the spies had spread the report that the inhabitants -of the land were too strong to be vanquished. The same inhabitants were -now in such dread of the Israelites as to abandon their possessions -without attempting to make any resistance, or if they did take up -a defensive position they were easily routed. On this account the -conviction gained ground amongst the Israelites that the Deity Himself -had led the warriors, and had scattered their opponents in utter -confusion. This great conquest became, therefore, the natural theme of -spirited poetry. - -Although insufficient portions had been allotted to a few of the -tribes, such as the Simeonites and the Danites, they still owned some -lands which might afford a partial subsistence, and become the nucleus -for a further extension of property. The Levites alone had been left -altogether unprovided with landed possessions. This was done in strict -conformity with the injunctions of Moses, lest the tribe of priests, by -misusing its rights of birth, should become affluent agriculturists, -and be drawn away from their holy avocations by the desire of enriching -themselves--like the Egyptian priests, who, under the pretext of -defending the interest of religion, despoiled the people of its -property, and formed a plutocratic caste. - -The Levites were to remain poor and content themselves with the grants -made to them by the owners of lands and herds, they being required to -devote all their attention to the sanctuary and the divine law. - -During Joshua's rule the camp of Gilgal, between the Jordan and -Jericho, was the centre of divine worship and of the Levitical -encampment; here also the tabernacle of the covenant had been erected, -and sacrifices were offered up. But Gilgal could not permanently serve -as the place for assembling the people, for it lay in an unproductive -and unfrequented district. As soon as the affairs of the people were -more consolidated, and after the Trans-Jordanic warriors had returned -to their homes, another locality had to be selected for the sanctuary. -As a matter of course, it was expedient that the sacred place should -be situated within the confines of Ephraim. Joshua likewise had his -seat amongst the Ephraimites, namely at Timnath-Serah, a town which -that tribe had gratefully allotted to him. - -Shiloh (Salem) was chosen as the spot for the establishment of the -sanctuary. When the ark of the covenant arrived there, an altar was, -as a matter of course, erected by its side. Here the public assemblies -were held, if not by all the tribes, certainly by those of Ephraim, -Manasseh and Benjamin. Phineas, the high priest of the house of Aaron, -and the priests who succeeded him in office, took up their abode in -Shiloh. It is highly probable that many of the Levites resided in that -town whilst others were dispersed throughout the towns of the several -tribes; but on the whole they led a wandering life. - -Through the immigration of the Israelites, the land of Canaan not only -received a new name, but assumed a different character. It became a -"Holy Land," "the Heritage of God," and was regarded as favourable to -the people's destination of leading a holy life. - -Foreign countries, contrasted with Palestine, appeared to them to be -profane, and utterly unadapted for perpetuating the devout worship of -the One Spiritual God, or for enforcing the observance of His law. The -Holy Land was imagined to be sensible of the pious or of the wicked -conduct of its inhabitants. There were three iniquities which the -land was supposed to spurn as the most heinous. These were murder, -licentiousness, and idolatry. The conviction was general that on -account of such misdeeds the land had cast out its former inhabitants, -and that it would not retain the Israelites if they indulged in similar -crimes. These ideas took deep root amongst the people of Israel, and -they regarded Palestine as surpassing, in its precious qualities, -every other country. It was, indeed, an undeniable fact that the -Land of Israel (so it was named from the time when this people took -possession of it) had striking distinctions, which were unequalled in -any other portion of the globe. Within the small expanse of territory, -one hundred and fifty miles by sixty, if the Trans-Jordanic region be -included, contrasting peculiarities are crowded together, which give -a marvellous character to that country. The perpetual snow-tops of -Lebanon and Hermon in the north overlook the ranges of mountains and -valleys far away to the sandy desert in the south, where scorching -heat, like that of tropical Africa, burns up all vegetation. In close -proximity to each other, trees of various kinds are found to thrive, -which elsewhere are separated by great distances. Here is the slender -palm tree, which shoots up only under a high temperature, and there -grows the oak tree, which cannot endure such heat. If the heat of the -south fires the blood, and fills man with violent passions, the wind -sweeping over northern snow-fields, on the other hand, renders him -calm, thoughtful, and deliberate. - -On two sides Palestine is bordered by water. The Mediterranean Sea, -extending along the western margin of the land, forms inlets for ships. -Along the eastern boundary flows the Jordan, which takes its rise in -the slopes of Mount Hermon, and runs in nearly a straight line from -north to south. In the north the Jordan flows through the "Lake of -the Harp" (_Kinnereth_, _Genesareth_, or Lake of Tiberias), and in the -south this river is lost in the wonderful "Salt Sea." These two basins -form likewise a strange contrast. The "Lake of the Harp" (also "Lake -of Galilee") contains sweet water. In its depths fishes of various -kinds disport themselves. On its fertile banks, the vine, the palm, -the fig-tree, and other fruit-bearing trees are found to thrive. In -the high temperature of this region, fruits arrive at their maturity -a month earlier than on the mountain land. The Salt Sea or "The Sea of -the Deep Basin" (_arabah_) produces a contrary effect, and has rightly -been called the Dead Sea. In its waters no vertebrate animals can -exist. The excessive quantities of salt, together with magnesia, and -masses of asphalt contained in that sea, kill every living object. The -atmosphere of this region is likewise impregnated with salt, and, as -the adjacent land is covered with lime-pits, it forms a dreary desert. -The oval-shaped border of the Dead Sea rises, in some parts, to a -height of more than 1,300 feet above the water level, and being totally -bare and barren, the entire district presents a most dismal aspect. - -Between the water-line and the mountain walls there are, however, -some oases in which the balsam shrub thrives, and which, in regard to -fertility, are not inferior to any spot on earth. Being situated near -the centre of the western seaboard, this strip of land is exceedingly -fruitful. But luxuriant as the vegetation of this place is, it is even -surpassed by that of the oasis on the south-east corner of the Dead -Sea. Here stood at one time the town of Zoar, which was noted as the -city of palm-trees (Tamarah). This locality likewise favoured in former -ages the growth of the balsam shrub. At a distance of five miles to the -north-east, near the town of Beth-Haran, the famous balm of Gilead was -found; but by the side of the Dead Sea miasmatic salt-marshes extend -for a length of several miles. The shores of this sea and also of the -sea of Galilee send forth thermal springs impregnated with sulphur, and -these serve to cure various maladies. - -The essentially mountainous configuration of Palestine was of great -benefit to the Israelites. Two long and imposing mountain ranges, -separated by a deep valley, raise their heads in the north, like two -snow-capped giants. One of them is Mount Lebanon, the tallest peak -of which has a height of more than 10,000 feet, and is named _Dhor -el-Khedib_. The other mountain is Hermon (the Anti-Lebanon), the -highest point of which, _the Sheikh_, has an elevation of 9,300 feet. -The Lebanon was never included in the land of Israel; it remained in -the possession of the Phoenicians, the Aramæans, and the people who -succeeded the latter. This mountain range was of practical utility -to the Israelites, who derived from its celebrated cedar forests the -material for their edifices. Besides this, its lofty and odoriferous -crests formed a favourite theme in the imagery of the Hebrew poets. -Mount Hermon, with its snow-covered head, touches the north side of -the ancient territory of Israel. This mountain, if not hidden by -intervening hills, forms a charming object of admiration even at a -distance of a hundred miles. - -The spurs of these two ranges were continued in the northern mountains -of Israel (Mount Naphtali, subsequently named the mountains of -Galilee), the highest peak of which rises to 4,000 feet. These heights -have a gradual slope towards the great and fertile plain of Jezreel, -which is only 500 feet above the level of the sea. Several mountain -ranges intersect this plain and divide it into smaller plains. Mount -Tabor (1,865 feet high) is not so much distinguished for its height as -for its cupola shape. Mount Moreh (1,830 feet), now called _Ed-Duhy_, -seems to lean against Mount Tabor. Not far from there, somewhat towards -the east, run the hill-tops of Gilboa (2,000 feet). On the west side -of the great plain lies the extensive tree-crested range of Carmel, -which forms a wall close to the sea. The great plain of Jezreel has -the shape of an irregular triangle, with a length of twenty miles from -north to south, and a breadth of from six to fifteen miles from east -to west, having the mountain border of Carmel on the one side and -that of Gilboa on the other. This plain divides the land into two -unequal parts. The northern half, which is the smaller, received at a -later time the name of Galilee. On the south of this plain, the ground -gradually rises, and, at one point, attains an elevation of 2,000 feet. -This district was called Mount Ephraim. From Jerusalem, southwards to -Hebron, the land again ascends to a height of 3,000 feet, forming the -land of Judah. Here there is a gradual descent, and at the old frontier -town of Beersheba the level does not rise above 700 feet. At this point -begins the table-land of Mount Paran. This district was not included -in the actual territory of Israel. Both Mount Ephraim and Mount Judah -have a slope from east to west. Between the mountain-side and the -Mediterranean Sea, from north to south, that is, from Carmel to the -southern steppe, extends a plain of increasing breadth, which is called -"the Plain of Sharon," or the "low country" (_shefelah_). In the east -the mountain declines towards the Jordan. Some peaks of this mountain -acquired a special significance. Such were the two hills by the side -of Shechem, _Gerizim_, "the mountain of the blessing" (2,650 feet), -and _Ebal_, "the mountain of the curse" (2,700 feet); _Bethel_, in the -east (2,400 feet); _Mizpeh_, some hours' journey from the subsequent -capital; _Mount Zion_ (2,610 feet); and the _Mount of Olives_ (2,700 -feet). This peculiar and greatly varied configuration of the land had -its effect not only upon the productions of the soil, but also upon -the character of the people. From north to south, Palestine is divided -into three belts. The broad mountainous tract occupies the centre; the -low land (_shefelah_) extends from the west to the sea, and the meadows -(_kikkar_, _araboth_) from the east to the Jordan. In the lowland -the climate is mild; in the mountains, it is severe during the rainy -season, but temperate in the summer. In the district of the Jordan the -heat continues during the greater part of the year. - -With the exception of the Jordan, the land has no rivers which retain -their waters throughout the year; but even this river, owing to its -precipitous course, is not navigable. The Jordan rises from three -sources in the slopes of Hermon. At first it runs sluggishly, and -before entering the Lake of Merom it divides into small streams. On -emerging from the lake, its waters are united in a narrow basalt bed, -and flow into the Lake of Galilee. On issuing thence, the Jordan -widens, rushes over rocks, and, after forming many rapids in its -swift course, empties itself and disappears in the Dead Sea. During -spring-time, when the melting snow of Hermon swells the waters, this -river fertilises the adjoining low-lying plains, especially those on -its eastern bank. - -The other streams, including the Jarmuk and Jabbok, become dry in the -hot summer season. Such winter streams (_nechalim_), nevertheless, -enhance the productiveness of the district through which they -flow, and the cultivated lands are situated on the banks of these -intermittent streams. The fertility of the soil is also favoured by -the small springs which flow down the hills without being collected -into rivulets. The districts devoid of springs are supplied with -drinking-water by the rain, which is gathered in cisterns excavated in -the rocks. - -The greater portion of Palestine is blessed with an abundant yield of -produce. This is due to the nature of the soil, and to the copious -drainage from the highlands of Lebanon, Hermon (Anti-Lebanon), with -their spurs, as well as to the rain which falls twice a year. The land -flowed "with milk and honey," and has retained this characteristic -even to the present day, wherever the industry of man is active. It is -decidedly a beautiful land "of brooks of water, of fountains and depths -that spring out of valleys and hills; a land of wheat, and barley, and -vines, and fig-trees, and pomegranates; a land of the oil-olive, and -of honey; a land wherein thou shalt eat bread without scarceness, thou -shalt not want anything in it; a land whose stones are iron, and out -of whose hills thou mayest dig brass."[7] The plains are especially -fruitful, and yield to the laborious cultivator two crops a year. But -also the land lying to the north of the plain of Jezreel is by no means -sterile. In olden times it had such an abundance of olive trees as to -give rise to the saying that the husbandman "dips his foot in oil." - -The central district to the south of the great plain, which belonged to -Ephraim and Manasseh, rewarded its toilers with rich harvests. On all -sides springs gush forth from the rocky fissures; and as their waters -gather together, they attain sufficient force to drive the mills, -besides supplying the soil with ample moisture. The land of the sons of -Joseph was blessed, - - "With the fruit of the heavens above, - And of the deep that coucheth beneath; - And with precious fruit brought forth by the sun, - And with the precious things put forth by the moon."[8] - -The hill-sides were adorned with blooming gardens, and with vineyards -exuberantly laden with grapes. The mountains, overshadowed by forests -of terebinths, oaks and yew trees, favoured the fertility of the -valleys. - -In favourable situations the palm-tree produced a superabundance of -sweet fruit, the juicy contents of which sometimes even trickled to the -ground. There was less fruitfulness in the southern tracts, owing to -the numerous chalk hills and the small number of valleys. But even here -good pastures were found for the herds. Below Hebron the extreme south, -with its barren rocks and strips of sand, presents a dreary aspect. The -burning wind, in its passage over the desert, dries the atmosphere, -and impoverishes the soil. This district was therefore rightly termed -_Negeb_, "the arid land." A few oases, which are found here and there, -owed their verdure to the presence of water, which counteracted the -effect of the scorching heat. In such humid places the vegetation -became exceedingly luxuriant under the care of diligent cultivators. To -the idler this land yielded no produce. - -The climate was made salubrious by the sea breezes and the free -currents of mountain air, the inhabitants being, therefore, of a sturdy -frame. Here were no miasmatic swamps to poison the atmosphere. Diseases -and the ravages of plagues are to this day of rare occurrence, and only -caused by infections imported from elsewhere. Compared with the vast -dominions of the ancient world, Palestine is extremely small. From some -lofty central points one can, at the same time, survey the eastern and -the western frontiers, the waves of the Mediterranean and the surface -of the Dead Sea, together with the Jordan, and the opposite mountains -of Gilead. A view from Mount Hermon is still more commanding, and -presents beautiful and extremely diversified landscapes. Throughout the -greater part of the year the air is so exceedingly pure and transparent -as to afford a delusive conception of the distance between the eye and -the surrounding scenery. Even remote objects appear to be placed within -close proximity. - -Sensitive hearts and reflecting minds may well be said to perceive -"the finger of God" in this region, where "Tabor and Hermon praise -His name." Lofty peaks and undulating crests of mountains are seen in -alternation with verdant plains, and their images are reflected upon -the glittering surface of many waters. These towering heights, far from -overburdening and depressing the mind, draw it away from the din of the -noisy world, and call forth cheering and elevating emotions. - -If the beholder be endowed with the slightest spark of poetic -sentiment, it is brought into life and action by the attractive sight -of this panorama. From the varied charms of scenic beauty the most -gifted men of this land drew their inspiration for their pensive -poetry. Neither the Greeks nor the Romans had a conception of this -species of poesy, which has its root in a deep consciousness of the -greatness of the Creator. Nations of a later epoch became adepts in -this poetry only by being the disciples of Israel. Whilst the eye -surveyed, from a prominent standpoint, the objects encircled by an -extensive horizon, the soul was impressed with the sublime idea of -infinitude--an idea which, without such aid, could only be indirectly -and artificially conveyed to the intellectual faculties. Single-hearted -and single-minded men, in the midst of such surroundings, became imbued -with a perception of the grandeur and infinity of the Godhead, whose -guiding power the people of Israel acknowledged in the early stages -of their history. They recognised the existence of the same power in -the ceaseless agitation of the apparently boundless ocean; in the -periodical return and withdrawal of fertilising showers; in the dew -which descended from the heights into the valleys; in the daily wonders -of nature hidden from human sight where the horizon is narrow, but -inviting admiration and devotion where the range of view is wide and -open. - - "He that formeth the mountains and createth the winds, - He who turneth the morning into darkness, - Who treadeth upon the high places of the earth, - The Lord, the God of hosts is his name."[9] - -At a later period the religious conviction gained ground that God's -omnipotence is equally manifested in ordaining the events of history -as in regulating the succession of physical phenomena; that the same -God who ordained the unchanging laws of nature, reveals himself in -the rise and fall of nations. This conviction is a specific product of -the Israelitish mind. Historical vicissitudes and natural surroundings -conspired to sharpen its faculties for everything extraordinary and -marvellous within the sphere of existing things. - -The land of Gilead had the same characteristics that appertained to -the region on the other side of the Jordan. This district, originally -owned by the Amorites, and by the kings of Sihon and Og, was now held -by the sons of Reuben and Gad. From the summits of this territory also -immense tracts of land were visible at a single view; but nothing -beyond a mere blue streak could be seen of the distant ocean. This side -of the Jordan was, therefore, less than the opposite side, endowed with -poetic suggestiveness. The land of Gilead gave birth to no poet, it -was the home of only one prophet, and his disposition was marked by a -fierceness which accorded well with the rude and rough character of the -territory in which he was born. The Jordan formed both a geographical -and an intellectual landmark. - -At the time of Israel's conquests, Canaan was dotted with cities and -fortified places, in which the invaders found some rudiments of civic -culture. Gilead, on the other hand, contained but few towns, and these -lay far apart from each other. - -The territories to the west of the Jordan had only partially been -subjected and allotted. Large and important tracts of land were still -in possession of the original inhabitants, but it can no longer be -determined whether it was through the remissness of Joshua that the -land of Canaan was not completely conquered. In his advanced years, -Joshua did not display such vigour of action as was shown by his -teacher, Moses. Gradually he appears to have lost the energy that -is necessary in a commander. His followers of the tribes of Ephraim -and Manasseh had already obtained the most productive part of the -land; they were now resting on their laurels, and damped the warlike -impetus of their brethren. The excitements of the early warfare having -subsided, each of the tribes, or groups of tribes was concerned only -with its individual affairs. This isolation prevented the several -tribes from rounding off their territories by conquests from the -original inhabitants of Canaan. - -The Canaanites had, even before the invasion by the Israelites, been -in possession of sacrificial altars and places for pilgrimage, with -which myths calculated to satisfy the uncultured mind were connected. -The high mountains, bordered by pleasant valleys, had been invested -with sacred attributes. Mount Carmel had long been looked upon as a -holy spot, whence the heathen priests announced their oracles. Mount -Tabor was likewise regarded as holy. At the foot of Hermon, in a fine -fertile valley, there stood a sanctuary dedicated to Baal Gad or Baal -Hermon. After the conquest, these shrines were probably, in the first -instance, visited only by the strangers who had cast their lot with -the Israelites; but their example was soon followed by the ignorant -portion of their Hebrew companions. In the interior of the country, -where the people could not discriminate between paganism and the divine -law of Israel, and still remembered the Egyptian superstitions, they -were prone to join in the sacrificial rites of the pagan idolaters. The -north, beyond Mount Tabor, likewise contained groups of the Canaanite -population. The Danites, whose neglected treatment has already been -noticed, were stationed in the centre of the Amorites. Their tenure -of land was insignificant in extent. The tribes of Judah and Simeon -were completely cut off from the other tribes. They were placed among -pagans, whose occupations were divided between those of the shepherd -and the freebooter. The Jebusites formed a barrier between the two -southern tribes and their northern brethren. This division between -the tribes was only removed after the conquest of Jebus (the city -subsequently named Jerusalem). If Joshua in his declining years beheld -with satisfaction the realisation of the Patriarchal promises, this -satisfaction was not without its alloy. As in the lives of individuals, -so in the lives of nations, the practical turn of events is liable -to disappoint all anticipations. It is true the land of Canaan now -belonged to the Israelites; but their conquests were of a precarious -nature, and might again be wrested from them by a combined attack on -the part of the dispossessed natives. The closing days of Joshua's -life were therefore troubled by the consideration of this dangerous -contingency, and by the fact that he had no successor whom the several -tribes, especially the tribe of Ephraim, might be willing to follow. -His death left the people in a state of utter bereavement, but, it -seems, it failed even to understand the gravity of the national loss. -No such grief took hold of them as was evinced at the death of their -first leader. Yet there remained one ideal which Joshua bequeathed to -the people, the prospect and the expectation that at some future time -the entire land would become their undivided property. Hopes, to which -a people clings persistently, carry within themselves the chances of -fulfilment. Severe trials continued, however, to await them before the -ideal of an undivided possession of Canaan could be fully realised. - - - - -CHAPTER III. - -NEIGHBOURING NATIONS. - - The Phoenicians, Aramæans, Philistines, Idumæans--Their Customs - and Mythology--The Moabites and Ammonites--Intercourse - of the Israelites with their Neighbours and Adoption of - their Manners--Disintegration of the Tribes--Consequent - Weakness--Temporary Deliverers. - - -The sons of Israel, who had been severely tried in Egypt, seemed -destined to undergo trials still more severe. Their new scene of -activity was surrounded by various nations, and they could have -escaped the influences of their surroundings only by either destroying -the homes of the bordering populations, or by being proof against -the strongest temptations. The neighbouring Phoenicians, Canaanites, -Aramæans, Philistines, Idumæans, Moabites, Ammonites, Amalekites, Arabs -and half-castes of Arabs, had their own peculiar customs, manners, -and religious observances. The tribes came into more or less close -contact with their neighbours, and were soon dominated by the same -law of attraction and assimilation that is felt even in more cultured -spheres. Hence arose the strange phenomenon, during a prolonged -period of Israel's history, of a nation's forfeiting every species of -self-dependence, regaining it, again relapsing, and thus passing from -change to change. - -But these changes eventually gave shape and tenacity to the character -of the people. In the interim, however, Israel became intimately united -with the Phoenicians; the northern tribes of Asher, Zebulon and Issachar -stood in especially close connection with them. This people had -already, particularly in Sidon, attained a high degree of culture, when -the Israelites entered Canaan. But, from an ethical and a religious -point of view, they were as backward as the most uncultured races of -men, with the exception, perhaps, of the Egyptians, than whom they were -on a higher level. - -The Canaanites worshipped the male and female divinities, Baal and -Astarte, who, in some cities, were designated by the names of Adonis -and Baaltis. Baal was intended to be a personification of the sun, and -Astarte of the moon; they did not, however, figure as luminous beings -within the celestial space, but as the procreative powers of nature. -The Canaanites also worshipped the then known seven planets termed -_Cabiri_, _i. e._ the Mighty; as an eighth god they adored Ashmun, the -restorer of health, who was depicted as a serpent. The rites, by which -men and women dedicated themselves to the male and female deities, were -of a loathsome description. The degraded priestesses of the temple were -termed "consecrated women" (_Kedeshoth_). - -In honour of Astarte, half-frantic youths and men mutilated themselves, -and wore female attire. They then wandered about as beggars, collecting -aid for their sanctuary, or rather for their priests, and were called -"holy men" (_Kedeshim_). Such proceedings formed a main part of the -religious discipline among the Phoenicians, and their abominations were -constantly displayed before the Israelites. - -The southern tribes, on the other hand, maintained friendly relations -with the Philistines. This people had emigrated from Caphtor (Cydonia), -a town on the island of Crete, and their territory had three -ports--Gaza in the south, Ashdod (Azotus) in the north, and Ascalon, -midway between these two towns. In the interior, the Philistines -occupied the cities of Gath and Ekron. This group of five cities -(Pentapolis) formed a small district, extending as far as the Egyptian -frontier, and its population acquired much power and influence. On -this account, the Greeks and the Egyptians designated the entire -country by the name of Palestine (_i. e._, land of the Philistines). -Most probably the Philistines were seafarers and merchants like the -Phoenicians. With these occupations, however, they combined the lust of -conquest, whilst the Phoenicians, on the contrary, confined themselves -to peaceful pursuits. - -The Philistines, having a narrow seaboard, were induced to seek -territorial extension on the eastern side. The religious system of this -people was essentially similar to that of the other Canaanites, and -agreed, in fact, with that of the different nations of antiquity. They -reverenced the procreative power of nature under the name of Dagon. -This deity was depicted in a form half human, half piscine. - -The Philistines had numerous soothsayers, wizards, and cloud-seers -(_Meonenim_), who predicted future events from various auguries. - -With the Idumæans, the Israelites had less intercourse. The territory -of the former extended from Mount Seir to the Gulf of the Red Sea. It -is thought that at a remote time they navigated this sea, and traded -with Arabia. Their mountains contained metals, including gold. The -Idumæans had the reputation of being sagacious and practical. In early -ages they were governed by kings, who apparently were elective. On the -north side of the Idumæans, to the east of the Dead Sea, the Moabites -and the Ammonites were neighbours of the tribes of Reuben and Gad. -Their lascivious idolatry was also dedicated to a Baal on Mount Peor. -Among the Ammonites, Baal was called Milcom or Malcom. Besides this -deity, the god Chemosh was worshipped by these two nations. Amidst -such surroundings, the Israelites could not well preserve their own -political independence, and much less their spiritual peculiarity; nor -could they keep midway between isolation and social intercourse among -populations akin to them in language and descent. - -From the first, the Israelites had as many antagonists as neighbours. -These, it is true, had no conception that Israel's doctrines tended to -effect the destruction of their gods, altars, and sacred groves--the -abolition, in fact, of senseless idolatry. Nor were they able to -discriminate between their own gross materialism and the lofty, hidden -aims of the invading Israelites. The old inhabitants simply abhorred -the new-comers, who had entered with drawn swords to deprive them -of their territories. In dealing with overt or secret enemies, the -Israelites had only the choice between resorting to exterminating -warfare or making amicable concessions. Warfare on a large scale was -not even practicable; since Joshua's death, they had no accredited -leader, and no plan for concerted action. They certainly did not seem -to desire more than to live on neighbourly terms with the adjoining -populations. This temporary truce might easily satisfy the Canaanites -and Phoenicians, who were mainly concerned in keeping the high-roads -open for commercial dealings. The Idumæans, the Philistines, and -the Moabites were the only nations who sought to do injury to the -Israelites. Every recollection of the troubles endured in the -desert made the Israelites more desirous of living in undisturbed -tranquillity. For this reason they took but a slight interest in the -affairs of their fellow-tribesmen, and they allowed their sons and -daughters to intermarry with non-Israelites. These alliances were -most frequent among the border tribes, who found a strong element of -security in this intimate union with their neighbours, the more so as -in the early days of their history such intermarriages were not yet -placed under the ban of interdiction. The tribes in the interior--for -instance, those of Ephraim, Manasseh and Benjamin--were less in favour -of intermarriages; least of all did the exclusive Levites approve of a -union with non-Israelites. From an intermarriage with the heathen to a -participation in their idolatrous rites there was but one step. - -In rural districts the Israelites could easily be led to join the pagan -rites, as their memories were still attached to Egyptian superstitions, -and they were unable to discriminate between pagan discipline and the -divine doctrine of Sinai. By degrees this idolatrous worship gained -ground among the majority of the Israelites, who were fascinated by the -arts and accomplishments of the Phoenicians. - -The Sanctuary at Shiloh, where the sons of Aaron, together with -the Levites, conducted the sacerdotal rites, was not situated in a -sufficiently central position for tribes settled at great distances, -nor was it in high favour among those living within easier reach. The -neighbouring tribes were displeased with the arrogance and the egotism -of the sons of Ephraim. In the early stages of Israel's history, the -performance of sacrifices was held to be an essential part of divine -worship, and of communion with the Deity. Persons clinging to the -observance of sacrificial rites either erected domestic altars, or -connected themselves with a temple in their vicinity. This tendency -remained unchecked, as there was no chief or leader to inculcate a -proper adoration of the Godhead. The Levites, who were intended to -be the teachers of the people, had been widely dispersed among the -different tribes, and dwelt chiefly in the smaller towns. As they owned -no lands, and were generally destitute, they exerted no great influence -upon the people. - -One poor Levite, a grandson of the great Law-giver, took priestly -service at the shrine of a newly manufactured idol, in order to obtain -food and raiment. The further spread of such worship was favoured among -the Israelites by the force of sensuality, by habit, and by the love of -imitation. - -At this time the marvellous occurrences in Egypt and in the desert were -still vividly remembered by the several tribes, and formed a link of -fellowship among them, notwithstanding the disintegrating effect of -idolatry. The ancestral history continued to be handed down from father -to son, and nursed the sentiment of a common nationality. An individual -or an entire family immersed in affliction would then ask, "Where are -all his miracles of which our fathers told us, saying, Did not the Lord -bring us up from Egypt?"[10] - -The events witnessed on Mount Sinai remained engraven upon the hearts -of thoughtful men; nor were warning voices wanting to recall the -olden days of divine mercy, and to rebuke the people on account of -their idolatry. It appears that the utterances of reproof came from -the Levites. They, as custodians of the tables of the covenant, and -as servants in the Sanctuary of Shiloh, stood up in days of national -misfortune, and on other occasions, to expose the corruption of -their people. Sometimes they may have succeeded in making a deep -impression, when they described past glories or present sorrows; but -the effect of such addresses was only evanescent. The people were -always predisposed to fraternise with strangers and to imitate their -practices. One adverse condition produced another. The selfishness -of the men of Ephraim induced their brother tribes to care only for -self-preservation. The chances of uniting the Israelites under one -commander were neglected. This again drove the divided tribes to -confederacies with the pagans, and they became more closely united -with them through the ties of family and of superstitious worship; -hence came internal disunion and national degeneracy. The indigenous -population of Palestine no sooner discovered the influence they were -able to exercise, than they began to treat the Israelites as intruders, -who should be humbled, if not crushed altogether. - -Sorrowful days befell the Israelites after Joshua had closed his eyes. -One tribe after another was reduced to servitude. At length, when -the sufferings of the people became unendurable, public-spirited men -came to the rescue, and performed deeds of remarkable valour. These -heroic deliverers were commonly known as "judges" (_Shofetim_). In -an emergency they would lead one tribe, or several tribes to battle; -but they were incapable of uniting the entire people of Israel, or -of keeping the collected tribes under permanent control. It was -altogether beyond the ability of these deliverers to bring order into -this national disorganisation, or to abolish the abuse of idolatry, -and enforce a strict observance of religion. They, in fact, shared -the failings of their age, and had only a faint comprehension of the -Sinaitic doctrines. - - - - -CHAPTER IV. - -THE JUDGES. - - Animosity of the Idumæans--Othniel, a Deliverer--Eglon, - King of Moab--The Canaanite King, Jabin--Sisera, his - General--The Prophetess and Poetess Deborah--Barak--Victory - near Tabor--Early Hebrew Poetry--Sufferings through - Nomads--The Hero Gideon (Jerubbaal)--Victory in the Plain of - Jezreel--Commencement of Prosperity--Abimelech--Feud with the - Shechemites--Jair the Gileadite--Hostilities of the Amalekites - and the Philistines--Jephthah--Samson--Zebulunite Judges. - - -Othniel, the son of Kenaz, a brother, and at the same time the -son-in-law of Caleb, was the first warrior-judge. Having collected a -brave band of combatants, he advanced against an Idumæan[11] king, and -delivered the southern tribes of Judah and Simeon. But his enterprise -did not bring the least advantage to the rest of the tribes, and -remained almost unknown on the other side of Mount Ephraim. The -daring act of the Benjamite, Ehud, the son of Gera, was of greater -significance. The Israelites being oppressed by the Moabites, Ehud did -not immediately invite his injured companions to make an open attack -upon the foe. He first sought to put the hostile king, Eglon, out of -the way. One day he presented himself before the king under the pretext -that he was the bearer of a gift from his people in token of their -submission. Being alone with Eglon, he thrust a double-edged sword into -the body of his victim, and fled after having locked the door of the -audience chamber. He then summoned the men of Ephraim and Benjamin, -and occupied the fords of the Jordan so as to cut off the retreat of -the Moabites, who had established themselves on the west side of that -river. The Moabites were then totally routed. After this victory, the -western tribes of Israel remained for a long time unmolested by the -people of Moab. - -From another quarter, the Israelites were harassed by the Philistines. -Shamgar, the son of Anath, probably of the tribe of Benjamin, chastised -the assailants with a weapon extemporised out of an ox-goad. Such -sporadic acts of bravery, inadequate to improve the situation of -the Israelites, tended only to aggravate their troubles. Jabin, a -Canaanite king, joined by some of the neighbouring rulers, seemed bent -upon exterminating the Israelites. The high-roads became insecure, -and wayfarers had to seek devious byways. At that juncture, Israel -was without a leader, or a man of tried courage. A woman, a poetess -and prophetess, Deborah, the wife of Lapidoth, then came forward as -"a mother in Israel." With her inspiriting speech she animated the -timorous people, and changed them from cowards into heroes. Urged by -Deborah, Barak, the son of Abinoam, reluctantly undertook to lead the -Israelites against the enemy; and, at her bidding, the most valiant -men in Israel joined the national army. Meeting near Mount Tabor, they -discomfited the Canaanites, who were commanded by Jabin's general, -the hitherto unvanquished Sisera. The power of Jabin was henceforth -broken. The commander himself now had to flee for his life, and was -slain by Jael, the wife of Heber, a member of the Kenite tribe, which -maintained an amicable alliance with the Israelites. In a hymn known -as "The Song of Deborah," the praises were sung of this unexpected -victory, and of the mercy which God had bestowed upon His people. -But these hostilities had not yet reached their end. The restless -nations of the neighbourhood continued to inflict heavy blows upon -the Israelites, who either were too weak or too disunited to resist -such attacks. The roving Midianites periodically ravaged Palestine. -At harvest time, they would cross the Jordan with their irresistible -hordes, bringing with them their tents, their camels, and their herds. -They came "like a flight of locusts," emptied the barns, led off the -flocks, the herds and the asses, and then quitted the impoverished -and despoiled land. The rich and fertile plain of Jezreel, with the -adjacent northern and southern territory, was especially exposed to -these incursions. To save their scanty means of subsistence, the owners -of the land concealed their provisions in caverns and other hiding -places. The insignificant gleanings of wheat had to be threshed in -caves intended for wine-presses. In their severe trials the tribes -prayed unto the God of their fathers, and assembled at Shiloh, where -they were reproved for their sinfulness by "a man of God"--probably a -Levite--who reminded them that their misfortunes were the consequence -of their iniquities. Exhortations of this kind seem to have made a deep -impression upon at least one man of note. This man was Jerubbaal, also -named Gideon, of the tribe of Manasseh. In Ophrah, his native place, in -a grove consecrated to Baal or to Astarte, there was an altar, which -Jerubbaal destroyed, and he then raised another in honour of the God -of Israel. The men of Ophrah, enraged at this sacrilege, were about -to stone Jerubbaal, but he gathered round him tribesmen of Manasseh, -Asher, Zebulun and Naphtali, and encamped at Endor to the north of -Mount Moreh; there he dismissed the timid and faint-hearted, retaining -only a picked force of 300 warriors. In the dead of night he fell upon -the sleeping enemy, whom he terrified with the shrill blast of horns, -the brandishing of burning torches, and the war-cry, "For God and for -Gideon." The unprepared Midianites were utterly routed, and were forced -to retreat across the Jordan. During many ages "the day of Midian" -was remembered as a triumph which a handful of brave Israelites had -accomplished. - -Gideon then pursued the two fugitive Midianite kings, Zebah and -Zalmunna, on the other side of the Jordan, chastised those Israelites -who refused him and his famishing warriors the needful provisions, and -inflicted a crushing defeat upon the Midianites, from which they never -recovered. The people thus delivered offered to make him their king, -an honour which he declined, both for himself and his descendants. It -appears that he made Ophrah a centre for pilgrims, to the detriment -of the less conveniently situated sanctuary of Shiloh. This aroused -the jealousy of the men of Ephraim, who, after the death of the -hero, were involved in violent conflicts with the men of the tribe -of Manasseh. Gideon had, after his great victories, carried the rich -treasures of the vanquished enemies into the land. The towns of Israel -became seats of wealth and luxury. Phoenician caravans could henceforth -safely journey through the land. Covenants were concluded with the -trafficking strangers, who were placed under the protection of the -tutelar Baal-Berith (Baal of the Covenant). The jealous men of Ephraim, -who sought to foment dissension among the seventy sons and grandsons -of Gideon, found in Abimelech, one of his sons, an unscrupulous ally. -This Abimelech, being the son of a woman of Shechem, was elected by the -Shechemites to be their leader. His first act was to put his brothers -to death. Only Jotham, the youngest of them, escaped. On Mount Gerizim, -Jotham pronounced his trenchant parable of the trees, who, in their -search of a ruler, met with refusals from the fruitful olive, fig, -and vine trees. The prickly bramble (Atad) was the only one who would -accept the government; but he warned the trees that if they refused to -acknowledge him as ruler, he would send forth a fire to consume all -the trees of the Lebanon. The parable found its application in the -subsequent hostilities between the men of Shechem and Abimelech, whose -cruelty ended in his death at the hand of his own armour-bearer. - -After the fall of Abimelech the cis-Jordanic tribes seem to have -retrograded, while the men of Manasseh or Gilead, on the other side of -the Jordan, invaded the high land of the Hauran, and took possession -of sixty rock-built cities. This district then received the name -Havvoth Jair. At that time the Israelites suffered a shock from two -sides, which caused further disintegration among them. On the one -hand they were attacked by the Ammonites, and on the other, by the -Philistines. These attacks distracted them, and rendered them incapable -of resistance. The Ammonites appear to have driven the Israelites from -their open places, after which they attacked the strongholds. These -incursions were successful against the tribes of Ephraim and Judah. - -On the opposite side, the Philistines assailed the neighbouring tribes -of Israel, and sought to subdue them. They first attacked the tribe of -Dan; nor did they spare the tribes of Benjamin and Judah. Even these -disasters did not arouse the tribes to make a combined resistance. -The trans-Jordanic tribes had turned to the Ephraimites for help; but -the latter took no part in the contest, either from selfishness or -because the inhabitants of Shechem and other Ephraimite towns had been -enfeebled by Abimelech. - -In those troubled times there arose two deliverers, who drove off -the enemy, and procured temporary relief. Jephthah and Samson, two -adventurers, disregarding order and discipline, brought their powers to -bear, as much for evil as for good. They both displayed extraordinary -activity; but while Jephthah was a warrior who conquered his enemies -by warlike measures, Samson, though endowed with great strength -and daring, appears to have overcome his enemies by stratagems and -unexpected attacks. - -Jephthah, the Gileadite, of the tribe of Manasseh having been banished -by his tribesmen, began to lead the life of a highwayman. Daring -associates, who thought little of law and order, joined him and -appointed him their leader. When attacked by the Ammonites, the men of -Gilead remembered their outlawed kinsman, whose bold deeds had come to -their knowledge. Some of the elders of his tribe went to him, and urged -him to aid them with his troops, and help them to expel the enemy from -their territories. Full of proud indignation, Jephthah rebuked them -with the words, "You hated me, and drove me from my father's house; -wherefore do you come to me now when it goes ill with you?"[12] The -Gileadite elders, however, entreated him more urgently, and promised, -if he should vanquish the enemy, that they would recognise him as chief -in Gilead. Upon this Jephthah determined to return with them. He then -sent a formal message to the Ammonites, demanding that they should -desist from their incursions into the territory of the Israelites; and -when they refused on the pretext of ancient rights, he traversed the -districts of Gilead and Manasseh in order to enlist warriors. Jephthah -knew well how to gather many brave youths round him, and with these -he proceeded against the Ammonites, defeated them, and wrested twenty -cities out of their hands. After Jephthah had gained these decisive -victories, the Ephraimites began a quarrel with him; and as previously, -in the case of the heroic Gideon, they were displeased that he had -obtained victories without their aid. - -This led to a civil war, for Jephthah was not so submissive to the -proud Ephraimites as the judge of Ophrah had been. The men of Ephraim -crossed the Jordan, near the town of Zaphon, and assumed a warlike -attitude; but Jephthah punished them for their presumption, defeated -them, and blocked their road of retreat on the banks of the Jordan. -Jephthah might have strengthened the tribes beyond the Jordan, but -his rule lasted only six years, and he left no son to succeed him. He -had only one daughter, and about her a deeply touching story has been -preserved, which describes how she became the victim of her father's -rash vow. - -Whilst the hero of Gilead was subduing the Ammonites by force of arms, -Samson was fighting the Philistines, who claimed from the tribe to -which Samson belonged the coast-line of Joppa, formerly a part of their -possessions. The tribe of Dan smarted under their yoke, but had not the -power to effect a change. Samson was not supported in his enterprises -by the various tribes, as Jephthah had been. They greatly feared the -Philistines; thus Samson was compelled to have recourse to stratagems, -and could harm the enemy only by unexpected onslaughts. This mode of -warfare was censured in the words, "Dan shall judge his people like one -of the tribes of Israel. Dan shall be as a serpent by the way, and as -an adder in the path, that biteth the horse's heels, so that his rider -shall fall backwards."[13] - -Samson is supposed to have fought during twenty years for Israel, -without, however, improving the state of affairs. Long after his -death, the Philistines kept the upper hand over the tribes of Dan and -Benjamin, and also over Judah and Ephraim. The rule of the Philistines -pressed with increasing weight upon Israel. After Samson there arose -successively three other deliverers, two in the tribe of Zebulun, and -one in the tribe of Ephraim; but their deeds were of so insignificant -a character that they have not been deemed worthy of mention. Of the -two hero-judges in Zebulun, only the names and the territory or town -in which they were buried have been preserved: Ibzan, of Bethlehem in -Zebulun, and Elon, of the town of Ajalon. Also of the Ephraimite judge, -Abdon, son of Hillel, the Pirathonite, little is known. It is not -even stated against what enemies they waged war; but the fact that the -men of Zebulun, who at first lived far away from the sea, afterwards -extended their dwelling-places to the shore, leads us to suppose that -they supplanted the Canaanite inhabitants. - - - - -CHAPTER V. - -ELI AND SAMUEL. - - Importance of the Judges--Public Feeling--Sanctuary in - Shiloh--Eli and his Sons--Defeat by the Philistines--Capture of - the Ark--Destruction of Shiloh and the Sanctuary--Flight of the - Aaronites and Levites--Death of Eli--The Ark in Philistia and - in Kirjath Jearim--Prophecy re-awakened--Samuel in Ramah--The - Order of Prophets or Singers--Popular revulsion--The tribe - of Judah--Repeated attacks of the Philistines--Meeting at - Mizpah--Samuel's activity--Nob as a place of worship--Increase - in the power of the Philistines and Ammonites--The tribes - desire to have a King--Samuel's course of action. - - 1100?-1067 B. C. E. - - -The twelve or thirteen warrior-judges had been incapable of keeping -off the hostile neighbours of Israel for any length of time, much -less had they ensured the permanent safety of the country. Even the -celebrated Barak, with all his enthusiasm, and Gideon and Jephthah -with their warlike courage could succeed only in uniting a few of the -tribes, but were unable to secure or restore the union of the entire -people. The warrior-judges were, in fact, of importance only so long -as they repulsed the enemy, averted danger, and ensured safety in -daily life. They wielded no real power, not even over the tribes to -which their prowess brought help and freedom; nor did they possess any -rights by which they could enforce obedience. The isolation of each -tribe, and the division amongst the several tribes continued, in spite -of temporary victories; the actual weakness of the country increased -rather than diminished. Samson's "serpent-like attacks and adder's -bites" did not deter the Philistines from considering the tribes within -reach as their subjects, or more correctly speaking as their slaves, -nor did it prevent them from ill-treating the Israelites. Jephthah's -victories over the Ammonites did not cause the enemy to relinquish his -claims over the eastern tribes of Reuben, Gad, and the half of Manasseh. - -After the deaths of Jephthah and Samson, the state of affairs became -still more dismal. It was, however, precisely this sense of extreme -weakness which led to a gradual recovery of strength. Several tribal -leaders must have come to the conclusion that this connection with -neighbouring populations, and the adoption of idolatrous customs had -brought the people to the verge of ruin. The remembrance of the God of -their fathers no doubt once more revived in their hearts, and awakened -their sleeping consciences to a sense of duty. The men who had been -thus aroused called to mind the Sanctuary dedicated to their God at -Shiloh, and they repaired thither. - -Towards the close of the judges' period, Shiloh once more became a -general rallying point. Here the Levites, the guardians of the Law, -still resided, and they used their opportunities to urge, at the -meetings held in times of distress, that a denial of Israel's God and -the worship of Baal had brought all this misery upon the people. There -also lived in Shiloh a priest who was worthy of his ancestors Aaron and -Phineas. He was the first Aaronite, after a considerable time, whose -name has been recorded for posterity. He was simply called Eli, without -the addition of his father's name, and the only title of honour he bore -was that of the priest at Shiloh. Eli is described as a venerable old -man, on whose lips were words of gentleness, and who was incapable of -giving utterance to severe censure, even of his unworthy sons. - -This aged man could not fail to exercise a beneficial influence, and -win warm adherents to the Law which he represented, if only by the -example of his moral worth, and by the holy life he led. When Shiloh -was visited, in ever-increasing numbers, by desponding worshippers from -the tribes of Ephraim and Benjamin, as also from the tribes on the -trans-Jordanic side, some were murmuring at the sufferings imposed upon -them, and others complaining of the hard treatment they endured at the -hands of the Ammonites; but Eli would exhort them to rely on the ever -ready help of the God of Israel, and to give up the worship of strange -gods. - -By such exhortations he might have brought about a better state of -mind among his hearers, if the respect felt for him had been likewise -enjoyed by his two sons, Hophni and Phineas. They, however, did not -walk in the ways of their father; and when the people and Eli were -overtaken by severe misfortunes, these were supposed to be a punishment -of heaven for the sins of Eli's sons, and for the weak indulgence -displayed by the High Priest. - -The Philistines still held sway over the tribes in their vicinity, and -made repeated attacks and raids on Israel's lands. The tribes attacked -became so far skilled in warfare that they no longer sought to oppose -the enemy in irregular skirmishes, but met them in open battle. The -Israelites encamped on the hill Eben-ha-Ezer, and the Philistines in -the plain near Aphek. As the latter possessed iron war-chariots they -proved superior to the Israelites, of whom four thousand are supposed -to have fallen in battle. The Israelite warriors, however, did not take -to flight, but kept to their posts. - -In accordance with the counsel of the elders, the Ark of the Covenant -was brought from Shiloh, it being believed that its presence would -ensure victory. Eli's sons were appointed to escort it. Nevertheless, -the second battle was even more disastrous than the first. The -Israelite troops fled in utter confusion; the Ark of the Covenant was -captured by the Philistines, and Hophni and Phineas, who attended it, -were killed. The Philistines pursued the fleeing troops, and spread -terror in every direction. Breathless with fear, a messenger of evil -tidings arrived in Shiloh, and brought the sad news to the anxious -people, and to the high priest Eli, who was sitting at the gate. - -The news that the Ark of the Covenant had been captured affected the -aged priest even more than that of the death of his sons; he dropped -down dead from his seat. It now seemed that all glory had departed from -the house of Israel. The victorious Philistines, no longer content to -make foraging expeditions through the country, forced their way from -west to east until they reached the district of Shiloh. They destroyed -that town, together with the Tabernacle, which had been a witness to -the blissful days of Moses. A later poet describes this time of trial -with a heavy heart.[14] - -The strength and courage of the people were entirely overcome by -this defeat. Those tribes which until now had been foremost in every -encounter were crushed. The tribe of Ephraim suffered--though not -undeservedly--most severely by the overthrow of the Sanctuary, which, -in Eli's time, had been recognised as a place for popular meetings. -Every chance of union, especially amongst the northern tribes, who, -however, had not been concerned in the disastrous strife, seemed to be -cut off. - -The Philistines were impressed with the idea that by capturing the -Ark of the Covenant--which they supposed to be the safeguard of the -Israelites--and by destroying the Sanctuary, they had vanquished the -Israelite people. But they were painfully undeceived. As soon as they -had carried off the Ark of the Covenant to the neighbouring town of -Ashdod, the country was visited by various plagues. In their terror, -the Philistine princes determined to follow the advice of their priests -and magicians, and send back the Ark, accompanied by expiatory -offerings, after it had been in their possession for seven months. -It was accordingly sent over the boundaries, and taken to the town -of "Kirjath Jearim" (Forest Town), situated on a hill, where it was -guarded by the Levites of the district; but it was so little missed by -the people that decades passed before they even remembered their loss. -In the eyes of the untutored Israelites, neither the contents nor the -great age of the tablets of the Law preserved in the Ark were of great -importance. Meanwhile these misfortunes--the destruction and loss of -the Sanctuary at Shiloh--had aroused a desire for a better state of -things. Those who were not utterly indifferent could perceive that the -true cause of the evil lay in the religious and political dissensions. -The Levites, who had escaped during the destruction of Shiloh, and -had settled in other towns, probably prepared the public mind for a -return to the belief in God. Perhaps also the return of the Ark of -the Covenant from the land of the Philistines exercised an animating -influence, and raised hopes of better days. The longing for the God of -Israel became daily more widely diffused, and the want of a steadfast -and energetic leader was keenly felt--a leader who would bring the -misguided people into the right path, and raise up those who were bowed -down with sorrow. And just at the right moment a man appeared who -brought about a crisis in Israel's history. - -Samuel, the son of Elkanah, was the man who reunited the long-sundered -bonds of communal life amongst the Israelites, and thereby averted the -threatening decay and internal corruption. His greatness is illustrated -by the circumstance that he is placed second to Moses not only in -chronological sequence, but also in prophetic importance.[15] - -Samuel was an elevated character. He displayed the same unbending -conscientiousness towards himself as towards others. Living amidst -the people, coming into daily contact with them, he surpassed the -men of his time in love of God, purity of heart, and unselfishness. -In addition to these qualities he was distinguished by the gift of -prophecy. His spiritual eye pierced the clouds which hid the future. -He proclaimed his prophetic visions, and they came to pass. Samuel -was descended from one of the most distinguished Levitical families, -from the same Korah who had incited the rebellion against Moses in -days of old. Samuel inherited intensity of feeling from his mother -Hannah, whose fervent though inaudible prayer has formed a model for -all ages. At a tender age his mother secured a place for him as one of -the attendant Levites in the Sanctuary at Shiloh. He had daily to open -its gates; he took part in the sacrificial service, and he passed his -nights within the precincts of the tabernacle. - -At an early age the gift of prophecy, unknown to himself, was awakened -within him. Whilst wrapped in deep sleep he heard himself called -from the inner recess of the Sanctuary where the Ark of the Covenant -reposed. This was Samuel's first vision, and happened previous to the -defeat of the Israelites by the Philistines, the capture of the Ark of -the Covenant, the death of Eli and his two sons, and the destruction of -the Sanctuary. Samuel's services ceased with the last-named event, and -he returned to his father's house at Ramah in deep affliction. - -The misfortunes which had befallen his people, and especially the ruin -of Shiloh made an overpowering impression on Samuel, whose youthful -mind was filled with the highest aspirations. In the Levitical circle, -in which he had grown up, it was a fixed belief that the trials -undergone by the people resulted from their denial of the God of -Israel. To have no Sanctuary was considered equivalent to being without -God. - -The sacred writings enshrined in the Ark enjoined righteousness, -justice, mercy, and the equality of all Israelites without distinction -of class, as commanded by God; but little or nothing was said of -sacrifices. Samuel, who was nearer by many centuries to the origin of -the Israelitish nation than were the later prophets, was, like them, -convinced of the fact that God had not ordained the deliverance of His -people solely in order that they might sacrifice to Him only, but that -they might carry His laws into effect. The contents of these records of -the Law represented the will of God which the Israelites were to follow -with implicit obedience. This Law was a living force in Samuel's heart, -and he grew to be the medium by which it became indelibly impressed on -the people; to give effect to its teaching was the task of his life. - -The fact of having no Sanctuary was, as has been shown, deemed -equivalent to being abandoned by God. Gradually, however, Samuel -seems to have taken up a different train of thought--_No Sanctuary, -no burnt-offerings_. "Is sacrifice absolutely necessary for a pure -worship of God, and for a holy life in His ways?" This thought became -matured within him; and later, on a fitting occasion, he preached on -this theme thus: The sacrifices are of little importance; the fat of -rams cannot win God's approbation; in what, then, should the service of -God consist? "In strict obedience to all that He has commanded." During -his sojourn in Shiloh, Samuel had not only made himself acquainted with -the contents of the stone tablets which were kept in the Ark of the -Sanctuary, but he became versed also in the book of the Law emanating -from Moses, and he was entirely filled with their spirit. The living -word was the means which he employed to attain his end, for he was -endowed with impressive eloquence. From time to time he had prophetic -dreams and visions. These revealed to him that his convictions were not -the mere suggestions of his own mind or heart, but were sanctioned -or inspired by a higher Being. The prophetic inspirations consisted -of teachings or commands; they were combined with an unveiling of the -near future, and bore the character of revelations. Animated by his -prophetic visions, Samuel communicated them to his hearers, probably at -his native place, Ramah, where his reputation had preceded him. These -communications, which foreshadowed extraordinary events beyond the -limits of common foresight, he seems to have expressed in orations and -in rhythmic utterances, abounding in poetic metaphors and similes. - -Whilst in Shiloh, he had been repeatedly vouchsafed prophetic visions, -and these had been confirmed. It soon went forth in the environs of -Ramah, and in ever widening circles that a prophet had arisen in -Israel, and that the spirit of God, which had rested on Moses and had -led him to deliver the children of Israel from Egypt, had now descended -on the son of Elkanah. In the interval, during a long succession of -centuries, no prophet, in the full sense of the word, had arisen. The -fact that God had raised up a second Moses encouraged the hope that -better times were at hand. Samuel's first endeavour was to reclaim the -nation from the idolatrous worship of Baal and Astarte, and from a -superstitious belief in the oracular powers of the Teraphim. - -The desire of a portion of the people to abandon their evil ways -materially assisted Samuel in his efforts. His irresistible eloquence -was concentrated in the one theme that the gods of the heathen were -nonentities who could neither help nor save. He declared that it was -folly and sinful to consult the lying oracles and the jugglery of -the soothsayers, and that God would never desert the nation whom He -had chosen. These words found a powerful response in the hearts of -those who heard them. Samuel did not wait for the people to come to -him in order that he might address them, but he went forth to them. -He travelled through the whole land, appointed public meetings, and -announced to the multitudes the lessons revealed to him by the spirit -of God; and the people, stirred by his prophetic utterances, and roused -from the lethargy into which they had been plunged ever since their -misfortunes had commenced, now began to revive. The right man had come, -whose words could be followed in days of care and trouble. The eyes of -the nation naturally turned towards him. - -Had Samuel stood alone, he would scarcely have been enabled to effect -so desirable a transformation. But he had a number of assistants -on whom he could rely. The Levites, whose home was in Shiloh, had -fled when the town and the Sanctuary were destroyed. They had been -accustomed to surround the altar and to serve in the Sanctuary. They -knew no other occupation. What were they to do now in their dispersion? -Another place of worship had not yet been founded to which they might -have turned. Several Levites therefore joined Samuel. His greatness had -impressed them when he lived in Shiloh, and he now employed them to -execute his plans. Gradually their numbers increased until they formed -a band of associates (_Chebel_), or Levitical guild (_Kehillah_). These -disciples of prophecy, headed by Samuel, contributed materially to the -change of views and manners among the people. - -Another circumstance served at that time to rouse the nation from its -apathy. During the entire period of the Judges' rule, the men of Judah -had not taken the slightest share in public events. Dwelling far away -in their pasture-fields and deserts, they seemed to have no part in -the life of the other tribes. They called themselves by the name of -Jacob. Utterly secluded, they led a separate existence, untouched by -the sorrows and joys, the battles and conquests, of the tribes living -on both sides of the Jordan. The Jebusites, who possessed the district -between the mountains of Ephraim and Judah, formed a barrier between -these tribes and the Israelites dwelling in the north. - -It was only the repeated incursions of the Philistines on Israel's -territory which seem to have aroused the tribe of Judah, and forced it -out of its retirement. It was probably to strengthen themselves against -the attacks of their enemy, who sought to lay the yoke of serfdom on -their necks, that the men of Judah stretched out a helping hand to -the neighbouring tribes. Whatever circumstance may have influenced -them, it is certain that in Samuel's days, the tribe of Judah with its -dependency, the tribe of Simeon, took part in the common cause. Jacob -and Israel, divided during all the centuries since they first entered -Canaan, were now at length united. It was, without doubt, Samuel who -brought about this union. - -Judah's or Jacob's entry into history marks the accession of a new, -vigorous and rejuvenating element. The tribe of Judah had found but -few towns, and by no means a developed town life in the territories -it had acquired. The only city worthy of note was Hebron; the other -places were villages for cattle-breeders. Both the refinement and -the depravity resulting from the influence of the Philistines had -remained unknown to the tribes of Judah and Simeon. The worship of Baal -and Astarte, with its coarse and sensual rites, had not established -itself among them. They remained, for the most part, what they had -been on their entry into the land--simple shepherds, loving peace and -upholding their liberty, without any desire for warlike fame or for -making new conquests. The simple customs of patriarchal life seem -to have endured longer in Judah than elsewhere. This accession of -strength and religious activity could certainly not have been rendered -possible without Samuel's commanding and energetic intervention. The -son of Elkanah, though no warrior, was looked upon as a firm supporter -on whom both houses could lean. For many years Samuel, assisted by -the prophetic order of Levites, pursued his active course with zeal -and energy; the people regarded him as a leader, and he, in fact, by -his inspired zeal, led them on to conquest. A victory gained near -Eben-ha-Ezer, where, many years before, the Philistines had overcome -the Israelite troops and had carried off much booty, now produced a -mighty effect: it revived the courage of the Israelites and humbled the -Philistines. - -During the next decade the people once more enjoyed the comforts of -peace, and Samuel took measures that prosperity should not efface the -good results of previous misfortunes. It was his earnest endeavour to -consolidate the union between the tribes, which was the true foundation -of their strength. Year after year he called together the elders of the -people, explained to them their duties, and reminded them of the evil -days which had befallen the Israelites through their godlessness, their -intermarriage with strange nations, and their idolatrous excesses; he -also warned them against a return to these errors. Such assemblies -Samuel held by turns in the three towns which came into notice after -the destruction of Shiloh--namely, in Bethel, in Gilgal, and in Mizpah -where prayers for victory over the Philistines had been offered up in -the former campaign. At Ramah, the place of his residence, frequent -meetings of the various tribes took place; and here the elders sought -his advice in all important matters. At divine services Samuel not only -caused sacrifices to be offered up, but with the aid of the Levites -he introduced the use of stringed instruments in order to arouse the -devout feelings of the people. - -Through him a new element was introduced into the divine service of -the Israelites--viz., songs of praise. Samuel, the ancestor of the -celebrated psalmists, the sons of Korah, was the first who composed -songs of praise for divine service. His grandson, Heman, was considered -the chief psalmist and musician, and he ranked in fame with Asaph and -Jeduthun, who flourished in the subsequent generation. The charms of -poetry and music were by Samuel brought to bear upon the religious -service, and they left a lasting and ennobling impression on the minds -of the people. The employment of choirs of Levites and singers rendered -the sacrificial rite of minor importance. - -The priests, the sons of Aaron, took up a less respected position, and -were, to a certain extent, neglected by Samuel. Achitub, a grandson of -Eli, had saved himself after the destruction of Shiloh by taking refuge -in the small town of Nob, near Jerusalem. He had carried away with him -the high priest's garments; and various members of the house of Aaron -having assembled there, Nob became a sacerdotal town. Here, it seems, -Achitub had erected an altar, and also a tabernacle on the model of the -one which had been destroyed in Shiloh. He even appears to have made -an Ark of the Covenant in Nob, instead of the one carried off by the -Philistines. The Israelites apparently disregarded the fact that the -new ark was wanting in the essential contents,--the stone tablets of -the Covenant. - -Notwithstanding the eventful changes effected by Samuel through his -great gifts and untiring energy, the condition of the people was -anything but satisfactory. He had given special attention to the -central and southern districts, and had appointed his two sons, Joel -and Abijah, to act as judges--the one in Beersheba, the other in -Bethel--but the north was left unrepresented. - -With increasing years Samuel could not display the same activity as in -his youth and riper manhood. His sons were disliked, being accused -of misusing their power and of accepting bribes. There were no men -of energy amongst Samuel's followers, and thus the ties which held -the people together gradually slackened. In addition it must be noted -that just at this period the country of Israel's greatest enemies was -transformed into a kingdom. The Philistines had either of their own -free will chosen a king, or had been forced to do so by one of the -rulers of their five cities. The town of Gath became the capital. The -ambition of the Philistine king now turned in the direction of fresh -conquests; he seems to have made successful attacks on the Phoenicians, -and to have laid waste the town of Sidon. In consequence of their -defeat the Sidonians took refuge in their ships, and on a rock which -projected far out into the sea they built a town which they called -Zor (Tyre), the city of the rock. Meanwhile the Philistines became -possessors of the entire territory between Gaza and Sidon, and it -seemed easy to them, with their increased power, to subjugate Israel; -hence a fierce warfare ensued between them and the Israelites. The -Ammonites also, who had been humiliated by Jephthah, now rose again -under their warlike king Nahash, and began to invade the possessions -of the tribe of Gad and the half of Manasseh. Powerless to defend -themselves, these tribes sent messengers to Samuel, entreating him to -supply efficient aid. They at the same time expressed a wish which, -though entertained by the entire people, was deeply painful to the -prophet. They demanded that a king should be placed at the head of -the Israelite community, who could compel the various tribes to unite -in joint action, and might lead them to battle and to victory. There -was now to be a king in Israel. Samuel was amazed when he heard these -demands. A whole people was to be dependent on the whims or the will -of a single individual! Equality of all members of the nation before -God and the law, the entire independence of each family group under its -patriarchal head, had become so identified with their mode of life, -that any change in their condition seemed incomprehensible and fraught -with the heaviest misfortunes. - -It was now necessary to give a new direction to the destinies of the -people. Samuel's clear intellect disapproved of the radical change; -yet his inherent prophetic gift compelled him to accede. The kingdom -of Israel was brought forth in pain: it was not the offspring of -affection. Therefore it never could find a natural place in the system -of Israel's organisation, but was at all times considered by more -discerning minds as a foreign element. - - - - -CHAPTER VI. - -THE APOGEE. - - Establishment of a Kingdom--Saul--His Position and - Character--His secret Election at Mizpah--Humiliating - Condition of the Nation under the Philistines--Declaration - of War--Assemblage in Gilgal--Battle of Michmash--Defeat - of the Philistines--Severity of Saul--Victory over the - Ammonites--Saul's Election as King confirmed--His Court and - Attendants--His Officers and Standing Army--Victory over the - Amalekites--Disputes between Saul and Samuel--Saul's Attacks - on the neighbouring People--War with the Gibeonites--Place - of Worship in Gibeon--War against the Philistines in the - Valley of Tamarinths--Goliath and David--Meeting of Saul and - David--Saul's Jealousy turns into Madness--The Persecution of - David--Saul's last Battle against the Philistines--Defeat and - Death. - - 1067-1055 B. C. E. - - -The king who was placed at the head of the people through their own -eager insistence, and with the unwilling consent of the prophet proved, -more effectually than any objections could do, how little a monarchical -constitution was fitted to realise the expectations founded on it; -for the king, until his accession a simple and excellent man, with no -thoughts of ambition or arbitrary power, did not shrink from cruelty -and inhumanity in order to assert his dignity. - -By the aid of prophetic guidance, care was taken that he should -not resemble the repulsive prototype drawn by Samuel, or become so -independent as to place himself above all laws and rules, but that -he should ever remain mindful of his lowly origin. Samuel did not -select a king from the haughty tribe of Ephraim, lest he should act -like Abimelech, who, in his presumption and ambition, had killed his -own brothers, and laid waste whole districts; but the king was chosen -from the smallest of the tribes, the tribe of Benjamin. His family, -that of Matri, was one of the lowliest in Benjamin. His father, Kish, -was not in any way distinguished; he was a simple countryman; and -nothing could be said in his praise, except that he was an upright -man. Saul was chosen because he was content to work at his plough, and -watch the increase of his father's flocks. He had no thought beyond -the village in which he was born, and barely an idea that there were -human beings to whom the possession of power was an attraction. In his -shyness he displayed the ways of a true peasant; these circumstances, -and the personal qualities of Saul seemed to be a security against any -presumption or pride on the part of the first king of Israel. - -The circumstances attending the choice of a king left a deep and -pleasing impression. "See," said Samuel, "this is the man whom God has -chosen as king; his like is not to be found in all Israel." Most of -the bystanders, carried away by the solemn proceeding and by Saul's -appearance, shouted, "Long live the king!" Samuel then anointed the -newly elected king with holy oil, by which he was believed to be -rendered inviolable. The elders rejoiced that their heartfelt wish of -having a king to rule over them was at length realised. They looked -forward to happy days. This choice of a king was an important epoch in -the history of the Jewish people; it determined their entire future. -Yet during the joyful and solemn proceedings, discord had already -arisen. Some discontented people, probably Ephraimites, who had hoped -to have a king chosen from their own ranks, loudly expressed their -disappointment. "How can this man help us!" Whilst all the other -elders, according to universal custom, brought the king gifts of -homage, and a few of the most courageous followed him to Gibeah to -assist him against the enemies of Israel, the malcontents kept apart -and refused their allegiance. - -Saul's courage, after his elevation to the throne, must have increased -greatly, or he must have felt himself guided by God after his -unexpected elevation. He now boldly confronted the task of opposing -his mighty enemies, and of settling the disorganised affairs of the -commonwealth. The position of the people at his accession was very sad -and humiliating, almost worse than in the days of the Judges. Their -arms, such as bows and arrows, swords, etc., had been carried off by -the victorious Philistines, who left no smith in the land to make new -weapons. The newly elected king lacked a sword,--that symbol of royalty -among all nations and at all times. His election was probably conducted -so secretly that the Philistines knew nothing of it. The Philistine -tax-gatherers exhausted the strength of the country, and at the same -time repressed every attempt at revolt. So greatly were the Israelites -humbled that some of them had to accompany the Philistines on -expeditions against their own brethren. Nought but a miraculous event -could have saved them, and such an event was brought about by Saul with -his son and kinsmen. - -Saul's eldest son, Jonathan, was perhaps worthier of the kingly dignity -than his father. Modest and unselfish perhaps to a greater extent even -than his father, courageous in the very face of death, he combined -with these qualities an almost excessive kindliness and gentleness,--a -feature which endeared him to all, but which would have been a serious -failing in a ruler who had to display a certain amount of firmness and -severity. Jonathan was, besides, endowed with an enthusiastic nature -which appealed to every heart. He was truthful, and an enemy to all -deceit; he uttered his opinions freely, at the risk of displeasing, -or of losing his position and even his life, all of which qualities -made him a favourite with the people. Abner, the cousin of Saul, was -of an entirely different disposition; he was a warrior of unbending -firmness, and possessed a considerable degree of artfulness. To the -inexperienced king and the people he, too, rendered important service -in their distress. Surrounded by these and other faithful adherents of -his family, and by the tribe of Benjamin in general, who were proud -to gain importance through him, Saul set forth on the unequal contest -with the Philistines. Jonathan commenced hostilities. In the town -of Geba, or Gibeah of Benjamin, lived the Philistine tax-gatherers, -surrounded by a host of warriors. Jonathan attacked this post and -killed the garrison. This was the first declaration of war; it was made -at Saul's command and with his full approval. The king now ordered that -the trumpet-blast, announcing that the war with the Philistines had -commenced, should sound throughout the land of Benjamin. Many heard the -news with joy, others with sadness and dismay. - -All who had courage assembled in order to stand by their king, -determined to aid him in casting off the disgrace of Israel, or to -perish in the attempt. Those who were cowards escaped to the opposite -side of the Jordan, or hid in caverns, in clefts of the rocks, or in -subterranean passages. A feeling of intense anxiety filled all minds as -to the result of the contest. The meeting-place of the Israelites was -then in Gilgal, the town most remote from the land of the Philistines. -This place of meeting had been appointed by the prophet Samuel. He had -directed Saul to repair thither, and stay there seven days to await -his arrival and further instructions. Gilgal probably contained the -choir of musicians and prophets, whose psalms and songs were to inspire -the Israelite warriors with martial courage and with trust in the -deliverance of their fatherland. Meanwhile the Philistines prepared -themselves for a war of extermination against the Israelites. The news -of Jonathan's attack on their outposts had exasperated them; they -were, however, more surprised than terrified. How could the cowardly, -weaponless, unarmed Israelites dare to attack the Philistines, their -masters? A numerous band of warriors, supported by cavalry, passed -through the valleys of the southern mountain-range of Ephraim, and -through the entire breadth of the land as far as Michmash; from this -camping-place they spread their marauding bands in three directions, -the most humiliating circumstance being that many Israelites were -compelled to assist the Philistines in subduing their own tribesmen. - -This was a critical time for the people of Israel. Whilst the -Philistines were gradually pushing forward to Michmash, Saul, -surrounded by the brave men of his tribe, awaited in Gilgal the -prophet who was to give the warriors his inspired directions, and thus -endow them with courage. But day after day passed and Samuel did not -appear. Every hour spent in idleness seemed to destroy the chance of -a successful issue. Saul feared that the enemy would descend from the -mountains into the valley, attack Gilgal, and destroy or put to flight -the small body of Israelites. Not a few of his soldiers had already -deserted, looking on Samuel's absence as an inauspicious omen. Saul, -becoming impatient, determined on the seventh day to attack the enemy -on his own responsibility. According to ancient practice, he made a -sacrifice in order to propitiate the Deity, and to ensure his success -in the battle. Just as he was preparing the burnt-offering, Samuel -suddenly appeared, and upbraided the king severely for being carried -away by impatience. He resented this error with great austerity, -departed from Gilgal, and left Saul to his own resources--a hard blow -for him, as he had reckoned confidently on the prophet's assistance -at this dangerous juncture. After Samuel had departed from Gilgal, -Saul found it useless to remain there. He therefore repaired with -the remnant of his troops to Gibeah. On reviewing his soldiers -here, he found them to amount to not more than six hundred. It -is not surprising that Saul and Jonathan became dispirited at the -sight of this slight force, which was unarmed and had to fight the -well-appointed armies of the enemy. Saul and Jonathan alone possessed -swords. It was indeed a sad honey-moon for the young kingdom. The -most painful blow for Saul was that, through Samuel's absence, he was -deprived of the means by which the people might ascertain the will of -God. - -Jonathan, however, made a good beginning at Gibeah, where Saul and his -troops lay encamped, at scarce an hour's distance from Michmash, the -site of the Philistine camp. Between the two armies lay a valley, but -the road which led from one place to the other was impracticable, the -valley being bordered by steep, almost perpendicular walls of rocks -and precipices, which closed it up on the east till it became a mere -gorge of about ten feet in width. On the west side, where the valley -formed a wide pass, the Philistines had stationed their outposts. Thus -the Philistines and Israelites could only come to an encounter in the -narrow path. At last Jonathan determined to ascend the steepest part -of the pass, and, accompanied by his sword-bearer, he climbed, on -hands and feet, up the steep sharp points of the rock on the side of -Michmash. One false step would have precipitated him into the depth, -but happily he and his man arrived safely at the highest point. When -the Philistines beheld them, they were not a little surprised that, -on this rocky road, a path had been found to their camp. Deceived by -this ruse, and fearing that other Israelites would follow, they called -out scornfully, "Look at the Hebrews, they are crawling out of their -hiding-places; come higher up, we wish to become better acquainted -with you."[16] It had been previously agreed between Jonathan and his -sword-bearer that, should they receive such a challenge, they would -press on and bravely commence the attack. The Philistines who first -beheld the daring climbers, soon left off scoffing, for twenty men -were killed at the first attack with pieces of rock and sling-stones. -The Benjamites were very skilful in the use of the sling, and Jonathan -and his sword-bearer advanced further, and continued hurling masses of -rock at the Philistines. Terror-stricken by this sudden attack from -a side where approach had seemed impossible, they could only imagine -themselves attacked by supernatural beings, and, seized with fear, they -fought each other, or broke the ranks in the wildest confusion. Saul, -who was watching from a high eminence, no sooner perceived the enemy -beginning to flee than he hurried to the scene of action, followed by -his six hundred warriors, and completed the defeat of the Philistines. -Those Israelites who had until then been compelled by the Philistines -to fight against their own brethren turned their arms against their -oppressors. Others who had hidden themselves in the clefts and grottoes -of the mountains of Ephraim took courage, when they witnessed the -flight of the Philistines, and swelled the ranks of the aggressors. -Saul's troops, thus increased, numbered ten thousand. In every town of -Mount Ephraim through which the Philistines passed in their flight, -they were attacked by the inhabitants, and cut down one by one. Though -tired and exhausted, Saul's troops pursued the retreating foe for eight -hours. - -An occurrence of apparently slight consequence, but which proved to be -of great importance, put a stop to further pursuit. Saul had impressed -on his soldiers that the destruction of their enemy was not to be -interrupted even for food or refreshment, and he pronounced a curse on -him who should take the slightest nourishment. Jonathan, who was always -foremost, had heard nothing of this curse. Exhausted by the long fight -and pursuit he could not restrain himself, and tasted wild honey into -which he had dipped his staff. When his attention was drawn to his -father's peremptory command, he openly avowed his act. Saul, however, -made a serious matter of it, and determined to condemn Jonathan to -death. But the people protested vehemently. "What!" cried the warriors, -"shall Jonathan, to whom the people owes its great victory, be killed? -No, not a hair of his head shall be touched."[17] The people offered a -sin-offering for Jonathan, and thus released him from death. Through -this episode, the pursuit of the Philistines to the west of Ajalon was -suspended. Great was the joy of the Israelites at the victory they -had so unexpectedly obtained. The battle of Michmash fully restored -their reputation. They also had regained their weapons, and felt -strong enough to fight under a king whose firmness of resolve they had -experienced. But Saul returned humbly and modestly to his dwelling -place in Gibeah, and ploughed, as heretofore, his father's fields. He -was not yet blinded by his new dignity. Meanwhile the hostilities of -the Ammonites against the tribes on the other side of the Jordan had -increased. Nahash, king of the Ammonites, besieged the fortress of -Jabesh-Gilead. The inhabitants were unable to hold out for long, and -negotiated with Nahash about a capitulation. He offered a hard, inhuman -condition to the Gileadites of Jabesh. As a disgrace to Israel, all men -should consent to lose their right eye. What were the Gileadites to -do? They treated for a delay of seven days in order to send messages -to their fellow-tribesmen. When Saul was one day returning home with -his yoke of bullocks from the field, he met the inhabitants of Gibeah -in great excitement and bathed in tears. Astonished at this, he asked -the cause of their grief, and the messengers from Jabesh-Gilead -related what would befall their town if speedy assistance were not at -hand. Incensed at the disgraceful condition imposed by the king of the -Ammonites, Saul immediately determined to bring aid to the Gileadites -of Jabesh. For the first time he exercised his royal prerogative by -summoning all Israel to take part in the campaign against the Ammonites. - -Samuel supported this summons by declaring that he too would join in -the expedition. By Saul's command all the warriors assembled at the -meeting-place. The anarchy of the era of the Judges was now at an -end, and a stern will ruled. A large body of Israelites crossed the -Jordan; the Ammonites, attacked on the south, north, and west, fled in -all directions, and no two of them remained together. The people of -Jabesh were saved, and ever after displayed the deepest gratitude to -Saul and his house for the help so quickly and energetically rendered -to them. On his recrossing the Jordan, after his second victory over -the enemy, Saul was greeted with tumultuous joy. Samuel, who was a -witness to these expressions of delight, thought it wise to remind the -king and his people that their triumph should not turn into pride, and -that they should not consider the kingly dignity as an end, but only -as a means. He therefore summoned a large gathering of the Israelites, -and determined to call the king's and the people's attention to their -duties. Samuel again anointed Saul as king; the people renewed their -homage, and made joyful offerings. - -In the midst of these rejoicings Samuel delivered an address, which -bears testimony to the powers of his mind and to his greatness as a -prophet. - -Saul's two important victories, and the assemblage at Gilgal, where -homage had been rendered to him by nearly all the tribes, confirmed -his power, and the royal dominion was placed on a permanent basis. -Although Samuel praised and extolled the days of the Judges, yet the -people felt that it could better appreciate a king than a hero-judge. -The nation willingly exchanged its republican liberty for the prize -of unity and the power obtained thereby. The kingly estate led to -various changes. Saul had to employ responsible men for the execution -of his commands; he required a number of officers and servants. -Officers of war were appointed to rule over hundreds and thousands -respectively, and councillors, who were admitted to the king's table. -A special band of men served as runners (_razim_), an armed force who -became the obedient instruments of the king's will. These and their -chief formed the king's court. Saul's leader of the guard was named -Doag, an Idumæan by birth. Owing to the presence of the standing army -and attendants, Gibeah, till then only a small town, now became the -capital. Towards Samuel, Saul at first showed submission. When the -prophet, in the name of God, commanded him to declare war to the death -with the Amalekites, Saul immediately made preparations, and summoned -his warriors. The Amalekites were the implacable and hereditary enemies -of the Israelites, and had displayed the greatest cruelty towards them -during their wanderings in the desert, and on their entry into the -Holy Land. These enemies often joined other nations in order to crush -the Israelites. The Amalekite king Agag appears to have caused great -trouble to the tribe of Judah in the days of Saul. - -It was, however, no light task to undertake hostilities against the -Amalekites. Agag was considered a great hero, and inspired all around -him with fear; but although the Amalekites were renowned for their -courage and power, Saul did not hesitate to prepare for this hazardous -campaign. He appears to have carried on the strife with skill and -courage, and to have drawn the enemy into an ambush, by which he was -enabled to obtain a complete victory. He took the capital (possibly -Kadesh), killed the men, women and children, and captured the dreaded -king Agag. Only a few of the people who escaped with their lives took -refuge in the great neighbouring desert which leads to Egypt. The -Israelite warriors carried off rich booty, including flocks of sheep, -herds of cattle, and camels. According to Samuel's command, this spoil -was to be destroyed, so that every trace of the memory of Amalek might -be lost. The soldiers, however, did not wish this rich spoil to be -given up to destruction. Saul, ordinarily so rigid in his discipline, -permitted the preservation of the booty, and thus transgressed the -prophet's directions. Saul was very proud of his victory over the -dreaded Amalekites, and he caused the king Agag to be led in chains as -a living sign of triumph. His success in battle intoxicated him, and -caused him to forget his former humility. On his return he erected a -monument of his victory in the oasis of Carmel. Meanwhile, Samuel, in -a prophetic vision, had learned that the king had not fulfilled the -instructions given him, and was therefore to be punished. - -Samuel had to announce this to the victorious king; but the task was -difficult, and he struggled and prayed a whole night. At last he -determined to proceed to meet Saul. But hearing on the way that Saul -was so dominated by pride as to cause a monument to be raised, he -turned back and repaired to Gilgal. When Saul heard of this journey, -he followed him thither. The elders of Benjamin and the neighbouring -tribes also proceeded to Gilgal to salute the victorious king. Here -they were witnesses to a strife which foreboded evil times. - -As though nothing had occurred, the king met the prophet with these -words, "I have fulfilled God's commands." On which Samuel sternly -replied to him, "What is the meaning of the bleating of the sheep which -I hear?" "It was the people," answered Saul, "who spared the best of -the sheep and the oxen, in order to sacrifice them on the altar at -Gilgal." At these words the prophet Samuel could no longer repress his -anger, and he replied in winged words: "Hath the Lord as great delight -in burnt-offerings and sacrifices, as in obeying His voice? Behold, to -obey is better than sacrifice, and to hearken, than the fat of rams. -For the sin of witchcraft comes from rebellion, and the iniquity of -Teraphim from stubbornness. Because thou hast rejected the word of the -Lord, He hath also rejected thee from being king." - -Saul was so deeply humiliated by these words and by the stern and -austere attitude which the prophet adopted that he confessed his fault -and, in the effort to prevent him from going away, he seized Samuel's -robe so firmly that it was torn. Samuel then said, "This is a sign: God -will tear thy kingly dignity from thee and will give it to a better -man, even though Israel be torn asunder in the act." Once more Saul -entreated the prophet. "At least honour me now before the elders of my -tribe and of Israel, and return with me."[18] - -In consideration of this entreaty, Samuel accompanied him to the altar, -where the king humbled himself before God. Samuel then ordered that the -fettered king Agag should be led forth. The Amalekite king exclaimed -in his fear, "Oh! how bitter, how bitter is death!"[18] To this -exclamation Samuel replied, "As thy sword hath made women childless, so -shall thy mother be childless among women," and Samuel hewed Agag in -pieces before the king in Gilgal.[18] - -After this scene in Gilgal, the king and the prophet avoided each -other. The victory which Saul obtained over Amalek was a defeat for -him--his pride was crushed. The announcement that God had abandoned -him threw a dark shadow over his soul. His gloom, which later on -developed into madness, owed its rise to the threatening words of -Samuel, "God will give the kingdom of Israel to a better man."[19] -These terrible words were ever ringing in Saul's ears. Just as he had -at first hesitated to accept the reins of government, so he was now -unwilling to let them pass from his hands. At the same time he felt -himself helpless. What could he do against the severity of the prophet? -In order to divert himself, he plunged into warfare. There were many -enemies on the borders of Israel whom he wished to subdue. He also -pursued another course in order to impress the people with a sense of -his importance. - -There still lived amongst the Israelites a few Canaanite families and -small clans who had not been expelled when the country was conquered, -and could not be ejected now. These had led the Israelites to honour -false gods, and to indulge in idolatrous errors. Saul therefore thought -that he would greatly benefit the nation, and serve the law of Israel, -if he removed these idolatrous neighbours, and everything that was -foreign. Among the strangers who had been suffered to remain were the -men of Gibeon, they having voluntarily submitted to the conquering -Israelites. Saul did not respect the oath given to the Gibeonites, but -ordered a wholesale massacre amongst them, from which but few escaped. - -Together with the foreign Canaanite nations he also persecuted the -sorcerers who took part in idolatrous practices. Whilst Saul, on the -one hand, endeavoured to acquire the good will of his people, and -showed himself the severe champion of the laws given by God, he tried, -on the other hand, to impress the nation with submissive dread of -the kingly power. He wore a golden crown on his head, as a sign of -greatness and exaltation above the masses. His contemporaries, who had -known him as a plough-man, and might have been inclined to treat him -as their equal, were to forget his past and become accustomed to gaze -at him with awe as the anointed wearer of the holy crown. Saul also -indulged in the royal luxury of polygamy. He took wives in addition -to his first wife Ahinoam, whom he had married when he was still a -peasant. Among them was the beautiful and courageous Rizpah. - -Saul showed much energy in his raids against the enemy and, no doubt -in order to dissipate the fears aroused by the prophet's harsh words, -displayed great pomp and ostentation, until then foreign to his nature. -But sooner than he had anticipated, the evil spirit of his imagination -took form in the shape of a youth that charmed him despite himself. - -It happened during one of the frequent fights with the enemy that -Saul's troops were drawn up in martial array against the Philistines, -and the two armies stood face to face, separated from each other only -by a deep ravine. Both were fearful of taking the first decisive step. -At length the Philistines made the proposal that the battle should be -settled by single combat, and they sent forth as their champion the -gigantic warrior Goliath. King Saul would gladly have seen one of his -army go forth to the duel, and he promised the victor rich presents, -exemption from taxes, freedom from compulsory service, and the hand -of one of his daughters. But not even at such a price did any one of -the Israelite army dare to oppose himself to Goliath. Then, as if -by chance, a shepherd boy of Bethlehem, a town near to the field of -battle, presented himself, and brought about a decisive issue. - -This shepherd of Bethlehem, directly or indirectly, was the cause of a -revolution in the history of Israel, and in the history of the human -race. David, then known only to the inhabitants of the village or town -of Bethlehem, has since become a celebrated name throughout the world. -After his disagreement with Saul, Samuel had received the prophetic -mission to repair to Bethlehem in order to anoint the future king of -Israel from amongst the eight sons of the aged Jesse as successor -to Saul. Samuel set out in secret, lest he should be pursued by the -king. The prophet selected David as the future king chosen by God, and -anointed him as king of Israel in the presence of his brothers. This -simple but important act was naturally performed in privacy, and was -kept secret by David's father and brothers. - -Jesse, the father of David, was not descended from a distinguished -house of Judah, but, like all the inhabitants of Bethlehem, belonged to -a very humble family. David was about eighteen years old when he was -anointed, and was not distinguished either by his experience or by any -deed. The beautiful pasture-land round about Bethlehem had till then -composed his world. But faculties lay dormant in him which only needed -to be aroused to make him excel his contemporaries intellectually as -Saul surpassed them physically. David was pre-eminently gifted with -poetic and musical talent, and whilst he yet tended his flock, his harp -awakened the echoes of the mountains. A single circumstance, however, -sufficed to change this youth into a man. - -Samuel returned to Ramah as secretly as he had left; but he kept an -eye on the youth whom he had anointed, and drew him into the circle -of his disciples. Here David's poetic talents were developed. Here he -was able to perfect himself in the use of musical instruments. But he -learnt something more in Samuel's surroundings; he learnt "to know -God." His spirit was pervaded with the Divine presence, and became -instinct with that piety which refers all things to God, and submits in -all things to Divine guidance. This reliance on God had been awakened -and strengthened in him by the influence of Samuel. David frequently -journeyed from Bethlehem to Ramah, and from Samuel's house to the -flocks of his father. The noble courage, with which his anointment -and the influence of Samuel inspired him, did not desert him when -he tended his flocks in the meadows of Bethlehem. When war with the -Philistines broke out, in the neighbourhood of Bethlehem, David could -no longer remain a shepherd of his flocks, and he gladly undertook to -deliver a message to his brothers who were serving in the army, so -as to have an excuse for entering the camp. On his arrival there, he -timidly told the bystanders that he was willing to risk an encounter -with the blaspheming Philistine that reviled the army of the living -God. The news soon reached the king's ears that a youth had offered -himself for the combat. Half convinced, half in scorn, Saul gave him -permission to engage in the duel, and offered him his own armour. The -first stone, cast with his skilled hand from the sling, struck the -heavily-armed giant from afar; he fell to the ground. David threw -himself upon Goliath, drew the sword out of the scabbard, and cut off -the giant's head. The Philistines, from the hilltops, had witnessed the -fall of their champion, whom they had thought invincible; they declared -themselves conquered, and no longer sought to prolong the war, but fled -to their fastnesses. The troops of Israel, on the other hand, carried -away by David's victory, followed their enemy in hot pursuit. - -Holding the bleeding head in his hand, the youthful victor was led -before Saul, to whom he had till then been unknown. He had not the -remotest suspicion that this youth, from whom he could not withhold -his admiration, might become a dreaded rival. He felt great joy at the -signal victory. His son Jonathan, who had an open, tender and unselfish -heart, was enchanted with the young victor. His love and attachment for -David became stronger than man's love for woman. The fame of David's -name and the victory he had obtained in Ephes-Damim soon resounded -throughout the valley of Terebinths, and in the territories of all -the tribes. David, however, returned to his father's house as though -nothing had happened, and merely took Goliath's shield and armour with -him as memorials. But he did not long remain at home. The destiny of -Saul had begun to be fulfilled, and David was its chosen instrument. -The gloom of dejection, which had obscured the soul of the king since -his breach with the prophet, became still darker. His ill-humour -deepened into sadness and melancholy, and sometimes paroxysms of wild -madness took hold of him. "An evil spirit hath entered the king," -his servants whispered to each other. Instrumental music alone was -capable of rousing him; his faithful servants therefore proposed that -a skilled musician and poet should come to the court, and they advised -him to select the son of Jesse, who was handsome, brave, eloquent, and -a harpist. David came, and his musical talent, as well as his general -bearing, delighted the king. Whenever Saul fell into melancholy, David -touched the harp, and the king was relieved from his depression. Saul -felt himself enchained by David. He began to consider him as a son, -and at length entreated David's father to leave him permanently at -court. Saul appointed him his armour-bearer, thus securing to himself -the cheering influence of his presence. This was the first step -towards David's rise. But not only was the king attracted by him, -David exercised an influence over the entire court, and all hearts -turned towards him. Jonathan, however, loved him best of all. Saul's -second daughter, Michal, was also secretly devoted to him. At the -court, David learnt the use of weapons, and exchanged the harp for -the sword. As he was full of courage, he soon distinguished himself -in the small frays in which he took part, and came off victorious and -successful. On one occasion, when David had inflicted a signal defeat -on the Philistines, and when there were great rejoicings throughout -the Israelite territory, the women and maidens of the various cities -which he traversed on his return came forth to meet him with songs, -timbrels and cymbals, dancing around him, and joyfully proclaiming him -victor, saying: "Saul has killed his thousands, but David his tens of -thousands." These honours, unanimously and enthusiastically offered to -the youthful hero, at length opened Saul's eyes. This was "the better -man," the one whom God had chosen as king over Israel; the rival with -whom Samuel had threatened him, whom he dreaded so greatly, but who had -hitherto only appeared to him as a visionary being, was now actually -before him in the person of his own favourite and that of his people. - -It was a terrible disillusion for Saul. "To me they give but thousands, -and to him tens of thousands--they place him above me. What is yet -wanting to make him king?" The joyous shouts of the singing and dancing -choruses of women rang in his ears from that time, and brought to mind -the words of the prophet: "Thou art deserted of God." Saul's love for -David now changed to bitter hate, which soon turned to madness. - -On the very day succeeding David's return from his triumphal -procession, Saul was seized with frenzy, and twice hurled a spear at -David, who skilfully avoided the thrust. When the mad fit had left -Saul, the failure of this attempt seemed to him a proof that God was -protecting his enemy. From that time he sought to destroy his rival by -stratagem. He pretended to honour David; made him the leader of the -picked detachment of a thousand men, ordered him to direct attacks -of great importance and danger, and offered him his eldest daughter, -Merab, as a wife. Saul hoped to bring the man whom he hated to ruin -by these apparent marks of favour. David, however, avoided the danger -by refusing to marry Merab, and, on the other hand, he had the good -fortune to defeat the Philistines. He was to have the king's second -daughter in marriage, if he brought proofs of having killed one hundred -Philistines. He brought evidence of having slain double the number, and -Saul was obliged to keep his promise, and give him his daughter Michal. -She and Jonathan sided with David against their father, thus incensing -Saul still more. He sought to take David's life, at first secretly, and -then openly by leading his forces against him. David was proclaimed an -outlaw, and became utterly desperate. He was now joined by youths and -men as forlorn as himself, and anxious for war. Chief amongst these was -his kinsman, Joab, who, with his two brothers, formed the nucleus of -the body of _heroic warriors_ (_Gibborim_), by whose assistance David -was to rise step by step to the throne. A prophet, named Gad, belonging -to the school of Samuel, also joined him. The last representatives of -the sacerdotal family of Eli, the high-priest, were driven by Saul into -the arms of his supposed enemy. Saul, hearing that the priests of Nob, -the relations and descendants of Eli, had been aiding David, caused -them to be cruelly murdered, and the priestly city to be destroyed. -One family alone, that of Abiathar, escaped death, and fled to David, -who received the fugitives with open arms. Hatred of his rival made -Saul cruel and bloodthirsty. All attempts on the part of Jonathan, who -desired to mediate between his father and his friend, proved fruitless, -and only served to widen the breach. Saul being clearly in the wrong, -a part of the nation sided with David; but unable to assist him -openly, they gave him secret help, by which he was enabled to escape -from repeated persecutions. It is to be deplored that David, in his -wanderings and privations, was obliged to form friendly relations with -the enemies of his country--with the king of Moab, with the Ammonite -king, Nahash, and with the king of the Philistines, Achish. He thus -incurred the suspicion of having become a traitor to his country, and -apparently justified Saul's enmity towards him. The terms of David's -alliance with Achish, by whom he had been at first refused protection, -but with whom he had, on the second occasion, found refuge, seemed -especially apt to implicate him. Achish granted him protection on the -condition that he would break entirely with Saul and his country, so -that, in case of war, he and his troops, amounting to six hundred men, -might join the Philistines against his own tribe, and, in times of -peace, make incursions on the remote portions of Judah, and deliver -up a part of the booty to his liege lord. David, it is true, appears -to have determined to evade these conditions, and eventually even to -join his own people against his allies. But thus he was compelled to -enter upon crooked ways, and to give up the honesty of purpose which -had hitherto distinguished him. It is probable that the wild appearance -of David's troops did not make a very pleasant impression on the -inhabitants of Philistia. The Philistine chiefs were displeased that -their sovereign should ally himself with a leader who owed his glory -to victories over their own people. King Achish, however, expected so -much from this alliance that he paid no heed to the warning of his -counsellors. But David himself felt the discomfort of living amongst -the Philistine population. He therefore begged Achish to assign to -him and his followers a dwelling-place in one of his citadels. This -proposition being agreeable to the Philistine king, he gave David the -town of Ziklag. No sooner had the news spread that a special city had -been appointed for David's occupation, than warlike men, both strangers -and natives, joined him, many of whom distinguished themselves by their -heroism later on. Achish believed that, in David, he had secured a -faithful ally, who was employing his military knowledge and courage -against members of his own tribe, and who, consequently, could never -again make peace with his own people. - -Thus adroitly deluded by David, Achish thought himself secure in -undertaking a decisive war against the Israelites. Saul was sunk in -melancholy, and since his quarrel with his son-in-law had lost his -former energy in warfare. The strong arm which had fought for him, and -the quick brain which had planned for him, were now turned against -him. The bravest youths and men in Israel had placed themselves under -David's command. Achish summoned all his troops, in order to inflict -a decisive blow on Israel. Marching through the plain along the coast -of the Mediterranean (which belonged to the Philistines since their -victory over the Phoenicians), he led his army right into the valley of -Jezreel. This territory, apart from political considerations, offered -a better field than the mountain regions for employing the cavalry and -chariots. In consequence of their treaty, Achish demanded that David -should aid him in this great war against Saul, and unite his troops -with the Philistine army. David's heart must indeed have been heavy -when he joined the army, but he had no choice; he had sold himself to -the enemies of his nation. The Philistine nobles, however, delivered -him from his equivocal position. They loudly and vehemently demanded -that the king should send away David and his soldiers, whose fidelity -they mistrusted. The Philistine king was forced, by their almost -rebellious demand, to dismiss David. After giving him the assurance of -his unshaken confidence in his fidelity, he sent him back to Ziklag. -This was fortunate for David, as he was thus saved from the dilemma of -either becoming a traitor to his own people, or breaking faith with his -ally Achish. - -The Philistines meanwhile went forth to the number of thousands, and -encamped near the town of Shunem. Saul, who had received news of the -preparations of the Philistines, and of their final expedition, called -together the Israelitish troops, advanced in forced marches to meet -the enemy, and encamped at first at the foot of Mount Gilboa. He then -marched around the opposite heights, and, having proceeded northward, -encamped at the north-west base of the mountain range near Endor. - -Saul lost heart at the sight of the great number of Philistines, -especially when he beheld their cavalry; the evil days which he had -brought on himself had deprived him of his former courage. He felt -himself deserted by God, since neither priest nor prophet gave an -answer to his inquiry as to the result of the war. Having waited in -vain for an inspiration to come to him in a dream, he finally, in -despair, went to a ventriloquist in Endor, who had escaped persecution, -and practised her witchcraft in secret. It was peculiar that Saul had -to have recourse to the arts of jugglery, which formerly he had desired -to banish from his dominions. Discouraged by the ominous predictions -of the witch, Saul went into battle with a heavy heart, and as though -his fears had infected his troops, the result proved disastrous. The -Israelites, indeed, fought bravely, and the battle lasted the whole -day, but they could not contend with the cavalry and war chariots -on the plain. They fled to the mountains of Gilboa, but they were -pursued, and routed by the Philistines. Saul's three sons, the amiable -Jonathan, Abinadab and Malchishua, all fell, and the father found -himself suddenly alone, attended only by his armour-bearer, whilst -the Philistine bowmen pressed on him. He did not wish to flee, nor to -be taken prisoner, and exposed to the scorn of the Philistines. He, -therefore, entreated his servant to give him the death-blow, and when -the latter refused to lay hands on the king, Saul had no alternative -but to fall on his own sword, and die a death worthy of a king. The -destruction was fearful. The flower of the Israelite troops lay strewn -on Mount Gilboa and the plain of Jezreel. - -After resting during the night from their hard day's work, the -Philistines revisited the battle-field, and stripped the slain of -their clothing and ornaments. Here they found the corpses of Saul and -his three sons. The king's head and his weapons they sent as trophies -to Philistia; the skull they preserved in the temple of Dagon, and -the weapons, in a temple of Astarte to commemorate the great victory -over Israel. They then forced their way into the towns in the plain of -Jezreel, and into those in the north-eastern territory near the Jordan -and occupied them. The inhabitants, on hearing of the defeat at Gilboa, -had fled to the opposite side of the Jordan. The Philistines, as an -insult to the Israelites, hung the headless bodies of Saul and his son -Jonathan on the walls of Bethshan. It appears that the Philistines, -following up their victory, turned to the south of Mount Gilboa and -Bethshan, and occupied every town of importance. Saul's capital, -Gibeah-Saul, was filled with terror at the approach of the Philistines. -The inhabitants fled to the mountains, and while attempting to save -Jonathan's son, Mephibosheth, then five years old, his nurse dropped -him, and he was lamed for life. - -At his death, Saul left the country in a deplorable position, for -things were even worse than they had been at his accession. The -defeat was so thorough and unexpected that, at the moment, there was -no thought of resistance, all courage having vanished. It was even -considered an act of daring that some men of Jabesh-Gilead (from the -opposite side of the Jordan), ventured, out of gratitude to Saul who -had brought aid to their town, to rescue the king's body from its -disgraceful exposure. They crossed the Jordan, at Bethshan, by night, -took Saul's and Jonathan's bodies from the walls, buried them under -a terebinth, and mourned for them during seven days. The tribes -on this side of the Jordan were not equally courageous, or perhaps -felt no gratitude to Saul, who had brought misery on the land by his -persecution of David. Such was the end of a king whose election the -nation had hailed with so much hope and joy. - - - - -CHAPTER VII. - -DAVID AND ISHBOSHETH. - - Burning of Ziklag--Defeat of the Amalekites--Judah elects - David as King--Abner and Ishbosheth--War between the houses of - Saul and David--Murder of Abner--Death of Ishbosheth--David - recognised as sole King--Capture of Zion--Fortification of - Jerusalem--War with the Philistines--Victory of David--The - Heroes--Alliance with Hiram--Removal of the Ark of the - Sanctuary to Jerusalem--The High-Priest--Choral Services of - the Temple--Internal Government of Israel--The Gibeonites and - Rizpah--Mephibosheth. - - 1055-1035 B. C. E. - - -David, too, in whom the people had once set high hopes, seemed to be -forgotten by them. What had he done while his fatherland was bleeding? -Whether or not his expedition with the Philistines was known, it must -have appeared strange to all that, in this sad crisis, he was keeping -himself aloof from every danger, only caring for his own safety, and -that, instead of hastening to the aid of his oppressed people, he was -holding to his treaty with the Philistines. It is true, he was himself -at that time in distress, but the events which concerned him became -known only later on. Meanwhile it must have been mortifying to those -who cared for the weal of the kingdom that David was allied with the -enemy, and that, during the absence of king Achish, in the war against -Israel, David seemed in a measure to guard the enemy's frontiers. When -David was sent back from his intended expedition with the Philistines -on account of the suspicions of the nobles, he found that his town of -Ziklag had been burnt down, and the women and children and all those -who had joined him had disappeared. The Amalekites, who had suffered -from David's incursions, had made use of his absence to undertake a -raid against him. The grief of the troops was so great when they found -that their belongings had disappeared and their town had been destroyed -that they turned on David in their anger, and threatened him with -death. However, they were encouraged by the oracular words of Abiathar, -the priest, and permitted themselves to be appeased. Hurriedly David -and his men then followed in pursuit. They discovered the camp of the -Amalekites by the aid of an Egyptian slave whom they had found ill and -deserted by the wayside. They pursued the Amalekites, and David's angry -soldiers routed them so completely that most of them were left dead on -the field of battle, and only a few could escape on camels. David and -his troops returned to Ziklag, buoyed up by victory. They commenced to -rebuild their town, and to settle down. Parts of the booty taken from -the Amalekites David sent as gifts to the elders of the people and to -his friends in many towns from Beersheba to Hebron, so as to spread the -news of his victory, and, at the same time, gain partisans for himself. -Hardly had he regained a firm footing in Ziklag, when he heard the evil -tidings of the defeat and death of Saul. - -The chief men of the tribe of Judah, at the instigation of those -friends whose interest he had won by his attention, chose David as -king. He then entered into communication with the tribes on the other -side of the Jordan, in order to win also their affection. To the tribes -on this side of the river he could not appeal, as they were still under -the yoke of the Philistines. To the inhabitants of Jabesh-Gilead, -he expressed his contentment and his thanks for having shown their -fidelity towards Saul even after his death, and for having rescued the -corpse of the king from ill usage. He also informed them of the fact -that the tribe of Judah had elected him as Saul's successor. - -His unhappy fate, however, still kept him in alliance with the -Philistines, and his prudence was struggling with his patriotism. The -latter incited him to risk everything, in order to release himself -from the fetters which bound him, whilst the former, on the other -hand, warned him not to arouse the anger of his powerful neighbour. -Achish gave David full permission to consider himself king of Judah, -and to make incursions on the border lands of the desert, on condition -that he received his share of the booty. But beyond this David was -not permitted to advance a step. The deliverance of the land from -the Philistines, which David, whose hands were bound, was unable to -carry out, was effected by Abner, Saul's general. He had succeeded in -escaping in the great defeat at Gilboa, and he did not lose courage, -but saved what he could from the ruin which befell the house of Saul. -Attended by some fugitives, he took refuge on the other side of the -Jordan (beyond the reach of the