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You may copy it, give it away or re-use + it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License <a href= + "#pglicense" class="tei tei-ref">included with this eBook</a> or + online at <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/license" class= + "tei tei-xref">http://www.gutenberg.org/license</a></p> + </div> + <pre class="pre tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> +Title: The Golden Bough: A Study in Magic and Religion (Third Edition, Vol. + 10 of 12) + +Author: James George Frazer + +Release Date: June 27, 2013 [Ebook #43049] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: UTF-8 + + +***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE GOLDEN BOUGH: A STUDY IN MAGIC AND RELIGION (THIRD EDITION, VOL. 10 OF 12)*** +</pre> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"></div> + <hr class="page" /> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style= + "text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.73em"><span style= + "font-size: 173%">The Golden Bough</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style= + "text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.44em"><span style= + "font-size: 144%">A Study in Magic and Religion</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style= + "text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em">By</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style= + "text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.44em"><span style= + "font-size: 144%">James George Frazer, D.C.L., LL.D., + Litt.D.</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style= + "text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em">Fellow of Trinity + College, Cambridge</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style= + "text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em">Professor of Social + Anthropology in the University of Liverpool</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style= + "text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.20em"><span style= + "font-size: 120%">Vol. X. of XII.</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style= + "text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.20em"><span style= + "font-size: 120%">Part VII: Balder the Beautiful.</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style= + "text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.20em"><span style= + "font-size: 120%">The Fire-Festivals of Europe and the Doctrine of + the External Soul.</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style= + "text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.20em"><span style= + "font-size: 120%">Vol. 1 of 2.</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style= + "text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em">New York and London</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style= + "text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em">MacMillan and Co.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style= + "text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em">1919</p> + </div> + <hr class="page" /> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> + <h1 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"> + <span style="font-size: 173%">Contents</span></h1> + + <ul class="tei tei-index tei-index-toc"> + <li><a href="#toc1">Preface.</a></li> + + <li><a href="#toc3">Chapter I. Between Heaven And Earth.</a></li> + + <li style="margin-left: 2em"><a href="#toc5">§ 1. Not to touch the + Earth.</a></li> + + <li style="margin-left: 2em"><a href="#toc7">§ 2. Not to see the + Sun.</a></li> + + <li><a href="#toc9">Chapter II. The Seclusion of Girls at + Puberty.</a></li> + + <li style="margin-left: 2em"><a href="#toc11">§ 1. Seclusion of + Girls at Puberty in Africa.</a></li> + + <li style="margin-left: 2em"><a href="#toc13">§ 2. Seclusion of + Girls at Puberty in New Ireland, New Guinea, and + Indonesia.</a></li> + + <li style="margin-left: 2em"><a href="#toc15">§ 3. Seclusion of + Girls at Puberty in the Torres Straits Islands and Northern + Australia.</a></li> + + <li style="margin-left: 2em"><a href="#toc17">§ 4. Seclusion of + Girls at Puberty among the Indians of North America.</a></li> + + <li style="margin-left: 2em"><a href="#toc19">§ 5. Seclusion of + Girls at Puberty among the Indians of South America.</a></li> + + <li style="margin-left: 2em"><a href="#toc21">§ 6. Seclusion of + Girls at Puberty in India and Cambodia.</a></li> + + <li style="margin-left: 2em"><a href="#toc23">§ 7. Seclusion of + Girls at Puberty in Folk-tales.</a></li> + + <li style="margin-left: 2em"><a href="#toc25">§ 8. Reasons for the + Seclusion of Girls at Puberty.</a></li> + + <li><a href="#toc27">Chapter III. The Myth of Balder.</a></li> + + <li><a href="#toc29">Chapter IV. The Fire-Festivals of + Europe.</a></li> + + <li style="margin-left: 2em"><a href="#toc31">§ 1. The Lenten + Fires.</a></li> + + <li style="margin-left: 2em"><a href="#toc33">§ 2. The Easter + Fires.</a></li> + + <li style="margin-left: 2em"><a href="#toc35">§ 3. The Beltane + Fires.</a></li> + + <li style="margin-left: 2em"><a href="#toc37">§ 4. The Midsummer + Fires.</a></li> + + <li style="margin-left: 2em"><a href="#toc39">§ 5. The Autumn + Fires.</a></li> + + <li style="margin-left: 2em"><a href="#toc41">§ 6. The Hallowe'en + Fires.</a></li> + + <li style="margin-left: 2em"><a href="#toc43">§ 7. The Midwinter + Fires.</a></li> + + <li style="margin-left: 2em"><a href="#toc45">§ 8. The + Need-fire.</a></li> + + <li style="margin-left: 2em"><a href="#toc47">§ 9. The Sacrifice of + an Animal to stay a Cattle-Plague.</a></li> + + <li><a href="#toc49">Chapter V. The Interpretation of the + Fire-Festivals.</a></li> + + <li style="margin-left: 2em"><a href="#toc51">§ 1. On the + Fire-festivals in general.</a></li> + + <li style="margin-left: 2em"><a href="#toc53">§ 2. The Solar Theory + of the Fire-festivals.</a></li> + + <li style="margin-left: 2em"><a href="#toc55">§ 3. The Purificatory + Theory of the Fire-festivals.</a></li> + + <li><a href="#toc57">Footnotes</a></li> + </ul> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-body" style= + "margin-bottom: 6.00em; margin-top: 6.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style= + "text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-figure" style="width: 40%; text-align: center"> + <img src="images/cover.jpg" alt="Cover Art" /></div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">[Transcriber's + Note: The above cover image was produced by the submitter at + Distributed Proofreaders, and is being placed into the public + domain.]</p> + </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="pagev">[pg v]</span><a name="Pgv" + id="Pgv" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + <hr class="page" /> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> + <a name="toc1" id="toc1"></a> <a name="pdf2" id="pdf2"></a> + + <h1 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"> + <span style="font-size: 173%">Preface.</span></h1> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In this concluding + part of <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The + Golden Bough</span></span> I have discussed the problem which gives + its title to the whole work. If I am right, the Golden Bough over + which the King of the Wood, Diana's priest at Aricia, kept watch and + ward was no other than a branch of mistletoe growing on an oak within + the sacred grove; and as the plucking of the bough was a necessary + prelude to the slaughter of the priest, I have been led to institute + a parallel between the King of the Wood at Nemi and the Norse god + Balder, who was worshipped in a sacred grove beside the beautiful + Sogne fiord of Norway and was said to have perished by a stroke of + mistletoe, which alone of all things on earth or in heaven could + wound him. On the theory here suggested both Balder and the King of + the Wood personified in a sense the sacred oak of our Aryan + forefathers, and both had deposited their lives or souls for safety + in the parasite which sometimes, though rarely, is found growing on + an oak and by the very rarity of its appearance excites the wonder + and stimulates the devotion of ignorant men. Though I am now less + than ever disposed to lay weight on the analogy between the Italian + priest and the Norse god, I have allowed it to stand because it + furnishes me with a pretext for discussing not only the general + question of the external soul in popular superstition, but also the + fire-festivals of Europe, since fire played a part both in the myth + of Balder and in the ritual of the Arician grove. Thus Balder the + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="pagevi">[pg vi]</span><a name="Pgvi" id= + "Pgvi" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> Beautiful in my hands is little + more than a stalking-horse to carry two heavy pack-loads of facts. + And what is true of Balder applies equally to the priest of Nemi + himself, the nominal hero of the long tragedy of human folly and + suffering which has unrolled itself before the readers of these + volumes, and on which the curtain is now about to fall. He, too, for + all the quaint garb he wears and the gravity with which he stalks + across the stage, is merely a puppet, and it is time to unmask him + before laying him up in the box.