Philistines), where many hearts were -still faithful to Saul and his house. Abner conducted the surviving son -of Saul, Ishbosheth, and the remaining members of the helpless royal -family to Mahanaim, and induced the tribes residing on that side of the -river to acknowledge Ishbosheth as Saul's successor. Having collected a -powerful force from among the tribes and the Benjamites who joined him, -he commenced his contest with the Philistines. Abner was successful in -ousting the Philistines from the neighbouring border towns, but it was -only after a struggle of four or five years that he was enabled to free -the whole country (1055-1051), so arduous was the contest. The tribe -of Benjamin was the most difficult to reconquer, as the Philistines -could most easily march their troops into its territory. Every tribe -which Abner delivered was eager to pay homage to the son of Saul. -Abner achieved great results: he not only regained independence, but -even induced tribes, which had shown themselves unruly under Saul's -government, to join the commonwealth. He was the actual founder of the -kingdom of the Ten Tribes of Israel, and he firmly welded the links -which bound them to one another. But, notwithstanding his victory and -his exertions, the nation was suddenly divided into two kingdoms--that -of Israel and that of Judah--and two kings ruled them. The tribe of -Judah, which the energy of Samuel and of Saul had drawn from its -seclusion, and reunited with the other tribes, was thus again separated -from the whole. - -Abner's victories aroused no feelings of joy because they led to -disunion. The historian's pen hurries over his deeds, and touches -but lightly on the hero's achievements. The state of affairs made an -amalgamation of the houses of Judah and Israel impossible. Not only -were the two kings, David and Ishbosheth, averse to the reunion of the -several tribes (as in this case one of the two would have to resign his -kingly dignity), but their adherents, and especially their respective -generals, Joab and Abner, displayed a great degree of mutual jealousy. -The scales were turned by the fact that the house of Judah was led by a -brave and martial king, who had been consecrated by Samuel, and whose -person was therefore considered holy, whilst Ishbosheth, a king only -in name, had not been confirmed in his dignity by the voice of God, -and besides, it seems, was by no means of a warlike disposition. The -whole power rested in the hands of his general Abner, while Ishbosheth -remained in some remote corner of his possessions, whereas David had -his dwelling-place in the midst of his tribe, and thus could direct -everything from his residence in Hebron. - -After Abner had won or reconquered all the tribes, with the exception -of Judah, a civil war broke out between the houses of Israel and Judah, -or, more correctly speaking, between the houses of Saul and David. This -war lasted two years (1051-1049), and raged very fiercely. At length -Abner called upon Joab to put an end to the slaughter of the masses. -He cried, "Must the sword slay for ever; dost thou not know that only -misfortune can arise from this warfare? Why dost thou not command thy -people to hold off from their brethren?" At length Joab also found -it advisable to put aside his weapons, and to proclaim an armistice. -He and his people bore the corpse of his brother Asahel, whom Abner -had slain against his will, to Bethlehem, in order that it might be -interred in the ancestral tomb, and thence they repaired to Hebron. -Abner and his followers crossed the Jordan, and went to Mahanaim. -But a tragical destiny threatened the house of Saul. Abner had cast -covetous glances at Rizpah, the beautiful slave of Saul, who dwelt in -Mahanaim with her two sons. Although Ishbosheth allowed his general -many liberties, he could not permit him to maintain intimate relations -with his father's widow, which implied the intention of laying claim to -the throne. Abner, feeling himself slighted by the rebuke he received, -reproached this mock-king with ingratitude, and turning away from him, -entered into secret negotiations with David, offering to secure to him -the homage of all the tribes. In return for this service, he probably -stipulated that he should retain his office of commander-in-chief of -the Israelitish tribes. David gladly entertained his proposition, but -demanded, as a preliminary concession, that his favourite wife Michal, -who had been torn from him by Saul, and married to a Benjamite, should -be restored to him. Ishbosheth himself no doubt saw the justice of this -demand, and did not perceive in it any evil intention towards himself. -Thereupon Abner, leaving the king under the pretext of bringing about -Michal's separation from her husband, entered the Benjamite territory, -compelled Phaltiel, Michal's husband, to give up his wife, whom he -followed, with many tears, till Abner's angry threats compelled him -to turn back in sorrow, and David recovered the beloved wife of his -youth. Abner then wandered about amongst the tribes trying to obtain -secret adherents for David. Many Israelites no doubt privately wished -that the luckless civil war would end with submission to the king -of Judah; even some of the Benjamites were not averse to a union. -Attended by twenty trusty followers whom he had secured for David, -Abner secretly entered Hebron; David had succeeded in sending away Joab -and his brothers (the distrustful and jealous sons of Zeruiah) on a -predatory expedition. During their absence, David personally arranged -with Abner and his twenty followers the manner in which the elders of -the tribes should be won over to his side, and how the dethronement of -Ishbosheth should then be effected. Abner had already left Hebron in -order to call upon the elders of the tribes to follow his example, and -do homage to the king of Judah. When Joab returned from his expedition, -he heard the astonishing intelligence that Abner, the enemy of David's -house, had been received, and permitted to depart in full favour, and -that the king had made a secret treaty behind his back. As it seemed -to him inevitable that he must be the victim of such a compact, he -quickly decided on his course, and sent messengers after Abner, who -induced him to return. Joab and Abishai lay in wait for him at the -gates of Hebron, and Abner, unaware and unwarned, was felled to the -earth by their swords. David felt the death of Abner acutely. The man -who alone was able and willing to obtain for him the adherence of all -the tribes by peaceful measures was thus foully murdered, on the very -eve of the realisation of his plan. David was placed in an awkward -position. In order to destroy any suspicion which might arise against -him, David gave solemn expression to his sincere grief at Abner's loss. -He commanded a grand, imposing funeral in Hebron for Israel's fallen -hero, ordered all his followers to attend the funeral procession, and -accompanied it himself. He breathed forth his tearful grief in an -elegiac poem, the beginning of which has been preserved, and which -made a powerful impression on all hearers. All burst into tears, and -were convinced of the sincerity of his sorrow by the manner in which he -recited his threnode. On the other hand, David feared to take the sons -of Zeruiah to account, or even to reproach them for their conduct; he -could not spare their assistance. In the circle of his intimates only, -uttering bitter complaints of them, he said, "Know that a great prince -in Israel has fallen to-day." - -The news of Abner's murder made a deep impression on Ishbosheth. He had -no knowledge of his fallen general's treacherous league with David, and -he therefore deeply mourned the death of a hero whom he supposed to be -faithful, and whose loss seemed to be irreparable, for he considered -Abner as the chief support of his throne. - -After Ishbosheth's death the kingdom of the ten tribes naturally fell -to David. Among them, too, he had adherents of long standing, who -remembered his warlike deeds against the Philistines in Saul's time, -and who honoured him as the chosen one of God through his prophet -Samuel. Others had been won over to his side by Abner. Even those who -took offence at David's league with the enemies of Israel, could not -hide from themselves the consideration that no choice was left them -but to do him homage. The Benjamites also acknowledged him, but with a -secret grudge, which they could hardly conceal. David's dearest wish -was now realised; from having been the ruler of a little, insignificant -tribe he had become, after many obstacles and troubles, the king of all -Israel. The breach between the houses of Judah and Israel was healed -apparently, and everything seemed favourable to him. The priesthood -and the prophets did not take a hostile attitude towards him, as they -had done towards Saul, but joined with heart and soul in his cause. A -descendant of the house of Eli, named Abiathar, who had shared David's -troubles, belonged to his court; and the prophets welcomed in him the -man who had been anointed by Samuel, and had belonged to that great -man's circle of disciples. The prophet Gad was also a member of the -court; and another prophet of the time, named Nathan, was to a certain -extent the keeper of David's conscience. Thus encouraged in all his -undertakings by his spiritual advisers, everything tended to level the -way for him, as far as the internal government was concerned. But his -foreign relations occasioned him great difficulties, which had to be -overcome before he could rule as an independent king. - -In the first place, David was forced to break with the Philistines, if -he wished to be independent, and to win back the love of his people. He -had to prepare himself for fierce warfare with his former auxiliaries. -But he did not immediately commence hostilities with them; they were -too powerful for him. He wished first to free himself from other bonds. -In the midst of the Benjamite territory was an enclosure, which had -remained in the possession of the Jebusites, because the Israelites, -on their entry into the land, had not conquered it. The high hill of -Zion was rendered inaccessible on three sides by narrow valleys and -artificial fortifications. The most impregnable point was the south -side, where the rocky wall of the hill rose almost in a vertical line -from an abyss below. From this mountain fortress, the Jebusites ruled -the entire surrounding territory, and felt themselves secure from -all intruders. They appear to have lived in a state of peace with -the surrounding Benjamites and Judæans, as even Saul did not disturb -them in the possession of their territory. David, however, considered -it conducive to his interest to obtain possession of this citadel of -Zion before commencing hostilities with the Philistines. He therefore -resolved to storm the citadel, and subdue its defenders. As soon as the -Jebusites found all opposition useless they sued for peace, which was -granted them by David. They were allowed to remain in their city, but -not in the fortress; he permitted them to settle in the east of the -town, on Mount Moriah. This victory, which had appeared so difficult, -and had, in fact, been easily obtained, had been preceded by the boast -of the Jebusites about the blind and the lame, which gave rise to a -proverb. - -After its conquest, David removed his capital from Hebron to Mount -Zion, and it was henceforth known as the town of David. The city -itself lost its old name of Jebus, and received the new name Jerusalem -(_Jerushalayim_), the meaning of which is not known. Hither David -removed with his warriors and their families, and his courtiers. -The spot where the bravest soldiers had their dwellings was called -after them the house of the brave (_Beth-ha-Gibborim_). Such was the -beginning of the place which since then, and for centuries, was to be -known as the "Holy City." The choice of this spot as a capital was a -happy stroke, as circumstances soon proved. It is true, Shechem would -have made a better metropolis, on account of its position in the midst -of the tribes, and the fruitful territory around it. But David found -it impossible to move his dwelling to the town of the Ephraimites. The -inhabitants were not especially well disposed towards him, and rather -unwilling that the half-savage king, who sprang from Judah, should -prescribe laws to them. Besides, he needed the support of his own -tribe, and this he could have in Jerusalem, which was situated on the -boundaries of Benjamin and Judah, and which would serve as a protection -in the event of unruliness on the part of the other tribes. The -territory on which the new capital was erected was not sterile, though -it could bear no comparison with the part of the country in which -Shechem lay. In the valleys flow everlasting springs, the springs of -Siloah and En-Rogel in the south, the Gihon in the west; so that in the -dry season the town and fields can always be supplied with water. On -three sides Jerusalem is surrounded by a range of hills which protect -and embellish it. On the east is a high watershed (2724 feet), Mount -Olivet, so named from the olive trees which cover it. In the south the -hills are not so lofty, and the valley dividing them from the city is -narrower. The valley is that of Henna (Ge-henna), which was thus named -after an individual or a family, and which was destined to acquire a -sad renown, and to supply another appellation for hell (_Gehenna_). On -the west the summits are also low, and can hardly be called hills. On -the north, the hills gently slope down to the plain. By these hills and -valleys, which form natural walls and ditches, Jerusalem is sheltered -on three sides. Within Jerusalem, on the high plateau and between the -three valleys on the east, south, and west, there are three ranges of -hills rising above the plain. On the west is Zion, the loftiest summit. -On the north is a hill of no great height; and opposite the third is -Mount Moriah, which has an offshoot towards the south, called "Ophel." -Moriah, though much less lofty than Zion, was destined to eclipse it -and the greatest heights on earth in importance. - -The Philistines could not ignore the fact that the choice of David -as king of the entire Israelite nation had not only greatly loosened -the bond which united him to them, but that it must in the future -force him to take up a hostile attitude towards themselves. They did -not, however, wish to break with him. But when the conquest of Jebus -(Jerusalem) took place, they considered the fact of his removing -his dwelling thither as a premonitory sign. They hastened to join -with him in battle, before he had time to arm the available troops -of the various tribes. A Philistine band pressed forward across the -plain into the mountains, and approached Jerusalem. Whether David was -surprised by their attack, or whether he wished to avoid an action near -his capital, is unknown, but he left it with his troops, and moved -southwards to Adullam. Encouraged by this retreat, the Philistines -pressed on to Bethlehem, David's birthplace, where they encamped, -and whence they sent out predatory expeditions to ravage the land of -Judah. David delayed attacking the Philistines; his army was probably -too weak, and he expected reinforcements from the tribes. In order to -stimulate his warriors to trials of strength during the pause before -the decisive contest, David expressed a wish to drink water from a well -in Bethlehem, which was in the possession of the Philistines. Three -of the chief warriors, Jesheboam, Eleazar, and Shammah, immediately -set out against the Philistines, daringly drew water from the well, -and brought it to David at Adullam. David, however, would not drink -the water for which his warriors had risked their lives. He had only -put them to the test. At length the Israelite troops went forth to -meet the Philistines, and utterly routed them at Mount Baal-Perazim. -This victory was so decisive that it was compared with Joshua's at -Gibeon. In their hurried flight, the Philistines left behind them their -idols, which were burnt by the Israelites. The enemy did not, however, -relinquish their intention of subduing David and his people. They made -repeated attacks, once in the valley of Rephaim, another time near -Ephes-dammim in Terebinthea; David's troops and warriors performed -miracles of bravery, they defeated their enemies, and pursued them as -far as Gaza. David did not content himself with mere defence, but he -determined on attacking the Philistines. If he wished to protect his -people, it was necessary either constantly to harass, or to subdue the -small but powerful nation which depended on incursions and warfare -for its maintenance. He therefore proceeded with his soldiers as far -as Gath, the former capital of the Philistines, which was situated -nearest to the land of Judæa. The Philistines made a very obstinate -resistance, and violent conflicts arose, in which David's heroes had -ample opportunity for distinguishing themselves. It appears that the -Philistines suggested, according to their custom, that there should be -combats with the remnant of their Rephaitic giants. Times had changed, -however, and whilst in David's youth the Israelitish troops had not had -among them a single soldier who would accept Goliath's challenge, there -were now more than thirty who burned with eagerness to take part in the -duels. On this occasion the warriors entreated the king not to expose -himself in battle, and, in fact, not to go to war himself, in order -that "the light of Israel" might not be extinguished. - -At length the Israelites succeeded in utterly routing the Philistines, -so that they were obliged to surrender their capital Gath, and its -villages and the surrounding territory. The town in which the son of -Jesse had first appeared, entreating help in the guise of an imbecile, -thus fell before him. One of the thirty warriors, Sibbechai of Hushah, -killed the giant Sippai of Gath; another man from Bethlehem named -Elhanan, killed the brother of Goliath, named Lahmi, who had sallied -forth to the contest like Goliath, laden with armour. David's nephew -Jonathan killed a giant who had an additional finger on each hand, -and an additional toe on each foot. David himself was once, when -exhausted from the long struggle, in imminent danger of being overcome -by the giant Ishbi of Gath; Abishai, however, Joab's brother, hurried -to his aid, defeated the giant, and killed three hundred Philistines -with his spear. The overthrow of the Philistines was an event of the -greatest importance; it ensured lasting peace and freedom of action -to the people, for none of the other enemies of Israel harassed it -so persistently. David did not push his victory further; he left the -important cities of Gaza, Askelon, Ashdod and Ekron undisturbed, and -even the town of Gath he appears later on to have restored to its -king. No doubt he had reasons for not using extreme measures with the -Philistines. It appeared to him better to rule them as a tributary -power than to drive them to a war of desperation. - -By his victory over the Philistines, David attained great importance -and respect in the eyes of the neighbouring peoples. Hiram, the king -who had transferred the Phoenician power from Zidon to Tyre, despatched -ambassadors to David, offering to make an alliance with him. He also -offered to send supplies of cedar wood and building materials for -adorning the new capital of Jerusalem in a fitting manner. He rejoiced -at the subjection of the Philistines, probably because they would no -longer be able to cast covetous glances at the Phoenician coast-lands. -It was a matter of great interest to the king of Tyre to secure an -alliance with David, in order that the Phoenician caravans might have -free passage, and find protection for their goods when they passed -backwards and forwards between Phoenicia and Egypt. David willingly -accepted his advances, and thus a sort of friendship arose between him -and Hiram. He accepted Hiram's offer in order to fortify the capital -which had been founded by him, and to obtain materials for adorning -it with architectural works, so that Jerusalem might vie in outward -appearance with the other capitals of those times. In the first place -Jerusalem was fortified, especially on the north, where it was most -liable to be attacked. The hill of Zion, or City of David, was, in -fact, not sufficiently extensive to contain all the inhabitants who had -already settled there, and it had become necessary to take measures to -provide for the increasing population. For this reason, the hill which -lay to the north of the town was included in its boundaries. Between -Zion and this hillock lay a narrow valley. The northern elevation of -the town was called _Millo_ (border); it was considered the newer -quarter of the town, in comparison with the more ancient city of David. -Mount Moriah and its offshoot Ophel remained outside the circuit of the -city, and in those days was not considered as belonging to Jerusalem, -but was inhabited by the surviving remnant of the Jebusites. David also -built a palace of cedar, the wood for which was procured from Lebanon. -To Joab and the other important personages of David's court were -assigned roomy and well-built houses, which were not constructed of -cedar wood, but of cypress. - -David further sought to make Jerusalem the centre of religious life, -in order that the eyes of the whole nation might be turned towards it. -He therefore took measures to remove the ark of the sanctuary from -the house of Abinadab at Kirjath-Jearim, where it had remained since -its recovery from the hands of the Philistines. A splendid tent was -built for its reception in the city of David. David had vowed not to -remain in his house, nor to rest on his bed, nor to close his eyes in -sleep until he had found a resting-place for the ark of the covenant. -Accompanied by a great concourse, the king repaired to Kirjath-Jearim -(which lay at about an hour's journey to the north-west of Jerusalem), -and many Levites followed in the king's train. The ark of the sanctuary -was placed on a new carriage drawn by bullocks, which were led by -two sons of Abinadab. Choirs of Levites sang hymns, and accompanied -themselves on stringed instruments, and David also assisted them with -all his might. An accident, however, occurred on the road. Uzzah, who -walked next to the chariot, suddenly fell down dead. David was so -shocked at this catastrophe that he hesitated to carry the ark of the -covenant into Jerusalem. He feared that it might bring down misfortune -on the people, as it had done in the case of the Philistines. It was -therefore placed in a house for three months, and, seeing that no evil -came of it, David determined on making a second attempt at bringing -it to Mount Zion. On this occasion, however, it was not placed on a -chariot, but was carried by Levites. Followed by a mass of people, and -amidst shouts of joy, blasts of trumpets, and dancing, the ark was -conveyed to the tent appointed for it. The king himself, oblivious of -his dignity, sang and danced in exultation before the ark. His conduct -called forth a rebuke from his wife Michal, who scoffingly charged him -with behaving like a public clown. - -As it had done in the case of Shiloh, the arrival of the Ark raised -Jerusalem to the dignity of a holy city. In such a place of public -worship, it was necessary to maintain a priest, or rather a priesthood. -Abiathar, David's faithful follower in all his wanderings, was, -as a matter of course, raised to the office of High Priest to the -sanctuary in Zion. There was, however, another high priest in Gibeon, -whom Saul had placed there after the destruction of Eli's family in -Nob. David could not entirely displace him, for such a course would -have led to dissensions. He therefore confirmed his predecessor's -appointment, and thus retained two high priests in office at the same -time--Abiathar in Jerusalem, and Zadok in Gibeon. A former pupil of -the Levitical choirs, himself a poet and a musician, David naturally -followed Samuel's example and introduced choral singing into the solemn -religious services. He also composed hymns of praise at times, when a -victory over the enemy, or some other success filled his heart with -thankfulness, and animated him with poetical fervour. It may be said -that his songs have become the prototypes of this lofty and inspiring -style of verse. Besides the royal psalmist there were other poets and -musicians, such as Asaph, Heman, a grandson of Samuel, and Jeduthun. -Their descendants were the Asaphites and Korachites (Bene Korach), who -are named with David as the most famous composers of psalms. David -arranged that Asaph and his choir should lead the choral service in -the sanctuary at Jerusalem, whilst his fellow-musicians, Heman and -Jeduthun, performed the same functions at the altar in Gibeon. Samuel's -creation of a spiritual divine service was thus firmly established by -David; and though he was an upholder of sacrificial rites, he valued -the elevating and refining influence of psalmody too highly not to make -it an integral element of the public cult. At a time when poetry as an -art had hardly awakened amongst the other nations, it already occupied -a prominent place in the divine service of Israel. - -As David was the actual founder of a sanctifying divine worship, he was -also the creator of a system of government which was based on justice. -He presided at the tribunal, listened untiringly to the disputes -of individuals or of tribes, and administered justice with strict -impartiality. His throne was not only the high seat of government and -power, it was also that of order and justice. Succeeding generations -pronounced David the ideal king. His throne was looked upon as the prop -of justice, and his sceptre as the standard of civic peace. Jerusalem -was by him made an ideal city, where a pure worship of God had been -established, and justice, in its most exalted form, had found its -earthly resting-place. A later psalmist says-- - - "Jerusalem, that art builded as a city that is compact together, - Whither the tribes go up, even the tribes of the Lord; - For a testimony unto Israel, - To give thanks unto the name of the Lord. - For there are set thrones for judgment, - The thrones of the house of David." - - PSALM cxxii. 3-5. - -Jerusalem was considered "a faithful citadel--full of -righteousness--where justice had its dwelling-place." These -circumstances, the deliverance from the yoke of the Philistines, the -universal safety, and the establishment of justice under David's rule, -rendered him again the favourite of the people, as he had been in his -youth. A feeling of loyalty to him prevailed, which was of spontaneous -growth, and in which force had no share. - -David partly altered the internal arrangements of the country. The -constitution of the tribes remained intact. The elders represented -the families, and the head of the oldest family was also the prince -of his tribe (Naszi-Beth-Ab). The princes were the representatives of -the tribes with the king. But it was necessary to limit the freedom, -or rather the arbitrariness of the tribes, in regard to military -arrangements. Each tribe, in case of war, was bound to contribute a -number of capable soldiers (over twenty years of age) as its contingent -to the national army (_Zaba_). A special officer was appointed over -this contingent, who was called the enumerator (_Sopher_), or the -keeper of the rolls. He wrote down on a list the names of the men -fit for active service, looked to their enrolment, and compelled the -attendance of all defaulters. This duty David delegated to a man named -Shavsha, from whom it passed on to his heirs. As soon as the army was -assembled, it was commanded by the field officer (_Sar-ha-Zaba_), -who at this conjuncture was Joab. David also supported a troop -of mercenaries whom he recruited from the heathen soldiery, the -Cherethites, who came from a territory belonging to the Philistine -dominions, and the Pelethites, whose origin is unknown. Benaiah, son of -Jehoiada, one of the bravest of David's soldiers, was their commander. -David also appointed a special officer on whom devolved the duty of -reporting to the king all important, or apparently important events. -He was called the recorder (_Maskhir_). As favouritism is inseparable -from kingly will, David also had a favourite (named Hushai the Arkhi) -on whom he could rely under all circumstances, especially in cases -requiring discretion. He was also fortunate in having an adviser at -hand, who could give suitable counsel in various emergencies; his name -was Ahithophel, and his birthplace was the Judæan town of Gilo. At -that time his advice was currently said to be as infallible as the -oracles uttered by the lips of the high priest. This wise and over-wise -councillor of David was destined to exercise a great influence over -his royal master. At one time David's judicial conscience was put -to a severe test. A famine of long duration overspread the land on -account of a two years' drought. The distress continued to grow when, -at the commencement of the third year, no rain had fallen, and the -people turned to the king for help. This misfortune, in which the -entire country shared, was interpreted as being God-sent retribution -for some secret and unavenged sin. David therefore inquired of the -priest Abiathar what sin required expiation, and the answer came, "on -account of Saul and his ruthless persecution of the Gibeonites." David -then sent to the remnant of the Gibeonites, and inquired of them what -atonement they desired. Not satisfied with an expiatory sum of money, -they demanded that seven descendants of Saul should be hanged in -Gibeah-Saul. The demand of the Gibeonites seemed just, for according to -the views of the time, only blood could atone for the shedding of blood -and a breach of faith. With a heavy heart David had to comply with the -demand of the Gibeonites, and satisfy the desire of the nation. The -two sons of Saul's concubine Rizpah, and his grandson, the son of his -daughter Merab, were sought out, handed over to the Gibeonites, and -killed by them in cold blood, in Gibeah-Saul, the town in which their -father had won a crown. - -David spared only Mephibosheth, the son of Jonathan, for he remembered -the oath made to his friend, that he would always protect his -descendants. The corpses of the seven victims were to remain on the -gallows until rain should fall from the heavens, but it was long ere -the rainfall came. It was in those dire days that the beautiful Rizpah, -for whose sake Abner had quarrelled with Ishbosheth, showed of what a -mother's love is capable. In order to prevent her sons' corpses from -being devoured by eagles and jackals, she made her couch on the rocks -on which the bodies were exposed, and guarded them with a watchful -eye through the heat of day. Nor did she relax her vigilance in the -night, but continued her work of scaring away the beasts of prey from -the dead. When at length in the autumn the rain fell, the seven bodies -were taken down, and at David's command the last honours were bestowed -on them. He also seized this opportunity to remove the remains of -Saul and Jonathan from Jabesh-Gilead, and to bury them, together with -the remains of their kindred, in the family tomb of the house of Kish -at Zelah. It appears that, on this occasion, David caused his deeply -touching lament for the death of Saul and of Jonathan to be reproduced, -in order to express publicly how deeply the destruction of the royal -house of Benjamin had affected him. He directed that the elegy should -be committed to memory by the youths of the country. Jonathan's -surviving son, Mephibosheth (who had been living in the house of a -much-respected man on the other side of the Jordan) was brought to -Jerusalem, and David received him in his own house, placed him at his -own table, and treated him as one of his own sons. David also restored -to him Saul's lands in the tribe of Benjamin, and entrusted the -management of them to one of Saul's slaves, named Ziba. Notwithstanding -this, the Benjamites accused David of destroying the house of Saul, -and of having preserved Mephibosheth, because he was lame and unfit to -rule. When David's fortune was on the wane, the embittered Benjamites -cast stones at him. - - - - -CHAPTER VIII. - -DAVID. - - War with the Moabites--Insult offered by the king of the - Ammonites--War with the Ammonites--Their Defeat--Battle of - Helam--Attack of Hadadezer--Defeat of the Aramæans--Acquisition - of Damascus--War with the Idumæans--Conquest of the town of - Rabbah--Defeat of the Idumæans--Conquered races obliged to - pay tribute--Bathsheba--Death of Uriah the Hittite--Parable - of Nathan--Birth of Solomon (1033)--Misfortunes of - David--Absalom--Wise Woman of Tekoah--Reconciliation of David - and Absalom--Numbering of the Troops--Pestilence breaks out - in Israel--Absalom's Rebellion--Murder of Amasa--Sheba's - Insurrection--David and Nathan--Adonijah. - - 1035-1015 B. C. E. - - -When David had completed two decades of his reign, he became involved -in several wars, which withdrew him from the peaceful pursuits of -regulating the internal affairs of the country, and of attending to -the administration of justice. These wars with distant nations, forced -on him against his will, gave him an immense accession of power, -and raised the prestige of the people in a surprising degree. David -first began a fierce warfare with the Moabites, who dwelt on the -opposite side of the Dead Sea. With them he had been on friendly terms -during his wanderings, and amongst them he had met with a hospitable -reception. It is probable that the Moabites had ousted from their -possession the neighbouring Reubenites, and that David hurried to their -rescue. It must in any case have been a war of retribution, for, after -his victory, David treated the prisoners with a severity which he did -not display towards any of the other nations whom he conquered. The -Moabite captives were fettered, and cast side by side on the ground, -then measured with a rope, and two divisions were killed, whilst one -division was spared. The whole land of Moab was subdued, and a yearly -tribute was to be sent to Jerusalem. - -Some time afterwards, when Nahash, king of the Ammonites, died, -David, who had been on friendly terms with him, sent an embassy to -his son Hanun, with messages of condolence. This courtesy only roused -suspicion in Rabbath-Ammon, the capital of the Ammonites. The new -king's counsellors impressed him with the idea that David had sent his -ambassadors as spies to Rabbah, in order to discover their weakness, -to conquer them, and to deliver them over to the same fate that had -befallen the Moabites. Hanun was so carried away by his suspicions that -he offered an insult to the king of Israel which could not be passed -over unnoticed. He obliged the ambassadors, whose persons, according -to the laws of nations, were inviolable, to have their beards shaved -off on one side, and their garments cut short, and thus disgraced he -drove them out of the country. The ambassadors were ashamed to appear -at Jerusalem in this guise, but they informed David of the occurrence. -He immediately prepared himself for battle, and the militia was called -out; the old warriors girded their loins, and the Cherethite and -Pelethite mercenaries sallied forth with their heroic leader Benaiah -at their head. Hanun, who feared the valor of the Israelites, looked -around for help, and engaged mercenary troops from among the Aramæans, -who lived in the regions between the mountains of Hermon and the -banks of the Euphrates. Hadadezer, king of Zobah on the Euphrates, -contributed the greatest number--20,000 men. David did not personally -conduct this war, but left the supreme command with the careful and -reliable Joab. Having led the Israelite army across the Jordan, Joab -divided it into two bodies. With the one he attacked the Aramæans, the -other he left under the command of his brother Abishai. He aroused -the enthusiasm of his army by inspiring words: "Let us fight bravely -for our people and the city of our God, and may the Lord God do what -seemeth good unto Him." Joab then dashed at the Aramæans, and put them -to flight. On this, the Ammonites were seized with such fear that -they withdrew from the field, and took shelter behind the walls of -their capital. It was a most successful achievement. Joab hurried to -Jerusalem to report to the king, and to lay before him a plan by which -the Aramæans might be totally annihilated, and any future interference -on their part prevented. The victorious army, having been recalled from -the Ammonitish territories, was reinforced, and with the king himself -at its head pursued the Aramæan enemy on the other side of the Jordan. -King Hadadezer, on his part, also sent fresh troops to the aid of his -defeated forces, but in a battle at Helam, the Aramæan army was again -defeated, and its general, Shobach, fell in the encounter. The vassals -of the mighty Hadadezer then hastened to make peace with David. - -Tôi (or Tou), the king of Hamath, who had been at war with Hadadezer, -now sent his son Joram to David with presents, congratulating him on -the victory over their common foe. David followed up his successes -until he reached the capital of king Hadadezer, situated on the banks -of the Euphrates. The Aramæans were then defeated a third time; their -chariots and soldiers could not withstand the attack of the Israelite -army. The extensive district of Zobah, to which various princes had -been tributary, was divided into several parts. - -The king of Damascus, an ally of the king of Zobah, was also defeated -by David, and the ancient town of Damascus henceforth belonged to -the king of Israel. David placed land-overseers in all the Aramæan -territories from Hermon to the Euphrates, in order to enforce the -payment of tribute. David and his army themselves must have been -astonished at the wonderful result which they had achieved. It -rendered the king and his army objects of fear far and wide. Meanwhile -the king of the Ammonites had escaped punishment for his insults to -the ambassadors of Israel. In consequence of the campaign against the -Aramæans, which lasted nearly a year, the Israelitish army had been -unable to resume the war against Hanun. It was only after the great -events narrated above that David was again enabled to send his forces, -under Joab, against Ammon. Yet another war arose out of the hostilities -against this nation. The Idumæans, on the south of the Dead Sea, had -also assisted the Ammonites by sending troops to their aid, and these -had to be humiliated now. David deputed his second general, Abishai, -Joab's brother, to direct the campaign against the Idumæans. Joab was -in the meantime engaged in a long contest with the Ammonites, who had -secured themselves behind the strong walls of their fortified capital, -and were continually making raids on their foes. The Israelitish army -had neither battering rams nor other instruments of siege. Their only -alternative was to storm the heights of the city, and in their attempts -to carry out this plan they were often repelled by the bowmen on the -walls. At length Joab succeeded, after repeated attacks, in gaining -possession of one part of the city--the Water-Town; he reported this -victory to David at once, and urged him to repair to the camp in order -to lead in person the attack on the other quarters, so that the honour -of the conquest might be entirely his own. When David arrived at Rabbah -with fresh troops, he succeeded in subduing the whole town, and in -obtaining rich booty. David himself put on his head the golden diadem, -richly adorned with precious stones, which had heretofore crowned -the Ammonitish idol Malchom (Milchom). It appears that David did not -destroy the city of Rabbah, as he had intended. He merely condemned -the male inhabitants, or perhaps only the prisoners, to do hard work, -such as polishing stones, threshing with iron rollers, hewing wood -with axes, and making bricks. He treated the other prisoners from the -various towns in a similar manner. Hanun, the original cause of the -war, who had so deeply insulted David, was either killed or driven -out of the kingdom. In his stead David appointed his brother Shobi as -king. Meanwhile Abishai had been engaged in a war against the Idumæan -king, and had utterly routed him in the Valley of Salt--probably in the -neighbourhood of the rocksalt mountain, near the Dead Sea. Eighteen -thousand Idumæans are said to have fallen there. The rest probably -submitted; and for this reason David contented himself with placing -excise officers and a garrison over them, as he had done in Damascus -and the other Aramæan provinces. The Idumæans, however, seem later -on to have revolted against the Israelitish garrison and the tax -collectors, and to have massacred them. Joab therefore repaired to -Idumæa, caused the murdered Israelites to be buried, and all Idumæan -males to be put to death. He was occupied with this war of destruction -during half a year, and so thoroughly was the task executed that only a -few of the male sex could save themselves by flight. Amongst them was a -son or a grandson of the Idumæan king. - -By these decisive victories, in the west over the Philistines, in the -south over the Idumæans, in the east (on the opposite side of the -Jordan) over the Moabites and Ammonites, and in the north over the -Aramæans, David had raised the power of Israel to an unexpected degree. -While, at the commencement of his reign, when he was first acknowledged -king of all Israel, the boundaries of the country had been comprised -between Dan and Beersheba, he now ruled over the widespread territory -from the river of Egypt (Rhinokolura, El-Arish) to the Euphrates, or -from Gaza to Thapsacus (on the Euphrates). The nations thus subdued -were obliged annually to do homage by means of gifts, to pay tribute, -and perhaps also to send serfs to assist in building and other severe -labour. - -These wars and victories were better calculated than his early -hardships to bring to light the great qualities of David's mind. Strong -and determined as he was in every undertaking in which the honour and -safety of his people were involved, he remained modest and humble, -without a spark of presumption, after success had been attained. He -erected no monument to commemorate his victories as had been done by -Saul; like his general, Joab, he was imbued with the thought that to -God alone was to be attributed the victory. The faith in God, to which -David had given utterance when he prepared himself for the duel with -the Rephaite Goliath (I Samuel xvii. 47), he preserved in all great -contests. David elaborated this guiding thought in a psalm, which he -probably chanted before the ark at the close of the war, and in which -he gives a retrospect of his entire past life. - -In consequence of their great victories, two firm convictions were -impressed on the minds of the people, and these actuated and possessed -them in all times to come. The one idea occurs in various forms: "A -king cannot escape by the multitude of his army, nor a warrior by his -power; vain is the horse for safety." God alone decides the fate of -war, brings it to a close, gives victory or defeat, and "to Him it is -equally easy to conquer with few or with many." The other idea, in -closest connection with it, is that God leads the armies of Israel to -victory, if they go forth to glorify His name or to save His people. -The God of Israel was, in accordance with this idea, designated by a -special name which fully expresses this thought; He was named the _God -of hosts_ (Adonai Zebaoth), the God who gives victory unto Israel in -its conflicts. The King Zebaoth was invoked before every battle, and -the Israelitish troops went forth with the firm conviction that they -could never be defeated. This confidence, certainly, worked wonders in -the course of time. - -Severely as David treated the idols of the nations whom he had -conquered, he behaved with comparative leniency to the conquered -idolaters. The Moabites alone were cruelly punished, and the Ammonites -were enslaved, but the other conquered races were merely obliged to -pay tribute. The offences of the former must have been very great to -have deserved so heavy a punishment. The foreign races residing in -the country were not molested; thus we find Jebusites in Jerusalem, -and Canaanites and Hittites in other parts of the country. Hence we -find many strangers and natives not of Israelitish descent enrolled -in his corps of warriors, or leading their own troops in his service. -The Hittite Uriah, one of David's thirty heroes, who was destined to -play a melancholy part in David's career, was deeply attached to the -Israelitish nation. - -The joy over these great achievements remained, however, but for -a short time unmarred. The happiness of a state, like that of -individuals, is but seldom of long duration, and days of sunshine -must be followed by periods of darkness, to prevent the enervation of -the national vigour. By one false step David lost not only his own -inward contentment and peace, but shook the very foundations of that -state which it had cost him such exertions to establish. When David -returned home from the Aramæan war, and was resting from the fatigues -of battle, which Joab and his army were still undergoing in the land -of Ammon, he beheld from the roof of his palace a beautiful woman, who -was bathing. She was the wife of one of his most faithful warriors -(the Hittite, Uriah), and her name was Bathsheba. The houses of the -warriors were built on Zion in the vicinity of the king's palace, and -thus he happened to see Bathsheba. Carried away by his passion, he -sent messengers to command her to repair to the palace, and Bathsheba -obeyed. When David, some time after, found that this violation of the -marriage tie had not been without consequences, his only thought was -to save his honour, and thus he involved himself in deeper sin. He -commanded Uriah to return to Jerusalem from the camp at Rabbah. He -received him in a friendly manner, and gave him permission to rest, -and enjoy the company of his wife. Uriah, however, made no use of this -permission, but remained with the guard, who slept at the entrance of -the king's palace, and protected his person. David was disappointed. -He sought an escape from the dilemma, and this led him into a heinous -crime. As he could not save his honour, he determined that Uriah -should lose his life. David therefore sent him to the camp with a -letter to Joab, saying that the bearer should be placed in a post of -extreme danger--nay, of certain death--during one of the sorties of the -Ammonites. This command was fulfilled, and Uriah fell, struck dead by -an Ammonite arrow. Bathsheba fulfilled the customary time of mourning -for her husband, and was then received into the palace by David as his -wife. - -In every other State the court circle would have discussed a king's -fancy with bated breath; it would hardly have been blamed, and -certainly it would soon have been forgotten. But in Israel there was -an eye which could pierce this factitious darkness, and a conscience -which declaimed in a loud voice against the crimes of even a royal -wrong-doer. Prophetism possessed this clear sight which never failed, -and this conscience which never slept. It was its foremost duty not to -allow sin to grow into a habit by hushing it up and screening it, but -to expose it in glaring colors, and brand it with the stamp of public -condemnation. - -David no doubt believed that Bathsheba alone was cognisant of his sin, -and Joab the only accessory to the plot against Uriah's life. But -this error was suddenly and rudely dispelled. The prophet Nathan one -day came to David, and requested permission to bring a certain case to -his notice. He then related the following parable:--In a great city -there lived a rich man, who possessed great flocks and herds; and near -him lived a poor man who possessed but one little lamb, which he had -reared for himself. One day, when a guest came to the rich man, he -was too stingy to kill one of his flock for the meal, but he took the -lamb of the poor man to feast his friend. On hearing this complaint, -David's sense of justice was aroused, and he said indignantly that the -heartless rich man deserved to die, and should pay the poor man four -times the value of the lamb. Then the prophet replied, "Thou art the -man!" - -Any other king would have punished the moralist who had dared speak the -truth to a crowned head, to the representative of God on earth. David, -however, the pupil of the prophet Samuel, when the picture of his -misdeeds was thus placed before him, penitently answered, "Yes, I have -sinned." He certainly did not fail to offer up heartfelt prayers, and -to make atonement in order to obtain God's forgiveness. The child which -was born died in early infancy, although David had worn himself away -in fasting and prayers for its life. Bathsheba afterwards had a second -son named Jedidiah, or Solomon (1033), who became the favourite of his -father. - -But though God pardoned the king for his heinous sins, humanity did not -forgive them, and they proved fatal to domestic peace. Bathsheba, the -wife of Uriah, was the daughter of Eliam (one of David's warriors), -and the granddaughter of his counsellor Ahithophel. The father and -grandfather felt their honour disgraced through their daughter's -seduction, which they could never forgive, although they kept silence, -and did not betray their hatred. Ahithophel especially nursed his -vengeance in secret, and only awaited an opportunity to wreak it on the -king. David did all in his power to appease them. He elevated Bathsheba -to the rank of first queen, promised her secretly that her son should -be his successor, and solemnly swore to fulfil this promise. He wished -at any cost to make peace with Ahithophel, whose counsel was precious -to him. Ahithophel, however, remained immovable. A scandalous event -in the house of David involved matters to a still greater extent, and -robbed his remaining years of all tranquillity. His eldest son Amnon -seduced his half-sister Tamar, and thereby aroused the fierce anger of -her brother Absalom, who determined to avenge her. Each of the king's -sons, six of whom had been born in Hebron, and eleven, in Jerusalem, -had, when he attained manhood, his own house, household and lands. -Absalom's lands and herds were situated at Baal-Hazor, not far from -the capital. Thither he invited all the king's sons to the feast of -sheep-shearing. Whilst they and their guests were enjoying the feast, -and drinking freely, Absalom's servants, at their master's command, -attacked Amnon, and dealt him his death-blow. Absalom served a double -purpose by this murder. He avenged the insult offered to his sister, -and hoped to secure his own succession to the throne by ridding himself -of his elder brother. The son of Abigail, the second in succession, -was already dead, and so it seemed inevitable that he, as the third -son, must be the successor. David's son a fratricide!--What will be the -consequences of this bloody deed? Only his faith in God saved him from -becoming, like his predecessor, a victim to insanity, although the dire -fate which had befallen him was but too real, and not merely the effect -of a distrustful imagination. - -David's first impulse was to seek out the murderer, who had taken -refuge with his grandfather, King Talmai, of Geshur, on the south-west -boundary of Judæa, in order to deal with him as he deserved, even -at the risk of going to war on his account. But there were various -influences at work against such a policy. In fact, since the affair -with Bathsheba, intrigues had been rife at David's court. Joab was -opposed to the succession of the last-born, Solomon, and was naturally -on the side of Absalom, the eldest surviving son. Ahithophel, David's -infallible counsellor, also favoured Absalom's claim to the throne, -because he could use him as a tool against his father. On the other -hand, Adonijah, David's fourth son, advocated the infliction of condign -punishment on Absalom. Adonijah thought his prospects of displacing the -infant Solomon fairer than his chance with the remorseless Absalom. If -the latter were punished for fratricide, Adonijah would be the next -in succession. He and his mother Haggith may perhaps, therefore, have -incensed David against Absalom, but Joab and Ahithophel were wiser, and -knew how to exert their influence in favour of abandoning all warlike -attempts upon him or his grandfather, whose protection he was enjoying. - -When David had at length decided on seizing or demanding the surrender -of his guilty son (though he had been absent for three years), Joab -employed a ruse to turn the king from his resolve. He sent for a -woman living in the adjacent town of Tekoah, who had a reputation for -adroit and clever speech. With her he devised a plan to make the king -realise how horrible it was for a father to be willing to put to death -a son for the not altogether unjustifiable murder of his brother. -The wise woman of Tekoah consequently appeared before the king in -mourning garments, and as though invoking his mercy she called out in -an entreating voice and with deep prostrations, Help! O king, help! -When she stated her fictitious case, the king readily recognised the -hidden point of her story, and the allusion to his own case, and he -demanded an open answer from her as to whether Joab had assisted her -in her disguise and invention. When the woman of Tekoah had confessed -the truth, the king sent for Joab, and assured him that he no longer -entertained evil intentions against Absalom, and assigned to him the -task of conducting his son to Jerusalem. The woman of Tekoah had, in -her ingenious manner, made it clear to him that blood-revenge against -his own son would be a contradiction in itself. - -Joab himself brought Absalom from Geshur to Jerusalem. The son, -however, was not permitted to appear before his father, but was obliged -to remain in his own house. By this means Joab unconsciously sowed the -seeds of dissension in the house of David. Night and day, Absalom, in -his isolation and disgrace, brooded over the vile plan of deposing his -father. But he dissembled in order to lull the latter's suspicion. -To this end it was absolutely necessary that a reconciliation should -be effected. Joab, who earnestly desired peace between father and -son, became the mediator, and David decided that, after a two years' -exile from his presence, his son might now be allowed to return. At -this meeting, Absalom played to perfection the part of the penitent, -obedient son; David then gave him a fatherly embrace, and the -reconciliation was complete. Seven years had passed since the death of -Amnon. But now Absalom's intrigues commenced. No doubt he had frequent -meetings with Ahithophel, and was following his advice. He obtained -chariots and horses from Egypt, procured a guard of fifty men, and -displayed regal grandeur. He arose betimes in the morning, listened to -disputes, and found every one's case just, but regretted that the king -would not listen to all, and would not give justice to all. He hinted -that were he the judge, no one would have to complain of difficulty in -obtaining his dues. Absalom pursued this course for four years after -the reconciliation with his father. He was the handsomest man of his -times. He was then about thirty, and in the full pride of his strength. -His beautiful thick hair fell in waves over his neck and shoulders, -like the mane of a lion. His affability won him the hearts of all who -approached him. David was so blinded that he did not see how his crafty -son was alienating the affections of the people from their sovereign, -whilst Absalom merely awaited a favourable opportunity to proceed -against his father, to dethrone him, and perhaps to attempt his life. -This opportunity soon offered itself. - -It appears that David was occupied, in the last decade of his reign, -with a comprehensive plan, apparently that of a great war which would -require a numerous body of soldiers. He had already enlisted bands -of mercenaries, six hundred Hittites, who, with their general Ittai, -(whose admiration for David secured his unswerving attachment), had -arrived from Gath. The king also wished to ascertain the number of -able-bodied men over twenty years of age in all the Israelitish -tribes, in order to determine whether he could undertake with their -aid a campaign which would probably prove severe and tedious. The -king delegated the office of numbering the men who could bear arms -to his commander-in-chief, Joab, and the other generals. The work of -enumeration lasted nine months and twenty days. From the numbers which -were handed in, supposing them to be correct, it appears that, out of -an entire population of 4,000,000, there were 1,300,000 men and youths -capable of bearing arms. - -This counting of the nation, however, proved to be a mistake for which -David had to pay heavily. The people were highly incensed against -him. In itself the act was displeasing to them, as they saw in it the -preliminaries to enlistments for a war of long duration; added to this -was the fear that the counting itself must be attended by evil results, -for such was the view held in those days. A fearful pestilence broke -out, which carried off great numbers, and confirmed all minds in the -belief that it had arisen in consequence of the numbering of the -people. The capital, being densely populated, naturally suffered the -greatest loss from the pestilence. On seeing the heaps of corpses, -or, to speak in the metaphorical language of those days, at sight -of "the angel of Destruction" that had snatched away so many, David -exclaimed:--"I have sinned and done wrong, but what has my poor flock -done? Let thy hand strike me and the house of my fathers." The plague -having spared Mount Moriah, where the Jebusites had settled, the -prophet Gad bade the king erect an altar, and offer up sacrifices on -that mountain, and he announced that the pestilence would then be -averted from Jerusalem. Without hesitation, David and his entire court -repaired thither. When the chief of the Jebusites, Ornah (Araunah), -saw David approaching, he hurried to meet him, saluted him humbly, and -asked what was his desire. David then informed him that he wished to -buy the mountain in order to build an altar on it. Ornah graciously -offered him the spot and all appertaining to it as a gift, but David -refused to accept it. No sooner was an altar hastily erected there and -a sacrifice offered, than the pestilence ceased in Jerusalem. From that -time Mount Moriah was considered a sacred spot, which destruction could -not approach; it was also the mountain on which Abraham was supposed to -have offered his son Isaac as a sacrifice. - -In consequence of this plague the nation conceived a dislike to David; -it condemned him for the loss of the thousands of human beings whom the -Angel of Destruction had snatched away. Ahithophel made use of this -dislike in order to avenge himself on David, and he employed Absalom as -his tool, and, with him, contrived a conspiracy which could not fail to -succeed. - -Absalom secretly despatched messengers in every direction, in order to -give those adherents who were already attached to him the necessary -signal. The insurrection was to be set on foot in Hebron, an outpost of -the tribe of Judah, whose elders had already been won for Absalom. The -latter invented subterfuges by which to deceive David as to the true -purpose of his visit to Hebron, and the king permitted him to depart -without suspicion. - -Absalom arrived at Hebron, attended by his friends and guards, and by -two hundred prominent men of Jerusalem, whom he had invited under some -pretext, and who did not suspect his real aims. These two hundred men, -through their very ignorance of matters, contributed to the success of -the project. The people of Hebron, seeing that even prominent men had -joined Absalom's party, gave up David's cause as lost. Ahithophel, who -had likewise invented a pretext to absent himself from court, openly -declared for Absalom, thus giving his cause an immense accession of -power, as he was known to be David's right hand. - -The traitorous plan succeeded but too well. The Hebronites and others -present saluted Absalom as king, forswore their allegiance to David, -and sacrificed burnt-offerings. Ambition prompted various members of -David's family also to join Absalom. This was more especially the case -with Amasa, his cousin, who considered himself a great commander, and -thought that Joab had unjustly been preferred to him. The messengers -then gave the signal previously agreed upon, and the conspirators who -sided with Absalom gathered together, and shouted "Long live King -Absalom!" They carried with them all who had been incensed against -David for taking a census of the people, and in fact all who hoped -to gain some advantage from changes and dissension. The Benjamites, -whom the accession of David had deprived of supremacy, and the -ever-dissatisfied Ephraimites, were more particularly delighted at -David's downfall, and willingly did homage to the usurper; they hoped -to regain their former freedom through David's misfortunes. They had -greater chances of obtaining power under Absalom, who was very vain, -and not likely to retain the favour of the nation for a long time, -than under the rule of David. The chief towns of all the tribes sent -ambassadors to Hebron to salute the new king, and his adherents daily -increased in number. At first the conspiracy was kept secret from those -in authority; no one was permitted to journey to Jerusalem, lest the -news spread. David received the information of his own dethronement and -the accession of his son simultaneously with the news that the houses -of Judah and Israel had renounced their allegiance to him. - -It was a terrible blow for the king. But his resolve was soon taken; -he would not resort to a civil war, as the sons of Zeruiah and many -other faithful followers probably urged him to do. Deserted by all the -tribes, he would be obliged to shut himself up in his capital. The -city would not be able to resist the attack of so large an army; and -he saw, now that he was undeceived, that Absalom would not scruple -to turn Jerusalem into a sea of blood. David felt deeply wounded by -the alliance of Ahithophel with his usurping son, and he was greatly -discouraged by it. He saw, too late, that the conspiracy was of -long standing, that the plan had been maturely considered, and that -resistance on his part would only lead to his own destruction. He -therefore announced to his people that he would depart from Jerusalem -in all haste, before Absalom could leave Hebron with his numerous -followers. - -This step was instrumental in proving to David that he still had -faithful friends, who would be true to him till death. When, on -leaving his palace, he passed the Place of the Sellers of Ointment, he -observed to his great joy that a great concourse followed him. Not -only his general, Joab, with his brother, Abishai, and their followers; -not only a great number of the warrior-corps (Gibborim), the hired -troops, Cherethites and Pelethites, with Benaiah their leader, but also -Ittai the Hittite, with six hundred men, whom David had only a short -time before enlisted. The entire population wept aloud, whilst David -withdrew to the Vale of Kedron, where he mustered his followers before -taking the road over the Mount of Olives to the desert near the Jordan. -He did not venture to take refuge in a city from fear of treachery. - -Later on the two high priests Zadok and Abiathar with all the Levites -hurried after him, bearing the ark of the covenant with them. David, -however, urged the priests to return to Zion with the ark, saying, "If -by God's mercy I shall be permitted to return to Jerusalem, then I -shall again behold the ark of the covenant and the sanctuary; if not, -if God rejects me, I am ready to endure what seemeth good unto Him." -It also appeared to him that the priests could be of more service to -him if they remained in Jerusalem than if they joined him in exile. -Whilst, then, the priests hastily took the ark back to Jerusalem, David -ascended the Mount of Olives barefoot, his head covered, and his face -bathed in tears. All his attendants wept bitterly. But when his grief -and despair had reached their climax, a friend, who was to give him -help, came from the other side of the Mount of Olives, and met him at -its highest point. Hushai from the city of Erech was a confidant of -David, and a counsellor of no less wisdom than Ahithophel. He advanced -in mourning array, his garments torn, and earth upon his head, prepared -to share the king's flight. David, however, refused to permit this, -because, being an aged man, he would only be a burden. In Absalom's -vicinity he might do valiant service by counteracting Ahithophel's -counsels, and by keeping David informed of all that occurred. Hushai -therefore repaired to Jerusalem. - -The first town through which David passed in his flight was the -Benjamite city of Bahurim. Far from meeting with a friendly reception -there, he was received with insult and neglect. A Benjamite named -Shimei, of the house of Gera, reviled and cursed him, saying, "Thou -outcast and man of blood, God will repay thee for thy treatment of -the house of Saul, whose crown thou hast stolen." He followed David's -march for a long distance, throwing stones and earth at him, so that -the soldiers had to shield the king. David, however, had some friends -in Bahurim also. Humbled and exhausted, the king at length accomplished -the journey through the desert, and reached the neighbourhood of -Jericho with his forces. - -Here he could recruit his energies after his recent bodily and mental -exertions, while awaiting the news which his faithful adherents would -transmit to him from Jerusalem. - -When David was approaching the banks of the Jordan, Absalom arrived -in Jerusalem with his traitorous adherents, among them Ahithophel, -the faithless counsellor. Ahithophel urged the usurper to commit -ever greater crimes in order to widen the breach between him and his -father, and render a reconciliation impossible; he advised him to take -possession of his father's harem. It mattered little to Ahithophel -that Absalom would incur the hatred of the people through this fresh -misdeed. His sole object was to revenge himself on David, and to ruin -him. The weak-minded sinner who called himself king, and who was -incapable of undertaking anything, unless incited thereto by others, -allowed himself to be induced to commit this crime. But, whilst Absalom -was revelling in sin, the man who was destined to frustrate all his -ruthless plans was near at hand. Hushai had apparently submitted to the -new king, and had assured him that he would serve him as faithfully -as he had served his father, and Absalom relied on this promise. He -called a council to consider the most expedient plan for defeating and -ruining his father. The elders of the tribes, who were in the city, -were invited to attend. Ahithophel gave the diabolical advice to attack -David that very night with a strong army, to disperse his following in -a sudden onslaught made by a force its superior in point of numbers, -and to capture and slay the king, whom he imagined to be utterly worn -out and dispirited. But Absalom also consulted Hushai with regard to -the campaign against his father, and Ahithophel's advice was rejected -by him as impracticable. Hushai urged such plausible objections that -Absalom was duped by them; he advised that David should not be attacked -with a small force, but that Absalom should raise from the entire -nation--from Dan to Beersheba--an army whose numbers would render -it irresistible. Hushai's advice was more favourably received than -Ahithophel's, and steps were forthwith taken to act upon it. The attack -was postponed, and the campaign was deferred till the numerous forces -could be assembled. Hushai immediately conveyed the results of the -meeting to David by means of Jonathan and Ahimaaz, the sons of the High -Priest. - -The first result of these events was favourable to the cause of David, -for Ahithophel departed from Jerusalem, and hanged himself in his -native town of Gilo. He was led to this course either by disgust at -Absalom's conduct in setting aside his counsel, or by the conviction -that Absalom's cause would be lost through delay, and that he himself -would reap well-deserved punishment. This suicide was a severe blow -to the usurper, for he had no capable man amongst his followers, and -he himself was neither warlike nor prudent. His general Amasa had but -little military genius. The enrolment of soldiers was actually begun, -but before it could be completed David had obtained an important -advantage. He went to Mahanaim, the inhabitants of which town received -him with a welcome as cordial as that which in former times they -had extended to the fugitive son of Saul. All the Israelites on the -opposite side of the Jordan offered their assistance, and placed -themselves under his command. Two men of Gilead outvied each other -in attentions to the unhappy king and father, and provided him and -his followers with all necessaries. They were old men--Barzillai from -Rogelim, and Machir from Lo-debar--and help came also from Shobi, -king of Ammon, the son of Nahash. When at length Absalom or Amasa had -succeeded in collecting a large force, they crossed the Jordan by means -of rafts, and approached Mahanaim. The Absalomites encamped opposite -the wood without any particular plan or order. David, on the other -hand, divided his army into three divisions, commanded respectively by -Joab, Abishai and Ittai, who were all proved and competent soldiers. -David himself was not permitted to accompany them, as his generals -knew too well his love for his wicked son. The contest cost many human -lives. Although Absalom's forces exceeded those of David in point of -numbers, yet they were defeated, for they were not well disciplined, -and were not able to find their way in the forest. David's troops, -on the other hand, fought valiantly. The forest was more destructive -than the sword. Twenty thousand warriors are said to have fallen -there. The forest of Rephaim was also the cause of Absalom's personal -destruction. His long hair, of which he was very vain, caught in the -branches of an oak, and the mule he had been riding galloped away. -It seems providential that the death-blow was dealt by Joab, who had -formerly favoured him, and who had thus unwittingly assisted him in his -conspiracy. Joab then sounded the horn as a signal for David's army to -cease from the contest, and the adherents of Absalom took to flight, -and crossed the Jordan. - -Thus ended the second civil war of David's reign, a war which was the -more unnatural because of the close relationship between the rival -combatants, and the sad causes which led to the contest. The first duty -of the victors was to transmit the news of their triumph to David. -This was in itself a painful office, for all knew how deeply David -would feel the death of his wicked son. David was terrified at the -news, wept and sobbed, and cried repeatedly, "My son, my son, Absalom; -would, I had fallen instead of thee!" The depths of a father's heart -are unsearchable. Perhaps, he considered Absalom in the light of a -victim whom Ahithophel had inveigled and urged on to rebellion. The -warriors dared not enter Mahanaim as victors, but repaired homewards -stealthily, as though humiliated after a defeat. David would see and -speak to no one, but mourned continually for his son's loss. At length -Joab took heart, and reproached him in harsh terms for indulging in -continued mourning, and thereby manifesting ingratitude towards his -soldiers. In order to rouse the king, Joab further threatened that -if he did not immediately show himself to his soldiers, and address -them kindly, his faithful followers would leave the same night, and he -would remain alone and helpless. These sharp words of the rough but -faithful Joab induced David to rouse himself, and appear before the -people. The corpse of Absalom was thrown into a cave, and covered with -a heap of stones. He left a beautiful daughter, but his three sons -had been snatched away by death before his revolt, as though it were -destined that no son of his should witness the attempt against his -father's life. During his short reign at Jerusalem, he had erected a -splendid monument in the "King's Valley," to perpetuate his own name. -Intended for his glorification, it became the commemoration of his -disgrace. After the close of the war, David contemplated returning -to Jerusalem. He did not wish, however, to force the tribes into -submission, he preferred to await their repentant return to him, and -the renewal of their oaths of allegiance. It was a curious fact that -the tribes of the north were the first to take this course. The voice -of the people appealed to the elders to lead them back to their king. -They cried, "The king who delivered us from our enemies, and freed us -from the yoke of the Philistines, was forced by Absalom to flee from -his own country. Absalom is now dead. Why do you not hasten to bring -back our king? Come, let us lead him home." Thereupon the elders of -the tribes invited David to return to his capital; and thus, a second -time, they acknowledged him as king. Contrary to all expectation, the -tribe of Judah, and naturally the tribe of Benjamin were still holding -back. They did not move one step to welcome their king. Probably the -men of Judah felt bitterly ashamed of the revolt they had started in -Hebron, and did not venture to entreat David's pardon. Perhaps, too, -the discontent which had incited them to forswear their allegiance -was still at work amongst them. It seems that Amasa, who had fled to -Jerusalem after the defeat in the forest of Gilead, still exercised -great influence over the men of Judah. - -When David saw that the tribe of Judah was still holding aloof from -him, he commanded the two priests, Zadok and Abiathar, who had remained -in Jerusalem, to admonish the elders of Judah to invite their king to -return. He told the priests to assure Amasa that he would not only -receive a free pardon, but even retain his rank as general. With this -prospect before him, Amasa determined to accept David's offers, and -he persuaded the elders to accede to the king's proposal. The men of -Judah thereupon sent an invitation to David, and an embassy went forth -to meet the king, and receive him at Gilgal. The men of Benjamin were -sorely puzzled by this conduct. What were they to do? The Benjamites -had publicly shown themselves inimical to David when he had fled from -Jerusalem through their territory; they had not thought it possible -that he would ever return, and reclaim his throne. Now affairs had -changed, and not only the northern tribes, but even Judah was preparing -to do him homage. The Benjamites felt no attachment to David, but they -could not isolate themselves, for then the king's wrath would fall -heavily on them. Shimei, whose insults had caused David such bitter -pain during his flight, and who, in consequence, had most cause to fear -the king's anger, advised that they should display intense enthusiasm -for David's cause, exceeding that of the other tribes, since, by -appealing to his generosity, they might incline him favourably towards -them. In obedience to this advice, one thousand Benjamites went forward -to meet David, joined the Judæan embassy, and, on arriving at the bank -of the Jordan, threw a bridge across the river in order to facilitate -the king's transit. Meanwhile the king had left Mahanaim, and was -approaching the Jordan, attended by his court, his servants, and the -faithful followers who had joined him on the opposite shore. Shimei -advanced before all the others, threw himself at the king's feet as he -was about to cross the river, acknowledged his fault, and entreated -David's forgiveness. David now returned with a larger concourse of -followers than had accompanied him on his flight across the Jordan: he -was attended by the Judæan embassy, by a thousand Benjamites, and by -the faithful friends who formed his guard of honour. The first town -reached after crossing the Jordan was Gilgal. Here the ambassadors of -the different tribes on this side of the river were assembled to renew -their homage; they felt surprised and annoyed that the Judæans had -stolen a march on them by meeting the king at the very shore of the -Jordan. They saw in this eager display of loyalty, which they could -not consider sincere, an effort on the part of the house of Judah to -regain the king's favour, to the detriment of the house of Israel. - -The elders of Israel made no secret of their displeasure, and gave vent -to it in David's presence; the Judæans, however, retaliated on them. -The question of precedency degenerated into a violent quarrel, the -Judæans making angry retorts, thus offending the northern tribes still -more. Bitter animosity arose between the contending parties; David -appears to have inclined to the side of the Judæans. Sheba, a Benjamite -of the family of Bichri, taking advantage of the general confusion, -sounded the trumpet and cried, "We have no portion in David, and no -share in the son of Jesse; let every Israelite return to his tent." -Heeding this cry, the elders of the northern tribes withdrew, and -followed Sheba the Bichrite. The men of Judah alone remained faithful -to David, and accompanied him to Jerusalem. The joy of their return -was mingled with annoyance: a fresh breach had arisen, a civil war -was imminent. At this sad juncture David had recourse to a step which -may be considered either very wise or very foolish. Joab had become -obnoxious to him since the king had learned that he had killed Absalom, -and David did not wish him to fill the office of general any longer. -Besides this, he desired to keep his word with Amasa, and to appoint -him to the office of commander-in-chief. David, being now dependent on -the tribe of Judah, felt the necessity of retaining Amasa's good-will, -as the latter's influence had immense weight with the Judæans. Without -consulting Joab, he commanded Amasa to summon the forces of the tribe -of Judah within three days, in order to proceed against the rebels. -The time expired, and Amasa did not return. David became uneasy; he -thought Amasa might have deceived him, and made common cause with the -insurgents. It was necessary to be expeditious, lest Sheba's followers -increase in numbers, and also gain time to occupy fortified cities. -David had no choice but to turn to the sons of Zeruiah, who, in their -unswerving fidelity, had remained true to him in spite of frequent -slights, and whose skill in matters of war he had amply tested. David -would not, however, give the supreme command to Joab, but entrusted it -to his brother Abishai. He set out with the Cherethites and Pelethites, -who were to form the nucleus of the army which he hoped to collect on -the way. Joab overlooked the insult which had been offered him, and -joined the troops, or rather became their leader. He appears to have -issued an appeal to the people to gather around him. When Amasa joined -them in Gibeon, Joab killed him with one stroke of his sword, and -the Judæans, whom Amasa had collected, followed the sons of Zeruiah. -In all the towns, fresh partisans and followers attached themselves -to David's cause. Sheba found but few adherents, the northern tribes -being unwilling to begin a civil war for the sake of a man who was but -little known, and who was followed only by a small band of soldiers. -He had thrown himself into the fortified town of Abel, and a part of -his followers occupied the town of Dan, which lay at an hour's distance -from the base of Mount Hermon, not far from the source of the Jordan. -Joab quickly ordered a trench to be dug round the town of Abel, and -without calling on the inhabitants to surrender, he began to undermine -the walls. The inhabitants became greatly alarmed. Then a wise woman -called from the wall to the sappers below to summon Joab. When he -approached, she addressed him reproachfully, "Thou shouldst have asked -first in Abel and Dan that thou mightest have heard, whether all those -who are faithful and peace-loving have departed from Israel. Why wilt -thou slaughter the mothers and the children of Israel? Why wilt thou -destroy the inheritance of Jacob?" Joab replied that he did not wish -to do this, that he merely desired to capture the man who had lifted -his hand against the king. On this the woman promised that the head of -the rebel should soon be thrown over the wall. She kept her word, for -she secretly persuaded her fellow-citizens to separate Sheba from his -few followers, and to kill him. His gory head was cast over the wall, -and Joab raised the siege, dismissed his soldiers, and returned to -Jerusalem with the news of his victory. The king was obliged, against -his will, to leave him in command of the army. - -David returned to his capital with a purged soul. He had suffered and -atoned heavily for his sins. He had taken away the wife of his faithful -servant, and his son had taken away _his_ wives. He had spilt Uriah's -blood, and the streams of blood shed in his own house had almost -overwhelmed him. He had found by bitter experience that even the best -king cannot build on his people's love. His plan of undertaking a great -war against his heathen foes was shattered. He, therefore, in his old -age, during the last years of his reign, confined his attention to -the internal affairs of his kingdom. He wished to carry out, before -death overtook him, an idea he had long cherished. He wished to build -a magnificent temple to the God of Israel, who had rescued him in his -many troubles. Before commencing, David consulted Nathan, the prophet; -for in those days the prophet ranked higher than the priest. He said, -"I live in a palace of cedar wood, whilst the Ark of God is only in a -temporary tent. I will build a temple of cedar for it!" Nathan approved -the plan and said, "Carry out all that is in thy heart, for God is with -thee!" The next day, however, the prophet came to him, and revealed to -David that he was not destined to build a temple, because he had shed -blood, but that this task would be reserved for his son. At the same -time David was informed that his throne was established for many years -to come,--that a long succession of kings would descend from him, and -occupy his throne, provided that they walked in the ways of God. Much -as David had wished to build a stately temple in Jerusalem, he bowed -humbly to the divine decree revealed to him by Nathan, and gave up his -project. Before the ark of the covenant, he thanked God in a heartfelt -prayer for the mercies bestowed on him, who had been raised up from -the dust. His heart was filled with gratitude that his royal house and -his throne were to be established for many years to come. David gave -expression to this feeling in a psalm, which, however, has not the same -_verve_ as his former songs; it was, perhaps, his last poetic prayer. - -Although David did not commence the erection of the temple himself, he -began to make the necessary preparations. He devoted to the sanctuary a -part of the booty which he had acquired from the conquered nations. He -also regulated the order in which divine services were to be conducted, -by having, according to Samuel's method, choirs of Levites to play -on the harp and sing psalms, in addition to the ordinary sacrificial -rites. He is also considered the inventor of the various musical -instruments which were later on introduced into the service. - -David's vital energy began to decrease before he had attained his -seventy-first year. The anxieties of his youth, the constant warfare, -the exciting events in his own family, Amnon's sinfulness and Absalom's -revolt caused him to grow old at a comparatively early age. He felt no -warmth in his body; he felt cold despite the torrid heat of Jerusalem, -and all the clothes which he could procure did not seem to supply him -with the necessary vital heat. - -Adonijah, the king's fourth son, endeavoured, by taking advantage of -David's failing powers, to secure the succession. He was the next heir -after Amnon and Absalom, but he feared that he might be passed over -if he awaited the death of his father, and he had probably heard of -the secret understanding, according to which the son of Bathsheba, -his youngest brother, was to succeed to the throne. Adonijah had no -desire to rebel against his father as Absalom had done, he merely -wished to have his right to the succession recognised by the chief -dignitaries of the kingdom. He therefore took counsel with those of -David's court who were opposed to Solomon's succession. Foremost -amongst these was Joab, who supported him as he had formerly supported -Absalom. Adonijah's other confidant was Abiathar, the second of the -high priests, who seems to have been placed in an inferior position by -David. Zadok, whose family had been appointed hereditary high priests -by Saul at Gibeon, had been retained in that position by David, who -wished to secure his support, and therefore bestowed upon him the -highest rank in the sanctuary. Abiathar may have felt hurt by this -neglect, and perhaps took the part of Adonijah in order to secure the -position he could not hope to obtain under Solomon. The other sons of -the king also wished to see the throne assured to Adonijah, and thus -intrigues at the court commenced afresh. Adonijah was as handsome and -as popular as Absalom had been, and also, it appears, as thoughtless -and as unfit for governing. Like Absalom, he began to draw the eyes of -the people upon himself by a truly royal display; he procured chariots -and attendants on horseback, and kept a guard of fifty runners, who -preceded him wherever he went. David was weak in his behaviour to him, -as he had been to Absalom--permitted him to have his own way, and thus -tacitly acknowledged him as his successor. One day Adonijah invited his -confidants, Joab, Abiathar, and all the king's sons excepting Solomon, -to a meeting. They offered up sacrifices near a well, and during the -feast his followers cried, "Long live King Adonijah!" - -The first to take exception to Adonijah's proceedings was Nathan the -prophet. He knew of the secret promise, given by David to his wife -Bathsheba, that Solomon should inherit the crown. He had also revealed -to David that Solomon was appointed by God to be his successor. He -seems to have had confidence in Solomon's character, and to have -expected better things from him than from Adonijah. Nathan, therefore, -went to Bathsheba, and they devised a plan by which Adonijah's scheme -might be overthrown. Bathsheba then repaired to the king, reminded him -of his oath, and directed his attention to the fact that, in the event -of Adonijah's succession, she and her son both would be lost, and her -marriage would be branded with ignominy. - -Hardly had she ended the description of the sad fate which awaited -her if Solomon's claims were set aside, when the prophet Nathan was -announced, and confirmed her assertions. David's resolve was quickly -taken, and carried into effect on the same day, for he was most anxious -to keep his oath to leave the sceptre to Solomon. He called upon the -dignitaries who had not conspired with Adonijah, on Zadok, Benaiah and -the warriors, and announced to them his resolve that Solomon should be -anointed king during his own lifetime, and they all solemnly promised -to acknowledge Solomon. Thereupon, David summoned the Cherethites and -Pelethites to attend his son. Solomon then mounted one of the royal -mules, and proceeded to the valley of Gihon, to the west of the town. A -crowd of people joined the procession, and when the high-priest Zadok -and the prophet Nathan had anointed him with oil from the tent of the -sanctuary, the soldiers blew their trumpets, and all the people cried, -"Long live King Solomon!" - -Great excitement now prevailed in Jerusalem. While the eastern -mountains echoed with the cry of "Long live King Adonijah!" the western -chain was resounding with shouts of "Long live King Solomon!" Had both -the king's sons and their adherents remained obstinate, a civil war -must have ensued. But Adonijah was not like Absalom--he did not wish to -excite a rebellion. Nor would his chief supporters, Joab and Abiathar, -have assisted him in such an attempt. No sooner did Adonijah hear that -Solomon had been anointed king by his father's command than his courage -failed him. He hastened to the sanctuary at Zion in order to seek -refuge in the holy of holies. Solomon, however, who had immediately -taken the reins of government, sent to inform him that he might leave -the sanctuary, that not a hair of his head should be touched so long -as he did not attempt any fresh revolt. Adonijah then repaired to the -young king, paid him due homage, and was dismissed with presents. Thus -the contest for the succession ended. - -David's weakness gradually increased, until after a stormy reign of -forty years and six months (1015), he expired peacefully. He was the -first to occupy a place in the royal mausoleum which he had built in a -rocky cave on the southern slope of Mount Zion. - -David's death was deeply mourned. He had made the nation great, -independent and happy, and death transfigured him. When he had passed -away, the nation began to realise the true value of his work, and what -he had been to them. He had reunited the various tribes, each of which -had before followed its own special interests, and he formed them into -one nation. The revolts of Absalom and Sheba proved sufficiently how -strong the feeling had become which bound the tribes together. The -house of Israel did not seize the opportunity offered by his death -of severing itself from the house of Judah, and great as was their -jealousy of each other, they held together. David had removed every -inducement for party divisions, and had knit them together with a -kind but firm hand. During his reign the priesthood and the prophets -worked amicably together. Thus Solomon was anointed by the high -priest Zadok in conjunction with the prophet Nathan. David maintained -friendly relations between the priestly houses of Eleazar and Ithamar, -represented by Zadok and Abiathar respectively. The nation had no -reason to complain of oppression, for he dealt justly to the extent -of his ability. By destroying the power of the Philistines, who had -so long held the neighbouring tribes in subjection, and by conquering -the nations inhabiting the banks of the Euphrates, he had not only -established internal prosperity, but had also founded a great empire -which could vie in power with Egypt, and had cast into the shade the -Chaldæan and Assyrian kingdoms on the Euphrates and the Tigris. By -this means he had roused the people to the proud consciousness that -it constituted a mighty nation of the Lord, the possessor of the law -of God, the superior of the neighbouring nations. David's sins were -gradually forgotten, for his atonement had been both grievous and -manifold. Posterity pronounced a milder judgment on him than did his -contemporaries. The remembrance of his great deeds, his kindness, his -obedience to God, caused him to appear invested with the traits of an -ideal king, who served as a pattern to all later rulers,--one who had -always walked in the ways of God, and never departed therefrom. The -kings of his house who succeeded him were measured by his standard, and -were judged by the extent of their resemblance to him. - -David's reign shone through the ages as perfect,--as one in which power -and humility, fear of God and peace were united. Every succeeding -century added its tribute to David's character, until he became the -ideal of a virtuous king and sacred poet. - - - - -CHAPTER IX. - -SOLOMON. - - The new King's Rule--Solomon's Choice--Poetic Allegory--Murder - of Adonijah and Joab--The Court--Alliance with - Egypt--Tyre--Solomon's Buildings--The Plan of the Temple--The - Workmen--The Materials--Description of the Temple--The Ceremony - of Consecration--Reorganisation of the Priesthood--The King's - Palace--The Throne--Increase of National Wealth--The Fleet--The - Seeds of Disunion--Jeroboam--Idolatry permitted--Estrangement - from Egypt--Growth of surrounding Kingdoms--Solomon's Fame--His - Death. - - 1015-977 B. C. E. - - -David had left affairs in Israel in such perfect order that his -successor, unless he were a fool or a knave, or the victim of -evil advice, would have but little trouble in governing. Solomon, -however, carried David's work still further. He shed such lustre -upon Israel that even the most distant generations basked in the -light that emanated from his wise rule. Indeed, a king who solidifies -and increases, if he does not actually found, the greatness of the -State; who permits his people the enjoyment of peace; who sheds the -bounties of plenty over his land, driving poverty away from the -meanest hovel; who opens up new channels for the development of his -people's powers, and who thus increases and strengthens them; a king -who has the intelligence to arouse his subjects to exercise their -mental gifts, and cultivate their love of the beautiful; who, by his -material and spiritual creations, elevates his country to the dignity -of a model State, such as had never been before him and scarcely ever -after him;--such a monarch assuredly deserves the high praise which -posterity has accorded to him. Carried away by the greatness of his -deeds--for all these grand characteristics were strikingly prominent -in Solomon--men shut their eyes to his weaknesses, and considered them -the inevitable result of human imperfection. In the first place he -strove to preserve peace for his country, though his father had left -him ample means for making fresh conquests. He was called the king of -peace--"Shelomo." By giving to his people the comforts of prosperity, -he widened its horizon, and raised its self-respect. He ruled it with -wisdom and justice, and decided with strict impartiality all contests -between individuals as well as tribes. He increased the number of -towns, and secured the safety of the roads and of the caravans. He -filled the city of Jerusalem with splendour, and built therein a -magnificent temple in honour of God. He himself cultivated the fine -arts and poetry, and thereby endowed them with fresh attractions in the -eyes of the people. Lastly, he set great aims before the nation, and -was rightly called the wise king. - -History, the impartial arbitress, cannot, however, be blinded by his -dazzling virtues to the blemishes which attach to his government, -and which must be accounted the cause of the unfortunate breach -which commenced when his grave was scarcely closed. The beginning of -Solomon's rule was not free from stains of blood, and its end was -clouded with mists, which dimmed its brightness; his love of splendour -became injurious to morality; it made him despotic, and imposed a -burden on the people, which it bore for a considerable time, but shook -off at the first favourable opportunity. Solomon converted the kingly -power into an autocracy, under which every will had to be subservient -to his. But these blemishes were entirely hidden by the greatness of -the achievements under his rule. It is impossible now to decide how -far the responsibility of Solomon for these evils goes, how much of -the blame rests with his too officious servants, and to what extent -their existence must be attributed to the irresistible force of -circumstances, to which the exalted and the lowly alike must submit. -It is the curse of crowned heads that the worthiest wearer of a crown, -in order to consolidate his power, is induced to take steps which his -conscience would under other circumstances condemn, and the misdeeds of -his servants are also added to his account. - -Solomon was young--scarcely twenty--when he ascended the throne. After -his accession, whilst visiting the altar at Gibeon, we are told, he had -a vision in which God asked him to express the innermost wish of his -heart, with the promise that it should be fulfilled. He did not choose -long life, nor riches, nor honour, nor the death of his enemies; but he -chose wisdom, in order that he might rule his people with justice. In -fact, this wisdom, this power of entering into the feelings and minds -of the dissenting parties who appeared before him, of seizing on the -true state of the case in spite of exaggeration and subtle arguments, -Solomon possessed to an extraordinary degree. The Solomonic judgment is -well known. By giving a verdict which was well adapted to reveal the -real feeling of a mother, he recognised, in a dispute between two women -for the possession of a child, on which side was truth, on which side -falsehood. "Cut the child in half," he said. But its real mother could -not accept this decision, and offered rather to give up her child. He -was determined that no one in his kingdom should suffer from injustice. -Though he may not have been the first that uttered the saying, "through -justice a throne is established," yet it was a maxim after his own -heart. - -The wisdom of Solomon is also displayed to great advantage in another -direction, namely, in his poetic productions. These were chiefly -allegorical poems (Mashal); in them he caused the lofty cedars of -Lebanon, and the lowly creeping wall plants, to appear as the emblems -of what is highest and humblest, quadrupeds, birds of the air, -reptiles, and even dumb fish are given voice and speech. Each of these -fables probably ended with an appropriate moral lesson. It has been -related that Solomon composed three thousand of such fables and five -thousand songs or proverbs. - -But Solomon was by no means the originator of this style of fiction. -Long before him such compositions had been common among the Israelites. -Standing on Mount Gerizim, Jotham, the son of the Judge Gideon, -addressed the misguided people of Shechem in an ingenious parable. -The prophet Nathan had disguised his exhortation to David respecting -his sin with Bathsheba in the form of a parable. But though not the -inventor of this branch of poetry, Solomon is still deserving of praise -for devoting the time left unoccupied by the cares of government to -its further development. His rare qualities of mind were displayed in -yet another direction. In some of his compositions he delineates types -of persons and things by means of allusions, the hidden meaning of -which is left to guessing. Such enigmas, presented in a poetic form, -were in those days the favourite diversions of social gatherings and -feasts, and Solomon possessed remarkable ingenuity in devising these -recreations of the human mind. - -He was, however, guilty of errors, the greater part of which arose -from an exaggerated idea of his royal dignity, and from imitating the -kings of the neighbouring states of Tyre and Egypt, with whom he was -in constant intercourse. He claimed for himself a prerogative almost -impious in a mortal, namely, that of being considered identical with -the State,--all interests were to centre in him, and all else was to -be of comparatively little importance. Solomon's wisdom ran aground -on this rock. The truth of Samuel's prediction, at the time of the -election of a ruler, was better proven by the wise king than by his -predecessors. - -Unfortunately Solomon was a younger son, to whom the throne had been -allotted contrary to the ordinary laws of succession, whilst Adonijah, -whom a portion of the people had recognised as king, was considered -the rightful heir. So long as the latter lived, Solomon's government -could not be on a firm basis, and he could never feel himself secure. -Adonijah, therefore, had to be removed; the leader of the body guard, -Benaiah, forcibly entered his house, and killed him. As an excuse for -this act of violence, it was asserted that Adonijah had attempted -to win the hand of Abishag, the young widow of David, and thus had -revealed his traitorous intention of contesting his brother's right to -the throne. No sooner had he fallen than Joab, the former adherent of -Adonijah, feared that a similar fate would overtake him. This exemplary -general, who had contributed so considerably to the aggrandisement of -the people of Israel and the power of the house of David, fled to the -altar on Mount Zion, and clung to it, hoping to escape death. Benaiah, -however, refused to respect his place of refuge, and shed his blood at -the altar. In order to excuse this crime, it was given out that David -himself, on his deathbed, had impressed on his successor the duty of -revenging the death of Abner and Amasa. Joab, who had killed them in -times of peace, was not to be allowed, in spite of his venerable age, -to die in peace. - -It is uncertain whether Benaiah was Solomon's evil adviser, or merely -his instrument. Joab's death was the cause of great joy amongst the -enemies of Israel, and aroused in them the courage to plan a rebellion. -Adonijah's priestly partisan, Abiathar, whom Solomon did not dare -touch, was deprived of his office as high priest, and Zadok was made -the sole head of the priesthood, and his descendants, invested with -that dignity, maintained it for over a thousand years, whilst the -offspring of Abiathar were neglected.--The Benjamite Shimei, who had -pursued David with execrations on his flight from Jerusalem, was also -executed, and it was only through this three-fold deed of blood that -Solomon's throne appears to have gained stability. - -Solomon then directed his attention to the formation of a court of the -greatest magnificence, such as was befitting the powerful king whose -commands were obeyed from the boundaries of Egypt to the banks of the -Euphrates. In those days many wives were considered a necessary adjunct -to the king's dignity; David had about sixteen wives, but this was -an insignificant number as compared with that of the kings of Egypt -and Phoenicia, whom Solomon had taken for his pattern. It was only in -compliance with this common but corrupt practice that Solomon formed an -immense harem. His first wife was Naamah (the beautiful), an Ammonite -princess; he also had other wives from the Moabite and Aramæan courts, -and even from those of the Hittite and Canaanite kings; but what most -gratified his pride was that the Egyptian king Psusennes gave him his -daughter in marriage. Solomon thought that in acting thus he had taken -a wise step, and that his country and his dynasty would be benefited -by the alliance. But the result proved the contrary. The daughter of -Psusennes was naturally received with every mark of attention in the -Israelitish capital; she became the first queen in Solomon's harem, -but it seemed to him a disgrace that he could not place a magnificent -palace at the disposal of this queen. What was the cedar palace built -by David on Mount Zion, when compared with the gigantic edifices -and labyrinthine palaces of the kings of Egypt? Solomon, therefore, -determined to build a palace worthy of her. - -Through the alliance with Egypt, innovations of great consequence were -made in Israel, among them the introduction of horses and chariots. - -Solomon also entered into close and friendly connection with Hiram, -king of Tyre, with whom David had already established a neighbourly -intimacy. He appears to have married a daughter of Hiram, too, and this -close bond between Solomon and Hiram seems to have led to important and -extensive undertakings. - -The establishment of a large harem demanded an immense body of -servants. Solomon maintained a most brilliant court. The ambassadors -of tributary and friendly powers had to be received with great pomp, -for Solomon laid great stress on the display of splendour, and the -maintenance of his court demanded the expenditure of large sums of -money. As he could not otherwise obtain means, the royal house not -having extensive estates in its own right, the people had to defray his -enormous expenses. The whole land was divided into twelve parts, and -a Governor was placed over each division to see that the inhabitants -contributed one month's provisions every year; the purpose of this -division seems to have been that the old system of tribal organisation -might cease. A superior, or Vizier, whose duty it was to see that the -tribute of natural products was sent in regularly, was appointed over -these twelve officials. - -Solomon displayed heightened grandeur in his buildings. He was anxious -in the first instance to raise a splendid temple to the God of Israel -in the capital of his country. It could not be a matter of indifference -to him that in the neighbouring lands of Egypt and Phoenicia, with the -rulers of which he was intimately acquainted, gigantic temples were -raised for the various gods, whilst in his country the sanctuary was -merely placed in a tent. Solomon, therefore, immediately after his -accession to the throne, made preparations for commencing the erection -of a sacred edifice; the site was already chosen. It was to be on Mount -Moriah, to the north-east of the city, where David had raised an altar -after the pestilence had ceased. Silver and gold had been collected -for the purpose, but building materials, stones and cedar wood still -had to be procured. Freestones and blocks had to be hewn from the rocks -in the quarries north of Jerusalem, where they were so dovetailed as to -be easily joined after reaching the spot. But whence procure workmen -for this troublesome business of hewing, preparing and conveying the -stones? Solomon had learnt from Pharaoh Psusennes, his father-in-law, -the means of obtaining workmen without incurring heavy expense. He -employed the remnant of the Canaanite population still living in the -country. Although Saul had begun to decrease their numbers, he could -not proceed against them with his full strength, on account of his -continual strife with David. David had left them undisturbed, so that -they lived quietly, mixed peaceably with the Israelites, and served the -king faithfully in his wars against the Philistines and other nations. -Solomon, on the contrary, declared the remnant of the Ammonites, -Hittites, Perizzites and Hivites, as well as the Jebusites (whom David -had permitted to live in the outskirts of Jerusalem), to be bondmen, -and compelled them to perform the hardest labour. They numbered 150,000 -youths and able-bodied men, and comprised the working class. More than -3,000 Israelitish superintendents kept the enslaved natives to their -work. A superior officer, Adoniram, watched over the superintendents -and the workmen. Eighty thousand of these unhappy beings worked in the -stone quarries day and night by the light of lamps. They were under -the direction of a man from Biblos (Giblim), who understood the art -of hewing heavy blocks from the rocks, and of giving the edges the -necessary shape for dovetailing. Twenty thousand slaves removed the -heavy blocks from the mouth of the quarry, and carried them to the -building site. - -Hiram, the King of Tyre, Solomon's friend, supplied cedar and cypress -wood. The trees were felled on Lebanon, for which purpose Hiram placed -skilled workmen at Solomon's disposal. The trunks were forwarded from -Lebanon to Tyre or to the other harbours, whence they were conveyed in -rafts to the port of Jaffa, and from there with much toil over hills -and dales to Jerusalem, a distance of at least a ten hours' journey. -As the Canaanite slaves were not sufficiently numerous to remove the -cedar and cypress trees, and to convey them to their destination, -Solomon employed Israelites to assist in the work, thirty thousand -being impressed for the duty. Each ten thousand were sent for a month -to work in the forests, to fell the trees, and convey them to their -destination. After a month had passed, the workmen were relieved by -another body of ten thousand. These thirty thousand Israelites were not -enslaved--they remained free, and even received wages--but they were -not allowed to withdraw voluntarily from the work. - -It was not to be expected that Hiram would cut down his cedar and -cypress forests, or that he would place carpenters and builders at -Solomon's disposal without receiving some return. So long as the -buildings were in course of erection, Solomon sent him annually a -certain amount of corn, wine and oil, with the raising of which tribute -the people were probably taxed. But Hiram was also obliged to advance -gold for the adornment of the interior of the temple. Solomon's fleet -had not yet imported the precious metal. In return for the supply of -gold, Solomon yielded up to Hiram twenty towns of the borderland, in -the tribe of Asher, between Phoenicia and the territory of Israel. -Though these were not important, and did not please Hiram, still it -was a transference of Israelitish territory to the Phoenicians. Hiram -permitted various races to colonise the towns, from whom the territory -received the name "Gelil Haggoyim" (the district of nations), later -Galilee. As soon as the stones and blocks of wood had been removed to -the building site of the temple, the erection of which was to occupy -three years, the work was commenced. - -The temple was built of freestone, and the walls were covered with -cedar planks on the inside. On these were traced designs of palms, -open flower cups, and cherubim (winged heads with human faces), and -these designs were inlaid with gold. The temple was sixty cubits long, -twenty cubits wide, and thirty cubits high. It was divided into the -Holy of Holies (Debir, the inner chamber, a square of twenty cubits), -and the Holy Place (Hechal, which was forty cubits long). The Holy of -Holies seems to have been situated on higher ground than the sanctuary. -At the sides were two cherubim of gilded olive wood, each ten cubits -high, the wings of which were five cubits wide. At the entrance of -the sanctuary was an open vestibule (Ulam), which was of the same -width as the sanctuary, and ten cubits in length, and in front of this -hall there were artistically wrought columns of bronze. The artist, -Hiram, was a half-Jew, his father being a Syrian and his mother a -Naphtalite. The Holy of Holies was to face the west, contrary to the -custom of the Gentiles, whose temples faced the rising sun; the gates -were of olive wood, adorned with gilded cherubim as well as with palms -and flower-cups. The folding doors of the sanctuary, made of cypress -wood, were ornamented in a like manner, and the floor was of cypress -wood inlaid with gold. In the Holy of Holies nothing was visible but -the cherubim, intended to enshrine the ark of the covenant, in which -the tablets of the law were kept. In the sanctuary there was an altar -of cedar wood gilded on all sides, with five gilded candlesticks at -each side, and a large gilded table for twelve loaves. The temple was -surrounded by an extensive courtyard. Inside the vestibule stood a -large iron altar, and a spacious water reservoir, called the "iron -sea," adorned with a border of open flower-cups and lily-buds, and on -the lower part with colocynths. This reservoir was supported by twelve -iron bulls, each three of which turned in a different direction. The -water was intended for washing the hands and feet of the officiating -priests whenever they entered the sanctuary, the flow of water probably -being regulated by a faucet. Ten small basins on wheels, artistically -engraved, could be pushed to any spot where they might be wanted. -Vessels for the sacrificial rites were cast in large quantities by the -order of the king. The whole building inside and outside was stamped -with the impress of wealth and grandeur. At the completion of the -building, it was consecrated (1007) with solemn rites. The erection -of the temple had occupied seven years, and the month selected for -the consecration was that in which the harvest and the vintage were -completed. The chiefs of all the tribes and the elders of families were -invited, and people streamed from every quarter to gaze in astonishment -at the splendours of the temple, and to look upon the unaccustomed -spectacle. - -The solemnities commenced with the transfer of the ark from Mount Zion, -the town of David, to Mount Moriah. The bars attached to the ark were -those which had been used during the wanderings in the desert. They -were so placed that all present could see that holy relic of past ages, -the two stone tables inscribed with the ten commandments. During the -transfer of the ark of the covenant, and during the consecration, many -thousands of sacrifices were offered, and also psalms were sung. No -sooner had the ark of the covenant been brought into the Holy of Holies -than a thick cloud filled the body of the temple, so that the Aaronites -were interrupted in their service. This was considered a token of -God's mercy, and a sign that the consecration had been performed in -accordance with His will. The vast assembly was thus swayed by the -feelings of joy, piety and devotion. The king gave expression to the -general sentiments in a few grave words: "God has promised to dwell in -a cloud. I have built a dwelling for thee, O God--an abode for thee -to dwell in for ever." Mount Moriah thus appeared like Mount Sinai, -where the voice of God had spoken from out of a dense cloud. The temple -became an object of veneration to the people, who believed that from -between the two cherubim, God would make known to them the ways in -which they were to walk. A prophet who was present (perhaps Ahijah of -Shiloh) announced to King Solomon in the name of God, "If thou wilt -walk in my law, and obey my commands, and fulfil my behests, then I -will fulfil unto thee the promise I made unto David, thy father--'I -shall dwell in the midst of the sons of Israel, and I will not desert -my people.'" - -The nation celebrated the autumn festivals, which occurred -simultaneously with the consecration, most joyfully. Deep and lasting -was the impression made by this temple, gleaming with gold and bronze, -sumptuous and imposing in its structure, containing no visible image -of the Deity, yet filled with His invisible presence. The house of -God offered something tangible to those whose imaginations could not -conceive of the spiritual, divested of material form. The temple was -the pride and strength of Israel, and the delight of its eyes. At the -time of the consecration there was inaugurated a religious service, -such as had been impossible within the narrow limits of the sanctuary -in Shiloh or, during the transition period, in the tent at Zion. A -priesthood had certainly existed even in former times, and belonged -exclusively to the descendants of Aaron. It was, however, only under -Solomon that a high priest was put at the head of the others, and that -gradations in rank were introduced. Azariah, the son of Zadok, was -advanced to the office of high priest after the death of his father, -and was assisted by the inferior priests. A new order of service was -arranged for the Levites, who were subordinate to the priests. A -part of them assisted at the sacrificial services. Another part kept -guard at four sides of the temple, and were charged with the care of -the sacred vessels, and with all preparations for the temple service. -Lastly, certain families took part in the singing and the instrumental -music that accompanied the services. It was the temple and the new -order of worship introduced there that actually raised Jerusalem to the -position of the capital of the country. Pilgrims from all the tribes -attended the autumnal festivals there, in order to witness the solemn -divine services, such as could be held at no tribal altar. Jerusalem -gradually becoming an important commercial town, in which foreign goods -and curiosities were displayed, attracted ever greater numbers of -visitors from all the tribes. Thus the youngest of the cities in the -land of Israel surpassed and outshone all the older towns. Solomon gave -orders that the capital be fortified on all sides, and that the temple -also be included within the line of fortifications. - -The erection of the royal palace occupied a period of more than -thirteen years. It consisted of a series of buildings which extended -over a great area on the northern hill, in the quarter called Millo. -Next to the entrance was the House of the Forest of Lebanon, which -took its name from the numerous pillars of cedar, which were ranged in -rows of fifteen each. This house served as the Armoury for the king's -protection. Here thirteen hundred guards kept watch; they were provided -with spears and shields of gold, and acted as the king's attendants -when he proceeded to the temple. Great attention was given by Solomon -to the fitting up of the Judgment or Throne Chamber. The walls from -the floor to the ceiling were covered with cedar wood, and adorned -with gold fretwork. In this hall Solomon's throne was placed. It was -considered a marvel of workmanship. It was ornamented with ivory, and -inlaid with gold. Six steps led up to it, and on each step were two -artistically wrought lions, the symbols of power and of royal dignity. -The seat was supported on each side by arms, and on it also were two -lions. In the hall of public justice Solomon heard contesting parties, -and pronounced judgment: he considered his office of judge one of the -holiest and most important connected with his kingly dignity. Here he -also received the ambassadors of the various countries, who attended -his court to offer their homage, or to negotiate new treaties. A -special palace was built for the king, his servants and his wives, a -separate house being reserved for the Egyptian princess. It appears -that her removal from David's house to her own residence was effected -with great pomp. Probably Solomon had also an aqueduct built so as to -supply the town of Jerusalem and the temple with water from the rich -spring of Etam, which was at a two hours' journey from Jerusalem. - -The practice of building splendid edifices of cedar was not confined -to Solomon; the great nobles and princes who lived in Jerusalem, the -high officers, and his favourites, all followed his example. With -the wealth that streamed into the land through the opening of three -important channels, the love of show, which spread from the king to the -higher classes, could be freely gratified. Phoenician merchants of high -standing, who carried on a large wholesale trade, money-changers, men -of wealth who lent money on interest, now settled in Jerusalem. They -composed a special corporation or guild, and were under the protection -of the treaty between Solomon and Hiram. They were permitted to live -according to their own laws, and were even allowed to practise their -religious or, rather, idolatrous rites. The three great sources of -wealth were the _Powerful Position of the State_, the _Alliance with -Egypt_, and the _Indian Trade_. Those princes who had entered into -treaties with David confirmed them with his successor, and other -potentates sought his friendship. On swearing allegiance, all these -princes and nations sent the customary tribute and rich gifts, such -as gold and silver vessels, valuable garments, spices, horses and -mules. The alliance with Egypt was also the source of considerable -additions to the national wealth, as that kingdom furnished horses -to the mountainous districts, and war chariots, which were in great -demand in foreign parts. The princes of Aram and of the territories -on the Euphrates who had formerly procured their horses and chariots -from Egypt, were to buy these war materials from Solomon's merchant -guild. The latter established a station for his own riders and horses -on the plain not far from the sea. He kept twelve thousand horses and -fourteen hundred war chariots (each drawn by two horses), and for -these he erected spacious buildings, containing four thousand stalls. -Solomon's greatest gains, however, were acquired in trade with India. -To the Phoenicians the journey to this distant country was attended -with insuperable difficulties, so long as the country near the Red Sea -was rendered unsafe by the uncivilised and predatory bands that dwelt -there. By his alliance with Hiram, Solomon had opened up a safer and -nearer route to India. The strip of land extending from the southern -border of Judah to the eastern coast of the Red Sea, the Points Elath -and Eziongeber, had been rendered accessible. The caravans with their -loaded camels could proceed in safety from Jerusalem and from the coast -to the northern point of the Red Sea. At Hiram's suggestion, Solomon -had a fleet of strong and large ships (ships of Tarshish) built, and -equipped on the coast at Eziongeber. Hiram sent his most skilful -sailors, who knew the route thoroughly, to man the vessels. Israelites -of the tribes of Asher and Zebulun, who lived on the coast and were -acquainted with the sea, were also employed. - -When the Israelitish fleet was complete, it sailed out of the harbour -of Eziongeber to the Red Sea, which separates Palestine from Egypt, -Nubia, and Abyssinia, and proceeded along the coast to the Gulf which -washes the shores of Southern Arabia, as far as the mouth of the Indus, -in the land of Ophir (now called Scinde). After a period of two years, -Solomon's fleet returned richly laden with the proceeds of this first -expedition. Vast droves of camels carried the treasures to Jerusalem, -to the great astonishment of the whole population. More than four -hundred talents (kikhar) of gold, silver in great quantities, ivory, -ebony, apes, and exquisitely coloured peacocks, sandal-wood, and -sweet-smelling plants were thus transported. Solomon caused a throne to -be made of the ivory, and the sandal-wood was used for ornamenting the -harps and lutes of the musicians who played in the temple. The palings -of the bridge which led from the palace to the temple were also made -of this rare and costly wood. Solomon sent his fleet several times to -Ophir or India, and each time new riches and curiosities were brought -into the country. The port Elath became a place of great importance. -Judæans settled there, and the land of Israel thus extended from -the extreme end of the Red Sea to the Euphrates. In order to convey -horses and chariots from Aramæa to the Euphrates, as also the various -importations from Phoenicia, roads had to be made, and measures taken to -ensure the safety of the caravans. In a mountainous country, it is not -easy for beasts of burden, and certainly not for horses and chariots, -to traverse great distances, obstructed as the way is by steep cliffs, -abrupt precipices, and masses of rolling stones. Solomon, however, -had roads made which led from Jerusalem to the north; these were the -_king's high-roads_. - -He probably employed the services of the Canaanite natives, who were -obliged as bondmen to take part in this work. Heights were levelled, -depths filled up, and stones removed. The roads were passable by -carriages, which could proceed without hindrance from the south to the -north, and the caravans passing from the Jordan to the sea could travel -without difficulty. A chain of fortresses protected the roadways, -and served as resting places. Besides these stations for riders and -carriages, Solomon also founded towns for storing goods; these were -also used to house grain for future years of scarcity. - -Thus Solomon settled the affairs of Israel, and provided for its future -security. He had no sharpsighted counsellor, such as David had had in -Ahithophel, to assist him in establishing order; his own wisdom was -his sole counsellor. But he had to choose responsible officers, who -would give effect to his instructions, and carry out the plans which -he devised. The great extent of his state and his court demanded the -establishment of new offices. For the better reception of strangers he -had placed over his vast household a major-domo (al-hab-Baith). Ahishar -was the name of this officer. The twelve officials who provided for -the wants of the household were supervised by a chief whose name was -Azariah-ben-Nathan. A high official, Adoniram, the son of Abda, was -also placed (al-ham-Mas) over the many thousand bondmen who worked -on the roads and in the fortresses. Thus three high posts were newly -created by Solomon. - -Its great extent and the riches which Solomon had amassed enabled the -kingdom of Israel to hold its place amongst the greatest nations in -the ancient world. Princes and nations who lived in strife with each -other sought the aid of the ruler of this mighty dominion, and called -upon him to act as arbitrator, for his wisdom was famed far and wide. -The greatest blessing in Solomon's reign was the peace and undisturbed -quiet which obtained throughout the land. From Dan unto Beersheba the -Israelites could peacefully enjoy their home, "everyone under his own -vine and under his own fig-tree." - -The commercial treaties, the prosperity of the country, the security -to life arising from the long peace maintained in Solomon's reign, all -contributed to attract the surrounding tribes of Moabites, Ammonites, -Idumæans, and even Egyptians to the country. It is probable, too, that -the high religious culture of the Israelites, so superior to idolatry, -and its splendid manifestation in the temple at Jerusalem influenced -enlightened foreigners to seek shelter under the "wings of the God -of Israel." The country, the people, and the God of Israel acquired -widespread renown in Solomon's time. The Israelitish mariners, who -visited so many harbours, coast-lands, and marts, and the Israelitish -merchants who entered into connections with foreign parts carried -reports of their fatherland to the remotest climes and nations. The -praise of the wise, mighty, and brilliant king Solomon resounded far -and wide in his times. In the eyes of the world he elevated the name -of the God whom he honoured, and to whose glory he had erected a -magnificent temple. The Israelitish sailors and merchants unconsciously -became the first messengers and pioneers of the religion of Israel -among the idolatrous nations. - -One day Jerusalem was surprised by an extraordinary embassy. A wise -queen, from the spice-bearing land of Sabia (Sheba), which is situated -on the Arabian coast of the Red Sea, came to visit Jerusalem. As she -had heard so much of the greatness of Solomon, and in praise of the -God of Israel, she wished to see, with her own eyes, how much truth -or falsehood lay in the reports which had come to her ears. She was -received with marked attention by Solomon, and had many interviews -with him. The queen (whom tradition calls Belkis) greatly admired his -wisdom, and was much impressed by the temple which he had erected to -God, and by the brilliancy of his court. It is said that she propounded -enigmatic riddles to him in order to test his powers, and these he -answered in a manner which excited her astonishment. - -Solomon's brilliant rule, however, became the source of a serious -division between the tribes, which he had unavailingly striven to -consolidate into one indissoluble whole. Notwithstanding that the -temple formed a bond of union for the whole people, and that Solomon -tried to abolish the tribal isolation which prevailed, he succeeded -only in the case of Benjamin, which became more closely united with -Judah. This was owing to the fact that the temple was built on -Benjamite territory, and consequently several Benjamite families -settled in the capital. Probably Solomon also preferred the tribe of -Benjamin and his own ancestral tribe to the other tribes. The mutual -dislike of the houses of Israel and Judah, or the northern and southern -tribes, had not ceased. Among the northern tribes a deep sense of -discontent prevailed against Solomon, despite the prosperity to which -he had raised them; they resented the pressure put upon them to forward -regular supplies for the court, and to perform compulsory service in -the erection of public buildings. Their discontent was not expressed -aloud, but it needed only an occasion for it to vent itself. Wise as -Solomon was, he had not sufficient foresight to perceive that his -faults were sure to weaken the future security of the state. Amongst -the officials whom Solomon employed to supervise the buildings was -an Ephraimite, who was clever, courageous and ambitious. This was -Jeroboam, the son of Nebat, from the town of Zereda or Zorathan, on the -other side of the Jordan. He was the son of a widow; thus, free from -paternal restraint, he could follow out his own impulses uncontrolled. -Jeroboam had supervised the erection of the walls of Jerusalem, and had -displayed great skill and firmness in managing the bondmen. Solomon -was, in fact, so well pleased with him that he bestowed on him a high -position in the territory of Ephraim and Manasseh. Here Jeroboam had -the opportunity of becoming acquainted with the discontent of the -people, which was probably strongest amongst the ever-discontented -Ephraimites. The popular feeling accorded well with his ambitious -plans, and he decided to utilise it when a favourable opportunity -should occur. - -Solomon was guilty of the folly of permitting sacrificial altars to -be built for various idols. It may have been his foreign wives who -induced him to make this concession, or perhaps it was due to the -foreigners, the Phoenicians and other races, who had taken up their -residence in Jerusalem, and had received permission to worship their -gods in the land of Israel according to their custom. However this -may have been, altars were raised on the high northern point of the -Mount of Olives, in honour of Astarte of the Zidonians, Milcom of the -Ammonites, Chemosh of the Moabites, and other idols. The religious -convictions of the nation were not so deeply rooted that the people -could witness all kinds of idolatrous practices without falling into -the errors of idol-worship themselves. A prophet, Ahijah of Shiloh, -had the courage to reprimand the king, and to warn him of the danger -which his conduct rendered imminent. Solomon, however, seems to have -given little heed to his representations, and the prophet, indignant -at the king's obtuseness, determined to use Jeroboam (whose ambitious -schemes he had probably divined) as the instrument of Solomon's -destruction. When Jeroboam left Jerusalem, the prophet approached him, -seized his garment, tore it into twelve pieces, and handing him ten -of them, he said, "Take these ten pieces; they portray the ten tribes -which will separate themselves from the house of David, and recognise -thee as their king." Jeroboam wanted no further encouragement to -mature his plans, since a prophet had commended them. He hurried to -the territories of Ephraim, and called on the Ephraimites to separate -themselves from the house of David. Meanwhile Solomon had received -tidings of the event, and before the revolution could spread, he sent -his guards to kill the rebel. Jeroboam then fled to Egypt, where a -new dynasty now occupied the throne. Shishak (Sheshenk, Sesonchosis, -980-959) was the first king of the new line. Under his rule was severed -the bond which had united Israel and Egypt since Solomon's marriage -with the Egyptian princess. Shishak in fact was inimical to the -Israelitish nation, which had become more powerful than was agreeable -to him. He therefore received Jeroboam with kindness, intending to -use him against Solomon. Shishak also gave a friendly reception and -protection to an Idumæan prince, who had special reasons for avenging -himself on the Israelitish nation. Hadad (or Adad) was a relation of -the Idumæan king whom David had conquered. He had, when a boy, escaped -the massacre ordered by Joab in consequence of a revolution in Idumæa. -When Shishak ascended the throne, the Idumæan prince hurried to Egypt, -and was graciously received. Shishak gave him the queen's sister in -marriage, and his first-born son (Genubath) grew up among the Egyptian -princes. Hadad also acquired possessions in Egypt, and was honoured -in every way; notwithstanding this, he yearned to return to Edom, -and to regain the territories which had been snatched away from him. -He carried this desire into effect with the aid of Shishak, who was -fully aware that the warlike spirit which had obtained under David and -Joab, had diminished under Solomon's peaceful rule, and that petty -warfare in the mountainous districts would be connected with little -danger, while it might be productive of great benefit to himself. Hadad -and the troops which he had mustered in Idumæa did great damage to -Solomon's caravans, which carried goods between the bay of Elath and -the Israelitish boundaries; and Solomon's warriors were powerless to -prevent these attacks. - -Unnoticed by Solomon, another cloud, which threatened Israel with -destruction, was gathering in the north. Rezon (of Zobah), one of the -servants of King Hadadezer, whom David had overthrown, had taken to -flight after the defeat of his sovereign; he assembled a predatory -troop, and made raids in the districts lying between the Euphrates and -the northern ranges of the Lebanon. Rezon's troops gradually increased -in numbers, and with their numbers grew his courage and power. At -last he ventured to proceed against the ancient city of Damascus. He -succeeded in capturing it and in having himself chosen king. Advancing -from the north, Rezon also committed hostilities against the Israelites -and their allies, without any opposition on the part of Solomon, who -either had a dislike of war, or had no troops available to ward off -the attacks from the north and the south. Thus arose, from small -beginnings, powers inimical to Israel, which might easily have been -nipped in the bud. Besides this, an internal breach was in store for -Israel. - -Solomon, however, did not live to see the development of the impending -evils and the decay of his kingdom. He died in peace at the age of -about sixty years (in 977). His body was buried, no doubt with great -pomp, in the rocky mausoleum of the kings which David had built on the -south of Mount Zion. It was said later on that Solomon, as well as his -father, had heaped up untold treasures and wealth in these vaults and -cells, which were discovered many centuries after by the later Jewish -kings. - -Although Solomon had numerous wives, it appears that he left but few -children, a son named Rehoboam and two daughters, Taphath and Basmath, -whom their father married to two of his officers. Posterity, which has -greatly exaggerated Solomon's wisdom and ability, has also attributed -to him power over mystic spirits and demons, who, obeying his will, -could be invoked or dismissed as he chose. Even a ring on which his -name was engraven was supposed to exercise a mighty spell over the -demons, and keep them in subjection. - -The power to which Solomon had elevated Israel resembled that of a -magic world built up by spirits. The spell was broken at his death. - - - - -CHAPTER X. - -SECESSION OF THE TRIBES. - - Accession of Rehoboam--Jeroboam's return--The King at - Shechem--The Secession of the Ten Tribes--Election of - Jeroboam--New Alliances--Rezon and Shishak--Fortification - of Shechem--Jeroboam's idolatry--Ahijah's rebuke--Religion - in Judah--Abijam--Asa--Nadab--Baasha--Wars between Asa and - Baasha--Defeat of Zerah--Benhadad--Elah--Zimri--Omri--Civil - war--Samaria built--Omri's policy--Alliances with Ethbaal - and Tyre--Ahab: his character--Jezebel--The Priests of - Baal--Elijah--Naboth's vineyard--Elijah at Carmel--War - with Benhadad--Death of Ahab and Jehoshaphat--Ahaziah's - Accession--Jehoram--Elijah and Elisha--Jehu--Death of Jezebel. - - 977-887 B. C. E. - - -For the first time since the monarchical government had been -established in Israel, the next heir to the throne could succeed -without disturbance or contest. Rehoboam, more fortunate than his -father and grandfather, found himself, when he ascended the throne, -ruler over a mighty and important country. Many nations bowed in -allegiance to him, and he could indulge in golden dreams of power and -happiness. His undisputed accession was perhaps owing to the fact that -he had no brother, or that Solomon's strict laws regarding private -property had also extended to the rights of succession. Whatever may -have been the reason, Rehoboam ascended the throne of his father -without opposition. In fact, disputes between brothers concerning -the succession, such as had occurred at the death of David, did not -occur again in Jerusalem. Nor would Rehoboam have been equal to such -contests. He by no means resembled his father; indeed, his abilities -were not even mediocre. Like all princes born in the purple, who are -not gifted with striking personal qualities, he was thoughtless, -haughty, and at the same time so wanting in self-reliance that he -could not decide for himself. He had neither martial abilities nor an -appreciation of greatness of any kind. The throne was to secure for him -power, peace, and the enjoyment of life's pleasures. If this was his -dream, it was of but short duration. He was unexpectedly confronted -with an enemy who robbed him of power and peace, and who caused a -breach in the state of Israel which could never again be healed. - -Jeroboam, the Ephraimite who had raised the flag of rebellion during -the last years of Solomon's reign, and who, on the failure of his -attempt, had fled to Egypt, returned to his native land immediately on -receipt of the news of Solomon's death, with the intention of resuming -his ambitious schemes, which had been approved by a prophet. Probably -his protector, Shishak, the king of Egypt, assisted him, and permitted -him to proceed by sea to the Israelitish port. No sooner had this bold -Ephraimite arrived in Shechem, the second city of importance in the -kingdom, than the Shechemites, ever ready for sedition, began a revolt. -Jeroboam was invited to join the meeting of the people, or rather he -instigated the holding of such an assembly in order to consider the -steps necessary to attain the desired end without bloodshed. - -The elders of other tribes were likewise invited to take part in the -projects of the Shechemites, and thus their rebellious undertaking -assumed the character of a national demonstration. It was first of -all decided that the elders of the tribes were not, as heretofore, to -repair to Jerusalem in order to pay homage to the new king, but that -he was to be invited to receive their allegiance at Shechem. This was -the first step in the rebellion. Rehoboam determined to accept their -invitation, much against his will probably, in the expectation that -his presence would put a stop to any intended insurrection. It was a -disastrous hour, fraught with far-reaching results for the history of -Israel. - -Rehoboam was accompanied to Shechem by his council, consisting of the -elder members who had served his father, and of younger members whom he -himself had selected. In order to provide for all cases, he took with -him Adoniram, the overseer of the slaves, whose angry glance and whose -rod kept the unwilling labourers in submission. When Rehoboam arrived -in Shechem, the representatives of the tribes came before him in order -to explain their grievances. Jeroboam, who had been chosen as their -mouthpiece, placed the troubles of the nation before the king in strong -language: "Thy father put a heavy yoke on the people, and made them -submit to heavy burdens. If thou wilt lighten this heavy yoke, we will -serve thee." Struck by this bold language, Rehoboam concealed his anger -as best he could, and told them to return for his reply in three days. -He knew not what answer to give the representatives of the tribes. He -therefore consulted his council. The older members were unanimously in -favor of mild treatment, the younger men advocated severity, and the -unwise king followed the advice of the latter. When, on the third day, -Jeroboam and the elders came to him for his answer, he replied in words -which he thought would annihilate them: "My little finger is stronger -than my father's loins. If he scourged you with rods, I will scourge -you with scorpions." Jeroboam had expected and reckoned on no other -reply. Turning to the elders he said, "What share have we in David, and -what inheritance in the son of Jesse? Return to your tents, O Israel, -and thou, David, see to thine own house!" Jeroboam then unfurled the -standard of rebellion, and assembled the Shechemites, who willingly -mustered around him in order to display their enmity towards Rehoboam. -All the jealousy and hatred that the Ephraimites had cherished during -the reigns of David and Solomon, on account of the oppression and -supposed humiliation to which they had been forced to submit, now burst -forth. They seized the opportunity to free themselves from the yoke of -David, and to place themselves, as they had done in the days of the -Judges, at the head of the tribes. Sword in hand, the Shechemites, -headed by Jeroboam, attacked the house in which Rehoboam dwelt. He sent -Adoniram, the overseer of the slaves, to chastise the ringleaders like -rebellious slaves. A shower of stones overpowered him, and he sank -lifeless to the ground. Rehoboam, whose life was in danger, fled from -Shechem in his chariot, and reached Jerusalem. A breach had been made -which no one could heal. - -Indignant and dispirited as Rehoboam was at the turn affairs had taken -in Shechem, he felt himself obliged to ascertain, before taking any -steps, how far he could count on the fidelity of the nation. What was -he to do, if the tribes nearest to the capital, induced by the example -of the Shechemites, also renounced their allegiance to him? Where -would the secession end? From this care, however, he was soon freed. -The tribe of Judah, which was intimately connected with the house of -David, and considered that house its most precious ornament, remained -faithful to Rehoboam. The tribe of Simeon was merely a subsidiary of -that of Judah, and could not be considered independent. The tribe of -Benjamin also remained faithful to Rehoboam. It was closely connected -with that of Judah, and their fortunes could not again be parted. -There were more Benjamites than Judæans living in Jerusalem. These -tribes, then, sided with Rehoboam. No sooner was he aware that two or -three tribes would remain true to him, than he naturally entertained -the idea of compelling the Shechemites and Ephraimites to return to -their allegiance by means of the sword, and he would no doubt have -succeeded, had not Jeroboam taken measures to turn the secession to -the greatest advantage. He impressed on the Ephraimites that only -a king could successfully resist Rehoboam's attacks, and that by no -other means could they escape the severe punishment which awaited them -as insurgents. They then determined to set up an opposition king. Who -would be better suited for this post than Jeroboam? He alone possessed -the needful courage and skill, and he was an Ephraimite. The elders of -Ephraim therefore assembled, and with the co-operation of the remaining -tribes, chose him as king. The latter paid homage to Jeroboam, possibly -because they also had grievances against the house of David, and could -expect no redress from Rehoboam. Thus the obscure man of Zereda became -king over ten tribes (977-955), counting Manasseh of Machir as one, and -Manasseh of Gilead as another tribe. - -The tribes of Judah, Benjamin and Simeon alone remained attached to the -house of David. The two last named, however, had no separate existence, -they were merged into the tribe of Judah. The house of Israel, which -had been joined with the house of Judah for barely a century, was -thus again divided from it. To avoid continual warfare as well as the -necessity of being constantly on the defensive, each of the two kings -sought to strengthen himself by alliances, and thus frustrate all -hostile plans. Rehoboam made a treaty with the newly elected king of -Damascus, the state founded by Rezon, the bandit, in Solomon's time, -having attained great power. Rezon, or his successor Tabrimon, had -united various Aramæan districts to Damascus, and ruled over extensive -territory. The treaty between Rehoboam and the king of Damascus -prevented Jeroboam from attacking the kingdom of Judah, and visiting it -with the horrors of a long war. Jeroboam, on the other hand, formed an -alliance with another power, in order to exasperate and alarm the king -of Judah. - -A union of the two kingdoms was distasteful to both. The difference -in their history prevented their coalescing. The house of Israel, -especially the tribe of Ephraim, willingly relinquished the advantages -which might accrue from a union with the house of David, in order -that it might not be forced to assume an inferior position. The more -worthy in both kingdoms were probably filled with grief at the breach -which had occurred, but they were unable to avert it. The civil war -which appeared imminent was prevented by the prophet Shemaiah, who, in -the name of God, called on the Judæans and Benjamites to desist from -fratricide. Slight feuds, however, broke out between the contiguous -kingdoms, as was unavoidable between such near neighbours, but they led -to no serious result. - -Jeroboam was effectually aided in his ambitious plans by Shishak -(Sheshenk), who, it is said, married his wife's elder sister Ano to the -fugitive Israelite, just as he had given another sister in marriage -to the Idumæan prince who had taken refuge with him. Shishak probably -had furnished Jeroboam with the supplies of money that enabled him to -return to his fatherland, and now the new king seems to have formed -an alliance with him against Judah. Thus Rehoboam was prevented from -undertaking any noteworthy steps against Israel. In order to secure -himself from Egyptian and Israelitish attacks, Rehoboam erected a chain -of fortresses in a circuit of several miles round about the capital. -But they failed him in the hour of need. Shishak, with an overwhelming -force, undertook a war against Rehoboam in the fifth year of the Jewish -king's reign (972). Overcome by excess of numbers, the strongholds -were taken one after another by the Egyptian armies, and Shishak -pressed forward as far as Jerusalem. It appears that the capital -yielded without a struggle, and the Egyptian king contented himself -with seizing the treasures which Solomon had deposited in the palace -and the Temple. He appropriated all the money then in Jerusalem, as -well as the golden shields and spears which the king's guards used in -royal processions to the Temple. He, however, left the kingdom of Judah -intact, did not even touch the walls of Jerusalem, and left Rehoboam on -his throne. On his return, Shishak commemorated his deeds of prowess -and his victories over Judah and other districts by records and -monuments. The alliance between Solomon and the king of Egypt was thus -of but short duration. His son learned the futility of such a treaty, -and experienced how little trust can be placed in plans and political -measures, though apparently the outcome of the deepest calculation and -forethought. Solomon, in spite of his wisdom, had acted thoughtlessly -in regard to the union with the daughter of Pharaoh. He had built her a -special palace, and within a few years after his decease, an Egyptian -king ransacked this very palace and other monumental buildings of -Solomon, and plundered them of all their treasures. The grandeur and -power of Solomon's kingdom were at an end. - -Jeroboam fortified Shechem and built himself a palace, which served -also as a citadel (Armon) for purposes of defence. On the opposite -side of the Jordan, he also fortified various towns, among them Penuel -(or Peniel), to serve as a rampart against attacks from the south, -where the Moabites and the Ammonites, in consequence of what had taken -place, had separated themselves from the Israelites, in the same way -as the Idumæans had shaken off the yoke of the Judæans. Internal -embarrassments forced Jeroboam to introduce innovations. Guided either -by habit or conviction, the families of the northern tribes continued -to present themselves at Jerusalem in the autumn at harvest time, in -order to take part in the service of the invisible God. This loyalty -to the Jewish capital, even though manifested by only a part of his -subjects, was a source of great anxiety to Jeroboam. How would it be -if the people turned in ever increasing numbers to the temple in -Jerusalem, and once more made peace with the house of David? Would he -not be dethroned as quickly as he had attained to royalty? In order -to avoid the possibility of such a reunion, Jeroboam matured a wicked -plan, which caused Israel to fall back into the ways of idolatry and -barbarity. - -During his protracted stay in Egypt, Jeroboam had become acquainted -with the system of worship established there, and he had observed that -the worship of animals, particularly of the bull, tended to promote the -aims of despotic government. He had observed that this animal worship -served to stultify the nation, and Jeroboam thought he might turn to -his own purposes a system so politic and advantageous. He therefore, -in conjunction with his advisers, devised a plan by which these -observances should be introduced in the Ten Tribes. He considered that -this idol-worship might be of advantage to him in other ways, as it -would keep him in favour with the court of Egypt. Israel would appear -as a dependency of Egypt, and both countries, having common religious -observances and customs, would also have common interests. The habits -of Egypt were of special interest to him, as his wife was probably an -Egyptian, and connected with the royal house of Egypt. Jeroboam also -studied the convenience of the tribes. He wished to relieve those who -lived far off from the necessity of making long journeys at the time -of the harvest. At Bethel and at Dan, Jeroboam, therefore, put up -golden calves, and issued a proclamation to the effect: "This is thy -God, O Israel, who brought thee out of Egypt." In Bethel, where he -himself intended to preside at the worship, he built a large temple, -in which he also placed a sacrificial altar. To prevent the people -from celebrating the Feast of Ingathering at Jerusalem, he fixed the -festival a month later (in the eighth instead of the seventh month). -Probably also a different time-reckoning was followed, according to -the longer solar, instead of the shorter lunar year. - -The nation, as a whole, appears to have taken no offence at this -alteration, but to have actually regarded it as a revival of the -ancient mode of worship. The fundamental principle, the _unity_ of God, -was in no way affected by it. Jeroboam had not attempted to introduce -polytheism, but had merely given them incarnations of the Deity, -symbolising strength and fruitfulness. The people, naturally sensual, -were, indeed, well pleased to have a representation of the Godhead. The -_spirituality_ of God, not admitting of ocular demonstration, was at -that period more remote from their comprehension than the conception -of His _unity_. Sensual dissipation and depravity were not bound up -with the worship of the bull as with the Canaanite service of Baal, and -therefore it did not outrage the moral sense. - -Thus the people gradually became accustomed to repair to Bethel or Dan -for the high feasts; otherwise they made their offerings at home, or at -the nearest place where sacrifices had been offered of old. Jeroboam -fully attained his object; the nation became stultified, and bowed -to him in servile obedience. The tribe of Levi, however, caused him -anxiety. No Levite would consent to perform the office of priest at -the worship of the bull; for Samuel's prophetic teachings had made a -lasting impression on this tribe. That Jeroboam might not compel their -services, the Levites, who had been living in the Israelitish towns, -wandered forth, and settled in the kingdom of Judah. As he could not -possibly manage without priests, he took any one who offered himself -to serve in that capacity. At one festival he himself performed the -priestly office, in order to elevate it in the eyes of the people, or, -perhaps, in imitation of the Egyptian custom. Jeroboam was thus led -step by step to destroy the original principles of Judaism. - -His conduct was not allowed to pass uncondemned. The old prophet, -Ahijah, of Shiloh, who had incited Nebat's ambitious son to -insurrection, now was too old and frail to lift his voice publicly -against these proceedings. When, however, Jeroboam's wife visited -him at Shiloh, to consult him about the dangerous illness of her -eldest son, the prophet took the opportunity of announcing to her -the approaching dissolution of the royal house. But a return was -impossible, without paving the way to a reunion with the house of -David. From motives of self-preservation, he was obliged to continue in -the way he had chosen. The new worship was, therefore, retained during -the existence of the kingdom of the Ten Tribes, and none of Jeroboam's -successors attempted to make any alteration in its form. - -In the kingdom of Judah (or House of Jacob), the conditions were quite -different. Politically weakened by the severance of the tribes and -the incursions of Egypt under Shishak, its wounds were too deep to -heal before the lapse of a considerable time. But Judah had not sunk -in religion or morals. Rehoboam appears to have troubled himself but -little about religious or moral affairs; he was indifferent in every -respect, and his pride having once received a blow, he seems to have -passed his days in idleness. But the Temple, on the one hand, and the -Levites, on the other, appear to have counteracted all deteriorating -influences. In outward appearance all remained as it had been in -the time of Solomon; the High Altars (Bamoth), on which families -performed the sacrificial rites throughout the year, continued to be -maintained, but at the autumn festivals the people repaired to the -temple. Deviations from the established order of divine service were -exceptional, and were accepted only by the circle of court ladies. -As Solomon had permitted altars to be erected for his heathen wives, -Rehoboam did not feel called upon to be more severe in his enactments. -His mother Maachah, the daughter or granddaughter of Absalom, had a -predilection for the immoral Canaanite worship; she erected a statue -of Astarte in her palace, and maintained temple priestesses. Rehoboam -permitted all this, but the unholy innovations did not spread very -wide. Meanwhile, although idolatrous practices did not gain ground in -the kingdom of Judah, there was no impulse towards a higher stage of -moral culture under Rehoboam's government. A weakness seemed to have -come over the people, as if they were in the last stage of senility. -Nearly two centuries elapsed before traces of a higher spiritual force -became evident. Rehoboam's reign of seventeen years was inglorious. -The reign of his son Abijam (960-958) passed in a like manner. He also -indulged in petty acts of hostility against Jeroboam, but without any -important result. He, too, permitted the idolatrous practices of his -mother Maachah. Abijam, it appears, died young, leaving no issue, and -he was therefore succeeded by his brother Asa (957-918). He again was -a minor, and the queen-mother Maachah held the reins of government. At -first she seems to have desired to extend her idolatrous and immoral -worship, but a revolution in the kingdom of the Ten Tribes put an end -to her projects, and changed the course of events. - -Nadab, who had succeeded to the throne on the death of Jeroboam -(955-954), undertook a war against the Philistines, and besieged the -Danite city of Gibbethon, which the Philistines had occupied. During -this campaign a soldier by the name of Baesha (Baasha) conspired -against the king in the camp, and killed him. From the camp Baasha -proceeded to the capital, Tirzah, and destroyed the whole house of -Jeroboam (954). The founder of this dynasty had not been anointed by -the prophet; he was not considered inviolable, like Saul and David, and -therefore the hand of the murderer was not restrained. Baasha was the -first of the list of regicides in the Ten Tribes, and his act hastened -the fate impending over the nation. - -Having perpetrated the murder, he took possession of the throne and -kingdom (954-933). He continued Tirzah as the capital, on account of -its central position. It lay in the very heart of the kingdom, and -possessed the additional advantage of being fortified. Had Baasha -abolished the worship of the bull, he might have drawn to his side the -worthier portion of the people of Judah. The latter were indignant at -the idolatrous innovations of Maachah, which were more reprehensible -than the bull-worship, as with them were connected the depraved habits -of the temple priestesses. In Jerusalem the fear of eventual sympathy -with Israel appears to have arisen; but Asa hastened to avert the -calamity. Either on his own impulse, or urged thereto by one of the -prophets, he snatched the reins of government from the hands of the -queen-mother, forbade the worship of Astarte, removed the priestesses, -and burnt the disgusting image which had been erected for worship in -the valley of Kedron. Through these resolute acts Asa secured for -himself the good-will of the well-disposed among his people. - -The old inconclusive feuds between the two kingdoms were continued -between Asa and Baasha. The former is said to have acquired several -cities of Ephraim, and to have incorporated them in his own kingdom. -In order to secure himself from the attacks of Judah, Baasha seems to -have entered into a league with the king of Egypt, and to have urged -him to carry war into the lands of his own foe. An Egyptian general -named Zerah (Osorkon) sallied forth with a numerous body of Ethiopians, -and pressed forwards as far as Mareshah, about ten leagues south-west -of Jerusalem. Asa, however, marched against him with the combined -forces of Judah and Benjamin, defeated the Ethiopian army north of -Mareshah, pursued it as far as Gerar, and brought back enormous booty -to Jerusalem. - -Baasha was disconcerted by these proceedings, and endeavoured to bring -about an alliance with the Aramæan king, Ben-hadad I., of Damascus, -who, hitherto friendly to the kingdom of Judah, had prevented all -inimical attacks. Ben-hadad, the son of Tabrimon, now cancelled his -treaty with Asa, and went over to Baasha's side. The latter conquered -Ramah, the birth-place and residence of the prophet Samuel, which -belonged to the Benjamites, and fortified it so that it served as a -base whence to make raids on the neighbouring districts. Alarmed at -these doings, Asa endeavoured to revive the treaty with the king of -Damascus, and sent ambassadors to him, with quantities of treasure -in silver and gold, which he took both from the Temple and from his -palaces. Ben-hadad allowed himself to be won over; it flattered him to -be thus sought after by both realms, to which his people had formerly -been obliged to pay tribute. He resolved to utilise the weakness of -both sides, and he commanded an army to effect an entrance into the -north of the kingdom of Israel; he subjugated Ijon, Dan, and the -contiguous region of Abel-Bethmaachah; and also reduced the district -around the lake of Tiberias, and the mountainous lands of the tribe of -Naphtali. Asa was thus saved at the expense of Judah's sister nation; -and Baasha was forced to abandon his desire for conquest, and to -relinquish Ramah. - -Asa now summoned all the men capable of bearing arms to assist in the -destruction of the fortifications of Ramah. The death of Baasha, which -occurred soon after this (in 933), and a revolution which ensued in -Tirzah, left Asa free from menace on that side. Mizpah, a town having -a very high and favourable situation, was made an important citadel by -Asa. He also built a deep and roomy cistern in the rocks, in order to -have stores of water in case of a siege. - -Meanwhile, in the kingdom of the Ten Tribes, terrible events were -happening, which were productive of changes in both kingdoms. Baasha -was succeeded by his son Elah (933-932), who was addicted to idleness -and drunkenness. Whilst his warriors were engaged in battle with the -Philistines, and were attacking Gibbethon, he passed his days in -drinking-bouts. This circumstance was taken advantage of by his servant -Simri (Zimri), the commander of one-half of the war-chariots, which had -remained behind in Tirzah. Whilst Elah was dissipating in the house -of the captain of his palace, Zimri killed him (in 932), at the same -time destroying the entire house of Baasha, and not even sparing its -friends. He then, as a matter of course, ascended the throne, but his -reign was of short duration; it lasted only one week. No sooner had the -news of the king's murder reached the army, then besieging Gibbethon, -than they elected the Israelitish general Omri, as king. He repaired to -the capital, but finding the gates closed against him, he laid siege to -the city and effected a breach in the wall. When Zimri discovered that -he was lost, he anticipated a disgraceful end by setting fire to the -palace and perishing in the flames. He was the third of five kings of -Israel who died an unnatural death, and only two of them were buried -in the mausoleum for the kings, erected by Jeroboam. A fourth king was -soon to be added to the list. Omri, a warrior, expected to obtain the -vacant throne forthwith, but he met with opposition. One part of the -population of the capital had chosen another king, Tibni, the son of -Ginath; he was probably a native of the city. Thus two parties were -formed in the capital, and the streets were no doubt deluged with -blood. A civil war was the one thing wanting in the domains of Ephraim -to make the measure of misery full to overflowing. For three years the -partisan conflict raged (932-928); at length the party of Omri gained -the upper hand. Tibni was killed, and Omri remained sole ruler (928). -He, however, felt ill at ease in Tirzah; the palace was in ashes since -the death of Zimri, and other depredations had no doubt taken place -during the protracted civil war. The conquered party was hostile -to him, and Omri, therefore, determined to transfer the seat of the -empire. He could not select Shechem, where the restless and rebellious -spirit of the inhabitants would not permit him to live in safety, and -there was no other important town situated in the heart of the country. -Omri therefore conceived the idea of building a new capital. A high -plateau, at a few hours' distance north-west of Shechem, seemed to him -the fittest spot. He bought it of its owner, Shemer, erected buildings, -a palace and other houses, fortified it, and called it _Shomron_ -(Samaria). Whence did he obtain inhabitants for the newly founded -city? He probably adopted a course similar to David's in the case of -Jerusalem, and caused the warriors attached to his cause to settle -there. A year after his victory over the rival king, Omri left Tirzah, -and removed to Samaria, which was destined to be the rival of Jerusalem -for a period of two hundred years, and then, after two centuries -of desertion, to revive, and once more wage war against Judah and -Jerusalem. Samaria inherited the hatred of Shechem against Jerusalem, -and increased it tenfold. The new city gave its name to the kingdom of -the Ten Tribes, and the land was thence called the land of Samaria. - -Omri, the first king of Samaria, was neither a strong nor a warlike -leader, but he was a wise man. The crown which he had acquired, -rather by the favour of circumstances than his own force of will, did -not satisfy him. He wished to make his court and his people great, -respected and wealthy, and he hoped that the prosperity of the days of -Solomon might be restored to Israel. It is true that the nation was -divided, and thereby weakened. But was it necessary for war always to -be carried on between the two portions, and for the sword to destroy -them? Connected as they were by reason of tribal relations and common -interests, could they not henceforth pursue their course in friendly -alliance? - -Omri endeavoured, in the first place, to make peace with the -representative of the royal house of David, and to impress upon him -the advantages, to both of them, of pursuing an amicable policy. They -might in that way obtain their former sway over the countries which -had once been tributary to them. For a long time friendly relations -were actually established between the two kingdoms; and they supported, -instead of opposing, each other. Omri also cherished to a great, -perhaps even to a too great degree, the hope of a friendly alliance -with Phoenicia. He desired that a part of the riches which their -extensive maritime expeditions and trade introduced into that country, -might also flow into his own kingdom. At this time various kings had -waded to the throne in Tyre through the blood of their predecessors, -until at length Ethbaal (Ithobal), a priest of Astarte, ascended the -throne, after the murder of his predecessor, Phalles. The disastrous -occurrences in Phoenicia had greatly weakened the land. The great -families had been compelled to emigrate, and had founded colonies on -the north coast of Africa. The kingdom of Damascus, which had acquired -great power, sought to obtain possession of the productive coast-line -of Phoenicia; Ethbaal, therefore, had to strengthen himself by means of -alliances. The kingdom of the Ten Tribes was nearest to him. - -Omri and Ethbaal therefore had common interests, and formed an -offensive and defensive treaty. The league, desired by both powers, -was confirmed by an intermarriage. Omri's son Ahab married Ethbaal's -daughter Jezebel (Jezabel or Izebel)--a marriage which was fraught with -disastrous consequences. - -Omri, fortified by this alliance, could now venture to think of -undertaking warlike expeditions. He captured several towns of Moab, -which had emancipated itself under Jeroboam's rule, and compelled it -to become once more tributary. He forced the Moabites to send herds of -oxen and rams every year as tribute. As, however, a sort of alliance -existed between Moab and Aram, and an increase of Israel's power was -watched by Aram with a jealous eye, the Aramæan king of Damascus, -Ben-hadad I., declared war against Omri, and recovered some of the -cities he had taken. Omri was forced to accept peace with Ben-hadad on -hard terms, and bound himself to open the caravan-roads through the -kingdom of Israel, and to allow free passage through the land. - -Omri thereupon entered into a closer alliance with the kingdom of Tyre, -and pursued the plan of assimilating his people to their Canaanite -neighbours. Why should he endeavour to keep Israel separate from the -surrounding peoples? Would it not be wiser and better to permit the -kingdom of the Ten Tribes to assume a Phoenician or Tyrian character? -United as they were in language and customs, might not the two races -become more closely welded together, if the Phoenician form of worship -were introduced into the kingdom of Israel? Omri led the way to this -union. He introduced the service of Baal and Astarte as the official -mode of worship; he built a temple for Baal in his capital of Samaria, -ordained priests, and commanded that sacrifices should be universally -made to the Phoenician idols. He desired to see the worship of the -bull, as observed in Bethel and Dan, abolished. It seemed to him too -distinctly Israelitish in character, and to be likely to maintain -the division between the Israelites and Phoenicians. Jehovah, adored -with or without a visible image, was too striking a contrast to the -Tyrian Baal or Adonis for Omri to permit His worship to remain. Omri's -innovations were of far greater import than those of Jeroboam; or, to -speak in the language of the Bible, he acted yet more sinfully than -his predecessors. He desired to rob the nation of its God and of its -origin; he desired it to forget that it had a special nationality in -contradistinction to that of the idolaters. History has not recorded -how these changes were received. His son Ahab (922-901) was destined to -continue the work,--his father's bequest, as it were. In furtherance of -the latter's projects he naturally kept up the close connection with -Tyre and with the king of Judah. - -But the execution of a charge involving the severest attacks on the -inner convictions of man is, in spite of all one may do, dependent on -circumstances or contingencies beyond the calculations of the wisest -mind. Two kinds of obstacles intervened to prevent the Canaanisation -of the Ten Tribes. The one was Ahab's disposition, and the other -arose from an unexpected cause which weakened, if it did not entirely -destroy, the effect of the terrible blow aimed at religion. In order to -accomplish this transformation of the nation into a mere appendage of -Phoenicia, and the consequent loss of its own identity, the successor -of Omri needed a powerful mind, an unbending will, and unyielding -severity to crush all opposition with a strong hand. Ahab was, however, -of an entirely different nature--weak, mild, loving peace and comfort, -rather disposed to avoid disturbances and obstacles than to seek or -remove them. Had it rested with him alone, he would have abandoned his -father's system and given himself up to such enjoyments as the royal -power granted him, regardless of what the future might bring. Ahab -was not even warlike; he permitted the neighbouring kings to treat -him in a manner which would have excited the indignation and roused -the most determined opposition of any king not altogether destitute -of the feeling of honour. But as he was forced against his desire and -inclination to enter into a contest with an ambitious neighbour, so -he was also compelled to enter upon a conflict with the Israelitish -nation. His father had given him a wife in every way his opposite, with -a strong manly will, who was determined to gain her ends by severity -and cruelty, if necessary. - -Jezebel, the Phoenician princess, whose father had filled the post -of priest to Astarte before he obtained the throne, was filled with -enthusiastic eagerness to carry out the plan of Canaanising the -people of Israel. Either from a perverted idea or from political -considerations, she desired to amalgamate the Israelitish people -with her own, and make Tyrians and Israelites one nation. She -continued the work commenced by Omri, with energy and mercilessness, -and led her weak-minded husband into all kinds of oppressive and -unrighteous actions. Jezebel's gloomy and obstinate character, with -her uncontrollable energy, was the cause of a ferment and commotion -in the kingdom of the Ten Tribes, which led to disastrous results, -but which, like a destroying storm, performed the beneficent service -of clearing the atmosphere. Jezebel's first step was to build a great -temple to Baal in the capital of Samaria. In such a temple there were -three altars, images and pillars, which were dedicated to a sort -of holy trinity: Baal, his consort Astarte, and the god of fire or -destruction (Moloch Chammon). For this worship, Jezebel introduced -into the country a host of priests and prophets (450 for Baal and 400 -for Astarte), who were supported at the expense of the royal house, -and dined at the queen's table. Some of these priests attended to the -sacrifices in Samaria, while others rushed madly through the country, -celebrating their scandalous rites in the cities and villages. The -Phoenician priests or prophets attired themselves in women's apparel, -painted their faces and eyes, as women were in the habit of doing, -their arms bared to the shoulders, and carried swords and axes, -scourges, castanets, pipes, cymbals and drums. Dancing and wailing, -they whirled round in a circle, by turns bowed their heads to the -ground, and dragged their hair through the mud. They also bit their -arms and cut their bodies with swords and knives till the blood ran, -providing an offering for their bloodthirsty goddess. Doubtless they -were accompanied by temple priestesses (Kedeshoth), who followed their -shameful pursuit in honour of Astarte, and for the benefit of the -priests. By means of this troop of priests of Baal and the ecstatic -followers of Astarte, Jezebel hoped to wean the Israelitish people from -the God of its fathers, and to carry into effect the plan of entirely -transforming the national character. At the head of the Phoenician -priesthood there was a high priest, who probably gave instructions -and commands as to how they were to proceed. In the first place, the -altars dedicated to God were destroyed, and others erected in the -Canaanite fashion, with pointed pillars, the symbols of an obscene -cult. The altars in Bethel and Dan were, no doubt, transformed in a -similar manner. It was intended that the sacrifice-loving nation, for -want of altars of its own, should bring its offerings to the temples -of Baal and of Astarte, and thus become accustomed to this mode of -worship. How easy it is to force a nation to give up its usages and -peculiarities, and to accept those of strangers, if the rulers act -with subtlety and force combined! The Israelites in the kingdom of the -Ten Tribes had already been demoralised, owing to their half-century's -separation from Jerusalem (the centre of intellectual activity), and -to the bull-worship which they had long been practising. The cities -had acquired a taste for luxury, and a love of dissipation, which the -impure worship of Baal and Astarte only served to foster. The towns -doubtless, for the most part, yielded to the new state of things, or, -in any case, offered no opposition to it. Seven thousand individuals -alone remained firm, and would not pay homage to Baal, nor adore him -with their lips. A part of the nation, amongst them the villagers, -meanwhile wavered in their ideas and actions, and not knowing whether -God or Baal was the mightier divinity, they worshipped the one publicly -and the other secretly. It was a period of uncertainty and confusion, -such as usually precedes an historical crisis. It remained to be seen -whether the ancient belief in the God of Israel, and the demands of -holiness had taken sufficiently deep root, and had acquired enough -vitality and power to conquer an opposing force and eradicate what -was foreign. In such times a man of striking personality, in whom -lives a pure faith, and who is entirely ruled by it, naturally assumes -leadership, and by firmness, enthusiasm and heroic self-sacrifice -convinces the waverers, strengthens the weak, incites the indifferent, -and thus collects an army of defenders to rescue from imminent -destruction their own national, peculiar endowments. When such an -individual is roused by the very opposition of the enemy, and spurred -on to action, he becomes a vivifying principle, and brings about a -new state of things, a mingling of both old and new elements. Such an -individual arose during this crisis in the person of the prophet Elijah -(920-900). - -Whence came this energetic, all-subduing prophet? In which tribe was -his cradle? Who was his father? This is not known. He was simply -known as Elijahu (shortened into Elijah). He was not a citizen -of Transjordanic Gilead, but belonged to that class of tolerated -half-citizens called Toshabim (dwellers). He was of a tempestuous -nature, and was guided by no considerations of expediency; he would -not have hesitated to offer his life for his creed. He was considered -by his successors as the incarnation of moral and religious zeal -(_kanna_). Like a tempest he made his entry, like a tempest he -thundered forth his execrations against the weak, woman-led Ahab; -like a tempest he rushed away, so that no one could seize him; and in -a tempest he finally disappeared from his earthly scene of action. -Elijah was imbued with the one thought, to save the belief in the God -of Israel, which was passing away from the minds of the people. To -this God he dedicated himself, and to His service did his life belong -solely and exclusively. Elijah was outwardly distinguishable by his -peculiar dress. In contradistinction to the effeminate, luxurious dress -of the worshippers of Baal and Astarte, his undergarment was confined -by a leather belt, and over it he wore a black hairy cloak. He wore his -hair long, and touched no wine, and thus gave rise to the institution -of Nazarites, who were not permitted to drink wine or to shave the hair -of the head. In this costume and with these habits he appeared first in -Gilead, and there announced the all-embracing creed, "Jehovah alone is -God." Here, where the Jordan offered a barrier against the swarms of -the priests of Baal, and where the fear of Ahab and Jezebel could not -paralyze the conscience, there were yet faithful adherents of the God -of Israel. Amongst these Elijah probably found his first auditors and -disciples, who were carried away by his enthusiastic manner, and became -his helpers. - -In a short time a body of prophets or disciples (Bene-Nebiim) had -arisen, who were ready to give up their lives for their ancestral -tenets. They also followed Elijah's way of living, and became -Nazarites. The principles of this newly formed circle were to lead a -simple life, not to dwell in cities where luxury and effeminacy ruled, -but in village tents, not to drink wine, not to till vineyards, to -avoid agriculture generally, but, like the patriarchs and the tribes in -earlier times, to live by tending flocks. Jonadab, the son of Rechab, -who doubtless was one of the followers of Elijah, was the first to -establish these rules for himself and his household. He impressed on -his descendants the necessity of abstaining from wine, from building -fixed residences, from sowing seed, and especially from planting -vineyards. In this way Elijah not only aroused and inspired a band of -defenders of the ancient law for his own time, but opened the path to -a new future. He set simplicity and self-restraint against degeneracy -and love of pleasure. With his body of disciples he eagerly commenced -action against the priests and prophets of Baal. He probably passed -rapidly from place to place, called the populace together, and inspired -them with his storm-like eloquence, the point of which was "Jehovah -alone is God, and Baal and Astarte are dumb, lifeless idols." He may -even have incited attacks on those priests of Baal whom he encountered. -Jezebel could not long endure the doings of the energetic Tishbite, -which interfered with her plans; she sent her soldiers against -Elijah's troop, and those who fell into their hands were mercilessly -slaughtered. They were the first martyrs who died for Israel's ancient -law. Jezebel, the daughter of Ethbaal, the priest of Astarte, was the -first persecutor for religion's sake. Elijah himself, however, on whom -Jezebel was specially anxious to wreak her vengeance, could never be -reached, but always eluded his pursuers. His zeal had already produced -an important effect. Obadiah, the superintendent of Ahab's palace, was -secretly attached to the ancient law. He who, perhaps, had the task of -persecuting the disciples of the prophet, hid one hundred of them in -two caves of Mount Carmel, fifty in each cave, and supplied them with -bread and water. Obadiah was not alone--he had in his employ men of -his own faith, who executed his secret commissions. How could Jezebel -combat an invisible enemy that found assistance in her own house? - -One day, Elijah, though deprived of his followers, ventured into the -vicinity of King Ahab, whose weak, pliable disposition he knew, in -order to reproach him for the misdeeds which he permitted. Ahab had a -passion for building and fortifying towns. It was at his instance that -Jericho, which had been deprived of its walls since the entry of the -Israelites, was fortified by Hiel of Bethel. Ahab also founded a new -capital in the beautiful table-land of Jezreel, where he was desirous -of passing the winter months, for Samaria served only as a summer -residence. This new town of Jezreel, which was destined to become the -scene of tragic encounters, was built with great splendour. The royal -couple had a palace of ivory erected there, which was to be surrounded -by extensive gardens. For this purpose Ahab wished to have a beautiful -vineyard which belonged to Naboth, one of the most respected citizens -of Jezreel. Ahab offered him a compensation, either in money or land, -but Naboth did not wish to part with the heritage of his fathers. -Disappointed at his inability to surround his palace with park-like -grounds, Ahab would not even take food. Finding him in this state, -Jezebel contemptuously upbraided him for his childish vexation and his -cowardly helplessness, but promised him that he should nevertheless -possess the desired vineyard. She sent out letters in the king's name -to those of the elders of Israel of whose slavish obedience she was -certain, and commanded them to produce two witnesses who would testify -to having heard Naboth revile the gods and the king. When the council -of judges had assembled at one of the gates of Jezreel, and Naboth, -who was the eldest among them, had placed himself at their head, two -degraded men appeared, and testified against Naboth, under oath, as -they had been instructed. Naboth was condemned to death by the elders, -and the sentence was carried out not only on him, but also on his -sons. The property of the executed fell by law to the king. Jezebel -triumphantly announced to her husband, "Now take Naboth's vineyard, -for he is dead." When Elijah heard of this crime, he could no longer -contain himself. He repaired to Jezreel and met the king just as he was -inspecting Naboth's vineyard. Behind him rode two men, of whom one was -fated to become the avenger of Naboth. The prophet thundered out to -him, "Hast thou murdered, and dost now take possession?" "In the place -where dogs licked the blood of Naboth, shall dogs lick thy blood, even -thine." (1 Kings xxi. 19; see 2 Kings ix. 25). This denunciation had -an overwhelming effect on Ahab. He reflected and meekly did penance, -but ruthless Jezebel's power over her weak-minded husband was too -strong for this change of mind to last. - -Elijah, who had suddenly disappeared, now returned a second time to -Ahab, and announced that a famine of several years' duration would -befall the land. He then departed and dwelt in the Phoenician town of -Zarephath (Sarepta), at the house of a widow, and later in a cave of -Mount Carmel. Meanwhile a famine devastated the land, and there was -not fodder even for the king's horses. One day, Elijah approached -Obadiah, the superintendent of the palace, and said to him, "Go, tell -thy master, Elijah is here." On his entrance, Ahab said to him, "Is -it thou, disturber of Israel?" Then the prophet replied, "Not I have -troubled Israel, but thou and thy father's house have." - -As though he had the right to give orders, he bade the king command the -priests of Baal to assemble on Mount Carmel, where it would be revealed -who was the true, and who the false prophet. - -What occurred on Mount Carmel, where the contest took place, must have -produced an extraordinary impression. Ahab, we are told, summoned -all the prophets of Baal to the mountain, whither many of the people -repaired, anxious to witness the result of the contest between the -prophet and the king, and to see whether the prevailing drought would -in consequence come to an end. The hundred prophets who had hidden -in the caves of Carmel, and were maintained there by Obadiah, were -probably also present. Elijah presided at the assembly, which he -addressed, saying (1 Kings xviii. 21): "How long halt ye between two -opinions? If the Lord be God, follow him; but if Baal, then follow -him." He then ordered the priests of Baal to erect an altar, offer -sacrifices, and call on their god for a miracle. The priests did so, -and according to their custom, they wounded themselves with knives and -lances till the blood gushed forth over their bodies. They cried from -morning till midday, "O Baal, hear us!" When they at length ceased -in confusion, Elijah erected an altar of twelve stones, performed -his sacrifice, and prayed in a low voice. Then a miracle followed so -suddenly that all present fell on their faces and cried, "Jehovah alone -is God!" A flash of lightning burnt the sacrifice and everything on the -altar, even the water in the trench was dried up. Elijah determined to -avenge himself on the priests of Baal, and commanded the multitude to -kill them and throw their bodies into the river Kishon, which flowed -hard by. Ahab, who was present, was so amazed and terror-stricken that -he permitted this act of violence. - -Jezebel, however, who was made of sterner stuff, did not look with -equal unconcern on this scene. On receiving information of what had -occurred, she threatened Elijah with a similar fate, if he should -ever fall into her hands. He was, therefore, obliged to flee in order -to save himself. In the desert near Mount Horeb he had a vision, in -which it was revealed to him that the kingdom would pass away from -the house of Ahab, whose descendants would be utterly destroyed, and -that Jehu was to be anointed as king over Israel. Elijah himself was -instructed to return on his way to the wilderness of Damascus, appoint -a successor, and retire from the scene of action. The intemperate zeal -which had led him to direct the slaughter of the priests of Baal was -severely condemned on Horeb. - -During Elijah's long absence there appears to have been a sort of truce -between the royal house of Omri and the followers of the Tishbite. -Ahab, who had been an eye-witness of the events at Carmel, had probably -become more indifferent towards the worship of Baal, and as far as -lay in his power had put a stop to the persecution of the prophets of -the Lord. The latter, on their part, also seem to have become less -aggressive. Associations of prophets were formed in Jericho, Bethel and -Gilgal, in which places they were permitted to dwell unmolested. - -One prophet or disciple, however, remained inimical to Ahab--namely, -Michaiah, son of Imlah. As often as the king sought out Michaiah -to learn his prospects of success in some enterprise, the prophet -foretold evil. Ahab, however, did not attempt his life, but merely -imprisoned him. The ruler of the kingdom of the Ten Tribes had -misfortunes enough to serve him as forewarnings. The king of Aram, -Ben-hadad II., became daily more powerful, more presuming, and more -eager for conquest. Besides his own horsemen and chariots, he had in -his train thirty-two conquered vassal kings. With their assistance -he attacked Ahab--doubtless in the hope of profiting by the famine -and the discord which were weakening his kingdom. Ben-hadad subdued -entire districts of the kingdom of the Ten Tribes, and besieged Samaria -(904). In his distress, Ahab sued for peace, but Ben-hadad imposed such -hard and disgraceful conditions that Ahab was forced to continue the -contest. Finally, Ahab was victorious, and the Aramæan king, forced to -surrender, was ready to promise anything in order to secure peace. The -former enemies became friends, made a treaty and ratified it by many -oaths, soon to be forgotten. This hastily-formed alliance was rightly -condemned by one of the prophets, who predicted that Ahab had thereby -created a fresh source of danger. - -Ben-hadad, in fact, had no desire to fulfil the conditions and -promises of the treaty. He restored, it is true, the captured town of -Naphtali, but the Transjordanic cities, especially the important town -of Ramoth-Gilead, he refused to cede, and Ahab was too indifferent to -press the matter. The longer he delayed, the more difficult it became -for him to insist on his claim, as Ben-hadad meanwhile was recovering -his strength. Perhaps it would have been impossible for Ahab alone to -regain possession of Ramoth-Gilead by force of arms. Just at this time -he formed an alliance with King Jehoshaphat of Judah (918-905), and -together with this king, he ventured to proceed against Ben-hadad. This -alliance was a surprising one, seeing that Jehoshaphat detested the -idolatrous perversions of Ahab and Jezebel, and could not approve of -the forcible introduction of the Baal-worship into Samaria, nor of the -cruel persecution of the prophets. Nevertheless, he formed an intimate -connection with the house of Omri, and, guided by political reasons, -even permitted his son Jehoram to marry Athaliah, the idolatrous -daughter of Ahab. - -When Jehoshaphat paid his visit to Samaria, in order to strengthen -himself by an alliance with its king, Ahab probably solicited his -royal guest to aid him in recovering Ramoth-Gilead; and the king of -Judah promised the help of his nation and soldiery. Thus, after a long -separation, the kings of Israel and Judah fought side by side. After -crossing the Jordan with Jehoshaphat, Ahab was mortally wounded by -an arrow as he stood in his war-chariot, but he possessed sufficient -presence of mind to order his charioteer to drive him out of the -turmoil of the battle. The soldiers were not informed of the king's -condition, and fought until evening. Not until after the king had bled -to death did the herald announce "Let each return to his own country -and to his own town." The Israelitish and Judæan armies then recrossed -the Jordan, and the Aramæans remained in possession of the mountain -city of Ramoth-Gilead. Ahab's corpse was brought to Samaria and -interred. But his blood, which had filled the chariot, was washed out -at a pool and licked up by dogs. - -Ahaziah, his son, succeeded Ahab, this being the first occasion on -which the kingdom of the Ten Tribes descended in a direct line to a -grandson. He reigned only a short time (901-900) and but little is -known of his character. In spite of all warnings, he followed in the -evil ways of his parents. Falling from the window of his room, he -took to bed, and sent to Ekron to consult the oracle of the reputed -idol Baal-Zebub (Bel-Zebul). By this time Elijah had returned from -his sojourn on Mount Horeb, but in accordance with the commands laid -upon him, he had remained in seclusion, probably on Mount Carmel. He -no longer interfered with the course of events, but had chosen as his -successor Elisha, son of Shaphat, who lived near the Jordan. The manner -of choice was characteristic of Elijah. While Elisha was ploughing -a field with a yoke of oxen, Elijah approached, threw over him his -dusky mantle (the distinctive garb of the prophets), and went away. If -Elisha was indeed worthy to succeed him, he would understand the sign. -Elisha ran after him and begged him to wait until he had taken leave -of his parents. "Go! return!" said Elijah curtly. Elisha understood -that a faithful prophet of God must leave father and mother, and -sacrifice the wishes of his heart and the habits of his life. Without -returning to his father's house, he followed Elijah at once, and became -his attendant, or, in the language of the time, "poured water on his -hands." Only once again did Elijah take part in public affairs. He -accosted the messenger whom Ahaziah had sent to Baal-Zebub, and said -to him, "Say to the king who sent thee, Is there no God in Israel, -that thou sendest to Ekron in order to consult Baal-Zebub concerning -thine illness?" The messenger returned to Samaria and related what -he had heard of the extraordinary man. From the description Ahaziah -recognised Elijah, and dispatched messengers for him. After a long -delay, Elijah went fearlessly to Samaria, and announced to Ahaziah -that he would not again leave his sick bed. As the king died without -leaving any children, he was succeeded by his brother Jehoram (Joram, -899-887). Elijah also disappeared from the scene at about the same -time. His disciples and followers could not believe that the mortal -frame of so fiery a soul could crumble into dust, and the belief arose -that he had ascended to heaven in a storm-wind. His constant follower, -Elisha, seeing that his master desired to avoid him, followed him the -more closely. Elijah visited Gilgal, Bethel and Jericho, followed -by Elisha, who did not venture to ask him whither he was going. At -length they crossed the Jordan on dry ground, and then the teacher was -withdrawn from his disciple's vision in a fiery chariot with fiery -horses, which conveyed the prophet to heaven. The untiring activity -of Elijah in preserving the ancient law under the most unfavorable -circumstances, amidst ceaseless strife and persecution, surrounded by -the idolatry and wickedness of the Baal and Astarte worship, could only -be explained as the result of miracles. The greatest marvel, however, -which Elijah accomplished, consisted in founding a circle of disciples -who succeeded in keeping alive the teachings of the ancient law, and -who raised their voices against the perversions of the mighty ones of -the land. The members of the prophetic school founded by the prophet -lived by the work of their own hands. After Elijah's disappearance, the -disciples being without a leader, Elisha placed himself at their head. -In the beginning of his career he followed closely in the footsteps of -his master, keeping aloof from all men, and living chiefly on Mount -Carmel. Gradually, however, he accustomed himself to mix with the -people, especially after he had succeeded in rousing an energetic man -to destroy the house of Omri, and put an end to the worship of Baal. - -Jehoram, the third of the Omris, was not as fanatical in his desire to -spread idolatry as his mother Jezebel, but nevertheless Elisha felt so -profound an aversion for him that he could not bear to meet him face to -face. After his brother's death, Jehoram undertook a war against King -Mesa (Mesha) in order to punish him for his secession, and to reduce -him to subjection. Together with his brother-in-law, Jehoshaphat, he -determined to proceed through Idumea, whose king was also to supply -auxiliary forces, and south of the Dead Sea, towards Moab. By taking -this route Jehoram passed Jerusalem, where the heads of the houses of -Israel and Jacob met in a friendly way. But it was merely an alliance -of the chiefs. By the advice of Jehoshaphat, Elisha, as the successor -of Elijah, was summoned to foretell the issue of the war. On seeing -Jehoram, the prophet said to him, "Were it not out of consideration -for King Jehoshaphat, I would not look at thee. Go thou to the -prophets of thy father and thy mother." He nevertheless prophesied -a favorable result. Mesa, king of Moab, who was awaiting the attack -of the allies on the southern border of his kingdom, was overcome by -force of numbers, and fled to the mountain fortress of Kir-Haraseth -(Kir-Moab, Kerek). The land of Moab was laid waste, although Mesa was -not subjugated. Not long after, on the death of Jehoshaphat, Edom also -fell away from Judah. Edom had not acted quite fairly in the combined -attack on Moab, and appears to have come to a friendly understanding -with Mesa after the withdrawal of the allies. It seemed as if the close -friendship and intermarriage with the house of Omri was destined to -bring nothing but misfortune on the house of David. Joram (Jehoram), -the son of Jehoshaphat, the namesake of his royal brother-in-law of -Israel (894-888), was so intimately connected with the royal house of -Israel that he introduced idolatrous practices into his own country. -There can be no question but that his wife Athaliah was the cause of -this, for she, like her mother Jezebel, was fanatically attached to the -disgraceful rites connected with the worship of Baal. - -At length the fate impending over the house of Omri was to be -fulfilled, and the house of David was destined to be entangled in its -meshes, woven by Elisha. A change of dynasty had occurred in Damascus, -where Ben-hadad II., the same king who had warred with Ahab, had -been suffocated by his confidential servant Hazael, who seized the -throne. Hazael was desirous of regaining the conquered portions of -the kingdom of the Ten Tribes, which had been lost by Ben-hadad. He -first directed his attacks against the tribes on the other side of the -Jordan. Jehoram of Israel repaired with his army to Ramoth-Gilead, in -order to defend that important fortress. The contest for the citadel -seems to have been a severe one, and Jehoram was wounded by an arrow. -In consequence he went to Jezreel to have his wound attended to, and -left one of his captains, named Jehu, as commander of the defence. One -day a disciple of the prophets came to Jehu as a messenger from Elisha, -and after leading him from the council of warriors to a distant room, -where he appointed him the executor of divine justice on the house of -Omri, he disappeared as suddenly as he had come. When Jehu returned to -the council, they observed a change in his manner, and eagerly asked -him what the disciple of the prophets had announced to him. Jehu at -first did not wish to reply, but at last he disclosed to them that at -Elisha's instance he had been anointed king over the Ten Tribes. The -chiefs of the army did him homage. Improvising a throne by spreading -their purple garments on the highest steps of the palace, amid trumpet -blasts they shouted, "Long live King Jehu." Having been acknowledged -king by the army, Jehu proceeded without delay to carry out his design. -He blockaded all the roads leading from Ramoth-Gilead to Jezreel, so -that the news might not spread. He then led forth a part of the army, -crossed the Jordan, and rode in haste to Jezreel, where Jehoram still -lay ill from the effects of his wound. The king recognised Jehu from -afar, by his rapid driving, and as the messenger whom he had sent out -to meet him failed to return, he foreboded evil. Jehoram therefore -ordered his chariot that he might see what had brought Jehu to Jezreel -in such hot haste. Ahaziah, the king of Judah (who had shortly before -this succeeded to the throne of his father Joram, 888), accompanied his -uncle. They met Jehu in the field of Naboth, the victim of the judicial -murder which Jezebel had brought about. When Jehoram saw that Jehu had -come with hostile intentions, he turned to flee, but an arrow from -Jehu's hand struck him, and he sank down lifeless in his chariot. Jehu -ordered his follower Bidkar to cast the body into the field of Naboth, -reminding him how they had been witnesses of the prophetic threat -which Elijah had uttered against Ahab in that very field, and of the -execution of which he was now the instrument. Ahaziah fell on the same -day at the hands of Jehu's followers. - -The destruction of the house of Ahab was imminent, and no one arose -in its defence. Jehu entered Jezreel unmolested; the queen-mother, -Jezebel, richly decked out, came to the palace window, and called, "How -goes it, thou regicide, thou Zimri?" Jehu commanded the eunuchs of -the palace to throw her into the street, and they obeyed. The body of -the queen who had done so much harm was trampled down by the horses, -and her blood spurted on the wall of the palace and over the horses. -Naboth was not yet, however, fully avenged by the death of the son and -the grandmother. There were still sons, grandsons, and relations of -Jehoram, about seventy in number, who lived in Samaria, where they were -trained and educated by the most respected men. To these men Jehu sent -a message that they should appoint one of the royal family as king. -They, however, knew that this charge was not to be taken seriously, and -preferred to submit to the man who had already killed two kings. Jehu -then ordered them to come with the "heads" to Jezreel, and thereupon -they came with the heads of Ahab's descendants. Jehu placed the heads -in two rows on the city gates, and the next morning he explained to -the inhabitants of the city that, while he had only conspired against -Jehoram, destiny had fulfilled the words of Elijah concerning the house -of Ahab. Jehu combined cunning with determination; he had all the -officers who had brought him his victims executed as murderers. There -being now no survivor of the royal house, Jehu took possession of the -throne, and the inhabitants of Jezreel paid him homage. - -In order to gain the hearts of the nation, he made preparations to -exterminate the worship of Baal in Samaria. On his road thither he met -with Jonadab, who had adopted the Nazarite mode of life as introduced -by Elijah. Together with Jonadab, Jehu went to Samaria, where he -assembled the priests of Baal on a certain day. While pretending -to join in their rites, he placed armed men inside and outside the -temple of Baal, and went there accompanied by Jonadab. Hardly had -the sacrifice been offered, when all the priests fell as victims. -The soldiers killed all those inside the temple, and those who fled -were cut down by the men stationed outside. The soldiers then rushed -in, burnt the images, destroyed the altar, the columns, and also the -temple, and converted the whole into a dunghill. Throughout the country -Jehu destroyed the public monuments of the hideous idol-worship, for -he professed to be a follower of Elijah, and zealous in the cause of -Jehovah. In Jerusalem alone the worship of Baal continued, or rather -it was fanatically upheld there by Athaliah, who was in every way the -worthy daughter of her mother. - - - - -CHAPTER XI. - -THE HOUSE OF DAVID AND THE JEHUIDES. - - Athaliah's rule--Early years of Joash--Proclamation of Joash by - Jehoiada--Athaliah slain--Religious Revival--Elisha--Repairing - of the Temple--Death of Jehoiada and of his Son--Invasion - of Israel by Hazael--Jehoahaz--Murder of Joash, King - of Judah--Jehoash, King of Israel--Defeat of the - Aramæans--Amaziah--Conquest of Edom--Death of Elisha--Amaziah - defeated by Jehoash--Jeroboam II.--Death of Amaziah. - - 887-805 B. C. E. - - -It is a striking fact that Israelitish women, the appointed priestesses -of chastity and morality, displayed a special inclination for the -immoral worship of Baal and Astarte. Maachah, the queen-mother in -Judah, established an altar in Jerusalem for the worship of idols; -Jezebel had erected one in Samaria, and now Athaliah followed the -same course in Jerusalem. Yet, this was not Athaliah's sole nor her -greatest sin. The daughter of Jezebel greatly surpassed her mother in -cruelty. The victims of Jezebel had been prophets, staunch adherents -of the ancestral law,--at all events, persons whom she considered as -her enemies. Athaliah, however, shed the blood of her own relations, -and did not hesitate to destroy the family of her husband and her son. -No sooner had she received tidings of the death of her son Ahaziah, -than she ordered the soldiers devoted to her cause to execute all -the surviving members of the house of David in Jerusalem. Only the -youngest of the princes, Joash, who was not quite one year old, was -saved from sharing the fate of his brothers by the special intervention -of Jehoshebah. What did Jezebel's bloodthirsty daughter expect to -accomplish by this massacre? Was her wickedness the outcome of an -ambitious scheme to gain possession of the throne, to the exclusion of -all rivals? Or did Athaliah, herself a firm believer in the worship -of Baal, desire to establish and diffuse this worship throughout -Jerusalem and Judah, and was it in pursuance of that design that she -destroyed the remnant of the house of David, in order to have her hands -unfettered? Did she hope to succeed where her mother had failed, and by -establishing idolatrous practices in Jerusalem, to give new fervour to -the Phoenician worship? - -Whatever motive actuated the worthy daughter of Ahab and Jezebel, -Athaliah reduced the Judæans to so complete a subservience to her will -that no one dared oppose her evil courses. The nation and the priests -bowed before her. Even the high priest, Jehoiada, who was connected -with the royal house, kept silence. At the very time when Jehu was -destroying those emblems of idolatry in Samaria, there was erected -in Jerusalem an image of Baal, with altars and pointed pillars, and -a high priest, named Mattan, with a number of subordinate priests, -was appointed and installed. Did Athaliah leave the temple on Mount -Moriah untouched and undesecrated? It appears that she, less consistent -in her daring and more timid than later sovereigns, did not venture -to introduce an image of Baal into the sanctuary which Solomon had -erected, but merely inhibited its use for divine services. The Carians, -mercenary troops employed by Athaliah, and the old royal body-guard -were placed at the entrance of the Temple, to keep off the people. -For this purpose, they were divided into three bodies, which by turns -guarded the Temple from Sabbath to Sabbath. For six years (887-881) -Athaliah governed the political and religious affairs of the nation, -the more aristocratic of the Jewish families probably being of her -party. Only the nearest relative of the royal family, the high priest -Jehoiada, remained true to the ancient teachings and to the house of -David. His wife, Jehoshebah, was a daughter of King Jehoram of Judah, -and the sister of the king Ahaziah who had been slain by Jehu. - -When Athaliah was ruthlessly killing the last remnants of the house -of David, Jehoshebah rescued the youngest child of her brother from -the massacre, and brought him and his nurse into the chamber in the -Temple where the Levites slept. Here she secreted the royal infant for -a considerable time, and reared him for his country. Athaliah troubled -herself but little as to what was happening in the deserted Temple, and -the Aaronites and Levites, who remained faithful to Jehoiada, betrayed -nothing. His very youth aroused their interest in the last descendant -of the house of David. During the six years while Athaliah was ruling -with absolute power in Jerusalem, Jehoiada did not remain idle, but -entered into friendly relations with the chiefs of the Carians and the -guards, gradually revealing the fact that a youthful prince was still -in existence, to whom the throne of Judah by right belonged. He found -them well disposed towards the royal house, and opposed to the usurper -Athaliah. When he had convinced himself of their sympathy with his -views, he led them to the Temple, and showed them Joash, who was then -seven years of age. The soldiers having recognised in him the rightful -heir to the throne, probably by his resemblance to the family of David, -Jehoiada demanded that the chiefs take the oath of fealty to the child. -With their assistance he could hope to effect a revolution, and to -restore the royal line. The chiefs could reckon on the blind obedience -of their followers, and, accordingly, the plan of action was decided -on, as well as the date for its execution. One Sabbath a division -of the Carians then on guard went to their posts, whilst two-thirds -occupied the entrance of the Temple. They had all received strict -orders to kill any one who should cross the boundaries of the Temple -courts with hostile intentions. As the prince was now secure from all -attacks, Jehoiada also permitted the populace to enter the Temple -courts. At a thrilling moment, when the Carians and guards stood with -drawn swords, and whilst the chiefs held the weapons used by David, -the high priest led the child Joash from the room in which he had been -concealed, put the crown on his head, anointed him as king, and made -him mount the pillar-like throne which had been brought into the courts -of the Temple for the king's use. Amid trumpet blasts and clashing of -arms, the people clapped their hands, and cried "Long live King Joash." - -Not until the noise from the Temple reached Athaliah's palace was -she roused from the indifference and security which a belief in the -fidelity of her paid troops had encouraged in her. She hurriedly -repaired to the Temple, accompanied by a few attendants. There, -to her terror, she beheld a young child with a crown on his head, -surrounded by her troops, who were protecting him, and by a crowd of -people shouting with delight. She found herself betrayed, rent her -clothes, and cried, "Conspiracy, conspiracy!" Some of her captains -immediately seized her, led her by a circuitous path out of the Temple -courts to the eastern gates of the palace, and there killed her. Thus -the last grandchild of the house of Omri perished as disgracefully -as her mother had done. The close connection of Israel with Tyre had -brought no happiness to either kingdom. The mother and the daughter, -Jezebel and Athaliah, resembled their goddess Astarte--"the authoress -of destruction, death, and ruin." Ahab's daughter does not appear to -have had many adherents in Jerusalem--in the hour of death she found -no partisans. Her priests of Baal were powerless to help her, for they -themselves perished, the victims of the nation's wrath. Jehoiada, -having planned and effected the great revolution, now endeavoured -to take precautions against a repetition of similar misfortunes in -Jerusalem. He utilised the joyous and enthusiastic sentiments of the -youthful king and the nation to remove all traces of the worship of -Baal, and to arouse in all minds a faithful dependence on the God -of their ancestors. He demanded of the king and the whole assembly -a solemn promise to remain henceforth a people of God, to serve Him -faithfully, and to worship no idol. The promise, which was uttered -aloud by the king and the nation, was sealed by a covenant. The -inhabitants of Jerusalem poured into the temple of Baal, which had been -erected by Athaliah, destroyed the altars, trampled on the images and -all objects connected with idol-worship. The nation itself undertook -to protect its own religion. It was not till after the covenant had -been ratified both by the young king and the nation, that Joash, -triumphantly escorted by the guards, the soldiers, and the multitude, -was led from the Temple Mount into the palace, where he was placed -on the throne of his fathers. Jerusalem was in a state of joyful -excitement. The adherents of the late queen kept quiet, and did not -dare damp the general enthusiasm. - -It is remarkable that in the political and religious revolutions which -followed each other in quick succession in Samaria and Jerusalem, -Elisha's helping hand was not felt. He had commissioned one of his -disciples to anoint Jehu as the avenger of the crimes of Omri's -house, but he himself remained in the background, not even presenting -himself at the overthrow of Baal. He does not appear to have had -any intercourse with King Jehu, and still less did Elijah's chief -disciple take any part in the fall of Athaliah and the overthrow of -idolatry in Jerusalem. He seems to have occupied himself chiefly -with the instruction of prophetic disciples, in order to keep alive -the religious ardour which Elijah had kindled. Elisha, however, -was not, like his teacher, universally recognised as leader. He was -reproached for not wearing long flowing hair, and thus creating the -impression that he laid less stress on the Nazarite mode of life. -Sons of prophetic disciples at Bethel jeered at him, and called him -"Bald-head." Elisha also differed from his master in associating with -his fellow-men, instead of passing his life in solitude as Elijah -had done. It is true, that as long as the Omrides were in power, he -remained on Mount Carmel, whence he came, accompanied by his disciple -Gehazi, to visit the prophetic schools in the Jordanic territories. But -later on, he made Samaria his dwelling-place, and was known under the -title of the "Prophet of Samaria." Through his friendly intercourse -with men, he exercised a lasting influence on them, and imbued them -with his beliefs. Men of note sought him to obtain his advice, and the -people generally visited him on Sabbaths and New Moons. It was only in -the kingdom of Judah and in Jerusalem that Elisha did not appear. Why -did he avoid this territory? Or, why have no records of his relations -with it been preserved? Was he not of the same disposition as the high -priest Jehoiada, and had they not both the same end in view? It seems -that the violent prophetic measures of Elijah and Elisha were not much -appreciated in Jerusalem. Elijah had built an altar on Carmel, and had -there offered up sacrifices; but though he did so in the name of the -same God whose temple was in Jerusalem, his conduct was doubtless not -countenanced by the priesthood; it was contrary to the law. And Elisha -would hardly have been a welcome guest in Jerusalem. - -There, attention was concentrated on the sanctuary and the law from -the moment when Jehoiada had shown himself their strict guardian. The -Temple had suffered injury under Athaliah. Not only had the golden -covering of the cedar wood been in part destroyed, but entire blocks -had been violently pulled out of the walls. It was therefore an -important matter for the young king Joash, at the beginning of his -reign, to repair these damages, and Jehoiada impressed on him the -necessity of this undertaking. The means, however, were wanting. -Whatever treasure might have been in the Temple--the accumulated -offerings of former kings or of pious donors--had, without doubt, -been transferred by Athaliah to the house of Baal. The king therefore -commanded the priests to collect money for effecting the necessary -repairs, and bade them engage in this work with as much energy -as though it were their own affair. Every Aaronite was to obtain -contributions from his acquaintances, and out of the sums thus -collected the expenses of repairing the Temple were to be defrayed. -Whether it was that the moneys received were insufficient, or that the -priests used them for their own purposes, the repairs were for a long -time not attempted. At length the king ordered the high priest Jehoiada -(864) to enlist the interest of the nation in the work on hand. A -chest with a slit in it was placed in the courtyard of the Temple, and -into that chest all whom piety or generosity influenced might place a -free-will offering, each according to his means, or he might give his -contribution to the priests, who would deposit it in the chest. The -gifts were liberal, and proved sufficient to procure materials, and -to pay the masons and carpenters. Jehoiada raised the position of the -high priest, which until then, even under the best kings, had been a -subordinate one, to an equality with that of royalty. Had not the high -priest, through his wisdom and energy, saved the kingdom? Would not the -last descendant of the house of David have been destroyed, if Jehoiada -had not rescued him from the bloodthirsty Athaliah? He could justly -claim that the high priest should henceforth have an important voice in -all matters of state. Jehoiada used his influence to secure due respect -for the law, and to avoid a recurrence of the deplorable period of -apostasy. But strife between the royal power and that of the priests -was inevitable, for the former, from its very nature, was dependent on -personal disposition, whilst the latter was based on established laws. -During the lifetime of Jehoiada, to whom Joash owed everything, the -contest did not break out. Joash may have been prompted by gratitude -and respect to submit to the orders of the high priest, and when -Jehoiada died, he paid him the honour of burial in the royal mausoleum -in the city of David. - -After Jehoiada's death, however, a contest arose between his son and -successor Zachariah and the king, which cost the former his life. The -details have not reached us; it has only been stated that at Joash's -command some princes of Judah stoned the son of Jehoiada in the -Temple courts, and that the young high priest, in his dying moments, -exclaimed, "May God take account of this and avenge it!" - -In every other respect, the overthrow of the house of Omri, which had -caused so many differences and quarrels in Samaria and Jerusalem, had -resulted in the internal peace of both kingdoms. The present condition -was tolerable, except that private altars still existed in the kingdom -of Judah, and that the God of Israel was still worshipped under the -form of a bull in the kingdom of the Ten Tribes. The worship of Baal -was, however, banished from both kingdoms. - -From without, both lands were harassed by enemies. Jehu, the bold -chief of horsemen, who had destroyed the house of Omri in Jezreel and -Samaria, did not display the same energy against powerful foreign -enemies. Hazael, the Aramæan regicide, who was daring in warlike -undertakings and eager for conquest, attacked the land of Israel with -his troops, took the citadels by storm, burnt the houses, and spared -neither children nor women. He also conquered the towns on the other -side of the Jordan. The entire district of Manasseh, Gad, and Reuben, -from the mountains of Bashan to the Arnon, was snatched from the -kingdom of the Ten Tribes. Many of the inhabitants were crushed to -death under iron ploughshares; the survivors were reduced to a state -of semi-bondage. Jehu was not in a position to hold his ground against -Hazael, perhaps because he also met with opposition from the king of -Tyre, whose relatives and allies he had slain. - -Matters fared still worse under his son Jehoahaz (859-845). The land -had been so hard pressed by Hazael and his son Ben-hadad, and the -Israelites had been so reduced in strength, that their available -forces consisted of but 10,000 infantry, fifty horse-soldiers, and ten -war-chariots. From time to time the Aramæans made inroads, carried -off booty and captured prisoners, whom they treated and sold as -slaves. Jehoahaz appears to have concluded a disgraceful peace with -the conqueror, to whose troops he granted free passage through his -lands. Thereupon Hazael overran the land of the Philistines with his -warriors, and besieged and conquered the town of Gath. He then intended -to advance against Jerusalem, but Joash submitted without a stroke and -bought peace. Either popular discontent was aroused by his cowardice, -or he had in other ways caused disaffection; at all events, several -nobles of Judah conspired against him, and two of them, Jozachar and -Jehozabad, killed him in a house where he chanced to be staying. - -Joash, king of Israel (845-830), at last succeeded in gradually -reducing the preponderance of the Aramæan kingdom. Probably this was -owing to the fact that the neighbouring kings of the Hittites (who -dwelt on the Euphrates), as well as the king of Egypt, envious of the -power of Damascus, took hostile positions towards Ben-hadad III. The -latter, in order to weaken or destroy the kingdom of the Ten Tribes, -laid close siege to the capital, Samaria, until all food was consumed, -and the distress was so great that the head of an ass was sold for -eighty shekels, and a load of dung, for fuel, for five shekels. Few -of the war-horses survived, and these were so emaciated that they -were incapacitated for service. The famine drove two women to such -extremities that they determined to kill and eat their children. The -Aramæans, however, unexpectedly raised the siege and hurried away, -leaving their tents, horses, asses, valuables and provisions behind -them. The king, to whom this discovery was communicated by some -half-starved lepers, was once more encouraged. He gave battle to -Ben-hadad on three occasions, and defeated him in each combat. The -king of Damascus saw himself compelled to make peace with the king of -Israel, and to restore the towns which his father Hazael had taken from -the territory of the Ten Tribes on the east side of the Jordan. - -The weakening of Syria of Damascus had a favourable effect on the -fortunes of Judah under king Amaziah (843-816). Damascus had accorded -its protection to the petty commonwealths of Moab, Ammon, and Edom, -which stood in hostile relations to Israel and Judah. Ben-hadad's -humiliation set free Amaziah's hands, and enabled him to reconquer -the former possessions of the house of David. The small territory of -Edom had freed itself from vassalage about half a century before. One -of the Edomite kings had built a new capital on an eminence of Mount -Seir. On chalk and porphyry rocks, it rose at a height of 4000 feet -above the sea-level. A pathway led up to it from the valley below. In -this mountain city (Petra), fifteen miles south of the Dead Sea, the -Idumæans hoped to remain secure from all attacks. Edom said proudly, -"Who shall bring me down to the ground?" Amaziah had the courage to -attack the Idumæans in their mountain fastnesses. A battle was fought -in the salt valley, not far from the Dead Sea, where Amaziah caused -great destruction among the enemy, the survivors taking to flight, and -leaving their fortress at his mercy. Having captured it, he, for some -unknown reason, changed its name to that of a Judæan city, "Jokthel." -Doubtless rich booty followed the successful campaign, for Edom was a -country rich not only in flocks, but also in metals. Amaziah was not a -little proud of his victory. But his pride led to his own ruin, and to -the misfortune of his people. - -A peaceable understanding existed between Jehu and his successors, and -the kingdom of Judah. Although no such formal alliance as between the -Omrides and Jehoshaphat had been concluded between them, yet they had a -common interest in keeping down the adherents of the Baal-worship. - -Both kings, Jehoash (Joash) of Israel and Amaziah of Judah, were -devoted to the ancient law. When executing judgment against the -murderers of his father, Amaziah, contrary to the barbarous customs -of his time, spared their sons--an act of leniency which must not -be underestimated. Most probably the high priest, or some other -representative of the Law, had impressed on him that the religion of -Israel forbids the infliction of suffering upon children for the sins -of their fathers, or upon fathers for the sins of their children. - -In Israel, Jehoash evinced deep respect for the prophet Elisha, and -followed his counsel in all important matters. When, after more than -fifty years of activity (900-840), Elisha lay on his death-bed, the -king visited the prophet, lamented his approaching end, and called -him the father and guardian of Israel. After Elisha's death, the -king ordered Gehazi (Elisha's constant follower) to recount all the -important deeds which the prophet had performed; and when the Shunamite -woman, whom Gehazi mentioned in connection with the prophet's work, -appeared before the king, accusing a man who, during her absence, had -taken unlawful possession of her house and field: the mere fact that -Elisha had once been interested in her, sufficed to induce the king -to order her immediate reinstatement. Great, indeed, must have been -the prophet's personal sway over his contemporaries, since the king -submitted to his guidance. Elisha also gained a great triumph for the -Law of God, though without any effort on his part. A prominent Gentile, -the Syrian general Naaman, who was the inferior only of the king in the -Aramæan country, voluntarily renounced the impious worship of Baal and -Astarte, and acknowledged the God of Israel, because Elisha's ministry -produced in him the conviction that only in Israel the true God was -worshipped. He even carried with him earth from the land of Israel to -Damascus, in order to erect his private altar, as it were, on holy -ground. - -Meanwhile, although the desire existed in both kingdoms to free -themselves from foreign influences, and to remain true to themselves, -internal differences had already taken such deep root that it was -impossible for them to pursue the same road. After the return of -Amaziah from his conquest of the Edomites, he conceived the bold idea -of proceeding with his army against the kingdom of the Ten Tribes, -in order to re-conquer it. As a pretext, he appears to have demanded -the daughter of the king of Israel as a bride for his son, intending -to regard a refusal as a justification for war. Jehoash satirically -replied, "The thorn-bush once said to the cedar of Lebanon, 'Give thy -daughter as a wife to my son'; thereupon the wild beasts of the Lebanon -came forth, and trod down the thorn-bush. Because thou hast conquered -Edom, thy heart grows proud. Guard thine honour, and remain at home. -Why wilt thou plunge thyself into misfortune, that Judah may fall with -thee?" But Amaziah refused to yield, and sent his army to the borders -of the kingdom of Israel. Jehoash, encouraged by the victory he had -just obtained over the Aramæans, went forth to meet him. A battle -was fought on the frontier at Beth-Shemesh, where the men of Judah -sustained a considerable defeat, and fled. Amaziah himself was taken -prisoner by the king of Israel. - -One must consider it an unusual act of leniency that Jehoash did not -abuse his brilliant victory, and that he did not even actively follow -it up. Could he not dethrone the captive Amaziah, declare the house of -David to be extinct, and merge the kingdom of Judah into his own realm? -This, however, he did not do, but contented himself with destroying -the walls of Jerusalem, and ransacking the town, the palace, and the -Temple. Jerusalem, which since then has been the scene of repeated -devastations, was, for the first time since its foundation, captured -and partly destroyed by a king of Israel. Jehoash magnanimously -set the captured monarch at liberty, but demanded hostages. The -moderation displayed by Jehoash was no doubt due to the influence of -the prophet Elisha or his disciples. After the death of Jehoash (830), -Amaziah reigned for fifteen years, but was not very successful in his -undertakings. The power and extent of the Ephraimite kingdom, on the -other hand, increased so rapidly that it seemed as though the times of -David were about to return. Jeroboam II. possessed greater military -abilities than any of those who had preceded him since the division of -the kingdom, and fortune befriended him. He enjoyed a very long reign -(830-769), during which he was enabled to fight many battles, and -achieve various conquests. He appears first of all to have turned his -arms against the Aramæans. They were the worst enemies of the kingdom -of the Ten Tribes, and had kept up continuous attacks against it since -the time of Ahab. The boundary of the kingdom of Israel extended from -the road which led to Hamath, as far as the south-east river, which -empties itself into the Red Sea. A prophet of this time, Jonah, the son -of Amittai, from the town of Gath-Hepher, had encouraged Jeroboam to -make war against the Aramæans. The king also seems to have conquered -the district of Moab, and to have annexed it to the kingdom of the Ten -Tribes. - -Amaziah's efforts, meanwhile, were impeded by the humiliation he had -had to undergo. Jerusalem having been deprived of its fortifications, -Amaziah could not undertake any war, and was well content to be left -unmolested. He had promised not to repair the walls, and he had been -obliged to leave hostages in the Israelitish capital as pledges of his -good faith. The nobles and the nation in general had ample reason for -discontent. Amaziah had injured the country by his presumption. It was -through his rashness that Jerusalem was left defenceless against every -hostile attack. The hostages, these vouchers for the continuance of -his humiliation, doubtless belonged to the most respected families, -and their forced exile helped to nourish the discontent of the nobles, -which finally culminated in a conspiracy. A violent conflict arose in -Jerusalem, the people either siding with the conspirators, or taking no -part in the contest. Amaziah was helpless, and sought safety in flight. -The conspirators, however, followed him to Lachish (about fifteen -hours' journey south-west of Jerusalem, where he had taken refuge), -and there killed him. He was the third king of the house of David who -had fallen by the sword, and the second who had fallen at the hands of -conspirators. - -After the death of Amaziah, Jerusalem and the kingdom of Judah -experienced still greater misfortunes. The princes of Judah, who had -dethroned and killed the king, do not appear to have resigned the reins -of government which they had seized. Amaziah's only surviving son, -Azariah (called also Uzziah), was a child of four or five years of age, -and the land was surrounded by enemies. Advantage was taken of this -helpless condition of the country by the Idumæans, who had been beaten -and disgraced by Amaziah. They commenced an attack on the kingdom of -Judah, and Egypt again espoused their cause, as it had done in the -times of Rehoboam. Sanguinary battles ensued, and the Idumæans took -many prisoners. They pressed on to Jerusalem, where the breaches in the -walls had not yet been repaired, and carried off numbers of captives. -There are no further particulars known of the attack of the Idumæans. -Some domains seem to have been separated from Judah, and annexed to -Edom and Egypt respectively. The rude warriors exchanged Judæan boys -and girls for wine and prostitutes, and their new masters, chiefly -Philistines, in turn sold them to the Ionians, who at that time vied -with the Phoenicians in the pursuit of slave-trading. The Tyrians, -forgetful of their long-standing alliance with the house of David, -behaved in no friendlier manner. This was the first dispersion of -Judæans to distant lands, whither the Ionians had sold them as slaves. -It was probably these Jewish slaves who brought the first germs of -higher morals and culture to the Western nations. Amongst the prisoners -were many noble youths and beautiful maidens of Jerusalem, who, owing -to their home influences, and their knowledge of the eventful history -of their nation, carried with them a store of ideas, which they came to -appreciate more now than they ever had done at home. - - - - -CHAPTER XII. - -END OF THE HOUSE OF JEHU AND THE TIME OF UZZIAH. - - Condition of Judah--The Earthquake and the Famine--Uzziah's - Rule--Overthrow of Neighbouring Powers--Fortification - of Jerusalem--Navigation of the Red Sea--Jeroboam's - Prosperity--The Sons of the Prophets--Amos--Prophetic - Eloquence--Joel's Prophecies--Hosea foretells Ultimate - Peace--Denunciation of Uzziah--Zechariah, Shallum, - Menahem--Last Years of Uzziah--Contest between the King and the - High Priest--Uzziah usurps the Priestly Functions--Uzziah's - Illness. - - 805-758 B. C. E. - - -After the violent death of Amaziah, the kingdom of Judah or house of -Jacob had become so excessively weakened, partly through internal -dissensions and partly through foreign warfare, that it was a by-word -among the nations. A contemporary prophet called it "the crumbling -house of David," and oftentimes repeated, "Who will raise Jacob, seeing -that he is so small?" And yet from out of this weakness and abasement -Judah once more rose to such power that it inspired the neighbouring -peoples with fear. First the internal dissensions had to be set at -rest. The entire nation of Judah rose up against the nobles that had -committed regicide a second time and created confusion. The young -prince Azariah, or Uzziah, was made king. This king--who was only -seventeen years old, and who, like his contemporary, King Jeroboam, -enjoyed a long reign--possessed energy, determination and caution, -which enabled him to restore the crumbling house of David. His first -care was to transport the corpse of his father from Lachish, where it -had been buried, to Jerusalem, where it was interred with the remains -of the other kings of the house of David. Whether Uzziah punished -the murderers of his father cannot be ascertained. He then proceeded -to heal the wounds of his country, but the task was a difficult -one, for he not only had to contend with enemies within the state -itself and among the neighbouring nations, but also against untoward -circumstances. The very forces of nature seemed to have conspired -against the land, which was devastated by a succession of calamities -calculated to reduce the staunchest heart to despair and apathy. In the -first place, an earthquake occurred in Uzziah's time, which terrified -the inhabitants of Palestine, who were unused to such occurrences. The -people took to flight, shrieking with terror, expecting every moment -to be engulfed in an abyss beneath the quivering earth. The phenomena -accompanying the earthquake increased their terror. The sun was hidden -by a sudden, thick fog, which wrapped everything in darkness, and the -lightning flashes which, from time to time, illuminated it, added to -the prevailing terror. The moon and stars appeared to have lost their -light. The sea, stirred up in its depths, roared and thundered, and its -deafening sound was heard far off. The terrors of the earthquake were -intensified when the people recalled the fact that a prophet, belonging -to the kingdom of the Ten Tribes, had predicted the event two years -before. The fulfilment of this awful prophecy filled all hearts with -consternation; the end of the world seemed at hand. - -Hardly had this terror subsided when a fresh misfortune broke upon -them. The periodical falls of rain failed, no dew quickened the fields, -a prolonged drought parched all vegetation, the springs dried up, a -scorching sun transformed the meadows and pasture lands into a desert, -man and cattle thirsted for refreshment and food, whilst wild beasts -wandered panting about in the forest thickets. Inhabitants of cities -in which the water-supply was exhausted set out for the nearest place, -hoping to find a supply there, but were unable to satisfy their -thirst. The drought, affecting extended areas of land, reached also -the lava districts of Hauran in north-eastern Palestine, which are not -unfrequently infested with swarms of locusts. In search of nourishment, -these locusts now flew across the Jordan to the kingdom of the Ten -Tribes, and devoured all that had not been withered by the dry rot. In -heavy swarms which obscured the sun, they flew onward, and suddenly -the vines, fig and pomegranate trees, the palms and the apple-trees -were laid bare. These devastations by the locusts continued throughout -several years. - -In the land of Judah, which had been brought to the verge of -destruction by the reverses of war, the consternation was deep. It -seemed as though God had deserted His heritage, people, country and -Temple, and had given them over to degradation and ruin. Public -mourning and pilgrimages were instituted in order to avert the evil. -The prophet Joel, the son of Pethuel, exhorted the people publicly in -these days of trouble, and was largely instrumental in raising their -sinking courage. His stirring exhortations could not help leaving a -deep impression. Their effect was especially felt when the destruction -caused by the drought and the locusts ceased. Once more field and -garden began to burst into blossom, the brooks and cisterns were -filled, and scarcity was at an end. The young king immediately availed -himself of this auspicious change, in order to chastise the enemies -of Judah. He first turned his arms against the Idumæans, who had laid -his land waste. He defeated them, possibly because they were no longer -aided by the Egyptians, and reduced Edom to subjection. The town of -Elath, on the shore of the Red Sea, he re-annexed to Judah, and the -maritime trade with Arabia and Ophir (India) could thus be renewed. The -Maonites or Minites, who occupied a small territory in Idumæa, around -the city of Maon (Maan), were subjugated by Uzziah, and compelled to -pay tribute. He punished the Philistines for their hostile attitude -towards Judæa during his minority, when they had delivered over the -Judæan refugees and emigrants to the Idumæans. He conquered the towns -of Gath, Ashdod, Jabneh, which lay nearest to the land of Judah, and -razed their walls. In other portions of Philistia, which he annexed to -his own territory, he erected fortified cities. - -He especially devoted himself to the task of fortifying Jerusalem, -which, owing to the destruction of 400 yards of the northern wall at -the time of the war between his father and Jehoash of Israel, could -offer no resistance to an invading enemy. Uzziah, therefore, had -the northern wall rebuilt, and undoubtedly rendered it safer than -before against attacks. He must have established friendly relations -with Jeroboam II., or he would not have been able to commence the -fortifications without risking a war. Uzziah had three towers built, -each 150 yards in height, at the corner gate in the north, at the gate -leading to the valley of Hinnom in the south, and at the gate Hananel; -on the gates and on the parapets of the walls were placed machines -(Hishbonoth), by means of which heavy stones could be hurled to great -distances. Uzziah, in general, displayed great energy in making warlike -preparations, the warriors being provided with shields, armour and -spears. He also employed cavalry and war-chariots, like those brought -from Egypt in Solomon's time. - -Uzziah appears, in all respects, to have taken Solomon's kingdom as -his model. The navigation of the Red Sea, from the harbour of Ailat, -which Solomon had obtained from the Idumæans, was again resumed, and -great vessels (ships of Tarshish) were fitted out for the purpose. -Altogether, Uzziah attained a position of predominance over the -neighbouring nations. - -The kingdom of the Ten Tribes, at the same time, became possessed -of great power under Jeroboam II., who was as warlike as Uzziah. -In the latter part of his long reign he was engaged in continual -warfare with the Syrians. He conquered the capital, Damascus, and -pressed victoriously to the city of Hamath, which also fell before -him. The nationalities which inhabited the district from Lebanon to -the Euphrates, and which till then had paid allegiance to the kingdom -of Damascus, became tributary to the king of Israel in consequence -of these victories. Jeroboam had no longer any rival in his vicinity -to contest the supreme power with him. The Phoenicians had become -considerably weakened through dissensions between the city of Tyre -and the descendants of King Ethbaal. During Jeroboam's government a -civil war appears to have broken out in Tyre, in consequence of which -the whole of Phoenicia lost the influential position which it had been -occupying for a considerable time. The rich booty of war, and, perhaps, -the renewed impulse to trade, brought wealth to the entire country -of Samaria. Not only the king, but even the nobles and the wealthy -classes, lived in luxury surpassing that of Solomon's time. King -Jeroboam possessed a winter and a summer palace. Houses of broad-stone, -adorned with ivory and furnished with ivory seats, became very common. -In contemplating the increase of power in the two kingdoms, one might -have been tempted to believe that the times of Solomon were not yet -over, and that no change had occurred, except that two kings were -ruling instead of one--that no breach had ever taken place, or that the -wounds once inflicted had been healed. Jeroboam and Uzziah appear to -have lived on terms of perfect peace with one another. Israelites were -permitted to make pilgrimages to Beersheba. No doubt some of them also -visited the Temple in Jerusalem. But it was only the last glimmer of -a politically happy period. The corruption which prosperity helped to -develop in the kingdom of Judah, and still more conspicuously in the -kingdom of the Ten Tribes, soon put an end to these happy days, and -hastened the decadence of both states. - -In the latter, the bull-worship was not only continued in Bethel and -Dan, but even assumed greater proportions, when additional images of -the bull were erected in Samaria and in Gilgal. Jeroboam appears to -have elevated Bethel to the rank of a capital. Here the chief sanctuary -was established. A sort of high priest, named Amaziah, ministered -there, and appears to have been very jealous of his office. Unlike -the Aaronites in Judah, he enjoyed a rich prebend in the possession -of fields around Bethel. Either this perverted form of worship was -not yet low enough to satisfy the cravings of its devotees, or the -voluptuousness consequent upon the accession of wealth may have -demanded new departures; at all events, the hideous worship of Baal and -the immoral cult of Astarte were again introduced. It is extraordinary -that this idolatry, which had been extirpated with so much energy by -Jehu, was again promoted, and received fresh encouragement under his -grandson. The idolatry thus newly re-introduced brought in its train -every species of wickedness and corruption. In order to gratify the -senses, all thoughts were bent on acquiring riches. The wealthy made -usury their business, and pursued their debtors with such severity -as to make slaves of their impoverished debtors or their children. -Usurious trade in corn was especially prevalent. In years of famine -the rich opened their granaries, and sold the necessaries of life on -credit, not always without employing false weights and measures; and -when the poor were unable to return what had been lent to them, they -heartlessly took their clothes or even their persons in pledge. When -these unfortunates uttered their complaint against such injustice in -the national assemblies they found no ear to listen; for the judges -were either themselves among the evil-doers, or had been bribed and -made deaf to the voice of justice. The treasures thus extorted were -wasted by their owners in daily revelry. The contemporary prophet Amos -pictures in gloomy colours the debauched life of the rich and noble -Israelites residing in the capitals in Jeroboam's time.