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">To drop metaphor, + while nominally investigating a particular problem of ancient + mythology, I have really been discussing questions of more general + interest which concern the gradual evolution of human thought from + savagery to civilization. The enquiry is beset with difficulties of + many kinds, for the record of man's mental development is even more + imperfect than the record of his physical development, and it is + harder to read, not only by reason of the incomparably more subtle + and complex nature of the subject, but because the reader's eyes are + apt to be dimmed by thick mists of passion and prejudice, which cloud + in a far less degree the fields of comparative anatomy and geology. + My contribution to the history of the human mind consists of little + more than a rough and purely provisional classification of facts + gathered almost entirely from printed sources. If there is one + general conclusion which seems to emerge from the mass of + particulars, I venture to think that it is the essential similarity + in the working of the less developed human mind among all races, + which corresponds to the essential similarity in their bodily frame + revealed by comparative anatomy. But while this general mental + similarity may, I believe, be taken as established, we must always be + on our guard against tracing to it a multitude of particular + resemblances which may be and often are due to simple diffusion, + since nothing is more certain than <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "pagevii">[pg vii]</span><a name="Pgvii" id="Pgvii" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> that the various races of men have borrowed + from each other many of their arts and crafts, their ideas, customs, + and institutions. To sift out the elements of culture which a race + has independently evolved and to distinguish them accurately from + those which it has derived from other races is a task of extreme + difficulty and delicacy, which promises to occupy students of man for + a long time to come; indeed so complex are the facts and so imperfect + in most cases is the historical record that it may be doubted whether + in regard to many of the lower races we shall ever arrive at more + than probable conjectures.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Since the last + edition of <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">The Golden Bough</span></span> was published + some thirteen years ago, I have seen reason to change my views on + several matters discussed in this concluding part of the work, and + though I have called attention to these changes in the text, it may + be well for the sake of clearness to recapitulate them here.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In the first + place, the arguments of Dr. Edward Westermarck have satisfied me that + the solar theory of the European fire-festivals, which I accepted + from W. Mannhardt, is very slightly, if at all, supported by the + evidence and is probably erroneous. The true explanation of the + festivals I now believe to be the one advocated by Dr. Westermarck + himself, namely that they are purificatory in intention, the fire + being designed not, as I formerly held, to reinforce the sun's light + and heat by sympathetic magic, but merely to burn or repel the + noxious things, whether conceived as material or spiritual, which + threaten the life of man, of animals, and of plants. This aspect of + the fire-festivals had not wholly escaped me in former editions; I + pointed it out explicitly, but, biassed perhaps by the great + authority of Mannhardt, I treated it as secondary and subordinate + instead of primary and dominant. Out of deference to Mannhardt, for + whose work I entertain the highest respect, and because the evidence + for the purificatory theory of the fires is perhaps <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="pageviii">[pg viii]</span><a name="Pgviii" id= + "Pgviii" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> not quite conclusive, I have in + this edition repeated and even reinforced the arguments for the solar + theory of the festivals, so that the reader may see for himself what + can be said on both sides of the question and may draw his own + conclusion; but for my part I cannot but think that the arguments for + the purificatory theory far outweigh the arguments for the solar + theory. Dr. Westermarck based his criticisms largely on his own + observations of the Mohammedan fire-festivals of Morocco, which + present a remarkable resemblance to those of Christian Europe, though + there seems no reason to assume that herein Africa has borrowed from + Europe or Europe from Africa. So far as Europe is concerned, the + evidence tends strongly to shew that the grand evil which the + festivals aimed at combating was witchcraft, and that they were + conceived to attain their end by actually burning the witches, + whether visible or invisible, in the flames. If that was so, the wide + prevalence and the immense popularity of the fire-festivals provides + us with a measure for estimating the extent of the hold which the + belief in witchcraft had on the European mind before the rise of + Christianity or rather of rationalism; for Christianity, both + Catholic and Protestant, accepted the old belief and enforced it in + the old way by the faggot and the stake. It was not until human + reason at last awoke after the long slumber of the Middle Ages that + this dreadful obsession gradually passed away like a dark cloud from + the intellectual horizon of Europe.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Yet we should + deceive ourselves if we imagined that the belief in witchcraft is + even now dead in the mass of the people; on the contrary there is + ample evidence to shew that it only hibernates under the chilling + influence of rationalism, and that it would start into active life if + that influence were ever seriously relaxed. The truth seems to be + that to this day the peasant remains a pagan and savage at heart; his + civilization is merely a thin veneer which the <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="pageix">[pg ix]</span><a name="Pgix" id="Pgix" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> hard knocks of life soon abrade, exposing + the solid core of paganism and savagery below. The danger created by + a bottomless layer of ignorance and superstition under the crust of + civilized society is lessened, not only by the natural torpidity and + inertia of the bucolic mind, but also by the progressive decrease of + the rural as compared with the urban population in modern states; for + I believe it will be found that the artisans who congregate in towns + are far less retentive of primitive modes of thought than their + rustic brethren. In every age cities have been the centres and as it + were the lighthouses from which ideas radiate into the surrounding + darkness, kindled by the friction of mind with mind in the crowded + haunts of men; and it is natural that at these beacons of + intellectual light all should partake in some measure of the general + illumination. No doubt the mental ferment and unrest of great cities + have their dark as well as their bright side; but among the evils to + be apprehended from them the chances of a pagan revival need hardly + be reckoned.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Another point on + which I have changed my mind is the nature of the great Aryan god + whom the Romans called Jupiter and the Greeks Zeus. Whereas I + formerly argued that he was primarily a personification of the sacred + oak and only in the second place a personification of the thundering + sky, I now invert the order of his divine functions and believe that + he was a sky-god before he came to be associated with the oak. In + fact, I revert to the traditional view of Jupiter, recant my heresy, + and am gathered like a lost sheep into the fold of mythological + orthodoxy. The good shepherd who has brought me back is my friend Mr. + W. Warde Fowler. He has removed the stone over which I stumbled in + the wilderness by explaining in a simple and natural way how a god of + the thundering sky might easily come to be afterwards associated with + the oak. The explanation turns on the great frequency with which, as + statistics prove, the oak <span class="tei tei-pb" id="pagex">[pg + x]</span><a name="Pgx" id="Pgx" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> is struck + by lightning beyond any other tree of the wood in Europe. To our rude + forefathers, who dwelt in the gloomy depths of the primaeval forest, + it might well seem that the riven and blackened oaks must indeed be + favourites of the sky-god, who so often descended on them from the + murky cloud in a flash of lightning and a crash of thunder.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This change of + view as to the great Aryan god necessarily affects my interpretation + of the King of the Wood, the priest of Diana at Aricia, if I may take + that discarded puppet out of the box again for a moment. On my theory + the priest represented Jupiter in the flesh, and accordingly, if + Jupiter was primarily a sky-god, his priest cannot have been a mere + incarnation of the sacred oak, but must, like the deity whose + commission he bore, have been invested in the imagination of his + worshippers with the power of overcasting the heaven with clouds and + eliciting storms of thunder and rain from the celestial vault. The + attribution of weather-making powers to kings or priests is very + common in primitive society, and is indeed one of the principal + levers by which such personages raise themselves to a position of + superiority above their fellows. There is therefore no improbability + in the supposition that as a representative of Jupiter the priest of + Diana enjoyed this reputation, though positive evidence of it appears + to be lacking.