[20] The wives -of the nobles followed the bad examples of their husbands, and urged -them to be hard-hearted to the poor, demanding of them, "Bring, bring, -and let us drink." - -The people itself could not, however, be so much influenced by the -moral depravity of the nobles as to allow it to obtain full sway. -Morality, justice and pure worship of God still had followers, who -protested more and more strongly against the vices practised by -the great, and who, though in humble positions, knew how to obtain -a hearing. Although almost a century had passed since the prophet -Elijah, with flowing hair, declaimed against the sins of Ahab and -Jezebel, the prophetic societies which he had founded still existed, -and acted according to his spirit and with his energy. The young, who -are generally readier to receive ideal impressions, felt a disgust at -the increasing moral ruin which came on them, and assembled round the -prophetic disciples in Bethel, Gilgal and Jericho. The generation which -Elisha had reared and taught adopted the external symbols of prophecy, -pursuing the same abstentious mode of life, and wearing long-flowing -hair; but they did not stop at such outward signs, but raised their -voices against the religious errors, against luxury and immorality. -Sons became the moral judges of their fathers. Youths gave up drinking -wine, whilst the men revelled in the drinking places. The youthful -troop of prophets took the place of the warning voice of conscience. In -the presence of king and nobles, they preached in the public assemblies -against the worship of Baal, against immorality and the heartlessness -of the great. Did their numbers shield them from persecution, or were -there amongst the ranks of the prophets sons of the great, against whom -it was impossible to proceed with severity? Or was King Jeroboam more -patient than the accursed Jezebel, who had slaughtered the prophets' -disciples by hundreds? Or did he disregard and ignore their words? In -any case, it is noteworthy that the zealous youths remained unharmed. -The revellers merely compelled them to drink wine and forbade them to -preach; they derided the moral reformers who exposed their wrongdoings, -but they did not persecute them. - -One of the prophets in the kingdom of the Ten Tribes made use of -this freedom of speech; he was the first of a succession of prophets -who combined great and poetic thought with evenly flowing rhythm of -diction, and made kings and grandees as well as the people wince -under their incisive words of truth. It was Amos of Tekoa. Amos did -not belong to the prophetic guild, he was no prophetic disciple, and -probably neither wore a garment of haircloth, like Elijah, nor let his -hair grow long, but was a simple herdsman and planter of sycamores. -Whilst tending his herds, the prophetic spirit came mightily upon -him, and he could not refrain from appearing in public. "God spake to -him, and in him, how should he not prophesy?" The prophetic spirit -urged him to repair to Bethel, and there, in the temporary capital -of King Jeroboam II., he declaimed against the perversions and vices -of the nobles, and opened their eyes to the consequences of their -evil deeds. That a countryman, clad in shepherd's garb, dared speak -publicly, could not help creating sensation in Bethel. A high degree -of culture must have prevailed in those days in Samaria, when a -shepherd was able to speak in beautiful, rhythmic utterances, and was -understood, or at least expected to be understood, by the people. The -speeches of Amos and those of his successors combine the eloquence and -comprehensibility of prose with the metre and the rhythm of poetry. -Metaphors and imagery lend additional solemnity to their diction. It -is therefore difficult to decide whether these utterances should be -classed as prose or as poetry. In place of a more suitable description, -they may be designated as beautifully formed poetic eloquence. The -orations of Amos, however, did not fail to betray his station. He -used similes taken from his shepherd life. They showed that, while -tending his flocks, he often listened to the roaring of the lion, and -studied the stars in his night-watches. But these peculiarities only -lent a special charm to his speeches. Amos came to Bethel before the -earthquake occurred, and he predicted the event in words of prophetic -foresight. The earthquake thereupon followed, with all its accompanying -terrors, and carried desolation everywhere. The subsequent plagues of -drought, sterility, and locusts afflicted the kingdom of the Ten Tribes -equally with the kingdom of Judah. Amos, and with him all right-minded -people, expected that these visitations would effect a reform, -putting an end to the hideous excesses of the wealthy and their cruel -oppression and persecution of the poor. But no improvement took place, -and Amos inveighed against the impenitent sinners in the severest -terms. He reproved the men who ridiculed his prophetic utterances. He -denounced those who, relying on their power or their piety or their -nobility of descent, felt themselves unassailable. (Amos v. 4-15, vi. -1-8.) - -Against such daring speeches, directed even against the royal house, -the high priest of Bethel, Amaziah, felt it his duty to take measures. -Either from indifference or out of respect for the prophet, King -Jeroboam seems hitherto to have allowed him unlimited sway; but even -now, when Amaziah called his attention to the prophet's dangerous -upbraidings, he appears to have remained unmoved. At all events, the -prophet was not interfered with, except that the high priest, probably -in the king's name, said to him, "Go thou, haste to Judah; eat thy -bread and prophesy there, but in Bethel thou mayest not remain, for it -is the sanctuary of the king, and the capital of the kingdom." Amos did -not permit himself to be interrupted in his preaching further than to -say, "I am no prophet and no prophetic disciple, but only a shepherd -and planter; but the Lord spake unto me, 'Go, prophesy unto my people -Israel.'" In the strongest language, he concluded with a threat of -punishment. It is noteworthy that he did not protest against the evil -deeds in Judah with the same energy, but rather displayed a certain -leniency towards the kingdom governed by the house of David. He entered -into no particulars concerning the sins which were rife there, but only -spoke of them in general terms. He predicted a happy future for the -kingdom of Judah, while predicting woe to Israel. - - "Behold, the eyes of the Lord God are upon the sinful kingdom, - and I will destroy it from off the face of the earth; saving - that I will not utterly destroy the house of Jacob, saith the - Lord." - -When contemplating in his prophetic vision the new plagues which would -descend upon the land, he interceded with prayer in behalf of Judah, -exclaiming, "Lord God, cease, I beseech thee; how shall Jacob rise, -since he is so small?" (Amos vii. 2, 5.) - -The state of weakness into which Judah had fallen since the death of -Amaziah, and from which it had not yet recovered in the first years -of Uzziah's reign, filled the prophet Amos with compassion. He did -not wish to discourage the nation and the court still further, but -prophesied the future reunion of the tribes under the house of David. - -At this time another prophet arose in Jerusalem, named Joel, the son -of Pethuel. Most of the prophets were of obscure origin, and returned -to obscurity without leaving a trace of their individuality, which -was entirely merged in their deeds or works. Joel appeared at a time -when all minds had been terrified and driven into a condition of -despair bordering on stupor, by the repeated attacks of the Idumæans -and neighbouring nations, and the subsequent plagues of earthquake, -drought and locusts. The inhabitants of Jerusalem and the country were -wearing themselves away in long fasts and lamentations; they tore their -garments as a sign of mourning, and assembled around the Temple with -cries and supplications to avert Divine anger, and the priests were -equally despondent. Joel, therefore, had a different task from that -of Amos; not to censure and blame the people was his mission, but to -raise and cheer up the despondent, and to arouse those whom despair had -stupefied. He did not openly denounce, but merely hinted at the sins -and errors of the nation, alluding to the drunkards now left without -wine, pointing to the external repentance which contented itself with -torn garments and left the heart untouched, and scorning the popular -notion that the Deity could not be appeased without sacrifices. Joel -had to exert the whole power of his eloquence in order to convince the -nation that God's mercy had not departed from them, that Zion was yet -His holy mountain; that He would not deliver up His people to disgrace; -that He was long-suffering and full of mercy, and would relieve them -from their misfortunes without their burnt-offerings and fasts. - -Joel's oratorical power was, perhaps, even greater than that of Amos. -His highly coloured description of the ravages of the locusts and -the accompanying calamities is a stirring picture; the reader feels -himself to be an eye-witness. The extant production of Joel's prophetic -eloquence, with its rhythm and metre and even a certain strophic -structure, also occupies the middle between poetry and prose. The only -speech of his which has been preserved is divided into two halves; in -the one half he describes the misfortunes of the nation, blames their -perverted ideas, and points out wherein their conversion must consist; -and in the other, he seeks to fill their hearts with a joyous hope -for the future. Joel endeavoured to carry his trembling, wailing and -despondent hearers, who had collected on the Temple Mount, beyond the -narrow boundaries of their present sorrow to a higher view of life. He -told them that God had sent the plagues as forerunners of a time full -of earnestness and awe, of a day great and fearful, destined to purify -them and lead to a higher moral order. The sorrows of the present would -pass away and be forgotten. Then the great day of the Lord would dawn. - -Joel also predicted political changes, when the enslaved Jews of -Judah and Jerusalem, whom Philistines and Tyrians had sold to the -slave-trading Ionians, who again on their part had scattered them far -and wide, should again return. The peoples who had committed acts of -cruelty would be severely punished in the Valley of Justice (Emek -Jehoshaphat), where God would pronounce judgment on all nations. -Then Egypt and Idumæa would become deserts, because they had shed -the innocent blood of the Judæans; but Judah and Jerusalem would be -inhabited throughout all generations. Then a higher moral order would -begin, and all creatures would be filled with the divine spirit of -prophecy. - - "And it shall come to pass afterwards that I will pour out my - spirit upon all flesh; and your sons and your daughters shall - prophesy, your old men shall dream dreams, your young men shall - see visions. And also upon the servants and upon the handmaids - in those days will I pour out my spirit." (JOEL iii. 1-2.) - -The wish which has been attributed to Moses (Numbers xi. 29) will, -according to Joel's prophecy, be realized at some future time. Not -only Israelites born in the land, but also the strangers, who lived as -slaves in their families, would have a share in this kingdom of God, -and would become worthy of the gift of prophecy. Thus the prophetic -vision began to roam beyond the national barriers. - -Hosea, son of Beeri, the third prophet of Jeroboam's and Uzziah's -times, spoke yet more decidedly against the kingdom of the Ten Tribes, -and in favour of the house of Jacob. Nothing is known of his life -and actions; we are not even told in which kingdom he delivered his -speeches. It is, however, probable that the scene of his activity was -Bethel or Samaria. Whilst Amos made moral corruption the main object of -his rebuke and scorn, Hosea declaimed against the religious defection -of the kingdom of the Ten Tribes, which had returned to the worship -of Baal. He did not possess the wealth of expression nor the metrical -evenness of his two contemporaries. His eloquence comes nearer the -form of common prose; it is more amplified, more fluent, but also more -artificial; it likes the interweaving of allegorical names, in which -Hosea probably followed the style of the prophetic school from which he -appears to have come. He started from one simile, which he applied in -a twofold manner. He represented the introduction of the Baal worship -in the Ten Tribes as the conduct of a faithless wife, and compared -the future return of the people to God, which he predicted, to the -return to the path of duty of a repentant and abashed adulteress. This -his theme he premised with an introduction. In a prophetic vision, he -said, he received the command to take to himself an adulterous wife. -Following this command, he married a woman of evil repute, who bore him -three children--a son, Jezreel, a daughter, whom he called "Unloved" -(Lo-Ruchamah), and a second son, named "Not-My-Nation" (Lo-Ammi). The -prophet explained these metaphorical names; thus, Jezreel meant two -things--in the first place, that God would visit on the house of Jehu -the blood that their forefather had shed in Jezreel; and further, -Jezreel denoted that God would destroy the armies of Israel in the -Valley of Jezreel. The name of the daughter meant that God would no -longer care for the house of Israel; and, lastly, the name of the -second son denoted that the God of Israel had deserted the nation, -and would no longer be its God. After this introduction and its -interpretation, the prophet began his address: - - "Contend with your mother, contend, - For she is not my wife, - And I am not her husband; - Let her put away her prostitution from her face, - And her adulteries from her bosom." (HOSEA ii. 4-6.) - -Then the prophet depicts the entire extent of the faithlessness of the -house of Israel,--that adulteress who pursues her lover (Baal), in the -belief that her riches and her plenty had come from him, forgetting -that God had endowed her with the corn and wine, the silver and gold -which she was wasting on the idol Baal; God would therefore deprive -her of everything, and not leave her even sufficient clothes to cover -her body. In her need she would be overcome by repentance, and say, -"I will return to my first love, for then it was better with me than -now." The prophet then pictures the return of the faithless wife, who -would remorsefully recognise the whole extent of her past wickedness, -and, turning to her husband, would call him "My husband," for the name -"lord" (Baal) would have become hateful to her. (Hosea ii.) - -Reconciled with his betrothed (the nation), the Lord would again show -mercy to her, as in the days of the exodus from Egypt; from the desert -he would again lead her to her land, and she would once more sing -psalms of praise as in the time of her youth, and in the days when she -went forth from Egypt. The renewed covenant between her God and her -would shield her from the wild beasts, and bow and sword and war would -be no more. Jezreel, the ominous name, would receive an auspicious -meaning (_planted in the land_); the "Unloved" would be once more the -"Beloved," and "Not-My-Nation" would again become "My-Nation" and would -acknowledge his God. - -In unrolling a glowing picture of the future of the Ten Tribes, Hosea -did not desire to mislead his hearers into the belief that such a time -was close at hand. In a second oration, which has probably not been -fully preserved, he predicts that many unhappy days would intervene -before the return of the Ten Tribes and their expiation. This speech -he also introduced with the account of a vision. God had commanded him -again to take a much-beloved, yet faithless wife. She was not to bear -him children, but he was to keep himself apart from her, nor permit her -to associate with other men. This vision denoted that, though God loved -the Israelitish nation, she had, forgetting all ties of honour and -duty, given her love to other gods. And it denoted further, that the -sons of Israel would remain long without a king or a prince, without -an altar or columns, without an ephod, as well as without house-gods -(Teraphim); till at last, purified by severe trials, she would return -to her God--in the latter days. Hosea prophesied the total destruction -of the kingdom of the Ten Tribes. On the other hand, he laid even more -stress than his contemporaries on the continuance of the house of David -and the kingdom of Judah, at the same time reproaching King Uzziah for -the importance which he attached to his warlike preparations. - -Corruption in the one kingdom and misfortunes in the other brought -from the hidden depths the precious ore of prophetic eloquence, which -was destined to obtain wide-reaching influence. The sins of Ahab and -Jezebel aroused Elijah; the evil deeds of Jeroboam II. and his nobles -drew Amos away from his flocks, and brought Hosea out of his quiet -life into publicity, to communicate in a fascinating form the thoughts -which possessed their souls. Their fears and hopes, their thoughts -and convictions, became thenceforth the common property of the many -whom they inspired and ennobled. Anxiously listening disciples of -the prophet imprinted these prophetic lessons on their memories or -recorded them in writing. They formed the first pages of that prophetic -literature, which was destined to stir up the indolent nations of the -earth. By picturing, though only in dim outlines, the prospect of -a better future, the prophetic wizards, Amos, Hosea and Joel, have -insured the permanence of the nation from which they sprung; for a -nation which looks confidently forward to a happy future is safe -against destruction, and does not permit itself to be crushed by the -most terrible trials of the present. One of these prophets--Joel or -Hosea--pictured an ideal of the future, to which the noblest minds have -clung, and to which they still hold fast. (Isaiah ii. 2-4.) - -That grand picture of everlasting peace--to be founded on the teachings -of Israel--which will transform the deadly instruments of war into -implements of life-giving labour, excels all works of art that will -ever charm the eyes and hearts of mankind. The Israelitish prophets -have predicted that this high morality of the nations of the earth will -be the outcome of the law which will go forth to them from Zion. - -The hostile attitude which the two prophets of the kingdom of Israel -assumed towards the house of Jehu was not without effect. Just as -Elisha and his disciples raised up an enemy against the Omris, so were -the attempts against the last of the Jehuides probably the outcome of -Amos's and Hosea's fiery opposition. - -Jeroboam II. died in peace, at an advanced age and after a long and -happy reign, but no sooner had his son Zechariah ascended the throne -(769), than a conspiracy was formed against him. The ringleader was -Shallum, son of Jabesh, who killed the fourth descendant of Jehu in -Ibleam. Zechariah reigned only a few months. His murderer, following -the example set by Jehu in dealing with the house of Ahab, destroyed -the house of Jeroboam II., sparing neither women nor children. Shallum -then went to Samaria in order to take possession of the throne and -kingdom, but he maintained his position only one month. A conspiracy -was also instituted against him by Menahem, the son of Gadi, a former -inhabitant of the capital Tirzah. He proceeded towards Samaria, and was -admitted into the capital without difficulty. He killed Shallum (768), -but no doubt met with greater opposition than he expected. Although -the capital opened its gates to him, other towns did not immediately -submit. The town of Tiphsah (Tapuach) shut its doors against him. -Menahem, however, was more daring than his predecessor, and united -with his courage the utmost hardness of heart. He laid siege to the -rebellious city, and, having compelled it to surrender, he executed -the entire population--men, women, and children, not even sparing -pregnant women. After this massacre he proceeded to Samaria, where he -seized upon the throne of the Jehuides. A chief who displayed cruelty -such as this could hardly expect to win all hearts. Menahem appears to -have abolished the worship of Baal. The worship of the bull, however, -was still continued. During his reign the fate of the Ten Tribes was -influenced by a powerful kingdom which was destined to put an end to -the house of Israel. - -If the better elements of that house might have felt inclined to -follow the intimations of the prophet, and turn to the house of Judah -for remedy, they met here with conditions equally repulsive. Internal -dissensions broke out under Uzziah, which, it appears, were purposely -ignored. Uzziah's aim was wholly and solely directed to military -affairs--the acquisition of bows, shields, and spears. Spiritual -interests were far from his mind, or perhaps were even distasteful to -him. To the Aaronides he undoubtedly gave frequent offence, the former -harmony between royalty and priesthood having received a severe shock -in the latter days of his grandfather Joash. Any endeavour on the part -of the king to extend his sway over the Temple would have met with the -opposition of the anointed high priests, whose authority rested on -claims equal to those of the descendants of David. It is certain that -in the latter years of Uzziah's government conflicts arose between -him and the high priest Azariah, similar to those between King Joash -and Zechariah. In order to deprive the high priest of his prestige, -Uzziah took a bold step. He entered the sanctuary and began to light -the incense-burner on the golden altar, an act which was the especial -privilege and duty of the high priest. The indignation of the Aaronides -ran high. The high priest, Azariah, who together with eighty priests -hastened after the king into the sanctuary, angrily reproved him, -saying, "It is not for thee, O Uzziah, to bring incense, but only for -the anointed priest of Aaron's family. Leave the sanctuary: thou art -guilty of desecration, and it will not be for thy honour from the Lord." - -What followed is wrapt in obscurity. Uzziah in the latter years of his -reign was attacked by leprosy, and had to be kept in a special house -for the rest of his days. The nation considered this illness as a -divine punishment for his daring to perform the rites of the priesthood. - -In this contest between the sacerdotal and royal houses the former was -triumphant, for it possessed the law as its weapon, and this was of -greater avail than the sword. But another spiritual power was soon to -enter the contest against the priesthood. - - - - -CHAPTER XIII. - -THE DOWNFALL OF THE KINGDOM OF THE TEN TRIBES; THE HOUSE OF DAVID, AND -THE INTERVENTION OF THE ASSYRIANS. - - King Menahem--The Babylonians and the - Assyrians--Pekah--Jotham's reign--Isaiah of Jerusalem--His - style and influence--His first public address--Later - speeches--Their immediate and permanent effect--His - disciples--Their characteristics--Zechariah--His prophecies. - - 758-740 B. C. E. - - -While Uzziah was compelled by his disease to pass his last years in -solitude, his youthful son Jotham managed the affairs of the kingdom. -In the kingdom of the Ten Tribes, Menahem, the cruel usurper (768-758), -was probably ruling with an iron hand. Both kingdoms continued in the -same grooves, unconscious of the fact that in the distant horizon -storm-laden clouds were gathering which would discharge themselves on -them with fearful effect. From the north, from the districts of the -Euphrates and Tigris, heavy trials were approaching for the people of -both kingdoms. - -No sooner had the Assyrians extended their territory in the north, -east and west, than they turned their attention to the south. They -intended, in the first place, to gain possession of the sea-coast -of the Phoenicians, and thus obtain control over the wealth of that -commercial nation. The next point in view was Egypt, the wealth and -renown of which attracted their ambition. For the first time an -Assyrian army appeared on Israelitish ground, when King Pul invaded -Samaria. King Menahem did not dare summon his forces against the mighty -Assyrian hosts. The internal confusion must have crippled his powers -to such an extent that he could not think of resistance. The curse of -the regicide rested heavily on his head, but it pressed with equal, if -not greater, severity on his nation. Menahem was hated by his people, -for the cruel means by which he had obtained possession of the throne -were ever fresh in their memories, and the friends of the murdered king -nursed this hostile feeling. When Pul arrived on Israelitish ground, -it appears that the enemies of Menahem suggested to the invader the -advisability of dethroning the king. Menahem, meanwhile, betook himself -to the Assyrian conqueror, and promised him a large sum of money on -condition that his government was left secure. Pul accepted the money -and retired from the country, carrying his booty and prisoners with -him. Menahem did not draw the money from his own treasury, but forced -wealthy individuals to provide it. Each one had to pay what was at that -time a heavy sum, viz., 50 shekels. - -Thus came the beginning of the end, and the fate which Amos had -clearly predicted half a century before, appeared to be in process of -realisation. He had said that a distant nation would carry off the -Israelites to a foreign land beyond Damascus. The Israelites were in -fact carried off to the region of the Tigris, or to some other division -of the large Assyrian kingdom. The power of the kingdom of the Ten -Tribes, however, remained to all appearance unbroken. It still numbered -60,000 wealthy men, who could pay large sums of tribute money. Menahem -still had his cavalry, his war materials, and the fortresses on which -he thought he could place dependence. But, unknown to him, old age (as -one of the prophets had rightly designated the national decadence) had -now crept over the people. Menahem probably introduced the Assyrian -mode of worship. One characteristic feature of this consisted in the -adoration of Mylitta, the goddess of love, and the duties of her -creed included the renunciation of virtue and the adoption of an -immoral life. This innovation, added to the already existing internal -dissensions, gradually sapped the foundations of the state. When -the cruel Menahem died, and his son Pekahiah succeeded (757), the -latter was able to retain the throne for scarcely two years. His own -charioteer, Pekah, the son of Remaliah, headed a conspiracy against -him, killed him in his palace in Samaria (756), and placed himself on -the vacant throne. The mode of this regicide, the seventh which had -occurred since the commencement of the kingdom of the Ten Tribes, is -wrapped in darkness; it seems, however, that Pekah had to remove two -other competitors before he could himself ascend the throne of Samaria. - -The son of Remaliah, the last king but one in Israel (755-736), was -an inconsiderate and ruthless man, who oppressed the country to an -even greater extent than his predecessors. He was characterised as a -faithless shepherd, "who deserted his flock, who sought not the missing -ones, who healed not the wounded, who tended not the sick, and who -even devoured the flesh of the healthy." In order to protect himself -against the attacks of the Assyrians, he joined an alliance which the -neighbouring princes had formed in order to resist the encroachments of -the Assyrians. The plan probably originated in Damascus, which now once -more owned a king, named Rezin, and which would be the first to suffer -from the Assyrian conqueror. Judah was also drawn in. Uzziah, the king, -having died in the leper's house, his son Jotham, who had ruled for -many years as viceroy, assumed the title of king (754-740). Jotham had -no very striking qualities. He was neither ambitious nor statesmanlike, -but he kept in the grooves in which his father had moved. Civic peace -seems to have remained undisturbed; there is at least no account of -any conflict between him and the high priest. The material condition -of the country also remained the same as under Uzziah. There were -the squadrons of cavalry, the war chariots, the ships of Tarshish -which navigated the Red Sea, and wealth and splendour. Jotham also -strengthened the fortifications of Jerusalem. He maintained friendly -relations with the kingdom of the Ten Tribes, or rather with their -king, Pekah, and there seems to have been a very intimate connection -between the two sovereigns. This friendship, however, as well as the -rise of an ambitious nobility in Judah, exerted an injurious influence -on the morals of the people, the evil being especially strong in the -capital. Through circumstances which cannot now be traced, some of the -noble families had attained a height of power that exalted them almost -to equality with the king. The princes of Judah led the councils, -decided the most important affairs of state, usurped the powers of -justice, and so thoroughly obscured the dignity of the house of David, -that but a mere shadow of its authority remained. There existed a -junior branch of the royal family, the house of Nathan, from which the -superintendent of the palace seems always to have been chosen. This -high official ruled court and attendants alike, and gradually attained -to such power and influence, that he was considered the actual regent. -He was known by the title of Manager of the Court (Sochen). - -Other evils arose out of these abuses. The princes of Judah sought -to enrich themselves by all possible means, and to extend their -territories by obtaining possession of the pasture lands, vineyards, -and meadows of the country people. Things seem to have come to such -a pass that the nobles and elders employed slaves, or the poor whom -they had reduced to slavery, to cultivate their vast estates. They -did not hesitate to make serfs of the children of those poor who were -unable to pay their debts, and force them to tread the mill. To this -cruel injustice, they soon added the vices of debauchery. They arose -early in the morning and had recourse to the wine-cup, and till late -at night they inflamed their blood with wine. At such entertainments -they had the noisy music of flutes, trumpets, harps, and lutes. -This was an innocent amusement compared with the excesses resulting -therefrom. But the severe morality enjoined by the Sinaitic law was -hostile to dissipation. As long as this law held sway, the love of -licentious pleasures could not be fully gratified. But this restriction -disappeared, when Judah entered into connection with the kingdom of -the Ten Tribes. Here, and especially in the capital Samaria, the -greatest excesses wore, so to say, a sacred character, forming, as they -did, a constituent part of the Baal worship. Here there were temple -priestesses in numbers; sacrifices were offered on the summits of the -mountains and hills, whilst vice held its orgies in the shade of the -oaks and terebinths. So great had been its progress, that Israelitish -daughters unblushingly followed the example of their fathers. Wine and -depravity had so vitiated the minds of the great, that they consulted -blocks of wood and sticks as oracles concerning the future. From -these nobles of the kingdom of the Ten Tribes,--"the drunkards of -Ephraim,"--the princes of Judah learnt how to follow their evil desires -without restraint. Divine service in the Temple of Jerusalem was, it is -true, officially recognised; but this did not prevent the princes from -following their own mode of worship privately. The brotherly fusion -of Israel and Judah chiefly resulted in making idolatry, dissipation, -intoxication, pride, and scorn of what was right, the common character -of both kingdoms. - -However, depraved as the Israelitish and Judæan nobles had become, -there existed a safeguard which prevented depravity from becoming an -established institution of law. In Israel, injustice could never pass -as public justice. Here there were men who loudly declaimed against the -mockery of justice, and the degradation of the poor; men who defended -justice and morality as the only right course; men who supported the -weak against the mighty. Just at this period of degradation, while -Jotham ruled in Judah and Pekah in Israel, several God-inspired men -arose, who spoke with words of fire against the vices of the nobility. -These men were the third generation of great prophets who succeeded -Amos, Joel, and Hosea, as these had followed Elijah and Elisha. - -The most important amongst them was Isaiah, son of Amoz, from -Jerusalem. With his contemporary prophets, Zechariah, Hosea II., and -Micah II., he shared the courage which calls vice and crime by their -right names, and which mercilessly brands the guilty. But he surpassed -them and all his predecessors in depth of thought, beauty of rhythm, -exaltation of poetical expression, in the accuracy of his similes, and -in the clearness of his prophetic vision. Isaiah's eloquence combined -simplicity with beauty of speech, conciseness with intelligibility, -biting irony with an inspiring flow of language. Of his private life -but little is known. His wife was also gifted with prophetic insight. -He wore the usual prophet's dress--a garment of goat's hair. Like -Elijah, he considered his prophetic task as the vocation of his life. -His energies were entirely directed to exposing wickedness, to warning -and exhorting the nation, and to holding before it the ideal of a -future, to attain which it must strive with heart and soul. He gave his -sons symbolical names, indicative of future events, to serve as signs -and types. For more than forty years (755-710) he pursued his prophetic -ministration with untiring zeal and unshaken courage. In critical -moments, when all--great and small, kings and princes--despaired, his -confidence never deserted him, but aroused the hope and courage of his -people. - -Isaiah first appeared in the year of king Uzziah's death (755), when -he was about thirty-three years of age. He announced to the nation -(probably on the Temple Mount) the vision which he had been vouchsafed, -and his election as a prophet. Isaiah's first speech was a short, -simple communication of this vision, the deep meaning of which could -not be misunderstood. He related that he had seen in a dream Jehovah -Zebaoth on a high and exalted throne, surrounded by the winged -seraphim. One seraph after another cried, "Holy, holy, holy is Jehovah -Zebaoth," with such thrilling voices that the very supports of the -Temple trembled: - - "Then I said, Woe is me, for I am undone; I am a man of unclean - lips, and I dwell in the midst of a people of unclean lips, for - mine eyes have seen the King, the Lord of Hosts. - - "Then flew one of the seraphim unto me, having a live coal in - his hand, which he had taken with the tongs off the altar, and - he touched therewith upon my mouth, and said, Lo, this hath - touched thy lips; thine iniquity is taken away, and thy sin is - purged." - -In his first speech, Isaiah had but lightly touched on the sins of the -nobles, only intimating that they were not alive to pure influences. In -another speech, which has been preserved, he went into greater detail, -and more especially held up a mirror to the princes of Judah wherein -they might see their folly and sin. He described the ideal destiny of -the people of Israel, of the Law which had been entrusted to it, and of -the Temple which was to be its visible representation, and he chose for -his purpose the ever-memorable words of an older prophet: - - "For from Zion shall the law go forth, and the word of the Lord - from Jerusalem." - -In this speech Isaiah touched the root of the evil which had produced -that state of religious demoralisation and heartless injustice which -he denounced. It was pleasure-seeking and wantonness, encouraged by -the women, to satisfy whom the men were continually urged to commit -depredations, and to pillage and enslave their weaker neighbours. With -surprising force the prophet describes the love of display of the -daughters of Zion. Leaving for a moment this sad picture, the speaker -attunes a cheery, hope-inspiring strain:-- - - "The Lord will create upon every dwelling-place of Mount Zion, - and upon her assemblies, a cloud and smoke by day and the - brightness of a flaming fire by night. For upon all the glory - shall be a covering. There shall be a tabernacle for a shade - in the daytime from the heat, and for refuge, and for a covert - from tempest and from rain." - -It may be questioned whether this masterly speech, perfect though it -was in subject and form, made any impression for the moment. At all -events it led to no lasting improvement, for Isaiah and contemporary -prophets had still often to preach against the same errors and the -same sins. The nobles could not easily be converted; they scorned and -scoffed at the threats of an awful future. But Isaiah's powerful words -have not been spoken in vain; they have influenced people to whom -they were not addressed; they have been heard in distant lands, among -distant nations, and in remote days. Isaiah did not content himself -with inveighing against sin; he depicted a moral ideal, through the -realisation of which men would find happiness and contentment. "The -king shall rule with justice, and cause the princes to govern according -to right." "The king shall not judge after the sight of his eyes, and -shall not decide after the hearing of his ears." Isaiah treated with -great contempt the hypocrisy which praises God with the lips whilst the -heart is far from Him. He scorned still more the offering of sacrifices -combined with baseness of thought and wickedness of deed. (Isaiah xxix. -13; i. 11-14.) - -Isaiah appears to have used other means besides soul-stirring sermons, -in order to heal the moral and religious ills of Judah. Adopting the -measures of Elijah and Samuel, he assembled around himself those who -shared his principles, or instructed young men and imbued them with -his spirit. From among those who had suffered from the injustice and -tyranny of the nobles of Judah, he drew into his circle the thoughtful -and susceptible, who became at once his disciples and his children. He -did not instil into them impatient and impetuous zeal, but he impressed -on them the virtues of gentleness, patience, and entire resignation -to God. The members of the circle which he had collected around him -were called the "gentle ones," or "the sufferers of the land" (Anavim, -Anve-Arez). They were mostly either of poor family, or impoverished -through the depredations of the nobles. They called themselves or were -called "the poor" (Dallim, Ebionim). From Isaiah they learnt not to -complain of poverty and spoliation, but to bear suffering and wrong -with faith in God and His dispensations. These "gentle ones" formed a -special community, to which they devoted all their heart and mind, and -to which Isaiah and his successors looked forward as the national core -and substance. They were expected to regenerate and purify the entire -people. These poor Anavim were to become the popular models of virtue. -The light shed by these great prophets cast beneficent rays around; -germs of thought, which lay hidden in the teachings of Sinai, came to -light, and the spiritual rulership of the nation became established -through them. Isaiah, therefore, forms a turning point in the national -history of the people of Israel, as Samuel and, in a lesser degree, -Elijah had done before him. Isaiah's prophetic view was not confined to -his nation and country; it passed beyond these boundaries to the two -great states of Egypt and Assyria, which, like great cloud-masses, were -soon to cast their electric flashes over Israel and Judah. - -Another prophet, named Zechariah, son of Berechiah, rose up against -the continued perversions of the times. This prophet's oratory could -not compare with the fiery and graceful eloquence of his contemporary, -Isaiah. He is wanting in power and continuity; he does not let -thought follow thought in logical sequence, but passes without any -perspicuous connection from one subject to another. The language of -Zechariah, too, is poetically tinted and not without symmetry, but it -lacks the scansion and other forms of poetry. Zechariah frequently -employs the metaphor of shepherd and flock, which he applies to -the relation between king and people. He unrolls the picture of a -glorious future, in order to lift the people up above the dispiriting -present. He predicts that the neighbouring nations, who were hostile -to Israel,--the Aramæans, Tyrians, and even the Philistines--would -acknowledge the God of Israel, and would be accepted as His children, -when they have laid aside their evil deeds and their false pride. -He also prophesies that God would make peace between the house of -Judah and the house of Ephraim, and that He would bring back their -exiles. Even though He had dispersed them amongst the nations, they -would remember Him in their banishment, and return to Him with their -children. The pride of Assyria would be humbled, the Egyptian rod be -stayed. This declaration closed with the prospect that of the entire -nation only a third should survive; but even this remnant would have -to pass through the refining crucible of trials in order to become -worthy of its mission as the people of God. Zechariah made special -allusions to Pekah, king of Israel, as the "false shepherd," who had -treated his flock more ruthlessly than his predecessors. He relates how -God appointed a shepherd over His people, and gave him two staves--one -named "Mercy," and the other "Concord." But the nation had rejected -God, and therefore it had been rejected by God, who broke the staff -of mercy, and annulled the covenant He had made with all the tribes -of Israel; and now He would break the second staff, the "staff of -Concord," to annul the friendship between the tribes of Israel and -Judah. God had placed over them a foolish shepherd who did not seek -for the lambs that are lost--who did not heal the wounded, and who -devoured the flesh of the healthy ones. The nation, it is true, -deserved no better guide; nevertheless, the shepherd who had thus -deserted his flock would surely incur the chastisement of God. - - - - -CHAPTER XIV. - -THE END OF THE KINGDOM OF THE TEN TRIBES, AND THE HOUSE OF DAVID. - - The Reign of Ahaz--His Character--Alliance between Pekah - and Rezin--Tiglath-Pileser and Assyria--Ahaz seeks - Assyrian Aid--Isaiah's Opposition--Defeat of Pekah and - Rezin--Introduction of Assyrian Worship--Human Sacrifices--The - Second Micah--Samaria after Pekah's Death--Assyria - and Egypt--Hoshea--Samaria taken by Shalmaneser--The - Exile--Hezekiah--His Early Measures--His Weakness of - Character--Isaiah's Efforts to Restrain Hezekiah from War - with Assyria--Arrangements for the Defence--Change of - Policy--Isaiah Predicts the Deliverance--Micah--Rabshakeh's - Embassy--Hezekiah's Defiance--His Illness and Recovery--The - Destruction of Sennacherib's Army--Merodach-baladan--Hezekiah's - Rule--The Psalmists--Death of Hezekiah. - - 739-696 B. C. E. - - -The bond of union which connected Judah and Israel, under Uzziah and -Jotham, was snapped asunder on the death of the latter, and dissensions -filled all minds. The cause of this can only be conjectured. The -new king of Judah, Ahaz (739-725), who ascended the throne in his -twenty-fifth year, was a weakling, with confused ideas, and by no means -equal to his dangerous position. Important political complications -occurred during his reign, in the meshes of which he became hopelessly -entangled. Shortly after his accession to the throne he had to decide a -question of great import, namely, whether or not to join the alliance -formed by Pekah of Israel, Rezin, king of Damascus, and other less -important confederates. This alliance was formed to meet a twofold -danger. On the one side was Egypt, which had become powerful under King -Sabako, and on the other side Assyria, which was also governed by a -king ambitious of conquest, whose strong hand had reduced to subjection -the refractory tributary states. - -After the death of King Pul, the last descendant of the royal house -of the Derketades, an energetic king ascended the throne of Assyria, -who not only reunited the crumbling kingdom, but gave it still -greater power and extent; this was Tiglath-Pileser. After capturing -and destroying the fortresses of Mesopotamia, he turned towards the -countries westward from the Euphrates and in the neighbourhood of -Lebanon. He wished to complete the annexation of the kingdoms which -Pul had subjugated. In order to oppose the Assyrian conqueror, Rezin, -king of Aram-Damascus, formed an offensive and defensive alliance with -Pekah, and was desirous of securing the co-operation of Ahaz. When the -latter refused to join them, the two kings, united, it appears, with -the Philistines and other neighbouring nations, prepared an attack upon -Judah. - -The report of this plan occasioned great alarm in the house of David, -and Ahaz then had recourse to a fatal step. He sent secret messengers -to the Assyrian king, Tiglath-Pileser, and asked him for help against -his enemies. At the same time he offered himself as a vassal, and his -land as an Assyrian province. This step might bring him momentary help, -but could only endanger the whole future. - -Isaiah, with his prophetic insight, looked far into the future, and -warned the king against acting rashly. Accompanied by his son Shear -Jashub, he went to Ahaz, to the spot near the lake where he was -supervising the work of fortification. He first tried to reassure the -king in clear, yet eloquent language (Isaiah vii. 3-9). He then pointed -out the evils which would result from an alliance with the Assyrian -king (Ib. 17-25). From the near future, however, Isaiah's prophetic -vision turned to more distant days. He sees the land, overrun by the -Assyrian army, turned into a field of thorns and thistles, and dwells -particularly on the devastation of the mountains covered with noble -vineyards, which had become the cause of revelry and dissipation. Only -the pasture lands were to remain, and every man would have to content -himself with a young bull and two sheep; but the land would once more -flow with milk and honey, sufficient for the needs of the remnant of -the nation (Shear-Jashub). - -Isaiah then reverted to the present time. He related how instructions -had come to him to write in large letters in popular writ, "Quick -booty, hasty plunder" (Maher Shalal, Chash Baz). He was to take the -priest Uriah and the prophet Zechariah, the son of Berachiah, as -witnesses to confirm his prophecy. Furthermore, when his wife, the -prophetess, had borne to him a son, he had, in prophetic inspiration, -bestowed on him the significant name of Maher-Shalal-Chash-Baz, as a -sign of the foreboding, "Before the new-born son of the prophet shall -have knowledge to call Father and Mother, the land of Damascus and the -possessions of Samaria will be carried off by the king of Assyria." -Isaiah then declaimed against the traitorous party which was secretly -allied with the enemy (Ib. viii. 5-8). - -Ahaz, however, remained deaf to all these predictions. He had more -confidence in Tiglath-Pileser than in the God of Israel, and thus fate -took its course. No sooner did the news reach the Assyrian king that -various nations and princes had formed an alliance against him, than -he invaded their lands. Rezin consequently had to raise the siege of -Jerusalem, and hurry to the defence of his country. Pekah also had to -think of his own safety, and Jerusalem was for the moment safe from -both of the hostile kings. - -The latter could no longer avert the consequences of the steps they -had taken. Tiglath-Pileser first besieged Damascus, captured it, took -Rezin prisoner, and slew him. From Damascus the victor proceeded -against the kingdom of the Ten Tribes, conquered the fastnesses of the -mountain lands and of the maritime as well as the Jordanic districts. -Pekah does not appear even to have attempted any opposition, but to -have submitted without resistance. Tiglath-Pileser therefore spared -his life, but he carried off the inhabitants of the northern cities -and those of the other side of the Jordan as prisoners (738). He -distributed them in various districts of the great Assyrian empire. -Thus the kingdom of Israel was deprived of half its land and half its -inhabitants. Its boundary on the north barely reached Mount Tabor, -and this remnant became an appendage to the Assyrian kingdom, bound -to pay a yearly tribute and gifts of allegiance. Great, no doubt, was -the discontent felt against Pekah, who had incurred these misfortunes -through his cowardice; he was the foolish shepherd who had deserted -his flock. This discontent ended in a conspiracy against him. Hoshea, -the son of Elah, headed the plot, and killed Pekah (736), after he had -ruled for two decades, and brought down misfortunes on his country. - -An important change also occurred at this period in the kingdom of -Judah. Ahaz, in his timidity, had made himself the vassal of the king -of Assyria, and had, therefore, to pay homage to Tiglath-Pileser. -Instead of feeling humiliated, he was seized with admiration for the -Assyrian customs, and determined to imitate them in his own country. -He introduced the worship of the sun and stars in Jerusalem. The image -of the sun-god was erected probably at the entrance of the Temple, -and horses and chariots were dedicated to him. Ahaz outvied the king -of Israel in idolatry. Other Assyrian influences made themselves felt -in Judah. The Assyrian language, which closely resembles that of the -Aramæans, was spoken by the courtiers to facilitate communication -with their sovereign lord. Ahaz went beyond all bounds in his love -of imitation. Once, when a misfortune befell him, he determined to -sacrifice his own son in honour of Moloch, this cruel rite being part -of the Assyrian creed. In the beautiful vale of Hinnom, or Ben Hinnom, -at the southern extension of the valley of Kidron, where the spring -of Siloah and other brooklets produce a magnificent vegetation, a -fire-altar was erected. There, Ahaz, regardless of the heart-rending -lamentations of his son, sacrificed the innocent child. - -The example of Ahaz was, as a matter of course, not without influence -on others. The nobles of Judah, who had a decided preference for all -that was foreign, because it allowed full sway to their passions, -gladly welcomed this adoption of Assyrian customs. Favoured by the -weakness of King Ahaz, they could indulge in sensual pleasures, and -continue their acts of injustice towards the nation. The priests were -also infected by the bad example. From motives either of selfishness -or of fear, they passed over with silence, and even favoured the evil -deeds of the king and the nobles. They preached for hire according -to the wishes of the mighty nobles. One of these depraved priests -appears to have asserted that the sacrifice of the first-born was -not displeasing to the God of Israel, but that such offerings were -acceptable to Him. The law of Moses which commanded the first-born -to be sanctified to the Lord, was explained as an order to surrender -them to the fire. Happily, there yet remained representatives of the -ancient law in its purity, who raised their voices in powerful and -eloquent protest against these crimes and depravities. A younger -prophet of that time laid his finger on the gaping wound, and not only -called the degeneracy by the right name, but also pointed out the -source whence it had arisen. The second Micah of Moresheth, probably -one of the disciples of Isaiah, shared with him the arduous task of -appealing to the hearts of the sinners, and of making clear to them the -indispensable results of their evil-doings. He probably took up his -dwelling-place in Jerusalem, but knowing the feelings prevalent in the -country places and villages, he paid more attention to them than did -the other prophets. - -In a speech uttered in the time of King Ahaz, Micah laid bare the -prevalent religious and moral evils, and especially declaimed against -human sacrifices (Micah vi.). Notwithstanding all this, the evil -spread further, and also attacked the healthy portions of the nation. -False prophets, speaking in the name of the Lord, arose, who advocated -crimes and vices in order to flatter the men in power. These false -prophets spoke with eloquence--they pretended to have had visions; -they employed the prophetic mode of speech, and by these means brought -about a terrible confusion of ideas. The nation was bewildered, and -knew not which to believe--its critics and censors, or its adulators -and encomiasts. These evil days under King Ahaz were even more baneful -than the six years of Athalia's government; they witnessed a king -trampling the ancient law under foot, and introducing idolatry with its -concomitant immorality and contempt of justice, nobles allowing their -passions untrammelled license, and false prophets daring to speak in -defence of those misdeeds, while the prophets of truth and justice were -proscribed. - -But in the meantime political events took their course and gave rise -to fresh complications. In the kingdom of Samaria, which since its -separation from the eastern and northern districts, could no longer be -called the kingdom of the Ten Tribes, wrongdoing and short-sightedness -continued to prevail. The wounds inflicted by the Assyrians had not -crushed the pride and selfishness of those in power. Defying the -misery of the present, they said: "Dwellings of brick have fallen -in; we will erect buildings of stone. Sycamores have been hewn down; -well, let us plant cedars instead." In their drunken carousals the -Ephraimitish nobles failed to perceive that the defeats which their -country had suffered, unless followed by a manly revival of energies, -were only the prelude to their complete destruction. In addition to -this short-sightedness, or perhaps in consequence of it, anarchy set -in. After Pekah's death at the hands of Hoshea, the ringleader of the -conspirators, nine years elapsed, during which no king could maintain -himself in power. Hoshea appears at first to have refused the crown of -thorns, and there was no one else who could lay claim to sovereignty. -From the time of Pul's interference with the Lebanon affairs and the -destruction of the Aramæan kingdom by Tiglath-Pileser, war between -Egypt and Assyria had become inevitable. The two empires, on the Nile -and on the Tigris, watched each other suspiciously, and prepared -themselves for the final contest, through diplomatic movements and -counter-movements, in which each endeavoured to strengthen itself and -weaken the enemy by the acquisition of allies. - -Meanwhile the doom of Samaria was ripe for fulfilment. Was it from -a knowledge of their weakness, or only a thoughtless whim, that -her nobles finally recognised Hoshea the son of Elah, the murderer -of King Pekah, as their king? This last king of Samaria (727-719) -was better, or rather less bad than his predecessors. He was also -warlike; yet he was unable to avert the impending destruction. He -appears to have secretly entered into connections with Egypt, which -continually duped him with false promises. At this time a warrior-king -of Assyria, Shalmaneser, proceeded against Elulai, king of Tyre and -Phoenicia, and subdued him. The Tyrian kingdom was not able to offer -any resistance. On this occasion Shalmaneser directed his plans also -against Samaria. Hoshea did not await his coming, but went to meet -him, offering surrender and gifts of allegiance. But no sooner had the -Assyrian king withdrawn than conspiracies were organised against him. -Hoshea commenced the secession by withdrawing the yearly tribute, and -Phoenicia followed suit. - -Shalmaneser thereupon collected his troops, and crossing the Euphrates -and Lebanon, proceeded first against the Phoenicians. At his approach, -the nations lost all hope of liberty. The Phoenician towns of Zidon, -Acre, and even the ancient capital of Tyre, surrendered, probably -without attempting resistance. From Acre, Shalmaneser advanced to the -Samaritan kingdom by way of the plain of Jezreel. The inhabitants of -the Israelitish towns either submitted to the mighty king or fled to -the capital. Hoshea, undaunted by all these defections, continued his -opposition, though, as it appears, the expected or promised help from -Egypt was withheld. The capital, Samaria, which lay on a hill-top, -could, if properly intrenched, hold out for some time. Meanwhile, -Hoshea and the inhabitants of Samaria hoped for some unlooked-for -event which might compel Shalmaneser to retreat. The walls, towers, -and battlements of Samaria were therefore fortified, and rendered -capable of defence; provisions and water supplies were also collected, -and all the preparations needed for the defence of a besieged city -were made. But the Assyrians were masters in the art of attacking -and capturing fortified cities. The attack and the defence must have -been carried on with great energy and endurance, for the siege of -Samaria lasted nearly three years (from the summer of 721 till the -summer of 719). But all the exertions, the courage and the patience of -the besieged proved fruitless. The capital of the kingdom of the Ten -Tribes, after an existence of two hundred years, was taken by storm. -The last king of that state, Hoshea, though he was probably caught -fighting, was mercifully treated by his conqueror. He was stripped of -his dignities, and kept in prison for the rest of his life. No pen -has noted how many thousands perished in this last contest of the -kingdom of Israel, or how many were carried off into banishment. -So estranged was that kingdom from those who recorded the memorials -of the Israelitish nation, that they devoted but few words to its -decline. No lament resounded, as though the sad fate of the nation -was a matter of indifference to the poets. The prediction of the -prophets had been fulfilled. Ephraim was no more; the idols of Dan, -Samaria, and other cities, wandered away to Nineveh, and prisoners in -thousands were carried off and dispersed. They were sent to colonise -the thinly-populated territories--the position of which is not -precisely known--in Halah and Habor, on the river Gozan, and in the -towns of mountainous Media. The kingdom of the Ten Tribes, or Israel, -had existed for two centuries and a half; twenty kings had ruled over -it; but in one day it disappeared, leaving no trace behind. Alienated -from the source of its existence through the obstinacy of Ephraim, -which disregarded the Law and its influences on national morality, -liberty and political strength, it had fallen into idolatry and its -attendant vices. The country vomited out the Ten Tribes, as it had -vomited out the Canaanitish tribes. What has become of them? They have -been looked for and believed to have been discovered in the distant -East as well as the far West. Cheats and dreamers have claimed to be -descended from them. But there can be no doubt that the Ten Tribes -have been irretrievably lost among the nations. A few of them, such as -agriculturists, vine-dressers, and shepherds may have remained in the -country, and some, especially such as lived near the borders of Judah, -may have taken refuge in that country. - -Thus the diseased limb, which had infected and paralyzed the entire -body of the nation, was cut off and rendered harmless. The tribe of -Ephraim, which on its first entry into the country had caused national -disintegration through its selfishness, and which later on, owing to -its haughtiness and self-seeking, brought on the weakening and final -destruction of a kingdom once occupying the position of an empire, was -now lamenting in exile. "Thou hast chastised me, and I was chastised -as an untamed calf. I was ashamed, yea, I am confounded, because I -bear the disgrace of my youth." (Jeremiah xxxi. 17, 18.) The body of -the nation seemed to be healthier and more at ease after the removal -of its unruly member. The tribes of Judah and Benjamin, with their -dependencies of Simeon and Levi, which, since the downfall of the Ten -Tribes, formed the people of Israel, or the "remnant of Israel," now -rose to new power and developed fresh splendour. The destruction of -Samaria, stunning as it was in its immediate effect on the remnant of -the nation, served also a salutary purpose, inasmuch as, for the moment -at least, it induced the people to put aside the follies and sins which -had contributed also to their degeneration and weakness. The people and -the nobles were now no longer deaf to the exhortations of the prophets; -Isaiah's prediction to erring Samaria--that "the crown of pride on -the head of the fat valley of the drunkards of Ephraim would be as an -early ripe fig which is hastily devoured," (Isaiah xxviii. 1-4)--being -fulfilled, they could no longer refuse him a hearing. How little was -wanting, and Jerusalem had shared the fate of Samaria! Its existence -depended on a whim of the Assyrian conqueror. In Jerusalem the fear of -national overthrow begot humility, and a desire to listen to the words -of those who would lead them in the right path. - -Fortunately a king now occupied the throne, the like of whom had not -been known since the time of David. Hezekiah (724-696), the son of -Ahaz, was the very opposite of his father. His gentle, poetical soul -was filled with an ideal, which he beheld in his people's own law, in -its ancient statutes and traditions. With the same eagerness with which -his father had paid homage to foreign usages, Hezekiah was intent on -the restoration of pristine Judæan morals, and the purification of -religious conceptions and institutions. He accepted the Torah as the -guide of his own life and of that of his nation. His were not only the -virtues of justice, generosity and high-mindedness, but also those -distinctions of character, which as a rule are foreign to crowned -heads, gentleness, modesty, and humility, adorned him. He possessed -that deep piety and pure fear of God which are as rarely met with as -artistic perfection or military genius. - -Did the prophets early recognise this nobility of soul and heart in -the young prince? Or did their power of vision enable them to foresee -the accession of a king on David's throne who would adorn it? Or was -it through their early teaching and guidance that he grew up to become -the ideal king that he was? Nevertheless it is a fact that two prophets -predicted great and promising things of Hezekiah while he was still in -his boyhood. - -During Ahaz's misrule, the prophets and that circle of "the Gentle" who -composed the kernel and heart of the nation of Israel, turned their -attention to the young prince, from whom they expected the restoration -of the golden age enjoyed during the glorious days of David. Hezekiah -had witnessed the sins of his father with pain, and bore testimony to -the aversion he felt for them immediately after his father's death, -inasmuch as he did not bury him in the hereditary sepulchre of the -house of David, but in a specially prepared tomb. Hezekiah expressed -his convictions in a psalm composed on his accession to the throne, -which may be considered a manifesto. (Ps. ci.) - -Hezekiah's reign, rich as it was in the manifestation of great virtues, -in events of great import and in poetical creations, might have become -a golden age had it not been that his wishes and plans were opposed by -a barrier which he found it impossible to break down. Royalty had long -ceased to have sole power in Judah. The overseer or superintendent of -the palace (Sochen) had full power over the army and the officers of -the court. He kept the king like a prisoner in his own apartments. In -Hezekiah's time, the superintendent Shebna behaved as though he were -the possessor of the throne and of sovereign power. In the beginning -of his reign, however, the courtiers and those who were in office as -judges or otherwise, not knowing his character or force of will, gave -the young king free scope. During this time Hezekiah could carry his -good resolves into effect, and in part introduce innovations, such as -removing the idols, restoring the unity of worship, and dismissing the -most unworthy of the courtiers from the palace and filling their places -with more deserving men. - -But it was no slight task to remove the accumulated evils of idolatry -and long-continued immorality. The Temple was deserted, and the country -was filled with idols and altars. Hezekiah reopened the sanctuary, and -restored it to its former dignity. In order to root out the evils of -idolatry, he ordained that altars should be no longer erected on the -mountains and heights, not even for the worship of the God of Israel, -but that all who felt a desire to show Him honour should repair to -Jerusalem. This precaution appeared to many as a hardship and an -infringement on ancient customs. But Hezekiah felt that he dared -not spare local predilections if he wished to ensure a purification -of the popular religion. When the spring festival approached, he -commanded that the paschal lamb, which had hitherto been sacrificed -on private altars, should be offered in the sanctuary at Jerusalem -only. He, however, postponed the celebration of the feast from the -usual month to the one following, probably because the season was not -sufficiently advanced. Meanwhile the courtiers did not mean to leave -the king to his own devices in his government. The inspector of the -palace--Shebna--appears to have gradually wrested all power from him. -Hezekiah was a poet, an idealist, weak and yielding, and possessed of -but little firmness of will. Men with such a disposition can easily -be led, and even kings will submit to a strong mind. Shalmaneser's -invasion of Tyre and Samaria, which occurred in the first year of -Hezekiah's reign, naturally aroused great alarm and fear at Jerusalem -and at the court. It was necessary to take a firm decision--either to -join the allies, or to offer the Assyrian monarch pledges of loyalty. -Hezekiah, from his peculiar character and mode of thought, was wavering -as to the course he should take. Was it honourable to desert his -fellow-tribesmen, who were bleeding to death under the three years' -invasion of Samaria, and who, if conquered, could only have a most -dismal fate? On the other hand, was it prudent to expose himself to the -anger of the great monarch? Hezekiah was perhaps glad that Shebna and -his ministers relieved him of the trouble of deciding. - -In consequence of this want of harmony amongst the highest -authorities of the country, Hezekiah's government appears full of -contrasts--high-mindedness and meanness, moral improvement and -degradation, pure faith in God and dependence on foreign aid; the -king an ideal of justice, and his capital full of murderers. Not even -in effecting the banishment of idolatry was Hezekiah successful. The -nobles retained their silver and golden idols, and worshipped the -handiwork of man; in their gardens remained the statues of Astarte -under the thickly-laden terebinth trees, planted for idolatrous -purposes. This internal double policy, due to the powerlessness of -the king and the obstinacy of the palace inspector and the nobles, -exercised a bad influence on the foreign relations of the government. -The Judæan statesmen, after the fall of Samaria, followed a course of -politics which would have been more wise and more honourable if it -had been resolved upon earlier. They adopted the plan of breaking with -Assyria and uniting themselves with Egypt. They took the same measures -that Samaria had pursued a decade ago. They courted the aid of Egypt -in order to obtain, if not an army, yet a sufficient number of horses -to resist Assyria. The plan of rebelling against the sovereign power -of Assyria was naturally developed in secret, for the premature report -of their intentions might have led to great misfortunes. But, however -secret their undertakings, the Judæan statesmen could not keep them -concealed from public notice. They could not escape Isaiah's prophetic -vision, and he exerted all his eloquence, in order, if possible, to -prevent their rash proceedings. His most glorious, most thrilling -speeches were made at this time of public anxiety. All the weapons -of prophetic oratory--description of the threatening evils, scorn of -the blindness of the leaders, and exhortations and cheering prospects -for the future--all these he employed in order to win his obstinate -countrymen from their undertakings. The most beautiful figures and most -striking metaphors, the most touching thoughts dropped from his lips -in powerful eloquence. Isaiah's advice was that Judah should remain -neutral in the hot contest which was about to break out between Assyria -and Egypt. - -Meanwhile matters took their course regardless of Isaiah's exhortations -and advice. King Hezekiah (for all steps were taken in his name) -gave up his allegiance to the Assyrians; at least, he no longer sent -tributary offerings to Nineveh, and the only result which could be -expected followed. King Sennacherib collected a large army, with the -intention of making an onslaught upon Judah as well as upon Egypt. -Having subdued the intermediate lands of Aram, Phoenicia, Samaria and -Philistia, the road to Egypt was paved and the obstacles in the way -of direct attack removed. Judah prepared for defence. Her generals, -feeling themselves too weak for open warfare, determined to occupy the -mountain fastnesses, and hoped to check the progress of the Assyrian -troops until the arrival of their Egyptian allies. Jerusalem was -fortified with especial care. The weak parts of the wall were repaired, -the wall itself raised, and those houses which had been built too near -the wall in consequence of the extension of the city, were pulled down. -Around the old fortifications of the town of David (Zion) and the lower -town (Millo) a new outer wall, strengthened by towers, was erected. -The upper lake, which was fed by the spring of Gihon, was closed up, -and its water was conducted into the town by means of a subterranean -canal. The aqueduct was also pulled down, in order to cut off the water -supply of the enemy, and thus to make a protracted siege infeasible. -The armoury, "the House of the Forest of Lebanon," was provided with -instruments of warfare. - -Shebna, the lieutenant and inspector of the palace, appears to have -been the moving spirit in all these arrangements. Both he and the -princes of Judah, with their adherents, were of good courage, and -without fear expected the advance of the Assyrians. In fact, excessive -wantonness ruled in Jerusalem; the evenings were spent in feasting; -people ate and drank and made merry. As though impatient of the arrival -of the enemy, they ascended the roofs of the houses in order to espy -them. Isaiah could not allow such folly and daring to pass unreproved. -In an exhortation, every word of which was of crushing force, he -portrayed to the nation, or rather to the nobles, their thoughtless -confidence (Isaiah xxii. 1-14).--Turning towards Shebna, he exclaimed, -"What hast thou here? and whom hast thou here that thou hast hewn out -for thyself a sepulchre?... Behold, the Lord will thrust thee about -with a mighty throw, O man! ... thou, disgrace of the house of thy -lord!" (Ib. 16-25). - -This speech of Isaiah's, directed as it was against the most powerful -man in Jerusalem, could not but have created a great sensation. -It surely roused King Hezekiah from his contemplative and passive -attitude, for soon after this we find Eliakim, son of Hilkiah, -occupying the post which Shebna had so long maintained. This new -superintendent of the palace acted according to the advice of Isaiah, -and Hezekiah, through his means, appears to have been drawn into an -active interest in public affairs. Shebna's fall initiated a change -for the better. What had been done could not, however, be undone. -The Assyrian monarch Sennacherib, filled with anger at Hezekiah's -rebellion, was already on his way to Judah in order to devastate it. A -part of his army, having crossed the Jordan, proceeded to the interior -of the country. All fortified towns that lay on the way were taken by -storm and destroyed, and the inhabitants fled weeping to the capital. -The roads were laid desolate, no traveller could cross the country, for -the enemy respected no man. The bravest lost courage whilst the enemy -came ever nearer to the capital; their daring was changed to despair. -Every thought of resistance was abandoned. But when all despaired, the -prophet Isaiah remained steadfast, and inspired the faint-hearted with -courage. In one of the open places of Jerusalem he delivered another -of those orations, sublime in thought and perfect in form, such as -have never flowed from other lips than his (Isaiah x. 5-xi. 10). He -predicted to Assyria the frustration of her plans, and unrolled before -Israel a glorious future which was to follow their deliverance from the -threatening enemy. The scattered would return from the lands of their -dispersion; the exiles of the Ten Tribes would be reunited with Judah; -jealousy and enmity would appear no more; the miracles of the time of -the Exodus from Egypt would be repeated, and the nation once more raise -its voice in inspired hymns. What marvellous strength of mind, what -all-conquering faith in God, in the ultimate victory of justice and -the realisation of the ideal of everlasting peace, amidst the terror, -devastation, and despair, and the deathlike gloom of the present! - -Sennacherib had marched his troops (then proceeding to the attack on -Egypt) through the Philistine lowland southward without turning towards -Jerusalem, while he himself put up his headquarters at Lachish, which -was one of the most important of the provincial cities of Judah. He -had no reason to besiege the town of Jerusalem, fortified as it was -by nature and human art. When the country was completely conquered, -the capital would be forced to surrender of itself. If this plan had -succeeded, Jerusalem would have suffered a fate similar to that of -Samaria, and the few remaining tribes would have been carried off into -captivity and scattered abroad, to be irretrievably lost amongst the -various nationalities. In spite of this hopeless prospect, Isaiah held -firm to the prediction that Judah would not fall. It would suffer under -the dominion of Sennacherib, but these very sufferings would tend to -the reformation of a part of the nation, if not of the whole of it. - -Isaiah was not the only prophet who, at this day of oppression and -imminent destruction, held aloft the banner of hope, and predicted a -glorious future for Israel, in which all the nations of the earth would -take part. Micah spoke in a similar strain, though his speeches were -not so artistic or striking. But amidst the din of battle he spoke yet -more decidedly than Isaiah of the everlasting peace of the world, and -thus endeavoured to raise the fallen hopes of Jerusalem (Micah iv.-v.). - -The actual present, however, formed a striking contrast to Isaiah's -and Micah's high-soaring predictions of a most brilliant and noble -future. King Hezekiah, seeing the distress of Jerusalem resulting -from the subjection and devastation of the country, sent messengers -to Sennacherib in Lachish, to ask pardon for his rebellion and give -assurances of his submission. The Assyrian king demanded in the first -place the immense sum of 300 khikars (talents) of silver, and 30 -khikars of gold. Hezekiah succeeded in collecting this sum, but he -did it with a heavy heart, for he found himself obliged to remove -the golden ornaments which adorned the temple. When Sennacherib had -received this sum, he demanded more--unconditional surrender. In -order to add weight to his demand, he sent a division of his army to -Jerusalem. This detachment was stationed to the north-east of the -city on the way to the upper lake, and made preparations for a siege. -Before beginning it, however, the Assyrians summoned King Hezekiah to -an interview. Rab-shakeh, one of the Assyrian officials, representing -Sennacherib, spoke with as much disdain as if the conquest of Jerusalem -were as easy as robbing a bird's nest. The Judæan warriors stationed -on the outer wall waited with great anxiety for the result of the -interview. In order to daunt their courage, Rab-shakeh uttered his -bold and daring speech in the Hebrew or Judæan tongue, in order that -the listeners might understand him. When Hezekiah's officers requested -Rab-shakeh to address them rather in the Aramæan language, he replied -that he desired to speak in their own language, so that the warriors -on the outer wall might understand him, and be disabused of Hezekiah's -delusion. In order to win them to his side, Rab-shakeh called aloud -to them that they should not be persuaded by Hezekiah into the belief -that God would save them. Were the gods of those countries subdued by -the Assyrians able to save their people? Nor had the God of Israel -been able even to rescue Samaria from the king of Assyria. Rab-shakeh -openly demanded of the Judæan warriors that they should desert their -king and acknowledge Sennacherib, and he would then lead them into a -land as fruitful as that of Judah. The people and the warriors silently -listened to those words. But when they became known in Jerusalem, they -spread fear and consternation amongst all classes of the inhabitants. -Hezekiah, therefore, appointed a fast and a penitent procession to the -Temple, to which he himself repaired in mourning garments. Isaiah made -use of this opportunity in order to appeal to the blinded princes of -Judah, whose danger could not wean them from sin, and to impress on -them that mere outward piety, such as sacrifices and fasts, was of no -avail (Isaiah i.). The address he gave could not but have a crushing -effect. Safety and rescue, said the prophet, could only be brought -about by a thorough moral regeneration; but how could this be effected -in a moment? Rab-shakeh insisted on a decision, and the troops as -well as the nation were disheartened. What if, in order to save their -lives they opened the gates and admitted the enemy? All eyes were, -therefore, turned on the prophet Isaiah. The king sent the highest -dignitaries and the elders of the priests to him, that he might pray -in behalf of the unworthy nation, and speak a word of comfort to the -remnant of the people that was crowded together in Jerusalem. Isaiah's -message was brief but reassuring. He exhorted the king to throw off -his terror of the scornful victor, and predicted that Sennacherib, -scared by some report, would raise the siege and return to his own -country. This announcement appears to have pacified not only the king, -but also the terror-stricken nation. Hezekiah then sent to Rab-shakeh -a reply for which the latter was unprepared. He refused to surrender. -How exasperated the great sovereign must have been when Rab-shakeh -reported to him the decision of Hezekiah! A petty prince, who had -nothing left to him but his capital, had dared defy him! He immediately -sent a messenger with a letter to Hezekiah, in which he gave utterance -to his contempt for the little state and for the God in whom Hezekiah -trusted. He enumerated therein the fortresses which had been subdued by -the Assyrians: "Have their gods been able to save them, and dost thou -hope that confidence in thy God will save thee?" - -The reply to this blasphemous epistle was dictated by Isaiah. In -it he predicted that Sennacherib would return to his country in -abject defeat, for God was not willing to give up the city. Before -Rab-shakeh could bring the answer to Sennacherib, a change had already -taken place. Tirhakah, the Ethiopian king of Egypt, who desired to -prevent the advance of the Assyrians, went to meet them with a large -army. Hearing of the advance of the Egyptian and Ethiopian troops, -Sennacherib left his encampment in Lachish, collected his scattered -forces, and proceeded southward as far as the Egyptian frontier town, -Pelusium, which he besieged. - -Hezekiah's despair at Sennacherib's blasphemous letter was calmed by -Isaiah's prediction that the land would indeed suffer want in this -and in the coming year, but after this it would once more regain -its fertility; 'yea, the remnant of Judah would again strike its -root downward, and bear fruit upward, and this revival would proceed -from Jerusalem; but Sennacherib would not be permitted to direct -even an arrow against Jerusalem.' Whilst the king and the nobles who -believed in Isaiah's prophecy, gave themselves up to hope, looking -upon the departure of the besieging troops from before Jerusalem as -the beginning of the realisation of the prophetic prediction, an -event occurred which roused fresh terror in Jerusalem. Hezekiah was -afflicted with a virulent tumour, and was in such imminent danger that -even Isaiah advised him to put his house in order and arrange for the -succession, as he would not recover from his sickness. The death of -the king, without heirs, in this stormy time, would have been a signal -for disunion among the princes of Judah, and would have occasioned a -civil war in the distressed capital. The nation was strongly attached -to its gentle and noble king. He was the very breath of its life; and -the prospect of losing him made him doubly dear to the inhabitants of -Jerusalem. At this sorrowful prediction, Hezekiah, lying on his sick -bed, turned his face to the wall, and tearfully prayed to God. Then -Isaiah announced to him that his prayers had been heard, that God would -send him health, and that on the third day he would repair to the -Temple. By the application of soft figs the ulcer disappeared, and he -became well again. On his recovery the king composed a heartfelt psalm -of praise, which was probably sung in the Temple. (Isaiah xxxviii. -10-20.) - -The recovery of the king caused great rejoicing in Jerusalem; but it -was not unmixed. Doubt and anxiety were still felt in the capital so -long as Sennacherib's contest with Egypt remained unended. If he were -victorious, the thrones of Judah and David would be lost. How long -this war and the siege of Pelusium lasted is not certain. Suddenly -the joyful news reached Jerusalem that Sennacherib with the remainder -of his army was returning in hot haste to his country (711). What -had happened to the numerous host? Nothing definite was known, and -the scene of action lay far away. In Jerusalem it was related that a -devouring pestilence or the Angel of Death had destroyed the entire -Assyrian host, 185,000 men. In Egypt, the priests related that a -numberless swarm of field-mice had gnawed to pieces the quivers, -bows, and trappings of the army till they were useless, and that -the soldiers, deprived of their weapons, were obliged to take to -flight. Whatever may have caused the destruction of the mighty host -of Sennacherib, his contemporaries appear to have considered it as a -miracle, and as a punishment sent to the Assyrian king for his pride -and blasphemy. In Jerusalem the joy following on anxiety was increased -by the fact that the prophet had repeatedly and, from the very -commencement of the attack, predicted that the Assyrians would not cast -one arrow against Jerusalem, and that Sennacherib would return on the -way by which he had come without having effected his intentions. - -The exultation over their deliverance found vent in the -hymns--beautiful in form and thought--which were composed by the -Korahite Levites, and sung in the Temple. (Psalms xlvi. and lxxvi.) - -Thus Jerusalem was delivered from the Assyrians. Isaiah's prediction -that "Assur's yoke shall be removed from the shoulder of Judah" was -fulfilled to the letter. The inhabitants of the country, part of whom -had been shut up in the capital, and part of whom had fled for refuge -to the neighbouring hollows and caves, now returned to their homes, and -tilled the land in safety. All fear of the frowning eye of the Assyrian -king having passed away, the Judæans, whose territory was but small, -could now seek out other dwelling places where they could settle down -and spread. Hezekiah's thoughts were not directed towards war; his was -the mission of a prince of peace. It appears that the neighbouring -people, indeed, called on him as an arbiter in their disputes, and that -fugitives and persecuted men sought protection with him. Although Judah -could not be said to boast of victories under Hezekiah, it yet attained -to an important position amongst the nations. - -After the defeat of Sennacherib, a king from distant parts endeavoured -to form an alliance with Judah. The king of Babylon, Merodach-baladan -(Mardo-kempad), son of Baladan (721-710), sent an embassy with -letters and presents to Hezekiah, ostensibly under the pretext of -congratulating him on his recovery, but doubtless in order to form an -alliance with him against their common foe. Hezekiah being naturally -gratified at this sign of respect from a distant land, received the -Babylonian embassy with the customary honours, and showed them his -treasures. This manifestation of joy and pride displeased Isaiah, who -prophesied injury to Judah from the land with which it was forming a -treaty. The king received the reproof of the prophet with humility. - -The fifteen years of Hezekiah's reign after the downfall of the -Assyrian kingdom was a golden age for the inner development of the -remnant of Israel. They could dwell without disturbance under their -vines and fig-trees. As in the days of David and Solomon, strangers -immigrated into the happy region of Judah, where they were kindly -received, and where they attached themselves to the people of Israel. -The poor and the sorrow-stricken, the mourner and the outcast were the -objects of the king's special care. He could now put into execution his -heartfelt desire 'to have the faithful of the land, the God-fearing and -the true, to dwell with him in his palace.' The disciples of Isaiah, -imbued as they were with their master's spirit, were the friends and -advisers of Hezekiah, and were called "Hezekiah's people." - -The second part of Hezekiah's reign was altogether a time of happy -inspiration for the poet. The fairest blossoms of psalmody flourished -at this period. Besides songs of thanksgiving and holy hymns which -flowed from the lips of the Levites, probably written for use in the -Temple, half-secular songs were dedicated in love and praise to King -Hezekiah. On the occasion of his marriage with a beautiful maiden, -whose charms had touched the king's heart, one of the Korahites -composed a love-song. The two kinds of poetry, the peculiar property -of the Hebrew people, which the literature of no other nation has -paralleled, the poetical and rhythmical expression of prophetic -eloquence and the psalm, reached their culmination under Hezekiah. The -Proverbs, that third branch of Hebrew poetry, were not only collected, -but also amplified by the poets of Hezekiah's time. - -Hezekiah ruled in quiet and peace until the end of his days. The -defeat of Sennacherib had been so complete that he could not think of -undertaking another expedition against Judah. Great joy was felt when -Sennacherib, who had hurled such proud and blasphemous utterances at -Israel's God and nation, was murdered by his own sons, Adrammelech and -(Nergal-) Sharezer, in the temple of one of the Assyrian gods. Nothing -is known of the last days of Hezekiah (696). He was the last king whose -remains were interred in the royal mausoleum. The people, who were -strongly attached to him, gave him a magnificent burial. It appears -that he left an only son named Manasseh, whom his wife, Hephzi-bah, had -borne to him after the close of the Assyrian war. - - - - -CHAPTER XV. - -THE LAST KINGS OF JUDAH. - - Manasseh--Fanatical Hatred of Hezekiah's Policy--Assyrian - Worship Introduced--The Anavim--Persecution of - the Prophets--Esarhaddon--The Colonisation of - Samaria--Amon--Josiah--Huldah and Zephaniah--Affairs in - Assyria--Regeneration of Judah under Josiah--Repairing of - the Temple--Jeremiah--The Book of Deuteronomy--Josiah's - Passover--Battle at Megiddo. - - 695-608 B. C. E. - - -It was not destined that the Judæan nation should enjoy uninterrupted -happiness for even a few generations. Its strength was tried by -rapid changes from prosperity to misfortune. Close upon the power -and unity of the second half of Hezekiah's reign came weakness and -disintegration; quiet and peace were followed by wild disturbances, and -the spring-time of mental culture by a destructive drought. It is true -that no disasters of a political nature disturbed the country under -the rule of Hezekiah's successor, and what perils threatened the land -from abroad, soon passed over. But at home, unfortunate circumstances -arose which brought about a schism, and thus led to lasting weakness. -What can be worse for a commonwealth than jealousy and hatred among -its members, and the antipathy of the rural population to the capital? -Such feelings arose under the government of Hezekiah's son, who, to the -injury of the land, reigned for more than half a century (695-641). -Manasseh's youth was in part the cause of this disaffection. - -Under the sway of a boy of twelve, whose government lies in the hands -of his servants, ambition, avarice, and even worse passions are apt -to rule, unless those in power are men of great moral worth, whose -patriotism surpasses their self-love. The princes of the house of Judah -had not, however, attained to this moral height. They were, in fact, -filled with resentment at the neglect which they had suffered during -Hezekiah's reign, and only anxious to regain their former position, by -removing the intruders and satisfying their vengeance. Courtiers and -officers now came into power who seemed to find their chief occupation -in reversing everything which had been introduced under Hezekiah. -The order of things established by this king, whether it be defined -as a restoration or an innovation, rested on the ancient Israelitish -doctrines of the unity of God, of His incorporeality, of a rejection of -all idolatry, and on a centralised worship. - -It was the aim of the fanatics who stood at the head of the government -to overturn this system. An idolatrous faction was formed, which -was not only influenced by force of habit, love of imitation, or -misdirected religious feeling, but also by passionate hatred of all -that appertained to the ancient Israelitish customs, and love for all -that was foreign. At the head of this party were the princes, under -whose influence and care the young king was placed. Not long after -Manasseh's accession to the throne, the nobles, who acted in the -king's name, proceeded with the innovations which they had planned. -Their first step was to proclaim lawful the use of high altars, which -Hezekiah had so strongly reprobated. They then introduced the wild -orgies of idolatry into Jerusalem and the Temple. Not only the ancient -Canaanitish, but also the Assyrian and Babylonian modes of worship -became customary at the Temple, as if in scorn of the God of Israel. In -the courts of the Temple, altars were erected to Baal and Astarte, and -smaller altars on the roofs of houses in honour of the five planets. -In the court of the Temple, a large image (Ssemel), probably of the -Assyrian goddess Mylitta, was erected, as if to give offence to the God -of Israel. - -More pernicious even than this wild medley of idolatry in itself, -were its influences on morality. The profligate temple-servants and -priestesses (Kedeshoth) of Astarte were provided with cells, where they -led a wild and dissolute life. The pyre (Tôpheth) was once more raised -in the beautiful vale of Ben-Hinnom, where tender children were cast -into the fire as offerings to Moloch to avert calamity. Everything was -done to cause the memory of the God of Israel to fall into oblivion. -The faction of idolaters persuaded themselves and others that God had -become powerless, and that He could neither bring them good nor bad -fortune. The desire of imitation had no mean share in this religious -and moral perversion. Habit and compulsion exercised on the disaffected -soon spread the evil, which proceeded from the court and the prince -till it extended over the whole land. The priests of the family of -Aaron were probably at first unwilling to participate in this secession -from the God of Israel. Idolatrous priests (Khemarim) were therefore -brought into the country, who, as in the days of Jezebel and Athaliah, -were permitted to take part in the service of the Temple. Nor were -false prophets wanting to lend their voices to these abominations. What -cause, however bad, if enjoying the favour of the great, has not found -eloquent tongues to shield, justify, or even recommend it as the only -true and good one? This state of things, if unopposed, would have led -to the utter oblivion of all the past, and to the destruction of the -nation which was to bring blessings to the entire human race. - -Happily there existed in Jerusalem a strong party who respected the -law so despised and scoffed at by the court faction. These formed -a striking contrast to the representatives of idolatry, and were -determined to seal their convictions even with their blood. These -"disciples of the Lord," whom Isaiah had taught and educated as his -own children, were the long-suffering Anavim, small in numbers and -low in rank, whose determination, however, rendered them a strong -power. They may be called the Anavites or prophetic party; they called -themselves "the community of the upright" (_Sod Jescharim w' Edah_). -This community was subjected to many hard trials through the change -under Manasseh. The least of their troubles was that the men whom -Hezekiah had placed as judges and officers of state were turned out of -their positions by the court party, and that Aaronides, of the family -of Zadok the high-priest, who refused to take part in the idolatrous -worship, were dismissed from the Temple, and deprived of their incomes -from sacrifices and gifts. Prophets raised their voices in denunciation -of these crimes, and other members of this community manifested their -horror at the daring of the court party; but Manasseh and the princes -of Judah did not stop short of any crime, and, like the abhorred -Jezebel, drowned the voices of the prophets in blood. The prophetic -utterances of this period have not been preserved; the zealous men -of God had no time to write them down. A violent death overtook them -before they could seize the pencil, or they were obliged to hide their -thoughts in veiled language. As though these sad times were doomed -to be forgotten, the historians have noted down but little of public -interest. An event of great import to Judæa occurred during Manasseh's -reign, and the books of history have given but slight or no account of -it. - -One of the sons of Sennacherib, whose parricidal act destroyed the -proud conqueror in the temple, had placed himself on the tottering -throne of Nineveh. He also died a violent death at the hand of his -brother Esarhaddon. Esarhaddon (680-668) utilised the confusion and -civil war which had broken out in Babylonia, to reduce that old -mother-country to a mere dependence on Assyria. Thus strengthened -Esarhaddon commenced a war with Egypt, the conquest of which his -father had been obliged to relinquish. Some of his generals appear -to have landed on the Judæan coast, in order to effect Manasseh's -subjection by means of threats. Manasseh went to him to secure a fair -peace, but, as is related, he was made a captive, and led in chains to -Babylon. It was a bad omen for the house of David, which had become -faithless to its origin, and had shown a blind love of the stranger. - -Sennacherib's son is supposed to have sent the prisoners of the -countries he had subdued, such as Babylon, Cuthah, Sepharvaim, and -Hamath, to Samaria in order to colonise it. This event, which, at -the time, seemed without significance to Judæa, was destined to be -important in the future. These exiles, who were called Cuthæans, from -their origin, and Samaritans, from their dwelling-places, gradually -adopted Israelitish customs, probably from the small remnant of -Israelites who remained after the destruction of the kingdom of the Ten -Tribes. The Cuthæans made pilgrimages to the holy places of Bethel, -where Israelitish priests performed the service. They, however, -continued to worship idols, and some of them sacrificed human beings. - -Manasseh himself was delivered from captivity, and sent back to his -country by Esarhaddon or his successor; but his character had not -improved. Idolatrous worship and the unfortunate conditions brought -about by immorality and cruel persecution lasted until his death. -When he died (641), he was not buried in the city of David, as his -predecessors had been, but in the garden of Uzza, attached to the royal -palace in the suburb of Millo. He had himself selected this spot for -his tomb, and had thereby tacitly acknowledged himself unworthy to rest -in the grave of his forefather David. - -He was succeeded by his eldest son Amon (640-639), who, although older -than his father had been at his accession, yet appears to have had -no more aptitude for reigning than his predecessor. The idolatrous -aberrations, which had brought with them consequences so injurious to -morality in his father's reign, continued under his rule, but, unlike -his father, he does not appear to have persecuted the prophet party. -However, he reigned for so short a time that but little is known of -him, his deeds or sentiments. His servants--that is to say, the captain -of the palace and the chief courtiers around him--conspired against -him, and killed him in his own palace (639). The nation appears to have -loved Amon, for the people rose in rebellion against the conspirators, -killed them, and placed Amon's son Josiah, who was eight years of age, -on the throne (638-608). This change of rule was not immediately felt. -The nobles and princes of Judah continued to govern in the name of the -king during his minority, and maintained the innovations of Manasseh, -which they sought to establish firmly. - -But the number of 'the sufferers of the land,' who clung to the -precepts of the God of Israel, increased daily, and these formed -themselves into an active body. From this circle various prophets arose -under Josiah. They lent their words of fire to the promulgation of the -pure doctrines of God, and opened their lips in the cause of right, -and endeavoured to bring about a better state of things. A prophetess -named Huldah also arose at this time, and her counsel, like that of -Deborah, was much sought after. Zephaniah was the eldest of the later -prophets. He was descended from a respected family in Jerusalem, -whose forefathers were known as far back as the fourth generation. -He openly declaimed against the weakness, the moral degradation, and -the idolatrous ways of his contemporaries, particularly of the nobles -and princes, who took pride in the imitation of all foreign customs. -Like the older prophets, Amos and Joel, he predicted the advent of "a -terrible day of the Lord, a day of darkness and obscurity." In his -prophecies concerning other nations, he especially predicted the total -destruction of the proud city of Nineveh. - -At this time commenced the gradual decadence of Assyria's power. The -nations which had remained faithful to Assyria now separated themselves -from the last but one of the Assyrian kings (Samuges?), or were -compelled by the Medes to renounce their allegiance. The second king of -Media, Phraortes (Fravartch), subdued nation after nation, including -the Persians, and in conjunction with these he undertook a campaign -against Nineveh. The Assyrians, though deserted by their allies, were -yet sufficiently strong and warlike to effect the defeat of the Median -host (635), when Phraortes was killed. But his son Cyaxares, who was -even more daring and adventurous than his father, hastened to avenge -the latter, collected a large army, which he divided according to the -armour of the various bodies, attacked Assyria, defeated its army, and -advanced upon Nineveh (634). But an invasion of Media by countless -hordes of Scythians forced him to raise the siege of the Assyrian -capital. Unable to cope with them in battle, he bought release at the -price of an enormous tribute. The Assyrians were compelled to follow -a like course. Turning westward, the Scythians reached Phoenicia, and, -advancing along the coast of Philistia, soon stood threatening before -the gates of Egypt. Here King Psammetich met them with rich gifts, and -through earnest entreaties prevailed upon them to desist from their -intended invasion. Thereupon a great number of them went to the north, -while others threw themselves on Asia Minor. A number of them remained -in Philistia, overran the country, and burnt the temple of Mylitta, the -Assyrian goddess of debauchery. The Scythians swarmed from Philistia -into the neighbouring country of Judæa, ravaged the land, carried off -the cattle, and burnt the cities and villages. They appear, however, -not to have entered Jerusalem. No doubt the youthful king Josiah, with -the steward of his palace, went to meet them, and induced them by the -surrender of treasures to spare the capital. - -This time of terror, when reports of the destruction of towns and -the cruel murder of men were constantly reaching the ears of the -people, made a deep impression on the inhabitants of Judah. Where the -predictions of the prophets had fallen upon deaf ears, their actual -fulfilment proved the folly of idolatrous worship. Had the gods of -Assyria, Babylon, Phoenicia, or Philistia been able to save their people -from the violent attack of the Scythians? A change of sentiment now -came over the inhabitants of Jerusalem, and the soul of King Josiah was -deeply touched. He was gentle, pious, and susceptible by nature; only -from habit had he devoted himself to the follies of idolatry, without -entirely yielding to the malpractices of the times. The significant -occurrences now taking place showed him that he and his nation were -wandering in crooked paths. He did not venture, however, when he had -come to this conclusion, to cast out from the capital of his kingdom -the idol-worship which had been introduced during his grandfather's -reign, half a century before. He did not dare arouse the princes of -Judah, who held the reins of power, and who were strongly attached to -idolatry. This would have required heroic decision, and Josiah could -not bring himself to act with the required strength of purpose. It -was, therefore, necessary for some one to urge him to action, and to -the assertion of his royal power over those who surrounded him. The -prophetic party undertook the work of inducing Josiah to return to the -service of God, and to put aside all foreign worship. However he only -took measures calculated to rescue the holy Temple of the Lord from -its deserted state and the decay into which it was falling. The walls, -halls and outbuildings of the Temple were cracking, and threatened to -fall, and the decorations had been disfigured. Josiah took measures to -prevent at least this outward decay. He recalled the exiled priests -and Levites to the service of the Temple (627), and commanded them to -collect contributions for the renovation of the Temple. At their head -he placed the high-priest Hilkiah, whose house had not been polluted -by the impurities of idol-worship. But whence were the means to be -derived? The love of the rich for their Temple had grown so cold, -or the nation had become so impoverished through the pillage of the -Scythians that it was impossible to reckon on freewill offerings like -those in the times of King Joash. Thus it became necessary actually -to go begging for gifts in order to be able to repair the sanctuary. -Levitic emissaries went through the city and country, from house to -house, asking for contributions. Meanwhile, though King Josiah was -thus actively working for the Temple, he was wanting in firmness in -stamping out the errors of idolatry. A number of the nobles, it is -true, had formally returned to their ancient creed, but only inasmuch -as they swore by Jehovah, while they continued to worship idols. Other -influences were needed to impress Josiah before he could summon heart -to act. From two sides came the force which induced him to take a final -step. On the one hand the impulse came from one of the prophets, who, -from early youth, had spoken in powerful and irresistible language, -and on the other, from a book which had revealed to the king the -unmanliness of indecision. These two combined to bring about a better -state of things in an extended circle, and also to lend fresh interest -and a halo of poetry to the ancient law. The youth was the prophet -Jeremiah, and the book that of Deuteronomy. Jeremijahu (Jeremiah), son -of Hilkiah (born between 645 and 640, died between 580 and 570), came -from the little town of Anathoth, in the tribe of Benjamin. He was not -poor, though by no means enjoying great wealth. His uncle Shallum and -the latter's son Hanameel (his mother's relations) possessed landed -property in Anathoth. - -Jeremiah's soul was rich and pure, like a clear mirror or a deep -well-spring. Endowed with a gentle disposition and inclined to -melancholy, the religious and moral condition of his surroundings had -made a sad impression on him, even in his earliest youth. All that was -false, perverse, and unworthy was repulsive to him, and filled him -with sorrow. From the time that he began his work, his countrymen, -the priests of Anathoth, persecuted him with such burning hate that -it is impossible to think that they could have determined the bent of -his mind. Undoubtedly, however, the writings of the elder prophets -exercised an influence over his disposition and ideas. His spirit -became so imbued with their teachings that he used their thoughts, -expressions, and words as his own. This study of the written prophetic -legacies gave his mind its tendency, and filled him with exalted ideas -of God, of the moral order in the events of humanity, of the importance -of Israel's past and its significance in the future, and taught him -to hate what was low. Following the divine call, he entered upon his -prophetic mission, and afterwards initiated others, either in Anathoth -or in Jerusalem. The description of his own initiation (Jer. ch. i.) -can bear no comparison with the simplicity and depth with which Isaiah -introduced himself as a prophet. The times demanded a different kind of -eloquence. Moral degradation had strongly affected the nation, and ruin -was sure to come, unless help were soon at hand. Nor did Jeremiah, like -former prophets, speak to a small cultured circle, but to great popular -assemblages, to the princes as well as to the inhabitants of Jerusalem -and the people of Judah. On them figures of speech would have been -wasted; it was necessary to speak clearly, and to the purpose, in order -that the words might have effect, and so Jeremiah spoke chiefly in -simple prose, only occasionally weaving into his speech the flowers of -rhetoric. The threats of punishment and announcements of salvation of -his predecessors, with the exception of Isaiah, were mostly vague and -indefinite, and on this account the scornful inhabitants of Jerusalem -had cast them to the winds. Jeremiah had to counteract the effects of -such scornful disregard of prophetic announcements. He was endowed with -greater prophetic gifts than any of his predecessors--even than Isaiah. -He prophesied in the first instance from year to year; later on, when -the tragic fate neared its fulfilment, he predicted from month to -month occurrences that were to come to pass, and his prophetic visions -were realised with marvellous accuracy. He did not see the future in -the uncertain light of dreams, but in broad daylight, with open eyes, -while in communion with the outer world. Therefore he did not speak in -enigmas, did not make hidden allusions, but called things by their true -names. - -Upon this pure prophetic spirit had been put the heavy task of rousing -the perverse nation, which had been going astray for nearly half a -century, just at the time when the king was rousing himself from the -lethargy into which he had drifted. - -No sooner had Jeremiah received his call than his diffidence and -gentleness disappeared. He describes the sensations which the prophetic -spirit awoke in him (Jeremiah xxiii. 29): - - "Is not my word like as a fire? saith the Lord: and like a - hammer that shivereth the rock?" - -His first speech of burning eloquence was directed against the -nation's falling away from its traditions, against idolatry and its -abominations. In it he not only hurled his crushing words against the -perverted idol-worship, but also against the frequent recurrence of -bloodshed (Jeremiah ii.). - -Words like these from so young a speaker could not fail to make an -impression. Some of the noble families turned away from their immoral -course, and returned to the God worshipped by Jeremiah and the other -prophets. The family of Shaphan, which occupied a high position, -joined the prophet's party, and defended it with fervour. King Josiah -meanwhile devoted himself earnestly to the restoration of the ruined -Temple. He commissioned (621) three of his chief officers--Shaphan, -Maasseiah, the governor of the city, and Joah, the chancellor--to -summon the high-priest to surrender the funds collected under his -supervision, that they might be employed in the purchase of building -materials and the pay of the workingmen. When Hilkiah gave up the sum, -he also handed a large roll to Shaphan, saying, "I have found the book -of the law in the Temple." Shaphan read the roll, and was so struck -by its contents that he informed the king of the discovery that had -been made. This book exercised a wonderful influence. The Book of -the Law which the high-priest Hilkiah gave to Shaphan to hand to the -king was the last testament of the prophet Moses, which, before his -death, he recommended to the earnest consideration of his people. It -has an historical introduction and an historical epilogue, leading -the historical record up to and beyond the death of Moses. Laws are -generally cold, stern, and hard, and with threatening gesture they -say, "Thou shalt, or shalt not, or heavy punishment will overtake -thee." The law-book found in the time of Josiah is not couched in such -terms. It exhorts, warns, and actually entreats that this or that may -be done or left undone. It uses the language of a loving father, whose -son, standing before a great goal, is warned not to lose the bright -future before him through his own fault, and thus become an object of -scorn and a disgrace. A pleasant breeze is wafted from this book of -Deuteronomy. As though with a garland of flowers, the laws (Mizvoth), -statutes (Chukkim), and ordinances (Mishpatim) are surrounded with -historical reminiscences and heartfelt admonitions, couched in sublime -and poetic language. - -The book also contains a peculiar hymn, said to have been composed by -Moses. In this hymn it is stated that the nation, in consequence of -its prosperity, would turn away to false gods, and a depraved nation -would be called to punish it. Then it would see that its chosen gods -could not avail it, and that God alone, who had so wonderfully guided -it, could kill and make alive, could wound and heal, and that He would -avenge it, and purify the stained land. Terrible are the punishments -inscribed in this roll for disobeying the laws. The veil is snatched -away from the future, and the terrible disasters shown which await the -people and the king, if they continue in their present course. All the -plagues which could bring humanity to despair are vividly described -in this picture. On the one hand are sterility, starvation, drought -and pestilence; humiliation and persecution, oppressive slavery and -disgrace on the other, till physical and spiritual sufferings would end -in heart-breaking, madness and idiocy. - -This peculiar book of the law, with its convincing exhortations and -its gloomy prospect, which the priest Hilkiah had found and read to -Shaphan, was carried by the latter in haste to King Josiah, to whom -he read passages out of it. Terrified and shaken by the threats of -punishment, and conscience-stricken for having hitherto permitted -trespasses so plainly depicted in the newly-discovered book, the king -in his grief tore his garments. He sent for the high-priest Hilkiah to -counsel him. On his suggestion, King Josiah sent him and some of his -officers to the prophetess Huldah, wife of Shallum, the overseer of the -wardrobe, one of the royal officers. She announced to the king that the -impending misfortune should not descend on him and his people in his -own days, as he had repented of his former ways. - -Comforted as to the fate of his people during his own reign, King -Josiah pursued the task of regeneration with great energy. He took the -newly-discovered book of the law as his guiding principle, and was far -more severe and thorough than Hezekiah in the uprooting of idolatry. -He first summoned all the elders of the people from the capital and -the country, as also the entire population of the capital, the priests -and prophets, and even the humble hewers of wood and drawers of water -of the Temple, and had the contents of the law-book read to them. He -himself stood during the reading on a stand which had been erected for -the king in the Temple. For the first time the entire nation of Judah -was informed of its duties, its expectations and prospects in obeying -or disobeying the laws. The king proposed to form a covenant by which -all present should bind themselves to carry out with heart and soul the -laws and ordinances which had been read to them. Then the words were -loudly proclaimed, "May all those be cursed who shall depart from this -law," and all present said "Amen." The king commanded the high-priest -Hilkiah, the priests of the second order, who had to watch over the -Temple, and the Levitical guardians of the Temple gates, to cleanse it -from the various forms of idol-worship. Thus the disgraceful figure of -Astarte, the altars and cells of the prostitutes, also all articles -belonging to the worship of Baal and Astarte, the sun-horses at the -entrance of the Temple, and lastly the altars for the worship of the -stars were all removed, crushed and burnt in the vale of Kidron, and -the ashes cast over the graves of the dead. The altar in the vale of -Hinnom, where children were sacrificed, was desecrated by order of -the king. All the chief altars throughout the country were destroyed. -This purification extended as far as Bethel, where the Cuthæans, who -had settled in the place, and the remnant of Israel still had their -sanctuaries, and as far as those towns which had formerly belonged -to Samaria. The priests of the idols and altars were deposed, those -of Levitical descent were obliged to remain in Jerusalem, where they -could be kept under supervision, and where, though not allowed to offer -sacrifices, they received their share of the tithes of the descendants -of Aaron. The foreign priests were all removed, and probably sent -out of the country. Josiah made a cruel exception of the Israelitish -priests in Bethel, who had continued the worship of the bull, which -had been introduced by Jeroboam, and had caused the degradation of the -nation. These priests were killed on the altars, and the latter were -desecrated by human remains. The king determined to make a striking -example of Bethel, the spot where the negation and neglect of God's -ancient law had originated. The less guilty descendants had in this -case, as in many others, to atone for their more guilty forefathers. -The king himself commenced the desecration of the idolatrous altar at -Bethel. He cleared away the various idol-worships which had taken root -and flourished at different times on Jewish ground, and he thus acted -according to the precepts contained in the Book of Deuteronomy. - -In the spring of the same year (621) Josiah summoned the entire nation -to celebrate the feast of Passover in Jerusalem, according to the -ordinances of the Law, and the nation willingly obeyed his mandate, -having sworn to act according to the Law. This festival--celebrated -for the first time by the mass of the nation--was rendered especially -solemn by inspiring psalms, sung and accompanied by the Levites. One -psalm, which was apparently sung on that occasion, has been preserved. -The choir of Levitical singers exhorted the Aaronites to praise the -God of Jacob, reminded them of the persecutions they had undergone, of -the deliverance from Egypt, and of the revelation at Sinai, and also -admonished them to keep away from strange gods. They alluded to the -exile of a part of the nation, and prophesied happy days for those who -observed the Sinaitic law. (Psalm lxxxi.) Josiah's energetic action -against idolatry appeared so important an event to the faithful portion -of the people that the prophets dated a new epoch from that time. The -abominations of idolatry, with its terrible effects, which had so -demoralised the nation for seven decades, had suddenly disappeared, -owing to the zeal of the king. Social conditions were also improved. -Josiah insisted on the enfranchisement of Hebrew slaves who had been -six years in slavery, in accordance with the law which he had chosen -as his guide. He also appointed unbiassed judges, who should secure -justice to the poor and the helpless against the powerful. Historical -accounts assert of Josiah that no king before him ever returned so -sincerely to God, and carried out the law of Moses so strictly. In -fact, Josiah appears also to have exerted himself energetically in -political matters; he had the courage to assert his independence even -against Egypt. - -At the outset of his prophetic career Jeremiah had announced a period -of universal ruin and devastation, to be followed by a new constitution -of things. This change began in the last years of Josiah's reign. The -empire of Assyria, which had subjected so many nations to its yoke, -was to be delivered over to total destruction, and in its place new -empires were to arise. Media and Babylon, the nearest dependencies of -Nineveh, avenged the crimes of which that city had been guilty in its -proud treatment of its adherents. The adventurous Nabopolassar, of -Babylon (625-605), had broken the last tie which bound his country to -Assyria, and had made himself independent. Egypt also endeavoured to -take advantage of the increasing weakness of Assyria. Here a daring -king named Necho (Nekos, Nekaii), son of Psammetich, had ascended the -throne, and strove to restore Egypt's former power. Necho assembled -a great army, with the intention of conquering the district of the -Lebanon as far as the Euphrates, and of humiliating Assyria. He -took the fortified Philistine city of Gaza by storm, and advancing -along the slope on the coast of the Mediterranean Sea, he purposed -reaching the Jordan by the plain of Jezreel. Josiah, however, opposed -his advance through this territory, which had formerly been in the -possession of the Israelites. Hardly had Necho and his army reached -the middle of the plain of Jezreel, than the army of Judah barred his -way at Megiddo. The Egyptian king, it is said, assured Josiah that -his campaign was not directed against the land of Judah, but against -more distant territories. Notwithstanding this, Josiah compelled him -to do battle. The result was disastrous to the king of Judah, for his -army was beaten, and he himself was dangerously wounded (608). His -attendants hastily brought their beloved king to Jerusalem, and on his -arrival there he breathed his last. When he was interred in the new -mausoleum, men and women wept bitterly, and exclaimed, "Oh, king! oh, -glory!" From year to year, on the anniversary of the day on which this -last excellent king of the house of David had sunk pierced by arrows, -a lamentation was sung, composed by Jeremiah for the occasion. No king -was more sincerely mourned than Josiah. The unfortunate battle of -Megiddo in the plain of Jezreel was the turning point in the history of -Judah. - - - - -CHAPTER XVI. - -END OF THE KINGDOM OF JUDAH. - - Effects of Josiah's Foreign - Policy--Jehoahaz--Jehoiakim--Egyptian Idolatry introduced--The - Prophets--Uriah the Son of Shemaiah--Jeremiah's renewed - Labours--Fall of Assyria--Nebuchadnezzar--Baruch reads - Jeremiah's Scroll--Submission of Jehoiakim--His Rebellion - and Death--Jehoiachin--Zedekiah--Siege of Jerusalem by - Nebuchadnezzar--The Siege raised owing to the Intervention of - Egypt--Defeat of the Egyptians--Renewal of the Siege--Capture - of Jerusalem--Zedekiah in Babylon--Destruction of the - Capital--Jeremiah's Lamentations. - - 608-586 B. C. E. - - -Josiah had expected to secure the independence of Judah, by calling -a halt to the interference of Egypt in the affairs of other lands, -but this policy led to the subjection of his own people to Egypt. In -Jerusalem, where the king's death was bitterly mourned, no further -steps were taken till the election of a new king had been decided -on. Josiah had left three sons; the first-born was Eliakim, and the -two younger sons, Shallum and Mattaniah. The father appears to have -named Shallum, the son of his favourite wife, as his successor. In -order to do honour to their deeply-mourned king, the people confirmed -Josiah's choice, though Shallum was two years younger than Eliakim. On -his accession he, according to custom, took a different name--that of -Jehoahaz. - -Matters had, however, come to such a pass that the will of the nation -could no longer establish their king firmly, nor could the holy oil -render his person sacred: the decisive word lay with another power. The -king of Egypt, to whom the country had become subject by the victory at -Megiddo, had decided otherwise. Apparently, without troubling himself -about Judæa, Necho had reached the district of the Euphrates by -forced marches; had obtained possession of the territories of Aram or -Syria, belonging to Assyria, and had taken up his residence in Riblah. -Jehoahaz repaired thither to meet Necho, to have his election confirmed -by him, and at the same time to receive the land of Judæa from him as a -tributary state. But the newly-elected king found no favour in the eyes -of the Egyptian sovereign, who caused him to be put into chains and -carried off to Egypt. He then named Eliakim king of Judah. Jehoahaz had -only reigned three months. - -Eliakim, or, as he was called after his accession, Jehoiakim (607-596), -had to perform an unpleasant duty at the very commencement of his -reign. Necho had imposed on the land a heavy and humiliating tribute -of 100 khikars of silver and one khikar of gold, as a punishment to -Josiah for having hindered his march through the country. There was -no treasure at that time in the palace or the Temple. Jehoiakim, -therefore, taxed all the wealthy according to their wealth, and caused -these imposts to be forcibly collected by his servants. Added to -this humiliation there arose another evil. The moral and religious -improvement brought about by Josiah was, according to the predictions -contained in the law lately discovered, to bring happier times in its -wake, and now the people found themselves sorely disappointed. The -God-fearing king had fallen on the battle-field, and had been brought -back dying to the capital; the flower of the Israelitish army had been -cut down, a royal prince lay in fetters, and the country had fallen -into disgraceful bondage. - -This change occasioned a turn in the tide of opinion; a relapse set -in. The nation, including the more enlightened amongst them, began to -doubt the power of God, who had not fulfilled, or could not fulfil, -the promises He had made to them. They cherished the delusion that by -resuming the foreign idolatrous practices which had existed during -so long a period under Manasseh, they would better their fortunes. -They therefore returned to their evil ways, erected altars and high -places on every hill and under every green tree. In Judah there were -as many gods as there were towns. They paid special homage to the -Egyptian goddess Neïth, the Queen of Heaven, who was most zealously -adored in Sais, the capital of King Necho; for had not this goddess -assisted the Egyptian king in the victory he had obtained? Images of -gold and silver, of wood and stone, were again erected in the houses. -The Temple itself was, as in Manasseh's time, once more desecrated by -hideous idols. The most disgraceful feature of the change was that -the sacrifice of children again prevailed, as in the days of Ahaz -and Manasseh. In the beautiful Valley of Hinnom an altar was again -erected, and moaning children were ruthlessly offered up to Moloch, the -first-born especially being selected for the sacrifice. - -These idolatrous and immoral practices were accompanied by the vices -and crimes of debauchery, adultery, oppression of strangers, widows -and orphans, by corruption of justice, untruth, dishonesty, usury and -cruelty towards impecunious debtors, and murder. There was certainly -a class which upheld the law, and which regretted the horrors of -these crimes. But amongst the masses who gave themselves up to the -aberrations of idolatry and immorality, it was difficult for those who -desired better things to give practical effect to their views. False -prophets advocated wrong-doing and crime. King Jehoiakim, although he -did not actually encourage the revival of idolatry, permitted it, and -either from weakness, or from sympathy with them, did nothing to check -the moral decadence. The stern warnings of the prophets were unheeded -by the king, his monitors being persecuted or slain. - -The prophets of God had a heavy task in this time of degeneracy; they -had to be prepared for persecution and ill-treatment. But they paid -little heed to the dangers they incurred; they felt impelled to oppose -fearlessly the moral and religious ruin which was impending. At no -period did there arise so many prophets as in the last two decades -before the destruction of the Jewish kingdom. They addressed the -nation, the princes, and the king almost daily, at every opportunity; -they warned, roused and threatened them, and prophesied their -destruction, if the prevailing wickedness did not cease. The names -of only four of these prophets have been preserved: Jeremiah, Uriah, -Habakkuk, and Ezekiel. But the prophecies of others, who fought the -battle against idolatry, have remained, though their names have not -been recorded. - -Of Uriah, son of Shemaiah, from the Forest City (Kirjath-Jearim), -nothing is known, except his tragical death. At the commencement of -the reign of King Jehoiakim (between 607-604) he had prophesied the -destruction of Jerusalem and of the whole land, if the people did not -give up their evil ways. When Jehoiakim was informed of this prophecy -of evil, he dispatched messengers to seize and kill its author. -Meanwhile Uriah, having been secretly warned of his danger, fled to -Egypt. Jehoiakim, however, was so enraged against him, that he sent one -of his nobles to Egypt to demand his surrender. He was brought back -to Jerusalem and beheaded, his body being cast on the burial-place of -the common people. This murder of the prophet, instead of intimidating -Jeremiah, seems to have confirmed him in his energetic action. With the -accession of Jehoiakim and the relapse of the nation into its former -state of sin, he began anew his work as a prophet, which had been -in abeyance during the reign of Josiah. Jeremiah now, for the first -time, comprehended the meaning of the words which had been addressed -to him as a disciple in the first hours of his prophetic calling. "I -have made thee a fortified city, and an iron pillar, and brazen walls -against the whole land, against the kings of Judah, against the princes -thereof, against the priests thereof, and against the people of the -land." He was to remain firm and unmoved, and to meet fearlessly the -impending persecutions. Acting on this idea, he prepared to announce -the inevitable destruction, though his tender heart bled, and he often -had to seek fresh courage in order that he might not grow faint in -his task of prophesying evil. Jeremiah, meanwhile, had grown to man's -estate; but he took no wife. He could not devote himself to household -joys whilst the shadow of approaching troubles darkened his soul. He -went forth alone and in sadness. He could take no part in convivial -pleasures, because the sins of the nation crushed in him all feelings -of gladness. - -Through one of his first addresses in Jehoiakim's reign he drew on -himself the hatred of all zealous idolaters, and especially of the -priests and false prophets. When the populace, at one of the festivals, -had assembled to offer up sacrifices, he called to them, - - "Thus saith the Lord God of Hosts: Amend your ways and your - doings, and I will cause you to dwell in this place.... Is this - house, which is called by my name, to be a den of robbers? - Behold even I have seen it, saith the Lord.... And now, because - ye have done all these works, saith the Lord, and I spake unto - you, rising up early and speaking, but ye heard not, and I - called you and ye answered not, therefore will I do unto this - house, which is called by my name, wherein ye trust, and unto - the place which I gave to you and your fathers, as I have done - unto Shiloh." (JEREM. ch. vii.) - -Hardly had Jeremiah finished these words when the priests and false -prophets seized him, and said, "Thou shalt die--as thou hast prophesied -that this Temple will become as that of Shiloh." A tumult arose in the -courts of the Temple, and some of the bystanders supported Jeremiah. -This tumult induced some of the princes to repair from the palace to -the Temple--amongst these was Ahikam, son of Shaphan--and others who -belonged to the prophet's party. The princes immediately formed a court -of justice at one of the gates of the Temple, and heard the accusation -and the defence. The priests and the false prophets said, "This man -deserves death, for he has prophesied destruction to the city and the -Temple." A few of the elders spoke in favour of Jeremiah. Then the -princes said to the angry priests and the false prophets, "This man -does not deserve death, for he has spoken to us in the name of our -God." Through the exertions of his friends, and especially of Ahikam, -Jeremiah was set free for the time. But the hatred of the priests -and the false prophets towards him raged the more fiercely, and they -watched for an opportunity to attack him. - -Meanwhile the doom of the Assyrian empire had been fulfilled. It fell -ignominiously, through the united exertions of Cyaxares of Media and -Nabopolassar of Babylon. Nineveh, the giant city, fell after a long -siege (605). The last king of Assyria, Sardanapalus, burnt himself -in his citadel. In consequence of the downfall of Assyria, important -changes occurred on the central scene of passing events. Media became -the chief heir of the Assyrian possessions--Cyaxares took the lion's -share, and gave to his ally, Nabopolassar, Babylonia, Elymais, and -the privilege of conquering the countries on the western side of the -Euphrates. King Nabopolassar did not long survive his victory. He was -succeeded by Nebuchadnezzar--a great warrior (604-561), and a wise, -far-seeing statesman. He was by no means cruel, and only punished -his enemies as severely as was necessary to render them harmless. -Nebuchadnezzar strengthened his now enlarged kingdom internally, -erected gigantic buildings, and established a system of navigation by -means of canals. He then undertook a more extensive expedition of -conquest. Aramæan Assyria, or Syria, which was split up into small -districts, was subdued without much opposition. Next Phoenicia fell, and -its king, Ithobal (Ethbaal) II., also became Nebuchadnezzar's vassal. - -The mighty conqueror then offered Jehoiakim the alternative to pay -him allegiance or to be crushed. On the other hand, the king of Egypt -counselled him to resist firmly, and promised that he would send help. -Judah fell into a condition similar to that in the days of Hezekiah, -and became the battle-field for the contest between two great powers. -A policy had to be resolved on, but whilst awaiting aid from Egypt, or -a miracle, Jehoiakim and his counsellors delayed coming to a decision -from day to day. - -Amidst the general alarm a fast was proclaimed; in the ninth month, -in the winter of 600, the whole nation was summoned to Jerusalem, and -there it entreated the Lord to avert the impending evil from the land. -The nation, in great excitement and fear as to what the future might -bring on it, crowded to the Temple as though it would find security -there. Jeremiah meanwhile commanded his faithful disciple, Baruch, to -write down the prophetic exhortation which he had uttered some years -before, and in which he had predicted that Judah herself, as well as -all the nations around her, would be reduced to subjection to the -young Chaldæan empire. After Baruch had inscribed this address on a -roll, Jeremiah commanded him to read it in front of the Temple, in the -presence of all the inhabitants of the capital and the entire country. -The prophet himself was from some cause prevented from being present, -and therefore Baruch was to represent him. Baruch, though not without -hesitation, undertook this task. In an open hall, in the upper court -of the Temple, he read the contents of the scroll to the whole nation. -The address made a deep impression on the people, confronted as they -were with the impending danger of an attack from Nebuchadnezzar's -army, which now lay but a short distance from Jerusalem. A young man, -Michaiah, son of Gemariah, hastened to the princes who had assembled -in one of the halls of the palace, and there, agitated as he was, he -communicated to them what he had heard. The alarmed princes invited -Baruch to read again, in their presence, Jeremiah's scroll. Each word -fell heavily on their hearts, and they were seized with terror. They, -therefore, determined to inform the king of what they had heard, -hoping that he, too, would be moved and convinced that he must give -up all opposition to Nebuchadnezzar. For a moment they hoped for the -best, when Jehoiakim commanded that the scroll be brought and read to -him. But as each leaf was read, it was, by the king's order, handed -to him, and he threw it into the fire. The princes witnessed this -act of defiance with dismay, and entreated the king not to draw down -destruction on them. He, however, paid no heed to them, and continued -to throw the pages into the fire until the whole scroll was consumed. -Jehoiakim then issued an order that the prophet of evil and his -disciple be sought, in order that they might be killed as Uriah had -been. Happily, the anxious princes had previously made arrangements to -save Jeremiah and Baruch by hiding them in a secure place. - -It was, doubtless, a day of intense excitement for Jerusalem. The -entire nation that had assembled for the fast departed without having -gained its end. The reading of the scroll had, however, one effect: -it brought about a division in the council of the princes. Those who -were convinced by Jeremiah's prophecies, and had been instrumental -in saving him, were determined to submit to Nebuchadnezzar. Amongst -them was the Keeper of the Lists (Sopher), Elishama, who directed -the war arrangements. He and other men of note being opposed to war, -Jehoiakim could not undertake war, or his throne might be endangered. -He therefore made peace with Nebuchadnezzar, paid the tribute imposed, -promised him military aid, and assumed all the duties which in those -days were imposed on a vassal. This was the commencement of the -Chaldæan vassalage of Judah (600). Jeremiah, it appears, could now -leave his hiding-place. Incensed as the king was against him, he -dared not touch a hair of his head, for the princes who had saved him -continued to protect him. - -Jehoiakim, however, bore the Chaldæan yoke with great reluctance; -he could no longer give reins to his passion. The king of Egypt, no -doubt, continued to urge Jehoiakim to rebel against Nebuchadnezzar. -When, therefore, Ethbaal II. of Phoenicia withdrew his allegiance -(598), Jehoiakim, with incomprehensible blindness, likewise refused -to pay tribute, and allied himself with Egypt, and probably also with -Phoenicia. Nebuchadnezzar, consequently, had to collect all his forces -against Phoenicia. He commenced the siege of Tyre, which lasted thirteen -years. He was, therefore, for the time being, prevented from chastising -the rebellious king of Judah, and the latter might flatter himself -with the belief that he had lastingly secured his independence. But -though Nebuchadnezzar could not send a great army out against him, he -nevertheless distressed the country by predatory inroads. Idumæan, -Moabitish and Ammonitish hordes also overran the land and devastated -it. At this critical period, Jehoiakim died (697). His successor was -his young son Jehoiachin (Jeconiah, shortened into Coniah), or rather -the reins of government were taken in hand by his mother, Nehushta. -Jehoiachin also cherished the idea that he could oppose Nebuchadnezzar, -and, therefore, did not pay him homage. He also continued to practise -the horrors of idolatry and immorality as his father had done. But -this blindness of Jehoiachin and his mother lasted only a short time. -Nebuchadnezzar at length was enabled to withdraw, from the siege of -Tyre, a great portion of his army, with which he proceeded against -Egypt. This Chaldæan army easily subdued the entire country south of -Phoenicia as far as the Egyptian river (Rhinokolura). The whole of Judah -was also taken, with the exception of a few fortified towns in the -south. Those who fell into the hands of the enemy were made prisoners. -Notwithstanding this, Jehoiachin continued his opposition, thinking -himself safe behind the thick walls of Jerusalem, relying besides on -the support of Egypt in the event of a siege. - -Nebuchadnezzar, therefore, sent some of his generals to besiege -Jerusalem. Jehoiachin had no time to think of repentance, for the -besiegers were gaining on him, and the distress in the city was great. -He therefore commenced to arrange conditions of surrender with the -generals, when Nebuchadnezzar came to the camp, and was entreated by -the king, the queen-mother and her court, to be merciful. The victor, -however, showed no mercy, but imposed hard conditions. Jehoiachin -had to relinquish his throne, and go, together with his mother, -his wives, his kindred, and eunuchs, into exile in Babylonia. He -had occupied the throne of David for only one hundred days. It was -surprising that Nebuchadnezzar spared his life, and indeed, that he -refrained altogether from bloodshed. He only banished ten thousand of -the warriors and the inhabitants of Jerusalem, taken indiscriminately -from the various families that lived in the capital, and transplanted -them to Babylonia. Among them he also carried off a thousand mechanics -who were skilled in forging arms and building fortifications. Of -the Judæans who lived in the country he also took three thousand -and twenty-three to Babylon as prisoners. That Nebuchadnezzar took -possession of the treasures of the palace and the Temple was not an -act of especial violence, but was justified by the military laws of -those days. But he left the commonwealth intact, spared the city and -its walls, and left the Temple uninjured. The first foreign conqueror -Jerusalem had had after an existence of five hundred years showed -greater mercy than many of the conquerors of later ages. - -Nebuchadnezzar likewise refrained from disestablishing David's -throne, and placed on it the youngest son of Josiah, Mattaniah, who -called himself Zedekiah. He was of a gentle, unwarlike and pliable -character. The Babylonian conqueror thought that these qualities -would be guarantees of peace and submission. In order, however, to -make sure of Zedekiah's loyalty, Nebuchadnezzar entered into a solemn -treaty with him, and bound him by an oath of fealty. The land of Judah -was of extreme importance to him as a bulwark against Egypt, in the -subjection of which he was continually engaged. For this reason he -had sent into banishment the noble families and the princes of Judah, -thus removing the daring and foolhardy men who might urge the king to -ambitious schemes and rebellion. His object was to render Judah a weak, -insignificant and dependent state, deriving its strength from him. - -Judah might, in fact, have continued to exist as a modest appendage of -Babylon. It would soon have recovered from the severe blows inflicted -on it. Though the banishment of so many noble families, the flower of -the army and of the nation, was a severe blow; and though the capital -and the country were filled with sorrow in consequence of their -subjection, the remnant of the people nevertheless recovered themselves -with wonderful rapidity, and again attained to a prosperous condition. - -The nobles, however, were not satisfied with their modest condition; -they wished for wider spheres of activity. It was the curse of the -country during the last century that the nobles of the capital not -only governed the people, but also the court. The kings were but -of little account, for, in imitation of the custom of kings like -Sardanapalus, they lived in the harem of their palaces, and occupied -their time with trifles. These nobles could now the more easily assert -themselves, as their king, Zedekiah, was swayed by a most unkinglike -weakness and indolence, and had not the courage to withstand them. -He was, however, personally well-disposed. He does not seem to have -particularly favoured idolatry, but rather to have lamented the -national evils when they were brought under his notice, and to have -given ear to the prophets. But he did not possess the power to oppose -the nobles and their actions. Zedekiah may have intended to remain -faithful to the oath of fealty which he had taken to his liege lord -Nebuchadnezzar; but he had not the strength of will to adhere to his -resolution. Rebellious schemes were secretly formed, which he, in the -seclusion of his palace, did not find out, or, if cognisant of them, -was incapable of opposing. This weakness on the part of the king, and -foolhardiness on the part of the nobles, led to the fall of Judah. -The nobles appear to have been seized with madness. Suggestions were -made, in various quarters, of rebelling against Nebuchadnezzar. Egypt, -ever false and deceitful, was continually goading the Judæans on by -making brilliant promises of alliance which it seldom kept. On the -other side, King Ethbaal of Tyre urged upon Judah and the neighbouring -countries a war against Nebuchadnezzar. And by a third party, Judah was -urged to revolt against Babylon, namely, by the banished Judæans, who -stood in constant communication with their native land by letters and -messengers. They clamoured for war, because they cherished the vague -hope that Nebuchadnezzar's army would be defeated, and they would, in -one way or another, regain their freedom and return to their country. -In the fourth year of Zedekiah's reign (593), the ambassadors from the -countries which were simultaneously urging Zedekiah to break his word -and faith, arrived in Jerusalem: from Edom, Moab, Ammon, Tyre, and -Zidon. They employed all the artifices of eloquence, and made promises -and suggestions in order to bring the wavering monarch to a decision. -Judah might have felt proud to be thus sought after and courted, to be -considered, indeed, as the centre of political events. - -It is not known what reply Zedekiah sent through the ambassadors. -His weak character surely made a definite decision an impossibility. -Jeremiah opposed the universal frenzy, and it required no little -courage on his part to do so. His prophetic spirit perceived that -Nebuchadnezzar was destined to hurry through a course of victories, -and to subjugate many nations to his sceptre. He, therefore, warned -King Zedekiah, the nation and the priests, not to give themselves up -to flattering hopes, but to submit to the Babylonian rule, or they -would be crushed by the mighty conqueror. Jeremiah considered it as his -prophetic calling to warn the deluded exiles in Babylon. He directed a -message to them, telling them: - - "Build ye houses and dwell in them; and plant gardens and eat - the fruit of them; take ye wives and beget sons and daughters, - and take wives for your sons, and give your daughters to - husbands, that they may bear sons and daughters; and multiply - ye there and be not diminished. And seek ye the peace of the - city whither I have caused you to be carried away captive, - and pray unto the Lord for it: for in the peace thereof shall - ye have peace. For thus saith the Lord of Hosts, the God of - Israel: Let not your prophets that be in the midst of you, and - your diviners deceive you, neither hearken ye to your dreams - which ye cause to be dreamed. For they prophesy falsely to - you in my name: I have not sent them, saith the Lord. For - thus saith the Lord, After seventy years be accomplished for - Babylon, I will visit you, and perform my good word toward you, - in causing you to return to this place." (JEREMIAH xxix. 4-8.) - -But Zedekiah could not long resist the distracting voices of the false -prophets, the pressure from without, from Egypt and the neighbouring -countries, and the impetuosity of Judah's ambitious nobles. He -permitted himself to be carried along with the stream, refused to -pay the tribute to Nebuchadnezzar, and thus, unmindful of his oath, -renounced Judah's allegiance to Babylonia (591). Thus the die was -cast which was to decide the future of the nation. Nebuchadnezzar, -who for some time, however, remained passive, proceeded with his army -to chastise the rebellious people like disobedient slaves. It appears -that the surrounding nations who had urged the revolt were the first -to submit. Judah was left entirely dependent on the assistance of -Egypt, but even Egypt was afraid to deal an effective blow. It was, -therefore, easy for Nebuchadnezzar to subdue the land of Judah and even -to occupy its fortresses. In the south-west only, Lachish and Azeka -offered opposition. The Chaldæan army, however, left them unmolested, -and proceeded against Jerusalem on the 10th day of the 10th month (at -the end of 588, or the beginning of 587). The capital of Judah had -meanwhile been fortified, and supplied with provisions and water for a -long siege, but the inhabitants of the country, having, at the approach -of the enemy, fled into the city with their children and herds, had -increased the number of consumers. Zedekiah or his palace-officers, -courtiers, and nobles having refused to obey the summons to surrender, -Nebuchadnezzar commenced a regular siege. The men of Jerusalem must -have defended themselves bravely, for the siege lasted, with little -interruption, for nearly a year and a half (from January, 587, to June, -586). The leader of the besieged party was a eunuch in the service of -King Zedekiah. The king himself played a passive part. He was neither -commander of the troops, nor leader of the movement. His irresolution -and weakness were clearly shown in this time of trouble. - -The siege of Jerusalem had made the task of Jeremiah a painful one. -Though prevented by his advanced age from taking part in the defence -and the war, yet his patriotism and his sympathy with the people -impelled him to inspire the warriors with courage. His prophetic -calling and power of foresight, on the other hand, compelled him to -announce that the contest was in vain, and that the destruction of -the city was decreed, on account of the blood which had been shed -and the sins which had been committed. Freedom of speech could not -at this period be denied him, as his name as a true prophet had been -established by the events which had occurred. The nations of the north -had set up their throne at the gates of Jerusalem, and had prepared a -great chastisement. - -When the siege of Jerusalem had lasted nearly a year, during which -there had been many engagements with varying success, a change suddenly -took place. King Apries (Hophra) of Egypt at length determined -to fulfil his oft-repeated promise, and sent an army against -Nebuchadnezzar. This Egyptian army must have been a mighty one, for the -Chaldæans, hearing of its approach, raised the siege of Jerusalem, and -marched to oppose it (February or March, 586). The joy in Jerusalem -was unbounded; as the gates were at length opened, after being so long -closed, the inhabitants hurried out to enjoy a sense of freedom. Hardly -had the terrors of the siege abated, when many of the nobility and the -opulent returned to their former wickedness. The slaves who had been -recently released were, notwithstanding a solemn covenant and oath, -compelled to return to their former bondage and former degradation. -Jeremiah was deeply angered at this cruelty and selfishness; he -delivered a scathing address to the nobles and the king, in which he -reproached them with their perjury, and announced that the Chaldæans -would return and capture Jerusalem; and that fire, war, hunger, and -pestilence would rage amongst the people. - -The princes of Judah had been greatly incensed against Jeremiah for his -former opposition; but his last address excited a deadly hatred against -him. As he was one day leaving the city to go to his birthplace, -Anathoth, he was seized by a sentinel under the pretext that he was -deserting to the Chaldæans. In spite of his assurance that he had no -thought of flight, he was delivered up to the princes. Glad of an -opportunity to revenge themselves on him, they treated him as a traitor -and spy, beat him, and put him into a cistern (Adar, 586) in the house -of Jonathan, the Keeper of the Lists (Sopher), a hard, heartless -man who was made his jailor. In this narrow, dirty, unhealthy place -Jeremiah remained for many days. - -The frenzied joy did not last long in Jerusalem. The Chaldæan army, -which had marched against the Egyptian forces, under Apries, utterly -routed the enemy and put them to flight. The power of Egypt was -broken, and Judah was now again left entirely to its own resources. -The Chaldæans returned to the siege of Jerusalem, and surrounded it -more closely than before, so as to bring the siege to a speedy end. The -courage of those who were shut up in the capital now began to fail. -Many, anxious for their own safety, left the besieged city at unguarded -places, and went over to the Chaldæans, or fled to Egypt. King Zedekiah -himself was fearful about the result, and saw too late that he had -been guilty of folly in attempting to cope with the Babylonian power, -without the support of a liberty-loving people. - -Not alone had the war killed off many, but famine and pestilence now -increased the number of deaths. The number of warriors continued to -decrease, and at last so few remained that they were unable to defend -the walls. At length the last hour of Jerusalem struck, of that city -which even the heathen had considered impregnable. On the 9th of Tamuz -(June, 586) there was no more bread in the city, and in consequence -of the utter exhaustion of the garrison, the Chaldæans succeeded in -making a wide breach in the wall, by which they penetrated into the -city. Nebuchadnezzar was not present; he was at Riblah, in Syria. His -generals and the elders of the Magi proceeded to the very heart of -Jerusalem unmolested, in order to pass judgment on the inhabitants. The -Chaldæan warriors probably met with no opposition, as the inhabitants, -enfeebled by famine, could scarcely drag themselves along. They overran -all parts of the city, killing youths and men who appeared capable of -resistance, making prisoners of others and loading them with chains. -The barbarous soldiers, rendered savage by the long siege, violated -women and maidens irrespective of age. They also entered the Temple -and massacred the Aaronides and prophets who had sought safety in -the Sanctuary, amidst cries of rage, as if they wished to wage war -with the God of Israel. The Chaldæans were accompanied by many of the -neighbouring nations, the Philistines, Idumæans, and Moabites, who had -joined Nebuchadnezzar. They stole the treasures and desecrated the -Sanctuary. - -Zedekiah, with the remnant of the defenders, meanwhile succeeded in -escaping at night through the royal gardens and by a subterranean -passage in the north-eastern part of the city. He sought in haste to -reach the Jordan, but Chaldæan horsemen hurried after the fugitives, -and blocked their way in the narrow passes. Weakened as they were, -crawling along rather than walking, they could be easily overtaken and -made captive. In the city, the only dignitaries whom the troops found -were the High Priest (Seraiah), the Captain of the Temple (Zephaniah), -the Eunuch who had conducted the war, the Keeper of the Lists (Sopher), -the confidants of the king, the door-keepers, and about sixty others. -They were all taken to Riblah, and there beheaded at Nebuchadnezzar's -command. No one could remain in Jerusalem or its neighbourhood, as -the air was rendered pestilential by the numerous corpses which lay -unburied. Amongst the prisoners was the prophet Jeremiah. He was found -in the court Mattara, in the king's palace, and the Chaldæan soldiers, -believing him to be a servant of the palace, made him prisoner. His -disciple Baruch no doubt shared his fate. The generals appointed -Gedaliah, a Judæan of noble birth, son of Ahikam, of the family of -Shaphan, as overseer of the prisoners and fugitives. - -The last hope left the unfortunate remnant of the nation when the news -reached them that the king was captured. Zedekiah and his followers -were overtaken near Jericho by the Chaldæan horsemen. The warriors who -were with him scattered at the approach of the enemy, and crossed the -Jordan or took refuge in some hiding-place, but Zedekiah, his sons, and -some of his nobles were taken prisoners by the Chaldæans, and led to -Riblah, before Nebuchadnezzar. The latter poured out all his justified -anger on the king for his faithlessness and perjury, and the punishment -he decreed upon him was terrible. Nebuchadnezzar caused all the sons -and relations of Zedekiah to be executed before his eyes, and then had -him blinded. Deprived of his sight and loaded with chains, he was taken -to Babylon. He did not long survive his sufferings. - -What was to be done with the city of Jerusalem? She had become a -charnel-house, but was still standing. The generals who had captured -her had no instructions as to her fate. Nebuchadnezzar himself -appears at first to have been undecided about it, but at last he sent -Nebuzaradan, the chief of his guard, with orders to destroy the city. -The Idumæan nobles, filled with hate, immediately sought to make him -complete the destruction without mercy (Psalm cxxxvii. 7). Nebuzaradan -gave orders to raze the walls, to burn the Temple, palace, and all -the beautiful houses, and this order was conscientiously fulfilled -(10th Ab--August, 586). The treasures still remaining in the Temple, -the artistically worked brazen pillars, the molten sea, the lavers of -brass, the gold and silver bowls and the musical instruments, were all -broken to pieces or conveyed to Babylon. - -Jerusalem had become a heap of ruins, the Temple-mount a wilderness, -but not one of the great capitals which fell from the height of glory -into the dust has been so honoured in its destruction as Jerusalem. -Poetry recorded her mournful fate in lamentations, psalms and prayers, -in such touching tones that every tender heart must feel compassion -with her even at this day. Poetry has wound about her head a martyr's -crown, which has become transformed into a halo. - -Jeremiah and probably two or three other poets composed four -lamentations corresponding to the four stages of the trouble which -befell the city. The first lamentation was written immediately after -the capture of Jerusalem. The city still stood, the walls, palaces, and -Temple were not yet destroyed, but it was deprived of its inhabitants -and its joys. This lamentation chiefly deplores the friendlessness of -Jerusalem; her greatest sorrow lies in the faithlessness of her allies, -who now delight in her fall. The second lamentation deplores the -destruction of the city and its walls, and especially the fall of the -Sanctuary. The third lamentation bemoans the destruction of all that -was noble by the lingering famine, and the despair which fell upon the -survivors on the capture of the king. The fourth lamentation describes -the utter desolation of Jerusalem after its complete destruction by the -enemy. - - - - -CHAPTER XVII. - -THE CONSEQUENCES OF THE DESTRUCTION. - - The National Decay--The Fugitives--Enmity of - the Idumæans--Johanan, Son of Kareah--The - Lamentation--Nebuchadnezzar appoints Gedaliah as - Governor--Jeremiah Encourages the People--Mizpah--Ishmael - Murders Gedaliah--The Flight to Egypt--Jeremiah's Counsel - Disregarded--Depopulation of Judah--The Idumæans make - Settlements in the Country--Obadiah--Condition of the Judæans - in Egypt--Defeat of Hophra--Egypt under Amasis--Jeremiah's Last - Days. - - 586-572 B. C. E. - - -About a thousand years had passed since the tribes of Israel had so -courageously and hopefully crossed the Jordan under their brave leader, -and half that interval had elapsed since the first two kings of the -house of David had raised the nation to a commanding position. After -such a career, what an ending! The greater part of the Ten Tribes had -been scattered for more than a century in unknown countries. Of the -remaining tribes, composing the kingdom of Judah, the greater part -had been destroyed by war, famine and pestilence; a small number had -been led away into captivity, and an insignificant few had emigrated -to Egypt or fled elsewhere, or lived in their own country, in constant -terror of the fate which the victors might have reserved for them. -Manifold enemies, in fact, let loose their anger against these few, in -order to bring about their destruction, as if not a single Israelite -was to survive in his own country. - -The remainder of the soldiers, who had fled at night with Zedekiah -from the conquered capital, had dispersed at the approach of the -Chaldæan pursuers. A handful, under the command of one of the princes -of the blood royal, Ishmael, son of Nethaniah, had escaped across the -Jordan, and had found shelter with Baalis, the king of the Ammonites. -The rest had preferred to flee to Egypt, whither several families had -already emigrated, because they hoped to receive the protection of -Hophra, who was an ally of their country. But in order to reach it they -had to cross Idumæan territory, and here a fierce, unrelenting enemy -awaited them. The Idumæans, mindful of their old hatred, untouched by -the brotherly kindliness of Judah, and not contented with the fall of -Jerusalem and with the booty they had acquired, carried their enmity so -far as to post a guard on the borders of their land for the purpose of -killing the fugitive Israelites or delivering them up to the Chaldæans, -with whom they wished to ingratiate themselves. It was not only -dislike, but also policy which prompted Edom to behave with cruelty -to the miserable fugitives. They hoped to obtain possession of the -entire territory which had so long been in the hands of the people of -Israel. The Idumæans loudly exclaimed, "Both the nations and both the -kingdoms will belong to us" (Ezekiel xxxv. 10). The Philistines also, -and all the neighbouring nations displayed hatred and malice, and but -few of the Israelitish fugitives found refuge in the Phoenician cities. -Phoenicia was too far from Judæa, and before the fugitives could reach -it they were overtaken and made prisoners by the Chaldæans. - -The greater number of the chiefs and soldiers who had fled from -Jerusalem with Zedekiah preferred to remain in their own country. They -clung to the ground on which they had been born as though they could -not separate themselves from it. At their head was Johanan, son of -Kareah. But they had to seek hiding-places in order to escape from the -Chaldæans. They hid in the clefts, grottoes and caves of the mountains, -or among the ruins of the fallen cities, and doubtless made raids -from their hiding-places in order to obtain provisions, or to attack -straggling Chaldæans and their adherents. These Judæans were often -obliged to seek the means for sustaining their miserable existence -at the peril of their lives. If they were caught they were condemned -to an ignominious death or subjected to disgraceful treatment. The -nobles of advanced age were hanged; the young were condemned to carry -mills from one place to another, and to do other slavish work. A -psalmist, who was one of the sufferers from the woes of this desperate -condition, composed a heart-rending lamentation, the short verses of -which sound like sobs and tears (Lamentations, ch. v.). For a short -time it seemed as if this miserable condition of the scattered people, -this destructive war against the fugitives, would come to an end. -Nebuchadnezzar did not wish Judah to be annihilated; he determined to -let the insignificant community remain in the land, though he did not -wish a native or even a foreign king to be at their head. He therefore -determined to appoint Gedaliah, the son of Ahikam, as governor over -them; his capital was to be at Mizpah, which is an hour and a half's -journey to the north-east of Jerusalem. - -Nebuchadnezzar could not have made a better choice. Gedaliah was a -man in every way fitted for the difficult post; he was gentle and -peace-loving, having been to a certain extent the disciple of the -prophet Jeremiah, of whom his father Ahikam had been the friend and -protector. In order to heal the still bleeding wounds, a gentle hand -was wanted, that of a man capable of complete self-devotion and -abnegation. Gedaliah was, perhaps, too gentle, or he relied too much -on the grateful feelings of men. Nebuzaradan entrusted to him the more -harmless of the prisoners, the daughters of King Zedekiah and many -women and children; he also placed under him the husbandmen, in all, -not much above a thousand persons. Nebuchadnezzar also desired that -the prophet Jeremiah should assist Gedaliah; he therefore ordered -Nebuzaradan to behave considerately towards Jeremiah, and to grant all -his wishes. - -Nebuzaradan proceeded from Jerusalem to Ramah (in the vicinity of which -was the tomb of Rachel), in order to decide which of the prisoners -and deserters should remain in their country, and which should be -banished to Babylon. Here he released Jeremiah from the chains with -which he, like the other prisoners, had been bound, and offered him -the choice of emigrating to Babylon, where he would be kindly treated, -or of selecting any other dwelling-place; but he advised him to go to -Gedaliah, at Mizpah. - -Jeremiah, who had justly bewailed the lot which fell to him, of being -selected to see the full measure of misery, was now forced to behold -the pitiful sight of the captives at Ramah being led in fetters to -Babylon. Heart-rending were the cries of the unfortunate men, women, -and children, who were being dragged away from their fatherland; -Jeremiah endeavoured to comfort them (Jerem. xxxi. 14, seq). - -With a heavy heart Jeremiah, attended by his disciple Baruch, prepared -to visit Gedaliah in Mizpah. He had not much hope of effecting good -results among the small remnant of the ignorant common people, seeing -that for forty years he had striven in vain amongst the nobles and -educated classes. However, he determined to cast his lot with theirs. -Nebuchadnezzar thought so well of Jeremiah that he sent him gifts and -money. His presence in Gedaliah's immediate vicinity inspired those -who had remained in the country with greater confidence in the future. -The governor had announced that all those fugitives who would collect -around him would remain unmolested and at peace in the cities, and be -permitted to cultivate their fields. Gradually the scattered tribes -from Moab and the neighbouring countries who did not feel at ease in -the places where they had settled, joined Gedaliah, and made peace with -him; that is to say, they bound themselves to be faithful subjects of -the Chaldæan king. - -They cultivated the land, and not only grew corn, but also vines and -figs; the soil yielded its fruits again, and as the population was -small, the farmers, gardeners and vine-dressers received larger shares -of the land, and succeeded in obtaining rich harvests. Several towns -arose out of the ruins; in Mizpah, Gedaliah erected a sanctuary, as -Jerusalem and the Temple on the Mount were destroyed and had become -haunts for jackals. - -Mizpah thus became a centre of importance and a holy place. The -half-Israelitish, half-heathen colony of the Cuthæans of Shechem, -Shiloh and Samaria, recognised this sanctuary, and made pilgrimages -thither, offering sacrifices and incense. - -"The remnant of Judah" over whom Gedaliah had been placed was reminded -of its dependence on a Chaldæan ruler by the presence of the Chaldæan -garrison. The latter not only kept watch over the nation, but also over -the governor, in order that they might not engage in conspiracies. But -considering the circumstances and the fearful misfortunes which had -befallen the country, this state of things was endurable, or at least -more favourable than the people could have expected; they were, at -any rate, in their own country. The military chiefs, who were weary -of their adventurous lives in the mountains and deserts, and of their -contests with the wild animals that infested the land and the yet -wilder Chaldæans, and who had relied on their swords and on delusive -hopes, now determined to submit to Gedaliah. Johanan, son of Koreah, -and his associates, laid down their weapons, cultivated the fields, -and built up cities upon the ruins which until now had served them as -hiding-places. - -The last to make peace was the leader Ishmael, son of Nethaniah. -Ishmael was a cunning and unprincipled man, and an evil spirit seems to -have accompanied him to Mizpah, to disturb the comparatively favourable -condition of the remnant of Judah. It is true that he made peace -with Gedaliah and the Chaldæans, and promised submission; but in his -heart he cherished anger and rage against both. Baalis, the king of -Ammon, who had been opposed to the growth and development of a Judæan -colony under Chaldæan protection, now instigated Ishmael to a crime -which was to put an end to it. The remaining captains, and especially -Johanan, the son of Koreah, received private intelligence of Ishmael's -treacherous intentions towards Gedaliah. They informed Gedaliah of the -matter, placed themselves at his disposal, and entreated permission to -put an end to the malefactor; but Gedaliah placed no faith in their -warning. This confidence, whether it owed its cause to a feeling of -power or of weakness, was destined to prove fatal to him and to the -newly-organised community. - -It was about four years after the destruction of Jerusalem and the -gathering of the scattered Judæans around their governor, that Ishmael, -with ten followers, displaying great friendliness to Gedaliah, -arrived in Mizpah to celebrate a festival. Gedaliah invited them to -a banquet, and whilst the assembly, perhaps under the influence of -wine, anticipated no evil, Ishmael and his followers drew their swords -and killed the governor, the Chaldæans and all men present who were -capable of bearing arms. The remaining people in Mizpah, old men, -women, children, and eunuchs, he placed under the guard of his people, -in order that his crime might not become known. Ishmael and his ten -followers then carried off into captivity the inhabitants of Mizpah, -for the most part women and children, among them the daughters of King -Zedekiah, as also the venerable prophet Jeremiah and his disciple -Baruch, taking them across the Jordan to the Ammonites. - -However, secretly though he had performed his evil deeds, they could -not long remain unknown. Johanan and the other chiefs had received -information of what had happened, and were not a little indignant at -being deprived of their protector, and cast back into the uncertainties -of an adventurous existence. They hurriedly armed themselves to punish -the crime as it deserved. The murderers were met at their first -halting-place, at the lake of Gibeon, by Johanan and the others, who -prepared to do battle with them. At sight of the pursuers the prisoners -hurried to join them. It appears that a fray ensued, in which two of -Ishmael's followers were killed. He, however, escaped, with eight men, -crossed the Jordan, and returned to the land of Ammon. His nefarious -design, nevertheless, had succeeded; with the death of Gedaliah the -Jewish commonwealth was broken up. - -The survivors were at a loss how to act. They feared to remain in their -country, as it was easy to foresee that Nebuchadnezzar would not leave -the death of the Chaldæans unavenged, even if he overlooked the murder -of Gedaliah, and would punish them as accessories. Even had this fear -been groundless, how could they remain in the country without a leader -to control the unruly elements? Their first thought was to emigrate -to Egypt. The chiefs, with Johanan at their head, therefore directed -their steps southwards. As they gradually became calmer, the question -arose whether it might not be more advisable to remain in the land of -their fathers than to travel, on a venture, into a foreign country. It -appears that the idea first suggested itself to Baruch, and that it was -received with favour by some of the chiefs, whilst others were opposed -to it. Owing to this difference of opinion concerning the plan on which -the weal and woe of so many depended, the leaders determined to leave -the decision to Jeremiah. He was to pray to God, and entreat Him for a -prophetic direction as to the course they should adopt, calling on God -to witness that they would abide by his word. - -Ten days Jeremiah wrestled in prayer that his spirit might be illumined -by the true prophetic light. During this time the feelings of the -leaders had changed, and they had all determined on emigration. When -Jeremiah called together the chiefs and all the people, and informed -them that the prophetic spirit had revealed to him that they should -remain in the land without fear, he saw from their looks that they -rejected this decision. He therefore added the threat that, if they -insisted on emigration, the sword which they feared would the more -surely reach them; that none of them would ever again behold his -fatherland, and that they would all perish through manifold plagues, in -Egypt. Hardly had Jeremiah ended his address, when Jezaniah and Johanan -called to him, "Thou proclaimest lies in the name of God; not He has -inspired thee with these words, but thy disciple Baruch." Without -further consideration the leaders proceeded on the way towards Egypt, -and the entire multitude had perforce to follow them. - -Jeremiah and Baruch also had to join the rest, for they could do -nothing in their deserted country. Thus they wandered as far as the -Egyptian town of Taphnai (Tachpanches). They were kindly received by -King Hophra, who was sufficiently grateful to show hospitality towards -those whom his persuasions had brought to their present misery. There -they met with older Judæan emigrants. Thus, more than a thousand years -after the Exodus, the sons of Jacob returned to Egypt, but under what -changed circumstances! At that time they had been powerful shepherd -tribes, narrow in their views it is true, but unsullied and strong, -with hearts swelling with hope. Their descendants, on the contrary, -with sore hearts and disturbed minds, were too much estranged from -their principles to find solace and tranquillity in their God and their -nationality, yet not sufficiently changed to merge themselves into the -other races and disappear amongst them. Like all unwilling emigrants, -they were buoyed up by false hopes, and watched every political -movement which might bring them an opportunity to return to their -country, there to live in their former independence. - -Meanwhile, Judæa was almost completely depopulated. Nebuchadnezzar -was not inclined to treat the occurrences at Mizpah, the murder of -Gedaliah and the Chaldæans with him, with indifference. He probably -saw that it had been an error to permit a weak Judæan community to -exist, dependent solely on one man. He, therefore, once more sent out -the leader of his guards, in order to take revenge on the remaining -Judæans. Nebuzaradan, as a matter of course, found none of the leaders, -nor any man of importance; none but the remaining agriculturists, -gardeners, and vine-dressers. These, with their wives and children, -being seven hundred and forty-five persons in all, the last remnant of -the population of Judæa, were led to Babylonia (582) into captivity. -This was the third banishment since Jehoiachin. The innocent, on this -occasion also, had to suffer for the guilty. There is no historical -record as to what became of Ishmael and his fellow-conspirators. -Gedaliah's name, on the other hand, remained in the memory of the -survivors, on account of his violent death. The anniversary of his -murder was observed in Babylonia as a fast day. Nebuchadnezzar, after -Gedaliah's death, determined to leave no Judæan in the country, and -Judæa remained depopulated and deserted. A later prophet laments over -its utter desertion: "The holy cities have become a waste, Zion a -wilderness, Jerusalem a desolation" (Isaiah lxiv. 9). - -Thus the punishment which the prophets had predicted was fulfilled. -The soil of Judah could now rest, and celebrate the Sabbatical years -which had been neglected so long. In the south the Idumæans had -appropriated some stretches of Judæan territory on their borders (with -or without permission from the Babylonian king), and had extended their -possessions as far as the slope (Shephela) of the Mediterranean Sea. -The exiles therefore felt a bitter hatred against the Idumæans, who, -in addition to plundering Jerusalem, and giving up the fugitives, had -now seized on the land of their heritage. Two prophets, who had escaped -from the massacre and the desolation, and lived amongst the exiles, -gave vivid expression to this deplorable feeling--Obadiah and an -anonymous prophet. Both prophesied evil against Edom, as a retribution -for its conduct towards the kindred nation, the Jews, and towards -Jerusalem. - -Although the Judæans were everywhere coldly received, and their own -country had become, to a certain extent, the property of their enemies, -the refugees in Egypt still nursed the hope that they would soon -return to their fatherland, and again inhabit it. Warlike happenings -strengthened this hope, but the venerable prophet Jeremiah endeavoured -to dispel their illusions. His heart prompted him to speak severely -to the Egyptian Judæans, because, unchastened by misfortunes, they -had once more devoted themselves to the worship of the goddess Neith. -Despite their infatuation with strange gods, they yet, in their -incomprehensible blindness, clung to the name of Jehovah, and swore -by Him. Jeremiah, for the last time before descending to his grave, -desired to tell them that, owing to their unconquerable folly, they -would never return to their fatherland. He therefore summoned the -Judæans of Migdol, Taphnai, Memphis, and Sais (?) to a general meeting -at Taphnai. He still possessed sufficient influence to ensure their -obeying his summons. He put the case before them in plain language. -Their idolatrous practices, however, were so dear to their hearts that -they openly boasted of them, and told the prophet that they would not -relinquish them. The women were particularly aggressive: "The oath -which we have taken, to offer up incense and wine to the queen of -heaven, shall be kept, as we and our fathers were formerly accustomed -to do in the cities of Judæa and in the streets of Jerusalem. At that -time we had bread in plenty, we were happy, and saw no evil. Since -we have left off making sacrifices to the queen of heaven we have -been in want, and our people have perished by the sword or through -hunger." Jeremiah thus answered their blasphemy: "Fulfil your oaths; -all the men of Judah will surely die in the land of Egypt; only a -few fugitives from the sword shall return from Egypt into the land -of Judah. They shall learn whose word shall endure--mine or theirs." -As a sign, he predicted that King Hophra, on whom they depended, -would fall into the hands of his enemy, as Zedekiah had fallen into -the hands of Nebuchadnezzar. The announcement that Hophra would -meet with a disastrous end was fulfilled. In a warlike expedition -against Cyrene, his army was defeated, and his warriors, jealous of -the Carians and Ionians, whom he favoured, rebelled against him. An -Egyptian of low caste, Amasis (Amosis), placed himself at the head -of the rebels, conquered Hophra, dethroned him, and caused him to be -strangled (571-70). This new Pharaoh, who was very careful to attract -to himself the Egyptians and also to win the Greeks over to his side, -took no interest in those Judæans who had settled in Egypt. They were -neglected, and their dream of returning to their fatherland through the -help of Egypt was dispelled. Jeremiah seems to have lived to see this -change. - -His tender heart must have become still sadder in his old age, as he -had not succeeded in "bringing forth the precious from the vile." -The few Judæans who were around him in Egypt remained firm in their -folly and hardness of heart. But Jeremiah had not toiled in vain. The -seed which he had sown grew up plentifully on another ground, where -it was carefully tended by his fellow-prophets. His office, not only -to destroy, but to rebuild and plant anew, was carried on in another -place. His disciple Baruch, son of Neriah, appears to have left the -exiles in Egypt for those in Babylon, after the death of the prophet of -Anathoth. - - - - -CHAPTER XVIII. - -THE BABYLONIAN EXILE. - - Nebuchadnezzar's treatment of the Exiles--The Exiles obtain - grants of land--Evil-Merodach favours Jehoiachin--Number of - the Judæan Exiles--Ezekiel's captivity in the first period - of the Exile--Moral change of the People--Baruch collects - Jeremiah's Prophecies and compiles the Histories--The Mourners - of Zion--Proselytes--The Pious and the Worldly--The Poetry of - the Time--Psalms and Book of Job--Nabonad's Persecutions--The - Martyrs and the Prophets of the Exile--The Babylonian - Isaiah--Cyrus captures Babylon--The Return under Zerubbabel. - - 572-537 B. C. E. - - -Was it chance, or was it a special design, that the Judæans, who -were banished to Babylonia, were humanely and kindly treated by -the conqueror Nebuchadnezzar? Is there, in fact, in the history -of nations, and in the chain of events, such a thing as chance? -Can we affirm positively that the condition and state of mankind -would have been quite unlike what they now are, if this or that -circumstance had accidentally not occurred? Can we believe that, -whilst firm and unalterable laws govern all things in the kingdom -of nature, the history of nations should be the result of mere -caprice? Nebuchadnezzar's clemency to the people of Judah was of -great importance in the historical development of that nation. The -preservation of the exiles, reduced by much misery to a mere handful, -was mainly due to this kindness. Nebuchadnezzar was not like those -ruthless conquerors of earlier and later days, who took pleasure in -wanton destruction. The desire to build up and to create was as dear to -his heart as conquest. He wished to make the newly established Chaldæan -kingdom great, populous and rich. His capital, Babylon, was to surpass -the now ruined Nineveh. He built a wall round his city, which was nine -miles in circumference, and he added a new town to the old one, on -the eastern side of the river Euphrates. The conquered people, taken -forcibly from their own homes, were transplanted into this new city, -whilst domiciles were given to many Judæan captives in the capital -itself, those in particular being favoured who had freely accepted -Nebuchadnezzar's rule. In fact, so generous was his treatment that -entire families and communities from the cities of Judæa and Benjamin, -with their kindred and their slaves, had the privilege of remaining -together. They were free, and their rights and customs were respected. -The families transplanted from Jerusalem--such as the princes of the -royal house (the sons of David), the descendants of Joab or the family -of Pahath-Moab, the family of Parosh and others, formed each a special -league, and were allowed to govern themselves after the manner of their -family traditions. Even the slaves of the Temple (the Nethinim) and the -slaves of the state, who had followed their masters into exile, lived -grouped together according to their own pleasure. - -Most probably the exiles received land and dwelling-places in return -for those which they had forfeited in their own country. The land -divided amongst them was cultivated by themselves or by their servants. -They not only possessed slaves, but also horses, mules, camels, and -asses. As long as they paid the tax on their lands and, perhaps, also a -poll-tax, and obeyed the laws of the king, they were permitted to enjoy -their independence. They probably clung to each other and their common -national memories the more closely, as, like most exiles, they fondly -cherished the hope that their return to their own country would surely -be brought about by some unforeseen event. One other circumstance -greatly helped them. In the Chaldæan kingdom the Aramaic language -predominated, and as it was cognate with Hebrew, the exiles learnt it -easily, and soon made themselves understood by the inhabitants. Even -in those days the Judæans possessed peculiar facility for acquiring -foreign languages. The position of the Judæans in Babylonia after the -death of Nebuchadnezzar (561) was still more favourable. - -Nebuchadnezzar's son and successor, Evil-Merodach (Illorodamos) was -utterly unlike his father. He was not courageous, nor did he love -warfare, and he paid little attention to the business of the state. -Judæan youths, from the royal house of David, were to be found at -his court as eunuchs. How often have these guardians of the harem, -these servants of their master's whims, become in turn masters of -their master. The king Evil-Merodach appears to have been under the -influence of a Judæan favourite, who induced him to release the captive -king Jehoiachin, who had been imprisoned for thirty-seven years. The -Babylonian monarch clothed him in royal garments, invited him to the -royal table, and supplied his wants most generously. When Evil-Merodach -held his court with unusual pomp, and assembled all the great men of -the kingdom about him, he raised a throne for Jehoiachin higher than -the thrones of the other conquered kings. He wished all the world to -know that the former king of Judæa was his particular favourite. - -This generosity of Evil-Merodach must have extended in some degree to -Jehoiachin's fellow-prisoners, for to many of them greater freedom was -given, whilst others, who had been kept in the strictest captivity on -account of their enmity to Nebuchadnezzar, were released. In fact, it -is possible that Evil-Merodach might have been persuaded to allow the -exiles to return home, with Jehoiachin as king of Judæa, had not his -own death intervened. After a short reign of two years, he was murdered -by his brother-in-law, Neriglissar (560). The dream of returning to -their own country, in which some Babylonian Judæans had indulged, was -thus dispelled. They were soon to learn the hardships of captivity. - -One of the many prophecies of the Hebrew seers--namely, that only -a small part of the people should be saved--had been fulfilled. -Insignificant indeed was the remnant. Of the four millions of souls -which the children of Israel numbered in the reign of King David, only -about a hundred thousand remained. Millions had fallen victims to the -sword, famine, and pestilence, or had disappeared and been lost in -foreign lands. But there was another side to the prophecies, which -had not yet been realised. The greater number of the Judæan exiles, -particularly those belonging to the most distinguished families, -unchastened by the crushing blow which had befallen their nation and -their country, persisted in their obstinacy and hardness of heart. -The idolatrous practices to which they had been addicted in their own -country, they continued in Babylon. It was difficult indeed to root -out the passion for idolatry from the hearts of the people. The heads -of the families, or elders, who laid claim to a kind of authority over -all the other exiles, were as cruel and as extortionate in Babylonia -as they had been in Palestine. Regardless of those beneath them, they -did not try to better their condition. They chose the best and most -fruitful portions of the lands assigned to them, leaving the worst to -their subordinates. - -Ezekiel, the son of Buzi, the first prophet of the captivity (born -about 620, died about 570) directed his prophetic ardour against the -folly and obstinacy of the exiles. Gifted with simple, yet fiery and -impressive eloquence, with a sweet and impassioned voice, and fully -conscious of the highest ideal of religion and morality that the -Judæans were capable of attaining, he spoke with courage and energy -to his fellow-exiles. At first they treated him roughly (actually -fettering him upon one occasion), but at last he gained their -attention, and they would gather round him when he prophesied. - -The elders had often entreated him to foretell the end of that terrible -war whilst it was raging in and about Jerusalem, but he had been -silent. Why should he repeat for the hundredth time that the city, -the nation, and the Temple were to be inevitably destroyed? But when -a fugitive announced to him that the threatened misfortune had become -a reality, he broke silence. Ezekiel first addressed himself to the -conscienceless and heartless elders, who were leading a comfortable -existence in captivity, whilst they were ill-treating their unfortunate -brethren. (Ezekiel, ch. xxxiv.) But also in another direction, he had -to combat a false idea prevailing amongst the exiles. Like the rest of -the prophets, Ezekiel had foretold with absolute certainty the ultimate -return of the Judæans to Palestine, but also their return to a purer -state of morality. Many of the captives, however, in consequence of -their repeated misfortunes, began to despair of the new birth of the -nation, and looked upon it as a mere dream. They said, "Our bones are -dried up, and our hope is lost: we are quite cut off." The greatest of -all evils is for a nation to despair of its future and to give up every -hope. Ezekiel considered it a most important duty to banish this gloom -from the hearts of his people. In a beautiful simile--that of the dry -bones restored to life--he placed before them a picture of their new -birth. - -But there was another group of exiles who despaired of the restoration -of the Judæan people. They felt themselves utterly crushed by their -sins. For centuries the nation had tempted the anger of its God by -idolatry and other misdeeds. These sins could not be undone, but must -meet with their inevitable result--the death of the sinner. These -unfortunate people exclaimed, "If our transgressions and our sins be -upon us, and we pine away in them, how then should we live?" But the -prophet Ezekiel also combated this gloomy belief, that sin and its -punishment were inseparably connected, and that crime must necessarily -lead to the death of the sinner. In eloquent words, he laid before the -people his consolatory doctrine of the efficacy of repentance. - -Often and in varied terms Ezekiel spoke of the future deliverance -of the exiles, and painted it in ideal colours. So deeply was this -prophet of the exile impressed with the certainty of a return to the -old order of things in his own country, that he actually devised a -plan for the building of a new Temple, and for the ordering of divine -service and of the priesthood. Ezekiel was far from thinking that -such a brilliant and glorious future was near at hand. The ideas, -the feelings, and the actions which he daily observed in the exiles -were not of a kind to justify such a hope. But he and other holy men -helped to make a small beginning. Not long after the death of Ezekiel -and Jeremiah, an unexpected change for the better commenced. The -captivity which, notwithstanding the kind treatment at the hands of -Nebuchadnezzar and his son, was attended with much suffering, but more -especially the influence of their peculiar literature led to a change -in the disposition of the people. In the very midst of the idolatrous -abominations of the kingdoms of Ephraim and Judah, the flowers of a -higher morality had blossomed. "The Spirit of God had dwelt amidst the -uncleanliness of the people." The sublime thoughts of the prophets -and the psalmists, awakened during the course of centuries, had not -vanished into thin air with speech and song, but had taken root in some -hearts, and had been preserved in writing. The priests of the sons -of Zadok, who had never been idolatrous, had brought with them into -captivity the Torah (the Pentateuch); the disciples of the prophets had -brought the eloquent words of their teachers; the Levites had brought -the sublime Psalms; the wise men, a treasure of excellent sayings; the -learned had preserved the historical books. Treasures, indeed, had been -lost, but one treasure remained which could not be stolen, and this -the exiles had taken with them into a strange land. A rich, brilliant, -and manifold literature had been carried into exile with them, and it -became a power that taught, ennobled, and rejuvenated. These writings -were replete with wonders. Had not the prophecy been realised to -the letter, that the land of Israel would spew forth its people on -account of their folly and their crimes, just as it had thrust out the -Canaanites? Had not the menacing words of the prophets come to pass in -a most fearful manner? Jeremiah had prophesied daily, in unambiguous -words, the destruction of the nation, the city, and the Temple. Ezekiel -had foretold the terrible war and subsequent misery, and his words had -been fulfilled; and earlier still, Isaiah, Hosea, Amos, and even Moses -had warned the people that exile and destruction would follow upon the -transgression of the Law. Yet in spite of all their terrible misery, -the people were not entirely annihilated. A remnant existed, small -indeed, and homeless, but this remnant had found favour in the eyes -of the conquerors. It was clear that even in the land of their foes, -God had not entirely rejected them; He did not "utterly abhor them, to -destroy them and break His covenant with them." - -Another miracle took place before their own eyes. A part of the -descendants of the Ten Tribes, scattered for more than a century in -the Assyrian provinces, and looked upon as lost, had asserted their -nationality. Though long separated by jealousy and artfully whetted -hate, they approached their suffering brethren with cordial affection. -Those Israelites who had dwelt in the capital of Nineveh had, without -doubt, left that doomed city at the destruction of the Assyrian empire, -and had fled to Babylonia, the neighbouring kingdom. Thus the words -of the prophets were again fulfilled, "Israel and Judah shall dwell -together in brotherly love." - -Those who were able to read eagerly studied the rescued manuscripts, -and anxiously sought instruction and consolation in their pages. -The prophecies and words of Jeremiah were especially studied, their -pathetic and elegiac tone being peculiarly adapted to men living -in exile. Jeremiah's writings, which had probably been brought by -Baruch from Egypt, became a popular book. The effect which the living -words, fresh from the prophet's own lips, had failed to produce was -accomplished by the written letter. The spirit of the prophets passed -into the souls of their readers, filled them with hopes and ideals, and -prepared them for a change of mind. - -In order to make the conversion a lasting one, the spiritual leaders -of the people chose a new method of instruction. One of them, probably -Baruch, wrote (about 555) a comprehensive historical work for his -readers, relating the events from the creation of the world and the -commencement of Israel as a nation down to the time when Jehoiachin was -released from his prison, and loaded with marks of the royal favour. -This collection embraced the Torah (Law), the Book of Joshua, the -histories of the Judges, of Samuel, Saul and David. To these Baruch -added his own redaction of the history of the Kings from Solomon to -Jehoiachin, whose downfall he himself had witnessed. He gave his own -colouring to these events, in order to demonstrate that the decline of -the kingdom, from the death of Solomon, was owing to the apostasy of -the king and the people. - -The historical work that Baruch compiled has no equal. It is simple, -yet rich in matter and instructive, unaffected yet artistic; but above -all things it is vivid and impressive. It was the second national work -of the Babylonian exiles, and they not only read it with interest, -but took it to heart, and listened to its lessons. Levitical scribes -applied themselves to copying it. This literature gave a new heart -to the people, and breathed a new spirit into them. What Ezekiel had -commenced, Jeremiah's disciple, Baruch, continued. - -Influenced by the study of these writings, the exiles began to devote -themselves to self-examination. This was followed by contrition for -their constant disobedience and idolatry. Those who were moved to -penitence by the consciousness of their great sins longed to wash away -the bitter past in tears of repentance. They acknowledged that all the -misfortunes that had befallen them were well deserved, for just as "the -Lord of Hosts had purposed to do unto them according to their ways and -according to their doings, so had He dealt with them." Many atoned -sincerely; four days in the year were set apart, at first by a few, -and later on by a large number of exiles, as days of mourning. These -occasions were the anniversaries of Nebuchadnezzar's siege of Jerusalem -in the tenth month, of the conquest of Jerusalem in the fourth month, -of the destruction of Jerusalem in the fifth month, and of Gedaliah's -assassination in the seventh month. At these times it became customary -for the people to fast and lament, wear garments of mourning, sit in -ashes and bow their heads in deep contrition. These days of mourning -heralded the people's awakening; they were signs of repentance, and -the first institution of national anniversaries after the captivity. -This keen feeling of remorse gave birth to a new kind of psalm, which -we may call the Penitential Psalm. Those who had forsaken their evil -ways in turn converted others; former sinners showed other evil-doers -the way to God. The number of the faithful, "those who were eager for -God's word," those "who sought after God," thus gradually increased. -Naturally, the Patient Sufferers (Anavim) formed the nucleus of this -new party. They mourned the destruction of Jerusalem and its former -glory; they were "contrite in heart," and "meek in spirit." They bore -outward signs of mourning, and called themselves "the mourners of -Zion." With them were associated members of noble families, who held -some office or dignity at the Babylonian court. All their thoughts -dwelt upon Jerusalem. They loved the stones of the Holy City, and -longed to see its very ruins, lying in the dust. (Psalm cxx. 14-15.) -The Levite, who, in the name of his companions in captivity, described -so poetically this faithful remembrance of Jerusalem, gave utterance, -in the 137th Psalm, to the sentiments of "the mourners of Zion." - -While praying for deliverance or confessing their sins, the mourners -turned their faces towards Jerusalem, as if the place where the Temple -had once stood were still holy, and as if only thence a merciful answer -to their supplications were to be expected. As those "eager for God's -word" would not offer up sacrifices in a strange land, they accustomed -themselves to look upon prayer as a substitute for sacrifice. Three -times a day, a number of persons forming a congregation met for this -purpose. The House of Prayer took the place of the Temple. It was -probably the penitential psalms and the psalms of mourning that were -sung in these houses of prayer, and were composed for them. - -The enthusiasm for Jerusalem, for the deliverance from captivity, -and for the Law, was fanned to a brighter flame by the astounding -fact that some of the heathen population accepted the doctrines of -the exiles, and entered into their covenant. Only the enthusiasm of -the exiles could have effected this wonderful phenomenon. Zeal of a -self-sacrificing, self-forgetting nature is a magic power which kindles -enthusiasm. It was comparatively easy, by contrasting the Judæan -doctrine of one sublime, spiritual God with the childish image-worship -of the Chaldæans, to make the latter appear ridiculous. The Judæan, -fully conscious of the majesty of his God, could ill restrain his -derision, or withhold a smile of contempt at the sight of a Babylonian -workman carving an image out of wood, praying to it for help in -adversity, and then kindling with the rest of the material a fire, at -which he warmed himself, or over which he baked his bread and cooked -his meat. In this way many who heard of the great name of the God of -Israel forsook their own false belief, and associated themselves with -a people that professed a totally different religion. These newly-won -proselytes, after their conversion, kept the Sabbath, obeyed the -statutes, and even submitted to the rite of circumcision. This, the -first achievement of the exiles during the Captivity, exercised a -reflex influence upon the Judæans. They began to love their God and -their Law with far greater fervour, as soon as they discovered that -heathens had been won to their side. This regeneration was effected -before two decades had elapsed since the death of the prophets Jeremiah -and Ezekiel. - -The now accessible literature, the Torah and the Prophets, was a -rejuvenating fountain, refreshing the spirit and softening the heart. -However, this new spirit, by which the nation was inspired, had to be -tried and tested, and the hour of probation was at hand. - -Some of the most distinguished families amongst the Judæans adhered -to their old abominations, and in addition adopted many of the errors -of their heathen neighbours. The giant capital Babylon and the vast -Chaldæan empire exercised a magical charm over those "who stood -highest" among the exiles, tempting them into imitating the Chaldæan -customs, opening a wide horizon before them, and giving them the -opportunity of developing their talents. The products of the soil and -the artistic fabrics of Babylonia, which were eagerly sought after -and largely exported, formed the staples of a flourishing commerce. -Thus the former merchants of Judah were able, not only to continue -their calling, but to follow it more actively. They undertook frequent -journeys for the purpose of buying and selling, and began to accumulate -great riches. In a luxurious country wealth produces luxury. The rich -Judæans imitated the effeminate life of the Babylonians, and even -began to profess their idolatrous beliefs. To ensure the success of -their commercial undertakings, they prepared a table with food for -the god of Good Fortune (Gad), and filled the pitcher of wine for the -goddess of Fate (Meni). So completely did the wealthy exiles identify -themselves with the Babylonians, that they entirely forgot Judah and -Jerusalem, which until lately had been the goal of their desires. They -could not bear to think of their return; they wished to be Babylonians, -and looked with contempt upon the fanatical lovers of their own land. -The two rival parties, which hated each other, were represented, on -the one hand, by men of zeal and piety, and on the other, by men of -worldliness and self-indulgence. The earnest-minded Judæans, who were -full of fervour for their cause, attempted to influence their brethren, -whose religious views and conduct were so widely opposed to their own. -To this effort we are indebted for a new poetical literature which -almost excelled the old. The last twenty years of the Captivity were -more productive even than the times of Hezekiah. The men of genius, -disciples of Jeremiah and Ezekiel, who had so thoroughly absorbed the -spirit of their literature that their own souls were brought into -harmony with it, now produced fruitful thoughts of their own, clothed -in elegant forms. An apparently inexhaustible fountain of poetry flowed -once more in a strange land, in the very midst of the sufferings of -captivity. The Hebrew language, so lovingly fostered by the exiles in -their Aramaic home, was the language of their poetic works. New psalms, -maxims of wisdom, and prophetical discourses followed each other in -rapid succession. A poet of that time collected a number of proverbs, -written at a much earlier date, and in the prefatory chapters which -he affixed to them he gave a true picture of the age. He was an acute -observer of human failings and their consequences, and his work is an -eloquent exposition of practical ethics. If he could but bring the -worldly-minded to listen to his teaching, he argued, they might be -induced to abandon their evil ways. The leading idea of this poet is -that the beginning of wisdom is the fear of God, and the fear of God, -the safeguard against corruption; sin is folly, and causes the death -of the sinner; even the prosperity of fools kills them, and their -happiness destroys them.--But what reward is there in store for the -pious or the wise who suffer? - -To this question our poet, like the psalmists of the exiled -congregation, had no other answer than that "The just will inhabit -the land again, and the pious shall dwell in it once more." But if -this sufficed for the God-fearing people and the mourners of Zion, it -was not sufficient to comfort and satisfy the weak in faith, still -less could it alter the feelings of those who had forgotten the Holy -Mountain, and whose hearts clave to Babylonia. For it was evident -that the sinners enjoyed prosperity, and that those who feared God -and remained true to their ideals were often unhappy and unfortunate. -This discord in the moral order of the world demanded a satisfactory -explanation. Doubts arose as to the justice of God, and as to the truth -of the teachings of the fathers, and these misgivings were bitterly -felt by the Babylonian Judæan community. - -A poet undertook the solution of these distressing questions, and -he created a work of art which is ranked among the most perfect -ever conceived by a human mind. This unknown author composed the -book of Job, a work which was to dispel the gloomy thoughts of his -contemporaries. Like the psalms and the proverbs, it also was intended -to convey instruction, but its method was different. In a solemn -but most interesting conversation between friends, the question that -kept the Babylonian community in painful suspense was to be decided. -This dialogue is not carried on in a dry and pedantic way; the author -has made it singularly attractive in form, expression, and poetical -diction. The story of the patient Job, fascinating from beginning to -end, is the groundwork of the dialogue. The arrangement of the poem is -artistic throughout; the ideas that the author wished to make clear -are allotted to different speakers. Each person in the dialogue has a -distinct character and remains true to it. In this way the dialogue is -lively, and the thoughts therein developed command attention. - -Meanwhile events took place in Babylonia and Asia Minor that were to -decide the fate of the exiles. Neriglissar, the successor of their -protector, Evil-Merodach, was dead, and had left a minor to succeed -him. But this young prince was killed by the Babylonian nobles, one -of whom, named Nabonad, seized the throne (555). A few years previous -to that date, a Persian warrior, the hero Cyrus, had dethroned the -Median king Astyages, taken possession of his kingdom with its capital, -Ecbatana, and subdued the provinces belonging to it. - -The pious and the enthusiasts among the Babylonian Judæans did not -fail to recognise in these events favourable signs for themselves. -They appear to have entreated Nabonad to free them from captivity, -and permit them to return to Judæa. They must have been encouraged to -hope for the realisation of their wishes by the fact that Merbal, a -noble Phoenician exile of the royal house, had been permitted by Nabonad -to return to and rule over his own country, and after his death, his -brother Hiram was allowed to succeed him. It was not improbable, -therefore, that Nabonad would confer the same favour upon his Judæan -subjects. Shealtiel, the son of King Jehoiachin, probably urged this -request upon the usurper, and doubtless the Judæan favourites at the -Babylonian court warmly espoused his cause. But Nabonad was as loth to -let the exiles leave his country as Pharaoh had been of old to dismiss -the Israelites from Egypt. This frustration of their hope, or rather -this discrimination against them, enkindled in the patriotic exiles a -burning hatred of Babylonia and its monarch. The old wounds burst open -anew. Babylon was loathed as Edom had been in former ages. Such violent -hatred was probably not controlled, but found expression in speech -and action. The speedy downfall of this sinful country, teeming with -idolatry and immorality, seemed certain to the Judæans. They followed -with intense interest the warlike progress of the hero Cyrus, because -they foresaw that a conflict was imminent between the Medo-Persian -empire and Babylonia. Cyrus had directed his weapons against the Lydian -kingdom of Croesus, who had made an offensive and defensive alliance -with Nabonad of Babylonia, and Amasis, king of Egypt. Well aware that -they, in turn, would be attacked, these monarchs tried to gain strength -by alliance. But this served only to incite the Persian conqueror to -destroy the sooner the independence of Babylonia. Did any of the Judæan -favourites at the Babylonian court, or any of the converted heathens -open secret negotiations with Cyrus? The kindness shown later on to the -Judæans by the Persian warrior, and their persecution by Nabonad, lead -to the supposition that such was the case. - -Nabonad's persecutions were first directed against the patriotic and -pious exiles; severe punishments were decreed against them, which were -cruelly put into execution. It seemed as if the staunchest of the -nation were to be proved and tried, as Job had been, by suffering. -Upon some, heavy labour was imposed, from which even the aged were -not exempt. Others were shut up in dungeons, or were whipped, beaten, -and insulted. Those who dared speak of their speedy deliverance -through Cyrus were doomed to a martyr's death, to which they submitted -fearlessly. - -A contemporary prophet, who witnessed the persecution, or, perhaps, -was one of its victims, described it in harrowing words. Considering -the sufferers as the wards of the people, he speaks of their terrible -anguish as being that of the entire national body: - - "He is despised and rejected of men, a man of sorrows, and - acquainted with grief.... He was oppressed, although he was - submissive, yet he opened not his mouth; he is brought as a - lamb to the slaughter; and as a sheep before her shearers is - dumb, so he openeth not his mouth. Through prison and through - judicial punishment was he taken away." (ISAIAH liii. 3, 7.) - -The suffering of the Judæans in Babylonia, at that time, closely -resembled the persecution of their ancestors in Egypt. But there was -this difference: in Egypt all Israelites alike were subjected to -slavery and forced labour in the fields and on buildings, whilst in -Babylonia the dungeon and death awaited those exiles only who refused -to abjure their nationality and their religion. Psalm cii., composed -at this time, pictures the sombre mood of one of these victims of -persecution, relieved, however, by the hope of future deliverance. The -Judæans who were threatened with imprisonment and torture followed -the victories of Cyrus with anxious interest. Several prophets now -appeared, who announced, to the consolation of the sufferers, the -downfall of Babylon, and the speedy deliverance of the exiles. Two of -them have left us prophecies that are unsurpassed; indeed, one of those -writers manifested so boundless a wealth of eloquence and poetry, that -his works rank among the most beautiful in literature. When Cyrus at -length commenced the long-planned siege of Babylon, and the anxious -expectations of the exiles had grown harrowing, this prophet, with his -gift of glowing eloquence, uplifted and instructed his people. - -If the perfection of a work of art consists in the fact that the ideas -and the language are in true harmony with each other, and that the -latter makes the abstruse thought clear and intelligible, then the -speech or series of speeches of this prophet, whom, in ignorance of -his real name, we call the second, or the Babylonian Isaiah, form an -oratorical work of art without a parallel. Here are combined richness -of thought, beauty of form, persuasive power and touching softness, -poetic fervour and true simplicity, and all this is expressed in such -noble language and warm colouring that, although intended for the -period only in which they were composed, they will be understood and -appreciated in all time. - -The Babylonian Isaiah wished to comfort his suffering Judæan brethren, -and, at the same time, to give them a high aim. The suffering Jewish -tribe as well as all those who have minds to comprehend and hearts to -feel, whatever their race and language may be, can find in this prophet -the solution of a problem, the correctness of which history has proven. -He showed how a nation can be small yet great, wretched and hunted to -death yet immortal, at one and the same moment a despised slave and a -noble exemplar. Who was this prophet, at once a great thinker and a -great poet? He says not a word about himself, and there are no records -of his life. The collectors of the prophetical writings, finding that -in eloquence and sublimity his words resembled those of Isaiah, added -them to the prophecies of the older seer, and included them in the same -scroll. - -No one could console the sorrowing Judæan community with such sympathy, -or encourage it with such ardour as the Prophet of the Captivity. His -words are like balm upon a burning wound, or like a gentle breeze upon -a fevered brow. - - "Comfort ye," he begins, "comfort ye, comfort ye my people, - saith your God. Speak ye to the heart of Jerusalem, and cry - unto her, that her warfare is accomplished, that her iniquity - is pardoned; for she hath received of the Lord's hand double - for all her sins." (ISAIAH xl.) - -The exhausted and despairing community was described by this prophet -as a wife and mother who had been rejected, and robbed of her children -on account of her sins, but who still is dear to her husband as the -beloved of his youth. This deserted one he calls "Jerusalem," the -emblem of all that was tender to his soul. He exclaims to the forlorn -mother: - - "Awake, awake, stand up, O Jerusalem, which hast drunk at the - hand of the Lord the cup of his fury. Thou hast drunken the - dregs of the cup of trembling and wrung them out. - - "There is none to guide her among all the sons whom she hath - brought forth, neither is there any that taketh her by the - hand, of all the sons that she has brought up.... O thou - afflicted, tossed with tempest, and not comforted, behold I - will lay thy stones with fair colours, and lay thy foundations - with sapphires, and I will make thy windows of agates, and thy - gates of carbuncles, and all thy borders of precious stones, - and all thy children shall be taught of the Lord, and great - shall be the peace of thy children.... - - "As one whom his mother comforteth, so will I comfort you, and - ye shall be comforted in Jerusalem." - -But where is this consolation to be found? Not in the hope of vain, -worldly glory, not in might and power, but in an all-embracing -salvation. This prophet of the Captivity was the first who clearly -grasped and demonstrated that a creed of general salvation was promised -through Abraham to future generations. The past was to be forgotten and -forgiven; a new social order was to spring up; heaven and earth were -to be re-created. All people from all the ends of the earth would be -included in this universal salvation, and every knee would bend and -every tongue swear homage to the God adored by Israel. It was for this -purpose that Abraham had been called from a distant land, and that his -descendants had been chosen before their birth. God had created the -people of Israel to be His servant among nations, His messenger to all -people, His apostle from the beginning of the world. - -The prophet describes this apostolic people in poetry of such -transcendental beauty that it becomes an ideal. And is there any -mission sublimer than that of being the vanguard of the nations in the -path of righteousness and salvation? Was Israel not to be proud of -having been chosen for such a duty? The prophet goes on to say how this -ideal nation was to realise its apostolic mission: - - "Behold my servant, whom I uphold, mine elect, in whom my soul - delighteth; I have put my spirit upon him, he shall bring forth - judgment to the Gentiles. He shall not cry, nor lift up, nor - cause his voice to be heard in the street. A bruised reed shall - he not break, and the smoking flax shall he not quench; he - shall bring forth judgment into truth." (ISAIAH xlii. 1-4.) - -The Law of God was thus to be universally acknowledged, and the -messenger of God was to bring about this acknowledgment by his own -example, in spite of scorn, contempt, and persecution. This, Israel's -recognised mission, the prophet of the Captivity explained briefly, -in words supposed to be spoken by the nation itself (Isaiah xlix. -1-6). He taught that martyrdom, bravely encountered and borne with -gentle resignation, would ensure victory to the law of righteousness, -which Israel, if true to its ideals, was to promulgate. The leading -conception that runs through Isaiah's poetical monologue was thus -expressed by the prophet in the short but effective verse: - - "For mine house shall be called an house of prayer for all - peoples." (ISAIAH lvi. 7.) - -The fall of the Babylonian empire, with its absurd and immoral -idolatry, and the deliverance of the Judæan community were to be the -first steps in this great work of universal salvation. The fall of -Babylon seemed indeed inevitable to the prophet, so that he spoke of it -as of an accomplished fact, and not as a subject of prophetic vision. - -He apostrophized Babylon in a satirical song of masterly perfection -(Is. xlvii.); he derided the astrological science by which the -Babylonian sages boasted that they could raise the veil from the -future; he treated the coarse idolatry of the Chaldæans with more -bitter irony than any of his predecessors had done. He foretold the -siege of the city by Cyrus, and declared that the Persian conqueror -would give freedom to the Judæan and Israelitish exiles; that they -would return to their country and rebuild Jerusalem and the Temple. The -prophet laid great stress upon these predictions, declaring that in -their realisation Divine Providence would be manifest. Cyrus was but -an instrument of God for furthering the deliverance of Judah and the -salvation of the world. - -For the sake of the exiles, the wonders of the exodus from Egypt would -be renewed, every mountain and hill would be made level, springs would -gush forth in the wilderness, and the desert would become a blooming -garden. The exiles would raise Jerusalem from its ruins, and live in -their beloved city in peace and comfort. But in spite of his reverence -for Jerusalem, the prophet declared that the Divine Being was too great -to be pictured as dwelling within a temple, however spacious it might -be, but that each human heart should be a temple dedicated to God. - - "Thus says the Lord: The heaven is my throne, and the earth is - my footstool: where is the house that ye build unto me; and - where is the place of my rest? For all these things hath mine - hand made, saith the Lord; but to this man will I look, to - him that is poor and of a contrite spirit and trembleth at my - word." (ISAIAH lxvi. 1.) - -The exiles, purged and truly pious, adopted this thought, and embodied -it in Solomon's prayer: - - "Behold, the heaven of heavens contain Thee not; how much less - a temple." (1 KINGS viii. 27.) - -Unfortunately, in spite of the beautiful words of the prophet of the -Captivity, the servant of God declined to accept this apostolic work, -and remained blind and deaf. Instead of making the Law of God beloved, -he made it contemptible, and became contemptible himself. - -The ideal and the real being thus at variance with each other, the -prophet felt that his mission was to preach, to exhort, to denounce -and to arouse. The Judæan community in the Captivity was now more -than ever divided into two camps: on the one side were the pious and -patriotic; on the other, the worldly and the callous. The former, -who had become timid and despondent from continued persecution and -suffering, dared not come forward at this anxious time to oppose their -persecutors; they were oppressed by the sorrowful thought that God -had forsaken His people and had forgotten them, whilst their enemies -called out mockingly, "Let the Lord be glorified and we will see your -joy." (Isaiah lxvi. 5.) Now the aim of the great unknown prophet -was to encourage the one class to action, and to move the other to -penitence and improvement. He announced that God's salvation was at -hand, and that if the worldly and selfish persisted in their evil ways, -they would reap the punishment of their sins, whilst the pious would -be rewarded with undimmed happiness. He finally depicted the coming -deliverance and the return, when all the scattered of Judah and Israel -would assemble on the holy mount of Jerusalem. - -The king Nabonad and the Babylonian people probably felt less anxiety -about the result of the war between Persia and Babylon than did the -Judæan exiles. For the Judæans were alternating between the highest -hopes and the most desponding fears; the preservation or the downfall -of the Jewish race hung upon the issue of this war. The Babylonians, -on the contrary, looked with indifference, it might be said, upon -all of Cyrus's preparations. But one night, when they were dancing -and carousing at one of their orgies, a large and powerful army -appeared before the bastions of the city. The Babylonians were utterly -unprepared for resistance, and when day broke, Babylon was filled with -the enemy. Thus, as the prophet had foretold, the city of Babylon fell -(539), but the king and the people escaped their predicted doom. Cyrus -was a humane conqueror. - -The disgusting idolatry of the Babylonians was uprooted when their city -was taken. The religion of the victorious Persians and Medes was pure -in comparison with that of the Babylonians. They worshipped only two -or three gods, and abhorred the image-worship of the Babylonians, and -perhaps destroyed their idols. - -The fall of Babylon cured the Judæan community radically and for all -time of idolatry. For the exiles saw that those highly honoured images -were now lying in the dust, that Bel was on his knees, that Nebo was -humbled, and that Merodach had fallen. The destruction of Babylon -completed the regeneration of the Judæan people, and their hard hearts -became softened. From that time all, even the worldly-minded and the -sinners, clung to their God. For, had they not learned how His word, -spoken by the mouth of His prophets, had been fulfilled? The sufferers -and the mourners of Zion were no longer objects of hatred and contempt, -but were, on the contrary, treated with veneration, and placed at the -head of the community. - -No sooner had Babylon fallen than the pious and patriotic party took -steps towards realising the predicted deliverance and return of the -exiles. Cyrus, having taken possession of the throne and of the palace, -declared himself king of Babylonia and the successor of her former -monarchs, dating his reign from the fall of Babylon (B. C. 538). The -servants of the palace, who had crouched and trembled before Nabonad, -now became servants of Cyrus. Amongst them were also eunuchs of the -royal family of Judæa, who had remained true to their faith. They as -well as some converted heathens, who had joined the Judæan community, -tried to obtain from Cyrus the freedom of their fellow-believers. -In this they were probably aided by Zerubbabel, the grandson of King -Jehoiachin. Those Judæans who had been imprisoned on account of the -devotion with which they clung to their faith were set free at once. -But Cyrus went still further, for he permitted the Judæans to return to -their own country, rebuild Jerusalem, and restore the Temple. Together -with Babylon, all the provinces conquered by Nebuchadnezzar, westward -from the Euphrates to the Mediterranean sea, and southward from Lebanon -and Phoenicia to the confines of Egypt, fell beneath Cyrus's sway. -Judæa, therefore, belonged to the Persian kingdom. But what reasons -could have been given to the mighty conqueror for the bold request -that he should allow the Judæans to have an independent government? -And what could have induced Cyrus to grant this request so generously? -Was it the gratification of a momentary caprice, or indifference to -a strip of land, of which he probably knew not even the name, and of -whose historical importance he was certainly ignorant? Or had one of -the Judæan eunuchs, as was afterwards related, described to the Persian -conqueror how a Judæan prophet had foretold his victories, and had -prophesied that he would let a banished people return to their home? -Or was he so deeply impressed by the faith of the Judæans, for which -they had borne so much suffering, that he was induced to favour its -adherents? The true reason for his decision is unknown, but Cyrus not -only granted permission to the Judæans to return to their country, but -he restored to the exiles the sacred vessels belonging to the Temple, -which Nebuchadnezzar had seized and placed as trophies of victory in -the temple of Bel. - -As soon as the permission for the return had been granted, a group of -men undertook the organisation of the returning exiles. The leadership -was entrusted to two men of about the same age, and of distinguished -lineage, Zerubbabel, called in Babylon Sheshbazzar, the son of -Shealtiel, and grandson of king Jehoiachin, hence a scion of David's -house, and Joshua, the son of Jehozedek, and grandson of the last -high-priest Seraiah. They were joined by ten men, so that they formed -a company of twelve, representing, to a certain extent, the twelve -tribes. Cyrus invested Zerubbabel with the office of governor or regent -(Pechah) of the province which the exiles were to re-occupy, the -appointment being in reality a stepping-stone to royal honours. All the -Judæans who were to return to their own country addressed themselves to -these leaders. - -Compared with those who had once gone out of Egypt, the number of those -who now returned was very small, but still there were more than might -have been expected, 42,360 men, women and children, counting from the -age of twelve. The greater number belonged to the two tribes of Judah -and Benjamin; there were a few Aaronides and Levites. Besides, the -march was joined by some from the other tribes and from other nations, -who acknowledged the God of Israel (Gerim, Proselytes). - -The joy of those who were preparing for the exodus from Babylon and the -return to the Holy Land was overpowering. To be permitted to tread the -soil of their own country, and to rebuild and restore the sanctuary -seemed a sweet dream to them. The event caused great sensation amongst -other nations; it was discussed, and considered as a miracle, which the -God of Israel had wrought on behalf of His people. A poem faithfully -reproduces the sentiments that inspired the exiles: - - "When the Lord turned again the captivity of Zion, we were like - them that dream. - - "Then was our mouth filled with laughter, and our tongue with - singing; then said they among the nations, The Lord hath done - great things for them. - - "The Lord hath done great things for us, whereof we are glad." - (Ps. cxxvi.) - -As the patriots were preparing to make use of their freedom to return -to Jerusalem, one of their poets, in Psalm xxiv., bade them reflect -whether they were worthy of this boon. For only the righteous and those -who sought the Lord were to assemble upon God's ground. But who would -dare take on himself the right to pronounce judgment? - - - - -CHAPTER XIX. - -THE RETURN FROM BABYLON, THE NEW COMMUNITY IN JUDÆA, EZRA AND NEHEMIAH. - - The Journey to Jerusalem--The Samaritans--Commencement - of the Rebuilding of the Temple--Interruption of the - Work--Darius--Haggai and Zechariah--Completion of the - Temple--Contest between Zerubbabel and Joshua--Intermarriage - with Heathens--The Judæans in Babylonia--Ezra visits - Jerusalem--Dissolution of the Heathen Marriages--The Book - of Ruth--Attacks by Sanballat--Nehemiah--His Arrival in - Jerusalem--Fortification of the Capital--Sanballat's Intrigues - against Nehemiah--Enslavement of the Poor--Nehemiah's - Protest--Repopulation of the Capital--The Genealogies--The - Reading of the Law--The Feast of Tabernacles--The Great - Assembly--The Consecration--Departure of Nehemiah--Action of - Eliashib--Withholding the Tithes--Malachi, the Last of the - Prophets--Nehemiah's Second Visit to Jerusalem--His measures. - - 537-420 B. C. E. - - -After forty-nine years of exile, in the same month (Nisan) in which -their ancestors had departed from Egypt some eight or nine centuries -before, the Judæans now left the land of Babylonia. It was the spring -of the year (537) when they marched forth to take possession of their -dearly-beloved home, of the much longed-for Jerusalem. It was a -significant moment, carrying thousands of years in its bosom. Not like -trembling slaves, just freed from their chains, did they go forth, -but full of gladness, their hearts beating high with lofty hopes and -swelling with enthusiasm. Singers, with stringed instruments and -cymbals, accompanied them on their way, and they uttered new songs of -praise, beginning and ending with the words: - - "Give thanks unto the Lord, for He is good, for His mercy - endureth for ever." - -Those Judæans who remained in Babylonia--and they were not a few--rich -merchants and landed proprietors--evinced their sympathy for their -brethren by escorting them part of the way, and by presenting them with -rich gifts for the new buildings in their own country. Cyrus sent an -escort of a thousand mounted soldiers to defend the Judæans from the -attacks of predatory tribes upon the way, and also to ensure their -being able to take possession of Judæa. The prophecy but lately spoken -was now to be realised: - - "In joy shall ye depart, and in peace shall ye be led home." - (ISAIAH lv. 12.) - -In peace and in safety the travellers completed the six hundred miles -from Babylonia to Judæa, protected by the Persian escort. The exodus -from Babylonia, unlike the one from Egypt, has left no reminiscences; -it seemed needless to record the various halting-places, as, in all -probability, no noteworthy incident occurred on the way. - - "God led them by the right path, and brought them to the place - of their longing." (PSALM cvii. 7, 30.) - -When the travellers approached the land of their passionate desire, -after a march of four or five months, their joy must have been -overwhelming. The prophecies that had been uttered, the hopes they had -cherished, the visions they had indulged in were realised. Meanwhile -their happiness was not undimmed. The Holy City, the chief object of -their longing, was desolate. A great part of the country was inhabited -by strangers; in the north were the Samaritans, or Cuthæans, in the -south, the Idumæans. But these races were soon obliged to give place -to the descendants of Judah, who, with the tribe of Benjamin, returned -to their ancient dwelling-places. The beginning of the new Judæan -commonwealth was indeed humble and small. The people could not occupy -the whole of the country which had once constituted the kingdom of -Judah. A population of 40,000 was not numerous enough to settle a -large territory. The colony was thus compelled to group itself round -the capital at Jerusalem. This concentration of forces was, in some -respects, advantageous, inasmuch as the whole population, being thus -brought near to the capital, could take part in all its affairs. But, -though the extremely confined territory of the new colony, and the -small number of members in the community were calculated to depress the -lofty hopes that their prophets in Babylonia had awakened, and fill -the arrivals with gloom, unexpected circumstances arose to reinspire -them with energy. From many countries to the east, west, south, and -north, from Egypt, Phoenicia, and even from the Greek coasts and -islands, whither they had gone of their own free will or had been sold -as slaves, Judæan exiles streamed back to crowd like children around -their resurrected mother, Jerusalem. These new Jewish arrivals were -accompanied by large numbers of strangers, both "great and small," -illustrious and obscure, who collected round them. They were received -with rejoicing, for they all acknowledged the God of Israel, and were -ready to follow His laws. These new proselytes not only added strength -to the young community, but also inspired the settlers with greater -self-reliance, who, with their own eyes, saw the words of the prophets -fulfilled. - -At the approach of the seventh month, in which, according to law and -custom, various festivals occur, the elders of the families among all -classes in Jerusalem assembled, and, marching under the command of -their two leaders, the governor Zerubbabel and the high-priest Joshua, -they proceeded to perform the first act of reconstruction--they erected -an altar of stone. This altar was to be the nucleus of the Temple, the -building of which was, for the present, impossible. - -While the altar was dedicated with joyous and solemn ceremonies, the -leaders were making preparations for the erection of this great and -important edifice, which was to be the spiritual centre of the new -commonwealth. The rich gifts which they had brought with them enabled -them to hire labourers and artisans, and, as in the days of King -Solomon, cedar trees were procured from Lebanon; stone was brought from -the mountains, and after enough had been quarried and shaped, steps -were taken to lay the foundations of the Sanctuary. Not only Zerubbabel -and Joshua, but also the heads of families, and a large number of the -people were present at this ceremony, which was performed with great -solemnity. The Aaronides again appeared in their priestly garments, -sounding their trumpets; the Levites of the house of Asaph chanted -songs of praise, thanking the Lord whose mercy endures for ever; and -the people burst forth into a loud transport of joy. Yet there mingled -with the jubilant notes the voice of regret that the new Temple was -smaller and less magnificent than the old. - -Jerusalem, so long mourned and wept over, began to rise from her ruins. -The joyful enthusiasm called forth by the re-building of the city was, -however, soon to be damped; the honeymoon of the young commonwealth -waned rapidly, and anxious cares began to disturb its peace. Close -to the boundaries of Judæa lived the mixed tribe of Samaritans or -Cuthaæns. These people had in part accepted the doctrines taught them -by an Israelitish priest at Bethel, but they had also retained many -of their own idolatrous practices. Quite unexpectedly, some of the -Samaritan chiefs came to Jerusalem, with the request that they might -be allowed to help in re-building the Temple, and also that they be -received into the Judæan community. This seemed so important a matter -to the Judæans, that a council was convoked to discuss the subject. -The decision was against the Samaritans. Zerubbabel informed the -Samaritan chiefs that their people neither would nor could be permitted -to join in the re-building of the Temple. This decision was of great -import for the entire future of the new commonwealth. From that day -the Samaritans began to develop a hostile spirit against the Judæans, -which seemed to show that they had been less anxious to take part in -the temple-service than to injure the community and to obstruct the -re-building of the Temple. On the one hand, they tried to make those -Judæans with whom they came in contact lukewarm towards the project -of building the Temple, and, on the other, they persuaded Persian -officials to interfere with its execution, so that the work ceased -for fully fifteen years. Again the Jews found themselves suffering -evils similar to those which they had experienced after their first -entry into Canaan. The neighbouring tribes envied them their strip of -land,--on all sides they encountered hostility. They were powerless to -defend themselves, for they lacked the means for carrying on war. - -In these untoward circumstances the members of the community gave -their first thought to themselves, and not to the general welfare. -The richest and most distinguished persons built large and splendid -houses, using, it seems, the building materials designed for the -Temple. Bad harvests, drought, and hail disappointed the hopes of the -agriculturists. Much was sown and little reaped; there was hardly -sufficient to satisfy the hunger of the people, and to clothe them, -and "whoever earned money put it into a purse full of holes." Still -worse was the moral deterioration caused by this physical distress. The -people did not relapse into idolatry; they were radically cured of that -evil; but selfishness gained the upper hand, and the members of the -community often treated one another most harshly. This state of things -contrasted sadly with the new-born hopes of the people, and damped the -courage of some even of the nobler spirits. - -The death of Cambyses (521) and the succession of Darius, the third -Persian king (521-485), led to a change favourable to Judæa. Darius, -differing from his predecessor, was, like Cyrus, a mild and generous -ruler. An apocryphal tradition tells us that Zerubbabel went to Persia -and there found favour in the eyes of Darius on account of his wisdom. -As a proof of his favour, Darius sent Zerubbabel back to Jerusalem -with permission to rebuild the Temple at the king's expense. But, in -reality, the task was not so easily accomplished. When the death of -Cambyses put an end to the wars which had been disturbing the peace of -neighbouring provinces, Zerubbabel and Joshua intended doubtless to -proceed with the building. But the people, that is to say, the heads of -families, exclaimed: "The time has not yet come to rebuild the Temple." -It required the fiery enthusiasm of the prophets Haggai and Zechariah -to set the work in motion. These prophets harangued the people -frequently during several successive months (from Elul to Kislev 520), -encouraging and rebuking and, at the same time, prophesying a glorious -future. At last they roused the people to recommence their work. In -four years (519-516) the building was finished, and the Sanctuary was -consecrated, amid great rejoicing, just before the Feast of Passover. - -Seventy years had passed since the destruction of the Temple of Solomon -by Nebuchadnezzar, when the entire nation assembled at Jerusalem for -the consecration of the second Temple, henceforth to be the centre and -loadstar of the community. Three weeks later the Feast of Passover was -celebrated by the whole congregation of Israel, as well as by those -who had in sincerity joined its faith. However, although the young -community was imbued with the spirit of the Law and of the prophets, -and although the people anxiously strove for unity, there arose -differences of opinion not easy to smooth over, and liable to produce -friction. The people had two leaders: Zerubbabel, of the royal house -of David, and Joshua, the high-priest, of Aaronide descent. One was -at the head of the secular, the other, of the spiritual power. It was -impossible to prevent the one power from occasionally encroaching upon -the jurisdiction of the other. A circumstance in Zerubbabel's favour -was the people's allegiance to the royal house of David, and he was -a living reminder of a glorious past, and a pledge for an equally -brilliant future, as foretold by the prophets. The prophet Haggai had -called him the chosen favourite of God, His precious Signet-ring. But -this in itself was an obstacle. It gave the enemies of the Judæans the -opportunity to charge the community with the purpose of proclaiming him -as the successor of David to the throne. On the other hand, the prophet -Zechariah had proclaimed that the high-priest Joshua should wear the -crown, ascend the throne, and effect the realisation of the Messianic -hopes. In this way he gave the preference to the high-priest, producing -tension and divisions. Peace could only be restored by the withdrawal -of one of the two leaders: their joint rule could not fail to be the -occasion of excitement and irritation. A choice had to be made between -the two, and Zerubbabel was obliged to give way, the high-priest being -more necessary than the king's son. It is probable that Zerubbabel -left Jerusalem and returned to Babylon, and thus the house of David -retreated into the background. - -After Zerubbabel's withdrawal, the leadership of the community was -put into the hands of the high-priest Joshua, and after his death -into those of his son Jehoiakim. Was this change a desirable one? -True, no evil is reported of the first two high-priests, nor do they -seem to have done anything specially praiseworthy towards uplifting -and strengthening the community. The supreme command over the people -does not seem to have been given to the high-priest, but to have been -vested in a governor or administrator (Pechah), appointed over Judæa -either by the Persian kings or by the satraps of Syria and Phoenicia. -This official does not appear to have lived in Jerusalem, but to have -visited the city from time to time, where, seated on a throne, he heard -and decided disputes, but not infrequently rather caused dissensions -and aggravated existing bad feelings, in order to raise complaints -against the Judæans. For, as some Judæans nourished the hope, held -out by the prophets, that Judah might yet become a mighty power, to -whom kings and nations would bow, the suspicion that the people were -plotting a defection from Persia was not removed with the retirement -of Zerubbabel. Accusations on that ground commenced directly after the -death of Darius, in the reign of his successor, Xerxes (Ahasuerus, -485-464). The enemies of the Judæans, particularly the Samaritans, did -not fail to draw the governor's attention to the disloyalty of the -Judæans, and thus caused unfavourable decrees to be issued against them -at court. Added to this, the successive governors tried to oppress the -landowners by excessive demands. The position of the Judæans in their -own country, which they had entered with such buoyant hope, grew worse -and worse in the second and third generations. - -In order to free themselves, on the one side at least, from these -constant troubles, the most distinguished Judæan families took a step -that led in the end to mischievous complications. They approached the -neighbouring peoples, or received the advances of the latter, in a -friendly spirit, and as a proof of the sincerity of their feelings, -they began to form connections by marriage. As in the days when the -Israelites first occupied the land of Canaan, in the time of the -Judges, the necessity for friendly intercourse with neighbouring tribes -led to mixed marriages, so during the second occupation of Palestine -by the Israelites, similar relations led to similar results. But the -circumstances differed, inasmuch as the Canaanites, Hittites, and -other original dwellers in the land practised abominable idolatry, -and infected the Israelites with their vicious customs, while the new -neighbours of the Judæan commonwealth, particularly the Samaritans, had -given up idolatry, and were longing earnestly and sincerely to take -part in the divine service at Jerusalem. They were, in fact, proselytes -to the religion of Judæa; and were they always to be sternly repulsed? -The principal Judæan families determined to admit the foreigners into -the community, and the high-priest, of that time, either Jehoiakim -or his son Eliashib, was ready to carry these wishes into effect. -Marriages were therefore contracted with the Samaritans and other -neighbouring people, and even some members of the family of the -high-priest formed such connections. - -The leader of the Samaritans at that time was Sanballat, a man of -undaunted strength of will and energy of action, clever, cunning, -audacious and persevering. He was an honest proselyte, who believed -in the God of Israel, and desired to worship in His Temple; but he -determined, as it were, to take by storm the kingdom of Heaven. If he -were not allowed a part in it voluntarily, he would seize it by force -or by cunning. - -But not only the Samaritans, also the Moabites and the Ammonites -were among the people anxious to maintain friendly relations with -the Judæans. Tobiah, the leader of the Ammonites, was doubly allied -to Judæan families. He had married a daughter of the noble family of -Arach, and a distinguished man, Meshullam, the son of Berechiah, had -given his daughter in marriage to Tobiah's son. But mixed marriages -with Ammonites and Moabites were specifically prohibited by the Law, -until the tenth generation after conversion. - -The leaders of the Judæan community, the high-priest and others, who -were not quite prepared to violate the law, doubtless eased their -consciences by some mild interpretation of the text. But not all were -so pliable. A small number of the noblest families had kept themselves -pure from mixed marriages, which they deplored as an infraction of the -law and as a cause of deterioration of the Judæan race. More especially -the singers, who were the cultivators and preservers of the Hebrew -language and of its ancient, venerated literature, kept themselves -clear of mixed marriages. They may have raised their voices against -the pliability of their co-religionists, against this blending with -the stranger, but, as they were in the minority, their voices were -not heeded. But when a leading authority appeared in Jerusalem from -the land of exile, the minority cried out loudly against what had -taken place, and a complete reaction followed, from which disagreeable -complications necessarily ensued. - -It is but rarely the case that historical reformations are made with -such suddenness that the contemporary witnesses of the change are -themselves affected by it, and are reminded at every turn that old -things have passed away, and that a new order has arisen. In general -the people who live during an important historical crisis are not -aware of the changes occurring in themselves, in their opinions, their -customs, and even in their language. Such a change, imperceptible at -first, but complete and effectual, took place in the Judæans during the -first half of the fifth century. This transformation did not proceed -from the community of Judæa, but from those who remained in the land -of exile; it soon, however, penetrated to the mother-country, and -impressed its stamp upon her. - -In Babylonia, the land of the captivity, there had remained a -considerable number of the descendants of the exiles, either from -material considerations, or for other reasons. But they had been -touched by the unbounded enthusiasm of their co-religionists, and -they had shown their sympathy by rich gifts and fervent wishes. The -Babylonian Judæans laid great stress upon maintaining their own -peculiarities and their own nationality. They kept themselves apart -from all their neighbours, married only members of their own nation, -and were guided by the inherited Law as their rule of life. Their -absence from the mother-country served but to make them obey the more -strictly the behests of the Law, which thus formed the bond of union -that bound them together as members of one community. They could not -offer sacrifices, nor keep the observances connected with the Temple -service, but all the more scrupulously did they cling to those customs -that were independent of the sanctuary, such as the Sabbath, the Holy -Days, circumcision, and the dietary laws. Without doubt they had houses -of prayer, where they assembled at stated times. Even the Hebrew -tongue they cultivated to such an extent at least that it could not -become a strange language to them, although they employed the Aramaic -or Chaldaic in their intercourse with their neighbours and among -themselves. They obtained a correct knowledge of the Hebrew from the -scriptures which they had brought with them, and which they made the -object of careful study. They gave particular heed to that portion -of these scriptures to which, heretofore, little or only occasional -attention had been paid, namely the Pentateuch, with its code of laws -and observances. During the time of the captivity, the writings of the -prophets had chiefly been read, because they possessed the greater -power of consolation. But as soon as it was necessary to give reality -to the hopes and sentiments which the prophets roused and nursed, and -to stamp life with a peculiar religious and moral character, the Book -of the Law was sought out and consulted. The Torah, or Law, so long -neglected in its own home, now received due honour and attention on a -foreign soil. The Sabbath, for instance, was kept far less strictly in -Jerusalem than in the Babylonian-Persian community. This ardour for the -exact carrying out of the Law and its observances found its embodiment -in Ezra, who was the cause of that momentous change in the history of -the nation which endowed it with a new character. He did not stand -alone, however, but found many who were in accord with him. - -This man, who was the creator of the new religious and social order -of things, seemed, by reason of his birth, specially called to -kindle unwonted enthusiasm for the Torah; for he was a descendant -of high-priests. It was his ancestor Hilkiah who had found the book -of Deuteronomy in the Temple, and, by giving it to King Josiah, -brought about great changes. He was also the great-grandson of that -high-priest, Seraiah, who was slain by the command of Nebuchadnezzar, -and whose sons carried the Book of the Law to Babylon. Ezra had, -therefore, the opportunity of occupying himself with the study of -this book. But he gave it more attention than either his ancestors or -his relatives had done. After he had read and studied it with care, -he determined that it should not remain a mere dead letter, but that -it should be realised in the daily life of the people. He began by -applying it to himself, carefully obeying the laws regarding dress, -diet, and particularly those bearing upon the festivals. Then he -assumed the post of teacher to his brethren; he expounded the Law, -brought it nearer to their understanding, and urged them to follow it -in every detail. The Law was to him an emanation of the Deity, revealed -to Israel by Moses; he placed it higher, infinitely higher, than the -writings of the other prophets, for the first prophet and law-giver was -the greatest of all. Convinced of the Divine inspiration of the Law -of Moses, and glowing with zeal to make its authority paramount, he -found no difficulty in infusing his own belief and his own zeal into -the Judæans of Babylonia and Persia. He soon acquired an honoured -position amongst them, his word gained authority, and he was more -eagerly listened to than the prophets had been. Ezra may have known -that the Law was but negligently followed in Judæa, and he thought -that, by visiting that country, he might awaken in his fellow-believers -a perception of its true worth. Or he may have been impelled by a -strong impulse to settle in Jerusalem, in order to comply with the -religious duties pertaining to the Temple and the sacrifices. As soon -as he had determined upon the journey, he invited those members of -his faith who might be willing to join him. The number that responded -was a considerable one, including over 1,600 men, together with women -and children, of distinguished families, who had remained in the land -of captivity. Amongst them was a great-grandson of Zerubbabel, a -descendant of the house of David. Those who could not take part in the -emigration gave Ezra rich gifts of gold, silver, and precious vessels -for the Temple. It is an astonishing circumstance that King Artaxerxes -(Longimanus) also sent presents for the sanctuary in Jerusalem, and -that many Persian nobles followed his example. It is evident that -at this time the God of Israel had many earnest worshippers amongst -the Persians and other nations, and that from "sunrise to sunset His -name was glorified and reverenced among the peoples." Not only did -Artaxerxes grant Ezra permission to journey with his brethren to -Jerusalem, but he also gave him letters to the satraps of the countries -through which he passed, and to the authorities of Palestine. He would -also have sent an escort to protect the travellers from hostile tribes, -but Ezra declined it, assuring the king that the God to whom they -prayed would protect them. - -The arrival of Ezra with his numerous companions must have caused much -surprise in Jerusalem (459-458). They came provided with letters from -the king, laden with gifts, and imbued with enthusiastic feelings. -Without doubt, Ezra's name as an instructor and expounder of the Law -had already penetrated as far as Judæa, and he was received with every -mark of consideration. No sooner had he assumed the ecclesiastical -function, than the men of strong convictions who condemned -intermarriages with the surrounding peoples brought their complaints -before him. Ezra was dismayed when he heard of these occurrences. The -representatives of the people and of the Temple had, in contempt of -the Law, connected themselves with the heathen. Ezra held this to be -a terrible sin. For the Judæan or Israelitish race was in his eyes a -holy one, and suffered desecration by mingling with foreign tribes, -even though they had abjured idolatry. According to Ezra's reading -of the Law, heathens who had accepted the Law might enter into the -community; they were, however, not to be put upon a footing of equality -with Israelites by birth, but were to live as a group apart. The -Gibeonites, in former days the slaves of the Temple, who had accepted -the Israelitish doctrines more than a thousand years before, were -still kept distinct, and were not permitted to intermarry with the -Israelites; and in Ezra's opinion, the new proselytes from the heathen -nations were to be treated in a similar manner. The connection with -them ought not to be of an intimate character; such was Ezra's opinion, -based, not on ancestral pride, but on religious and social grounds. -Some dim presentiment warned him that the reception of proselytes or -half-proselytes into the community--of such elements as had not been -tried and proved in the furnace of suffering, as the seed of Abraham -had been--would give undue preponderance to the foreign element, and -would destroy all the moral and religious advantages which the Judæans -had acquired. This fear seized upon his whole soul; he rent his -clothes, plucked the hair from his head and beard, and refusing all -nourishment, sat until the afternoon, sorrowing and desolate because -of this danger which threatened the life of the nation. Then he entered -the court of the Temple, and throwing himself upon his knees, he poured -forth a confession full of deep contrition, lamenting that the people -had not improved by their bitter experiences, but had relapsed into -their former evil ways. This keenly-felt penitence, uttered amid sobs -and tears, powerfully affected the bystanders, men, women and children, -who had been attracted by the sight of the kneeling sage. They burst -into passionate weeping, as if their tears could obliterate the dark -pages in their history. One of those present, Shechaniah, touched by -sympathy, uttered a weighty suggestion: "Let us make a covenant to -put away all the strange wives, and such as are born of them." Ezra -seized upon the idea at once; he rose and demanded that the heads of -the families, who were present on that occasion, swear before the -Sanctuary, and by their God, that they would repudiate their foreign -wives and their children. That moment was to decide the fate of the -Judæan people. Ezra, and those who thought as he did, raised a wall -of separation between the Judæans and the rest of the world. But this -exclusiveness was not strictly in agreement with the letter of the Law, -for Ezra himself, with all his knowledge, was not able to point out any -passage in the Torah, implying that mixed marriages were forbidden when -contracted with those who acknowledged the God of Israel. - -Such members of the community as, in a moment of enthusiasm, had taken -this vow, were now obliged to keep it. With bleeding hearts they -separated themselves from their wives, the daughters of neighbouring -tribes, and repudiated their own children. The sons and relations of -the high-priest were forced to set an example to the rest. Those of -the elders of the people who were the most ardent disciples of the Law -formed a kind of senate. They issued a proclamation throughout Judah, -commanding all who had been guilty of contracting mixed marriages, to -appear within three days in Jerusalem, on pain of excommunication. A -special court of enquiry was instituted for this one question. Ezra -himself selected the members who were to make the needful researches -to discover whether the Judæans had really repudiated their wives. So -thoroughly was the work of this court of enquiry carried on, that all -those who were living in the towns of Judæa separated themselves from -their wives and children, as the inhabitants of Jerusalem had done. -Still there were some who, influenced by family feelings, made some -show of resistance. - -The severity with which this separation from all neighbouring tribes, -Samaritans and others, had been effected led naturally to grave -results. The raising of this wall of separation by Ezra and his party -against those who were truly anxious to belong to the community caused -much bitterness. They were to be separated for ever from the Deity -they had chosen, and excluded from the Sanctuary in Jerusalem to which -they had belonged. The decree of separation sent to them changed their -friendly relations towards the Judæans to enmity. Hatred which arises -from despised affection is always most bitter. The grief of the wives -deserted by their