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Lastly, in the + present edition I have shewn some grounds for thinking that the + Golden Bough itself, or in common parlance the mistletoe on the oak, + was supposed to have dropped from the sky upon the tree in a flash of + lightning and therefore to contain within itself the seed of + celestial fire, a sort of smouldering thunderbolt. This view of the + priest and of the bough which he guarded at the peril of his life has + the advantage of accounting for the importance which the sanctuary at + Nemi acquired and the treasure which it amassed through the offerings + of the faithful; for the shrine would seem to have been to ancient + what Loreto <span class="tei tei-pb" id="pagexi">[pg + xi]</span><a name="Pgxi" id="Pgxi" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> has + been to modern Italy, a place of pilgrimage, where princes and nobles + as well as commoners poured wealth into the coffers of Diana in her + green recess among the Alban hills, just as in modern times kings and + queens vied with each other in enriching the black Virgin who from + her Holy House on the hillside at Loreto looks out on the blue + Adriatic and the purple Apennines. Such pious prodigality becomes + more intelligible if the greatest of the gods was indeed believed to + dwell in human shape with his wife among the woods of Nemi.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">These are the + principal points on which I have altered my opinion since the last + edition of my book was published. The mere admission of such changes + may suffice to indicate the doubt and uncertainty which attend + enquiries of this nature. The whole fabric of ancient mythology is so + foreign to our modern ways of thought, and the evidence concerning it + is for the most part so fragmentary, obscure, and conflicting that in + our attempts to piece together and interpret it we can hardly hope to + reach conclusions that will completely satisfy either ourselves or + others. In this as in other branches of study it is the fate of + theories to be washed away like children's castles of sand by the + rising tide of knowledge, and I am not so presumptuous as to expect + or desire for mine an exemption from the common lot. I hold them all + very lightly and have used them chiefly as convenient pegs on which + to hang my collections of facts. For I believe that, while theories + are transitory, a record of facts has a permanent value, and that as + a chronicle of ancient customs and beliefs my book may retain its + utility when my theories are as obsolete as the customs and beliefs + themselves deserve to be.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">I cannot dismiss + without some natural regret a task which has occupied and amused me + at intervals for many years. But the regret is tempered by + thankfulness and hope. I am thankful that I have been able to + conclude <span class="tei tei-pb" id="pagexii">[pg + xii]</span><a name="Pgxii" id="Pgxii" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> at + least one chapter of the work I projected a long time ago. I am + hopeful that I may not now be taking a final leave of my indulgent + readers, but that, as I am sensible of little abatement in my bodily + strength and of none in my ardour for study, they will bear with me + yet a while if I should attempt to entertain them with fresh subjects + of laughter and tears drawn from the comedy and the tragedy of man's + endless quest after happiness and truth.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">J. G. FRAZER.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">Cambridge</span></span>, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">17th October + 1913</span></span>.</p> + </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page001">[pg 001]</span><a name= + "Pg001" id="Pg001" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + <hr class="page" /> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> + <a name="toc3" id="toc3"></a> <a name="pdf4" id="pdf4"></a> + + <h1 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"> + <span style="font-size: 173%">Chapter I. Between Heaven And + Earth.</span></h1> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em"> + <a name="toc5" id="toc5"></a> <a name="pdf6" id="pdf6"></a> + + <h2 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em"> + <span style="font-size: 144%">§ 1. Not to touch the + Earth.</span></h2> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The priest of Aricia and the + Golden Bough.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">We have + travelled far since we turned our backs on Nemi and set forth in + quest of the secret of the Golden Bough. With the present volume we + enter on the last stage of our long journey. The reader who has had + the patience to follow the enquiry thus far may remember that at + the outset two questions were proposed for answer: Why had the + priest of Aricia to slay his predecessor? And why, before doing so, + had he to pluck the Golden Bough?<a id="noteref_1" name="noteref_1" + href="#note_1"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">1</span></span></a> Of + these two questions the first has now been answered. The priest of + Aricia, if I am right, was one of those sacred kings or human + divinities on whose life the welfare of the community and even the + course of nature in general are believed to be intimately + dependent. It does not appear that the subjects or worshippers of + such a spiritual potentate form to themselves any very clear notion + of the exact relationship in which they stand to him; probably + their ideas on the point are vague and fluctuating, and we should + err if we attempted to define the relationship with logical + precision. All that the people know, or rather imagine, is that + somehow they themselves, their cattle, and their crops are + mysteriously bound up with their divine king, so that according as + he is well or ill the community is healthy or sickly, the flocks + and herds thrive or languish with disease, and the fields yield an + abundant or a scanty harvest. The worst evil which they can + conceive of is the natural death of their ruler, whether he succumb + to <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page002">[pg 002]</span><a name= + "Pg002" id="Pg002" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> sickness or old age, + for in the opinion of his followers such a death would entail the + most disastrous consequences on themselves and their possessions; + fatal epidemics would sweep away man and beast, the earth would + refuse her increase, nay the very frame of nature itself might be + dissolved. To guard against these catastrophes it is necessary to + put the king to death while he is still in the full bloom of his + divine manhood, in order that his sacred life, transmitted in + unabated force to his successor, may renew its youth, and thus by + successive transmissions through a perpetual line of vigorous + incarnations may remain eternally fresh and young, a pledge and + security that men and animals shall in like manner renew their + youth by a perpetual succession of generations, and that seedtime + and harvest, and summer and winter, and rain and sunshine shall + never fail. That, if my conjecture is right, was why the priest of + Aricia, the King of the Wood at Nemi, had regularly to perish by + the sword of his successor.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">What was the Golden Bough?</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But we have + still to ask, What was the Golden Bough? and why had each candidate + for the Arician priesthood to pluck it before he could slay the + priest? These questions I will now try to answer.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Sacred kings and priests forbidden + to touch the ground with their feet.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It will be well + to begin by noticing two of those rules or taboos by which, as we + have seen, the life of divine kings or priests is regulated. The + first of the rules to which I desire to call the reader's attention + is that the divine personage may not touch the ground with his + foot. This rule was observed by the supreme pontiff of the Zapotecs + in Mexico; he profaned his sanctity if he so much as touched the + ground with his foot.<a id="noteref_2" name="noteref_2" href= + "#note_2"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">2</span></span></a> + Montezuma, emperor of Mexico, never set foot on the ground; he was + always carried on the shoulders of noblemen, and if he lighted + anywhere they laid rich tapestry for him to walk upon.