husbands, and the sight of children disowned by their -fathers could not fail to awaken and to increase the animosity of -those who were closely related to them. Unfortunately for the Judæans, -Sanballat and Tobiah, two forceful and able men, were at the head -of the party excluded from the community. Tobiah, the Ammonite, was -related to several Judæan families. They had both accepted the Judæan -teaching, and now they were both repulsed. Henceforth they assumed a -hostile position towards Judæa; they were determined, by force or by -intrigues, to maintain their right of worshipping in the Temple and -sharing in the faith of Israel. At first they probably took steps to -restore their peaceful intercourse with the Judæans, and urged them to -revoke their cruel decision. In Jerusalem, as well as in the provinces, -there was a party which strongly disapproved of Ezra's stern action. -The well-informed among these differed with Ezra on the illegality of -marriages with women who had, at all events outwardly, accepted the -Law. Was Ezra's severity justifiable? Did not the historical records -contain many instances of Israelites having married foreign wives? Such -questions must have been constantly put at that time. - -A charming literary production, written probably at that date, echoes -the opinions of the gentler members of the community. The poetical -author of the Book of Ruth relates, apparently without a purpose, the -simple idyllic story of a distinguished family of Bethlehem which had -migrated to Moab, where the two sons married Moabitish wives; but he -touches at the same time upon the burning question of the day. Ruth, -the Moabitess, the widow of one of the sons, is described as saying to -her mother-in-law, "Entreat me not to leave thee, or to return from -following after thee: for whither thou goest I will go, and where -thou lodgest I will lodge: thy people shall be my people, and thy -God, my God: where thou diest will I die, and there will I be buried; -the Lord do so to me, and more also, if aught but death part thee and -me." And the Moabitess kept her word faithfully. Upon her marriage -with Boaz, the people exclaim: "The Lord make the woman that is come -into thine house like Rachel and like Leah, which two did build the -house of Israel." The son born to Ruth was the ancestor of David, the -great king of Israel. The several incidents of this exquisite story -are most delicately and artistically developed. But the author meant -to place two facts before his readers, namely, that the royal house of -Israel sprang from a Moabitess, and that the Moabitess, after having -connected herself closely with the people of Israel and acknowledged -their God, gave proof of such virtues as grace a daughter of Israel: -chastity, refinement of feeling, and cheerful self-sacrifice. The -reference in this tale to the all-absorbing question of the day was -too pointed to be passed over unnoticed. Among those unfortunate wives -who had been, or who were to be repudiated by their husbands, might -there not be some who resembled Ruth? And the children born of foreign -women, but having Judæan fathers,--were they to be looked down upon as -heathens? If so, then not even the house of David, the royal family, -whose ancestor had married a Moabitess, belonged to the Judæan nation! - -But none of these representations were of avail. Ezra and the -reigning senate in Jerusalem insisted sternly upon the exclusion -from the community of all people who could not claim Judaic descent, -and who were, therefore, not of "the holy seed." The failure of all -conciliatory measures resulted in hostilities, which lasted for several -years (457-444). Ezra was, unfortunately, not a man of action; he could -only pray and arouse the feelings of others, but he could not prevent -many Judæan families from secretly abetting his opponents. On the -other hand, Sanballat and his followers were men of decided character, -full of virulent hatred towards their adversaries, and they took every -opportunity of harassing their enemies. At last they even attacked -Jerusalem. - -What could have inspired them with such boldness, knowing as they did -that Ezra was favoured by the Persian court, and that Judæan favourites -possessed great influence over Artaxerxes? Did they, perhaps, count -upon the fickleness of the Persian king? Or were they emboldened by the -revolt of Megabyzus, satrap of Syria, to whom both Judæa and Samaria -were subordinate? And while the Syrians vanquished one Persian army -after another, were they encouraged to commence hostilities on their -own account and to aim at the heart of their enemy? But, no matter -what it was that induced Sanballat and his followers to take warlike -steps against Jerusalem, they were entirely successful. They were able -to raise an army, whilst their opponents in Jerusalem were mostly -ignorant of the use of arms. The result was that Sanballat and his -followers made breaches in the walls of the city, burned the wooden -gates, and destroyed many of the buildings, so that Jerusalem again -resembled a heap of ruins. They, however, spared the Temple, for it was -sacred in their eyes also; but it was nevertheless abandoned, and most -of the inhabitants, having lost the protection of the city walls, left -Jerusalem, and established themselves in other places, wherever they -could find shelter. - -The Aaronides and Levites, deprived of their income from gifts and -tithes, left the Temple and sought other means of subsistence. The -commonwealth of Judæa, after barely a century's existence, was -passing through sad times. Many noble families made peace with their -neighbours, took back their repudiated wives, and contracted new -connections with the stranger. They pledged themselves by a reciprocal -vow of constancy to respect these new ties. For a short time it seemed -as if Ezra's great work were frustrated, and as if the life of the -commonwealth were endangered. How little was lacking to effect a -complete dissolution! - -The religious zeal kindled by Ezra was, however, too ardent to be -so easily extinguished. Some of the Judæans, maddened by grief at -the destruction and desolation of Jerusalem, hurried to the Persian -court to seek aid. They counted upon the aid of Nehemiah, the Judæan -cup-bearer of Artaxerxes. Hananiah, a kinsman of Nehemiah, and an -eye-witness of the sad occurrences, gave him a harrowing description -of the sad state of the Judæans and of the fall of the Holy City. -Nehemiah was struck with dismay at these tidings. He belonged to the -zealous party in Persia, and was, if possible, more exacting than -Ezra. Jerusalem, the Holy City, had always presented itself to his -imagination as especially protected by God, and surrounded by a fiery -wall, which permitted no enemy to approach with impunity. And now it -had been humbled and put to shame, like any earthly city. But he did -not allow his grief to master him; he was a man of vigorous action and -great ingenuity. At court he had learned the art of governing, and knew -that a firm will could control both men and circumstances. He instantly -determined upon going to Jerusalem, to put an end to this miserable -state of things. But how could he leave Persia, seeing that he was -bound to the court by his office? The great favour that Artaxerxes -always showed him chained him to the place, and removed all prospects -of a journey to Jerusalem. - -Full of tact, Nehemiah refrained from entreating Artaxerxes to give -him leave to start upon his journey, until a favourable opportunity -should occur. But the grief that was gnawing at his heart soon showed -itself in his face, and clouded his usually cheerful countenance. -One day, when he was pouring out wine for the king and queen, his -sad expression attracted their attention, and Artaxerxes questioned -him as to its cause. He instantly made use of the opportunity, and -answered, "Why should not my countenance be sad, when the city, the -place of my father's sepulchre, lieth waste, and the gates thereof -are consumed with fire?" He then expressed his earnest desire to -the king. Artaxerxes at once granted his every wish, permitting him -to undertake the journey, to rebuild the city walls, and to restore -order in the unsettled State. The king gave him letters to the various -royal officials, directing them to lay no obstacles in his way, and -to deliver to him timber for building purposes. He even appointed an -escort of soldiers to accompany Nehemiah, and named him governor of -Judæa. The king made but one condition, namely, that his stay in -Jerusalem was not to be permanent, but that he must return to the -Persian court at the expiration of a given time. - -A new chapter in the history of the commonwealth commences with -Nehemiah's journey to Jerusalem, or rather this event completes the -chapter begun by Ezra. Nehemiah left the city of Susa with a large -retinue, accompanied by an armed escort. As he travelled through the -former dominion of the Ten Tribes, he presented his credentials to the -various officials, and thus Sanballat and Tobiah were apprised of the -object of his journey, and naturally felt that they were on the eve of -a war. It was disappointing to them to see that a Judæan, the favourite -of Artaxerxes, one who would devote himself to the protection of his -persecuted brethren, had been appointed governor of the land. - -When Nehemiah arrived in Jerusalem, he secluded himself for three -days. He wished, first of all, to become acquainted with the scene of -his duties, and with the people with whom he would come into contact. -Meanwhile, he devoted himself to the establishment of a kind of court, -for he possessed a princely fortune, and he made a princely display. He -kept the reason of his sojourn secret, and did not even divulge it to -the leaders of the community, for he did not trust them. One night he -rode forth secretly to examine the extent of the injury sustained by -the walls, and to devise a plan for repairing them. He then summoned -the leading men of the community, and announced, to their amazement, -that King Artaxerxes had given him complete power, not only to rebuild -the walls, but to govern the country, and that it was his intention to -wipe out the disgrace and misery that had fallen upon them. He found -the assembled Judæans ready, heart and soul, to help him. Even those -who had intermarried with the strangers, and were on a friendly footing -with them, evinced their approbation. But Nehemiah had imposed a heavy -task upon himself. He was to reorganise a disjointed commonwealth, -whose members, through fear, weakness, selfishness, and a variety of -motives, had not sufficient courage to face real danger. Nehemiah's -first care was to fortify Jerusalem; he himself superintended the work -of building the fortifications, and made it less arduous by a careful -division of labour. But the task of rebuilding was necessarily a -tedious one. The repudiated proselytes, headed by Sanballat and Tobiah, -whose every hope of alliance with the Judæans had been cut off by -Nehemiah's words, "Ye shall have no portion, no right, no memorial in -Jerusalem," manifested as much zeal in disturbing the work, as he did -in accomplishing it. They artfully tried to make the Persians suspect -Nehemiah of treason, and of having conceived the ambitious scheme of -making himself king of Judæa. Then they endeavoured to discourage the -workmen by deriding them, and by declaring that the walls were weak -enough for a jackal to break through them. When the walls had risen -to half their destined height, the enemy secretly determined upon an -attack. Nehemiah, however, had armed some of his own people, as well as -some of the leading members of the community, and placed them on guard. -Every workman had a sword girt upon his side; every carrier bore his -burden in one hand and his weapon in the other. In order to hasten the -completion of the walls, the work was carried on continuously from dawn -to sunset, while a part of the force stood on guard, day and night, -within the city. Nehemiah himself was always on the spot, accompanied -by a trumpeter. At the blast of his trumpet, the scattered workingmen -were instructed to assemble around him. - -But instead of resuming the attack upon the walls, Sanballat busied -himself with devising intrigues against Nehemiah. He gave out that as -soon as Jerusalem was fortified, Nehemiah would cause himself to be -proclaimed king of the Judæans, and would revolt against Persia. The -more credulous began to feel alarmed, and to think of withdrawing from -the work, so as not to be regarded by the Persians in the light of -accomplices. Furthermore, the heads of those families who were related -to the enemy were in active treasonable correspondence with Tobiah. But -all these intrigues were of no avail, and Nehemiah completed the work -with such energy as to compel the unwilling admiration of the foe. From -that time Sanballat and his followers appear to have given up their -fruitless attempts to annoy Nehemiah, or to hinder his work. - -But within the community itself, Nehemiah had to fight no less severe -a battle. Many of the most distinguished families who were apparently -loyal, not only entertained secret communications with the enemy, but -also were oppressing the poor in a most heartless manner. When, in the -days of scarcity, the poor borrowed money from the rich in order to -pay taxes to the king, or obtained grain for their own consumption, -they had given as security their fields, their vineyards, their olive -groves, their own houses, and sometimes even their own children; and if -the debts were not repaid, the creditors would retain the land as their -own property, and keep the children as slaves. As the complaints of -those who had been thus cruelly treated rose louder and more frequently -to the ears of Nehemiah, he determined to call these heartless men to -account. He summoned a great assembly, and spoke severely against this -form of heartlessness, which was specially condemned by the Law. - -"We, the Judæans of Persia," he exclaimed, "have, according to the best -of our ability, redeemed our brethren, the Judæans that were sold unto -the heathen. And will ye even sell your brethren so that they will -be sold again unto us?" he added ironically. So deep was the respect -enjoyed by Nehemiah, so weighty his opinion, and so ready were even -the great and the rich to hearken to the admonitions of the Law, that -they promised forthwith not only to release the enslaved persons, -but also to restore the houses, fields and gardens to their owners -and to cancel their debts. Nehemiah made use of this favourable mood -to administer an oath to the rich, binding them to carry out their -promises. - -This was an important victory gained by the Law, through its -representative, Nehemiah, over selfishness. He indeed excelled all -others in the example of self-denial which he set to them. Not only -did he refuse the revenues due to him, but he advanced money and grain -to the poor, and if they were unable to repay it, he relinquished the -loans. His relatives and servants behaved in the same generous and -unselfish manner. - -In this way Nehemiah overcame all difficulties, and brought order into -the community. The people hung upon his words, and the leading men -yielded him obedience. But when the walls of the city were rebuilt -and the gates replaced, it appeared that the Levitical gatekeepers, -and in fact all the Levites were missing. They had migrated after the -destruction of the city, into other parts of the country, because they -received no tithes. Altogether, the city was but thinly populated, and -many houses were destroyed or deserted. Jerusalem therefore had to be -peopled again, and the Temple furnished anew with attendants. - -It seems that Nehemiah caused a proclamation to be issued to all those -who had deserted Jerusalem in the time of its insecurity, and to those -who had originally settled in the provincial towns, inviting them -to take up their permanent abode in the capital. Many of the noble -families at once offered to do this. But as the number of these was -too small to repeople Jerusalem, it was determined that the tenth part -of the population of the rural districts be called upon to migrate to -the capital, and that they be selected by lot. Nehemiah, however, did -not think every one worthy of becoming a citizen of the Holy City, -least of all those born of mixed marriages. He carefully went through -the register of Judæans who had returned from Babylonia, examining -the pedigree of each separate family. He conducted the matter with -great rigour. Three families, consisting of six hundred and forty-two -persons, who could not prove that they were descended from Israelites, -were not admitted, and three Aaronide families, who were unable to -produce the record of their lineage, were temporarily deprived of the -dignity of the priesthood. - -As soon as Nehemiah had fortified Jerusalem, and found means to provide -a population for it, giving the community a centre and forming the -people into a compact body, he sought to breathe into this body the -living soul of the Law. But for this purpose he required the aid of the -scribes. Ezra, who had been thrown into the background by the great -activity of Nehemiah, now re-appeared upon the scene. On the festival -celebrated on the first day of the seventh month, Ezra assembled -all the people, even those who dwelt in the country. "They gathered -themselves together as one man into the open place which is before the -Water-gate in Jerusalem." Here an elevated stand of wood was erected, -upon which Ezra stood to read the Law. Everything was calculated to -produce a solemn and imposing effect. The assembly was a numerous one; -it consisted not only of men, but also of women, and of children who -were old enough to understand what they heard. When Ezra unrolled the -Book of the Law, all the people arose, and when he opened the services -by reciting a blessing, they lifted up their hands, responding, in a -loud voice, Amen. Then Ezra began to read a section of the Torah with -an impressive voice, and all present listened intently. There were -some, indeed, unable to follow the reading, but the Levites added a -short and clear explanation, so that even the most ignorant could -understand. The people were deeply moved by what they heard, and burst -into tears. Probably they heard for the first time that portion of -Deuteronomy in which are announced the fearful punishments consequent -upon disregard of the Law; and the conscience-stricken people felt -themselves unworthy of the Divine love, and were overwhelmed with -grief. Some time elapsed before Ezra and the priests could restore -tranquillity to the excited multitude. But at length they were quieted, -and proceeded to celebrate the festival in an exalted mood. It was the -first time that the people had taken the Book of the Law into their -hearts, and that they had felt it to be an integral part of their -existence, and themselves to be its guardians. - -The change which had begun during the time of the Babylonian exile was -now completed. What the prophets had commenced, the scribes ended. -It is remarkable that so important an assembly should have met, not -in the Temple itself, but in its immediate vicinity, and that the -high-priest should have taken no part in it. The Sanctuary, with the -altar and the vessels for sacrifice, was, to a certain extent, thrown -into the background. Though a priest, Ezra unconsciously led the way -to a separation between the Law and the Temple, that is to say, the -subordination of the priesthood to the Scriptures. The people became so -enamoured of the Law, for which they had cared but little previously, -that they were anxious to hear more of it. The heads of the community, -whose ancestors had obstinately rejected the teaching of the prophets, -and had seemed utterly incapable of reformation, repaired to Ezra, -on the next day, and begged of him to continue his reading of the -Pentateuch. Ezra thereupon read the portion concerning the festivals -that were to be celebrated during the seventh month. In obedience to -the injunctions contained therein, the leading men caused heralds to -proclaim that all the people were to bring branches of olive trees, -myrtles, and palms from the neighbouring mountains, for the erection -of huts or booths. The people executed this order with alacrity, and -celebrated the Festival of Tabernacles in a brighter mood than they -had ever done before. During the eight days of this festival a portion -of the Law was read daily, and from that time the reading of the Law -became a permanent feature in the Divine service. Ezra and Nehemiah -were anxious to avail themselves of this religious fervour in a way to -influence those who still lived with their foreign wives to repudiate -them of their own free will. For this purpose a penitential day was -appointed. All the people appeared fasting, in mourning, and with ashes -upon their heads. The portion of the Law forbidding intermarriage -with Ammonites and Moabites was read and expounded. Then a general -acknowledgment of sin, in the name of the people, was recited by the -Levites. The desired effect was obtained; the Israelites separated from -their foreign wives, and sundered their connection with the Samaritans -and all of doubtful descent. - -Ezra and Nehemiah now induced them to make a solemn covenant that they -would in future respect the teaching of the Law, and not relapse into -their old errors and shortcomings. From that day forward the whole -community was to live according to the Law of Moses. Men, women, and -children, the Temple servants, and even the proselytes, who clung -faithfully to the Judæans, took the oath that was required of them. -They swore not to give their daughters in marriage to foreigners, and -not to marry daughters of foreign tribes. This matter was looked upon -by Ezra and Nehemiah as one of peculiar importance, and, therefore, the -first place was given to it. They also swore to observe the Sabbath and -the holidays, to let the fields lie fallow every seventh year, and, -during that year, to remit all debts. Furthermore, every individual who -had attained his majority was to pay annually one third of a shekel -towards the maintenance of the Temple, to bring the first produce of -the fields and the orchards to the Sanctuary, to provide wood for the -altar, and to contribute the tithes for the maintenance of the priests -and the Levites. - -The obligations assumed by the people were inscribed upon a scroll, -which was signed by the heads of the families, and sealed. Nehemiah's -name stood first upon the list, followed by the signatures of about -eighty-five prominent men. According to one account, one hundred and -twenty names were subscribed. This important gathering of Judæans was -called the Great Assembly (Keneseth ha-gedolah). Nehemiah had indeed -accomplished much in a short time. He had not only restored the decayed -commonwealth, and assured its stability by fortifying the capital, but -he had also endowed the people with the Law, and had induced them to -live in harmony with its requirements. - -Nehemiah appears designedly to have contrived the gathering of large -popular assemblies in order to make a deep impression on those -present. He convened the people a second time, to consecrate the -walls of the city. As at the former ceremony, women and children were -in the congregation. In order to impart a joyful character to these -solemnities, he invited a number of Levites who were skilled in music -and song to come to Jerusalem. Two divisions of the people, starting -from the same point, marched, in opposite directions, round the walls, -and met in the Temple. At the head of each division, a choir of Levites -sang hymns of praise, each being accompanied by a band of musicians. -Ezra followed one choir, and Nehemiah the other, each of them heading -an immense concourse of people. In this way the two processions passed -slowly round the walls of the city. Far into the distance sounded the -joyous notes of the cymbals, harps and trumpets, whilst the songs -bursting from the lips of the Levites echoed again and again from the -mountains. After the day of mourning and atonement followed a day of -universal joy and gladness. This festival of dedication, we are told, -lasted eight days, and took place two years and four months after the -commencement of Nehemiah's work (442). - -In order to establish the community to whom he had given new life, -Nehemiah sought able, worthy and conscientious officers. It seems -that it was he who divided the country into small districts (Pelech), -and placed over each an officer to manage its affairs and to maintain -order. To the north of the Temple, Nehemiah built a citadel, which -he fortified strongly, so that in case of necessity it might prove a -defence for the Sanctuary; this fortress was called Birah. He appointed -a faithful and God-fearing man, Hananiah, as commander. His colleague -in the work of regeneration, the scribe Ezra, was made guardian of -the Temple. The chief thing he had in view was the full restoration -of the Temple-worship. If the sacrificial services were not again to -be interrupted, provision must be made for the maintenance of the -Aaronides and Levites. The landowners had, it is true, bound themselves -most solemnly to pay the imposts to the former, and the tithes to the -latter, but Nehemiah, not content with the mere promise, required the -delivery of the supplies to be constantly watched. The Levites were -sent into the country at harvest time, to collect their tithes, and to -bring them back to Jerusalem. In order to secure an even distribution -of the tithes, a tenth of which was in turn due to the Aaronides, and -of those gifts which belonged to the latter exclusively, Nehemiah built -large granaries, where all contributions were to be stored, and whither -those entitled thereto were to repair to have their due shares assigned -to them by special officials. - -Not only did Nehemiah provide for the re-population of the deserted -city of Jerusalem, but he also sought means to furnish the new -inhabitants with suitable dwellings. At his own cost he erected houses -for the poorest of the nation, and tried to supply all wants in the -same way. Thus he built up a new state, upon which he laid but one -obligation, that it should abide strictly by the Law. For twelve -years he was governor of Judah (from 444 to 432); he was then obliged -to return to the court of Artaxerxes, where he still enjoyed great -favour with the king. He departed with the hope that the work he had -accomplished might be blessed with lasting security and glory. - -But no sooner had Nehemiah left than a counter-current set in that -could be traced to the influence of the high-priest Eliashib. The first -retrograde step was taken when Eliashib held friendly communication -with the Samaritans and the offspring of mixed marriages, in -violation of the decision of the Great Assembly. As an earnest of -this friendship, a member of the priest's household, named Manasseh, -married Nicaso, a daughter of Sanballat. Others, who had been secretly -dissatisfied with Nehemiah's strict line of separation, now followed -the example of the priestly house. An entire change took place. Tobiah, -the second great enemy of Nehemiah, was allowed to return unmolested to -Jerusalem, and a large court in the outer Temple was actually assigned -to him. - -This sudden change, which allowed what had recently been strictly -forbidden, produced a general disintegration. The people as a body was -so outraged by the actions of the high-priest and his party that it -openly showed its contempt for them. The landowners, moreover, left off -paying tithes and imposts for the support of the priesthood, and thus -the innocent Levites also lost their income. To avoid starvation they -were compelled to leave the Temple and the city. The contributions for -the sacrificial services ceased, and to prevent the altar from being -entirely neglected, the priests in charge offered up diseased, lame, -blind or unsightly animals. Many Judæans were so utterly disgusted -at the behaviour of the priests that they turned their backs upon -the Sanctuary and the affairs of the community, pursuing their own -interests, and this not rarely at the expense of justice, and of all -that they had sworn to uphold. When this class grew prosperous, the -truly pious people, who were struggling with poverty, became utterly -confused in their ideas of right and wrong, and exclaimed: "It is vain -to serve God: and what profit is it that we have kept His charge?" -"Every one that doeth evil is good in the sight of the Lord, and He -delighteth in them." - -But worse than all else was the discord which prevailed in the Judæan -community, and which even divided families. What could be pronounced -right and lawful? The father did not agree with the son; the one -accepted the stern practice, the other the lax, and thus disputes -arose in each household. To counteract these lamentable occurrences, -the more pious, who would not allow themselves to be shaken in their -convictions, met and discussed a plan of action. They turned with hope -and longing towards Nehemiah, who was still at the court of Artaxerxes. -If he would but return to Jerusalem, he could, with one blow, put an -end to this miserable state of confusion, and restore peace, unity, -and strength to the city. At this auspicious moment a God-fearing man -suddenly appeared on the scene. He belonged to the party that was -incensed at the behaviour of the high-priest and his followers, and he -undertook to chastise the wicked, and to reanimate the waning courage -of the good. This man, full of vigour, and moved by the prophetic -spirit, was Malachi, the last of the prophets. Worthily did he close -the long list of godly men who had succeeded each other for four -centuries. Malachi announced to his dejected and despairing brethren -the speedy arrival of the Messenger of the Covenant, whom many -delighted in, and who would bring better days with him. The prophet -counselled the people not to omit paying the tithes on account of the -evil-doing of some of the priests, but to bring them all, as in former -days, into the store-houses. - -Malachi, like the early prophets, proclaimed that in the distant future -a great and awful day would dawn, when the difference between the pious -and the wicked would be made clear. Before the coming of that last day -God would send His prophet Elijah, and he would reconcile the father to -the son. He bade them remember and take to heart the Law of Moses, with -its statutes and its judgments, which had been given to them on Mount -Horeb. With these words, the voice of prophecy was hushed. - -The written Law, which had been made accessible to many through the -zeal of Ezra, and which had found a body of exponents, rendered the -continuance of prophetic utterances unnecessary. The scribe took -the place of the seer, and the reading of the Law, either to large -assemblies or in houses of prayer, was substituted for prophetic -revelation. - -Did Nehemiah at the court of Persia have any idea of the yearning for -his presence that existed at this very moment in Jerusalem? Had he any -knowledge that Malachi's belief in better days rested upon the hope of -his return? It is impossible to say, but, at all events, he suddenly -re-appeared in Jerusalem, between the years 430 and 424, having again -obtained the king's permission to return to his spiritual home, and -soon after his arrival he became, in the words of the prophet, "like a -refiner's fire, and like the fuller's lye." He cleansed the community -of its impure elements. He began by expelling the Ammonite Tobiah -from the place which had been given to him by his priestly relative, -Eliashib, and by dismissing the latter from his office. He then -assembled the heads of the community, and reproached them bitterly -with having caused the Levites to desert the Temple, by neglecting to -collect the tithes. A summons from Nehemiah was enough to induce the -landed proprietors to perform their neglected duties, and to cause -the Levites to return to their service in the Temple. The charge of -the collected tithes and their just distribution he placed under the -care of four conscientious Judæans,--some of his devoted followers. He -restored the divine service to its former solemnity, and dismissed the -unworthy priests. A most important work in the eyes of Nehemiah was the -dissolution of the mixed marriages which had again been contracted. -Here he came in direct conflict with the high-priestly house. Manasseh, -a son or relation of the high-priest Joiada, refused to separate -himself from his Samaritan wife, Nicaso, Sanballat's daughter, and -Nehemiah possessed sufficient firmness to banish him from the country. -Many other Aaronides and Judæans who would not obey Nehemiah's commands -were also sent into exile. After peace and order had been restored -in the capital, Nehemiah tried to abolish the abuses which had found -their way into the provinces. Wherever Judæans lived in close proximity -to foreign tribes, such as the Ashdodites, Ammonites, Moabites, or -Samaritans, mixed marriages had led to almost entire ignorance of the -Hebrew tongue, for the children of these marriages generally spoke -the language of their mothers. This aroused Nehemiah's anger, and -stimulated his energy. He remonstrated with the Judæan fathers, he even -cursed them, and finally caused the refractory to be punished. By such -persistent activity he was able to accomplish the dissolution of the -mixed marriages, and the preservation of the Hebrew tongue. - -Nehemiah next introduced the strict observance of the Sabbath, which -had been but negligently observed hitherto. The Law had certainly -forbidden all labour on that day, but it had not defined what really -was to be considered as labour. At all events, the Judæans who lived -in the provinces were ignorant on that point, for on the Sabbath they -pressed the wine, loaded their beasts of burden with corn, grapes, -figs, and drove them to market into the city of Jerusalem. As soon -as Nehemiah discovered that the Sabbath was treated like an ordinary -week-day, he assembled the country people, and explained that they -were sinning against God's Law, and they listened to him, and followed -his injunctions. But he had a more difficult task in abolishing an -old-established custom. Tyrian merchants were in the habit of appearing -in Jerusalem on the Sabbath-day, bringing fish fresh from the sea, and -they found ready customers. But Nehemiah ordered that henceforth all -the gates should be closed on the Sabbath eve, so that no merchant -could enter the city. These ordinances were strictly enforced, and from -that time the Sabbath was rigorously observed. - -The strict observance of the Law, enjoined by Ezra, was insisted upon -by Nehemiah; he built the wall of separation between Judæans and -Gentiles so securely, that it was impossible to break through it. The -Judæans who were discontented with this separation and the severity of -the Law were obliged to leave the Judæan community, and form a sect -of their own. Nehemiah himself probably lived to see the formation of -the first sect among Jews, and as he himself might virtually be held -responsible for it, he thought it necessary to justify his proceedings, -and to set forth his own meritorious part in raising the fallen -community. He composed a kind of memoir, in which he related what he -had achieved in his first and second visits to Jerusalem. At intervals -he inserted the prayer that God would remember him for what he had done -for the people and for his services in behalf of the Sanctuary and -its preservation. It was a kind of self-justification written in his -old age, and his name has remained eternally in the remembrance of a -grateful people. To him and to Ezra, the creators of that spiritual -current which has since attained an irresistible force in the Jewish -world, grateful posterity has attributed all beneficial institutions -whose origin is unknown. - - - - -CHAPTER XX. - -THE SOPHERIC AGE. - - Enmity of the Samaritans against the Judæans--The Temple - on Mount Gerizim--The High-Priest Manasseh--The mixed - language of the Samaritans--Their veneration for the Law of - Moses--Judaism loses its national meaning--The Jubilee and - Sabbatical Year--Almsgiving--The Council of Seventy--The - Assyrian Characters--The Schools and the Sopherim--Observance - of the Ceremonies--The Prayers--The Future Life--The Judæans - under Artaxerxes II. and III.--Their Banishment to the - Caspian Sea--Johanan and Joshua contend for the office of - High-Priest--Bagoas--The Writings of the Period--The Greeks - and Macedonians--Alexander the Great and the Judæans--Judæa - accounted a Province of Coelesyria--Struggles between - Alexander's Successors--Capture of Jerusalem by Ptolemy--Judæa - added to the Lagidean-Egyptian Kingdom--The Judæan Colonies in - Egypt and Syria and the Greek Colonies in Palestine. - - 420-300 B. C. E. - - -Hatred which arises from rejected love is stronger and more vehement -than enmity resulting from inexplicable antipathy, jealousy, or -disagreement. Sanballat, as well as his Samaritan followers and -companions, out of preference for the God of Israel, had struggled to -be received into the Judæan community. The virulence of their enmity -against Nehemiah, who had raised the commonwealth from its declining -state, was in reality an impetuous offer of love, by which they hoped -to secure an intimate connection with Judæa. But as they were repulsed -again and again, this yearning love changed into burning hatred. When -Sanballat, who thought he had attained his aim by his connection -with the high-priest's family, learned of the insult shown him in -the banishment of his son-in-law Manasseh, because of that priest's -marriage with his daughter, the measure of his wrath was full. He -cunningly conceived the plan of disorganising the Judæan community, -by the help of its own members. What if he were to raise a temple to -the God of Israel, to contest the supremacy of the one at Jerusalem? -There were among his followers priests of the descendants of Aaron, who -could legally conduct the service, as prescribed in the Torah, in the -projected sanctuary. The dignity of high-priest could fitly be assumed -by his son-in-law Manasseh, and the other Aaronides who had been -expelled from the Temple could officiate with him. Everything appeared -favourable to his design. Both his desire of worshipping the God of -Israel, and his ambition to be at the head of a separate community, -could easily be satisfied at the same time. - -On the summit of the fruitful Mount Gerizim, at the foot of the city of -Shechem, in the very heart of the land of Palestine, Sanballat built -his Temple, probably after the death of Artaxerxes (about 420). - -The Aaronides who had been expelled from Jerusalem, and who were well -versed in all the tenets of the Law, had selected this site because -they knew that, according to the Book of Deuteronomy, the blessings -were to be pronounced upon the followers of the Law of Moses from that -mount. But the Samaritans gave to the old words a new interpretation. -They called, and still call to this day, Mount Gerizim "the Mount of -Blessings," as if blessing and salvation proceeded from the mount -itself. Even the town of Shechem they called "Blessing" (Mabrachta). -Sanballat, or the priests of this temple of Gerizim, declared that the -mixed race of the Samaritans were not descendants of the exiles placed -in that country by an Assyrian king, but that, on the contrary, they -were true Israelites, a remnant of the Ten Tribes, or of the tribes -of Joseph and Ephraim. There may indeed have been amongst them some -descendants of the families who, after the destruction of the kingdom -of the Ten Tribes, clung to Samaria; but that the numerous Cuthæans -who gathered round Sanballat, together with the Ammonites and the -Arabians, were descendants of Joseph and Ephraim and Israelites, was -one of those ingenious and audacious fictions which, by their very -exaggeration, stagger even those who are thoroughly convinced of their -falsehood. Their language, however, betrayed their mixed origin; it was -a conglomeration of Aramaic and other foreign elements, so that it is -to this day impossible to define its origin satisfactorily. - -But the venture was a successful one. The Samaritans had their -temple, around which they gathered; they had priests from the house -of Aaron; they impudently opposed their Hargerizim, as they called -their holy mount, to Mount Moriah; they interpreted the Book of the -Law to suit themselves, making it appear that God had designed Mount -Gerizim as a site for a sanctuary, and they proudly called themselves -Israelites. Sanballat and his followers, intent upon attracting a -great many Judæans to their community, tempted them with the offer of -houses and land, and in every way helped to support them. Those who -had been guilty of crime in Judæa or Jerusalem, and feared punishment -were received with open arms by the Samaritans. Out of such elements -a new semi-Judæan community or sect was formed. Their home was in -the somewhat limited district of Samaria, the centre of which was -either the city that gave its name to the province, or the town of -Shechem. The members of the new community became an active, vigorous, -intelligent people, as if Sanballat, the founder, had infused his -spirit into them. In spite of its diminutive size, this sect has -continued until the present day. The existence of the Samaritans, as -a community, may really be considered a signal victory of the Judæan -faith, for it was their religion alone that kept so mixed a people -together; it became the loadstar of their lives, and to it they -remained faithful, in spite of adversity and disaster. The Samaritans -treated the Torah, brought to them by exiled priests, with as much -reverence as the Judæans did, and regulated their religious and social -life according to its requirements. But, in spite of this community -of essential principles, the Judæans were not delighted with this -accession to the ranks of their faith. This first Judæan sect caused -them as much sorrow as those which, at a later period, grew up among -them. The Samaritans were not only their most bitter foes, but actually -denied to them the right of existence as a community. They declared -that they alone were the descendants of Israel, disputing the sanctity -of Jerusalem and its Temple, and affirming that everything established -by the Judæan people was a mere counterfeit of the old Israelitish -customs. The Samaritans were ever on the alert to introduce into their -own country such improvements as were carried into effect in Judæa, -though, had it been in their power, they would have destroyed the -nation which was their model. On the part of the Judæans, the hatred -against their Samaritan neighbours was equally great. They spoke of -them as "the foolish people who lived in Shechem." The enmity between -Jerusalem and Samaria that existed in the time of the two kingdoms -blazed up anew; it no longer bore a political, but a religious -character, and was therefore the more violent and intense. - -The existence of the Samaritan sect had, however, a stimulating effect -upon the Judæans: as the latter continually came into collision with -their opponents, and were obliged to listen to doctrines in the highest -degree distasteful to them, they were forced to a careful study of the -essence of their own belief. The Samaritans helped them to acquire -self-knowledge. What was it that distinguished them, not only from the -heathen world, but also from those neighbours who worshipped the one -God, and acknowledged as authoritative the same Revelation? It was the -thought that they possessed a peculiar creed, and the conception of -"Judaism" gained clearness in their minds. Judaism no longer meant a -_nationality_, but a religious _conviction_. The name "Judæan" lost its -racial meaning, and was applied to any adherent of the Jewish faith, -be he a descendant of Judah or Benjamin, an Aaronide or a Levite. The -two fundamental principles of this faith were the acknowledgment of the -one God, and of the Torah, in which God reveals himself through the -mediation of Moses. - -The reverence and love with which the Sacred Book came to be regarded -after the days of Ezra and Nehemiah were as deep as had been the -general indifference to it in earlier times. "A wise man trusts the -Law, and the Law is as true to him as the words of the truth-giving -Urim and Thummim." The Torah was looked upon as the quintessence of all -wisdom, and was honoured as such. Hebrew poetry, still full of life, -glorified it with enthusiastic praise. It followed naturally that the -Torah became the fundamental law of the little state or commonwealth of -Judah. Before a Judæan undertook or desisted from any action, he would -ask whether his course was in conformity with the Law. Slavery ceased -to exist; even if a Judæan wished to sell himself as a slave he could -not find a buyer. Therefore the year of Jubilee, intended as a year of -release of slaves, became a superfluous institution. On the other hand, -the Sabbatical year was strictly kept. The debts of the poor were then -cancelled, and the fields lay fallow. Probably the Judæan favourites at -the Persian court had already demanded that, in the Sabbatical year, -the taxes upon the produce of the fields be remitted. The poor were -looked after with great solicitude, for the Pentateuch demanded that -there should be no needy in the land. Alms giving was looked upon in -this new order of things as the exercise of the highest virtue. In -every town, members of the Judæan community were appointed to devote -themselves to the care of the poor. The constant denunciations by the -prophets and psalmists of the hard-heartedness displayed towards the -poor and the helpless were no longer justified. Justice was admirably -administered, and so conscientiously was the law executed that the -Judæan law-officers might have been held up as models to the rest of -the world. Twice a week, on Mondays and Thursdays, the market days, -public courts of justice were held in all large towns. - -It was most natural that, as the life of the community was regulated -according to the commands of the Torah, the spiritual leaders of the -people should devise a supreme court of justice, possessing the power -to make and interpret laws. They were but carrying out the words of -Deuteronomy, in which was enjoined the establishment of a superior -court of justice, where a final decision in doubtful cases could be -given. The question now arose as to the number of members to constitute -this court. Seventy elders had shared with Moses the great burden -of his duties, the representatives of the seventy chief families of -the children of Israel. It was therefore decided that the supreme -tribunal and high court of justice should number seventy elders. This -peculiar institution, which lasted until the destruction of the Judæan -commonwealth, which became the strict guardian of the Law, and at times -rose to great political importance, was doubtless called into life at -this period. At no other time could it have arisen. Thus the great -assembly which Nehemiah had originally summoned, merely for the purpose -of accepting the obligations of the Torah, developed into a permanent -council for settling all religious and social questions. The seventy -members of the supreme council were probably chosen from various -great families. The high-priest, whether he was worthy of the dignity -or not, was placed at their head. The president was called "father -of the tribunal" (Ab Beth-din). As soon as the council was formed, -it proceeded to carry into effect what Ezra and Nehemiah had begun, -namely, the application of Judaism or the Law to the life and customs -of the people. This supreme council brought about a complete revolution. - -All the changes which we notice two hundred years later in the Judæan -commonwealth were its work; the new regulations which tradition assigns -to Ezra, and which were known under the name of Sopheric regulations -(Dibre Sopherim) were the creations of this body. It laid a sure -foundation for the edifice that was to last thousands of years. During -this period it was that regular readings from the Law were instituted; -on every Sabbath and on every Holy Day a portion from the Pentateuch -was to be read to the assembled congregation. Twice a week, when the -country people came from the villages to market in the neighbouring -towns, or to appeal at the courts of justice, some verses of the -Pentateuch, however few, were to be read publicly. At first only the -learned did the public reading, but gradually as it came to be looked -upon as a great honour to belong to the learned class, every one was -anxious to be called upon to do duty as a reader. But the characters in -which the Torah was written were an obstacle in the way of overcoming -illiteracy. The text of the Torah was written in an antique script with -Phoenician or old Babylonian characters, which could be deciphered only -by practised scribes. For the Judæans in Persia, even more than for the -Judæans in Palestine, the Torah was a book with seven seals. It was -therefore necessary to transform the old-fashioned characters of the -Hebrew Scriptures (Khetab Ibrith) into others, which were familiar to -the inhabitants of the land between the Euphrates and the Tigris, and -which the Judæans of Palestine and of the Persian provinces used also -for the ordinary purposes of every-day life. In order to distinguish -it from the old writing, the new style was called the Assyrian (Khetab -Ashurith), because it had arisen in one of the Assyrian provinces. The -Samaritans, animated by a spirit of contradiction, retained the old -Hebrew characters for their Pentateuch, only in order to be able to -reproach their opponents with having introduced a forbidden innovation -and falsified the Torah. Until the present day, their holy writ exists -in these old-fashioned characters, and it is a closed book even to most -of their priests. - -Owing to the regular reading of the Law and to its accessibility, -there arose among the Judæans an intellectual activity which gradually -gave a peculiar character to the whole nation. The Torah became their -spiritual and intellectual property, and their own inner sanctuary. -At this time there sprang up another important institution, namely, -schools for young men, where the text of the Law was taught, and love -for its teachings and principles cultivated. The intellectual leaders -of the people continually enjoined on the rising generation, "Bring -up a great many disciples." And what they enjoined so strenuously on -others they themselves must have zealously laboured to perform. One of -these religious schools (Beth-Waad) was established in Jerusalem. The -teachers were called scribes (Sopherim) or wise men; the disciples, -pupils of the wise (Talmide Chachamim). The wise men or scribes had a -twofold activity: on the one hand, to explain the Torah, and on the -other, to make the laws applicable both to individual and communal -life. This supplementary interpretation was called "exposition" -(Midrash); it was not arbitrary, but rested upon certain rules laid -down for the proper interpretation of the Law. The supreme council and -the houses of learning worked together, and one completed the other. - -The result was a most important mental development, which impressed -upon the descendants of the patriarchs a new characteristic so -strongly as to make it seem second nature in them: the impulse to -investigate, to interpret, and to tax their ingenuity in order to -discover some new and hidden meaning either in the word or the -substance. The supreme council, the source of these institutions and -this new movement, did not confine itself to the interpretation of the -existing laws, and to their application to daily life, but it also drew -up its own code of laws, which were to regulate, to stimulate and to -strengthen the religious and social life of the people. There was an -old maxim of great repute in Judæa: "Make a fence about the Law." By -this maxim the teacher of the Law was directed to forbid certain things -in themselves permissible, which, however, touched too closely upon -the forbidden points, or might be confounded with them. This method -of guarding against any possible infringement of the Law, by means of -a "fence" (Seyag), had its justification in the careless, unsettled -habits of those early days. It was absolutely necessary that the mass -of the people, who were wholly uneducated, should accustom themselves -to the performance of the precepts and duties enjoined by the Law. - -An entire set of laws, made for the purpose of preventing the violation -of the commands of the Torah, belong to the Sopheric age. For instance, -the degrees of relationship considered unlawful for matrimony were -increased in number; to prevent the violation of chastity, men were -forbidden to hold private interviews with married women in solitary -places. The loose way in which the Sabbath was observed in Nehemiah's -age was replaced by an extraordinarily rigid observance of the -Sabbath. In order to prevent any possible violation of the Sabbath -or of the festival days, all work was to cease before sunset on the -preceding evening, and an official was appointed to proclaim, by the -blast of a horn, the proper hour for repose. But the Sabbath day and -the festivals were intended to create a feeling of both devotion -and exaltation in the observers of the Law, and to banish from their -memory the cares and the troubles of the working days. It was partly to -express this that it became a custom in those days to drink a goblet -of wine at the coming in and at the going out of the festivals, and to -pronounce a blessing upon them, at their commencement declaring that -these days are holy, and sanctified by God (Kiddush), and at their -close, that they have a peculiar significance in contradistinction -to the working days (Habdalah). By laws such as these, which were -not permitted to remain a dead letter, the Sabbath acquired a holy -character. - -The first evening of the Paschal feast, falling in the spring time, -was also invested with peculiar importance. It was intended to arouse -every year and to keep alive a grateful remembrance of the deliverance -from Egypt, and the consciousness of being in possession of precious -freedom. It became either a law or a custom to drink four glasses of -wine upon this festival of rejoicing, and even the poorest managed -to obtain the draught "that rejoices the heart." On the eve of the -Passover, the members of each family, with their most intimate friends, -gathered round the table, not to indulge in a luxurious meal, but to -thank and praise the God of their fathers; they ate bitter herbs, broke -unleavened bread, tasted some of the paschal lamb in commemoration of -their freedom, and drank the four goblets of wine to celebrate this -bright festival with a cheerful heart. Gradually the custom arose for -several families to celebrate the Paschal eve in common, the whole -assembly (Chaburah) to partake of the lamb, amid the singing of psalms. -The Paschal eve became in time a delightful family festival. - -The prayers prescribed on Sopheric authority had no hard and fast -form, but the line of thought which they were to contain was, in -general, laid down. The form of prayer used in the Temple became the -model of the services in all prayer-houses, or houses of gathering -(Beth-ha-Keneseth). Divine service was performed at early morning in a -court of the Temple, and commenced with one or more specially selected -psalms of praise and thanksgiving. At the conclusion of the psalms, -the whole congregation exclaimed: "Praise be to the God of Israel, who -alone doeth wonders, and praised be the glory of His name for ever and -ever, and may His glory fill the whole earth"; upon which followed a -prayer of thanksgiving for the light of the sun, which God had given -to the whole world, and for the light of the Law, which He had given -to Israel. This was succeeded by the reading of several portions from -the Torah, the Ten Commandments and the Schema: "Hear, O Israel, -the Lord our God, the Lord is one," to which the whole congregation -responded: "Blessed be the name of the glory of His kingdom for ever -and ever." The principal prayer, the Tephillah, was composed of six -short parts: a thanksgiving that God had chosen the children of Israel -as His servants; an acknowledgment of the Divine Power, as shown in -nature, by the life-giving rain, and as manifested in man, by the -future resurrection of the dead; an acknowledgment of the holiness of -God; a supplication for the accomplishment of all prayers and for the -acceptance of sacrifice; a thanksgiving for the preservation of life, -and finally a prayer for peace, following the blessing of the priest. -In the afternoon and evening, the congregation assembled again for -prayer, but the service was short, as the Psalms and chapters of the -Law were omitted. - -On the Sabbath and festive days, the morning service was not materially -different, except that a particular prayer was interpolated, in which -special mention was made of the sanctity of the day, and a longer -portion from the Torah was read at its close. In time a portion from -the prophets, especially a chapter bearing upon the character of -the day, was read. The opposition in which the Judæans stood to the -Samaritans prompted this reading from the prophets. For the Samaritans -who denied the sanctity of the Temple and of Jerusalem, rejected the -prophetical writings, because they contained constant allusions to the -holy city and the chosen sanctuary. So much the more necessary did -it appear to the upholders of Judaism to publish these writings. In -consequence of this regulation, the words of the prophets who had but -rarely been listened to while they lived, were now read in every Judæan -house of prayer, and though they were but partially understood by the -greater number of the congregation, nevertheless they became mighty -levers to arouse the enthusiasm of the nation. As these readings ended -the morning service, they were called "the conclusion" (Haphtarah). -It thus became necessary to make an authoritative collection of the -prophetic writings, and to decide which of the books were to be -excluded, and which adopted. This choice was probably made by the -legislative body of the Sopheric age. The collection embraced the four -historical books, Joshua, Judges, Samuel, and Kings, which were called -the Earlier Prophets; then came three books, great in interest, bearing -the names of the prophets Isaiah, Jeremiah, and Ezekiel; and lastly the -twelve minor prophets, Hosea, Amos, Joel, Obadiah, Jonah, Micah, Nahum, -Habakkuk, Zephaniah, Haggai, Zachariah, and Malachi, these twelve, in -conjunction with the three greater, being styled the Later Prophets. -These works were all recognised as Holy Writ, but were placed next to -the Torah, as of secondary degree of holiness. - -In this way the divine service of the Sopheric age was constructed; -it was simple and edifying; it contained nothing superfluous, -disturbing or wearying, and it embodied the thought and spirit of -those time-honoured treasures, the writings of the prophets and -the psalmists. It contained only one foreign element, the belief in -the resurrection of the dead on the last day. With this exception, -everything was taken from the pure spring of the earliest teachings. - -The inhabitants of the country towns introduced in their own -congregations an exact copy of the divine service as it was conducted -in Jerusalem. They needed no urging to this by mandatory enactments. -Thus in each town, houses of prayer (Synagogues, Moade-El) were -established, in which was introduced the order of prayer which is -the groundwork of the divine service of the present day. Besides the -prayers, sacrifices were offered up according to the letter of the -Law. These two forms of divine service were blended into one; they -completed and helped one another. The spiritual service adapted itself -to the sacrificial ceremonies; three times during the day, whilst the -priests were offering up their sacrifices, the congregations assembled -in the prayer-houses, whereas on the Sabbath and on festivals, when -special sacrifices were offered up in the Temple (Korban Mussaph), the -congregation assembled four times for prayer (Tephillath Mussaph). But -even the sacrificial service could not shut out the living word; it had -to grow, as it were, more spiritual, and it became customary to sing -the Psalms at intervals between the offerings, because of the great -influence which this sublime poetry possessed. - -There was, however, one very prominent feature connected with the -Temple and the sacrifices, which was opposed to the essentially -spiritual tendency of the prophetic and psalmistic poetry. It was that -which related to the laws concerning purity and impurity. The law -of the Torah had certainly given very precise regulations on these -matters; an unclean person could not bring offerings, or approach the -sanctuary, or even taste consecrated food. There were many degrees -of uncleanness, and the Law prescribed how unclean persons might be -purified. The last act of purification always consisted in bathing -in fresh running water. These laws would never have attained such -far-reaching importance, involving every station in life, had it -not been for the sojourn of the Judæans, during so many centuries, -among the Persians, whose much more stringent purification laws were -rigorously observed. The statutes concerning uncleanness, according to -the Iranian Avesta of the Persians, whose priests were the Magi, were -extremely strict, and the means adopted for purification revolting. -Dwelling among the Magi, the Judæans absorbed much from them. The -striking resemblance of many of their laws and customs to their -own could not escape their observation, and they yielded to Magian -influences. - -The fundamental conception of the Deity, as of one incorporeal perfect -God, was so firmly implanted in the heart of every Judæan, that no -one would allow himself to be influenced by the conception of the -Persian god of light, Ahura-Mazda (Ormuzd), however spiritual that -conception might be. Their seers, full of penetration, speedily divined -the error of the Iranian doctrine of acknowledging two great rival -powers, the god of light and goodness, and the god of darkness and -sin, Angro-Mainyus (Ahriman). They contrasted that doctrine with their -own belief, that the God of Israel created light and darkness, good -and evil. They denied that the world and mankind are being perpetually -drawn in divergent directions by two rival powers, but are destined -to live in peace and unity. The spiritual leaders of the Judæans in -the Sopheric age expressed this belief in one of the morning prayers: -"God is the Creator of light and of darkness, He has created peace and -has made everything." But although the Judæans resisted any alteration -in their conception of the Deity, still they could not prevent many -of the ideas and customs of the Persians from gaining ground among -the nation. They imagined that they were adding to the glory of God -if, in imitation of the Iranians, they surrounded Him with myriads of -obedient servants. The "messengers of God," whom we read of in the -Bible as executors of His will, became, after the pattern of Persian -beliefs, heavenly creatures, endowed with peculiar characteristics -and special individuality. The people pictured to themselves the -divine throne, surrounded by a countless throng of heavenly beings, -or angels, awaiting a sign to do the bidding of God. "Thousand times -thousands served Him, and myriad times myriads stood before Him." -Like the Persians, the Judæans called the angels "the holy watchers" -(Irin-Kadishin). The angels received special names: Michael, Gabriel, -the strong, Raphael, the healer, Uriel or Suriel, Matatoron, and others. - -As fancy had changed the Yazatas into angels, and given them a Hebrew -character and Hebrew names, so also were the bad spirits, or Daevas, -introduced among the Judæans. Satan was a copy of Angro-Mainyus, but he -was not placed in juxtaposition to the God of Israel, for this would -have been a denial of the fundamental doctrine of the Judæans. He, -the Holy One, high and mighty and all-powerful, could not be limited, -or in any way interfered with by one of His own creatures. Still the -first step had been taken, and, in the course of time, Satan grew to -be as strong and powerful as his Iranian prototype, and was endowed -with a kingdom of darkness of his own, where he reigned as the supreme -power of evil. Once created in the image of Angro-Mainyus, Satan had -to be surrounded with a host of attendant demons or evil spirits -(Shedim, Mazikim, Malache Chabalah). One demon, as an adaptation of -the Iranian Daeva names, was called Ashmodai; another, by the name of -Samael, was at the head of a troop of persecuting spirits. The angel -of death (Malach-ham Maveth), lying in ambush, ready to seize upon -men's lives, was endowed with a thousand eyes. These creatures of the -imagination soon took firm hold of the Jewish soul, and with them many -usages resembling those of the Magi invaded the Jewish religion; and -especially the laws of purification became more and more rigorous. - -It was also at that time that a new doctrine of retribution was -developed in Judaism. According to the Iranian doctrine, the universe -was divided into two great kingdoms; that of light and that of -darkness; the pure, or worshippers of Ahura-Mazda, were admitted -into the region of light (Paradise), and the wicked, the followers -of Angro-Mainyus, into the kingdom of darkness (Hell). After death, -the soul remained during three days near the body it had tenanted; -then, according to its life upon earth, it was taken by the Yazatas -to Paradise, or was drawn down by the Daevas into Hell. This idea of -retribution after death was adopted by the Judæans. The Garden of Eden -(Gan-Eden), where the story of the Creation placed the first human -beings whilst they lived in a state of innocence, was transformed into -Paradise, and the Valley of Hinnom (Ge-Hinnom), in which, since the -days of Ahaz, sacrifices of children had been offered up, gave the name -to the newly-created Hell. In what way could such new beliefs have -crept into the Judæan faith? That is as little capable of demonstration -as is the way in which the pores of the skin become impregnated with a -disease that has poisoned the atmosphere. However, these views about -angels and Satan with his attendant spirits, about Paradise and Hell, -never obtained the dignity of fixed dogmas which it would be mortal -sin to doubt, but on the contrary, during that time, and in all future -time, their adoption or repudiation was left to the discretion of -the individual. Only one belief emanating from the Iranian religion, -that of the resurrection of the dead, became part of the spiritual -life of the Judæans, until it grew at last to be a binding dogma. The -Magi had taught and insisted upon this doctrine. They believed that -the re-awakening of the dead would take place at a future day, when -Ahura-Mazda will have conquered and destroyed his rival, when the god -of darkness will have to give up the bodies of the "pure men" which he -has stolen. The Judaism of the Sopheric age adopted this hopeful and -inspiriting doctrine all the more readily, as allusions to it existed -in the Judaic writings. The prophets had constantly made references -to the day of the last judgment, and the scribes, inferring that the -resurrection of the dead was meant, made it an article of faith amongst -their people, and in the daily prayer, praise was rendered to God for -awakening the dead to life. - -At a later day, when the Judæan nation was struggling with death, a -seer, comforting the sufferers, said:-- - - "Many of those who are sleeping in dust will awake, some to - eternal life, and some to disgrace and everlasting abhorrence." - (DANIEL xii. 2.) - -In this manner a peculiar doctrine of retaliation, with a brilliant -picture of the future, or of the next world (Olam ha-Ba), was evolved. -A magical world unfolded itself to the eye, intoxicating the believer. -He saw the time come when all discords of life would change into -harmony, when all disappointments would vanish, when the pious, the -faithful, and the just, who had suffered so much upon earth, would rise -from their graves and enter on eternal life in innocence and purity. -Even the sinners who had erred only from frivolity and weakness would -be purified by penitence in Hell, and would enjoy the pleasures of -eternal life. But how was this resurrection to take place, and how was -this beautiful new world to be organised? Imagination could not find an -answer to such a question. Fervent faith and enthusiastic hope do not -indulge in subtle inquiries; they are contented with giving the pious -the comforting assurance that a just recompense is in store for them, -in a future life, and thus assuaging the sorrows of an unhappy earthly -existence. Although Judaism received the essence of this teaching from -without, yet the power of enriching it, and of endowing it with the -faculty of working immeasurable good came from within. The foreign -origin of this belief becoming finally obliterated, it was considered -as an original Judæan doctrine. Only the Samaritans objected, for a -considerable time, to the belief in the resurrection and to the idea of -a future life. - -During this long period of nearly two hundred years, while the Judæan -community established itself, and Judaism developed by the enlargement -of its own doctrines and the adoption of foreign elements--from the -death of Nehemiah to the destruction of the Persian kingdom--we do not -find a single personage mentioned who assisted in that great work, -which was to outlive and defy the storms of ages. Was it from excess -of modesty that the spiritual leaders of the people, with whom the new -order of things had originated, veiled themselves in obscurity, in -order to eliminate from their work every vestige of individualism? Or -is it the ingratitude of posterity that has effaced these names? Or, -again, were the members of the Great Council not sufficiently gifted or -remarkable to merit any particular distinction, and was the community -indebted for its vigour, and Judaism for its growth and development, -entirely to the zeal of a whole community, in which every individual -will was completely absorbed? Whatever was the cause, the astonishing -fact remains, that of these long stretches of time but few details -have become known to us. Either no annals were kept of the events of -those years, or they have been lost. It is true there were no very -remarkable events to describe, the activity of the Judæan community -being entirely restricted to its inward life; there was nothing which -might have appeared of sufficient importance to be chronicled for -posterity. There was indeed but little for the historian to write -about: a stranger might perhaps have been struck by the changes which -were gradually unfolding themselves, but to those who lived and worked -in the community, what was there of a peculiar or extraordinary nature -which might deserve to be perpetuated in history? - -The Judæan people occupied themselves almost entirely with peaceful -avocations; they understood but little of the use of arms; perhaps not -even enough to preserve their own territories against the attacks of -their neighbours. The prophet Ezekiel had described what the condition -of the Jews would be after their return from captivity: - - "In the latter years thou shalt come into the land that is - turned away from the sword and is gathered out of many people - against the mountains of Israel." (EZEK. xxxviii. 8.) - -A peaceful, quiet existence naturally withdraws itself from curious -observation. In the wars which were often raging on their borders, the -Judæan people certainly took no part. Under Artaxerxes II., surnamed -Mnemon (404-362), and under Artaxerxes III., surnamed Ochus (361-338), -leaders of the discontented Egyptians, some of whom called themselves -kings, endeavoured to free their country from the Persian yoke, and -to restore it to its former independence. In order to be enabled to -offer effectual resistance to the armies collected for the purpose -of putting down these insurrections, the ephemeral kings of Egypt -joined the Persian satraps of Phoenicia, to whom Judæa had also been -allotted. Persian troops often passed along the Judæan coasts of the -Mediterranean towards Egypt, or Egyptians towards Phoenicia, and Greek -mercenaries, hired by either power, marched to and fro, and all this -warlike array could be constantly observed by the Judæans from their -mountain-tops. They did not always remain mere passive spectators; -for, though they were not compelled to join the armies, they were -certainly not exempt from various charges and tributes. The relations -between the Judæans and the Persians was at the same time somewhat -disturbed. The latter, influenced by foreign example, began to practise -idolatry. The goddess of love, who, under the different names of -Beltis, Mylitta, or Aphrodite, was constantly brought under the notice -of the Persians, exercised a fascinating power over them. The victories -they had achieved and the riches they had acquired, inclined them to -sensual pleasures, and they were easily enthralled by the goddess, and -induced to serve and worship her. As soon as they had adopted this new -deity, they gave her a Persian name, Anahita, Anaitis, and included -her in their mythology. Artaxerxes II. sanctioned her worship, and had -images of her placed everywhere in his great kingdom, in the three -principal cities, Babylon, Susa, and Ecbatana, as well as in Damascus, -Sardes, and in all the towns of Persia and Bactria. Through this -innovation the Persian religion sustained a double injury. A strange -deity was admitted, and image-worship introduced. Thus the spiritual -link which had bound the Persians to the followers of Judaism--their -common abhorrence of idolatry--was broken. No longer was "pure incense" -offered to the incorporeal God of the Judæans. Having compelled his own -people to bow down to this newly adopted goddess of love, Artaxerxes -tried, as it appears, to force her worship upon the Judæans; the latter -were cruelly treated, in order to make them renounce their religion, -but they chose the severest punishments, and even death itself, rather -than abjure the faith of their fathers. It is related that after his -war with the Egyptians and their king Tachos (361-360), Artaxerxes -banished many Judæans from their country, and sent them to Hyrkania, -on the shores of the Caspian Sea. If this account may be considered -historical, the banishment of the Judæans must surely have been a -mode of persecution inflicted upon them on account of their fidelity -to their laws and their God; for it is hardly to be supposed that they -took part in the revolt against Persia, which was then spreading from -Egypt to Phoenicia. In Jerusalem there was much suffering at that time, -caused by one of those abject creatures, who, owing to the growing -degeneracy of the Persian Court and increasing weakness of the kingdom, -raised themselves from the dust, and ruled both the countries and the -throne. This was the eunuch Bagoas (Bagoses), who under Artaxerxes -III. became so powerful that he was able to set aside the king, and -fill the throne according to his own pleasure. Before attaining this -supreme position, Bagoas had been the commander of the troops stationed -in Syria and Phoenicia, and he had taken advantage of the opportunities -thus offered him to acquire great riches. He received bribes from -Joshua, the ambitious son of the high-priest, who hoped thus to secure -that post for himself. Joshua had an elder brother, Johanan, and both -were sons of Joiada, one of whose relations, having connected himself -with Sanballat, had been banished from Jerusalem by Nehemiah, and -subsequently had introduced the rival worship on Mount Gerizim. After -the death of Joiada, the younger son, trusting in the countenance of -Bagoas, came forward to seize the high-priest's diadem. The elder -brother was enraged at this presumption, and a struggle, which ended -in bloodshed, took place between the two in the Temple itself. Johanan -slew Bagoas's protégé in the Sanctuary. A sad omen for the future! Upon -hearing what had occurred at Jerusalem, the eunuch instantly proceeded -thither, not to avenge the death of Joshua, but, under the pretext of -meting out well-deserved punishment, to extort money for himself. For -each lamb that was offered at the daily services in the Temple, the -people were ordered to pay 50 drachms as expiatory money, and this -sum was to be paid every morning before the sacrifice was performed. -Bagoas also violated the law which forbade any layman's entering the -Sanctuary, and when the priest, in accordance with the prohibitory -decree, tried to prevent his entrance into the Temple, he asked, -mockingly, if he was not so pure as the son of the high-priest, who had -been murdered there? - -The people paid the expiatory money for seven years, when, for some -reason, they were freed from their burden. The disfavour into which -the Judæan nation had fallen with the last Persian king was turned -to account by their malevolent neighbours, the Samaritans, in order -to injure them to their utmost power. They appear to have regained -by force or cunning the border districts of Ramathaim, Apherema and -Lydda, which they had formerly been obliged to quit. The Judæans were -now reduced to a struggle for mere existence. Few and brief had been -the glimpses of light which had brightened the annals of the Judæan -community during the last two hundred years! This light had illumined -the first enthusiastic days of the return from captivity during the -reign of Darius, who showered favours upon them, and during the time -of Nehemiah's presence and zealous activity at Jerusalem. With these -exceptions, their lot had been oppression, poverty and pitiable -helplessness. They appear to us in their sadness and misery to be -ever asking with tearful, uplifted eyes, "Whence shall help come to -us?" and traces of this helplessness and misery are visible in the -writings that have come down from that period. While the exile lasted, -the grief and the longing, which kept the captives in constant and -breathless expectation, had brought forth the fairest blossoms of -prophecy and poetry; but as soon as the excitement ceased, and hope -became a reality, the mental and poetical activity began to sink. The -later prophetical utterances, if beauty of form be considered, cannot -bear comparison with those of the Captivity. The poetry of the Psalms -became weak and full of repetitions, or else borrowed the bloom of -older productions. The graceful idyl of the book of Ruth forms an -exception in the literature of this period. Historical writings were, -from causes easy to explain, completely neglected. Ezra and Nehemiah -had given only a short and unpolished account of the occurrences they -had witnessed. Quite at the end of this epoch, towards the close of the -Persian dominion, it appears that a Levite compiled an historical work -(Chronicles), narrating the events from the Creation down to his own -time. - -But during the life of the author of the annals, or shortly after he -had finished his history, a new period dawned, which gave rise to fresh -mental exertions among the Judæans, and brought forth proofs of their -capacity and worth. This new period was ushered in by the Greeks. They -wrought a thorough change in the manners, customs and thoughts of -other nations, and materially raised the degree of civilisation among -the various peoples then known in the world. However, the diffusion -of this civilisation, which was the consequence of the acquisition of -political power and widespread conquest, was owing, not to a purely -Greek race, but to a mixed people of Greeks and Barbarians, namely, the -Macedonians. The grace and charm of the Greeks have caused their faults -to be leniently regarded by mankind, but they were not overlooked by -the Ruler of the world, and their sins brought retributive punishment -upon them. Advantage was easily taken of their mutual jealousies, -their many foibles, their restless, unruly disposition, and Greece was -apt to fall a prey to any ambitious leader who was an adept in the -art of intoxicating flattery, lavish with his gold, and supported by -martial force. Such was the case with Philip, king of Macedonia, who -dazzled all with his cunning and his wealth, his valour and his army. -All Greece lay at his feet. But even now when the king proposed, as a -satisfaction to their national pride, that a war should be undertaken -against Persia, in which they might at once punish the latter for -inroads upon their country, and win fame and booty for themselves, -petty feelings of jealousy continued to exist among the people, and -to prevent common action. Some of the States could not be influenced, -and refused to send delegates to the assembly; whilst other States, -or their representatives, had to be bribed to give their consent to -the proposed plan. Philip's project of war against Persia was cut -short by the hand of an assassin. Then appeared his son, the great -Alexander, who was destined to remodel entirely the relations of the -various countries, and to draw the peaceful inhabitants of Judæa into -the vortex of the great world conflicts. New troubles and new trials -were brought upon the Judæan people by the convulsions felt from one -end of the known world to the other. A Judæan seer compared Alexander -to a leopard endowed with the wings of an eagle. In two battles he gave -to the rotten Persian monarchy its deathblow; Asia Minor, Syria, and -Phoenicia lay at his feet, and kings and princes, attired in all their -pomp, did homage to the conqueror. Tyre and Gaza, the one after a seven -months', the other after a two months' siege, were both taken (August -and November, 332), and met with a cruel fate. - -How did the insignificant dominion of Judæa fare with the invincible -hero before whom Egypt, the proud land of the Pharaohs, had fallen -humbly prostrate? The historical records of those times have come -down to us only in the form of legends, and consequently give us no -authentic account of the passing events. It is scarcely credible that -the Judæans were prevented from doing homage to Alexander through -fear of incurring any guilt by breaking their oath to their Persian -rulers. They had never taken such an oath of fealty, but even if they -had, after their treatment by the last Persian kings, they would not -have felt much remorse in breaking it. There is no doubt that the -story of Alexander's approach to Jerusalem, and the favours which he -heaped upon the Judæans in consequence of a peculiar vision, rests -upon a legend. The High Priest, so it is related, dressed in his holy -garments, followed by a troop of priests and Levites, went forth to -meet the youthful warrior, and produced so great and extraordinary an -effect upon him, that his anger was at once changed into kindness and -good will. The explanation given by Alexander to his followers was -that the High Priest thus attired had appeared to him in a dream which -he had had in Macedonia, and had promised him victory. According to -one legend, it was the High Priest Jaddua, according to another, his -grandson Simon, who produced this effect upon the Macedonian hero. In -reality, the meeting between Alexander and the envoys of the Judæan -community no doubt passed simply and naturally enough. The High Priest, -perhaps Onias I., Jaddua's son and Simon's father, went forward, like -the kings and princes of the land, with a suite of the elders, to do -homage and swear allegiance to the conqueror. Alexander was a noble, -generous conqueror, who punished cruelly only resistance to his will, -but in no way interfered with the peculiar development, the customs, -or religious rites of any nation under his sway. He did not force -the Grecian faith on any nation, and the favour which he granted to -other nations he certainly did not deny to the Judæans. They were only -obliged to pay the Macedonian governor the same tax on their lands as -the Persian satrap had received. - -The first meeting of Greece and Judæa, both of which were, in different -ways, to offer civilisation to the world, was of a friendly character, -although the one appeared in all her glory and might, the other in her -weakness and humility.--Judæa became part of a province, which was -bounded on the north by Mount Taurus and Mount Lebanon, and on the -south by Egypt, and was called Hollow Syria (Coelesyria), to distinguish -it from the Higher Syria, which lay in the neighbourhood of the -Euphrates. The governor of this extensive province, which had formerly -been divided into many independent states, resided in Samaria, from -which we may infer that it was a fortified and populous town. Samaria, -however, was indebted for this preference or dangerous station to -its situation in the centre of the province and in a fertile region. -Andromachos was the name of the governor whom Alexander placed over -the Coelesyrians. Why were the Samaritans displeased with this apparent -distinction? Did they feel themselves hampered in their movements by -the presence of the Governor, or was their anger roused by jealousy -at the favour shown by Alexander to the Judæans, whom they hated so -bitterly? The violent resentment of the Samaritans, or at least of -their leaders, went so far that, heedless of the consequences, they -rose up against Andromachos, seized him and consigned him to the flames -(331). Alexander's wrath, upon hearing of this act of atrocity which -had been committed upon one of his generals, was as great as it was -just. Had this small, insignificant people dared defy one who had -subdued all Egypt, the proud priests of which country had prostrated -themselves before him, proclaiming his pre-eminence and his glory? -Upon his return from Egypt, while hastening to conquer Persia, he -hurried to Samaria to avenge the murder of Andromachos. The authors -of the horrible deed were put to death under cruel tortures, another -governor called Memnon was placed over Samaria, and the town was filled -with Macedonians. In various other ways, Alexander appears to have -mortified and humiliated the Samaritans, and knowing that they were -enemies of the Judæans, he favoured the latter in order to mark his -displeasure towards the former. Several border lands lying between -Samaria and Judæa, which had often occasioned strife between the two -peoples, he awarded to the Judæans, and likewise freed the latter -from the burden of taxation during the Sabbatical year. This favour, -of small importance to him who gave it, was a great boon to those who -received it, and inflamed the hatred of the Samaritans against the -Judæans; every gust of wind seemed to add new fuel to their enmity, -which, however, as long as Alexander lived, they were obliged to -conceal. His wonderfully rapid and victorious campaigns--as far as the -Indus and the Caucasus--seemed to throw a spell over the world, and to -paralyse all independent action. When he was not at war, peace reigned -supreme, from Greece to India, and from Ethiopia to the shores of the -Caspian sea. Alexander was the first conqueror who deemed it a wise -policy to allow the peculiar customs of any conquered nation to be -maintained; he insisted that respect should be shown to their various -religious forms of worship. In Egypt he honoured Apis and Ammon, and -in Babylonia the gods of Chaldæa. Thus he determined upon rebuilding -the temple of the Babylonian idol Bel, which had been destroyed by -Artaxerxes. To accomplish this, he ordered his soldiers to clear away -the ruins which had accumulated over the foundations of the building. -All obeyed with the exception of the Judæans who, either voluntarily -or by compulsion, were serving in his army. They refused their help -towards the reconstruction of the idolatrous temple. Naturally enough, -their disobedience received severe chastisement from their superior -officers, but they bore their punishment bravely, rather than comply -with an order which demanded the transgression of one of the principal -injunctions of their faith. When Alexander heard of this case of -conscience and of the religious fortitude displayed by the Judæan -soldiers, he was generous enough to grant them his pardon. But in that -incident we may read an omen of the conflicts which were to take place -between Judaism and Greekdom. - -In the midst of his vast undertaking--that of uniting the whole world -into one monarchy--the young hero died (323), leaving no lawful heir -to his throne, no successor to his great mind. Confusion arose in all -parts of the world, as well as among the armies of Alexander,--dire -as if the laws of Nature had been upset, and the sequence of the -morrow after to-day were no longer certain. Fearful battles, which -resembled the wars of the Titans, ensued. Alexander's warriors, with -the experience gained on a thousand battle-fields, would, had they -only been united, have been capable of supporting the structure of the -Macedonian kingdom; but, although they were not actually Greeks, and -even looked down upon the latter, they resembled them in their spirit -of insubordination, their want of discipline, and their passion for -self-advancement, which greatly surpassed their zeal for the good of -the State. Like the Greeks, they coveted power as a means to obtain -luxuries and to enable them to indulge in licentious pleasures; in -short, they had become adepts in corrupt practices. - -The consequence of this state of things was the dissolution of the -Macedonian kingdom and its division among the contending leaders. -Ptolemy I. Soter, son of Lagos, reigned in Egypt. By means of a -successful war he acquired Coelesyria, together with Judæa. In 320, he -demanded the surrender of Jerusalem, but its inhabitants refused to -open their gates. On a Sabbath, however, he contrived to surprise the -city, and, as the Judæans would not use weapons of defence on that day, -he was able to seize the city and to make numerous prisoners, whom he -carried away to Egypt. Many Samaritans shared their fate, probably -because they had likewise attempted resistance. Both Judæans and -Samaritans could have enjoyed happiness--at least, as much happiness as -was possible in those hard, cruel times--had they remained subjects of -the Lagidian Ptolemy, who was the gentlest of the warring successors -of Alexander. He knew how to recognise and appreciate merit, and when -his own interests were not at stake, he was just and merciful; but -Ptolemy had no acknowledged right upon Coelesyria. His acquisition -of those lands had not been confirmed by the various regents of the -Macedonian kingdom who followed each other in rapid succession, and -kept up the semblance of a united government. Ptolemy roused the envy -of the confederate captains, and in particular that of one of his -former allies and fellow-conspirators, Antigonus. This bold soldier -was endowed with inventive genius and a fiery nature, and had resolved -upon the subjection of all his associates, in order to seize and hold -the whole kingdom of Macedonia in his own strong hand. After many years -of warlike preparations, a decisive battle at last took place between -Demetrius, the son of Antigonus, and Ptolemy, which ended disastrously -for the former. The battle of Gaza, fought in the spring of 312, was a -memorable one, for from that event Seleucus, who had come as a fugitive -to Ptolemy, dated the beginning of his power by introducing the new -era called Seleucidæan, or Greek, which also came into use among the -Judæans, and was longest retained by them. In consequence of the defeat -at Gaza, Demetrius was obliged to withdraw to the north, leaving the -whole country to the conqueror. Only a short time elapsed, however, -before Antigonus and his son, having joined their forces, compelled -Ptolemy to retreat to Egypt. He caused the fortified sea-coast and -inland cities, Acco, Joppa, Gaza, and Jerusalem to be demolished, -so that they might not become places of defence to his enemies, and -Judæa, with the countries that belonged to Coelesyria, remained in this -unguarded condition until, in the battle at Ipsus, in Asia Minor (301), -fought against the united armies of Ptolemy, Lysimachus, Cassander, and -Seleucus, Antigonus lost at one blow both his glory and his life. The -four generals divided the kingdom among themselves. Ptolemy received -Egypt and the adjoining lands, and the greater part of Asia fell to -Seleucus. Thus Judæa became a portion of the Ptolemæan or Lagidian -kingdom, and its fate for a time was linked to that of the latter. The -condition of the Judæans, however, underwent no material change. The -tribute they had been obliged formerly to pay to the Persian monarch -was now demanded by the Egypto-Macedonian court. The freedom and -independence of their movements and actions were not more restricted -than they had hitherto been; on the contrary, their situation might be -considered rather improved than otherwise. - -In Judæa, the high-priest, who was answerable for the payment of -taxes, was considered as the political chief, and was looked upon as -a sacerdotal prince. Ptolemy I. was endowed with a gentle nature, -and inclined to benefit his subjects. He had neither desire nor -motive to oppress the Judæans. Alexandria, the seaport city founded -by Alexander, and considered as the capital of his kingdom by the -first Egypto-Macedonian monarch, acquired a large population, and it -could only be a source of satisfaction to him to see Judæans from the -neighbouring country establishing themselves there. Under Alexander, -many Judæans had settled in that city, and, as this far-seeing hero had -given equal rights of Macedonian citizenship to all comers, the first -Judæan colony in Alexandria enjoyed perfect equality with the other -inhabitants, and led a peaceful existence in the new land. A great -number of Judæans took up their abode there during the disturbed state -of their country, caused by the wars of Antigonus; they also received -from Ptolemy protection and the enjoyment of equal laws and rights. And -thus arose an Egypto-Judæan community, which was destined to fulfil a -peculiar mission. In other places also Judæan colonies were formed. -Assured of the good will of the Judæans, Ptolemy distributed them in -various Egyptian cities and in Cyrene. - -Seleucus, the founder of the Seleucidæan kingdom, the centre of -which was situated in Persia, had in addition become possessed of -the northern part of Syria, where he founded a new city, Antioch, -which became his capital. In order to people this city, as well as -other newly-built towns, he was obliged to bring inhabitants into -them, and among these partly forced and partly willing settlers were -many Judæans, to whom Seleucus gave the full rights of Macedonian -citizenship. And, as Judæan colonies arose in the Græco-Macedonian -countries, so also Greek colonies were formed upon Judæan ground. Along -the Mediterranean coast new seaports were built, or old ones enlarged -and embellished, and to these Grecian names were given. - - - - -CHAPTER XXI. - -SIMON THE JUST AND HIS DESCENDANTS. - - Condition of the Judæans under the Ptolemies--Simon - effects Improvements--His Praises are sung by Sirach--His - Doctrines--The Chasidim and the Nazarites--Simon's - Children--Onias II. and the Revolt against Egypt--Joseph, - son of Tobias--His Embassy to Alexandria--He is appointed - Tax-collector--War between Antiochus the Great and - Egypt--Defeat of Antiochus--Spread of Greek Manners in - Judæa--Hyrcanus--The Song of Songs--Simon II.--Scopas despoils - Jerusalem--The Contest between Antiochus and Rome--Continued - Hellenisation of the Judæans--The Chasidim and the - Hellenists--Jose ben Joezer and Jose ben Johanan--Onias III. - and Simon--Heliodorus--Sirach's Book of Proverbs against the - Errors of his Time. - - 300-175 B. C. E. - - -For more than a century after the death of Nehemiah, the inner life -of the Judæan nation might have been likened to that of a caterpillar -weaving the threads which enshroud it from the juices of its own body, -while the world knew it as a martyr, bearing insult and humiliation -alike in silence. During that period it had not produced any one man, -who, by reason of his own strong individuality, had been able to bring -into play the reserve force of the nation; no one had arisen capable of -pointing the way and arousing enthusiasm. The stimulus for development -and improvement had always come from without, from the principal men -of Persia or Babylonia. But now the people, in consequence of new -political circumstances, were separated from their co-religionists -of those lands. The Judæans of the Euphrates and the Tigris could -no longer carry on active intercourse with their brethren in the -mother-country. For the reigning dynasties, the Seleucidæ and the -Ptolemies, looked upon each other with suspicion, and frequent visits -of the Judæans from the provinces of the Seleucidæ to the Judæans of -Jerusalem, would have been regarded with disfavour in Alexandria. -Had the nation not been able to rally in its own country without -extraneous help, it would have been lost; a people which cannot exist -or improve of itself must sooner or later fall into insignificance. But -the right man arose at the right time. He saved the Judæan community -from its fall. This man was Simon the Just (about 300-270). In an -age deficient in great men, he appears like a lofty and luxuriant -tree in the midst of a barren country. Legendary lore has seized -upon his name, and has added the marvellous to the historical. It is -always a favourable testimony to an historical personage, and to the -influence he wields over a large circle, when romance proclaims his -praise. Authentic history does not tell us much of Simon I., still -the few characteristics preserved to us portray him as a man of great -distinction. He was, moreover, the one high-priest of the house of -Joshua ben Jozedek, of whom there is anything laudatory to be related, -and the one to restore the priesthood to honour. "He cared for his -people to save it from falling." He rebuilt the walls of Jerusalem, -which had been demolished by Ptolemy I., and he repaired the ravages -of two centuries upon the Temple. He also carried out various measures -for the safety and improvement of the capital. The supply of water from -the several springs in the neighbourhood of Jerusalem is insufficient -for ordinary purposes in dry seasons. The Temple, too, required water -in copious quantities. To meet these requirements, Simon caused a -large reservoir to be excavated below the Temple, which was fed by a -subterranean canal, and brought a constant supply of fresh water from -the springs of Etam. Thus there was no fear of drought, even in case of -a siege. The poet, Joshua (Jesus) Sirach, who lived at a later date, -gives us an enthusiastic description of Simon:-- - - "How was he distinguished in the midst of the people in his - coming out of the Sanctuary! He was as the morning star in the - midst of a cloud, and as the full moon in the vernal season. - - "As the sun shining upon the temple of the Most High, and as - the rainbow giving light in the bright clouds. - - "When he put on the robe of honour, and was clothed with the - garments of glory ... compassed with his brethren round about, - like palms around a cedar of Lebanon." (ECCLUS. 1. 5-12.) - -Not only was Simon the Just recognised in his office of high-priest as -head of the community and of the Supreme Council, but he was also the -chief teacher in the house of learning. He inculcated this maxim upon -his disciples: "The world (_i.e._, the Judæan community) rests on three -things, on the Law, on Divine Service (in the Temple), and on Charity" -(Aboth i. 2). One may also ascribe to this remarkable man some share in -the following saying of one of his most distinguished pupils, Antigonus -of Soho, "Be not like those slaves, who serve their master for their -daily rations, but be rather like the servants who faithfully serve -their master without expectation of reward." Although Simon the Just -attached great importance to the sacrificial rites, still he disliked -the excessive ceremonialism towards which his generation was tending, -nor did he conceal his disapprobation. There were amongst the nation, -some over-pious people who took the vow of the Nazarite to refrain -from wine for a given time; they called themselves, or were called, -the strictly pious, Chasidim. When the term of their vows had expired, -they cut off their hair and went through all the ceremonies. Perhaps -the excesses of the Greeks and their Jewish followers, their numerous -feasts and orgies induced them to impose upon themselves this Nazaritic -abstention with its attendant rites. It is certain that as the number -of pleasure-seeking imitators of Greek habits increased in Judæa, so -did also that of the Chasidim. But Simon the Just was not pleased -with this exaggerated zeal, and took no part in the sacrifices of the -Nazarites. - -Posterity has formed so exalted an opinion of Simon's character, that -it designated his death as the end of an historical period of divine -grace. In fact, sad and terrible events, brought about by his own -descendants, and causing fresh trials to the Judæans, followed upon his -death. Simon the Just left two children, a young son named Onias and a -daughter. The latter was married to Tobiah, a somewhat distinguished -man of priestly descent. Onias being too young to officiate as High -Priest, a relative, named Manasseh, represented him during his -minority. The rule of Onias II. became a turning-point in the history -of the Judæans. The constant warfare carried on for years between the -rival houses of the Seleucidæ and the Ptolemies affected the fate of -Judæa. - -When at last a treaty of peace was concluded (in 240), Coelesyria and -Judæa remained with Egypt, but the fourth king of the Seleucidæ, -Antiochus Callinicos, instigated these provinces to revolt, and seems -to have won over Onias II. to side with him. Onias refused to pay -the annual tax of twenty talents to the Ptolemies. Although the sum -was small, the payment was looked upon as a mark of submission, and -its refusal gave great offence at the Egyptian court. Ptolemy II., -after vainly demanding the tribute money, threatened to divide the -province amongst various foreign colonists. He despatched one of his -own favourites, Athenion, as special envoy to Jerusalem. The Judæans -in alarm and despair entreated Onias to submit, but he resisted their -prayers. When matters had come to this crisis, there suddenly appeared -upon the scene a man, Joseph by name, of extraordinary strength of will -and purpose. He was the nephew of Onias, and son of the Tobiah who had -married the daughter of Simon the Just. Fascinating in his manners, -clever, cunning, and unscrupulous, the son of Tobiah seemed born to -govern. Unfortunately for himself, Onias, the high-priest and ruler of -the State, stood in his path. But now was the moment, as he thought, -to remove the obstacle. As soon as Joseph was told of the arrival of -the Ptolemaic envoy in Jerusalem, and of his threatening message, he -hastened from his birth-place to that city, loaded his uncle Onias -with reproaches for having led his people into danger, and finding the -high-priest determined in his resistance, he offered to go himself to -Alexandria, there to commence negotiations with the king of Egypt. As -soon as Onias had empowered him to do so, Joseph assembled the people -in the court of the Temple, soothed their excited feelings, and made -them understand that they were to place entire confidence in his -ability to avert the danger that threatened them. The whole assembly -offered him their thanks, and made him leader of the people (about -230). From that moment, Joseph displayed so much decision that it was -evident a plan had long been ripening in his brain. He was well aware -of the weakness of the Greeks, and knew that they were not indifferent -to flattery and to the luxuries of the table. So he prepared tempting -banquets for Athenion, fascinating him by his charm of manner, making -him costly presents, and assuring him that he might return to Egypt, -secure of the tribute money, which he promised should be paid to the -king. As soon as the envoy had left Jerusalem, Joseph entered into -negotiations with some Samaritan friends, or money-lenders, to obtain -a loan for his necessary expenses. In order to appear with dignity at -the Egyptian court, he required splendid apparel, brilliant equipages, -and money to defray the cost of his entertainments. Joseph had no means -of his own, and in all Judæa there was no one who could advance him -large sums of money. The people, at that time, supporting themselves by -agriculture, and not being engaged in commerce, had had no opportunity -of amassing wealth. - -Furnished with the means of making a great display at court, Joseph -hurried to Alexandria, where the envoy Athenion had already prepared a -favourable reception for him. Ptolemy Euergetes was anxiously expecting -him, and was not disappointed when he arrived. He was enchanted with -Joseph's bearing and address, and invited him to be his guest at the -royal table. The envoys from the Palestinean and Phoenician cities, who -formerly had derided his simple appearance, now remarked with envy upon -his presence at court. He soon gave them occasion not only to envy -but also to hate him. For by a crafty stroke, he managed to obtain a -position of great trust, that of head tax-gatherer of Coelesyria and -Phoenicia. The king gave him a force of two thousand soldiers, who were, -if necessary, to lend their aid in the fulfilment of his duties, and -Joseph became in reality the governor of all the districts that went -by the name of Palestine. He was respected and feared as a favourite -of the king, and he therefore did not hesitate to use extreme severity -in levying taxes. In the cities of Gaza and Beth-Shean (Scythopolis), -the Greek inhabitants ventured to load him with insults, and to offer -resistance. In return he beheaded the noblest and richest of the -citizens, and confiscated their possessions for the Egyptian crown. For -twenty-two years, Joseph held the post of satrap, and spent that time -in amassing extraordinary wealth and attaining great power. - -After the death of Euergetes (223), his successor, Ptolemy VI., -Philopator (222-206), retained him in office. He continued to act in -the same heartless way, causing the following remark to be made in the -presence of Philopator:--"Joseph is stripping the flesh from Syria, and -is leaving only the bones." - -At one time, his lucky star seemed to wane; for the Seleucidæan king, -Antiochus, called by his flatterers The Great (223-187), attempted to -wrest the province of Coelesyria from Egypt (218). The commencement of -the attack augured success. The Egyptian commanders were treacherous, -they went over to the enemy, and betrayed the garrisons into their -hands. Judæa and Jerusalem, under the control of Joseph, remained -true to Egypt. But how long would they be able to resist an attack -of the Seleucidæan army? And, if such an attack was made, which side -should Joseph take? He must have lived through that time in the most -painful anxiety. At last the decisive hour struck. In the spring of -217, Antiochus appeared on the sea-coast near Gaza. He was at the head -of a large army, composed of various nationalities. His route lay to -the south, towards Egypt. Meanwhile, Philopator had roused himself -from his life of ease and self-indulgence, and was advancing to Raphia -to meet his enemy. Antiochus, over-confident of success, sustained a -severe defeat, and was obliged to return to Antioch, and give up the -possession of Coelesyria. All the cities and communities that had been -under his rule outbade one another in flattery and adulation of the -conqueror, Philopator. Joseph remained in his position of trust, and -continued to be the favourite of the Egyptian king. Through him, and -through his connection with the court life of Philopator, a complete -change had taken place in the Judæan nation, hardly visible indeed in -the provinces, but most striking in the capital. - -By means of the immense riches that Joseph had accumulated, a veritable -shower of gold fell upon the country; "he raised the people out of -poverty and needy circumstances into ease and comfort." In order to -collect the taxes of so many different towns, he was obliged to have -responsible agents, and he preferred choosing them from amongst his -own people. These agents enriched themselves in their own way, and -bore themselves proudly. The consideration which Joseph enjoyed at the -Egyptian court, his quickly-gained wealth, and the troop of soldiers -always at his command, by whose help he held in check the people of -various nationalities in Palestine, the remnant of the Philistines, -the Phoenicians, Idumæans, and even the Greco-Macedonian colonists--all -this had the effect not only of lending him and his surroundings a -certain air of self-importance, but also of raising the people in -general from the abject, submissive position they had occupied towards -the neighbouring nations. The horizon of the Judæans, particularly of -those who lived in Jerusalem, widened as they came into contact with -the Greeks. Their taste became more refined, their dwellings more -beautiful, and they began to introduce the art of painting. The Judæans -of Alexandria, who had been for a century under Greek influence, -and had, to a certain extent, become Hellenised, now brought their -influence to bear upon their fellow-countrymen, but the simplicity of -the Judæan habits and customs suffered in consequence. - -A shower of gold not only fails to have a fructifying effect, it -often causes desolation and ruin; and so it was in this case. The -rich upstarts lost their balance; they attached undue importance to -the possession of riches, and preferred money-making to every other -occupation, but the most unfortunate feature was that they became blind -admirers of the Greeks, whose extravagant habits and frivolous customs -they soon acquired, to the deterioration of their own national virtues. -The Greeks loved conviviality, gave public banquets, and indulged in -most unruly merrymaking at their repasts. The Judæans imported the -custom of dining in company, reclining on couches whilst they ate and -drank, and indulging in wine, music, and song at their entertainments. -All this was innocent enough; but unfortunately it led to more than -merely making life brighter. Greek frivolity and extravagance drew -their imitators rapidly into a vortex of dissipation. - -Joseph was constantly at the court of Ptolemy Philopator, when -business took him to Alexandria. This court was a hot-bed of depravity. -The days were spent in revelry, and the nights in shameless debauchery; -the prevailing depravity led astray both the people and the army. - -Philopator entertained the absurd belief that his ancestors were -descended from the God of Wine, Dionysus (Bacchus); and he considered -himself obliged to introduce bacchanalian revelries into his kingdom. -Any one wishing to ingratiate himself with the king and his boon -companions was forced to belong to the fraternity of Dionysus. Whenever -Joseph was called to Alexandria, he enjoyed the doubtful honour of -being invited to the king's orgies, and of being received by the -followers of the God of Wine. It was at such a feast that he contracted -a violent passion for one of those dissolute dancing-women who never -failed to be present upon these occasions. - -Jerusalem did not long remain untainted by this social impurity. -Joseph, from friendship, let us suppose, for his royal patron, -introduced Dionysian festivals into Judæa. At the turning-point of -the year, when winter makes way for spring, when the vine bursts into -blossom, and the wine in the barrels ferments a second time, then the -Greeks held their great festival in honour of Dionysus: "the festival -of the barrel-openings." Two days were devoted to intoxicating orgies, -when friends interchanged pitchers of wine as presents. He who drank -most was most honoured. This festival of the "barrel-opening" was -now to be celebrated in much the same way in Judæa. But, in order to -clothe this festival in a Judæan garb, the rich made it an occasion -for dispensing alms to the poor. Revelry is always the attendant of -excessive indulgence in wine. The rich Judæans soon copied the Greek -customs, and, callous to the promptings of shame and honour, they -introduced singers, dancers, and dissolute women at these festivals. A -poetical writer raises a warning voice against the growing unchastity -of the age:-- - - "Meet not with an harlot, lest thou fall into her snares. Use - not much the company of the songstress, lest thou be taken with - her attempts.... Give not thy soul unto harlots, that thou lose - not thine inheritance." (ECCLUS. ix. 3, seq.) - -The love of art and beauty which Joseph introduced into Judæa did not -compensate for this loss of chastity and morality. Even earnest men, -under Greek influence, began to cast doubts upon their old traditional -belief. They questioned whether the teachings of Judaism were correct -and true throughout, whether God really demanded from man the denial -of all self-gratification, and whether the Deity in any way concerned -itself about the great universe and the small world of mankind. - -The teachings of Epicurus, inculcating the impotence of the gods, -and recommending self-indulgence to man, were well received by the -degenerate Græco-Macedonians, and particularly by the upper circles -of the Alexandrians. It was from that city that the poison spread to -Judæa. In Jerusalem also doubters arose, who disregarded the teachings -of Judaism. These doubts might have led to increased mental activity, -had not discord been added to the corruption of manners. Feelings -of jealousy sprang up between the seven sons of Joseph by his first -marriage, and the youngest, Hyrcanus, the son of his second wife. The -latter was distinguished in youth by his quick intellect, his ability, -and his craftiness, characteristics that endeared him to his father. -In the year 210, a son was born to the king Philopator. The different -representatives of the cities of Coelesyria were anxious to express, -by presents and congratulations, their devotion to the Egyptian king. -Joseph felt that he ought not to absent himself upon such an occasion. -But his growing infirmities not allowing him to undertake such a -journey, he asked one of his sons to represent him. Hyrcanus was the -only one who felt equal to the task, and his brothers unanimously -requested their father to accept his services. At the same time they -suggested to their friends in Alexandria to put him out of the way. But -Joseph's young son instantly gained favour at court. His extravagant -gifts upon the great day of public congratulation--one hundred handsome -slaves to the king, and one hundred beautiful female slaves to the -queen, in the hands of each a gift of a talent--threw the presents of -all others into the shade. His ready wit and adroit tongue soon made -him a favoured guest at Philopator's table. He returned to Jerusalem -filled with pride. But his perfidious brothers were lying in wait for -him on the road, and determined to accomplish what the Alexandrians had -failed to do. Hyrcanus and his companions defended themselves, and in -the combat which ensued killed two of his brothers. His father received -him sternly on account of his extravagance in Egypt, being perhaps also -jealous of his extraordinary popularity. Hyrcanus dared not remain in -Jerusalem, and probably returned to Alexandria. - -Thus far, this discord was confined only to the family of Joseph, -and seemed not to affect the people at large or the inhabitants of -Jerusalem. No one could have imagined that the violent dissensions -among the members of that house, and its Greek proclivities, would end -by bringing misery upon the whole nation. The present seemed bright and -sunny; prosperity was widespread in the land, and offered the means for -beautifying life. The neighbouring peoples acknowledged the supremacy -of the Judæan governor, and none ventured to attack the nation, or to -treat it with contempt. Judæa had not known so peaceful a state of -things since the age of Nehemiah. - -It was, therefore, not unnatural that a poem in the form of a love -song should have appeared at that time, shedding a rosy flush over the -age, and reflecting happy and joyous days. - -A cloudless sky, green meadows, fragrant flowers, and, above all -things, careless light-heartedness are mirrored in it, as though there -were no more serious occupation in life than to wander over hills of -myrrh, to repose among lilies, to whisper words of love, and to revel -in the ecstasy of the moment. In this period of calm which preceded -the storm, the "Song of Songs" (Shir-ha-shirim) was written. It was -the offspring of untroubled, joyous days. In it the Hebrew language -proved its capability of expressing tenderness and depth of sentiment, -exquisite dialogue and picturesque poetry of nature. The author of this -poem had seen the life of Greece, had felt the charm of its literature, -and learned the cunning of its art. But beneath the veil of poetry he -reprovingly pointed out the evils of the time. - -In contrast to the impure and unchaste love of the Greek world, our -poet's ideal is a shepherdess, Shulamit, the beautiful daughter of -Aminadab. She bears in her heart a deep, ardent, unquenchable love -for a shepherd who pastures his flock among the lilies, and with -and through this love, she remains pure and innocent. Her beauty is -enhanced by her grace of movement, by her soft voice and gentle speech. -As her eyes are like the dove's, so is her heart full of dove-like -innocence. In the flowery language of the most exquisite poetry, the -author of the Song of Songs denounces the debauchery of the times, the -lewdness of the public dancers and singers, the voluptuousness of town -life, and the enervating effects of riotous living. - -Joseph, the grandson of Simon the Just, died in the year 208, leaving -his family torn by dissension. His office was to be transferred to one -of his sons; but Hyrcanus, the youngest, being the only one known at -the Egyptian court, and a favourite of the king, the preference was -no doubt given to him. This fired the hatred of his brothers. They -assumed a hostile position towards him upon his arrival in Jerusalem, -and as Hyrcanus had a large number of followers, civil war seemed -imminent. The action of the high-priest, Simon II., who sided with the -elder brothers, turned the scale, and Hyrcanus was again compelled to -flee the city. If he intended pleading his cause in Alexandria, as he -probably did, he was disappointed, for he could obtain no hearing at -the Egyptian court, as his patron Philopator had just died (206), and -Egypt was a prey to disorder. - -Two ambitious kings, tempted by the weakness of the house of Ptolemy, -seized upon Egypt and her provinces, and divided them. These were -Antiochus the Great, of Syria, and Philip of Macedon. - -Joseph's elder sons, or, as they were generally called, the Tobiades, -out of hatred to their younger brother, Hyrcanus, determined to side -with Antiochus against Egypt. They raised a Seleucidæan party. They -are described as scoffers and reprobates, and, as matters went on, -they showed themselves to be unprincipled men, who sacrificed their -country's weal to their thirst for revenge and the gratification of -their lusts. They opened the gates of Jerusalem to the Syrian king, -and did homage to him. The adherents of the Ptolemies and of Hyrcanus -yielded or were crushed. - -Thus Judæa came under the rule of the Seleucidæan kings (203-202). -But an Ætolian commander of hired troops, Scopas, undertook to oppose -the Syrian conqueror. He soon overran the Jordanic and trans-Jordanic -territories, causing terror amongst the Tobiades and their followers. -Desperately but in vain they struggled against their impending doom. -Scopas took Jerusalem by storm, laid waste the city and the Temple, and -put to the sword those who were pointed out as hostile to him. Numbers -sought safety in flight. - -In order to secure the allegiance of the conquered people, Scopas left -a contingent in the fortress of Baris or Acra. But the re-conquest of -Judæa and Coelesyria for the son of Ptolemy, the child Epiphanes, was -not to be lasting. The Syrians now re-appeared on the scene. In the -beautiful valley at the foot of Mount Hermon, near the mountain city -of Panion, at the source of the Jordan, a terrible battle was fought, -in which Scopas and his troops were entirely routed. Judæa once again -became a prey to the horrors of war and internal dissensions; she -resembled a storm-tossed ship, flung violently from side to side. Both -parties inflicted unsparing blows on her. - -Antiochus succeeded in re-conquering the greater part of the land, and -then marched upon Jerusalem. The people, headed by the Synhedrin and -the priests, came out to meet him, bringing provisions for his troops -and elephants. But the Ætolian contingent still held the fortress -of Acra. Antiochus or one of his commanders, with the help of the -Judæans, undertook the siege of the fortress. The Seleucidæan king, -it appears, greatly valued the friendship of the Judæans, for he gave -orders to rebuild their ruined city and repair their Temple. They were -treated with much consideration, and were allowed to govern themselves -according to their own laws. None but Judæans had the right of entering -the Temple; no impurities were suffered to pollute it, and no unclean -animals were to be bred in Jerusalem. - -Antiochus remained in undisputed possession of Coelesyria, and therefore -also of Judæa. But he cast a greedy eye upon Egypt and her neighbouring -provinces, of whose conquest, since they were under the rule of a -boy-king, he felt assured. But the Romans, free for action since -the downfall of Carthage, formed a stumbling-block to his progress. -Compelled to abandon his plans on Egypt, Antiochus conceived the idea -of making war upon the Romans, and after having conquered them, of -seizing upon Asia Minor and Greece and also Egypt But his foolhardiness -and over-confidence led to his humiliation. He suffered so crushing a -defeat at the hands of the Romans (190), that he was obliged to give -up his conquests in Greece and in a part of Asia Minor, surrender the -whole of his fleet, and pay 15,000 talents annually, for twelve years, -to the victor. He was constrained to send to Rome as hostage his son, -Antiochus Epiphanes, who was destined to leave a bloody mark upon the -annals of Judæan history. Severe was the penalty that Antiochus paid -for having over-estimated the strength of the Seleucidæans. In order to -be able to pay the heavy indemnity, the Syrian kings robbed temples; -this sacrilege made them odious, and stirred up the hatred of the most -patient nationalities. Antiochus, surnamed the Great, met his death -through one of these acts of rapine (187). - -The sacrileges continued by his son became the cause of the rise to -new strength of the Judæan nation, as well as of the humiliation and -decadence of the Seleucidæan kingdom. - -The disintegration of the Judæan community, which began under Joseph's -administration, increased rapidly during the constant struggle between -the Seleucidæans and the Ptolemies for the possession of Coelesyria. -The leaders of the two parties were not particular as to the means -they employed to forward their own cause, or to injure that of their -antagonists. The friends of the Seleucidæans were above all things -determined to find allies amongst the foreign nationalities in and -around Judæa. The Greeks living in Palestinean places, as well as the -native Gentiles, hated the Judæans, on account of the humiliations they -had suffered at the hands of the tax-collector Joseph. There were other -antagonistic races besides; the old names of the enemies of the Judæans -still existed, recalling the warlike days of the Judges and of David's -reign. The Idumæans and the Philistines were in possession of Judæan -territory, and the former occupied even the ancient city of Hebron. -Both hated the Judæans, and made them feel this hatred upon every -occasion, whilst in the north the Samaritans did the same. - -The Judæan settlers in the provinces of the Seleucidæan kingdom -looked up to the Græco-Macedonian rulers, commanders and officers for -protection from their numerous foes. But in order to curry favour -with the Greeks, it was necessary to endeavour to become like them -in manners, customs and observances. As to Jerusalem, those who had -Hellenised themselves in outward appearance, determined upon educating -the Judæan youth according to the Greek model. Thus they established -races and contests in wrestling. The richest and most distinguished -among the Judæans belonged to this Greek faction, amongst others, Jesus -(Joshua), the son of the high-priest, who called himself Jason, and who -was followed by many Aaronides. The party was led by the Tobiades, or -sons and grandsons of Joseph the tax-collector. But as Jewish law and -custom were sternly opposed to such innovations, and held in especial -abhorrence Greek shamelessness, these factions determined to abolish -the faith of the fathers, that the people might be Hellenised without -let or hindrance. - -Complete incorporation with the pagan Greeks was their aim. Of what -use was the fence erected by Ezra, Nehemiah, and the Synhedrin round -Judaism? The Hellenists pulled down the fence, and showed a desire to -fell the primeval trees of the forest too. - -As has repeatedly occurred in the history of thinking nations, lack of -moderation on the one side brought forth exaggeration on the other. -Those Judæans who saw with pain and rage the attempts of the Hellenists -grouped themselves into a party which clung desperately to the Law -and the customs of their fathers, and cherished them as the apple -of their eye. They were "the community of the pious," or Chasidim, a -development of the Nazarites. Every religious custom was to them of -inviolable sanctity. A more complete contrast than was presented by -these two parties can hardly be imagined. They understood each other as -little as if they had not been sons of the same tribe, people of the -same nation. That which was the dearest wish of the Hellenists, the -Chasidim condemned as a fearful sin; they called its authors "breakers -of the Law," "trespassers of the Covenant." Again, what was dear and -sacred to the Chasidim, the Hellenists looked upon as folly, and -denounced as a hindrance to the welfare and stability of the community. -Amongst the Chasidim there were two noted teachers of the Law, Josê, -the son of Joëzer, of the town of Zereda, and Josê, the son of Johanan -of Jerusalem, each of them the founder of a school. The one laid more -stress upon the theoretical study of the Law, the other, upon the -execution of its commands. Josê of Zereda taught his disciples: "Let -your house be a place of assembly for the wise men; allow yourself to -be covered with the dust of their feet; drink in their words greedily." -Josê of Jerusalem, on the other hand, taught, "Let the door of your -house be opened wide; let the poor be your guests, and do not converse -with women." - -Between the two widely opposed parties, the Hellenists and the Chasidim -or Assidæans, the people took a middle course. They certainly took -delight in the luxuries and refinements of life introduced by the -Greeks, and did not care to have their pleasures narrowed by the severe -Chasidim; at the same time they disapproved of the excesses of the -Hellenists; they refused to break their connection with the past, or -to have it obliterated through innovations. But the passionate warfare -that existed between Hellenists and Chasidim, menacing with extinction -one of the two parties, obliged the moderates to take sides with one -or the other of them. - -The pious, or patriots, were still supreme in their position of command -in the community. At their head was Onias III., high-priest, son of -Simon II. He is described as a man of excellent character. Though -gentle by nature, he was an enemy to wrongdoing, zealous for the Law, a -strong advocate of piety, and uncompromisingly opposed to Hellenistic -practices. The Hellenists accordingly hated him fiercely. His principal -enemies, besides the Tobiades, were three brothers, of a distinguished -Benjamite family, who vied with each other in insolence--Simon, Onias -called Menelaus, and Lysimachus. They hated the high-priest not only on -account of his constant opposition to their innovations, but also on -account of his alliance with Hyrcanus, who was still suffering from the -persecutions of his brothers and their followers. - -Hyrcanus was in great favour at the Egyptian court, and Ptolemy V. -had given him the control over some trans-Jordanic territory. Armed -troops were probably at his disposal to help him in the discharge -of his duties. The Judæans who colonised the province were probably -loyal to him, or were employed by him. By their aid he was able to -levy contributions from the Arabs, or Nabatæans, of the provinces of -Hesbon and Medaba, as ruthlessly as his father Joseph had once done -in Coelesyria. In this way he accumulated vast wealth. He erected a -wonderful citadel of white marble, upon a rock near Hesbon, to all -intents and purposes a fortress, but of surpassing beauty. He called -this magnificent palace Tyrus; he surrounded it with a wide moat of -great depth, and constructed the gates of the outer wall of such narrow -dimensions that they admitted only one person at a time. Hyrcanus spent -several years, probably from 181 to 175, in this mountain retreat. The -surplus of the wealth accumulated by Hyrcanus was sent from time to -time, for safe-keeping, to the Temple in Jerusalem, which enjoyed the -privilege of inviolability. - -Simon, the Benjamite, held some kind of an office in the Temple, -whereby he came into conflict with the high-priest. Onias banished -Simon from Jerusalem, and in order to stem the ever-growing anarchy in -the city, he passed a similar sentence of exile upon the Tobiades. But -by doing this he only added fresh fuel to the flames. Simon devised a -diabolical scheme for wreaking vengeance upon his enemy. He repaired -to the military commander of Coelesyria and Phoenicia, Apollonius, son -of Thraseius, and betrayed to him the fact that great treasures, -not belonging to the Sanctuary, and consequently royal property, -were hidden in the Temple of Jerusalem. Apollonius lost no time in -giving the king, Seleucus II.