<a id= + "noteref_3" name="noteref_3" href="#note_3"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">3</span></span></a> For the + Mikado of Japan to touch the ground with his foot was a shameful + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page003">[pg 003]</span><a name= + "Pg003" id="Pg003" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> degradation; indeed, + in the sixteenth century, it was enough to deprive him of his + office. Outside his palace he was carried on men's shoulders; + within it he walked on exquisitely wrought mats.<a id="noteref_4" + name="noteref_4" href="#note_4"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">4</span></span></a> The + king and queen of Tahiti might not touch the ground anywhere but + within their hereditary domains; for the ground on which they trod + became sacred. In travelling from place to place they were carried + on the shoulders of sacred men. They were always accompanied by + several pairs of these sanctified attendants; and when it became + necessary to change their bearers, the king and queen vaulted on to + the shoulders of their new bearers without letting their feet touch + the ground.<a id="noteref_5" name="noteref_5" href= + "#note_5"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">5</span></span></a> It was + an evil omen if the king of Dosuma touched the ground, and he had + to perform an expiatory ceremony.<a id="noteref_6" name="noteref_6" + href="#note_6"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">6</span></span></a> Within + his palace the king of Persia walked on carpets on which no one + else might tread; outside of it he was never seen on foot but only + in a chariot or on horseback.<a id="noteref_7" name="noteref_7" + href="#note_7"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">7</span></span></a> In old + days the king of Siam never set foot upon the earth, but was + carried on a throne of gold from place to place.<a id="noteref_8" + name="noteref_8" href="#note_8"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">8</span></span></a> + Formerly neither the kings of Uganda, nor their mothers, nor their + queens might walk on foot outside of the spacious enclosures in + which they lived. Whenever they went forth they were carried on the + shoulders of men of the Buffalo clan, several of whom accompanied + any of these royal personages on a journey and took it in turn to + bear the burden. The king sat astride the bearer's neck with a leg + over each shoulder and his feet tucked under the bearer's arms. + When one of these royal carriers grew tired he shot the king on to + the shoulders of a second man without allowing the royal feet to + touch the ground. In this way they went at a great pace and + travelled long distances in a day, when the king was on a journey. + The bearers had a special hut in the <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page004">[pg 004]</span><a name="Pg004" id="Pg004" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> king's enclosure in order to be at hand the + moment they were wanted.<a id="noteref_9" name="noteref_9" href= + "#note_9"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">9</span></span></a> Among + the Bakuba or rather Bushongo, a nation in the southern region of + the Congo, down to a few years ago persons of the royal blood were + forbidden to touch the ground; they must sit on a hide, a chair, or + the back of a slave, who crouched on hands and feet; their feet + rested on the feet of others. When they travelled they were carried + on the backs of men; but the king journeyed in a litter supported + on shafts.<a id="noteref_10" name="noteref_10" href= + "#note_10"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">10</span></span></a> Among + the Ibo people about Awka, in Southern Nigeria, the priest of the + Earth has to observe many taboos; for example, he may not see a + corpse, and if he meets one on the road he must hide his eyes with + his wristlet. He must abstain from many foods, such as eggs, birds + of all sorts, mutton, dog, bush-buck, and so forth. He may neither + wear nor touch a mask, and no masked man may enter his house. If a + dog enters his house, it is killed and thrown out. As priest of the + Earth he may not sit on the bare ground, nor eat things that have + fallen on the ground, nor may earth be thrown at him.<a id= + "noteref_11" name="noteref_11" href="#note_11"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">11</span></span></a> + According to ancient Brahmanic ritual a king at his inauguration + trod on a tiger's skin and a golden plate; he was shod with shoes + of boar's skin, and so long as he lived thereafter he might not + stand on the earth with his bare feet.<a id="noteref_12" name= + "noteref_12" href="#note_12"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">12</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Certain persons on certain + occasions forbidden to touch the ground with their feet.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But besides + persons who are permanently sacred or tabooed and are therefore + permanently forbidden to touch the ground with their feet, there + are others who enjoy the character of sanctity or taboo only on + certain occasions, and to whom accordingly the prohibition in + question only applies at the definite seasons during which they + exhale the odour of sanctity. Thus among the Kayans or Bahaus of + Central <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page005">[pg + 005]</span><a name="Pg005" id="Pg005" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + Borneo, while the priestesses are engaged in the performance of + certain rites they may not step on the ground, and boards are laid + for them to tread on.<a id="noteref_13" name="noteref_13" href= + "#note_13"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">13</span></span></a> At a + funeral ceremony observed by night among the Michemis, a Tibetan + tribe near the northern frontier of Assam, a priest fantastically + bedecked with tiger's teeth, many-coloured plumes, bells, and + shells, executed a wild dance for the purpose of exorcising the + evil spirits; then all fires were extinguished and a new light was + struck by a man suspended by his feet from a beam in the ceiling; + <span class="tei tei-q">“he did not touch the ground,”</span> we + are told, <span class="tei tei-q">“in order to indicate that the + light came from heaven.”</span><a id="noteref_14" name="noteref_14" + href="#note_14"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">14</span></span></a> Again, + newly born infants are strongly tabooed; accordingly in Loango they + are not allowed to touch the earth.<a id="noteref_15" name= + "noteref_15" href="#note_15"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">15</span></span></a> Among + the Iluvans of Malabar the bridegroom on his wedding-day is bathed + by seven young men and then carried or walks on planks from the + bathing-place to the marriage booth; he may not touch the ground + with his feet.<a id="noteref_16" name="noteref_16" href= + "#note_16"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">16</span></span></a> With + the Dyaks of Landak and Tajan, two districts of Dutch Borneo, it is + a custom that for a certain time after marriage neither bride nor + bridegroom may tread on the earth.<a id="noteref_17" name= + "noteref_17" href="#note_17"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">17</span></span></a> + Warriors, again, on the war-path are surrounded, so to say, by an + atmosphere of taboo; hence some Indians of North America might not + sit on the bare ground the whole time they were out on a warlike + expedition.<a id="noteref_18" name="noteref_18" href= + "#note_18"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">18</span></span></a> In + Laos the hunting of elephants gives rise to many taboos; one of + them is that the chief hunter may not touch the earth with his + foot. Accordingly, when he alights from his elephant, the others + spread a carpet of leaves for him to step upon.<a id="noteref_19" + name="noteref_19" href="#note_19"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">19</span></span></a> German + wiseacres recommended that when witches were led to the block or + the stake, they should not be allowed to touch the bare + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page006">[pg 006]</span><a name= + "Pg006" id="Pg006" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> earth, and a reason + suggested for the rule was that if they touched the earth they + might make themselves invisible and so escape. The sagacious author + of <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The + Striped-petticoat Philosophy</span></span> in the eighteenth + century ridicules the idea as mere silly talk. He admits, indeed, + that the women were conveyed to the place of execution in carts; + but he denies that there is any deep significance in the cart, and + he is prepared to maintain this view by a chemical analysis of the + timber of which the cart was built. To clinch his argument he + appeals to plain matter of fact and his own personal experience. + Not a single instance, he assures us with apparent satisfaction, + can be produced of a witch who escaped the axe or the fire in this + fashion. <span class="tei tei-q">“I have myself,”</span> says he, + <span class="tei tei-q">“in my youth seen divers witches burned, + some at Arnstadt, some at Ilmenau, some at Schwenda, a noble + village between Arnstadt and Ilmenau, and some of them were + pardoned and beheaded before being burned. They were laid on the + earth in the place of execution and beheaded like any other poor + sinner; whereas if they could have escaped by touching the earth, + not one of them would have failed to do so.”</span><a id= + "noteref_20" name="noteref_20" href="#note_20"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">20</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Sacred or tabooed persons + apparently thought to be charged with a mysterious virtue like + a fluid, which will run to waste or explode if it touches the + ground.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Apparently + holiness, magical virtue, taboo, or whatever we may call that + mysterious quality which is supposed to pervade sacred or tabooed + persons, is conceived by the primitive philosopher as a physical + substance or fluid, with which the sacred man is charged just as a + Leyden jar is charged with electricity; and exactly as the + electricity in the jar can be discharged by contact with a good + conductor, so the holiness or magical virtue in the man can be + discharged and drained away by contact with the earth, which on + this theory serves as an excellent conductor for the magical fluid. + Hence in order to preserve the charge from running to waste, the + sacred or tabooed personage must be carefully prevented from + touching the ground; in electrical language he must be insulated, + if he is not to be emptied of the precious substance or fluid with + which he, as a vial, is filled to the brim. And in many cases + apparently the insulation of the tabooed person is recommended as a + precaution not merely for his own sake but for the sake of others; + for <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page007">[pg 007]</span><a name= + "Pg007" id="Pg007" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> since the virtue of + holiness or taboo is, so to say, a powerful explosive which the + smallest touch may detonate, it is necessary in the interest of the + general safety to keep it within narrow bounds, lest breaking out + it should blast, blight, and destroy whatever it comes into contact + with.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Things as well as persons can be + charged with the mysterious quality of holiness or taboo; and + when so charged they must be kept from contact with the + ground.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But things as + well as persons are often charged with the mysterious quality of + holiness or taboo; hence it frequently becomes necessary for + similar reasons to guard them also from coming into contact with + the ground, lest they should in like manner be drained of their + valuable properties and be reduced to mere commonplace material + objects, empty husks from which the good grain has been eliminated. + Thus, for example, the most sacred object of the Arunta tribe in + Central Australia is, or rather used to be, a pole about twenty + feet high, which is completely smeared with human blood, crowned + with an imitation of a human head, and set up on the ground where + the final initiatory ceremonies of young men are performed. A young + gum-tree is chosen to form the pole, and it must be cut down and + transported in such a way that it does not touch the earth till it + is erected in its place on the holy ground. Apparently the pole + represents some famous ancestor of the olden time.<a id= + "noteref_21" name="noteref_21" href="#note_21"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">21</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Festival of the wild mango tree in + British New Guinea.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Again, at a + great dancing festival celebrated by the natives of Bartle Bay, in + British New Guinea, a wild mango tree plays a prominent part. The + tree must be self-sown, that is, really wild and so young that it + has never flowered. It is chosen in the jungle some five or six + weeks before the festival, and a circle is cleared round its trunk. + From that time the master of the ceremonies and some eight to + twenty other men, who have aided him in choosing the tree and in + clearing the jungle, become strictly holy or tabooed. They sleep by + themselves in a house into which no one else may intrude: they may + not wash or drink water, nor even allow it accidentally to touch + their bodies: they are forbidden to eat boiled food and the fruit + of mango trees: they may drink only the milk of a young coco-nut + which has been baked, and they may eat certain fruits and + vegetables, such as paw-paws <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page008">[pg 008]</span><a name="Pg008" id="Pg008" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> (<span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" + xml:lang="la"><span style="font-style: italic">Carica + papaya</span></span>) and sugar-cane, but only on condition that + they have been baked. All refuse of their food is kept in baskets + in their sleeping-house and may not be removed from it till the + festival is over. At the time when the men begin to observe these + rules of abstinence, some six to ten women, members of the same + clan as the master of the ceremonies, enter on a like period of + mortification, avoiding the company of the other sex, and + refraining from water, all boiled food, and the fruit of the mango + tree. These fasting men and women are the principal dancers at the + festival. The dancing takes place on a special platform in a + temporary village which has been erected for the purpose. When the + platform is about to be set up, the fasting men rub the stepping + posts and then suck their hands for the purpose of extracting the + ghost of any dead man that might chance to be in the post and might + be injured by the weight of the platform pressing down on him. + Having carefully extracted these poor souls, the men carry them + away tenderly and set them free in the forest or the long + grass.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The wild mango tree not allowed to + touch the ground.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">On the day + before the festival one of the fasting men cuts down the chosen + mango tree in the jungle with a stone adze, which is never + afterwards put to any other use; an iron tool may not be used for + the purpose, though iron tools are now common enough in the + district. In cutting down the mango they place nets on the ground + to catch any leaves or twigs that might fall from the tree as it is + being felled, and they surround the trunk with new mats to receive + the chips which fly out under the adze of the woodman; for the + chips may not drop on the earth. Once the tree is down, it is + carried to the centre of the temporary village, the greatest care + being taken to prevent it from coming into contact with the ground. + But when it is brought into the village, the houses are connected + with the top of the mango by means of long vines decorated with + streamers. In the afternoon the fasting men and women begin to + dance, the men bedizened with gay feathers, armlets, streamers, and + anklets, the women flaunting in parti-coloured petticoats and + sprigs of croton leaves, which wave from their waistbands as they + dance. The dancing stops at sundown, and when the full moon rises + over the shoulder of the <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page009">[pg + 009]</span><a name="Pg009" id="Pg009" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + eastern hill (for the date of the festival seems to be determined + with reference to the time of the moon), two chiefs mount the + gables of two houses on the eastern side of the square, and, their + dusky figures standing sharply out against the moonlight, pray to + the evil spirits to go away and not to hurt the people. Next + morning pigs are killed by being speared as slowly as possible in + order that they may squeal loud and long; for the people believe + that the mango trees hear the squealing, and are pleased at the + sound, and bear plenty of fruit, whereas if they heard no squeals + they would bear no fruit. However, the trees have to content + themselves with the squeals; the flesh of the pigs is eaten by the + people. This ends the festival.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Final disposition of the wild + mango tree.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Next day the + mango is taken down from the platform, wrapt in new mats, and + carried by the fasting men to their sleeping house, where it is + hung from the roof. But after an interval, it may be of many + months, the tree is brought forth again. As to the reason for its + reappearance in public opinions are divided; but some say that the + tree itself orders the master of the ceremonies to bring it forth, + appearing to him in his dreams and saying, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Let me smell the smoking fat of pigs. So will your + pigs be healthy and your crops will grow.”