(187-175), information on this subject. -Seleucus thereupon sent his treasurer Heliodorus to Jerusalem with -orders to confiscate the treasures concealed in the Temple. Onias -naturally resisted this unjust demand. Heliodorus then showed his royal -warrant, and prepared to force his way into the Sanctuary. Great was -the consternation in Jerusalem at the thought of a heathen's entering -the Temple and robbing it of its treasures. However, by some means or -other, this sacrilege was not perpetrated. We are not told what means -were employed for preventing it, but tradition, born of pious reverence -for the Temple of God, has given the colouring of the miraculous to the -whole proceeding. - -But Simon could not desist from his attempts to bring about the -downfall of the hated high-priest. He even had recourse to the aid of -hired assassins. Fortunately, he was unsuccessful; but Onias was now -thoroughly alarmed. He determined to lay the real state of affairs -before King Seleucus, with an account of the conflicting parties and -of the motives that induced Simon and the Tobiades to conspire against -him, imploring the king's protection and aid. He appointed his brother -Joshua, or Jason, as his delegate, and repaired to Antioch. During -his absence the Hellenists, eager to obtain the office of high-priest -for one of their own party, redoubled their intrigues. A high-priest -from among their own number would not only be master of the treasures -in the Temple, but leader of the nation. He could assist them in -the introduction of Greek customs, and, by reason of his spiritual -office, add weight to the efforts of the Hellenists, who had become so -demoralised that they held nothing sacred. - -These secret devices soon became known, and roused the indignation of -many who clung to the old customs and traditionary teachings. Amongst -these was a poet and writer of proverbs, Jesus Sirach by name, the son -of Eleazar (200-176). He was prompted by the wrongdoing he witnessed -in Jerusalem to write a book of pithy sayings, applicable to the evils -of the age, which might prove salutary to its Judæan readers. He was -a successor of the proverb-writers. He was familiar with the Law, the -prophets, and other instructive and spiritual works, and he was a close -reader of the older Book of Proverbs, imitating the style of that work, -though without reaching its graceful simplicity. - -Sirach did not belong to the sterner Chasidim who refrained from all -harmless pleasures, and who denounced others for enjoying them. On the -contrary, he was in favour of the social meal, enlivened by music and -wine. To those who made a point of interfering with innocent pleasures, -and whose dismal talk put an end to all gaiety, he addressed the -following rebuke:-- - - "Speak, thou elder in council, for it becometh thee, but with - sound judgment, and shew not forth wisdom out of time. As a - signet of an emerald set in a work of gold, so is the melody of - music with pleasant wine." (ECCLUS. xxxii. 3, 4, 6.) - -There were some over-pious Judæans who condemned the use of all medical -skill and aid; they insisted that as all maladies were sent from God, -He alone could cure them. Sirach explained in his proverbs that the -skill of the physician and the virtue of medicines were also the gifts -of God, created to serve the purpose of healing. - -But all his zeal was kindled at sight of the social and religious -backsliding of his brethren, and their consequent humiliation in -the eyes of the neighbouring peoples. The social depravity of his -co-religionists grieved him more than their political oppression. -Sirach stung with the lash of sarcasm the arrogance, deceit and lust of -the rich Hellenists, who worshipped Mammon. He also denounced lechery, -warned them against the companionship of dancers, singers and painted -women, and he painted in no flattering colours the portraits of the -daughters of Israel. - -Sirach declared that the root of all this evil was the indifference -of the Judæans to their sacred Law. His aim was to reinstate it in -the hearts of the people. He touched upon another subject, a burning -question of the day. Many in Jerusalem, particularly among the upper -circles, were anxious to substitute for the high-priest Onias one of -their own party, even though he were not a descendant of Aaron. Was it -necessary to restrict the priestly office to one family? This was the -question propounded by the ambitious. Sirach's proverbs are directed -against the possibility of a revolution in the sacred order. - -By various examples, taken from the history of the Judæan people, he -endeavoured to show that obedience to the Law and to established rule -would entail happy consequences, but that disobedience must lead to -fatal results. He gave a short account of illustrious and notorious -personages, dwelling upon their virtuous deeds or nefarious practices, -as the case might be. He described the rise of the family of Korah -against Aaron, their final destruction by fire, and the heightened -glory of the high-priest. This was a hint to his co-religionists that -the zealous Hellenists should not be allowed to provoke a repetition of -Korah's punishment. He also dwelt upon the history of Phineas, Aaron's -grandson, the third in glory, who was permitted to make atonement for -Israel. - -He passed rapidly over the division of the two kingdoms and the -depravity of the people, lingering upon the activity and energy -of the prophets. He mentioned with loving recollection the names -of Zerubbabel, the high-priest Joshua, and Nehemiah, in the days -succeeding the Captivity. And at length he closed with a brilliant -description of the high-priest, Simon the Just, of his good deeds and -the majesty of his priesthood, hoping that this example of the ancestor -of the family of the high-priest and of the Tobiades might instruct and -warn the ambitious desecrators of the priestly diadem. But instead of -the unity for which he prayed, at the end of his book, the dissensions -increased, and the plots and wickedness of the Hellenists brought the -Judæan nation to the brink of destruction. - - - - -CHAPTER XXII. - -THE TYRANNICAL CONVERSION TO HELLENISM AND THE ELEVATION OF THE -MACCABEES. - - Antiochus Epiphanes--His Character--His Wars with Rome--He - appoints Jason to the High Priesthood--Introduction of the - Greek Games--Jason sends Envoys to Tyre to take part in the - Olympian Games--Affairs in Jerusalem--Antiochus invades - Egypt--Report of his Death in Jerusalem--Antiochus attacks the - City and defiles the Temple--His Designs against Judaism--His - Second Invasion of Egypt--The Persecution of the Judæans--The - Martyrs--Mattathias and his five Sons--Apelles appears in - Modin--The Chasidim--Death of Mattathias and Appointment - of Judas Maccabæus as Leader--His Virtues--Battles against - Apollonius and Heron--Antiochus determines to exterminate - the Judæan People--Composition and Object of the Book of - Daniel--Victory of Judas over Lysias. - - 175-166 B. C. E. - - -There now appeared on the scene a royal personage who seemed destined -to increase the hopeless disorders in Judæa, and to bring greater -misery upon the House of Israel than it had ever known before. This -man was Antiochus Epiphanes, whom history has justly branded. He -belonged to a class of men who have a double nature. He was a mixture -of malice and noble impulses; he was cunning and calculating, yet -capricious, petty in great enterprises, and great in trivialities. His -contemporaries even could not fathom his character, nor understand -whether a naturally crippled intellect or simulation was the cause of -the absurdities by which he made himself ridiculous in the eyes of the -people. He seemed to covet the name of "Epimanes," or the _Madman_. His -early training encouraged him to lead an irregular life. He resided for -thirteen years at Rome, whither his father had sent him as hostage for -the maintenance of peace and the payment of the costs of the war. Rome -had just become the capital of the world. The Romans had conquered the -Carthaginians, the Macedonians and the Syrians, and the Eternal City -was passing from the austere morality of the Catos to the wantonness -of the Claudii. Debauchery and unnatural lust--the immoral practices -of the Greeks--speedily took root there. But what Antiochus learnt -principally at Rome was contempt of men and their cherished customs; -there also he acquired not only insolence, but a hardness of heart -which knew no compassion, and the malice which sports with its victim -before it strangles it. - -Antiochus succeeded in obtaining permission to leave Rome, and to -send his nephew Demetrius, son of the king Seleucus Philopator, as -hostage in his place. He returned to Syria, probably with the intention -of dethroning his brother, but his design had been anticipated by -Heliodorus, one of the court magnates, who had murdered Seleucus (175), -and taken possession of the kingdom. It may be questioned whether -Antiochus was not implicated in this deed; he was at that time at -Athens, on his way home. His father's enemy, Eumenes, king of Pergamus, -with his brother Attalus, put the murderer Heliodorus to flight, and -proclaimed Antiochus king of Syria and Asia. Thus Antiochus attained -to power by craft and usurpation; for Demetrius, now a hostage at -Rome, was the rightful sovereign. The Romans favoured the usurper, for -they hoped, by increasing the dissensions among the royal families, -to bring about the fall of those kingdoms which still resisted their -power. Antiochus, however, was determined to foil this stratagem of the -Romans. A Judæan seer thus graphically describes his accession to the -throne:-- - - "And in his place shall stand up a contemptible person to whom - they had not given the honour of the kingdom; but he shall come - suddenly, and shall obtain the kingdom by flatteries.... And - after the league made with him he shall work deceitfully; for - he shall come up and shall become strong, with a small number - of people. Suddenly shall he come even upon the fattest places - of the province; and he shall do what his fathers have not - done, nor his fathers' fathers; he shall scatter among them - prey, and spoil, and substance." (DANIEL xi. 21-24.) - -It was in the execution of his designs to deceive the Romans that -he introduced in Antioch the Roman gladiatorial combats, in which -prisoners of war or slaves were made to fight each other with arms -until one succumbed or was killed. Antiochus had entirely banished -from his soul the fear of any deity; "he neither reverenced the gods -of his ancestors, nor any god whatever, for above all he magnified -himself." The Judæans were now in the hands of this monster, who had a -heart of stone, and scorned alike man and law, morality and religion. -If peace had reigned in Judæa, the country might have escaped his -notice, but the discord which the Hellenists had excited there directed -his attention towards the Judæan people and their land. The Hellenist -party themselves requested his interference in the internal affairs -of Judæa, directing his notice to Hyrcanus, whom they hated, and who, -residing in his castle near Hesbon, collected the taxes from the -Arabian or Nabatæan inhabitants of the land in the name of the king of -Egypt. Hyrcanus, dreading an ignominious death, committed suicide, and -Antiochus seized all his property. - -The Hellenists then carried out their long-cherished plan of divesting -their other enemy, the high-priest Onias, of his dignity. The brother -of the latter, called Jesus or Jason, promised Antiochus a large sum if -he would transfer the high-priesthood to him; and the needy king did -not scruple to grant the request. Onias, who journeyed to Antioch, to -bring charges against his enemies, was denounced as a partisan of the -Ptolemies, and the accuser thus became the accused. The Hellenists, or -rather the high-priest, next petitioned Antiochus that those Judæans -who were trained for the Greek combats should be registered as -Antiochians or Macedonians, and as such be entitled to the privileges -of full citizenship, and admitted to all public meetings and games of -the Greeks. Games were serious occupations to the Greeks, not mere -amusements, but rather the aim and end of life. The Grecian settlers in -Palestine and Phoenicia maintained the national tie with their brethren -at home by introducing the Olympian games, held every four years, in -the land of the barbarians, and such of the latter as were allowed to -take part in these games felt themselves greatly honoured by their -admission to the Greek nobility. - -By introducing gymnasia into Jerusalem, Jason and the Hellenists hoped -to obtain the right of Greek citizenship for the Judæans, and thus to -diminish the hatred and contempt from which they suffered. As soon -as Antiochus had conceded the privilege for which the Hellenists had -petitioned, Jason took great interest in superintending the exercises -which were to be practised before the Judæans could take part in the -Olympian games. The high-priest selected (174) a site for the games in -the Birah or Acra (Acropolis), north-west of the Temple. It comprised -a gymnasium for youths and an ephebeion for boys. Greek masters were -most probably hired to teach the Judæan men and youths their games, -which consisted in racing, jumping, wrestling, in throwing discs, and -boxing. It soon became evident, however, that these games, which owed -their origin to quite a different mode of life, were incompatible with -Judaism. According to Greek custom, the men who took part in these -contests were naked. The Judæan youths who consented to compete were -therefore compelled to overcome their feeling of shame and appear naked -in sight of the Temple. Besides, in uncovering their bodies they could -immediately be recognised as Judæans. But were they to take part in -the Olympian games, and expose themselves to the mockery of the Greek -scoffers? Even this difficulty they evaded by undergoing a painful -operation, so as to disguise the fact that they were Judæans. Youths -soon crowded to the gymnasium, and the young priests neglected their -duties at the Temple to take part in the exercises of the palæstra -and the stadium. The pious saw with terror this adoption of foreign -customs, but they held their peace. Meanwhile even Jason's confederates -were dissatisfied with his leaning to Greek manners, when it led to -the denial of the fundamental truths of Judaism. When (June, 172) -the Olympian games were celebrated at Tyre, at which sacrifices were -offered up to the Greek god Hercules, the alleged founder of these -combats, Jason sent as ambassadors men who were practiced in these -games, and entitled to take part in them. According to custom, they -were entrusted with a money contribution to be devoted to sacrifices -to Hercules. But the ambassadors, although Greek at heart, felt -conscience-stricken at the manner in which this sum was to be employed; -it seemed to stamp them as idolaters, and to prove their belief in the -divinity of a marble statue. They therefore accepted the commission on -condition that the disposal of the money they took with them was to -be left to their own discretion. The belief in Israel's God was too -deeply rooted even in the hearts of those men who were partial to the -Greek customs, and attached to the Hellenistic party to admit of this -desecration. Jason's ambassadors gave the money as a contribution to -the fleet which Antiochus was fitting out at Tyre. - -Meanwhile the dissensions in Jerusalem increased so greatly that -pernicious consequences could not fail to follow. The Hellenists were -devising intrigues to overthrow Jason, and to have the office of -high-priest placed under their own control. They were impelled to this -either by feelings of ambition, or by the fear that the brother of -Onias was too partial to Judaism, and not sufficiently energetic, to -overthrow the patriarchal customs. One of their number, Onias Menelaus, -an unscrupulous man, and a brother of that Simon who had denounced -Onias, and revealed the existence of the treasures in the Temple, was -to be made high-priest. Jason sent the annual contributions to the king -through Menelaus, who promised to increase them by 300 talents, if he -were made high-priest. He boasted of his great credit, which would -enable him to further the king's cause more energetically than Jason. -Antiochus did not scruple to transfer the dignity of the high-priest to -the highest bidder (172-171). He immediately sent Sostrates, one of his -officers, with a troop of Cyprian soldiers, to Jerusalem, to subdue any -opposition that might be made, and to watch over the punctual delivery -of the promised sums. Sostrates placed the soldiers in the fortified -Acra to keep down the inhabitants of Jerusalem, and proclaimed the -dismissal of Jason according to the king's order. The latter was either -banished or he escaped from Jerusalem, whence he crossed over the -Jordan into the land of the Ammonites. This district was governed by -a Nabatæan prince, named Aretas, by whom he was cordially received. -This change only increased the disorders in Jerusalem; the greater -part of the people were indignant that Menelaus, who was a Benjamite, -and not of the family of the high-priests, and who besides was known -to be opposed to the patriarchal customs, had been invested with that -holy dignity. Even the admirers of Greek customs and the lovers of -innovations condemned the selection of Menelaus. - -Both the followers of Jason and those who did not wish to break -entirely with Judaism disapproved of his dismissal. But the malcontents -were compelled to be silent, because they feared the presence of the -Syrian officer and the Cyprian troops which he commanded; but great -excitement prevailed in the minds of the people, and threatened to -break forth at the earliest opportunity. Menelaus brought matters to a -climax. He had promised the king more than he could give in payment for -the dignity he had received. Antiochus was indignant, and summoned him -to come and justify himself. Compelled to go to Antioch, he left the -capital in charge of his brother Lysimachus, who was as unconscientious -as himself, and took holy gifts out of the Temple, intending to sell -them in order to make up the required sum. Not finding the king at -home, he bribed his lieutenant Andronicus with part of the costly -vessels. The worthy high-priest, Onias III., who still resided at -Antioch, heard of this crime; he also learnt that Menelaus had sold -utensils from the Temple in Tyre and other Phoenician towns. Indignant -at such behaviour, he accused Menelaus of robbing the Temple, a crime -which was considered heinous even amongst the Greeks. This accusation -hastened the death of the deposed high-priest. For Menelaus conspired -with Andronicus to remove Onias before the king was informed of the -theft committed in the Temple, and of the use made of the plunder. -Andronicus, being himself implicated, was anxious to make Onias -harmless. He enticed him from the temple of Apollo at Daphne, near -Antioch, where he had taken refuge, and slew him (171). This was one -more crime added to those of which Menelaus had already been guilty. -The murder of the high-priest produced a great sensation, even among -the Greeks in Syria, and Antiochus, on his return, was compelled to -punish the murderer Andronicus. - -Meanwhile Menelaus, although his accuser had been silenced, was forced -to try to conciliate the king. In order to do this, he ordered his -brother Lysimachus to steal some more of the treasures of the Temple. -These thefts, however, did not remain unnoticed; as soon as they were -discovered and the perpetrator found out, there arose a feeling of -great bitterness against him, which culminated in violence. When the -shameful conduct of the two brothers became known to the people outside -of Jerusalem, they hurried into the city, and joining the inhabitants -of the capital, they threatened the violator of the Temple with death. -Lysimachus armed his followers, and placed at their head a man named -Avran, an old comrade and fellow-sinner. The unarmed people were not -frightened by the soldiers, but attacked them with stones and sticks, -blinded them with heaps of ashes, killed a great many, and put others -to flight. Lysimachus himself was slain in the vicinity of the treasury -of the Temple. Menelaus naturally brought an accusation against the -rebels of Jerusalem before the king, and the latter organised a -judicial court in Tyre to try the cause. Three members of the council, -whom the people had selected for the purpose, proved in so convincing -a manner the guilt of Lysimachus and his brother in the matter of the -desecration of the Temple that the verdict would have turned against -him. But the inventive genius of Menelaus managed to secure the -interest of a creature of like mould, who succeeded in turning the -balance in favour of the culprit. Antiochus, from his seat of justice, -exonerated the criminal Menelaus, whilst he condemned to death the -three deputies from Jerusalem, who had so clearly proved his guilt. The -Tyrian witnesses of this breach of justice evinced their displeasure by -taking a sympathetic part in the funeral of the three noble men, but -Menelaus and injustice triumphed. He retained his coveted power, and -he formed plans to revenge himself upon the people that hated him so -fiercely. He calumniated his enemies, that is to say, the whole nation, -before the king. On the one hand, he maintained that his enemies were -partisans of the Egyptian court, and that they persecuted him only -because he opposed their party intrigues; on the other, Menelaus -maligned Judaism; he said that the Law of Moses was replete with -hatred of humanity, for it forbade the Jews to take part in the repasts -of other nations, or to show any kindness to strangers. As Antiochus -was then concentrating all his thoughts on the conquest of Egypt, he -believed Menelaus's calumnies, and regarded the Judæans with distrust. -If he undertook the hazardous expedition against Egypt, it would be -dangerous to leave an enemy in his rear who might become formidable. - -At last he carried out his long-cherished plan of attacking Egypt. A -pretext for war is easily found, and Antiochus soon discovered one. His -sister Cleopatra, married to Ptolemy V., had died, and left two infant -sons, Philometor and Physcon, the former of whom was the nominal king, -but his two guardians, Eulæus and Lenæus, ruled the country. Antiochus -pretended that he was only anticipating the war which would shortly be -directed against himself, and assembled his troops to make a descent -upon Egypt. He delayed his attack, however, for some time, out of fear -of the Romans. But when the latter became involved in a new war with -Perseus, king of Macedonia, he ventured at last to cross the Egyptian -frontier (170). He defeated the Egyptian army near Pelusium, and -penetrated deeper into the country. - -The two guardians fled with the young king Philometor. Thereupon -Antiochus took possession of the whole of northern Egypt, and advanced -to Alexandria to besiege it. The inhabitants meanwhile proclaimed -the younger brother Ptolemy Physcon king, and defended the town so -valiantly that the Syrian king despaired of conquering it. He therefore -entered into negotiations with the elder brother, sent for him, -signed a treaty with him, and pretended to continue the war for his -benefit. The two kings "at one table spake lies to each other." In -Judæa the consequences of the war were watched with eager suspense. -If the Egyptians were victorious, the probability was that the sad -misfortunes brought about by the hated high-priest would come to -an end. The Egyptian court favoured the national Judæan party, and -received all the patriots who fled from the tyranny of Antiochus and -Menelaus. The report was suddenly spread that Antiochus had fallen, and -the intelligence produced great excitement. The deposed high-priest -Jason left the Ammonites, with whom he had found refuge, and hurried to -Jerusalem, accompanied by a thousand men, by whose aid he hoped to take -possession of the town. Menelaus barricaded the gates of Jerusalem, -and fought the enemy from the walls. Thus arose a civil war through -the ambition of two men, who both sought the high-priesthood as a -road to power. But as only a small number of the inhabitants sided -with Menelaus, Jason succeeded in entering Jerusalem with his troops. -Menelaus took refuge within the walls of the Acra. - -Meanwhile Antiochus left Egypt with rich spoils (169), perhaps with the -intention of raising new troops. Having heard of the occurrences in -Jerusalem, his anger was roused against the Judæans, and the Covenant -of Judaism; his wicked, inhuman nature broke forth against the people. -He suddenly attacked Jerusalem, and massacred the inhabitants without -regard to age or sex, slaughtering friend and foe alike. He forced his -way into the Temple, and entered even the Holy of Holies, and as a -mark of contempt for the God who was worshipped there, he removed the -golden altar, the candlestick, the table, the golden vessels, and all -the treasures which still remained. Menelaus acted as guide in this -spoliation of the Temple. Antiochus blasphemed the God of Israel, whose -omnipotence was sung by His followers, but whom he scorned, because He -did not interfere with these sacrilegious actions. To palliate both -the massacre of innocent people and the desecration of the Temple, he -invented a falsehood which long afterwards continued to bring Judaism -into bad repute amongst all civilised nations. Antiochus declared -that he had seen in the Holy of Holies the statue of a man with a long -beard, mounted on an ass, and holding a book in its hand. He believed -it to be the statue of the law-giver Moses, who had given the Judæans -inhuman, horrible laws to separate them from all other peoples. Amongst -the Greeks and Romans the rumour was spread that Antiochus had found -the head of an ass made of gold in the Temple, which the Judæans -venerated, and that consequently they worshipped asses. Antiochus -was probably the author of another horrible lie invented to blacken -the Judæans: it was said that he had discovered, lying in bed in the -Temple, a Greek, who entreated to be released, as the Judæans were in -the habit of killing a Greek every year, and feeding on his intestines, -meanwhile swearing hatred against all Greeks, whom they were -determined to destroy. Whether this vile calumny proceeded directly -from Antiochus, or whether these fables were only attributed to him, -there is no doubt that he blackened the reputation of the Judæans by -spreading the report that Judaism inculcated hatred towards all other -nations. This was the first fruit of the long-cherished wish to be -associated with the Greeks. - -A veil of grief was drawn over Jerusalem, and the house of Jacob was -dishonoured. - - "The leaders and the elders moaned, youths and maidens hid - themselves, the beauty of the women was disfigured, the - bridegroom lifted up his voice in sorrow instead of joyous - song, and the bride wept in her bridal chamber." (1 MACC. i. - 26-28.) - -But this was by no means the end; more sorrowful days were in store for -Judæa. Antiochus undertook a second campaign against Egypt, and the -Judæans were destined a second time to suffer from his anger at the -unsuccessful termination of the war. The two royal brothers Philometor -and Physcon were reconciled with each other by the help of their sister -and the Romans; Philometor was proclaimed king in Alexandria. Antiochus -was furious at this; for his desire was to employ the helpless and -cowardly Philometor as his tool, and to rule Egypt through him. As the -Romans were still involved in a Macedonian war, he thought he might -venture to attack Egypt a second time (168). He entered the country -without opposition, and pushed on as far as Alexandria; the king of -Egypt had meanwhile despatched envoys to Rome to ask for help from -the senate. Three Roman deputies, with instructions to tarry on the -road until they heard the issue of the Macedonian war, were thereupon -sent to Antiochus to bid him desist. After the successful battle of -Pydna, the destruction of the Macedonian army, and the flight of King -Perseus (June 22, 168), the three Roman deputies hurried to the camp of -Antiochus, and brought him the command of the senate to leave Egypt. -When the Syrian king asked for time to consider, Popillius Lænas, -drawing a circle with his stick, sternly declared that, before stepping -out of this circle, Antiochus was to state whether he wished for peace -or war with Rome. Antiochus knew how inexorable were Roman commands, -and therefore determined to depart immediately (end of June, 168). - -Antiochus, "the Illustrious," returned to his capital. The knowledge of -his humiliation tormented him the more, as he had to feign friendship -and satisfaction before the Romans. He vented his secret anger in -unparalleled cruelties upon the Judæans. They had, he said, shown -pleasure at his degradation; they had proclaimed aloud that the God -they worshipped humbled the haughty, and had therefore prepared this -mortification for him. Apollonius, one of his princely subjects, and -former governor of Mysia, entered the Judæan capital, accompanied by -fierce troops, apparently with peaceful intentions. Suddenly, however, -on a Sabbath, when resistance was impossible, the Greek or Macedonian -mercenaries threw themselves on the inhabitants, killed men and youths, -took women and children prisoners, and sent them to the slave markets. -Apollonius also destroyed many houses in the capital, and pulled down -the walls of Jerusalem, for he wished it to disappear from the list -of important cities. What induced the madman and his wild troops to -spare the Sanctuary? They did not destroy it, because Antiochus wanted -the Temple for another purpose; but they gave vent to their anger by -attacking its surroundings, burning the wooden gates, and destroying -the halls "with hammer and axe." Within the Temple there was nothing -left to steal. The inhabitants who had not met with death escaped, and -only the most rabid Hellenists, the Syrian soldiers, and strangers -remained in the deserted places. "Jerusalem became strange to her own -children." The Temple was also abandoned, for the faithful priests and -Levites had left, and the Hellenists did not trouble themselves about -the sacred building; the Acra was their resort. Here was stationed -the strong Syrian garrison, and here also dwelt the Hellenists. This -place was protected against any attack by high, strong walls and towers -overlooking the Temple, and it was filled with arms and provisions. - -The desolation soon became unbearable to Menelaus, the instigator -of all these horrors. Of what use was it to be high-priest if no -worshippers came to the Temple, or to be ruler over the nation if the -people turned their backs upon him? Hearing nothing but the echo of his -own voice, he became gloomy. To free himself from this painful position -he resorted to new infamy. Judaism, with its laws and customs, was to -be abolished, and its followers were to be compelled to adopt the Greek -faith. Antiochus, full of hatred and anger against both the Judæans -and their religion, acceded to Menelaus's plan, and had it carried out -with his usual inflexibility. The Judæans were to become Hellenised, -and thereby reduced to obedience, or, if they opposed his will, to -be put to death. He not only wished to become master of the Judæan -people, but to prove to them the impotence of the God they served so -faithfully. He, who disdained the gods of his ancestors, considered it -mockery that the Judæans should still hope that their God would destroy -him, the proud blasphemer, and he determined to challenge and defeat -the God of Israel. Thereupon Antiochus issued a decree, which was sent -forth to all the towns of Judæa, commanding the people to renounce -the laws of their God, and to offer sacrifice only to the Greek gods. -Altars and idols were to be erected everywhere for that purpose, and, -in order to strike an effectual blow at Judaism, Antiochus ordained -that unclean animals, particularly swine, should be used at the -sacrifices. He forbade, under severe penalty, three religious rites -which outwardly distinguished the Judæans from the heathen, namely, -circumcision, the keeping of the Sabbath and the festivals, and the -abstinence from unclean food. Officials were appointed to see that -his orders were carefully carried out, and these officials were -hard-hearted men, who punished with death any person infringing the -royal commands. The Temple was first desecrated, and Antiochus himself -sent a noble Antiochian thither to dedicate the Sanctuary to Jupiter. -A swine was sacrificed on the altar in the court, and its blood was -sprinkled in the Holy of Holies, on the stone which Antiochus had -imagined to be the statue of Moses; the flesh was cooked, and its juice -spilt over the leaves of the Holy Scriptures. The so-called high-priest -Menelaus and the other Judæan Hellenists were to partake of the swine's -flesh. The roll of the Law, which was found in the Temple, was not only -bespattered, but burnt, because this teacher of purity and love for all -humanity,--so Antiochus maintained,--inculcated hatred of mankind. This -was its first baptism of fire. The statue of Jupiter, "the abomination -of destruction," was then placed on the altar, and to him sacrifices -were henceforth to be offered (17 Tammuz, July, 168). - -Thus the Temple in Jerusalem, the only place of holiness on earth, was -thoroughly desecrated, and the God of Israel was apparently unseated -by the Hellenic Zeus. How will the people bear this unparalleled -violation? Will they submit to the stern edict of the heartless king -and his officials, and allow themselves to be deprived of their -nationality and their God? It was a severe and momentous ordeal. Death -threatened all those who openly confessed Judaism, and they dared not -even call themselves Judæans. But the persecuted people came out of -their trial victoriously, and the blood of martyrs sealed their union -with God and His Law. - -The Judæans who were dispersed in Syrian and Phoenician towns, in -closest proximity to the Greeks, and were included in this forced -conversion, affected submission to the order, sacrificed to the Greek -gods, and concealed or denied their religion. But even amongst these -some remained faithful, and gave their lives in testimony of the truth -of the Law. In Antioch an aged man named Eleazar suffered a martyr's -death rather than partake of the idolatrous sacrifices. It was related -in Jewish circles outside of Judæa, that a mother and seven sons, -defying threats and persuasion, cheerfully went into death for the -Law. These heroic martyrs, both young and old, set a noble example -to the Judæans, and the number of those who suffered for their faith -increased from day to day. The overseers whom Antiochus had appointed -to carry out his decrees directed their attention to the smaller -towns, whither the inhabitants of Jerusalem had fled. Here they built -altars, and summoned the people in the name of the king to offer swine -to Jupiter, and then to eat the flesh, and to break the Sabbath by -working on the day of rest. They particularly insisted that sacrifices -should be offered every month on the date which corresponded to that -of Antiochus's birthday. On the bacchanalian festival of Dionysus, the -celebration of which consisted in opening barrels of wine, they were -compelled to deck themselves with ivy, like the Greeks, to institute -processions, and to utter wild cries of joy in honour of the Greek -Bacchus. When one of the officials came into a country town, and called -the people together to give proofs of their secession from Judaism, -he found but few to meet him. Many had fled and sought shelter in the -caves and ravines of the Judæan mountains, or in the waste land near -the Dead Sea. Antiochus was greatly irritated by this resistance, -and he issued command upon command, recommending the utmost cruelty -in the punishment of the disobedient people. The officials therefore -continued their persecutions with redoubled zeal. They tore and burnt -the rolls of the Law whenever they found them, and killed those who -were found to seek strength and consolation in their perusal. They -destroyed all houses of worship and education, and if they found women -in confinement who, in the absence of their husbands, circumcised their -sons themselves, these barbarians hanged them with their babes on the -walls of the city. - -But all such cruelties, instead of intimidating the people, only -increased their determined resistance. Death had lost its terrors. -Many preferred even death to violating the dietary laws. This noble -firmness was particularly encouraged by the strictly religious sect of -Chasidim. Some of these emerged from their hiding-places, and entering -towns and villages, called the inhabitants together, spoke with warmth -and conviction, and incited them to be steadfast and constant. Their -preaching was all the more effective as they gave proof of indomitable -courage in the face of death. - -Before long, however, the Syrian commanders in Jerusalem discovered -the leaders of this courageous resistance; some reprobate Hellenists -had probably betrayed the hiding-place of the Chasidim. Thereupon -the Phrygian Philip, commander of the garrison, went in search of the -concealed fugitives. On a Sabbath he and his soldiers surrounded the -caves in which thousands of men, women and children had sought refuge, -he summoned them to come out in obedience to Antiochus's commands, -and promised them safety if they submitted voluntarily to his orders. -They answered unanimously, "We will not obey your command to break the -Sabbath." Then Philip ordered his troops to commence the attack. The -Chasidim looked on with undaunted courage, but did not try to defend -themselves, nor to raise a stone to close the entrance to the caves, -for fear of desecrating the Sabbath. Thus calling heaven and earth to -witness their innocence, all the people perished in the caves by the -hands of the murderous followers of Philip. Some were killed by the -firebrands thrown into the caves, whilst others were suffocated by the -smoke, which had penetrated into the interior. - -Great was the grief of the faithful Judæans when they learned the -horrible death of the men who had been to them a light and an example. -The most courageous lost heart. What was to be the outcome of this -unbearable position? The faithful were bowed down by the thought -that Heaven vouchsafed them no visible sign of hope in this, their -unparalleled trial; no prophet rose up to foretell when this fearful -ordeal was to end. - -When the bloody persecution of the Judæan people had reached such -a height that either the destruction of the whole nation, or their -submission from exhaustion and despair seemed imminent, an open -rebellion took the place of passive resistance. - -It was brought about by a family whose members combined the purest -piety with courage, wisdom and prudence; this was the family of the -Hasmonæans or Maccabees. An aged father and five heroic sons brought -about a revolution, and kindled a spirit of enthusiasm which secured -the existence of Judaism for all time. The aged father, Mattathias, -was the son of Johanan, son of Simon Hasmonai, an Aaronide; he had left -Jerusalem in consequence of the desecration of the Temple, and had -established himself in the small town of Modin, three miles north of -Jerusalem. His five sons, who all helped to raise the people from its -deep degradation, and found their death in defending their country, -bore Aramaic names: Johanan Gadi, Simon Tharsi, Judas Maccabi, Eleazar -Hawran, and Jonathan Haphus. This family of Hasmonæans, who had many -followers, on account of the consideration in which they were held, -felt the miserable condition of their country with poignant sorrow. -"What is life to us, now that the Sanctuary is desecrated and Judæa has -become a slave?" Thus spoke Mattathias to his sons, and he determined -not to remain quiet and sorrowing in his hiding-place, but either to -help the good cause or to die courageously for it. - -When Apelles, one of the Syrian overseers, reached Modin, to summon the -inhabitants to abandon the Law and to become idolaters, Mattathias and -his sons intentionally appeared, and when commanded to set an example -of submission, the former answered: "If all the people in the kingdom -obey the order of the monarch, to depart from the faith of their -fathers, I and my sons will abide by the Covenant of our forefathers." -When one of the Judæans approached the altar to sacrifice to Jupiter, -Mattathias could no longer restrain his wrath, but rushed upon the -apostate, killing him at the altar. His sons, armed with long knives, -fell upon Apelles and his troops, killed them, and destroyed the altar. -This act proved the turning-point; it set an example of courageous -resistance as against inactive despair. Immediately after this attack -upon the officers of Antiochus, Mattathias cried out: "Whosoever is -zealous for the Law, and whosoever wishes to support the Covenant, -follow me." Thereupon the inhabitants of Modin and the vicinity -followed him to a secure hiding-place which he selected for them in the -mountains of Ephraim; and there the remainder of the Chasidim, who had -escaped death in the caves, and all those who had fled from oppression -joined him. - -The number of resolute defenders of their country daily increased. -Mattathias did not conceal from them that they would have to fight hard -battles, but exhorted them to be ready to face death. Warned by the -exaggerated piety of the Chasidim, who had scrupled to move a stone -on the Sabbath in their own defence, the assembly which surrounded -the aged Hasmonæan decided to repulse with arms any attack made upon -them even on the day of rest. The Chasidim accepted this decision, and -the men of peace, hitherto entirely absorbed in the Holy Scriptures, -now prepared to wage war. A commander who inspires confidence creates -warriors. There was a recurrence of the hopeless condition which had -prevailed at the time of the Judges and at the beginning of Saul's -reign. Some of the inhabitants were hiding themselves in caves, others -went over to the enemy, and only a small number were willing to -sacrifice their lives for their country; they had no arms, and knew -nothing of warfare. Victory seemed more hopeless now than in those -olden days. Mattathias was careful not to wage open war against the -Syrians with his small band. Well acquainted with every inch of the -country, he entered the towns unexpectedly with his sons and followers, -destroyed the idolatrous temples and altars, punished the inhabitants -who sided with the enemy, chastised the Hellenists whenever he came -upon them, and admitted into the Covenant the children that had been -left uncircumcised. From time to time he routed small troops of Syrian -soldiers whom he happened to encounter, but whenever the commander -of the garrison of Jerusalem sent a larger detachment to pursue the -rebellious Judæans, the latter disappeared as suddenly as they had -come. In short, Mattathias waged a kind of petty warfare against the -enemy, such as can be carried on only in mountainous districts, but may -wear out the most powerful enemy. - -When the death of the aged Mattathias drew nigh (167), his followers -had no need to be anxious about his successor; the only difficulty was -the choice of one from amongst his five heroic sons. The dying father -designated Simon as a wise counsellor, and Judas as the commander, and -exhorted them all to sacrifice their lives for the Covenant of their -forefathers, and to fight God's battle. As soon as Judas Maccabæus was -in command, matters took a favourable turn. He was a warrior such as -the house of Israel had not known since the time of David and Joab, -than whom he was nobler and purer. Invisible strength seemed to emanate -from his hero-soul, which imbued all who surrounded him with the same -dauntless courage. He was endowed with the instincts of a general, and -this enabled him to fight at the right moment, to take advantage of -his enemy's weakness, and to deceive him by means of feigned attacks. -In the hour of battle, "he was like a lion in his rage," and when at -rest, like a dove in gentleness and simplicity. He was as resigned to -the will of God as the holiest men of old in Israel, and relied not -on his sword, but on God's help, praying to Him before each decisive -action. Judas Maccabæus was a true hero of Israel, who only resorted to -bloodshed when compelled by necessity in order to recover lost freedom, -and to raise a humbled people. He gave his name to the whole epoch. - -At first he followed the example of his father, and sallied out only -secretly or at night to punish the apostates, to win over the wavering, -and to harass small bands of Syrian troops. But as the number of his -followers steadily increased, augmented by pretended converts to -heathendom, who were glad to throw off their masks, and by those who -were cured of their love for the Greeks by the cruelty and despotism of -the latter, Judas ventured to confront a Syrian army under Apollonius. -The latter had united the garrison at Samaria with other troops which -he had collected in order to fight the rebels, for he had deemed it -imprudent to withdraw the soldiers from Jerusalem, or rather, from the -Acra. This was the first open battle which Judas fought, and success -rewarded his valour. Apollonius was killed, and his soldiers were -either slain on the battle-field, or sought safety in flight. Though -the number of the defeated Syrians was small, still this victory -encouraged the Judæans. They had met the cruel foe face to face, and -their daring had triumphed; they considered it a proof that God had -not abandoned His people, but still watched over and protected them. -Judas took the sword which had dropped from the hand of Apollonius, and -fought with it until his death. - -A Syrian commander named Heron, guided by some treacherous Hellenists, -pursued Judas and his followers into the mountains, and hoped to crush -them with his overwhelming numbers. When the Judæan soldiers first -saw the great numbers of men assembled near Bethhoron, they cried -out, "How can we wage war against such an enemy?" But Judas knew how -to calm their fears, and reminded them of the precious treasures they -were called upon to defend,--their lives, their children, and the Law. -A vigorous attack was made on the Syrians, who were totally defeated. -Eight hundred men of Heron's army remained dead on the battle-field, -and the others fled westward into the land of the Philistines. This -first decisive victory of Judas, at Bethhoron, over a much larger army -than his own (166), inspired the Judæans with confidence, and filled -their enemies with terror; they were amazed both at the bravery and the -strategical skill of the Maccabee, and at the endurance of the people. - -What was Antiochus, the author of all these calamities, doing -meanwhile? At first he troubled himself little about the Judæans, -foolishly believing that his decrees would suffice to subdue and -convert them. But when he learned of the losses of his army, and when -the fame of Judas reached his ear, he at last admitted that he had -underrated his enemy's power of resistance. In the first moment of -anger he determined to send forth a large army, and make an end of -his refractory opponents. But he was unable to carry out his plans -immediately; he had few troops left, and would have been compelled -to obtain mercenaries. For this purpose he needed money, and his -treasury was but scantily supplied; for his extravagant expenditures -were greatly in excess of his revenues, and owing to the war with -Judas, the taxes were not collected in Judæa. Other embarrassments -were added to these, for alarming news reached him from the east -and the north. Arsaces, his satrap of Parthia, had revolted against -the Syrio-Babylonian Empire, and had freed himself and his people. -Artaxias, king of Armenia, totally ignored his fealty to Antiochus, -and acted like an independent sovereign. The inhabitants of Aradus, -and other Phoenician towns, also refused to obey him, and thus his -revenues decreased steadily. In order to replenish his treasury he -would have been compelled to wage war against these revolted nations, -but to carry on this war he needed money. Thus he fell from one trouble -into another; but, somehow, the half-insane Antiochus managed to -hire some mercenary troops for a year. Intending to lead half of the -troops himself against the rebellious provinces beyond the Euphrates, -he placed the other half under the command of Lysias, a man of royal -parentage, whom he appointed his lieutenant for the country between -the Euphrates and the Egyptian border. To Lysias also he entrusted -the education of his son. Antiochus's intentions regarding Judæa -were now quite altered. Hellenisation was no longer thought of. His -plan of changing the Jews into Greek citizens had been frustrated. -They had shown themselves incorrigible, and quite unworthy of the -benefit he wished to confer upon them. He therefore determined that -they should be exterminated. He commissioned Lysias to march against -Judæa with the troops left in his charge, and, after conquering the -Judæans, to destroy and uproot every remnant of Israel and every trace -of Jerusalem; and the land was to be colonised by foreign tribes, and -divided among them. The Judæan Hellenists were likewise comprised in -this plan of destruction. Antiochus gave them up to their fate. He did -not care for the small number who slavishly adhered to his commands. -As soon as this plan became known, all the Judæans were seized with -terror and despair, especially those who lived among other nations, -outside of Judæa. Would the small but heroic army, under the guidance -of the Maccabees, be able to resist the onslaught of a numerous horde, -provided with elephants? "In every town, and in every country, where -the king's commands became known, great terror filled the hearts of -the Judæans, and they fasted and wept. The Elders dressed themselves -in their penitential garb, and lay in ashes." But this unprecedentedly -cruel plan of destroying a whole people, men, women and children, -roused new champions for the defence of their country. Even the more -worldly-minded men among the Judæans, and those who, though anxious for -innovation, had not entirely fallen away from Judaism, now joined the -Maccabees, for they had no other alternative. - -However, the actual state of affairs was dismal enough. A large Syrian -army was expected at every moment to crush the Judæan soldiers. It -was absolutely necessary, therefore, that the whole nation should be -animated with enthusiasm to fight and to endure. A peculiar book -was compiled to further this object, and circulated amongst the -more educated of the Judæans; this was the Book of Daniel. It was -undoubtedly written by one of the Chasidim, and intended for his party. -The object of this apocalyptic and artistically compiled work, written -partly in Hebrew and partly in Chaldæan, was to give examples of -firmness in adhering to religious convictions, to encourage the reader -to endurance, and to make him feel that this bloody persecution of the -people would not be of long duration. Even the most pious and faithful -were beginning to doubt God's mercy, for no prophet appeared to reveal -the object of their cruel sufferings, or to announce when they would -cease. The Book of Daniel offered consolation in this respect, showing -that prophecy was not wholly extinct in Israel, for here was a vision, -which announced the aim, and predicted the end of their misery. "There -is yet prophecy among us"--this is repeatedly urged as a consolation. - -The Book first quotes examples of constancy in religious observances -even under great difficulties and danger, and shows that this constancy -was rewarded by a miraculous escape from death; the end of the book -also contains prophecies for the future. The book further tells how the -kings who violated the Sanctuary, or exercised religious despotism were -humiliated, and forced to repent of their crimes. The Book of Daniel -half conceals and half reveals, in a sort of allegory, the destruction -of the wicked Syrian Empire, which was the heir to former kingdoms. -It foretells that the fourth kingdom on earth, following that of the -Babylonians, the Medo-Persians and the Macedonians, would utter foolish -words against the Almighty, seek to destroy the pious and to turn -them away from the festivals and the laws. The pious would fall into -its clutches for "a time, two times, and half a time." Then dominion -would pass into the hands of the people of the Holy One for ever, and -all knees would bow down to Him. In another vision he saw the fourth -Syrian Empire extending far away to the south, to the east and to the -north, rising to the heavens, and casting down stars unto the earth, -and crushing them. It would exalt itself over the King of the heavenly -Hosts, it would abolish the daily sacrifice, and set up an idol in the -Sanctuary. To the question: - - "How long shall be the vision concerning the continual - burnt-offering and the transgression that maketh desolate, to - give up both the Sanctuary and the host to be trodden under - foot?" (DANIEL viii. 13.) - -a voice answered-- - - "Unto two thousand and three hundred evenings and mornings; - when the Sanctuary shall be justified." (verse 14.) - -The Book of Daniel, with its mystical revelations, was undoubtedly read -with great interest by the Assidæans. The apocalyptic form, which gave -each line a peculiar meaning, and reflected the present conditions, -lent it a great attraction. Moreover, it solved the problem of the -present calamities, and showed the object of the horrible persecutions; -these were intended, on the one hand, to destroy sin, and on the other, -to ennoble believers. It was evident that the duration of the period -of affliction had been determined from the beginning, and that this -very duration, too, had a secret meaning. The worldly kingdoms would -disappear, and at the end of this time, God's kingdom, the kingdom of -the holy ones, would commence, and those who had died or had been slain -during the persecutions would awake to eternal life. Thus, though no -prophet arose, still there existed a prophecy for the present time. - -Meanwhile the danger became daily more threatening for the Judæans. -Whilst Antiochus had been marching eastward (166) with a part of his -army, his lieutenant Lysias had chosen a general called Ptolemy, son of -Dorymenes (the one who had favoured Menelaus, and who was commander -in Coelesyria and Phoenicia), and had appointed two able and experienced -generals under him, Nicanor son of Patroclus, and Gorgias. The latter, -having received orders to begin the campaign against the Judæans, -led his division, which, it is said, consisted of 40,000, including -cavalry, along the coast into the very heart of Judæa. Samaritans and -Philistines, both arch-enemies of the Judæans, placed themselves at his -disposal. He was so certain of victory that he invited slave-traders to -come into his camp, and to bring with them money and chains. The Syrian -commander thought that it would be more prudent to sell the captives as -slaves than to kill them; but whilst he was thus prematurely disposing -of them, the Judæan warriors, numbering 6,000, assembled round Judas -Maccabæus. Before leading them into action, the commander, in order -to animate them with the spirit of heroic self-sacrifice, organised -a solemn assembly in the mountain city of Mizpah. It is a remarkable -coincidence that, nine hundred years before, the prophet Samuel had, on -a similar occasion, assembled the people in the same place, in order to -select a leader against the enemy who was then planning the destruction -of Israel. Judas chose Mizpah, because it had been a central -meeting-place for those Judæans who had survived the destruction of -the Temple under Gedaliah, when there had been a small temple there. -The assembly was deeply moved; all its members observed a strict fast -during the day, wore mourning garments, and prayed with all the fervour -of their sorrowing hearts for help and compassion. A scroll of the Law, -which the Judæan army carried with them, was unfolded, and excited -great lamentations, for it reminded them that Antiochus wished to force -them to abandon the Law and to become heathens. - -But Judas endeavoured, not only to awaken emotion, but to arouse -courage, and to prepare the people for the difficult and bloody action -that awaited them. He divided his army into four parts, and placed -his three elder brothers each in command of a division. In accordance -with the Law, he issued a proclamation to the effect that all those who -were newly married, who had built a house or planted a new vineyard, -or who lacked sufficient courage, were permitted to withdraw from the -ranks. Then he marched towards Emmaus, an eight or nine hours' journey -from Mizpah, to meet the enemy. Gorgias had encamped, with about 5,000 -foot-soldiers and 1,000 cavalry, in the plain near Emmaus, because he -thought it easier to penetrate from there into the mountains of Judæa -to attack the Maccabæan army. The Syrian leader wished to surprise the -Judæans in the night, but was outwitted by Maccabæus. As soon as night -set in, Judas left the camp with his followers, marched by well-known -roads to the west, and came upon the enemy's rear. When Gorgias found -the camp of the Judæans deserted, he imagined that fear had driven them -into the mountains, and he pursued them thither. This was the object of -Judas's stratagem. He followed the Syrians, reached their camp, set it -on fire, and pursued the troops. Gorgias noticed only at dawn that the -enemy he was seeking in the mountains was following him from the plain; -he had no time to order more than a part of his army to halt, and to -confront the Judæans. - -Meanwhile Maccabæus had arranged his division in perfect order, and -encouraged them to fight for their country, their Law, and their -Sanctuary. His younger brother hurriedly read to them a few encouraging -verses out of the Law, and gave the warriors the watchword "God's -help!" The Judæan army was greater in number than the single division -of Syrian troops, and fought with great enthusiasm. Thus the enemy was -beaten, and put to flight. Judas forbade his soldiers to seize any -booty, as they still had to fight the other division of the enemy's -army, which was returning from the mountains. These troops shortly -made their appearance, and the Judæans stood ready to resume the -battle; but it did not take place, for as soon as the Syrians saw the -smoke rising from their camp, they turned and fled southwards into -the land of the Philistines. "There was a great rescue on that day." -The victory of Emmaus (166), gained by clever strategy and resolute -valour, was of vast importance. It crippled the enemy, and inspired the -Judæans with confidence in their own power. Neither the cavalry nor the -foot-soldiers, with their helmets and shields, alarmed them any longer, -and the arms which they needed fell into their hands after the enemy -had taken to flight. The booty consisted of gold, silver, and purple, -and of the sacks of money belonging to the numerous slave-traders who -had come to the Syrian camp. All these things were not to be despised, -as they became the means of victory to them in future struggles. -The victors returned to their meeting-place at Modin with songs of -rejoicing, the refrain of which was, "Praise the Lord, for He is good; -for His mercy endureth forever." - -But not yet could they lay down their arms; they knew that Lysias, who -had received orders to destroy the Judæans, would not let this first -defeat pass quietly, but that he would strain every effort to repair -the disaster. They therefore remained armed, and had the happiness -of seeing their numbers increase to 10,000. If ever a war deserved -the name of "holy," the one conducted by the Maccabæans certainly -proved worthy of that appellation. In the following year (165), when -Lysias attacked Judæa with a powerful, picked army of cavalry and -foot-soldiers, he found the Judæans more courageous and determined -than ever. He had not ventured to enter their land on the same road -as before, but had taken a circuitous route, intending to invade -Judæa from the territory occupied by the Idumæans. He encamped near -Bethzur, a five hours' march to the south of Jerusalem. Maccabæus -marched with his 10,000 men to meet him; a regular battle ensued, in -which the impetuous attacks of the Judæans again secured a victory -over the strategy of the Syrian hirelings. Lysias departed, furious at -his defeat; but he flattered himself that by increasing the number of -his army he would ultimately master his opponents. Only in the Acra -of Jerusalem, the incorrigible Hellenists, with Menelaus and a small -Syrian garrison, still held sway. - - - - -CHAPTER XXIII. - -VICTORIES AND DEATH OF JUDAS MACCABÆUS; JONATHAN THE HASMONÆAN. - - Return of Judas to Jerusalem--Reconsecration of the - Temple--The Feast of Lights--Fortification of the Capital--The - Idumæans and Ammonites defeated by Judas--Ill-treatment of - the Galilean Judæans--Measures against Timotheus--Death - of Antiochus--Embassy of the Hellenists to Antiochus - V.--Battle at Bethzur--Retreat of Judas--Affairs in - Jerusalem--Alcimus--Intervention of the Romans--Nicanor's - Interview with Judas--Battle of Adarsa--Death of - Judas--Results of his Career--Condition of the People - after the Death of Judas--The Chasidim, the Hellenists, - and the Hasmonæans--Jonathan--His Guerilla Warfare against - Bacchides--Death of the High-Priest Alcimus--Truce between - Jonathan and Bacchides--Jonathan as High-Priest--His - far-sighted Policy--His Captivity and his Death. - - 165-143 B. C. E. - - -The two decisive battles of Emmaus and Bethhoron had entirely altered -the position of Judæa. The imminent danger was averted. Three years -and a half had passed since the beginning of the religious persecution -and the desecration of the Temple (Tammuz, 168--Marheshvan, 165), -and, just as the Book of Daniel had prophesied, peace had followed -the disastrous excitement of this period. Maccabæus and his followers -took advantage of this favourable moment to march into Jerusalem, and -put an end to the desecration which had hitherto held sway there. The -condition of the holy city was deeply distressing to her faithful sons, -who had shed their hearts' blood to save her. The town looked like -a desert,--the sporting-place of her desecrators. The Sanctuary was -deserted, its gates were burnt, its halls were destroyed; idolatrous -altars stood everywhere; the image of Zeus, the desolating abomination, -towered on the altar, and statues of Antiochus insulted the Judæans. -But the holy warriors had not time to give vent to their sorrow at the -general desecration, for they were forced to act quickly for fear of -being disturbed in their work of purification. Their first duty was to -destroy all statues of Jove, and to remove all unclean objects from the -Temple courts (3rd Kislev, 165). They also removed the altar, thinking -it unfit for their sacrifices, as it had been so frequently polluted. -A council of elders determined to place the stones of the altar in one -of the porches of the entrance-court, and to keep them there until -the prophet Elijah should appear and decree what was to be done with -them. Meanwhile a new altar was built, new doors were put up, and new -vessels were brought to the Temple to replace the old ones. All these -preparations were finished in three weeks, and early in the morning -of the 25th Kislev (November), 165, the Temple was consecrated with -sacrifices and thanksgivings. The two former consecrations certainly -could not have been held with greater fervour and devotion. The purest -feelings animated the congregation, and the mortal anguish, which they -had endured for three years and a half, now gave place to feelings of -joy and hope. - -The consecration of the Temple not only denoted the victory of the -weak over the strong, the faithful over the sinner, but also, and -especially, the victory of Judaism over Hellenic paganism, of the God -of Israel over idols. People from every town of Judæa took part in the -festival, and the inhabitants of Jerusalem lit bright lamps in front of -their houses as a symbol of the Law, called "Light" by the poets. The -Hasmonæan brothers and the other members of the Great Council decided -that in future the week beginning on the 25th of Kislev should be held -as a joyous festival, to commemorate the consecration of the Temple. -Year after year the members of the House of Israel were to be reminded -of the victory of the few over the many, and of the re-establishment -of the Sanctuary. This decree has been conscientiously carried out. -For two thousand years these days have been celebrated as the "Days of -Consecration" (Hanukkah) by the lighting of lamps in every household -in Israel. From this custom the days derived their name of "Feast of -Lights." Naturally, the old order of things was restored in the Temple. -Priests and Levites were reinstated in their offices; only those -Aaronides who had taken part in idolatrous worship were excluded from -the Sanctuary. This severity, just as it was, produced bad results, -and increased the difficulty of the position of the Judæans. The -priests among the Hellenists and followers of Menelaus, despairing of -reconciliation with the representatives of the people, became more and -more embittered in their hatred against the patriotic, pious party. -Maccabæus had placed his soldiers on guard whilst the Temple was -being restored, to prevent the Hellenists from hindering the people -in their work, and now that the consecration was over, he fortified -the Temple Mount by means of a high wall with two strong towers, and -placed a garrison in them, to protect it from sudden attacks from the -neighbouring Birah or Acra. Foreseeing that the people would have to -fight more battles before they could secure their freedom, he took the -precaution of protecting the country in different ways, among which was -the fortification of Bethzur, the town from which Lysias had sought -to penetrate into Judæa with his army. It was to be in particular a -stronghold against the Idumæans. The victory of the heroes of Israel -over the well-armed Syrian troops increased the burning hatred of the -neighbouring nations against the Judæans, and goaded them on to cruel -enmity against the members of the people who dwelt amongst them, or who -had fled to them for refuge. They either grudged them their victory -or feared their superiority. The Philistines, in the south-west; the -Phoenicians, in the north-west; the Ammonites, on the other side of the -Jordan; the Syrians and Macedonians everywhere in the neighbourhood, -and the Idumæans in the south, were imbued with hatred of the Judæans. - -When driven away from their homes by the Nabatæans, the Idumæans had -settled in the old Judæan territory, and had even taken possession -of Hebron. They showed themselves the bitter enemies of the Judæans -in Antiochus's time, just as they had done under Nebuchadnezzar's -despotism; they were ever on the watch for the fugitives, whom they -ill-treated, and sometimes even killed. It was therefore very important -to reduce them to subjection. Judas first undertook an expedition -against the sons of Esau in Akrabattine, defeated them, and drove them -from their dwelling-places. He then crossed the Jordan with his army, -fought the Ammonites, who were led by a Syrian warrior, Timotheus, -an implacable and indefatigable enemy of the Judæans. When Judas had -defeated him and the Ammonites, and had taken possession of their -capital Rabbath-Ammon (Philadelphia), Timotheus sought shelter in the -neighbouring fortress Jaazer, commanded by his brother Chaireas. Twenty -Judæan youths are reported to have shown wonderful valour, climbing the -walls of this difficult fortress, and making a breach for the troops to -enter. Judas accomplished his object by taking Jaazer and its "daughter -towns"; he obtained peace for the Judæans residing in this part of the -country, and inspired the peoples with respect for the name of Israel. - -The Judæan troops had hardly returned to Jerusalem before they received -intelligence of other cases of ill-treatment of their Judæan brethren -at the hands of their heathen neighbours. The Judæans turned in their -distress to Maccabæus, as the Israelites had done of old to Saul. -The inhabitants of Gilead and Bashan informed him by letter that the -heathen tribes had collected, with Timotheus at their head, with the -intention of utterly destroying them; that 1,000 Judæans had been -slaughtered in the province of Tobiene; that women and children had -been dragged into captivity, and that their property had been plundered -by the enemy. Messengers, with rent garments, followed upon this -missive, bringing letters from the Galilean Judæans, that they also -were threatened with death by the inhabitants of Acco, Tyre and Sidon. -They implored Judas to come to their aid before it was too late. He -had no need, like Saul, to send messengers with threatening words, in -order to call together an army to the assistance of the threatened -Jabesh-Gileadites, for his devoted followers constituted the whole -fighting power of the land. Maccabæus gave the command of one part of -his army to his brother Simon, with orders to march to the assistance -of the Judæans of Galilee, whilst he and his brother Jonathan, with -another division, prepared to rescue his oppressed brethren beyond -the Jordan. The rest of the Judæan forces, under the command of two -leaders, were to guard the western boundary of Judæa from the inroads -of the Philistines. Simon accomplished his task with rapidity and -good-fortune. He began by hastening to Acco, whose Judæan inhabitants -were the worst sufferers at the hands of the Greeks or Macedonians. -His well-trained soldiers, meeting with some hostile forces, defeated -them easily, put them to rout, and pursued them to the very walls of -their seaport town. This successful feat of arms relieved him from -the necessity of further engagements, for the Macedonians of the -neighbouring towns did not venture to encounter the Maccabæan troops. -Simon was therefore able to progress unmolested through Galilee, and to -persuade the Judæans of that province to migrate to Judæa. - -A more laborious contest awaited Judas in the Transjordanic provinces, -for on his march he again met with the obstinate hostility of -Timotheus. As in former ages, the heights were still crowned with -fortresses. However, Judas succeeded in reducing several of them; -he razed their walls to the ground, disarmed their defenders, and -delivered his imprisoned countrymen. He then assembled the Judæan -population, led them across the Jordan, through the friendly city of -Bethshean (Scythopolis), and shortly before the celebration of the -feast of Pentecost (May, 164) he returned to Jerusalem with a number of -emigrant Judæans from Gilead. From all cities of Judæa the enthusiastic -people streamed to receive the victors and to celebrate the festival -with feelings of joy and gratitude. New songs of praise resounded in -the Temple. - -But Judas soon marched out again, in order to avenge an injury which -had been received during his absence. His two generals, Joseph, the son -of Zachariah, and Azariah, whom he had left behind to guard the land -in the west, had, contrary to his orders, attacked Gorgias, who was -occupying Jamnia with a force; but they had suffered a defeat, and had -been driven back to the Judæan mountains. Judas therefore embarked on -a new campaign. His arms were again crowned with success, he destroyed -several cities on the sea-coast, together with their temples and idols. - -Whilst the hero of the Maccabees had been making fearless warriors out -of his miserable and trembling countrymen who had hidden in caves, -whilst he had been inspiring his people with self-confidence, and -vanquishing the enemy far and near, the court of Syria had remained -wrapped in the most complete indifference. What could have induced -Lysias, who held the reins of government, to remain passive in the face -of this daring defiance? Had he not the means of hiring mercenaries; or -did he think the Judæans invincible? It is said that a distinguished -man at the Syrian court, named Ptolemy Macron, had advocated the cause -of the Judæans, and had declared that the religious restraint imposed -upon them was unjust. - -Suddenly important news came to Palestine concerning Antiochus -Epiphanes. The progress of that monarch through Parthia had not been -signalised by any military success; nor had he been able to refill his -treasury. Driven by want of money, he undertook an expedition to the -city of Susa, in Elymais, to plunder the temple of the goddess Anaitis; -but the inhabitants resisted the invader and forced him to retreat. -He fell sick in the Persian city of Tabæ, and while in a state of -delirium, expired (164). He who had derided the idea of a Divine Being -and Divine justice, who had deliberately assaulted all that men hold -sacred, in the end lost confidence in himself in consequence of the -frustration of all his plans. It is quite possible that on his deathbed -he repented of his desecration of the Temple, or, as another report has -it, that his attack of frenzy resulted from the stings of conscience. -At all events his last orders savour of madness, for he appointed one -of his favourites, Philip, as regent of his kingdom and guardian of -his young son Antiochus V., although previous to his departure for -Persia he had invested Lysias with absolute power. This, his dying act, -of pitting two rival governors against each other, thus dividing his -country into factions, proved fatal to the Syrio-Macedonian kingdom, -and to the Seleucidæan house. - -The death of Antiochus produced no change in the position of the -Judæans. Lysias, who was guardian of the young king, Antiochus V. -(Eupator, from 164 to 162), undertook no expedition against the -Judæans. Judas Maccabæus took advantage of this inactivity to improve -the unsatisfactory internal condition of his country. At that time -there existed in Jerusalem two neighbouring fortified places that were -in daily feud with each other, namely the Sanctuary, and the fortress -of the Acra, occupied by the Hellenists, who, with their pretended -high-priest Menelaus, continued their hostilities against the patriotic -and loyal Judæans by making attacks upon the fortifications of the -Temple. Judas Maccabæus took measures to bring this intolerable state -of affairs to an end. He undertook the formal siege of the Acra, and -raised earthworks on which he placed catapults, to discharge stones -against the walls. - -In this emergency some of the Hellenists resolved to have recourse to -the young king, Antiochus V. (Eupator), and, eluding the besiegers, -travelled for that purpose to Antioch. Upon their arrival, they -declared that they had been cruelly treated by the Judæan party, on -account of their devotion to the royal cause; that they had been robbed -of their property, and threatened with death. They also represented to -the king and his guardian that if the Acra were allowed to fall into -the hands of the Hasmonæans, the rebellious Judæans would be utterly -invincible. A council was thereupon held at the Syrian court, and it -was agreed to commence hostile proceedings against the Hasmonæans. -Ptolemy Macron, who alone spoke in favour of peaceful measures, could -gain no hearing. - -The flame of war again blazed up in the spring of 163 B. C. It was an -unfortunate time for the Judæans, as this happened to be a Sabbatical -year, which was strictly kept by those ready to forfeit their lives for -the Law. There was neither sowing nor reaping, and the people had to -content themselves with the fruits of the trees, with the spontaneous -aftergrowth of the soil, or with what had been planted before the -beginning of the Sabbatical year. The garrisons of the fortresses could -not be supplied with food. - -Lysias, accompanied by the royal child Eupator, and at the head of a -large army with elephants, marched towards the south side of Judæa. -Judas could only send a small army into the field, as he required -the greater number of his forces for the defence of the Temple and of -the fortress of Bethzur. Thus he was compelled to restrict himself -to defensive operations. The garrison of Bethzur fought bravely, and -attempted to destroy the siege-train of the invaders. Unfortunately, -the scarcity of their provisions would not permit the beleaguered to -undergo a long siege, and, moreover, they were betrayed by a traitor, -Rodocus, who is accused of having revealed to the enemy the secret -ways by which food was introduced into the fortress. At length famine -and treachery compelled the garrison of Bethzur to surrender; but they -were allowed free egress from the fortress. Relieved on this side, the -Syrian army was now able to march upon Jerusalem. Nothing was left to -Maccabæus but to meet them in the field. He advanced at the head of his -troops to Beth-Zachariah, not far from Bethsur, where he awaited the -enemy. The Judæans again performed prodigies of valour. Eleazar, one of -the Hasmonæan brothers, thinking that the magnificently-attired rider -of an elephant was the king himself, crept boldly under the animal, -stabbed it to death, and fell crushed by its enormous weight. But in -spite of the courage and daring of the Judæans, they were obliged to -retreat before the superior numbers of the Syrians. Judas retreated to -Jerusalem, and entrenched himself with his army in the Temple fortress. -Lysias soon followed, and began a formal siege of the Sanctuary. -Judas did not fail to defend himself, and also erected catapults. As -the siege continued for a long time, the supplies, which were not -plentiful on account of the Sabbatical year, were soon consumed by the -garrison. Tortured by hunger, the troops began to desert the fortress -by subterranean passages. Only Judas Maccabæus, his three brothers, and -a small band of devoted followers remained steadfastly at their post -of danger, defying the pangs of hunger. Jerusalem, or, more properly -speaking, its last place of refuge, the Temple, was about to fall, as -in the time of Nebuchadnezzar, through want of food; but help came -unexpectedly. - -Philip, who had been named regent of Syria by the dying king Antiochus -Epiphanes, had raised a large army of Medo-Persians, and was marching -upon Antioch to deprive Lysias of the rule. As soon as Lysias heard of -the advance of his rival, he was forced to withdraw his troops from -Jerusalem to lead them against this new enemy. He therefore persuaded -the young king to make peace with the Judæans, and thus a treaty was -concluded, the chief condition being that the Judæans should enjoy -complete religious freedom, and that the fortress of the Temple should -remain inviolate. Lysias agreed by oath to these conditions, but as -soon as the gates of the fortress were opened, he ordered his soldiers -to raze the walls and the towers to the ground. In no other way, -however, did he seek to molest the Judæans, for he neither destroyed -nor desecrated the Sanctuary, and he soon commenced his march to Syria, -where Philip had taken possession of the capital. Thus the numerous -battles of the Hasmonæans were crowned after all with success, and the -Judæans were once more permitted to enjoy religious liberty, and were -no longer compelled to sacrifice to Jupiter. - -But these wars had another fortunate result: the Syrian court withdrew -its protection from the Hellenists, who were obliged to leave their -fortress in the Acra. Menelaus, the usurping high-priest, the author of -untold misery, was sacrificed by Lysias. The latter looked upon him as -a firebrand, and had him executed in Beroea (Aleppo), after he had, for -ten years, degraded his priestly diadem by the most execrable conduct. -Jason, who had not, indeed, been so great a criminal as Menelaus, but -who had done his best to disturb the peace of his country, had expired -somewhat earlier in a foreign land. Persecuted by Antiochus Epiphanes, -and driven by the Nabatæan prince, Aretas, out of his country, he had -fled to Egypt, but finding no safety there, had wandered from town to -town, until at last he had found a grave in Sparta. - -The truce between the Syrian court and the Judæan people making a -return to the old order of things possible, it was necessary to elect -a new high-priest as political chief, and who could be found worthier -of that office than Judas Maccabæus? The great Hasmonæan hero was -most probably raised to that dignity by Antiochus Eupator, or by his -guardian, Lysias. - -During these days of peace, the warrior was able to lay aside his arms, -the peasant to till his fields, and the scribe to devote himself to -the study and the expounding of the Law; the bleeding wounds of the -commonwealth began at length to close and to heal. But peace was not to -be of long duration. - -The excitement, resulting from years of civil warfare, was not so -easily allayed that a veil could be thrown over the past. There were -still avowed and clandestine Hellenists, who hated Judas Maccabæus -and his devoted adherents, especially the Chasidim, on account of the -restraint imposed upon them and the frustration of their efforts. They -took advantage of a turn in the political tide to gratify their bitter -animosity. Prince Demetrius, who had been debarred from the succession -to the throne of Syria by his uncle Antiochus Epiphanes, and who had -been left by that monarch as hostage in Rome, seized upon a favourable -opportunity for quitting that city to depose the son of the usurper and -his guardians. - -Lysias had foolishly and publicly maintained trained elephants and -built ships of war, though the Roman Senate had interdicted both. -Hereupon Rome sent one of its severest censors to Syria, the envoy -Cneius Octavius, not only to pronounce a severe reproof against -the regent, but also to order the slaying of his elephants and the -burning of his fleet. The orders were carried out without opposition; -but Octavius met with his death, at the hand of a patriot, in a bath -at Laodicea. Thus the authorities in Rome, displeased with the court -of Antiochus, overlooked the escape of Demetrius. When this prince -appeared as an invader in Syria, he gained over the people and the -army to his cause, and put the king and the regent to death (162). The -discontented Judæan party made use of this change of rulers to lodge -their complaints against the Hasmonæans. They were led by a priest -of the name of Jakim, or in Greek Alcimus, the nephew of one of the -teachers of the Law, Josê, son of Joëzer, but himself an adherent -of the innovators. Alcimus and his adherents, embittered at having -been excluded from the Temple and the altar, repaired to the king of -Syria--it is said, with a golden introduction--to whom they gave a -gloomy picture of the state of Judæa, ascribing the misfortunes of -the country to Judas and his followers. The accusation was levelled -chiefly against Maccabæus. So long as he lived, they said, the land -would not obtain the blessings of peace. This accusation was pleasing -to Demetrius, as it gave him an opportunity of asserting his power over -a small, semi-independent province. Though he did not mean to walk -in the footsteps of his kinsman, Antiochus Epiphanes, in the matter -of religious persecutions, still, the fact of his being able to name -Alcimus high-priest and political head of the Judæan commonwealth, -would be a sign that he was master of the people. In order to prevent -any opposition to his wishes, he sent Bacchides, a rude, inexorable -warrior, with a large troop of Syrians, to Jerusalem. He came with -peaceful assurances on his lips. But Judas and his brethren were not -deceived. Convinced that their freedom and their lives were at stake, -they quitted their beloved city, and retreated to the mountains. - -The unsuspicious Chasidim, however, allowed themselves to be deceived; -they trusted Alcimus, because he was of the house of Aaron. A large -assembly of distinguished scribes, possibly the whole body of the -Synhedrin, repaired to Bacchides and Alcimus, assuring them of their -friendliness and devotion, and begged them to take measures for -restoring the quiet of their country. Alcimus, the new high-priest, -solemnly swore that this was his intention; but as soon as he had taken -possession of the city, he ordered sixty of the Chasidim to be slain, -his uncle Josê being probably one of the victims. This outrage, coupled -with his perjury, spread terror and mourning through the whole country. -Again all hearts turned towards the Maccabees, and many of those who -had joined the faction of Alcimus left him, and sought the Hasmonæan -brothers at Modin. - -It hardly required a new outrage, perpetrated by Bacchides, to light -the torch of civil war. The Syrian army had intercepted the march of a -number of Judæans who were leaving Alcimus in a body, had surrounded -them near Jerusalem, at Beth Zachariah, and after slaying them, had -thrown their dead bodies into a cistern. All who loved their freedom -and their country now gathered round the Hasmonæans. But Alcimus -succeeded in attracting the ambitious, luxurious and law-breaking -Judæans. The nation was once more divided into two rival factions. -At first the Hellenists were the stronger, as they were under the -protection of foreign troops. Alcimus lost no time in marching through -the land, in order to force the inhabitants to pay submission to -Demetrius, and obedience to himself as high-priest. Meanwhile the army -of the Maccabees was growing in strength and numbers. Judas was once -more able to take the field against the Hellenists, and to punish the -deserters, and he spread such terror that the adherents of Alcimus did -not dare show themselves outside of Jerusalem. - -Alcimus founded his hopes of ultimate success on the devotion he showed -to the Syrian court, more than on his popularity among the people. -Therefore he hurried to Antiochia with fresh accusations against the -Hasmonæans. Demetrius thought he could easily cope with the rebellion -of his Judæan subjects. He sent Nicanor, one of the warriors who had -escaped with him from Rome, to Judæa, commanding him to treat the -insurgents with the utmost harshness. This leader, too, considered it -necessary to proceed gently at first, if only to gain time until the -troops placed at his disposal arrived. It is said that having heard of -the valour and heroism of the great Judæan commander, he desired to -effect a reconciliation between Judas and the king, and to this end -offered to send three confidential envoys to confer with Maccabæus. The -proposals of Posidonius, Theodotus, and Mattathias being acceptable -to Judas and his adherents, an interview took place between him and -Nicanor. The latter was so enchanted with the Judæan hero, that he -advised him after the conclusion of peace to take a wife, and bring an -heroic race into the world. Alcimus, however, put an end to this good -understanding by informing the king that Nicanor was playing a false -part, that he favoured his enemy Judas, and contemplated raising him -to the office of high-priest. Hereupon the king sent strict orders -to Nicanor to cease all negotiations, and to send Judas in chains to -Antiochia. - -Meanwhile Judas, who had been cautioned not to trust Nicanor, had -retreated to his mountain fastnesses, whither he was followed by -Nicanor and his army. A battle ensued at Caphar-Salama, on the confines -of Samaria, where Nicanor's army suffered defeat, and was driven back -to the fortress of the Acra. Enraged at this repulse, the Syrian -renewed hostilities with untiring energy, his chief object being to -make Judas prisoner. - -He repaired to the Mount of the Sanctuary, there to make known his -orders that the hero should be delivered up to him. In vain did the -Council come forth to meet him, assuring him of their devotion to the -king, for whose welfare they offered up daily sacrifices; he treated -them all with rough contempt, and swore that he would burn the Temple -down, if Judas were not delivered into his hands. - -In order to induce the Judæans to surrender him, Nicanor ordered that -the most respected man in Jerusalem, Ragesh, or Razis, called by -general consent "Father of the Judæans," should be seized and kept as -a hostage, but Ragesh, it is said, committed suicide upon the approach -of his intended gaoler. Nicanor was now determined to vanquish the -Maccabees. He marched out from Jerusalem at the head of an immense -army, pitching his camp at Bethhoron, whilst Judas, surrounded by 3,000 -of his bravest followers, took up his post at Adarsa. Judæan valour was -once more triumphant over the superior numbers of the Syrians. Nicanor -fell on the battle-field, and his army fled in utter confusion. The -inhabitants of the towns and villages poured forth in pursuit of the -fugitive Syrians, and cut off their retreat to Gazara, so that not a -single man reached that town. The battle of Adarsa (160) was of so -decisive a character that its anniversary was afterwards celebrated -under the name of the day of Nicanor. The head and one of the arms of -the Syrian commander were severed from the body, and hung as trophies -on the walls of Jerusalem. Judas and the Hasmonæans were once more -masters of Jerusalem, since Alcimus had withdrawn even before the -battle. - -At this juncture, Judas, foreseeing that Demetrius would avenge the -destruction of his army, and feeling the insecurity of his position, -took a step of doubtful wisdom--that of making overtures to the -all-powerful State of Rome. He entrusted two of his countrymen with the -important mission--Eupolemus, the son of Johanan, of priestly family, -and Jason, the son of Eleazar. They were both proficient in the Greek -tongue. But hardly had they reached the end of their journey before -Judas was obliged once more to draw his sword. - -Demetrius, upon hearing of Nicanor's defeat, had sent an immense army, -commanded by the merciless Bacchides, to Judæa. This general marched -through Galilee, killed all the Judæans whom he met on his way, and in -the spring-time of the year encamped before Jerusalem. Judas had again -been obliged to leave the capital, because, stripped as she was of her -walls, she afforded no shelter. He issued a proclamation to the men and -youths of Judæa to come forward and fight for their fatherland, their -Law, and their freedom, but only 3,000 responded to the call. Led by -Judas, these troops marched southward, encamping near Eleasa, because -the mountains in the north were no longer safe. Bacchides followed -the Judæan army with 20,000 foot and 2,000 mounted soldiers, taking -up his position at Birath, near Bethlehem. Confronted with this vast -host, the Judæan warriors lost heart. They declined to give battle -for the moment, but insisted upon dispersing to await reinforcements. -In vain did Judas employ all his eloquence to urge steadfastness upon -them. The greater number deserted, leaving only eight hundred men to -support Judas. Selecting the most valiant of this little band, he -successfully attacked the right wing of Bacchides, and drove the enemy -to the confines of Ashdod. But the small troop of Judæan soldiers left -behind, unable to withstand the desperate onslaught of the left wing of -the Syrian army, was routed, and when Judas returned from the pursuit -he was obliged to resume battle with the latter. He and his band of -picked men performed wonders of bravery. On both sides fell the dead -and wounded, and the battle lasted from morning till evening. But -the Judæan army became smaller and smaller, and its survivors were -entirely surrounded by the enemy. At last even Judas Maccabæus fell, -sword in hand. The few remaining soldiers fled from the battle-field, -the Maccabæan brothers being fortunate enough to save the body of their -heroic commander from disgrace. - -The defeat at Eleasa or Birath (160) seemed to have rendered -ineffectual all the previous Jewish victories. The lion-hearted troop -of Hasmonæans were dispersed. Alcimus once more took possession of the -Temple and the Holy City, and could gloat over his antagonists. - -But the long years of Maccabæan warfare had not been in vain. They had -roused the nation from its torpor, and had rejuvenated it. The blood -of martyrs, it is said, heals wounds. In truth, all old wounds were -healed by this free-will sacrifice of so many lives. So far as the -world at large was concerned, the stigma that had been fastened upon -the Judæan name had vanished. The contemptuous Greeks, who had felt the -force of Judas's arm, no longer derided the Judæan soldiers, and the -Judæans were no longer required to prove their equality with the Greeks -by joining in the Olympian games. The Judæans themselves had learnt to -know their own prowess and their mission; they had proved themselves -to be God's people, destined to guard His law and His teaching, and -capable of defending those precious gifts. Self-devotion, taught by the -prophet Elijah to a few disciples, and inculcated by the second Isaiah -with fiery eloquence, had become, through the action of the Maccabæan -warriors and martyrs, the recognised duty of the whole nation. - -Judas Maccabæus had breathed out his heroic soul on the battle-field of -Eleasa. The whole nation mourned for him, and justly, for it had become -orphaned by his loss. - -The sublime enthusiasm that had led to the valiant deeds of the -Maccabees, that had moved singers to extol the Lord "in new songs," -could not be of lasting duration. It was the result of a noble -excitement, and a reaction had to follow. An entire nation, bred to -farming and cattle-breeding, cannot continue in arms from year's end to -year's end. Besides, the principal cause which had prompted a warlike -rising had ceased to exist. It was no longer demanded of them to deny -the God of Israel, or to sacrifice to Jupiter. One of the terms of the -truce that Judas Maccabæus had concluded with the young king Antiochus -Eupator, or with his general-guardian Lysias, was the religious freedom -of the Judæans. Demetrius I. did not interfere with this concession; -in the Temple at Jerusalem, the sacrifices were offered up according -to law, and although the high-priest, Jakim or Alcimus, was not a -favourite of the people, yet, unlike his predecessor Menelaus, he came -of priestly descent. - -It is true, the party of the Hellenists still held the fortress Acra -in Jerusalem, whence they menaced the faithful with the destruction -of their city and the violation of their Temple. The conqueror, -Bacchides, after the death of Judas, had made them masters of the land, -and they were resolved to use their authority in order to bring about -the downfall of the pious Judæans. But such proceedings, well as they -may be adapted to rouse noble natures to active measures, do not seem -important enough to warrant a short-sighted, and, above all things, -peace-loving people to take any decided steps against their enemy, and -to hazard their own safety and that of their families, unless a voice -of authority calls upon them to act. - -But after the death of Judas Maccabæus there was no one left to claim -such authority. - -Although the Hasmonæan brothers were beloved by the people, they had -not the power to summon the whole nation to their standard, and they -were looked upon only as leaders of a faction. - -In fact, after the death of Judas one could discern the beginnings -of three distinct parties amongst the people; party spirit, always a -symptom of national vitality, had, as far as Judæa was concerned, its -origin in the Maccabæan wars. First, there were the pious Chasidim, or -Assidæans, as they are more generally called. These obeyed not only the -Law, but the additional enactments promulgated by Ezra and the Supreme -Council. Then came their persistent antagonists, the Hellenists, who, -in violent contrast to the former, scorned the earnest Judæan life, -and sought to introduce Greek customs. These were despised of the -people, who called them "Traitors to the Covenant." In spite of this -they numbered among their adherents Temple officials, priests, and -the old and distinguished family of Odura, and the sons of Phasiron. -Lastly, there were the Hasmonæans, who had raised themselves to great -power in a short time, and whose leaders were the three remaining sons -of Mattathias, Jonathan, Simeon and Johanan. The Hasmonæans resembled -the Assidæans in their love for Judaism and the Sanctuary, but they -differed from them in their wider view, in their practical judgment, -and in their manly energy, which could not be deterred from its purpose -by any adverse circumstances. They were not content with having averted -the violation of the Sanctuary, or with having obtained the recognition -of their religious liberty; but they longed to rid themselves of the -causes which had brought misfortune on their country. A Psalmist -describes them most accurately in these words: "The praise of God is -in their mouth, and a two-edged sword in their hands." They could not -bear to have the Judæans remain under the hateful yoke of the Greeks, -or to know that Judaism depended for its very existence upon the whim -of a Syrian despot, or the intrigues of a treacherous party. They were -not content with mere religious freedom; they wished to establish -political independence. But the Hasmonæans feared that they lacked -the strength to effect this purpose. They therefore determined to -rely upon extraneous aid, and for this purpose they desired to connect -themselves with the Roman government and, it appears, also with the -Parthians, who had freed themselves from Syrian rule. But it was this -worldly policy that incensed the Assidæans. They put their trust in God -alone, and could imagine warfare possible only if conducted according -to Biblical precedent; they believed that God would confound the enemy -in a miraculous way, and, in their opinion, to seek foreign help was -to cast a doubt upon the omnipotence of God. "It is better to trust in -the Lord than to confide in man," they quoted, "it is better to trust -in the Lord than to confide in princes." This discontent, it may be -surmised, was the cause of the separation of the Assidæans from the -Hasmonæans, thereby reducing the number of the Maccabæan warriors. This -circumstance may have brought about the death of Judas. - -Of these three parties, the Hasmonæans alone had a chance of being -ultimately the leaders of the nation. The Hellenists had destroyed -their prospects by disregarding entirely the observances or prejudices -of the people; whilst the Assidæans entertained views of an intensely -narrow character, and were too fond of repose to disturb it by seeking -to remedy the state of anarchy in which Judæa was plunged. - -Confusion was indeed rampant at that time. Wherever Hellenists and -Hasmonæans met, a disgraceful conflict was the result; no voice of -authority forbade such practices; there was not even a court of -justice. Famine did but aggravate this miserable state of things. -"There was great affliction in Israel, the like whereof had not been -seen since a prophet had been among them." - -In their anguish the unfortunate people turned to Jonathan Haphus, -hoping that he would humiliate the Hellenists, and restore peace to -the country. But Jonathan did not possess the warlike energy of his -brother Judas, nor was he supported by the whole nation. He was more -of a politician than a general. Too weak to attack the army that -Bacchides had quartered in Judæa, he was merely able to take measures -of defence. Threatened by the Syrian host, the Hasmonæans entrenched -themselves in the woodland country on the shores of the Jordan; but, -conscious of their weakness, they sent their wives and children to join -the friendly Nabatæans. On the way, however, this peaceful troop was -suddenly attacked by a warlike tribe, that of Bene Amri, from the city -of Madaba, and with their leader, the Hasmonæan Johanan, was put to the -sword--a deed of infamy that was subsequently avenged by Jonathan. - -But even in their hiding-places, in the valley of the Jordan, the -Hasmonæans found no rest. Bacchides sought them out, attacked them -on the Sabbath-day, when indeed they were not forbidden to defend -themselves, but when they were too much hampered by legal minutiæ to -join battle with full force, and compelled them to swim the river, -and find safety on the opposite side. The whole country was now at -the mercy of the enemy. Bacchides restored the fortresses, reinforced -the strong places, the Acra, Bethzur and Gazara, storing them with -provisions and weapons. He enforced the loyalty of the people by -seizing the children of the most distinguished families, and placing -them as hostages in the Acra. Thus, in the space of one year (160-159), -Bacchides succeeded in entirely putting down all armed opposition to -the Syrian rule, a feat which the previous Syrian commanders had not -been able to accomplish in six years. - -The strong arm of the Maccabæan hero was sorely missed. Had King -Demetrius wished to make any important changes in the religious -condition of the Judæans, he could not have chosen a more opportune -moment; the strength of the people was broken, and their leaders were -banished from the scene of action. But the successor of Antiochus -Epiphanes, sunk in a life of debauchery, was content with having -assured himself of the sovereignty over Judæa, and of the annual -payment of the tribute-money. The Syrian court, even after the death of -Alcimus, troubled itself but little, if at all, about the religion of -the Judæans. Although disliked by the people, the high-priest Alcimus -had not belonged to the extreme Hellenists. He was merely an ambitious -man who always worshipped the rising power. An offence with which he -was reproached appears, on careful examination, hardly to have been -a sin against the religion of the Judæans. It appears that between -the inner and outer courts of the Temple there was a sort of wooden -screen, of lattice-work, called "Soreg." This screen, the work of the -prophets, as it was called, was the boundary, beyond which no heathen, -nor any one who had become unclean by contact with a corpse might -pass. But Alcimus gave orders for the destruction of this partition, -probably with the intention of admitting the heathen within the sacred -precincts. The pious Judæans were so highly incensed at this, that when -Alcimus was seized, directly after this command, with paralysis of -speech and of limbs, from which he never recovered, they attributed his -fatal illness to the wrath of Heaven. - -After the death of Alcimus, the Syrian court left the office of -high-priest unfilled, evidently with the intention of removing even -this semblance of Judæan independence. For seven years the Temple -had no high-priest, and the country, no political head. Probably -the priestly functions were carried on by a substitute for the -high-priest, under the name of Sagan. We hear nothing of further Syrian -interference. Bacchides left the country, and Judæa was at peace for -two years (159-157). - -Jonathan and Simon, the leaders of the Hasmonæans, made use of this -pause to strengthen themselves, and to arm their followers. They -fortified the oasis of Bethhagla, in the desert of Jericho, within the -grateful shade of a wood and near a spring with an ample supply of -sweet and limpid water. The river Jordan protected their rear. - -In the conduct of this war Jonathan enjoyed no other authority than -that of a Bedouin chief who extorts an armistice from the governing -power; but as the sympathy of the people went with him, and as he -carried his sword in a holy cause, he attained greater power. Without -doubt the harm he did the Hellenists was considerable, for we hear of -their carrying fresh complaints to the Syrian court. But as Demetrius -was hopelessly indifferent, and as Bacchides was weary of carrying on -a guerilla warfare at a great disadvantage, they remained inactive, -whilst the Hellenists proposed to fall treacherously upon Jonathan and -Simon, and to deliver them as prisoners to the Syrians. An ambush was -laid for the two commanders, but the conspiracy was revealed, and the -Maccabæans were able to take measures of defence upon this occasion. -Fifty Hellenists were seized and executed. Bacchides, who had counted -upon the rapid success of the conspiracy, felt himself involved in a -new war, and proceeded to besiege the Hasmonæans in their fortress -of Bethhagla. But the latter had attracted a number of followers, -large enough to enable them to divide their forces. Jonathan and his -followers defended the fortress, whilst Simon with his division, -sallying out by an unguarded road, attacked the Syrians in the rear, -and after defeating the Hellenists, burnt the siege-machines of the -enemy. Threatened on both sides, Bacchides was forced, not without -a considerable loss of soldiers, to raise the siege of Bethhagla, -and as an outlet for his rage executed many of the Hellenists in his -army. This was an appropriate moment for Jonathan to demand a truce, -which was granted. The condition agreed upon was that Jonathan, after -giving hostages as pledges of peace, might return to Judæa unmolested, -but should not be permitted to dwell in Jerusalem. Prisoners were -exchanged, and Bacchides marched out of the land, leaving his allies, -the Hellenists, unprotected. - -Jonathan took up his position in the fortress of Michmash, where Saul -had once fixed his headquarters. He was tacitly acknowledged as the -head of the Judæan people, and treated its enemies with relentless -severity. For nearly four years "the sword rested in Israel." How this -undecided state of things would finally have ended it is difficult to -say, but it is certain that, without the aid of an unexpected piece -of good fortune, the dream of the Hasmonæans could never have been -realised. - -A revolution in the Syrian kingdom effected a happy change in the fate -of Judæa, and increased the power of Jonathan and the nation. - -An obscure youth of Smyrna, Alexander Balas, was the cause of this -revolution. He happened to bear an extraordinary likeness to the late -king of Syria, Antiochus Eupator. This resemblance prompted Attalus, -king of Pergamum, to induce Alexander to play the part of pretender to -the Syrian throne. Alexander, richly supplied by Attalus with money and -troops, was recognised by the Roman Senate as heir to the kingdom of -Syria. Demetrius, roused from his indolence, began to look about him -for allies. Above all he was anxious to win Jonathan over to his side. -This led him to write a flattering epistle to the Hasmonæan commander, -in which he called him his ally, and authorised him to raise troops and -procure weapons. The Judæan hostages were at once to be set free. - -Jonathan did not neglect so favourable an opportunity. He hurried to -Jerusalem, repaired the walls, and fortified the city. The Hellenists -sought refuge in the fortress of Bethzur. But Alexander, who was -also in want of help, was equally eager for Jonathan's alliance, and -succeeded in gaining it. He nominated Jonathan high-priest, sent him -a robe of purple and a crown of gold, thus declaring him tributary -prince of the Syrian kingdom and friend of its monarch. - -Jonathan donned his priestly garment, and officiated for the first time -as high-priest in the Temple upon the Feast of Tabernacles (152); he -was the first of the Hasmonæans to gain so great a distinction. - -Thus Judæa, thanks to the valour and self-sacrifice of a handful of -warriors, was raised, after a war of nearly twenty years, from the -brink of destruction to an influential position. The sufferer's part -which she had played for so long was now to be exchanged for one active -and heroic. - -Jonathan greatly contributed to the growing power of the nation during -his rule (152-144). He justly divined which side he should espouse in -the struggle for the Syrian crown. He allied himself to Alexander, -although Demetrius, like all who have nothing left to lose, was profuse -in the most liberal offers. Ignoring the high-priest, Demetrius wrote -"to the Judæan people," promising to relieve them from most of their -taxes and imposts, to restore to their jurisdiction three districts -that had been added to Samaria, to recognise Jerusalem as an asylum, -and even to give up the important Acra. He declared that he would -defray the expenses for conducting divine service in the Temple out -of the royal treasury, reserving for that purpose the revenues of the -town of Ptolemais. The Judæan army was to be levied at Syrian cost, -promotions and rewards were to be given according to Syrian custom, -and the forces consisting of 30,000 men were naturally to serve as -his allies. Even the Judæans settled in the Syrian provinces were, in -consideration of this alliance, to be protected from the oppression of -their neighbours, and were to be exempt, on all Sabbaths and festivals, -and for three days before and after the festivals, from duties in any -court of justice. - -But nothing could bribe the Judæan people to desert Jonathan; they -were not blinded by these brilliant prospects, and their leader was -too well acquainted with the character of Demetrius to give heed to -his promises. He allied himself with Alexander, aided him in crushing -his rival, and never had cause to regret the step that he had taken. -The usurper loaded Jonathan with marks of favour, and plainly showed -his gratitude to the Maccabæan leader. When he entered the city of -Ptolemais, to receive the daughter of the Egyptian monarch, Ptolemy VI. -Philopator, as his bride, he invited Jonathan to meet him, and the two -kings entertained the Judæan warrior as their equal. - -During the reign of Alexander Balas (152-146) Judæa recovered from -the cruel blows which despotism and treachery had dealt her, and was -soon able to call 10,000 men into the field. Jonathan, on his side, -repaid Alexander with unalterable loyalty. For when Demetrius II., -the son of Demetrius I., contested, as rightful heir to the throne, -the sovereignty of Syria, Jonathan upheld Alexander's cause most -strenuously, although that monarch was deserted by Egypt and Rome. - -The Maccabæan chieftain began by opposing the advance of Demetrius's -general Apollonius on the shores of the Mediterranean. He besieged -and took the fortress of the seaport town of Joppa, destroyed the old -Philistine city of Ashdod, which had declared for Apollonius, and burnt -the Temple of the god Dagon. As a reward for his services, Jonathan -received from Alexander the city of Ekron, with the surrounding -country, which from that time was incorporated with Judæa (147). - -The Syrian people were now divided in their allegiance, some of them -acknowledging the rightful king Demetrius II., others clinging to -the house of the usurper Alexander, even after the latter had been -treacherously slain. In this general confusion Jonathan was able to -besiege the Acra, the stronghold of the Hellenists. - -The besieged turned for help to the Syrian king, and Demetrius -II., eager to overthrow the powerful Maccabæan, listened to their -appeal, marched to their rescue, and commanded Jonathan to meet him -at Ptolemais. But when Jonathan obeyed and came with rich presents, -Demetrius thought that his alliance might be of use to himself, and not -only did he abandon his march upon the Acra, but he confirmed Jonathan -in his priestly office. - -Jonathan, well aware that the king was in sore need of money, offered -him 300 talents in exchange for a few districts of land, and for the -promise of exempting the Judæans from all taxation. The compact was -made, written, and placed for security in the Temple; but Demetrius, -in spite of his solemn protestation, soon regretted having freed the -Judæans from their imposts. No Syrian monarch was ever known to be -loyal to his word, or to refrain from recalling favours granted in -some pressing moment of danger. The Judæan army meanwhile was soon -to enjoy the unexpected triumph of inflicting the same degradation -upon the Syrian capital which the Syrians had so often inflicted upon -Jerusalem. Demetrius had excited the discontent of his people to such -a degree that they actually besieged him in his own palace at Antioch, -and his troops, who were clamouring for pay, refused to aid in his -deliverance. Thus he felt himself in the unpleasant position of being -compelled to seek the help of Jonathan's Judæan troops. The 3000 men -sent by the high-priest destroyed a portion of the Syrian capital by -fire, and forced the inhabitants and the rebellious soldiers to release -their king and sue for pardon. But no sooner was Demetrius at liberty -than he treated his deliverer with the basest ingratitude. Jonathan, -therefore, refused to come to his rescue, when a general of Alexander -Balas, Diodotus Tryphon by name, conspired against him, attempting to -place Antiochus VI., the young son of Alexander Balas, on the throne of -Syria. Demetrius was forced to flee from his capital. Embittered at -the faithlessness of the Syrian monarch, and grateful to the memory of -Alexander, Jonathan espoused the cause of the young king and his regent -Tryphon. The latter confirmed him in his priestly office, and permitted -him to wear the gold clasp, the distinguishing mark of an independent -prince. Simon, his brother, was made commander of the Syrian forces -on the shores of the Mediterranean, from the ladder of Tyre to the -Egyptian confines. - -Bravely did the Hasmonæan brothers fight for Antiochus, upon the -triumph of whose cause the freedom of the Judæans depended. Victory -and defeat succeeded each other; but at last the Hasmonæans remained -victorious; they besieged and took several towns on the coast, and -finally entered Damascus. They drove the Hellenists out of Bethzur, -and garrisoned it. But their greatest desire was to make Jerusalem -impregnable. They increased the height of the walls, extending them -eastward to the vale of Kidron, thus creating a defence for the Holy -Mount; they erected a rampart in the middle of the city, facing -the Acra, to keep out the Hellenists, and they filled up the moat -"Chaphenatha," which divided the Holy Mount from the city, and which -was but partially bridged over, thus practically bringing the Temple -closer to the town. - -Jonathan would not attempt the siege of the Acra, partly because he -might have given umbrage to his Syrian allies, and partly because he -did not dare concentrate all his forces at one point so long as the -generals of the fallen Demetrius maintained a threatening attitude. At -that time Judæa could boast of an army 40,000 strong (144-143). - -Subsequent events showed only too plainly that the prudence evinced by -the Hasmonæans in fortifying the country, and maintaining a powerful -army at the outset of this campaign had not been superfluous. As soon -as the rebellious general, Diodotus Tryphon, had possessed himself of -the supreme power in Syria, he determined to overthrow the puppet king -Antiochus, and to place the crown upon his own head. But the greatest -hindrance to the attainment of these ends was Jonathan himself, who, -true to the memory of Alexander, was the devoted champion of the -rights of Antiochus, and who, moreover, was in possession of a great -part of the sea-coast. Tryphon was well aware that Jonathan would not -become party to his treachery, so he determined to rid himself of the -high-priest, and thus weaken the followers of the young king. But a -course of open violence being impossible, he resorted to craft, and -actually succeeded in outwitting the wariest of all the Hasmonæans, -and getting him into his power. Upon the news of Tryphon's entry into -Scythopolis, at the head of a powerful army, Jonathan hurried to -oppose him with 40,000 picked warriors. To his amazement he was most -courteously received by the Syrian commander, and loaded with presents. -Entirely duped by so flattering a reception, he was persuaded by -Tryphon to dismiss the greater number of his troops, and to follow his -host into the fortified seaport city of Acco (Ptolemais), which Tryphon -promised to surrender to him. Of the 3,000 soldiers remaining with -Jonathan, 2,000 were now sent to Galilee, 1,000 alone following their -chief. But hardly had they passed the gates of the fortress before -Jonathan was seized, and made prisoner by the treacherous Tryphon, -whilst the Syrian garrison fell upon his men, and massacred them. -After the accomplishment of this infamous deed, the troops rushed out -in pursuit of the Judæan soldiers, who were stationed in the plain of -Jezreel and in Galilee. But the Judæans had already heard of the fate -that had befallen their brethren, and they turned, and gave battle to -the Syrians, putting them to flight. With the report of Jonathan's -death they entered Jerusalem, and great was the consternation of -their sorrow-stricken brethren. They believed that their beloved -Jonathan had fallen, like his thousand followers at Acco, a victim to -the faithless commander. Syrian domination, with its usual terrible -consequences, seemed impending. The Hellenists were suspected of being -implicated in these disastrous events, and, in fact, there was a secret -understanding between