</span> Be that as it + may, out it comes, conducted by the fasting men in their dancing + costume; and with it come in the solemn procession all the pots, + spoons, cups and so forth used by the fasting men during their + period of holiness or taboo, also all the refuse of their food + which has been collected for months, and all the fallen leaves and + chips of the mango in their bundles of mats. These holy relics are + carried in front and the mango tree itself brings up the rear of + the procession. While these sacred objects are being handed out of + the house, the men who are present rush up, wipe off the hallowed + dust which has accumulated on them, and smear it over their own + bodies, no doubt in order to steep themselves in their blessed + influence. Thus the tree is carried as before to the centre of the + temporary village, care being again taken not to let it touch the + ground. Then one of the fasting men takes from a basket a number of + young green mangoes, cuts them in pieces, and places them with his + own hands in the mouths of his fellows, the other <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page010">[pg 010]</span><a name="Pg010" id="Pg010" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> fasting men, who chew the pieces small + and turning round spit the morsels in the direction of the setting + sun, in order that <span class="tei tei-q">“the sun should carry + the mango bits over the whole country and everyone should + know.”</span> A portion of the mango tree is then broken off and in + the evening it is burnt along with the bundles of leaves, chips, + and refuse of food, which have been stored up. What remains of the + tree is taken to the house of the master of the ceremonies and hung + over the fire-place; it will be brought out again at intervals and + burned bit by bit, till all is consumed, whereupon a new mango will + be cut down and treated in like manner. The ashes of the holy fire + on each occasion are gathered by the people and preserved in the + house of the master of the ceremonies.<a id="noteref_22" name= + "noteref_22" href="#note_22"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">22</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The ceremony apparently intended + to fertilize the mango trees.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The meaning of + these ceremonies is not explained by the authorities who describe + them; but we may conjecture that they are intended to fertilize the + mango trees and cause them to bear a good crop of fruit. The + central feature of the whole ritual is a wild mango tree, so young + that it has never flowered: the men who cut it down, carry it into + the village, and dance at the festival, are forbidden to eat + mangoes: pigs are killed in order that their dying squeals may move + the mango trees to bear fruit: at the end of the ceremonies pieces + of young green mangoes are solemnly placed in the mouths of the + fasting men and are by them spurted out towards the setting sun in + order that the luminary may carry the fragments to every part of + the country; and finally when after a longer or shorter interval + the tree is wholly consumed, its place is supplied by another. All + these circumstances are explained simply and naturally by the + supposition that the young mango tree is taken as a representative + of mangoes generally, that the dances are intended to quicken it, + and that it is preserved, like a May-pole of old in England, as a + sort of general fund of vegetable life, till the fund being + exhausted by the destruction of the tree it is renewed by the + importation of a fresh young tree from the forest. We can therefore + understand why, as a storehouse of vital energy, the tree should be + carefully kept from <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page011">[pg + 011]</span><a name="Pg011" id="Pg011" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + contact with the ground, lest the pent-up and concentrated energy + should escape and dribbling away into the earth be dissipated to no + purpose.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Sacred objects of various sorts + not allowed to touch the ground.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">To take other + instances of what we may call the conservation of energy in magic + or religion by insulating sacred bodies from the ground, the + natives of New Britain have a secret society called the Duk-duk, + the members of which masquerade in petticoats of leaves and tall + headdresses of wickerwork shaped like candle extinguishers, which + descend to the shoulders of the wearers, completely concealing + their faces. Thus disguised they dance about to the awe and terror, + real or assumed, of the women and uninitiated, who take, or pretend + to take, them for spirits. When lads are being initiated into the + secrets of this august society, the adepts cut down some very large + and heavy bamboos, one for each lad, and the novices carry them, + carefully wrapt up in leaves, to the sacred ground, where they + arrive very tired and weary, for they may not let the bamboos touch + the ground nor the sun shine on them. Outside the fence of the + enclosure every lad deposits his bamboo on a couple of forked + sticks and covers it up with nut leaves.<a id="noteref_23" name= + "noteref_23" href="#note_23"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">23</span></span></a> Among + the Carrier Indians of North-Western America, who burned their + dead, the ashes of a chief used to be placed in a box and set on + the top of a pole beside his hut: the box was never allowed to + touch the ground.<a id="noteref_24" name="noteref_24" href= + "#note_24"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">24</span></span></a> In the + Omaha tribe of North American Indians the sacred clam shell of the + Elk clan was wrapt up from sight in a mat, placed on a stand, and + never suffered to come in contact with the earth.<a id="noteref_25" + name="noteref_25" href="#note_25"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">25</span></span></a> The + Cherokees and kindred Indian tribes of the United States used to + have certain sacred boxes or arks, which they regularly took with + them to war. Such a holy ark consisted of a square wooden box, + which contained <span class="tei tei-q">“certain consecrated + vessels made by beloved superannuated women, and of such various + antiquated forms, as would have puzzled Adam to have given + significant names to each.”</span> The <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page012">[pg 012]</span><a name="Pg012" id="Pg012" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> leader of a war party and his attendant bore + the ark by turns, but they never set it on the ground nor would + they themselves sit on the bare earth while they were carrying it + against the enemy. Where stones were plentiful they rested the ark + on them; but where no stones were to be found, they deposited it on + short logs. <span class="tei tei-q">“The Indian ark is deemed so + sacred and dangerous to be touched, either by their own sanctified + warriors, or the spoiling enemy, that they durst not touch it upon + any account. It is not to be meddled with by any, except the war + chieftain and his waiter, under the penalty of incurring great + evil. Nor would the most inveterate enemy touch it in the woods, + for the very same reason.”</span> After their return home they used + to hang the ark on the leader's red-painted war pole.<a id= + "noteref_26" name="noteref_26" href="#note_26"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">26</span></span></a> At + Sipi, near Simla, in Northern India, an annual fair is held, at + which men purchase wives. A square box with a domed top figures + prominently at the fair. It is fixed on two poles to be carried on + men's shoulders, and long heavily-plaited petticoats hang from it + nearly to the ground. Three sides of the box are adorned with the + head and shoulders of a female figure and the fourth side with a + black yak's tail. Four men bear the poles, each carrying an axe in + his right hand. They dance round, with a swinging rhythmical step, + to the music of drums and a pipe. The dance goes on for hours and + is thought to avert ill-luck from the fair. It is said that the box + is brought to Simla from a place sixty miles off by relays of men, + who may not stop nor set the box on the ground the whole way.<a id= + "noteref_27" name="noteref_27" href="#note_27"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">27</span></span></a> In + Scotland, when water was carried from sacred wells to sick people, + the water-vessel might not touch the earth.<a id="noteref_28" name= + "noteref_28" href="#note_28"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">28</span></span></a> In + some parts of Aberdeenshire the last bunch of standing corn, which + is commonly viewed as very sacred, being the last refuge of the + corn-spirit retreating before the reapers, is not suffered to touch + the ground; the master or <span class="tei tei-q">“gueedman”</span> + sits down and receives each handful of corn as it is cut on his + lap.<a id="noteref_29" name="noteref_29" href= + "#note_29"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">29</span></span></a></p><span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page013">[pg 013]</span><a name="Pg013" id="Pg013" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Sacred food not allowed to touch + the earth.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Again, sacred + food may not under certain circumstances be brought into contact + with the earth. Some of the aborigines of Victoria used to regard + the fat of the emu as sacred, believing that it had once been the + fat of the black man. In taking it from the bird or giving it to + another they handled it reverently. Any one who threw away the fat + or flesh of the emu was held accursed. <span class="tei tei-q">“The + late Mr. Thomas observed on one occasion, at Nerrenerre-Warreen, a + remarkable exhibition of the effects of this superstition. An + aboriginal child—one attending the school—having eaten some part of + the flesh of an emu, threw away the skin. The skin fell to the + ground, and this being observed by his parents, they showed by + their gestures every token of horror. They looked upon their child + as one utterly lost. His desecration of the bird was regarded as a + sin for which there was no atonement.”</span><a id="noteref_30" + name="noteref_30" href="#note_30"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">30</span></span></a> The + Roumanians of Transylvania believe that <span class= + "tei tei-q">“every fresh-baked loaf of wheaten bread is sacred, and + should a piece inadvertently fall to the ground, it is hastily + picked up, carefully wiped and kissed, and if soiled, thrown into + the fire—partly as an offering to the dead, and partly because it + were a heavy sin to throw away or tread upon any particle of + it.”</span><a id="noteref_31" name="noteref_31" href= + "#note_31"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">31</span></span></a> At + certain festivals in south-eastern Borneo the food which is + consumed in the common house may not touch the ground; hence, a + little before the festivals take place, foot-bridges made of thin + poles are constructed from the private dwellings to the common + house.<a id="noteref_32" name="noteref_32" href= + "#note_32"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">32</span></span></a> When + Hall was living with the Esquimaux and grew tired of eating walrus, + one of the women brought the head and neck of a reindeer for him to + eat. This venison had to be completely wrapt up before it was + brought into the house, and once in the house it could only be + placed on the platform which served as a bed. <span class= + "tei tei-q">“To have placed it on the floor or on the platform + behind the fire-lamp, among the walrus, musk-ox, and polar-bear + meat which occupy a goodly portion of both of these places, would + have horrified the whole town, as, according to the actual + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page014">[pg 014]</span><a name= + "Pg014" id="Pg014" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> belief of the + Innuits, not another walrus could be secured this year, and there + would ever be trouble in catching any more.”</span><a id= + "noteref_33" name="noteref_33" href="#note_33"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">33</span></span></a> But in + this case the real scruple appears to have been felt not so much at + placing the venison on the ground as at bringing it into contact + with walrus meat.<a id="noteref_34" name="noteref_34" href= + "#note_34"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">34</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Magical implements and remedies + thought to lose their virtue by contact with the ground.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Sometimes + magical implements and remedies are supposed to lose their virtue + by contact with the ground, the volatile essence with which they + are impregnated being no doubt drained off into the earth. Thus in + the Boulia district of Queensland the magical bone, which the + native sorcerer points at his victim as a means of killing him, is + never by any chance allowed to touch the earth.<a id="noteref_35" + name="noteref_35" href="#note_35"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">35</span></span></a> The + wives of rajahs in Macassar, a district of southern Celebes, pride + themselves on their luxuriant tresses and are at great pains to oil + and preserve them. Should the hair begin to grow thin, the lady + resorts to many devices to stay the ravages of time; among other + things she applies to her locks a fat extracted from crocodiles and + venomous snakes. The unguent is believed to be very efficacious, + but during its application the woman's feet may not come into + contact with the ground, or all the benefit of the nostrum would be + lost.<a id="noteref_36" name="noteref_36" href= + "#note_36"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">36</span></span></a> Some + people in antiquity believed that a woman in hard labour would be + delivered if a spear, which had been wrenched from a man's body + without touching the ground, were thrown over the house where the + sufferer lay. Again, according to certain ancient writers, arrows + which had been extracted from a body without coming into contact + with the earth and laid under sleepers, acted as a + love-charm.<a id="noteref_37" name="noteref_37" href= + "#note_37"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">37</span></span></a> Among + the peasantry of the north-east of Scotland the prehistoric + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page015">[pg 015]</span><a name= + "Pg015" id="Pg015" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> weapons called celts + went by the name of <span class="tei tei-q">“thunderbolts”</span> + and were coveted as the sure bringers of success, always provided + that they were not allowed to fall to the ground.<a id="noteref_38" + name="noteref_38" href="#note_38"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">38</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Serpents' eggs or Snake + Stones.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In ancient Gaul + certain glass or paste beads attained great celebrity as amulets + under the name of serpents' eggs; it was believed that serpents, + coiling together in a wriggling, writhing mass, generated them from + their slaver and shot them into the air from their hissing jaws. If + a man was bold and dexterous enough to catch one of these eggs in + his cloak before it touched the ground, he rode off on horseback + with it at full speed, pursued by the whole pack of serpents, till + he was saved by the interposition of a river, which the snakes + could not pass. The proof of the egg being genuine was that if it + were thrown into a stream it would float up against the current, + even though it were hooped in gold. The Druids held these beads in + high esteem; according to them, the precious objects could only be + obtained on a certain day of the moon, and the peculiar virtue that + resided in them was to secure success in law suits and free access + to kings. Pliny knew of a Gaulish knight who was executed by the + emperor Claudius for wearing one of these amulets.<a id= + "noteref_39" name="noteref_39" href="#note_39"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">39</span></span></a> Under + the name of Snake Stones (<span lang="gd" class="tei tei-foreign" + xml:lang="gd"><span style="font-style: italic">glain + neidr</span></span>) or Adder Stones the beads are still known in + those parts of our own country where the Celtic population has + lingered, with its immemorial superstitions, down to the present or + recent times; and the old story of the origin of the beads from the + slaver of serpents was believed by the modern peasantry of + Cornwall, Wales, and Scotland as by the Druids of ancient Gaul. In + Cornwall the time when the serpents united to fashion the beads was + commonly said to be at or about Midsummer Eve; in Wales it was + usually thought to be spring, especially the Eve of May Day, and + even within recent years persons in the Principality have affirmed + that they witnessed the great <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page016">[pg 016]</span><a name="Pg016" id="Pg016" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> vernal congress of the snakes and saw the + magic stone in the midst of the froth. The Welsh peasants believe + the beads to possess medicinal virtues of many sorts and to be + particularly efficacious for all maladies of the eyes. In Wales and + Ireland the beads sometimes went by the name of the Magician's or + Druid's Glass (<span lang="gd" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang= + "gd"><span style="font-style: italic">Gleini na + Droedh</span></span> and <span lang="gd" class="tei tei-foreign" + xml:lang="gd"><span style="font-style: italic">Glaine nan + Druidhe</span></span>). Specimens of them may be seen in museums; + some have been found in British barrows. They are of glass of + various colours, green, blue, pink, red, brown, and so forth, some + plain and some ribbed. Some are streaked with brilliant hues. The + beads are perforated, and in the Highlands of Scotland the hole is + explained by saying that when the bead has just been conflated by + the serpents jointly, one of the reptiles sticks his tail through + the still viscous glass. An Englishman who visited Scotland in 1699 + found many of these beads in use throughout the country. They were + hung from children's necks to protect them from whooping cough and + other ailments. Snake Stones were, moreover, a charm to ensure + prosperity in general and to repel evil spirits. When one of these + priceless treasures was not on active service, the owner kept it in + an iron box to guard it against fairies, who, as is well known, + cannot abide iron.