Tryphon and the remnant of the Hellenists; the -Syrian commander appears to have promised them aid from without, while -they were to assist him from within, should the Judæan capital be -besieged. But Simon Tharsi, the last of the Hasmonæans, successfully -averted this twofold danger. In spite of his advanced age, he was a -man of lofty enthusiasm and singular heroism, so that he was able -to rouse the people from despair to hope. When he exclaimed to the -multitude assembled in the outer court of the Temple, "I am no better -than my brothers who died for the Sanctuary and liberty," the Judæans -replied with one voice: "Be our leader, like Judas and Jonathan, your -brothers." Placed at the head of the nation by the people themselves, -Simon was determined to secure Jerusalem from a sudden attack on the -part of the Hellenists, and at the same time to block Tryphon's entry -into Judæa. He sent a Judæan contingent, under the leadership of -Jonathan ben Absalom, to Joppa, in order to prevent the landing of the -Syrian army, whilst he assembled his forces at Adida. - -Tryphon, accompanied by his prisoner Jonathan, had already passed out -of Acco with the intention of falling upon Judæa, which, he thought, -would be paralysed by his act of treachery. He was determined, -moreover, to frighten the Judæans into subjection by threatening to -assassinate their high-priest. But upon hearing, to his amazement, that -all Judæa was in arms, and that Simon was the leader of the people, he -began artfully to enter into negotiations with the enemy. He pretended -to have made Jonathan prisoner only for the purpose of securing one -hundred talents of tribute-money which the Judæans had formerly paid -to Syria, and promised that if this indemnity were forthcoming, and -Jonathan's two sons were delivered up as hostages, he would release his -prisoner. Simon was in no way deceived by this artifice of Tryphon, -but trembling to incur the reproach of having caused his brother's -death, he paid the tribute-money, and delivered up the hostages. -Tryphon, however, had no intention of making peace with the Judæans; on -the contrary, he was at that very moment taking a circuitous road to -Jerusalem, not daring to run the risk of meeting the Judæan forces in -the open field. He might have reached the capital in safety, had not -a heavy snowfall, most unusual in that hot climate, made the mountain -roads of Judæa impassable, and forced him into the trans-Jordanic -country. - -Enraged at this defeat of his plans, he caused Jonathan to be executed -at Bascama (143). The remains of the great Maccabæan high-priest and -commander were ultimately recovered, and buried by Simon and the whole -people at Modin, in the tomb of the Hasmonæans. Thus ended the fourth -of the Hasmonæan brothers. He achieved more than his predecessors had -done, and more than his successors could do; for he raised the Judæan -republic from the very lowest depths to an eminence whence, if not -entirely abandoned by fortune, it could easily rise higher. It is true -that Judas Maccabæus had performed more numerous deeds of valour, and -had gained a more brilliant military renown than Jonathan, but the -younger brother had given his people power and importance, and by -virtue of his priestly office had conferred lasting distinction upon -his family. - -After the death of Judas, the Judæan nation was as near dissolution as -it had been in the days of the sanguinary reign of Antiochus; but after -Jonathan's death, there existed the fundamental conditions upon which a -State can be based. - -If we may compare Judas Maccabæus to the Judges of the Biblical age, -then we may liken Jonathan to King Saul, who was able to avert ruin -and attain safety. As Saul, through the kingly crown, united the -dispersed tribes, and moulded them into a powerful people, so Jonathan, -by his mitre, united the divided factions, and made of them a strong -and self-reliant nation. And although both were deeply mourned by the -people, neither King Saul's death nor that of the high-priest Jonathan -put an end to the nation's unity, because in neither of these parallel -cases did the unity of Judæa rest upon one individual, but upon the -whole nation, conscious of its resources. As Saul found a worthy -successor in his son-in-law David, so did Jonathan in his brother Simon. - -Of Jonathan's descendants, only one daughter is mentioned. She was -married to Mattathias ben Simon Psellus, and became the ancestress of -the historian Flavius Josephus. - -During the period in which the Judæan State was developing through -political trials, the Jewish religion was attaining, on another -theatre, the sovereign position whence it influenced the civilisation -of the whole world. Politically, Judaism was being matured in Judæa, -intellectually, in Egypt. - - - - -CHAPTER XXIV. - -THE JUDÆANS IN ALEXANDRIA AND THE GOVERNMENT OF SIMON. - - The Judæan Colonies in Egypt and Cyrene--Internal Affairs - of the Alexandrian Community--King Philometor favours the - Judæans--Onias and Dositheus--The Temple of Onias--Translation - of the Pentateuch into Greek--Struggle between the Judæans and - Samaritans in Alexandria--Affairs in Judæa--Independence of - Judæa--Simon's League with the Romans--Overthrow of the Acra - and of the Hellenists--Simon's Coinage--Quarrel between Simon - and the Syrian King--Invasion by Cendebæus--Assassination of - Simon. - - 160-135 B. C. E. - - -The magic land of the Nile, once the school of suffering of the -children of Israel and the cradle of Israel's religion, became at this -period the school of wisdom for the Judæan nation. - -The settlement of the Judæans in Egypt was as much encouraged by the -Greek rulers of that country as it had been in former ages by the -Pharaohs. They spread over the entire district between the Lybian -desert in the north and the confines of Ethiopia in the south. They -increased as rapidly as they had done in the days of their forefathers, -and they numbered one million of souls at the expiration of a century -from their first arrival in their adopted country. - -In Egypt and Cyrene the Judæans enjoyed rights similar to those of -the Greek colonists. They were so proud of this equality that they -watched over their privileges with a jealous eye. It is impossible to -say from whom they originally held them, whether from Alexander or his -successors. The Judæan colony in Egypt began to play an active part -at the time when the Egyptian and Syrian courts were hostile to each -other, when both were eager for the possession of Judæa, and each was, -therefore, anxious to secure the alliance of the Judæans. But the -Egyptian Judæans had always been faithful adherents of the Ptolemaic -royal house, and Philometor, the sixth prince of that dynasty, had -cordially received the numerous fugitives who had fled from Judæa -during the persecutions of Antiochus. - -Conspicuous amongst those emigrants were several Judæans of -distinguished families, as well as the son of the high-priest Onias. -They were treated with respect by the Egyptian rulers, and were -able, at a later date, to give proof of their intelligence and their -learning. Political prudence demanded the friendliest reception of the -Judæan malcontents, in order to make sure of their undivided support in -the re-conquest of Judæa from Syria. Neither Egypt nor Syria, however, -could possibly have divined that the opposition of the Judæan patriots -to the Syrian armies would lead to the independence of Judæa. - -The Judæans were principally concentrated in Alexandria, second only to -Rome in political importance and commerce, and to Athens in love of art -and knowledge. Of the five divisions or districts of Alexandria, which -were designated by the first letters of the Greek alphabet, the Judæans -occupied nearly the whole of two; the district of the Delta, lying upon -the sea-coast, had indeed become an exclusively Judæan colony, and -its commanding position determined the occupation of its inhabitants. -The cargoes of grain that Rome imported for her legions from the -rich plains of Egypt were undoubtedly laden upon Judæan ships, and -taken into the market by Judæan merchants. They carried the wealth of -Egyptian harvests to less fertile countries, as Joseph, their ancestor, -had done before them. Prosperity and refinement were the fruits of -their enterprise. But commerce was not monopolised by the Judæans, nor -was it their only pursuit. Their eagerness to learn and their aptitude -enabled them to acquire the skill of the Greeks, and to succeed in the -manufacture of delicate fabrics. Judæan artisans and skilled workmen -were leagued in a kind of guild, and when labour was required in the -Temple of Jerusalem, the Alexandrian-Judæan community supplied the -master-hands. Moreover, the Alexandrian Judæans applied themselves to -the Grecian arts of war and of statecraft. They acquired the melodious -Greek tongue, and made a profound study of Greek learning, many of them -reading and understanding Homer and Plato as easily as the books of -Moses and the writings of King Solomon. - -Prosperity, worthy pursuits, and culture inspired the Alexandrian -Judæans with dignity and self-respect, and in this they may be compared -with their descendants in Spain of a much later date. - -The Alexandrian community was looked upon as the centre of the Judæan -colony in Egypt, and other Judæan colonies, and even Judæa herself, -were glad to lean at times upon this firm pillar of Judaism. Houses of -prayer, bearing the name Proseuche, were established in all parts of -the city. Amongst them was the principal synagogue, distinguished by -its graceful architecture and its magnificent interior. These houses -of prayer were at the same time schools of learning, where the most -accomplished student of the Law would stand up on Sabbaths and festival -days to expound that portion of the Pentateuch that had just been read -to the congregation. - -But the most brilliant ornaments of the Alexandrian-Judæan world were -the distinguished fugitives who arrived in Alexandria during the Syrian -persecutions. The most illustrious of these was Onias IV., the youngest -son of the last legitimate high-priest of the line of Joshua ben -Jozadak. - -After his father had been treacherously murdered, on account of his -determined antagonism to the Hellenists and his support of Hyrcanus, -young Onias fled for safety to Egypt. There he was kindly received -by the gentle King Philometor, because he represented a party which -looked upon him as the rightful successor to the priestly dignity, and -the sixth Ptolemy, hoping ultimately to wrest Coelesyria and Judæa from -Syrian rule, believed that he might eventually rely upon the support of -this party. - -As soon as Onias, who had now reached man's estate, heard that the -wicked high-priest, Menelaus, had been slain by order of the Syrian -court, and that Prince Demetrius had escaped from Rome, and had -conquered Syria, he flattered himself that he would be allowed to -return as high-priest to Judæa. His protector, the king Philometor, had -meanwhile become an ally of Demetrius, and had probably put in a good -word for his favourite. But when Alcimus was chosen high-priest, and -was supported by an armed force, even against the Hasmonæans, Onias -gave up all hope of receiving the priestly inheritance of his father, -and took up his permanent abode in Egypt. - -Onias seems to have been accompanied by a man of great distinction, -Dositheus by name, and the two men played an influential part -during the reign of Philometor. They were given the opportunity of -distinguishing themselves during the disorders arising from the rivalry -of the two royal brothers, the gentle Philometor and the violent -Euergetes, who was a monster in body and in mind, and who was called, -on account of his enormous size, "_Fat-paunch_" (Physcon), and on -account of his diabolical wickedness, "Kaker-getes." - -The two brothers, with their sister Cleopatra, who was the wife of -her elder brother, claimed the throne at a period when Egypt and -Syria happened to be at war with each other. But Physcon, the younger -brother, had seized the throne for himself, supplanting the elder -one, who fled as a supplicant to Rome. The Roman Senate acknowledged -the rights of Philometor, but always greedy for an extension of -power, resolved to make use of this opportunity to weaken Egypt. It -decreed, therefore, that the north-western province of Cyrene should -be separated from the Egyptian kingdom, and placed under the rule -of Physcon. But this prince, dissatisfied with his small territory, -repeatedly conspired against Philometor, and the two brothers were -soon openly at variance. Philometor dared defy Rome, which had taken -Physcon's part; but unfortunately his soldiers were unreliable; for the -Alexandrian-Greek population, besides having the usual faults of the -Greeks, were remarkable for faithlessness and caprice. Still more did -Philometor lack commanders. In this hour of emergency he entrusted the -Judæan emigrants, Onias and Dositheus, with the command of the campaign -against his brother. The entire Jewish-Egyptian population stood by -Philometor. The ability of the two Judæan leaders enabled him to weaken -Physcon effectually. From that day Onias and Dositheus were held in -great favour by Philometor, and they remained commanders of the entire -army. - -Onias was recognised by the Judæans as head, or prince of the race -(Ethnarch). He may have been unanimously elected to that office by -his countrymen, and confirmed in it out of gratitude by the king, -or Philometor may have taken the initiative, and raised him to this -dignity. - -In time this office became a very important one. It was the duty of -the ethnarch to control all the affairs of the community, to exercise -the duties of a judge, and to protect the integrity of contracts. He -represented his people at court. The office of ethnarch, which Onias -was the first to hold, offered too many privileges to the Egyptian -Judæans for them to have objected to it. - -As a result, they were now in the fortunate position of having a leader -of royal dignity who was able to mould them into one strong body. Their -strength was to be enhanced by a new creation amongst them. In spite -of the distinction which Onias enjoyed at the court of Philometor, -and amongst his own race, he could not forget that, on account of the -events that had taken place in Judæa, he had lost his rightful office -of high-priest. - -During the uncertain state of things in his own country, when Alcimus -was raised above the rightful incumbents of the priesthood, and after -his death, when this dignity seemed extinct, Onias conceived the -idea of building a Temple in Egypt that should take the place of the -violated sanctuary in Jerusalem, and of which he would be the rightful -high-priest. - -Was he prompted to such an undertaking by piety or ambition? The -innermost workings of the heart are not revealed in history. To secure -the approval of the Judæans, Onias referred to a prophecy of Isaiah -xix. 19, "On that day there will be an altar to the Lord in Egypt." -Philometor, to whom he expressed his wish, out of gratitude for his -military services, presented him with a tract of land in the region of -Heliopolis, four and a-half geographical miles north-east of Memphis, -in the land of Goshen, where the descendants of Jacob had once lived -until the exodus from Egypt. In the small town of Leontopolis, on the -ruins of a heathen temple, where animals had formerly been worshipped, -Onias built the Judæan sanctuary (154-152). Outwardly, it did not -exactly resemble the Temple of Jerusalem, for it was made of brick, and -it rose in the shape of a tower. But all the necessary appliances in -the interior were on the exact model of those in Jerusalem, except that -the seven-armed candlestick was replaced by a golden lamp hanging from -a golden chain. Priests and Levites who had fled from the persecutions -in Judæa, officiated in this Temple of Onias. The king generously -decreed that the revenues of the whole district of Heliopolis should be -devoted to the needs of the Temple and the priests. This small province -was formed into a little priestly state, and was called Onion. - -Although the community looked upon the Temple of Onias as their -religious centre, visiting it during the festivals, and sacrificing -in its courts, still, unlike the Samaritans, they did not withdraw -their allegiance from the sanctuary of Jerusalem, or in any way -depreciate it; on the contrary, they venerated Jerusalem as their -sacred metropolis, and the Temple as a divine residence. But the -wonderful fulfilment of the prophetic words, that "in Egypt a temple -of the Lord should arise," was a source of great pride to them. They -called Heliopolis the "City of Justice" (Ir-hazedek), applying to it -this verse from the prophets, "Five Egyptian cities will at that day -recognise the God of Israel, and one of them will be called the City of -Heres," but they read Ir-ha-Zedek. - -Had Judæa been enjoying a state of peace and prosperity, she would have -resented this innovation, and laid an interdict upon the Temple of -Onias, as she had done upon that of Gerizim, and the Egyptian-Judæan -congregation would have been excluded from the community, as had -been the case with the Samaritans. But the desolation of the Temple -in Jerusalem was so great, the dismemberment of the commonwealth so -complete, that there could have been no valid reason for preventing the -accomplishment of a design springing from the purest of intentions. The -founder of the Temple was descended from a long line of high-priests, -which had its origin in the days of David and Solomon. His forefathers -had been instrumental in rebuilding the Temple after the Babylonian -exile; he could claim Simon the Just as his ancestor, and his father -was the pious Onias III. Later, when the Hasmonæan high-priest had -restored the divine service in Jerusalem, in all its purity, the -Judæans of the mother-country looked with regret upon the Temple that -existed in a foreign land, and the uncompromisingly pious party never -could forget that its existence was in violation of the Law. But by -that time the Temple of Onias had become firmly established. - -Philometor gave Onias permission to build a fortress for the protection -of the Temple, in the province of Onion, and placed the stronghold and -its garrison under his command. Onias was at the same time military -commander of the district of Heliopolis, called the Arabian province; -hence his title Arabarch. In Alexandria, Onias was the communal and -judicial head of the Jewish population resident there, while in the -province of Onion and Arabian Egypt he was commander of the Judaic -soldiery settled there. - -The complete confidence that this king reposed in Onias and his -co-religionists induced him to raise the high-priest to another post -of importance. The seaports and the mouths of the Nile were of the -greatest moment for the collection of the royal revenues. The taxes -here levied on all incoming and outgoing raw materials and manufactured -goods made Egypt the richest country during the rule of the Ptolemies, -and later, under that of the Romans. Onias was entrusted with the -custody of the ports, and the Alexandrian Judæans living upon the -sea-coast had, no doubt, the privilege of selecting the officials for -the custom-houses. - -At this period, Egypt was the scene of an event of the utmost -importance in the history of the world, though giving rise at the time -to views diametrically opposed to each other. The devotion of the -Judæan fugitives to the Law, for whose sake they had fled from their -homes in Palestine, may have awakened in the cultivated King Philometor -the desire to become acquainted with the time-honored Torah of Moses; -or perhaps those Judæans, who were allowed access to the person of the -king, so stimulated his interest in their laws, so shamefully reviled -by Antiochus Epiphanes, that Philometor was at last eager to read them -for himself in a translation. - -It is also possible that the insulting libel on the Judæans and their -origin, written in the Greek tongue, apparently by an Egyptian priest, -Manetho, (who describes the Israelites as being a noted shepherd race -in Egypt (Hyksos), expelled as leprous under a leader called Moyses), -may have made the king anxious to learn the history of that people from -its own sources. Whatever was the nature of the inducement, it was a -matter of great importance to the Alexandrian Jews that the sublime -Pentateuch was translated into the polished Greek tongue. - -We have no particulars of the way in which this work was brought -about. Apparently, with a view to lightening the task, it was divided -among five interpreters, so that each book of the Pentateuch had its -own translator. The existing translation, though through various -corruptions it has lost much of its original character, shows by its -very lack of uniformity that it could not have issued from one pen. - -The Greek translation of the Torah was, so to say, another sanctuary -erected to the glory of God in a foreign land. The accomplishment -of this task filled the Alexandrian and Egyptian Judæans with -intense delight; and they thought, with no little pride, that now -the vainglorious Greeks would at last be obliged to concede that the -wisdom taught by Judaism was at once more elevating and of more ancient -date than the philosophy of Greece. Their satisfaction was doubtless -enhanced by the fact that the noble work owed in part its successful -termination to the warm sympathy of the friendly king, and that a path -was thus opened for a true appreciation of Judaism among the Greeks. -It was natural, therefore, that great rejoicings should take place -among the Egyptian Judæans on the day of presentation of the version -to the king, and that its anniversary should be observed as a holiday. -On that day it was customary for the Judæans to repair to the Island -of Pharos, where they offered up prayers of joyful thanksgiving. After -the religious ceremony they partook of a festive repast, either in -tents or under the free vault of heaven, each according to his means. -Later on this anniversary became a national holiday, in which even the -heathen Alexandrians took part. - -But far different was the effect produced by the translation of the -Torah into Greek upon the pious inhabitants of Judæa. Not only was -Greece the object of their hatred, on account of the sufferings -they had endured at her hands, and the indignities she had offered -to their religion; but they feared, not unnaturally, that the Law, -translated into another language, might be exposed to disfigurement -and misapprehension. The Hebrew language, in which God had revealed -Himself upon Mount Sinai, alone appeared to them a worthy medium of -the Divine thought. Presented in a new garb, Judaism itself appeared -to the pious Judæans estranged and profaned. Consequently the day that -was celebrated as a festival by the Judæans in Egypt was considered by -their brethren in Judæa as a day of national calamity, similar to that -upon which the golden calf had been worshipped in the desert, and it is -even said that this day was numbered amongst their fasts. - -Different as were the points of view from which the work was regarded, -judged by the results produced by the Greek translation, there was -reason both for the joy of the Alexandrian and the sorrow of the -Palestinean Judæans. Thanks to its Grecian garb, Judaism became known -to the Greeks, who were the civilisers of the world; and before five -centuries had elapsed, the principal nations had become acquainted with -its teachings. The Greek translation was the first apostle Judaism -sent forth to the heathen world to heal it of its perversity and -godlessness. Through its means the two opposing systems--the Judæan -and the Greek--were drawn nearer together. Owing to their subsequent -circulation through the world by means of the second apostle, -Christianity, the tenets of Judaism were fused into the thought and -language of the various nations, and at present there is no civilised -language which has not, by means of this Greek translation, taken words -and ideas from Judæan literature. Thus Judaism was introduced into the -literature of the world, and its doctrines were popularised. - -On the other hand, however, it innocently led to a mistaken view of -the Judæan Law, becoming in a measure a false prophet, promulgating -errors in the name of God. The difficulty of translating from Hebrew -into Greek, a radically different language, at no time an easy task, -was greatly increased at that period by the want of exact knowledge of -Hebrew, and of the true nature of Judaism, which made it impossible for -the translator always to render correctly the sense of the original. -Moreover, the Greek text was not so carefully guarded but that, from -time to time, arbitrary emendations might have been introduced. -Added to this, the translation was probably used as a guide for the -interpreter on the Sabbaths and Holy Days, and it depended upon his -taste, learning, and discretion to make what changes he pleased. And, -in fact, the Greek text is full of additions and so-called emendations, -which later on, in the time of the conflicts between Judaism and -Christianity, became still more numerous, so that the original form -of the translation cannot always be recognised in its present altered -state. Nevertheless the Alexandrian Judæans of later generations -believed so firmly in the perfection of this translation, that by -degrees they deemed that the original could be dispensed with, and -depended entirely upon the translation. Thus they came to look upon the -mistakes which had crept into the Greek Bible either through ignorance, -inability to cope with grammatical difficulties, or arbitrary -additions, as the word of God, and things were taught in the name of -Judaism which were entirely foreign or even contrary to it. In a word, -all the victories which Judaism gained during the lapse of years over -civilised heathendom, as well as all the misconstructions which it -suffered, were the effects of this translation. - -The great estimation in which this work was held by the Greek-speaking -Judæans, and in time also by the heathens, gave rise to legendary -glorifications, which were finally, about a century later, crystallised -in a story which relates that the origin of the translation was due -to the steps taken by Ptolemy Philadelphus, whose attention had -been attracted to the value of the Book of the Law by his librarian -Demetrius. Demetrius declared it worthy of a place in the Royal -Library, provided it were translated into Greek. Thereupon the king -sent his ambassadors to the high-priest Eleazar with costly presents, -requesting him to choose several wise men, equally versed in Hebrew and -in Greek, and to bid them repair to his court. The high-priest selected -seventy-two learned men, taking representatives from the twelve tribes, -six from each, and sent them to Alexandria, where they were received -with great pomp by the king. The seventy-two delegates finished the -translation of the Torah in seventy-two days, and read it aloud before -the king and all the assembled Judæans. It was from this legend, looked -upon till recently as an historical fact, that the translation received -the name of the Seventy-two, or more briefly, of the _Seventy_, -Septuagint. - -A beginning having been made, it was natural that a desire should -arise to render the other literature of Judaism accessible to Greek -readers, and so, by degrees, the historical books of the Jews also -appeared in a Grecian garb. On account of the greater difficulties -they offered, the poetical and prophetical books were the last ones -to find their way to the Greek world. These translations gave birth -to a new art in the Egyptian community--that of pulpit oratory. Was -it, perhaps, customary in Judæa, when the Law was read, not only to -translate the portion into the language then in use among the people -(the Chaldæan or Aramæan), but also to explain it for the benefit of -the ignorant, and was this practice also introduced into the houses of -prayer of the Egyptian Judæans? Or was it adopted by the latter because -the Hebrew language had become foreign to them? However, whether it -was an imitation or whether it originated with the Egyptian Judæans, -this custom of translating and explaining obscure verses and portions -not easily understood created a new art. The interpreters, with the -fluency of speech derived from their work, were not satisfied with -merely rendering the original text, but expanded it, adding reflections -thereon, and drawing from it applications to contemporary events, -and notes of admonition and warning. Thus out of the explanation of -Scripture arose the sermon, which, in the Greek spirit of giving to all -things an attractive and beautiful form, came by degrees artistically -to be developed. Pulpit oratory is the child of the Alexandrian-Judæan -community. It was born in its midst, it grew up and was perfected, -becoming later a model for other nations. - -The charm which the Hellenistic Judæans found in the Biblical writings, -now made accessible to them, awoke among the learned the desire to -treat of those writings themselves, to bring to light the doctrines -contained in them, or to clear up their apparent crudities and -contradictions. Thus arose a Judæo-Greek literature, which spread and -bore fruit, influencing an ever-widening circle. But little is known -of the infancy of this peculiar literature which held, as it were, two -such repellent nationalities in close embrace. That literature appears -also to verify past experience, that rhythmic and measured sentences -are more pleasing than simple prose. There are still some fragments -of these writings extant which relate, in Greek verse, the old Hebrew -history. This literary activity re-awakened in Egypt the old anger of -the Samaritans against the Judæans. These two peoples agreeing in -their adherence to the Law, in their recognition of one God, and in -their condemnation of idolatry, still retained their old hatred against -each other. Although the Samaritans, like the Jews, were forced by the -officers of Antiochus to renounce the worship of the God of Israel, yet -they did not assist the Judæans to fight their common enemy, but rather -sided with the latter against their own co-religionists. - -During the religious persecutions many Samaritans appear to have -emigrated into Egypt, and to have joined the descendants of their own -tribe who had been established there since the time of Alexander. These -Egyptian Samaritans had, like the Judæans, adopted the customs and the -language of the Greeks which prevailed in Egypt, and now the enmity -which had existed between the adherents of Jerusalem and of Gerizim -was transferred to a foreign land, where they opposed each other with -that furious zeal which co-religionists in a strange country are -wont to exhibit in support of cherished traditions. The translation -of the Torah into Greek, under the patronage of the king Philometor, -appears to have cast the firebrand into their midst. How fiercely -must the anger of the Samaritans have been provoked by the omission -in the text of the Septuagint of that verse which they looked upon as -a proof of the sanctity of their Temple, "Thou shalt build an altar -in Gerizim"! The Samaritans in Alexandria desired to make a protest -against the translation, or rather against the alleged falsification, -of the text, and as some of their number were in favour at court, they -induced the mild Philometor to appoint a conference between the two -religious sects, at which the question of the superior sanctity of -the Samaritan or of the Judæan Temple should be decided. This was the -first religious dispute held before a temporal ruler. The two parties -chose the most learned men among them as their advocates. On the side -of the Judæans appeared a certain Andronicus, the son of Messalam, -whilst the Samaritans had two champions, Sabbai and Theodosius. In -what manner the religious conference was carried on, and what its -consequences were, cannot now be ascertained, the accounts that have -come down to us having assumed a legendary form; each party claimed -the victory, and both exaggerated its effects. Religious disputations -have never yet achieved any real results. The Judæan historians pretend -that an arrangement had been made to the effect that it should be the -right and the duty of the king to put to death those who were defeated -in argument--a statement for which there is no foundation. When the -Jewish advocates pointed out the long roll of high-priests from Aaron -down to their own time who had officiated in the Temple at Jerusalem, -and how that Temple had been enriched by holy gifts from the kings of -Asia,--advantages and distinctions which the Temple at Gerizim could -not boast, the Samaritans were publicly declared to be vanquished, and -according to agreement they were put to death. The Samaritan accounts, -which are of a much later date and more confused, ascribe the victory -to their side. - -This controversy respecting the superior sanctity of Jerusalem or -Shechem was, it appears, carried on in Greek verse. A Samaritan poet, -Theodotus, praised the fertility of the country round Shechem, and -in order to magnify the importance of that city he related the story -of Jacob, describing how he rested there; also the ill-usage which -his daughter Dinah received from the young nobles of Shechem, and the -revenge taken upon them by her brothers, Simeon and Levi. In opposition -to Theodotus, a Judæan poet, Philo the Elder, exalted the greatness of -Jerusalem in a poem. He extolled the fertility of the Judæan capital, -and spoke of its ever-flowing subterranean waters, which were conducted -through channels from the spring of the High Priest. The poet -endeavoured to enhance the sanctity of the Temple in Jerusalem, which -stood on Mount Moriah, on the summit of which Abraham had been about to -offer up his son Isaac--an act which shed everlasting glory upon all -his descendants. - -Meanwhile, the sky which, during the reign of Philometor, had shone so -brightly over the Judæans in Alexandria, became dark and threatening. -It seemed as if the parent state and its offshoot were linked together -for good or evil. Prosperous and adverse days appeared to visit the -two communities almost in the same alternation. Through the misfortune -of Jonathan, Judæa had fallen into adversity, and a new reign in Egypt -had brought trouble and sorrow to the Judæans in Alexandria. That same -Ptolemy VII. (Physcon), who had reigned many years with Philometor and -had conspired to destroy him, sought, after his death, to obtain the -crown in spite of the existence of a rightful heir. The novelty-loving, -fickle and foolish populace of Alexandria was inclined to recognise as -king the deformed and wicked Physcon. The widowed queen, Cleopatra, who -had governed during her son's minority, had likewise many adherents, -and in particular Onias was devoted to her cause. When war broke out -between Cleopatra and her hostile brother, Onias with his Judæan army -received as their share of the spoil one district or province. At last -a compromise was effected, in virtue of which Physcon was to marry -his sister, and both were to reign together. This doubly incestuous -marriage was most unhappy. No sooner had the inhuman Physcon entered -Alexandria than he put to death, not only the followers of the rightful -heir, but also the youth himself, who was slain on the very day on -which Physcon married Cleopatra. Bitter enmity between king and -queen, brother and sister, was the consequence of this cruel deed. -The sensual and barbarous monster violated his wife's daughter, and -filled Alexandria with terror and bloodshed, causing the greater part -of the inhabitants to flee from the city. Was it likely that he would -spare the Judæans who, as he well knew, were the supporters of his -hated sister and wife? Having heard that Onias was bringing an army to -her assistance, he ordered his soldiers to seize all the Judæans in -Alexandria, with their wives and their children, and to cast them bound -and naked upon a public place, to be trampled to death by elephants. -The animals were intoxicated with wine in order to irritate and excite -them against their helpless victims. But the latter were rescued from -impending death in a manner which seemed miraculous to the trembling, -unhappy Judæans. The enraged beasts rushed to the side where the king's -people were seated awaiting the cruel spectacle, and many of them were -killed, while the Judæans were unhurt. The Alexandrian Judæans kept -the day of their heaven-sent deliverance as a perpetual memorial. From -this time, indeed, Physcon appears to have left the Judæans unmolested. -Indeed, during the remainder of his reign their literary ardour -and their zeal for the acquisition of knowledge increased greatly, -and their writers appear to have applied themselves undisturbed to -their works. Physcon himself was an author, and wrote memoirs and -memorabilia, dealing with historical events and facts in natural -history. A Judæan called Judah Aristobulus is said to have been his or -his brother's master. - -Whilst the Alexandrian-Judæan community was occupying a high -intellectual position, the Judæan people in their own land attained -a lofty political eminence, from which they could look proudly back -on their former abject state. What progress they had made during the -reign of Jonathan is clearly shown by the simple comparison of their -condition after his death, with that in which they found themselves at -the fall of Judas. Judas's successor at first had been able to draw -around him only a handful of faithful followers; a leader without right -or title, he possessed neither fortresses, nor means of defence or -attack, and was hard pressed by enemies at home and abroad. Jonathan's -successor, on the contrary, Simon Tharsi, the last of the heroic sons -of Mattathias, inheriting a recognised title, and being invested with -the dignity of high-priest, became at once the ruler of a powerful -people. He found strong fortresses in the land, and but one enemy -in his path, who had already been much weakened by his predecessor. -Jonathan's death, therefore, was followed by no disastrous results -to the nation, but served to inflame the whole people to avenge the -noble Hasmonæan high-priest upon his crafty murderer. Simon had simply -to step into the vacant leadership. Although approaching old age at -the time when he became the leader of his people, he still possessed -the freshness of youth and the fiery courage which marked him when -his dying father directed him to be the wise counsellor in the then -impending war against Syrian despotism. So vigorous was the Hasmonæan -race that few indeed of their members could be accused of cowardice or -weakness, and the greater number of them evinced till their last breath -the strength and courage of youth. By the side of Simon stood his four -sons, Jonathan, Judah, Mattathias, and one whose name is unknown, who -had all been moulded into warriors by the constant fighting in which -they had been engaged. Simon, following the policy of his brothers, -took advantage of the weakness of the enemy to increase the defences -and strength of his country, and to extend the dominion of Judæa; but -he achieved even more, for he delivered his people completely from -Syrian rule and raised Judæa to the rank of an independent nation. -Simon's government, which lasted almost nine years, was therefore -rightly described as glorious. The aged were allowed to enjoy their -closing days in peace, while the young rejoiced in the exercise of -their activity and strength; "they sat every one under his vine and fig -tree, with none to make them afraid." - -Simon's first step was an act of independence. Without waiting, as -had been the custom hitherto, for the confirmation of the Syrian -princes, he accepted at once the office of high-priest offered him -by the people. To provide against the war which this step of his -might bring on, he hastened to provision and place in a state of -defence the fortresses of Judæa. He also opened negotiations with the -dethroned king Demetrius II., although the latter had repaid Jonathan's -assistance with base ingratitude. Simon sent him, through a solemn -embassy, a golden crown as an acknowledgment of his regal power, and -promised him aid against Tryphon on condition that the independence of -Judæa should be fully recognised by a complete release from payment of -taxes and services. The result justified his calculations. Demetrius -willingly accepted Simon's offer, hoping to assure himself of a -faithful ally, who would assist him in a possible war against Tryphon. -He wrote "to the high-priest and Friend of the King, to the elders and -the people of Judæa," as follows: "We have received the golden crown -which you have sent us, and we are ready to make a lasting treaty of -peace with you, and to write to our administrators that we remit your -taxes. What we have granted you shall remain yours. The fortresses that -you have erected shall be yours. We give you absolution for all the -offences, intentional as well as unintentional, that you have committed -against us up to this day; we release you from the crown which you owe -us, and we remit the taxes that were laid on Jerusalem. If there be -any among you anxious and fit to enter our army, they may be enlisted, -and let there be peace between us." The day on which this immunity had -been granted was considered by the Judæans so important and valued an -era, that its date, the 27th of Iyar (May), was recorded among the -half-holidays commemorative of victory. - -The people looked upon these concessions of Demetrius as the -inauguration of their independence, and from that epoch the customary -manner of counting time according to the years of the reigning Syrian -king was discontinued. They now reckoned from the date of Simon's -accession to the government. All legal documents of the year 142 were -dated "In the first year of Simon, the High-Priest, Commander of the -Army and Prince of the Nation." Confident of their strength, the -people anticipated this royal prerogative for their leader, who was -not at that time entitled to it, for he had as yet been recognised -as the legitimate prince neither by Syria nor by the nation. Simon -himself does not appear to have looked upon the concessions received -as sufficient to bestow complete independence upon his country, but -dated his reign from a later year, when he obtained the right of -coining money. The joy experienced by the inhabitants of Jerusalem at -the recovery of their freedom, the loss of which they had bitterly -bewailed since the destruction of the Judæan kingdom under their last -king Zedekiah, was so great that the elders or members of the Great -Council felt impelled to communicate the all-important event to the -Judæans in Egypt. In doing so, however, they had to overcome a serious -difficulty: so to word their communication as not to offend Onias, -the founder of the Onias Temple, the descendant of the family of -high-priests which, by the acts of the Hasmonæans in Judæa, had been -completely and hopelessly supplanted. Even supposing that Onias or his -sons had entirely relinquished the prospect of ever possessing the -office of high-priest, it must have been painful to remind them, and -their followers in Egypt, that their family had been thrust aside by -the people in Judæa. - -The representatives of the nation managed to pass lightly over this -difficult subject, and descanted upon the fact that, after their long -sufferings and persecutions, God had heard their prayer, and had once -more given them the power of offering sacrifices, of rekindling the -holy lights, and of placing the shew-bread in the Temple, which had -been spoiled by the enemy and polluted by the shedding of innocent -blood. This delicate statement, which carefully avoided giving any -offence to the Judæans in Egypt, appears to have produced a very -favourable impression upon them. They likewise rejoiced at the -recovered independence of Judæa, and ascribed great importance to the -year in which it was obtained. - -The second noteworthy act of Simon consisted in driving out the -remaining Hellenists from their various hiding-places in the Acra -at Jerusalem, and in the fortresses of Gazara and Bethsur, and in -completely destroying any influence they may have possessed. Gazara -surrendered unconditionally. Simon allowed the Hellenists to leave the -place, and ordered their dwellings to be cleared of their idolatrous -images. The Hellenists in the Acra, however, had fortified their -position so well that Simon was obliged to lay siege to it, and to -reduce its defenders by famine. At last they were overcome, and the -victors entered the Acra to the sound of music and with solemn hymns -of praise. In commemoration of the taking of the Acra, the 23rd Iyar -(May 17) was ordered thenceforth to be kept as a day of rejoicing. The -taking of Bethsur appears to have caused little difficulty. Of the -expelled Hellenists, some, it seems, found refuge in Egypt, others -renounced their idolatrous practices, and were again received into the -community, whilst those who remained unchanged fell victims to the -religious zeal of the conquerors. It is related that the 22nd Elul -(September) was set apart among the days of victory, because it saw -the death of those idolators who had allowed the respite of three days -to elapse without returning to their faith. Thus at length disappeared -the last vestiges of that party which, during nearly forty years, had -shaken the foundations of Judaism, and which, in its apostate zeal, -had called down upon the people the calamities of civil contests and -cruel religious persecution, and brought a country to the verge of -ruin. The fortresses which Simon had taken from the Hellenists, Bethsur -and Gazara, were remodelled, so as to serve as places of defence. Of -great importance, likewise, was the capture of Joppa (Jaffa), by the -acquisition of which seaport the State received a large revenue; the -export and import duties, which the Syrian kings had introduced, now -fell to the share of Judæa. - -The Acra underwent a peculiar change at the hands of the last of the -Hasmonæan brothers. The wrath of the people against this fortress was -too intense to allow of its standing intact. Apart from political -considerations, there was also a religious sentiment adverse to its -continuing unaltered. The fortress, with its lofty towers, which -the Syrians had erected to keep the city in check, overtopped the -Temple-capped mount itself, and this was not to be. According to the -prophecies of Isaiah, "in the last days the Mountain of the House of -the Lord was to be established on the top of the mountains, and be -exalted above the hills." This was literally explained to mean that -no mount or building was to overtop the Temple, and Simon, even if -unconvinced himself, was obliged to bow to that belief. On the other -hand, however, it seemed imprudent to destroy a fortress which, like -the Acra, was so conveniently situated for the accommodation of troops, -and so well fitted to serve as a storehouse for arms. Simon and his -counsellors hit upon a middle course in dealing with it. The towers -and bastions of the fortress were taken down--a work of destruction -which, it is said, it cost the people three years to accomplish; the -walls, courts and halls, on the contrary, were left standing, but the -hated name of Acra or Acrapolis was no longer used, but changed for -that of Birah (Baris), which had first been introduced by Nehemiah. -In this transformed edifice the Judæan soldiers were quartered, and -there they kept their weapons. Simon himself dwelt in the Birah in the -midst of his soldiers, while his son Johanan (John), as governor of the -sea-coast, resided at Gazara. - -In spite of the favourable position in which he found himself, Simon -was obliged to remain armed and prepared for war. At present the two -pretenders to the throne, whilst they weakened each other, left him -in peace. Demetrius II. (Nicator), who had granted independence to -Judæa, was now engaged in an adventurous expedition in the east against -Persia. His brother, Antiochus Sidetes, governed in his place, and -was at strife with Diodotus Tryphon, who, having treacherously killed -Jonathan and the young Antiochus, the son of Alexander Balas, had -made himself ruler over Syria. Simon, urged by political motives to -weaken this cunning, evil-minded enemy, assisted Antiochus Sidetes, and -received from him the confirmation of the privileges granted to Judæa -by his brother in the hour of his need. In addition thereto, Antiochus -gave Simon the right of coining money, which was the especial mark of -independence. - -Unfortunately, as is but too often the case, the hand that planted the -tree of liberty, also placed the gnawing worm in the noble blossom. -Wanting as he was in that far-sightedness which belonged to the genius -of the prophets of old, and guided only by present emergencies, Simon -believed that he would ensure the hard-won independence of his country -if he obtained for it the protection of that people which, never -tired of making conquests and aggrandising itself, was constantly and -everywhere the foe of liberty. In order to put an end to the ceaseless -provocations given by the petty Syrian tyrants, Simon entrusted -the welfare of his country to the mighty tyrant, Rome, in whose -close embraces the nations that sought protection were unfailingly -suffocated. Simon despatched as delegates Numenius, the son of -Antiochus, and Antipater, the son of Jason. They carried with them a -heavy golden shield and a golden chain, which, in the hope of gaining -for the Judæans the favour of being received as allies of Rome, they -were to present as a mark of homage. - -The Roman Senate was not indisposed to enroll the most insignificant -nation among their allies, being well aware that in granting the favour -of their protection they had taken the first step towards reducing it -to vassalage. Rome resembles an unfaithful guardian, who takes infinite -care of the property of his ward, only to gather riches for himself. -The Roman Senate made known to their friends and vassals that they had -accepted Judæa as their ally, and the Syrian rulers were forbidden -to attack it (140). Scarcely two hundred years later, a shameless, -bloodthirsty Roman Emperor will insist upon being worshipped in the -Temple at Jerusalem, and after another thirty years will have passed, -Rome will break the strength of the Judæan nation, kill its heroes, and -hunt its sons like wild beasts. But these dire results of the Roman -alliance were unsuspected by Simon or his contemporaries, who rejoiced -at being called friends, brothers and allies of the great Roman nation. -In order to show their gratitude to their leader for the boon he had -procured for them, the Jewish people conferred upon him, with great -solemnity, supreme and permanent sovereignty over themselves. - -One can hardly find, in all antiquity, a similar example of absolute -power thus bestowed upon a prince, and of a quiet, peaceful -transformation of a republic into a monarchy like that carried into -effect by the people of Judæa at that time. The deed which endorsed -this gift of the monarchy to Simon is preserved in a record, which -places strikingly before us the gratitude felt towards the Hasmonæans -by the newly-constituted nation. - -On the 28th Elul (September) of the year 140, the third year of -Simon's tenure of the high-priesthood, the priests, the elders and -representatives of the nation, and all the people of Jerusalem were -assembled, probably upon the Temple Mount, and there agreed, in -recognition of the great services rendered by Simon and the Hasmonæans -to the people and the Sanctuary, to consider him and his descendants -as their leader (Nassi) and High-Priest, "until such time as a prophet -should arise." As the outward sign of his dignity, Simon was to wear a -purple mantle with a golden clasp. All public acts were to be in his -name; peace and war were to be decided upon by him; he was to have sole -power to appoint the commanders of the army and the fortresses, as -well as the managers of the Temple and all its sacred trusts. Whoever -opposed him was liable to punishment. - -This decree of the people, a copy of which was deposited in the Temple -archives, was engraven on brass tablets, which were placed in a -conspicuous position in the Temple court; and besides, memorial columns -in its honor were erected on Mount Zion. In spite of their antipathy -to the customs of the neighbouring Greeks, the Judæans had learned -from them the art of immortalising their deeds in stone and metal. -Unlike the Greeks, however, they were not capricious in the honours and -favours they granted. Those to whom monuments were erected one day were -not bespattered with mud the next, but, on the contrary, lived forever -in the grateful hearts of their countrymen. Israel had now again a -prince lawfully chosen by the people, having been deprived of a ruler -for the space of nine jubilees, ever since the captivity of Zedekiah. -If the nation did not give Simon the title of king, but only that of -prince, it was not done in order to lessen his power in any way, but -that they might remain faithful to the house of David. According to the -views held at that time in Judæa, it was only a descendant of David -who could be king, he being also the expected Messiah. The deed which -gave the sovereign power to Simon contained the proviso that he should, -therefore, retain it until the appearance of the true prophet Elijah, -who was expected to be the precursor of the Messiah. - -It was not until Simon had been formally recognised as ruler, that he -made use of the right to coin money granted him by Antiochus Sidetes. -This was the first time that Judæan coins were struck. On one side -was stamped the value of the coin with the inscription "Shekel of -Israel"; on the other, the words "Jerusalem the Holy" (Jerushalaim -Hakke-dosha), the date being indicated by an abbreviation. Emblems of -the high-priesthood of Israel were used as devices for the coins; upon -one side was engraven a blossoming branch (Aaron's staff); upon the -other a sort of cup, probably representing a vessel for incense. But -Simon's name or dignity, his title of prince or high-priest, did not -appear on them. The letters used in the inscriptions were old Hebrew -or Samaritan, probably because these characters were familiar to the -nations around, whilst they would have been unable to decipher the new -ones. The earliest date we find on the coins of Simon is that of the -fourth year of his reign, from which we may infer that it was not till -some years after he had assumed the regal powers (about 139) that he -commenced coining money. - -Friendly as Antiochus Sidetes had shown himself towards Simon whilst -he had but little hope of defeating the usurper Tryphon, his demeanour -completely changed as soon as, by the help of the Judæans, he had -nearly attained his aim, and he became as cold as he had previously -been gracious and well disposed. To avoid the appearance of ingratitude -in his subsequent conduct, Antiochus sent back the two thousand troops, -as well as the money with which Simon had supplied him for the siege -of the town of Dora (139). The Syrian king despatched his general -Cendebæus to Simon to reproach him for having overstepped the limits -of independence granted to him, and with having taken the Syrian -possessions, Joppa, Gazara and the Acra in Jerusalem, without offering -any compensation. He therefore called upon Simon to restore those -places or to pay a thousand talents of silver. Simon replied that he -had only recovered the former inheritance of his fathers, but was ready -to give a hundred talents for Joppa and Gazara. The dispute, however, -could not be settled by friendly means, but was left to the arbitrament -of the sword. - -Whilst Antiochus himself pursued Tryphon, who had escaped from the -fortress of Dora, he sent troops of infantry and cavalry under the -general Cendebæus, the Hyrcanian, to invade Judæa, and bring the -whole country again under the Syrian rule. Simon prepared for a hard -struggle. Fortunately he could assemble a considerable army, 20,000 -men, and he was able to raise troops of cavalry, the want of which on -former occasions had been so disastrous to Judæa. Simon, being too -old to take an active part in the war, named as his generals his two -sons, Johanan (John) and Judah, who marched out of Gazara against the -enemy. In the meantime Cendebæus had penetrated into the country as -far as Ekron, plundering the inhabitants and carrying away captive -those who dwelt in the lowlands. On a plain situated between Ekron -(which Cendebæus fortified) and Modin, a battle was fought and gained -by the Judæans. Cendebæus and his army were defeated and pursued to -Azotus, which town, having offered resistance, was destroyed by fire. -Johanan, to whom the success of the campaign was chiefly due, received -in commemoration of his victory over the Hyrcanian, the name Hyrcanus. -This was the last war which took place in Simon's time (137-136), and -it inspired him with confidence in the capacity of his sons to uphold -the aspiring power of Judæa. Antiochus was still more embittered -against Simon by the defeat his arms had suffered, but, too weak to -attempt a new attack, he now had recourse to stratagem, and hoped by a -cunning plot to sweep from his path the whole family of the Hasmonæans, -the obstinate and successful foes of his house. To accomplish this -aim he strove to awaken the ambition and avarice of one who, being -Simon's son-in-law, might easily find opportunities for committing the -wished-for crime. This shameless man, Ptolemy ben Habub, was not held -in check either by gratitude or the ties of family affection, nor did -feelings of reverence for one grown old in deeds of heroism or the love -of his country restrain him. With his daughter's hand Simon had given -him riches, and had made him governor of Jericho and the surrounding -district, but the ambitious spirit of his son-in-law remained -unsatisfied, and he was eager to seize upon the inheritance of Judæa, -and with the help of the foreigner to rule in the kingdom. It was easy -for Ptolemy to carry out the villainous design he had conceived, for -the most vigilant and far-seeing mind could hardly have suspected so -base an act. In spite of Simon's great age it was his custom to visit -all parts of the country, in order to make himself acquainted with the -wants of the people and the manner in which the laws were administered. -During one of these journeys he came to the fortress of Dok, near -Jericho, where his son-in-law resided. He was accompanied by his wife -and his two younger sons, Judah and Mattathias, but the elder one, -John, had remained at his post at Gazara. - -Ptolemy proffered friendly hospitality to the victims he meant to -sacrifice; he prepared a splendid banquet for them, and whilst they -were enjoying themselves at the feast, Ptolemy and his satellites fell -upon and massacred Simon and his sons (Shebat, February, 135). - -As soon as the crime had been committed, the murderer sent messengers -to the Syrian king, asking for troops to assist him in his ambitious -designs. He also despatched soldiers to Gazara to assassinate John, -and to Jerusalem to take possession of the city and the Temple. But -Ptolemy was not to reap the expected reward of his treachery. A friend, -who had managed to escape from the fortress of Dok, hurried to Gazara, -and warned John of the impending danger, and as soon as the assassins -reached the city they received the due punishment of their crime. -John was likewise successful in reaching Jerusalem before Ptolemy, -and had little difficulty in persuading the people to stand by him. -The expected help from Antiochus also failed, doubtless because that -king was engaged in warlike operations elsewhere, so that Ptolemy -was obliged to shut himself up in his own fortress. Here he kept his -mother-in-law imprisoned as a hostage, and prepared to defend himself -against the attacks which would probably be made upon him. - -Thus perished Simon, the last of the Hasmonæan brothers, not one of -whom had died a natural death, one and all having lost their lives in -the service of their country and their faith. Judah and Eleazar were -killed upon the field of battle, whilst John, Jonathan, and Simon, less -fortunate than their brothers, succumbed to the cruel treachery of the -enemies of their people. - - -END OF VOL. I. - - - - -FOOTNOTES: - - -[1] In Hebrew the word _Abir_ means _bull_, _mighty_, and hence _God_. -It is connected with the Egyptian _abr_ (a bull), from which _Apis_ is -derived. Conf. Jeremiah xlvi. 15. - -[2] Levit. xvii. 7. The sending of the scape-goat to Azazel marked the -abomination in which this lascivious cult was held. - -[3] Conf. Ezekiel xxiii. 7, 8. - -[4] Micah vi. 4, mentions also Miriam, with her brothers, as a -deliverer. - -[5] The situation of Sinai is not to be sought in the so-called -Sinaitic peninsula, but near the land of Edom, on the confines of which -was the desert of Paran. Neither Jebel Musa, with the adjacent peaks -of Jebel Catherine and Ras-es-Sufsafeh, nor Mount Jerbal, was the true -Sinai. See "Monatsschrift," by Fränkel-Graetz, 1878, p. 337. - -[6] Joshua x. 12, 13. - -[7] Deut. viii. 7-9. - -[8] Deut. xxxiii. 13, 14. - -[9] Amos iv. 13. - -[10] Judges vi. 13. - -[11] Judges iii. 8 and 10 must be read "king of _Edom_" -({~HEBREW LETTER ALEF~}{~HEBREW LETTER DALET~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~} -{~HEBREW LETTER FINAL MEM~}) -instead of _Aram_ ({~HEBREW LETTER ALEF~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~} -{~HEBREW LETTER FINAL MEM~}). - -[12] Judges xi. 7. - -[13] Genesis xlix. 16, 17. - -[14] See Psalm lxxviii. 60-64; Jeremiah vii. 12. - -[15] Jeremiah xv. 1; Psalms xcix. 6. - -[16] I Samuel xiv. 12. - -[17] I Samuel xiv. 45. - -[18] I Samuel xv. 12 to 33. In the 32d verse read _mar mar hammaveth_. - -[19] I Samuel xv. 28. - -[20] Amos vi. 4-6. - - - - -INDEX. - - - Aaron, 12. - called to join Moses, 15. - - Aaronides, See Priests. - - Abdon, the judge, 66. - - Abiathar, advises Adonijah, 152. - deposed, 168. - high priest in Jerusalem, 120. - priest of Nob, flees to David, 100. - sides with David against Absalom, 141. - - Abigail, wife of David, 134. - - Abijah, son of Samuel, 79-80, 107. - - Abijam, son of Rehoboam, 189. - - Abimelech, son of Gideon, 63. - - Abir == Apis, 11. - - Abishai, brother of Joab, 126. - defeats the Aramæans and Idumæans, 128. - - Abner, Saul's cousin and general, 84-111. - defeats the Philistines, 108. - founder of the kingdom of the ten tribes, 108 f. - murdered by Joab and Abishai, 111. - negotiates secretly with David, 110. - - Abraham and his descendants, 4-6. - - Absalom, avenging Tamar, kills Amnon, his half-brother, 134. - defeated and killed by Joab, 144. - intrigues against David, 136. - rebellion of, 138. - - Achish, the Philistine, and David, 100. - - Achitub, grandson of Eli, at Nob, 79. - - Acra, fortress of, 433, 470, 477, 495, 496 and 498. - Hellenists expelled from, 523. - in the hands of Simon and called Birah, 524. - - Adarsa, battle of, 485. - - Adonai Zebaoth == Lord of hosts, 130. - - Adonijah, acknowledges Solomon, 154. - declared king by his friends, 151. - fourth son of David, 135. - killed by Solomon through Benaiah, 160. - - Adoniram, chief superintendent of Solomon, 163, 172. - killed by the Shechemites, 182. - - Agag, the Amalekite, defeated by Saul, 91. - killed by Samuel at Gilgal, 93. - - Ahab, Omri's son and successor, marries Jezebel, 194. - and Elijah, 202 ff. - character of, 196. - death of, 206. - takes Naboth's vineyard, 202. - war with Benhadad II., 205. - - Ahaz, king of Judah, 257. - calls Tiglath-Pileser to assist him, 258. - - Ahaziah, Ahab's son, king of Israel, 206-7. - Jehoram's son, king of Judah, killed by Jehu's followers, 211. - - Ahijah, of Shiloh, the prophet, 175. - rebukes Jeroboam for his idolatry, 187 f. - - Ahikam, son of Shaphan, 303. - - Ahishar, major-domo of Solomon, 172. - - Ahithophel, David's adviser, 122. - grandfather of Bathsheba, 133. - hangs himself, 143. - intrigues against David, 138. - - Ai, Israelites defeated at, 33. - taken by the Israelites, 33 f. - - Akko, 3. - - Alcimus == Jakim, the high priest, 482-508. - returns to Jerusalem, 487. - - Alexander Balas, king of Syria, 494-6. - the Great, and the Judæans, 412-15. - 's successors, struggles between, 416. - - Alexandria, importance of, 504. - and the Judæans, 418, 503. - - Alexandrian Judæans influence those in Jerusalem, 427. - - Allegorical poems of Solomon, 158. - poetry long before Solomon, 159. - - Allotment of land to the tribes, 36 f. - - Almsgiving among the Judæans, 393. - - Alphabet, Assyrian characters of the Hebrew, 395 f. - Phoenician, 3. - - Amalekites defeated by Saul, by David, 91; 107. - - Amasa, Absalom's general, 143, 146. - appointed as general by David, 148. - killed by Joab, 149. - - Amasis, king of Egypt, 327. - - Amaziah, the high priest at Bethel, 233, 236. - - Amaziah, king of Judah, 222. - defeated and captured by Jehoash, 224. - killed by conspirators, 226. - reconquers Edom, 223. - - Ammon, 9. - - Ammonites, after the exile, 362, 474 ff. - defeated by Jephthah, 65. - defeated by Joab, David's general, 127. - defeated by Saul, 90. - influencing the worship of the Israelites, 55. - press Israel in the days of Samuel, 80. - - Amnon, seducing Tamar, is killed by Absalom, 134. - - Amon, king of Judah, 285. - - Amorites, 3. - - Amos of Tekoa, the prophet, 235. - - Amos, iv. 13; vi. 4-6; vii. 2, 5; 49, 234, 237. - - Anahita == Anaitis, Persian name of Aphrodite, 408. - - Anakim, aborigines of Canaan, 2. - - Anarchy in Israel after Pekah's death, 263. - - Anavim == "the gentle," an order, formed by Isaiah, 254, 267. - in the exile, 337. - under Manasseh, 283, 286. - - Andromachus, governor of Coelesyria, 414. - - Angelology, 403. - - Animal worship among the Egyptians, 9. - - Anointing David as future king, 96. - Jehu as king of Israel, 210. - Joash as king of Judah, 216. - Saul as king, 83. - Solomon as future king, 153. - - Antigonus and Ptolemy, 417. - - Antioch founded by Seleucus, 419. - - Antiochus the Great, and Egypt, 425-34. - defeated by the Romans, 434. - reconquers Judæa, 433. - - Antiochus Epiphanes, 442-77. - at Jerusalem, 451. - attacks Egypt, 450, 452. - death of, 477. - persecutes the Judæans, 453, 463. - - Antiochus V., Eupator, 477-82. - - Antiochus VI., son of Alexander Balas, 497. - - Antiochus Sidetes, brother of Demetrius II., 525. - quarrels with Simon, 528. - - Apelles, the Syrian, killed by Mattathias, 459. - - Aphek, battle near, 70. - - Apis, the black bull, called Abir, 9. - - Apollonius, killed by Judas Maccabæus, 462. - opposed by Jonathan, 496. - persecutes the Judæans, 453-4. - - Apries (Hophra), king of Egypt, defeated by Nebuchadnezzar, 313. - killed by Amasis, 327. - receives the Judæan fugitives, 324. - - Araboth == meadows, 42, 45. - - Aradus, 3. - - Aramæa. See Damascus. - - Aramæans, defeated by Joab, 126 f. - - Araunah (Ornah), the Jebusite, 138. - - Aretas, the Nabatæan, 447, 481. - - Ark of the Covenant, 23. - at Shiloh, 41. - brought to Mount Zion by David, 119 f. - brought to the temple on Mount Moriah by Solomon, 166. - captured by the Philistines, 70. - in Philistia and Kirjath-Jearim, 71-2. - - Army, organisation under David, 122. - standing, under the kings, 91. - - Artaxerxes (Longimanus), 366. - - Artaxerxes II., and III., Judæans under, 407. - - Asa, Abijam's brother, king of Judah, 189. - defeats Zerah, the Egyptian, 190. - stops the Astarte-worship, 190. - - Asaph, the singer, at Jerusalem, 120 f. - - Ashdod, the Ark of Covenant at, 71-2. - - Asher, and Naphtali, settlement of, 37. - 20 towns of, sold to Hiram of Tyre, 164. - - Ashmodai, 403. - - Ashmun, a Phoenician god, 54. - - Assembly, the Great, 381. - - Assidæans (see Chasidim), 436. - - Assyria, decadence and destruction of, 287, 296, 303. - encountering Egypt, 263. - Hezekiah conspires against, 269. - - Assyrian, characters of the Hebrew alphabet, 395. - help sought by Ahaz, 258. - idolatry in Israel and in Judah, 247; 260, 269, 282. - influence over Judah, 260. - - Assyrians, and Babylonians, 246. - defeat Phraortes; defeated by Cyaxares, 287. - invade Samaria, 246. - - Astarte worshipped by the Israelites, 77, 175, 282. - by Maachah, mother of Rehoboam, 188. - by Omri, Ahab and Jezebel, 195 ff. - by the Phoenicians, 54. - by priests in Israel, 197. - not by Judah and Simeon, 77. - worship of, abolished by Jehu, 211 ff. - worship of, re-introduced by Jeroboam II., 233. - - Athaliah, Ahab's daughter, married to Jehoram of Judah, 206. - her cruelty, 213. - killed by her captains, 216. - upholds idolatry in Jerusalem, 212. - - Athenion, Ptolemy's envoy to Jerusalem, 423. - - Azariah, son of Zadok, the second high priest, 167, 245. - - Azariah (Uzziah), 226-46. - - - Baal, temple of, erected in Samaria by Jezebel, 197. - worshipped by the Israelites; Omri, Ahab and Jezebel, 75, 282; 195. - worshipped by the Phoenicians, 54. - 's priests killed at the command of Elijah, 197, 204. - 's worship destroyed by Jehoiada, the high priest, 217. - 's worship stopped by Jehu of Israel, 212. - 's worship upheld by Athaliah of Judah, 212. - - Baalam and Balak, 28. - - Baasha, successor to Nadab, 189. - - Babylon, besieged and conquered by Cyrus, 344-50. - - Babylon, fortified by Nebuchadnezzar, 329. - return of the Judæans from, 354. - under Cyrus, 350 ff. - under Evil-Merodach, Neriglissar and Nabonad, 331-42. - under Merodach-Baladan, Nabopolassar and Nebuchadnezzar, 278; - 296, 303. - - Babylonia, Judæans in, 363 ff. - - Babylonian exile of the Judæans, 329-53. - - Bacchides, the Syrian, defeats and kills Judas Maccabæus at - Eleasa, 486-7. - leaves the country, 492. - outrages the Judæans, 483-4. - pursues Jonathan and the Hasmonæans, 491. - - Bagoas (Bagoses) at Jerusalem, 409. - - Barak, the judge, defeats Sisera near Mount Tabor, 61. - - Baruch collects Jeremiah's prophecies and compiles the histories, 336. - reads Jeremiah's scroll, 304. - Also see pp. 315, 320, 322, 323, 328. - - Bashan, inhabitants of, aided by Judas Maccabæus, 474 f. - - Bathsheba, 131-3, 153. - - Bel's temple rebuilt by Alexander, 415. - - Benaiah, David's leader of the Cherethites and Pelethites, 122, 126. - kills Adonijah and Joab, 160. - - Benhadad I., of Damascus, defeats Omri, 195. - - Benhadad II., fights against Ahab, 205. - killed by Hazael, 210. - - Benhadad III., son of Hazael, besieges Samaria, 221. - defeated by Joash of Israel, 222. - - Benjamin, settlement of, 38. - - Benjamite, Saul the, 82-105. - - Benjamites, faithful to Rehoboam, 182. - pretend enthusiasm for David, 147. - side with Absalom, 139. - - Bethel, Mount, 45. - - Bethel, annual meetings of the people under Samuel at, 78. - bull-worship at, 186, 233. - conquered by Joshua, 34. - place of worship for the Ten Tribes, 186. - - Bethel, punished for its idolatrous worship, 295. - school of the prophets at, 205, 234. - - Beth-horon, victories of Judas Maccabæus at, 462, 485. - - Bethshan, bodies of Saul and his sons hung up at the walls of, 104. - - Beth-Zachariah, Judæans slain at, 483. - - Bethzur, conquered by the Hasmonæans, 498, 523. - conquered by Lysias the Syrian, 479. - fortified by Judas Maccabæus, 473. - place of refuge for the Hellenists, 494. - - Birah == Acra, which see. - - Book of the Wars of God, 29. - - Buildings of Solomon, 162 f. - - Bull-worship of Israelites at Bethel and Dan, 186, 233. - - Burnt-offerings not necessary for a pure worship, 74. - - - Cabiri == the mighty, seven planets worshipped by Phoenicians, 54. - - Call of Moses and Aaron, 15. - - Canaan, at the time of the conquest, 41. - conquered by the Israelites under Joshua, 32. - original inhabitants of, 1. - population of, at Joshua's death, 50. - - Canaanising the people of Israel under Ahab and Jezebel, 197. - - Canaanites == Phoenicians, 2, 54. - unite against the Israelites and Gibeonites, 34. - - Canaanite remnants nearly outrooted by Saul, 94. - workmen of Solomon, building the temple, 163. - - Carmel, Elijah and the priests of Baal at, 203. - range of Mount, 44. - - Cendebæus, the Syrian general, 528-9. - - Ceremonies observed among the Judæans, 397. - - Character of Moses, 30. - - Characteristics of the Prophets, 15. - - Chasidim or Nazarites, 422, 436, 457, 460. - deceived and outraged by Alcimus, 483. - - Chasidim, one of the three parties in Judæa, 489. - persecuted by Antiochus Epiphanes, 457. - support Mattathias, 460. - - Chebel == band of associates of Samuel, 76. - - Chemosh, god of the Ammonites, 55, 175. - - Cherethites, 122. - - Choral services at the temple, 120, 151. - - Chronicles, books of, 411. - - Civil war between David and Absalom, 138-145. - David and Ishbosheth, 109. - Tibni and Omri, 192. - - Claims of Israel to Canaan, 4. - - Cleopatra, 506, 518. - - Climate of Canaan, 42. - - Coelesyria, province of, 414. - conquered by Ptolemy, 416. - - Coinage of Simon, 525, 528. - - Colonies of the Greeks in Palestine, 419. - of the Judæans in Egypt and Syria, 418, 503. - - Commencement of Hebrew poetry, 29. - - Coniah == Jeconiah, 306. - - Conquest of Jericho and Ai, 33 f. - - Consecration, days of, instituted by Judas Maccabæus, 472. - of the new walls of Jerusalem, 381. - of the people to Jehovah, 380. - of Solomon's temple, 166. - of the second temple, 359. - - Council of seventy elders and Moses, 25. - of the seventy, 394, 472. - - Court of the king, 91. - of Solomon, 161. - - Covenant, between the Judæans and Jehovah, 380. - of the people against proselytes and intermarriages, 368. - - Customs of the nations surrounding Israel, 53 ff. - - Cuthæans. See Samaritans. - - Cyaxares, king of Media, 287. - conquers Nineveh, 303. - - Cyrene, Judæans settle in, 503. - - Cyrus, conquers Babylon, 344-50. - defeats the Babylonians, 343. - king of Babylonia, 350. - king of Medo-Persia, 342. - permits the Judæans to return home, 351. - - Damascus conquered by David, 127. - by Jeroboam II., 231 f. - by Rezon of Zobah, 177. - by Tiglath-Pileser, 259. - See Benhadad, Hazael and Rezin. - - Dan, a place of worship for the ten tribes, 186. - - Daniel, book of, 465 ff. - xii. 2; xi. 21-24; 405, 443. - - Danites, settlement of the, 39. - - Darius, successor of Cambyses, 359 f. - - David, of Bethlehem, 95-155. - Absalom rebels against, 138. - alliance with Hiram, 118. - and Ishbosheth, 104-24. - and Nathan, 150. - anointed by Samuel, 96. - apparent traitor of his country, 100. - armour-bearer of Saul, 98. - boundaries of his kingdom, 129. - character of, 130. - defeats Moabites and Ammonites, 125. - defeats the Philistines, 116. - deludes Achish, 102. - desires to build the temple, 150 ff. - great works of, 154. - king of Judah, 106. - king of the whole country, 112. - laments over Absalom's death, 145. - marries Michal, 100. - meets Goliath, 95. - meets Saul and Jonathan, 97. - misfortunes of, 131 ff. - persecuted by Saul, 99. - returns to Jerusalem, 146. - Uriah and Bathsheba, 131. - 's death, 155. - - Death of Moses, 30. - - Deborah, 61. - - Decalogue, giving of the, 21. - importance and effect of the, 21-3. - - Dedication of the new walls of Jerusalem, 381. - of the temple under Judas Maccabæus, 473. - - Deity, how conceived among the Judæans, 402. - - Deliverer, Moses the, of Israel, 15. - - Deliverers, temporary, called Judges, 59 ff. - - Demetrius, son of Antigonus, 417. - - Demetrius I., 481-525. - appoints Alcimus as high priest, 483. - - Demetrius II. and Alexander Balas, 494 ff. - - Demetrius II., and Simon, 521, 525. - attempts bribing the Judæans, 495. - - Demetrius the librarian, and the Septuagint, 514. - - Depopulation of Judæa, 325. - - Deportation of Israelites to Assyria, 260, 264-5. - of Judæans to Babylonia, 307, 325. - - Desert, wanderings in the, 20. - - Destruction of Jerusalem; its consequences, 315 ff. - - Deuteronomy, book of, 289, 292. - viii. 7-9; xxxiii. 13-14; 47. - - Diodotus Tryphon, 497, 525, 528 ff. - captures Jonathan, 499. - - Dionysian festivals in Alexandria and Jerusalem, 428. - - Disciples of Elijah, 200. - of Isaiah, 253. - of Samuel, 76. - - Disintegration of the Judæans, 383, 434. - of the kingdom of Judah, 281. - of the tribes, 57. - - Dispersion of the Jews, first, 227. - - Disputation between Judæans and Samaritans in Alexandria, 516. - - Disputes between Samuel and Saul, 92. - - Divine service, 401. - - Doag, leader of Saul's guard, 91. - - Dositheus of Alexandria, 505. - - Doubters among the Judæans, 429. - - - Earliest inhabitants of Canaan, 1 ff. - - Earthquake in Uzziah's time, 229. - predicted by Amos, 236. - - Ebal, Mount of, 45. - - Eben-ha-Ezer, Philistines defeat the Israelites at, 70. - Israelites defeat the Philistines at, 78. - - Ecclesiasticus, book of, 439-41. - - Ecclus. ix. 3; xxxii. 3, 4 and 6; 429, 439. - - Edomites, subdued by Amaziah of Judah, 222. - See Idumæa. - - Eglon, king of Moab, killed by Ehud, 60. - - Egypt and Assyria at war, 263. - emigration of Jacob to, 4. - emigration of Johanan, Jeremiah, etc., to, 323. - induces Judah to rebel against Nebuchadnezzar, 306, 309. - invaded by Antiochus Epiphanes, 450, 452. - - Egypt under Apries (Hophra) and Nebuchadnezzar, 312. - under Necho, 296. - under Ptolemy I., Soter, 416. See Ptolemy. - under Shishak inimical to Israel, 176. - - Egypt's aid courted by Judah under Hezekiah, 269. - alliance with Solomon, 161. - - Egyptian idolatry, 9. - introduced in Judah, 300. - - Egyptians, accomplishments and attainments of, 8. - and Israelites, 7. - and Persians, 407. - bright and dark sides of, 8. - early history of, 8. - - Egypto-Judæan community in Alexandria, 418. - - Ehud, the judge, of Benjamin, 60. - - Elah, king of Israel, killed by Zimri, 192. - - Elath and Eziongeber, important seaports, 170, 176. - - Elders == Zekenim, in early time, 7. - and Moses, 25. - - Eleasa, defeat of the Judæans at, 487. - - Eleazar, brother of Judas Maccabæus, 479. - - Eleazar, the high priest, and the Septuagint, 514. - - Election of Saul at Mizpah, 83. - - Eli, the priest at Shiloh, 69-71. - - Eliakim == Jehoiakim, king of Judah, 299. - - Eliakin, son of Hilkiah, Shebna's successor, 272. - - Eliashib, the high priest, 362, 383. - deposed by Nehemiah, 385. - - Elijah, the Tishbite, 199. - at Sarepta, 203. - meets Ahab, 202 f. - meets Ahaziah, 207. - pursued by Jezebel, 204. - 's return prophesied by Malachi, 385. - - Elisha, Elijah's successor, 207. - activity and work of, 217. - highly respected by Joash of Israel, 223. - his death, 228 f. - meets Jehoshaphat and Jehoram, 209. - meets Naaman, 224. - - Emendations of Judges iii. 8 and 10; 60. - - Emendations of I. Sam. xv. 32; 93. - - Emigration of Jacob to Egypt, 4. - of Johanan, Jeremiah, etc., to Egypt, 323 f. - - Emim == Anakim and Rephaim, 2. - - Endor, Gideon's encampment at, 62. - Saul consults the witch at, 103. - - Ephes Damim, Goliath and Philistines slain at, 97 f. - - Epiphanes of Egypt, 433 ff. - - Ephraim and Manasseh, settlement of, 35 f. - - Ephraimites displeased with Saul's election, 83. - head the revolt against Rehoboam, 181 f. - punished by Jephthah, 65. - ruined with the other nine tribes, 265. - side with Absalom against David, 139. - - Epicurus's doctrines influencing Judæans, 429. - - Esarhaddon of Assyria, 284. - - Ethbaal (Ithobel) of Tyre, ally of Omri, 194. - - Ethbaal II., vassal of Nebuchadnezzar, 304, 306. - - Ethnarch at Alexandria, office of, 507. - - Evil-Merodach of Babylon, 331. - - Exile, Babylonian, 329-53. - of the Israelites, 260, 264. - of the Judæans, 307, 317, 325. - prophets of the, 344-49. - - Exiles, moral change of the, in Babylonia, 333-5. - number of the Judæan, 332. - obtain grants of land, 330. - treated kindly by Nebuchadnezzar, 329. - - Exiled priests settle in Samaria, 390 ff. - - Exodus of the Israelites from Egypt, 17. - of the Judæans from Babylonia, 355. - - Ezekiel, son of Buzi, the prophet, 332 ff. - xxiii. 7, 8, and xxxviii. 8; 12, 407. - - Ezra enforces the observance of the law, 387-8. - guardian of the temple, 382. - insists upon dissolution of mixed marriages, 367-9. - not a man of action, 371. - reads the law to the people, 378. - visits Jerusalem, 366. - - Famine in Israel under Ahab, 203. - in Judah under Uzziah, 229 f. - - Feast of Dedication, 473. - of Lights, 472. - of Tabernacles, 380. - - Fertility of the land of Israel, 46 ff. - - Fleet of Solomon, 170 f. - - Future life, doctrine of, 404. - - - Gad and half Manasseh, attacked by Nahash, desire a king, 80. - settles in the trans-Jordanic territory, 29 f. - - Gad, the prophet, joins David, 100, 113, 138. - - Galilee, land of, 45. - - Gath conquered by David's troops, 117 f. - - Gaza, Ptolemy defeats Demetrius at, 417. - taken by Alexander the Great, 412. - - Gazara, a stronghold of the Hellenists, 523. - - Gedaliah appointed governor of Judah, 319. - murdered by Ishmael, 322. - overseer of the Judæan prisoners, 315. - - Gehazi, Elisha's disciple and servant, 218, 223. - - Gehenna, valley of, 115. - - Ge-Hinnon == Hell, 404. - - Gelil Haggoyim == Galilee, 164. - - Gen. xlix. 16 and 17; 66. - - Geography of Jerusalem and neighbourhood, 115 f. - of Palestine or Land of Israel, 42 f. - - Gerizim, 45. - - Gibeah of Benjamin, taken by Jonathan, 85. - residence of Saul, 89. - - Gibeon, Joshua's victory over the Canaanites at, 34. - - Gibeonites or Hivites and Rizpah, 123. - in Ezra's time, 367. - massacred by Saul, 94. - submit to Joshua, 34. - - Gibborim == heroic warriors, 100. - - Gideon-Jerubbaal routs the Midianites, 62. - - Gilboa, Mount, 44. - Saul, his sons and army slain on Mount, 103 f. - - Gilead, 50. - faithful to Jehovah under Ahab, 200. - - Gilead, inhabitants of, aided by Judas Maccabæus, 474. - - Gileadites of Jabesh pressed by Nahash the Ammonite, 89 f. - - Gilgal, annual meetings of the people under Samuel at, 78. - first centre of worship under Joshua, 40. - Saul and his army meet at, 85. - school of prophets at, 205, 234. - tribes renew their oath of allegiance to David, 146 ff. - - God of Israel, the, 5, 283, 402. - of hosts, 130. - - Gods of Egypt, 9. - - Goliath and David, 95 ff. - - Gorgias, the Syrian, defeated by Judas Maccabæus, 465. - defeats Joseph and Azariah, 476. - - Goshen, land of, 7. - - Government of Israel under David, 121 f. - under Saul, 90 f. - under Solomon, 162, 172. - - Governors of Coelesyria, Andromachus, Memnon and Joseph, son of - Tobias, 414, 425. - - Governors of Judæa after the exile, 360 ff. - See Zerubbabel, Joshua, Nehemiah, etc. - - Greece and Judæa, 413. - - Greek colonies in Palestine, 419. - customs spread in Judæa, 427 f. - faction among the Judæans, 435. - games among the Judæans, 438. - translation of the Pentateuch, 510, 512. - - Greeks and Macedonians, 411. - - - Hadad (Adad) of Idumæa, fights against Solomon, 176. - - Hadadezer of Zobah, helps Hanun against David, 126. - - Haggai, the prophet, 359. - - Hanukkah == days of consecration, 473. - - Hanun, the Ammonite, defeated by David, 127. - insults David's messengers, 126. - - Haphtarah, 400. - - Hasmonæans. See Maccabees. - connect themselves with the Romans and Parthians against - Syrians, 490. - leaders of the nation, 490. - one of the three parties in Judæa, 489. - - Hathor, the Egyptian goddess, 9. - - Havvoth Jair, 64. - - Hazael of Damascus, invades Israel and Judah, 220 f. - 's war against Israel, 210. - - Hebrew alphabet, Assyrian characters of the, 395 f. - literature taken along into the captivity, 334 f. - poetry, commencement of, and two characteristics of, 29. - tongue cultivated by the Judæans in Babylonia, 364. - - Hebron, Absalom rebels against David at, 139. - inhabited by the Idumæans, 474. - residence of David, 109. - - Helam, defeat of the Aramæans at, 127. - - Hell == Ge-Hinnon, 404. - - Hellenism in Judæa, 435, 439, 442-71. - - Hellenists, Acra occupied by the, 478, 488. - masters of the country, 488. - overthrow of, 523. - side with Alcimus, 483. - - Heman, chief psalmist and musician at Gibeon, 79, 121. - - Hermon, Mount, 44. - - Heron, a Syrian commander, defeated by Maccabæus, 462. - - Hezekiah, king of Judah, 268-80. - and Merodach-baladan, 278. - change of policy of, 272. - death of, 280. - defense against Sennacherib, 275. - early measures of, 268 f. - illness and recovery of, 276. - restores Jehovah's worship, 266-7. - rule of, 278. - unites with Egypt against Assyria, 269. - weakness of character, 268. - - High-priestly office made equal to that of royalty, 219. - - High-priests-- - Abiathar, 120. - Alcimus, 482. - Azariah, 167, 245. - Eliashib, 362. - Hilkiah, 289, 365. - Jason, 444, 480. - Jehoiada, 213 ff. - Jehoiakim, 360. - Joiada, 386, 409. - Jonathan, 495. - Joshua, 351 ff. - Judas Maccabæus, 481. - Onias, I., II., and III., 413, 423, 437. - Onias IV., 505, 507, 522. - Onias Menelaus, 447-80. - Seraiah, 314, 365. - Simon I., and II., 420, 432. - Zachariah, 220. - Zadok, 120. - - Highroads of the king, 171. - - Hilkiah, high priest under Josiah, 289, 365. - - Hiram of Tyre, 118. - friend of Solomon, 161-2. - receives for gold twenty Israelitish towns, 164. - supplies Solomon with cedar and cypress wood, 164. - - Hiram, the artist, building the temple, 165. - - Historical books, from Genesis to the end of Judah, compiled by - Baruch, 336. - - Hittites == Hivites, 3. - - Hollow Syria == Coelesyria, 414. - - Holy City, 114 ff. - Land, 1, 41. - - Hosea, Beeri's son, the prophet, 240. - - Hosea II., contemporary of Isaiah, 251. - chapter ii. 4-6; 241. - 's speeches against idolatry, 240 f. - - Hoshea, son of Elah, kills Pekah of Israel, 260, 263. - king of Samaria, 263. - prisoner of Shalmaneser, 264. - - Huldah, the prophetess, 286, 293. - - Human sacrifices under Ahab, 260 f. - - Humane spirit of the Decalogue, 23. - - Hushai of Erech, David's friend, 141 f. - - Hymn of Moses, 293. - - Hyrcanus, 429, 431, 437, 444. - - - Idolaters severely treated by David, 131. - - Idolatry abolished by Jehu of Israel, 211 ff. - abolished by Josiah, 294. - among the Persians, 408. - Assyrian, in Israel, 247. - Assyrian, in Judah, 260, 269, 282 ff. - Egyptian, in Judah, 300, 306. - introduced by Antiochus Epiphanes, 455. - introduced by Jehoram of Judah, 209. - - Idolatry introduced by Jeroboam I. and II., 186, 233. - Israelites influenced by, 57. - of the nations surrounding Israel, 54 ff. - of the Phoenicians in Israel under Omri and Ahab, 195 ff. - of the wealthy exiles, 340. - permitted by Solomon, 175. - to be spurned, 41. - - Idumæans, assisted by Egypt, defeat Judah, 226 f. - defeated by Abishai, 128. - defeated by Uzziah (Azariah), 230. - fight the Israelites, 27. - intercourse of the Israelites with, 55. - kill fugitive Judæans, 318. - make settlements in Southern Judæa, 325. - remain enemies of Judæa, 435, 474. - subdued by Amaziah, 222. - - Impurity, laws concerning purity and, 401. - - Indian trade of Solomon, 169. - renewed by Uzziah (Azariah), 130. - - Inhabitants of Canaan, original, 1. - - Intermarriages between Israelites and their neighbours, 56. - between Judæans and their neighbours, 361. - dissolved and forbidden by Ezra, 367-9, 386. - practised again, 383. - - Internal affairs of the Alexandrian community, 504. - conflicts in Judæa after the death of Maccabæus, 491. - government of Israel under David, 121, 154. - government of Israel under Saul, 90. - government of Israel under Solomon, 162, 172. - - Ipsus, battle at, 417. - - "Iron sea" of Solomon's temple, 165. - - Isaiah, Amoz's son, of Jerusalem, 251-4. - disciples of, 253. - 's efforts to restrain Hezekiah from war with Assyria, 270. - immediate and permanent effect of the speeches of, 252-3. - opposes Ahaz's seeking Assyrian help, 258. - predicts Jerusalem's deliverance, 272. - sons of, 251, 258-9. - - Isaiah, the Babylonian, 344 ff. - Isaiah i. 11-14, 253; - ii. 2-4, 243; - vi. and vii., 252, 258; - viii. 5-8, 259; - x. 5-xi. 10, 272; - xxii. 1-14, 16-25, 271; - xxviii. 1-4, 266; - xxix. 13, 253; - xl. 345; - xlii. 1-4, 347; - liii. 3-7, 344; - lv. 12, 355; - lvi. 7, 347; - lxiv. 9, 325; - lxvi. 1, 5, 348, 349. - - Ishbosheth and David, 106-124. - - Ishmael, son of Nehemiah, 317, 321. - flees to Egypt, 323. - murders Gedaliah, 322. - - Isolation of the tribes, 36. - - Israel == Jacob, 7. - - Israel and Judah, kingdoms of, 182 ff. - at Goshen, 7. - claim of, to Canaan, 4. - distinctions of the land of, 42. - end of kingdom of, 265. - remnant of == kingdom of Judah, 266. - - Israel under Eli and Samuel, 68-81. - under the judges, 60-67. - " King David and Ishbosheth, 106-24. - under David, 125-55. - " Saul, 82-105. - " Solomon, 156-78. - " Ahab, 196-206. - " Ahaziah, 206. - " Ba'asha, 189-91. - " Elah, 191. - " Hoshea, 263. - " Jehoahaz, 221. - " Jehoash, 221 f. - " Jehoram, 207. - " Jehu, 211. - " Jeroboam I., 182-9. - " Jeroboam II., 225-43. - " Menahem, 244-7. - " Nadab, 189. - " Omri, 192-6. - " Pekah, 248. - " Pekahiah, 248. - " Shallum, 244. - " Tibni, 192. - " Zechariah, 243. - " Zimri, 192. - - Israelites and Egyptians, 7. - and the neighbouring nations, 53. - crossing the Jordan, 29. - exodus of, from Egypt, 17. - influenced by their pagan surroundings, 51 f. - - Israelites, occupying the land of Canaan, 32 ff. - victorious over Canaanites, 27. - wandering in the desert, 26 f. - - Isis, 9. - - Issachar, settlement of tribe of, 37. - - Ittai, the Hittite, David's general, 137, 141, 144. - - - Jabesh-Gilead, besieged by Nahash, 89. - - Jabesh-Gileadites, rescue Saul's body, 104. - - Jabin, defeated by Joshua near Lake Merom, 37. - - Jabin, the Canaanite king, 61. - - Jacob == Israel, 7. - - Jael slays Sisera, 61. - - Jakim. See Alcimus. - - Jason appointed high priest by Antiochus Epiphanes, 444, 451. - son of a high priest, 435, 439. - - Jebus, changed to Jerusalem, 114. - - Jebusites, 3. - between Ephraim and Judah, 76 f. - made subject to David, 113. - - Jeconiah == Jehoiachin, 306. - - Jeduthun, choir-leader in Gibeon, 121. - - Jehoahaz, King of Israel, 221. - - Jehoahaz, King of Judah, 298. - - Jehoash, King of Israel, 221. - defeats Amaziah of Judah, 224. - defeats Benhadad III. of Damascus, 222. - - Jehoiachin == Jeconiah == Coniah, 306. - favored by Evil-Merodach, 331. - taken to Babylon by Nebuchadnezzar, 307. - - Jehoiada, the high priest, 214. - - Jehoiakim, the high priest, son of Joshua, 360. - - Jehoiakim, King of Judah, 299-306. - introduces Egyptian idolatry, 300. - persecutes the prophets, 301. - rebellion and death of, 306. - submits to Nebuchadnezzar, 306. - throws Jeremiah's scroll into the fire, 305. - - Jehoram, Ahaziah's brother, King of Israel, 207. - at war with Hazael of Damascus, 210. - at war with Mesa of Moab, 208. - killed by Jehu, 211. - - Jehoram, King of Judah and husband of Athaliah, 206. - - Jehoshaphat of Judah, allied with Ahab of Israel, 206. - - Jehu appointed successor to Ahab's house, 204. - captain of Jehoram of Israel, 210. - king of Israel, 211. - loses part of Israel, 220 f. - - Jephthah, the Gileadite, defeats the Ammonites, 64. - punishes the haughty Ephraimites, 65. - - Jeremiah of Anathoth, the prophet, 289-329. - assists Gedaliah and encourages the people, 319. - emigrates to Egypt, 324. - imprisoned by his enemies, 312. - imprisoned by Ishmael, 322. - imprisoned by Chaldæan soldiers, 314. - warns Zedekiah against rebellion, 310. - - Jeremiah's counsel disregarded by Johanan, 323. - lamentations, 316. - last days, 327. - prophecies collected by Baruch, 304. - scroll read by Baruch, 304. - - Jeremiah, book of, vii., vii. 12, 302, 71; - xv. 1, 72; - xxiii. 29, 291; - xxix. 4-8, 310; - xxxi. 17-18, 266; - xlvi. 15, 11. - - Jericho conquered, 33. - fortified by Ahab, 201. - school of prophets in, 205, 234. - - Jeroboam I., the Ephraimite, 174. - aided by Shishak, 184. - and Ahijah, the prophet, 175. - flees to Egypt, 176. - introduces idolatry, 186. - king of the Ten Tribes, 180 ff. - resides at Shechem, 180. - - Jeroboam II., King of Israel, 225-43. - - Jerubbaal-Gideon routs the Midianites, 62. - - Jerusalem attacked by Antiochus Epiphanes, 451. - attacked and captured by Sanballat, 371. - besieged by Lysias, the Syrian general, 479. - captured by Nebuchadnezzar, 307, 311. - captured by Ptolemy I., 416. - captured by Scopas, the Ætolian, 432. - captured by Shishak of Egypt, 184. - - Jerusalem, centre of religious life, 119. - David's final residence, 114. - fortified by Azariah, 231. - fortified by David, 118. - fortified by Hezekiah, 270. - fortified by Nehemiah, 373. - new walls of, consecrated, 381. - ransacked by Jehoash of Israel, 225. - re-populated, 377. - return of Judæans to, 354. - return of Judas Maccabæus, 471. - visited by Ezra, 366 ff. - visited by Nehemiah, 373, 385. - - Jerusalem's walls rebuilt by Simon the Just, 421. - - Jeshurun, Israel's new name, 22. - - Jesus Sirach, son of Eleazar, 421, 439. - - Jezebel, character of, 197. - death of, 211. - Ethbaal's daughter, married to Ahab, 194. - pursues Elijah, 201. - - Jezreel, Hosea's son, 240. - - Jezreel, plain of, 44. - Saul and his army slain at, 103. - town of, Ahab's summer residence, 201 f. - - Joash of Judah, early years of, 213. - killed by two nobles of Judah, 221. - proclaimed king by Jehoiada, 215. - - Job, book of, 341. - - Joab, son of Zeruiah, 100-160. - commander of the Gibborim, 100. - David's general, 109. - defeats and kills Absalom, 144. - defeats the Aramæans and Ammonites, 126. - defeats Sheba and the northern tribes, 149. - favours Adonijah, 152. - killed by Solomon through Benaiah, 160. - kills Amaza, 149. - kills Abner, 111. - - Joel, Samuel's son, 80. - - Joel, son of Pethuel, the prophet, 230, 237 ff. - book of, chapter iii. 1-2; 239. - - Johanan, son of Joiada, the high priest, 409. - - Johanan, son of Kareah, 318, 321, 322. - emigrates to Egypt, 324. - - Johanan, son of Mattathias, 489. - - Johanan, son of Simon, called Hyrcanus, 529. - - Joiada, a high priest, 386, 409. - - Jokthel, name given to Petra by Amaziah of Judah, 223. - - Jonadab, son of Rechab, a Nazarite, 200. - and Jehu exterminate Baal's worship, 212. - - Jonah, son of Ammittai, 225. - - Jonathan, eldest son of Saul, 84-103. - and David, 97 ff. - and his sword-bearer attack the Philistines at Gibeah, 87. - attacks Gibeah of Benjamin, 85. - killed by the Philistines, 103. - his remains brought to the family tomb at Zelah, 124. - - Jonathan, brother of Judas Maccabæus, 459, 475, 489, 493. - allies himself with Alexander Balas, 496. - and Tryphon, 498, 501. - appointed high priest, 494. - buried at Modin, 501. - leader of the nation, 490 ff. - - Jordan, Israelites crossing the, 29. - only large river in Palestine, 46. - - Josê, son of Joezer, of Zereda, 436. - - Josê, son of Johanan of Jerusalem, 436. - - Joseph, son of Tobias, 423-31. - ambassador to Alexandria, 425. - - Joshua, son of Nun, successor of Moses, 32. - death of, 52. - defeats Jabin near Lake Merom, 37. - defeats the Canaanites at Gibeon, 34. - less active in old age, 50. - - Joshua, book of, x. 12 and 13, 35. - - Joshua, the high priest, son of Jehozedek, 351. - successful against Zerubbabel, 359. - - Joshua, the high priest, son of Joiada, 409. - - Joshua (Jesus), Sirach sings Simon's praises, 421-2. - - Josiah, King of Judah, 286-97. - defeated by Necho, 297. - Passover of, 295. - reformation of Judah under, 288. - repairing the temple, 288. - - Jotham and his parable, 63. - - Jotham and Isaiah, the prophets, 251. - - Jotham, friendship with Pekah, 249. - king of Judah, 246. - regent of Judah, 246. - - Jubilee year, 393. - - Judæa accounted a province of Coelesyria, 413-4. - added to the Lagido-Egyptian kingdom, 418. - and Greece, 413. - depopulated, 325. - independent under Simon, 519. - invaded by the Syrians under Cendebæus, 528. - part of the province of Greece, 413. - under Jonathan, 501. - under the rule of the Seleucidæ, 432. - - Judæa, new community in, 354. - spread of Greek customs in, 427. - three parties in, 489. - - Judæan colonies in Egypt, Syria and Cyrene, 418, 503. - exiles, number of the, 332. - sect of Samaritans, 392. - - Judæans adapt Hellenism, 435. - and Alexander the Great, 412-15. - and Samaritans, 389, 392. - and Samaritans in Alexandria, 515. - and Samaritans persecuted by Ptolemy Physcon, 519. - at discord after Nehemiah's departure, 383-4. - banished to the Caspian sea, 408. - become doubters and sceptics, 429. - deported to Babylonia, 307. - in Alexandria, 503 ff. - in Babylonia. See Exile. - in Babylonia begin the religious reformation, 363. - in Egypt, 326. - in the Sopheric age, 389 ff. - intermarry with neighbouring people, 361. - of Galilee ill-treated by their neighbours, 474. - permitted by Cyrus to return home, 351. - persecuted by Antiochus Epiphanes, 452, 464. - remaining in Babylonia support their returning brethren, 354. - return from other countries, 356. - revolt against the Ptolemies, 423. - under Artaxerxes II. and III., 407. - under the Maccabees, 442 ff. - under the Ptolemies, 420. - - Judah, tribe of, 38 f. - and Benjamin the last to invite David to return, 146. - and Simeon assist their brethren under Samuel, 76. - elects David as king, 107. - religion in, 188. - Simeon and Benjamin faithful to Rehoboam, 182. - starts the revolt against David in favor of Absalom, 139. - - Judah, kingdom of. - and Egyptian idolatry, 300. - end of, 298-316. - subject to Egypt, 298. - under Abijam, 189. - " Ahaz, 257-66. - " Amaziah, 222. - " Ahaziah, 211. - " Amon, 285. - " Asa, 189. - " Athaliah, 213. - " Azariah (Uzziah), 226-48. - " David, 109. - " Hezekiah, 266-80. - " Jehoahaz, 298. - " Jehoiachin, 306-8. - " Jehoiakim, 299-306. - " Jehoram, 209. - " Jehoshaphat, 206 ff. - " Joash, 216. - " Josiah, 286-97. - " Jotham, 248-56. - " Manasseh, 281-5. - " Mattaniah-Zedekiah, 308-15. - " Rehoboam, 179-89. - " Zedekiah-Mattaniah, 308-15. - - Judaism loses its national meaning, 392. - - Judas Maccabæus, 461-87. - accused by Alcimus before Demetrius II., 482. - appointed his father's successor, 461. - at war with the Idumæans, 474. - at war with the Syrians under Lysias, 478. - defeats Apollonius and Heron, 462. - defeats Gorgias the Syrian, 468. - defeats Lysias the Syrian, 469. - defeats Nicanor twice, 484-5. - falls in a battle against Bacchides, 487. - makes overtures to Rome, 485. - punishes Timotheus and the Ammonites, 475. - returns to Jerusalem, 471. - - Judges appointed by Moses, 26. - name of the temporary deliverers of Israel, 59-67. - Book of, iii. 8 and 10, 60; - vi. 13, 58; - xi. 7, 65. - importance of the, 68. - - Justice administered among the Judæans, 394. - supreme court of, 394. - - - Kanna == religious zeal, 199. - - Kedeshim and Kedeshoth, 54, 198, 283. - - Kehillah, a Levitical guild, 76. - - Kenites, allies of the Israelites, 38. - - Kikkar == meadows, 45. - - King desired by the tribes, 80. - - Kingdom of Israel not an offspring of affection, 81. - See Israel. - - Kingdom of Judah. See Judah. - - Kings, First book of the, viii. 27, 348; - xviii. 21; - xxi. 19, 203. - Second book of the, ix. 25, 203. - - Kirjath-Jearim, ark of covenant at, 72, 119. - - - Lachish, Sennacherib's encampment at, 273. - - Lake Merom, victory of Joshua near, 37. - - Lake of the Harp, or lake of Galilee, 42. - - Lamentations of Jeremiah, 316, 319. - - Law of Moses and its influence, 385. - authority of, among the Judæans, 393. - interpreted by Jesus Sirach, 440. - maligned by Menelaus, 449. - regularly read at Jerusalem, 395. - strict observance of, 387, 397. - translated into Greek, 510. - See Pentateuch and Septuagint. - - Law books among the Judæans of Babylonia, 364. - of Judah, 292. - strictly adhered to by the Samaritans, 392. - taught and enforced by Ezra-Nehemiah, 365, 378. - - Laws concerning purity and impurity, 401. - - Lebanon, Mount, 44. - - Leontopolis the site of the temple of Onias, 508. - - Levites, and Egyptians, 8. - assist Samuel, 76. - destitute forsake the temple, 382. - emigrate to Judah from Israel, 187. - explain the law, 379. - help to consecrate the walls, 381. - how to be supported, 382. - leave Jerusalem for want of support, 372, 377. - live in Shiloh, 69. - rebuke the people for idolatry, 58. - receive no lands in Canaan, 40. - re-instated by Judas Maccabæus, 473. - return to Jerusalem, 386. - scatter over the country after - Shiloh's destruction, 72. - side with David against Absalom, 141. - true to God, 12. - - Leviticus, xvii. 7, 11. - - Licentiousness to be spurned, 41. - - Lysias the Syrian, 463-82. - besieges Jerusalem, 479. - censured by the Romans, 481 f. - defeated by Judas Maccabæus, 469. - general of Antiochus Epiphanes, 463, 476. - guardian of Antiochus V., 477. - invades Judæa victoriously, 478. - makes a truce with the Judæans, 480. - put to death by Demetrius II., 482. - - Lysimachus, 437, 448-9. - - - Maachah, Rehoboam's mother, worships Astarte, 188. - - Maccabæus. See Judas Maccabæus. - - Maccabees, the, 458-531. - First book of, i. 26-28, 452. - - Macedonia, Alexander of, 412. - Philip of, 411. - - Macedonian kingdom dissolved, 416. - - Macedonians, influence of, 411. - - Machpelah, 4. - - Mahanaim, residence of Ishbosheth, 108. - welcomes the fugitive David, 144. - - Malachi, the last of the prophets, 384. - - Malcom or Milcom, god of the Ammonites, 55, 128. - - Manasseh, settlement of the tribe of, 35. - - Manasseh, king of Judah, 281-5. - - Manasseh appointed high priest of the temple at Gerizim, 390. - banished from Judah by Nehemiah, 386. - marries Sanballat's daughter, 383. - - Manetho's libels on the Judæans, 510. - - Marriage, mixed. See Intermarriages. - - Martyrs executed by Antiochus Epiphanes, 456. - - Mashal or allegorical poems, 158. - - Mattaniah (Zedekiah), King of Judah, 308. - - Mattathias and his five sons, 459. - - Medes, 287, 303. - - Media conquered by Cyrus, 342. - - Megiddo, battle at, 297. - - Memnon, governor of Coelesyria, 414. - - Menahem, son of Gadi, King of Israel, 244-8. - - Menelaus. See Onias Menelaus. - - Meonenim == cloud-seers among the Philistines, 55. - - Mephibosheth, Jonathan's son becomes lame for life, 104. - spared by David, 123. - - Merodach-Baladan of Babylonia, 278. - - Merom, battle at Lake, 37. - - Mesa of Moab, defeated by Jehoram, 209. - - Messengers of God, 403. - - Micah II., contemporary of Isaiah, 251, 261, 273. - Book of, chapter vi. 4, 12. - - Michaiah, the prophet, inimical to Ahab, 205. - - Michal, Saul's second daughter, 100-120. - married to David, 100. - rebukes him for dancing in front of the ark, 120. - returned to David, 110. - - Michmash, Jonathan's headquarters, 494. - Saul defeats the Philistines at, 87. - - Midianite maidens beguile the Israelites, 28. - - Midianites ravaging Palestine are defeated by Gideon and 300 - warriors, 62. - - Midrash, the, 396. - - 'Millo' == border, 118. - site of Solomon's palace, 168. - - Miriam, 12. - - Mixed language of the Samaritans, 391. - - Mixed marriages. See Intermarriages. - - Mizpah, annual meetings of the people under Samuel at, 78. - - Mizpah, centre of importance and a holy place, 321. - Gedaliah's capital, 319. - Judas Maccabæus assembles the army at, 467. - Saul elected at, 83. - - Mnevis, the white bull, 9. - - Moabites, after the exile, 362. - defeated and subdued by David, 125. - defeated by Jehoram and Jehoshaphat, 209. - influencing the worship of the Israelites, 56. - made tributaries by Omri, 194. - routed by the Israelites under Ehud, 60. - - Moabitess, Ruth the, 370. - - Modin, residence of Mattathias, 459, 469. - - Moloch, Ahab sacrifices his son to, 260. - sacrifices to, 283, 300. - - Monotheism, 5, 402. - - Moriah, Mount, 115. - a sacred place, 138. - site of Solomon's Temple, 162. - - Moses, 12-31. - and his councillors, 25. - called as deliverer, 15. - characteristic of, 30. - death of, 30. - grave of, not known, 31. - the great leader, 17. - song of, 293. - - Mount Gerizim, temple on, 390. Sinai, 20. - - Mountains of Palestine, 44-45. - - Mourners of Zion in the exile, 337. - - Murder to be spurned, 41. - - Mylitta, worship of, introduced in Israel, 247, 282. - - Mythology of the nations surrounding Israel, 53. - - - Naaman, the Syrian, 224. - - Nabatæans receive Jonathan and his followers, 498. - - Nabonad, King of Babylonia, 342. - at war with Cyrus, 343. - persecutes the Judæans, 342. - - Nabopolassar of Babylon, 296, 303. - - Naboth's vineyard, 201. - - Nadab succeeds Jeroboam, 189. - - Nahash, King of Ammonites, 80. - besieges Jabesh-Gilead, 89. - defeated by Saul, 90. - supports David against Saul, 100. - - Naphtali, settlement of the tribe of, 37. - - Nathan, house of, 249. - - Nathan, the prophet, 113. - and David, 132, 150. - sides with Solomon against Adonijah, 153. - - National decay, 317. - - Nature in Palestine, poetry of, 48. - - Nazarite order instituted by Elijah, 200, 422. - - Nebuchadnezzar, King of Babylon, 303-331. - and Jehoiachin, 306. - and Jehoiakim, 305-6. - and Zedekiah, 308. - appoints Gedaliah Governor of Judah, 319. - defeats Hophra, King of Egypt, 312. - subdues Judah and conquers Jerusalem, 307, 310 ff. - treats the exiles kindly, 329. - - Nebuzaradan destroys Jerusalem, 315, 319, 325. - - Nechalim == winter streams, 46. - - Necho, son of Psammetich of Egypt, 296. - defeats Josiah at Megiddo, 297. - deposes at Riblah Jehoahaz, and appoints Eliakim king of Judah, 299. - - Negeb == the arid land, 48. - - Nehemiah, Artaxerxes' cup-bearer, 372. - and the great assembly, 381. - examines the genealogies to repopulate Jerusalem, 378. - fortifies Jerusalem, 374-5. - has Ezra read the law to the people, 378. - intrigued against by Sanballat, 375. - man of vigorous action, 373. - protests against enslaving the poor, 376. - returns to Artaxerxes, 383. - - Nehemiah's arrival in Jerusalem, 373. - memoirs, 387-8. - second visit to Jerusalem, 385. - - Neighbouring nations and the Israelites, 53-9. - - Neriglissar, King of Babylon, 331-42. - - Nicanor, general of Demetrius II., defeated by Maccabæus, 484. - - Nob, place of worship during Samuel's time, 79. - - Nob, priests of, murdered by Saul, 100. - - Number of the Judæans in the exile, 332. - - Number of the returning Judæans, 352. - - Numbers, Book of, xi. 29, 239. - - - Obadiah, Ahab's palace-superintendent, 201. - the prophet, 326. - - Officers appointed by Nehemiah, 382. - - Olam-ha-ba == the next world, 405. - - Olives, Mount of, 45. - - Olympian games in Judæa, 445. - - Omri, King of Israel, 192. - allied with Ethbaal of Tyre, 194. - built Samaria, 193. - - Onias I., the high priest, 413. - - Onias II., the high priest, 423. - - Onias III., the high priest, 437. - murdered, 448. - - Onias IV. in Alexandria, 505. - temple of, 508. - the first Ethnarch, 507, 522. - - Onias Menelaus, 437, 447, 454, 506. - appointed high priest, 447. - combats Jason, 451. - hellenises the Judæans, 454. - maligns the law of Moses, 449. - sacrificed by Lysias, 480. - - Onion in Egypt, Province of, 508, 510. - - Ophir, Land of, 171. - - Ophrah, Gideon's native place, 62. - - Opposition of the Israelites against Moses, 15. - - Opposition of Pharaoh against Moses, 16. - - Original inhabitants of Canaan, 1. - - Ornah, the Jebusite, 138. - - Osiris, 9. - - Othniel, the first warrior judge, 60. - - - Palace of Solomon, 168. - - Palestine, Origin of the name of, 55. - - Paradise == Eden, 404. - - Parallelism in Hebrew poetry, 29. - - Parties, the three, in Judæa at the death of Judas Maccabæus, 489. - - Passage of the Israelites through the Red Sea, 18. - through the Jordan, 32. - - Passover festival among the Judæans, 398. - of Josiah, 295. - - Patriarchs, the, 4. - - Pecht, Egyptian goddess, 9. - - Pekah, the last king of Israel, 248. - - Pekah, murdered by Hoshea, son of Elah, 260. - submits to Tiglath-Pileser, 260. - - Pekahiah, King of Israel, murdered by Pekah, 248. - - Pelethites, 122. - - Pelusium besieged by Sennacherib, 276. - - Penitential psalms, 337 f. - - Pentapolis of the Philistines, 54 f. - - Pentateuch. See Law-Book. - - Perizzites, 3. - - Perpetual fire, an emblem of God's presence, 24. - - Persecution of the Judæans by Artaxerxes, 408. - - Persecution of the prophets under Manasseh, 284. - - Persian doctrines influence Hebrew religion, 403. - religion and Hebrew monotheism, 402. - - Persians and Judæans, 407. - conquered by Alexander the Great, 412. - - Pestilence in Israel under David, 138. - - Petra, capital of the Idumæans, 222. - - Pharaoh, opposition of Moses against, 16. - - Philip of Macedon, 432. - of Macedonia, 411. - regent of Syria, 480. - - Philistines, 54 ff. - and Goliath defeated in the valley of Tamarinths, 95-7. - and Samson, 66. - arouse Judah and Simeon, 77. - at war with David, 115. - capture the ark of the covenant, 71-2. - defeat Saul and his army on Gilboah, 103-4. - defeat the Israelites at Aphek, 70. - defeated by Azariah, 230. - defeated by David at Mount Baal Perazim, 116. - defeated by Saul at Michmash, 88-9. - oppress Israel greatly, 66, 80, 84. - remain enemies of the Judæans, 435, 467. - - Philo, the elder, 517. - - Philometor of Egypt, 504. - - Philopator of Egypt, 429-32. - - Phineas puts an end to the profligacy of the people, 29. - - Phoenicia, natural wealth and resources of, 3. - - Phoenicians--Canaanites, 2. - defeated by Shalmaneser, 263 f. - customs and mythology of, 54. - influencing the Israelites, 53 f. - - Phraortes (Fravartch), King of Media, 287. - - Pious, community of the, 436. - and worldly among the exiles, 339, 349. - - Plain of Sharon, or the low country, 45. - - Poetic, allegories (mashal) of Solomon, 158. - talents of David, 96. - - Poetry, beginning of Hebrew, 29. - of Nature in Palestine, 48 f. - of the Exile, 340. - - Polygamy indulged in by David, 161. - Saul, 95. - Solomon, 161. - - Popillius Lænas, Roman deputy, 453. - - Praise-songs in divine worship, 78. - - Prayers prescribed among the Judæans, 398. - - Priests == Aaronides. - expelled from Jerusalem take charge of the temple on Mount - Gerizim, 390. - faithless to their promises, 383-4. - idolatrous, under Manasseh, 283. - in Israel, 25. - leave Jerusalem for want of support, 372. - neglected by Samuel, 79. - of Baal and Astarte in Israel, 107, 204. - provided for by Nehemiah, 382. - re-instated by Judas Maccabæus, 473. - under Ahab, 261. - under Josiah, 294. - - Priesthood reorganized by Solomon, 167. - - Promises of God to David, 150 f. - - Promises of God to the Patriarchs, 4 ff. - - Prophecy re-awakened at Samuel's time, 73. - - Prophets, characteristics of the, 15. - followers of Isaiah, 253. - helping Samuel, 76. - in Bethel, Gilgal and Jericho, 205, 234. - of the Exile, 344. - persecuted by Jehoiakim, 300. - persecuted by Manasseh, 284. - trained by Elijah, 200. - - Prophets under Josiah, 286, 288 f. - - Prophets, Books of the, read in the temple, 400. - - Prophetess Deborah, 61. - Huldah, 286. - - Prophetic spirit of God, its meaning, 14. - writings, authoritative collection of, 400. - - Proselytes in Ezra's opinion, 367. - made in the exile, 338, 352, 356. - - Prosperity under Gideon, 63. - Jeroboam II., 231. - Solomon, 172. - - Proverbs, book of, 340. - - Psalmists, 120, 279. - - Penitential, 337. - in the exile, 340. - - Psalms xxiv., 353. - lxxviii. 60-64, 71. - cii., 344. - cvii. 7 and 30, 355. - cxxii. 3-5, 121. - cxxvi., 352. - - Ptolemies defeat Antiochus the Great, 426. - Judæans under the, 420. - - Ptolemy I., Soter, King of Egypt, 416. - II. and the rebellious Judæans, 423. - V., Philometor, 437, 504, 506. - VI., Philopator, 425-32. - VII., Physcon, 450, 452, 506, 518. - - Philadelphus and the Septuagint, 514. - - Ptolemy ben Habub, kills his father-in-law, Simon, at Dok, near - Jericho, 530. - - Pul of Assyria invades Samaria, 246. - - Pulpit oratory, origin of, 514. - - Purification laws, 401. - - Pydna, battle of, 453. - - - Rabbath-Ammon conquered by David-Joab, 128. - conquered by Judas Maccabæus, 474. - - Rab-shakeh, Sennacherib's official sent to Hezekiah, 274. - - Ramah, conquered and fortified by Baasha, 191. - Samuel in, 75. - - Ramoth-Gilead, conquered by Benhadad II., 205. - - Razim == royal couriers, 91. - - Red Sea, passage of the, 18. - - Rebuilding of the temple, 356-9. - - Regicides in Israel, 189, 192, 211, 243, 244, 245. - - Rehoboam succeeds his father Solomon, 179. - ten tribes secede at Shechem from, 180. - treaty with Tabrimon of Damascus, 183. - - Relapse into idolatry shortly after giving the decalogue, 23. - - Religion in the kingdom of Judah, 188. - in the kingdom of the ten tribes, 185. - - Religious reformation of the Judæans in Babylonia, 363. - revival in Jerusalem under Joash, 217. - schools among the Judæans, 396. - - Repetition, a characteristic of Hebrew poetry, 29. - - Rephaim, aborigines of Canaan, 2. - - Repopulation of Jerusalem, 377. - - Resurrection from the dead, 404. - - Retribution, doctrine of, 404. - - Return from the exile under Zerubbabel, 351. - - Reuben settles in the trans-Jordanic territory (Gilead), 29. - - Reuel, Moses' father-in-law, 14. - - Revelation on Mount Sinai, 20. - - Revelations to Samuel, 74. - - Rezin of Damascus, 248, 257. - slain by Tiglath-Pileser, 259. - - Rezon of Zobah, 177. - - Riblah, encampment of Nebuchadnezzar at, 313. - - Riblah, Necho at, 299. - - Rizpah and the Gibeonites, 110. - coveted by Abner, 110. - Saul's concubine, 95. - - Romans and Antiochus Epiphanes, 443 ff. - and Judas Maccabæus, 485. - and Perseus at Pydna, 453. - and the Judæans, 526. - defeat Antiochus the Great, 434. - support Simon, 525. - support the Hasmonæans, 490. - - Ruth, book of, written against Ezra's decision on the illegality - of intermarriages, 370, 411. - - - Sabbath, strict observance of, under Nehemiah, 386. - later observance of, 397. - - Sabbatical year, 393. - - Sabia (Sheba), Queen of, visits Solomon, 173. - - Sacrifices among the Israelites, 24, 57. - among the Judæans, 401. - human, in Judah under Ahab, 261. - - Sacrilege by Antiochus Epiphanes, 451. - Antiochus the Great and his son, 434. - Onias Menelaus, 448. - - Salt sea or sea of the deep basin, 43. - - Samael, the demon, 403. - - Samaria, built, 193. - besieged by Benhadad III., 221 f. - capital of Coelesyria, 414. - taken by Shalmaneser, 263 f. - - Samaria, Land of == kingdom of the ten tribes, 193 ff. - after Pekah's death, 262. - colonised by Esarhaddon, 285. - invaded by Pul of Assyria, 246. - - Samaritans, 285, 355. - enemies of the Judæans, 389, 410, 467. - in Alexandria oppose the Judæans, 515. - intermarry with the Judæans, 361. - interrupt the rebuilding of the temple, 357. - kill Andromachus, 414. - retain the Old Hebrew characters of the alphabet, 396. - temple of, on Mount Gerizim, 390. - - Samson fights the Philistines, 66. - - Samuel, Elkanah's son, 72. - anoints David, 96. - anoints Saul, 82, 90. - at discord with Saul, 92. - kills Agag at Gilgal, 93. - the second Moses, 72. - unites all the tribes, 77. - - Samuel, First Book of, xiv. 12 and 45, 87, 89; - xv. 12-33, 93, 94; - xvii. 47, 130. - - Sanballat attacks Jerusalem, 371. - hostile towards Judæa, 369. - intrigues against Nehemiah, 375. - leader of the Samaritans, 362. - marries his daughter to Manasseh, 383, 386, 389. - - Sanctuary and temple, less important after the exile, 379. - at Jerusalem, 120 f. - at Shiloh, 41, 57. - contents of, 24. - re-opened by Hezekiah, 268. - - Sarepta, Elijah at, 203. - - Satan, 403. - - Saul abandoned by God, 93. - at discord with Samuel, 92. - defeated by the Philistines, 103. - defeats the Amalekites, 91 f. - defeats the Ammonites, 88 f. - fights the Philistines, 85. - first king in Israel, 82-105. - kills himself, 104. - meets David, 97. - persecutes David, 99 f. - - Saul's character and position, 83. - election as king confirmed, 90. - jealousy and madness, 98 f. - remains brought to Zelah, 124. - severity, 88 f. - - Schools of the prophets, 205, 234. - and the Sopherim, 396. - - Scopas, routed by the Syrians, 433. - takes Jerusalem, 432. - - Scythians, the, 287. - - Secession of the ten tribes from the house of David, 181 ff. - - Seleucidæ, era of the, 417 ff. - ruling Judæa, 432. - - Seleucus, 417. - II. and Hyrcanus, 438. - - Sennacherib's army destroyed, 277. - war against Egypt, 273. - war against Hezekiah, 270. - - Sennacherib murdered by his sons, 280. - - Septuagint, the, 512 ff. - - Seraiah, the high priest, 314, 365. - - Service, divine. See Worship. - - Settlement of the Judæans in Egypt, 503. - of the tribes in Canaan, 35 ff. - - Seventy, Council of the, 394. - elders of Moses, 25 f. - - Seyag == the fence around the law, 397. - - Shallum, husband of Huldah, 293. - - Shallum, King of Israel, 244. - - Shallum, King of Judah, 298. - - Shalmaneser takes Samaria and Tyre, 263 f. - - Shamgar, 60. - - Shaphan under Josiah, family of, 292. - - Sharon, plain of, 45. - - Shealtiel, King Jehoiachin's son, 342. - - Sheba the Benjamite rebels against David, 148. - killed at Abel, 150. - - Sheba, Queen of, visits Solomon, 173. - - Shebna, Hezekiah's sochen, 268-71. - - Shechariah suggests the people's covenant against proselytes and - intermarriages, 368. - - Shechem, 4, 36. - capital of Jeroboam, 180. - - Shechemites' feud with Abimelech, 63. - - Shefelah == low country, 45. - - Shemaiah, the prophet, prevents a civil war between Judæans and - Benjamites, 184. - - Shiloh (Salem), ark of the covenant at, 41, 57. - at the time of the Judges, 69. - destroyed by the Philistines, 71. - - Shimei executed by Solomon, 160 f. - of Bahurim reviles David, 142. - pretends enthusiasm for the returning king, 147. - - Shir-ha-shirim == song of songs, 431. - - Shishak of Egypt inimical to Israel, 176. - assists Jeroboam against Rehoboam, 184. - - Shobi, Hanun's brother, assists David against Absalom, 144. - becomes king of the Ammonites, 129. - - Shofetim == judges, 59. - - Sidon, 3. - - Sihon slain by the Israelites at Jahaz, 27-29. - - Simeon and Judah assist the other tribes under Samuel, 76. - tribe of, merged in the tribe of Judah, 39. - - Simon I. the Just and his descendants, 420. - improvements of, 421. - 's children, 423. - - Simon II., the high priest, 432. - - Simon, the Benjamite, 437 f. - - Simon, brother of Judas Maccabæus, 459, 461, 475, 489, 498. - and Demetrius II., 521. - at the head of the nation, 500-31. - becomes high priest, 521. - defeats the Syrians, 493. - expels the Hellenists, 523. - killed by his son-in-law, 530. - quarrels with the Syrian king, 528. - - Simon's coinage, 525, 528. - league with the Romans, 525. - sons defeat Cendebæus, 529. - - Sinai, Mount, 20. - - Sirach, Jesus, 439. - - Sisera defeated by Barak and slain by Jael, 61. - - Sochen == superintendent of the palace, 249, 268. - - Solomon, 133-77. - - Solomon, and queen of Sheba, 173-4. - anointed king during David's lifetime, 153. - author of allegorical poems, 158. - causes the murder of Adonijah and Joab, 160. - David's successor, 153. - discontent of tribes against, 174. - king over Israel, 156-78. - Solomon's buildings, 162. - children, 177. - choice of wisdom, 158. - court, 161. - death, 177. - fleet, 170. - greatness, 156. - temple, 162. - weaknesses, 157. - - Song of Deborah, 61. - Moses, 293. - - Song of songs, 430 f. - - Songs of praise, an element in worships, 78, 120. - - Songs of praise by David, 120 f. - - Songs of war, the earliest Hebrew poetry, 29. - - Songs of the prophets, 200, 205, 234, 253. - - Sopheric age, the, 389 ff. - regulations, 395. - - Sopherim and schools, 396. - - Spirit, prophetic, and its meaning, 14. - - Successors of Alexander the Great, 416. - - Supreme Council of the Judæans, 394. - - Symmetry in Hebrew poetry, 29. - - Synagogues, 401. - - Syrians. See Seleucidæ. - - - Tabernacles, Feast of, 380. - - Tabor, Mount, 44. - - Talmide Chachamim, 396. - - Tamar seduced by her half-brother Amnon, 134. - - Tax-collector, Joseph appointed as, 425. - - Tekoa, Amos of, 235. - - Tekoah, wise woman of, 136. - - Temple at Jerusalem planned by David, 150. - built by Solomon, 162 ff. - cleansed and repaired by Josiah, 288, 294. - consecrated (1007 B. C.), 166. - defiled by Antiochus Epiphanes 451, 454. See also Sacrilege. - - Temple rebuilt after the exile, 356-9. - re-consecrated by Judas Maccabæus, 471. - repaired by Joash, 218. - thrown into the background after the exile, 379. - - Temple of Baal in Samaria, 197. - - Temple of Onias in Egypt, 508. - - Temple of the Samaritans on Gerizim, 390. - - Temple-mount fortified by Judas Maccabæus, 473. - - Temple-worship restored, 382. - - Ten tribes, beginning of the kingdom of the, 181. - end of the kingdom of the, 265. - See also Israel. - - Theodotus, a Samaritan poet, 517. - - Throne-chamber of Solomon, 168-9. - - Tibni and Omri, civil war between, 192. - - Tiglath-Pileser of Assyria, 258. - assists Ahaz against Rezin and Pekah, 259. - - Timotheus, leader of the Ammonites, 474. - - Tirhakah, king of Egypt, and Sennacherib, 276. - - Tirzah, capital of the kingdom of the ten tribes, 189. - - Tithes for the Priests and Levites, 382. - - Tobiades, 432, 435. - - Tobiah expelled by Nehemiah, 385. - hostile towards Judæa, 369, 375. - leader of the Ammonites, 362. - returns to Jerusalem, 383. - - Tobias, son-in-law of Simon the Just, 423. - - Torah == Law, which see - - Transjordanic territory allotted to Reuben and Gad, 29. - - Tribal union, 7. - - Tribes, allotment of land to the, 36 ff. - discontented under Solomon, 174. - disintegration of, 37 f. - isolation of the, in Canaan, 36. - the ten, secede from Rehoboam, 181. - united by Samuel, 72. - - Tryphon. See Diodotus. - - Tyre == Zor, 3, 80. - besieged by Nebuchadnezzar, 306. - captured by Shalmaneser, 64. - founded by the Sidonians, 80. - in Jeroboam's II. time, 232. - taken by Alexander the Great, 412. - - Tyrus, residence of Hyrcanus, 437. - - - Union of all the tribes under Samuel, 77. - Israel and Judah under David, 112. - - Uriah, the Hittite, 131. - - Uriah, the prophet, 301. - - Uzziah. See Azariah. - - - Wanderings of the Israelites in the desert, 20. - - War-songs, the earliest Hebrew poetry, 29. - - Wives of Solomon, 161. - - Worldly among the exiles, 339 f., 349. - - Worship among the early Israelites, 5 f. - among the Egyptians, 9. - among the Judæans, 399. - at the temple, restored by Nehemiah, 382. - centre of, at Shiloh, 41, 57. - centre of, later at Jerusalem, 120. - improved under Samuel, 78. - of Baal and Astarte by the Phoenicians, 54 f. - of Dagon by the Philistines, 55. - under David, 151 f. - - - Xerxes, successor of Darius, 361. - - - Zachariah, the high priest, stoned, 220. - - Zachariah, the post-exilic prophet, 359. - - Zadok, high priest in Gibeon, 120. - appointed chief high priest, 152 ff. - sides with David against Absalom, 141. - - Zadok's descendants sole incumbents of the high-priesthood, 160. - deprived by Manasseh of their right and income, 284. - - Zebaoth, Adonai, 130 f. - - Zebulon, settlement of, 37. - - Zechariah, son of Berechia, contemporary of Isaiah, 254, 259. - - Zechariah, son of Jeroboam II., King of Israel, 343. - - Zedekiah-Mattaniah, King of Judah, 308. - - Zedekiah-Mattaniah, captured by Chaldæan soldiers, 314. - deprived of his eyesight and led to Babylon, 315. - rebels against Nebuchadnezzar, 310. - - Zekenim == elders, 7. - - Zephaniah the prophet, 286. - - Zerubbabel, grandson of Jehoiachim, returns to Jerusalem, 351. - governor of the province of Judæa, 352. - resigns the leadership in favor of Joshua, 360. - - Ziklag assigned to David by Achish, 101. - burned by the Amalekites, 106. - - Zimri of Israel, 192. - - Zion, Mount, 45. - captured by David, 114 f. - Jebus (Jerusalem) situated on, 113 f. - mourners of, in the exile, 337. - - Zipporah, wife of Moses, 14. - - Zoar and its vicinity, 43. - - Zor == Tyre, 3, 80. - - - - -Transcriber's Notes: - - -Punctuation and spelling were made consistent when a predominant -preference was found in this book; otherwise they were not changed. - -Simple typographical errors were corrected. - -Ambiguous hyphens at the ends of lines were retained. - -Inconsistent use of small-caps and Proper caps in names unchanged. - -Text uses both 'tables' and 'tablets'. - -Text uses both 'Bethzur' and 'Bethsur'. - -Text uses both 'Kedeshôth' and 'Kedeshoth'. - -Main text uses 'mashal' but Index uses 'maschal'. Index has been -changed to match the main text. - -The Index was not checked for correct page references. - -Not all reading devices will display the Hebrew words in this text. - -Page 536: Index uses 'Beth-horon' but it is not hyphenated in the main -text. - -Page 543: Entry for 'Joshua, book of' refers to page 35. The reference -is to footnote 6, which has been moved to the end of this eText. - - - - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of History of the Jews, Vol. I (of 6), by -Heinrich Graetz - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HISTORY OF THE JEWS, VOL. 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