<a id="noteref_40" name="noteref_40" href= + "#note_40"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">40</span></span></a></p><span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page017">[pg 017]</span><a name="Pg017" id="Pg017" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Medicinal plants, water, etc., not + allowed to touch the earth.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Pliny mentions + several medicinal plants, which, if they were to retain their + healing virtue, ought not to be allowed to touch the earth.<a id= + "noteref_41" name="noteref_41" href="#note_41"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">41</span></span></a> The + curious medical treatise of Marcellus, a native of Bordeaux in the + fourth century of our era, abounds with prescriptions of this sort; + and we can well believe the writer when he assures us that he + borrowed many of his quaint remedies from the lips of common folk + and peasants rather than from the books of the learned.<a id= + "noteref_42" name="noteref_42" href="#note_42"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">42</span></span></a> Thus + he tells us that certain white stones found in the stomachs of + young swallows assuage the most persistent headache, always + provided that their virtue be not impaired by contact with the + ground.<a id="noteref_43" name="noteref_43" href= + "#note_43"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">43</span></span></a> + Another of his cures for the same malady is a wreath of fleabane + placed on the head, but it must not touch the earth.<a id= + "noteref_44" name="noteref_44" href="#note_44"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">44</span></span></a> On the + same condition a decoction of the root of elecampane in wine kills + worms; a fern, found growing on a tree, relieves the stomach-ache; + and the pastern-bone of a hare is an infallible remedy for colic, + provided, first, it be found in the dung of a wolf, second, that it + does not touch the ground, and, third, that it is not touched by a + woman.<a id="noteref_45" name="noteref_45" href= + "#note_45"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">45</span></span></a> + Another cure for colic is effected by certain hocus-pocus with a + scrap of wool from the forehead of a first-born lamb, if only the + lamb, instead of being allowed to fall to the ground, has been + caught by hand as it dropped from its dam.<a id="noteref_46" name= + "noteref_46" href="#note_46"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">46</span></span></a> In + Andjra, a district of Morocco, the people attribute many magical + virtues to rain-water which has fallen on the twenty-seventh day of + April, Old Style; accordingly they collect it and use it for a + variety of purposes. Mixed with tar and sprinkled on the door-posts + it prevents snakes and scorpions from entering the house: sprinkled + on heaps of threshed corn it protects them from the evil eye: mixed + with an egg, henna, and seeds of cress it is an invaluable medicine + for sick cows: poured over a <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page018">[pg 018]</span><a name="Pg018" id="Pg018" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> plate, on which a passage of the Koran has + been written, it strengthens the memory of schoolboys who drink it; + and if you mix it with cowdung and red earth and paint rings with + the mixture round the trunks of your fig-trees at sunset on + Midsummer Day, you may depend on it that the trees will bear an + excellent crop and will not shed their fruit untimely on the + ground. But in order to preserve these remarkable properties it is + absolutely essential that the water should on no account be allowed + to touch the ground; some say too that it should not be exposed to + the sun nor breathed upon by anybody.<a id="noteref_47" name= + "noteref_47" href="#note_47"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">47</span></span></a> Again, + the Moors ascribe great magical efficacy to what they call + <span class="tei tei-q">“the sultan of the oleander,”</span> which + is a stalk of oleander with a cluster of four pairs of leaves + springing from it. They think that the magical virtue is greatest + if the stalk has been cut immediately before midsummer. But when + the plant is brought into the house, the branches may not touch the + ground, lest they should lose their marvellous qualities.<a id= + "noteref_48" name="noteref_48" href="#note_48"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">48</span></span></a> In the + olden days, before a Lithuanian or Prussian farmer went forth to + plough for the first time in spring, he called in a wizard to + perform a certain ceremony for the good of the crops. The sage + seized a mug of beer with his teeth, quaffed the liquor, and then + tossed the mug over his head. This signified that the corn in that + year should grow taller than a man. But the mug might not fall to + the ground; it had to be caught by somebody stationed at the + wizard's back, for if it fell to the ground the consequence + naturally would be that the corn also would be laid low on the + earth.<a id="noteref_49" name="noteref_49" href= + "#note_49"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">49</span></span></a></p> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em"> + <a name="toc7" id="toc7"></a> <a name="pdf8" id="pdf8"></a> + + <h2 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em"> + <span style="font-size: 144%">§ 2. Not to see the Sun.</span></h2> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Sacred persons not allowed to see + the sun.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The second rule + to be here noted is that the sun may not shine upon the divine + person. This rule was observed <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page019">[pg 019]</span><a name="Pg019" id="Pg019" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> both by the Mikado and by the pontiff of the + Zapotecs. The latter <span class="tei tei-q">“was looked upon as a + god whom the earth was not worthy to hold, nor the sun to shine + upon.”</span><a id="noteref_50" name="noteref_50" href= + "#note_50"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">50</span></span></a> The + Japanese would not allow that the Mikado should expose his sacred + person to the open air, and the sun was not thought worthy to shine + on his head.<a id="noteref_51" name="noteref_51" href= + "#note_51"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">51</span></span></a> The + Indians of Granada, in South America, <span class="tei tei-q">“kept + those who were to be rulers or commanders, whether men or women, + locked up for several years when they were children, some of them + seven years, and this so close that they were not to see the sun, + for if they should happen to see it they forfeited their lordship, + eating certain sorts of food appointed; and those who were their + keepers at certain times went into their retreat or prison and + scourged them severely.”</span><a id="noteref_52" name="noteref_52" + href="#note_52"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">52</span></span></a> Thus, + for example, the heir to the throne of Bogota, who was not the son + but the sister's son of the king, had to undergo a rigorous + training from his infancy: he lived in complete retirement in a + temple, where he might not see the sun nor eat salt nor converse + with a woman: he was surrounded by guards who observed his conduct + and noted all his actions: if he broke a single one of the rules + laid down for him, he was deemed infamous and forfeited all his + rights to the throne.<a id="noteref_53" name="noteref_53" href= + "#note_53"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">53</span></span></a> So, + too, the heir to the kingdom of Sogamoso, before succeeding to the + crown, had to fast for seven years in the temple, being shut up in + the dark and not allowed to see the sun or light.<a id="noteref_54" + name="noteref_54" href="#note_54"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">54</span></span></a> The + prince who was to become Inca of Peru had to fast for a month + without seeing light.<a id="noteref_55" name="noteref_55" href= + "#note_55"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">55</span></span></a> On + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page020">[pg 020]</span><a name= + "Pg020" id="Pg020" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> the day when a + Brahman student of the Veda took a bath, to signify that the time + of his studentship was at an end, he entered a cow-shed before + sunrise, hung over the door a skin with the hair inside, and sat + there; on that day the sun should not shine upon him.<a id= + "noteref_56" name="noteref_56" href="#note_56"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">56</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Tabooed persons not allowed to see + the sun. Certain persons forbidden to see fire.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Again, women + after childbirth and their offspring are more or less tabooed all + the world over; hence in Corea the rays of the sun are rigidly + excluded from both mother and child for a period of twenty-one or a + hundred days, according to their rank, after the birth has taken + place.<a id="noteref_57" name="noteref_57" href= + "#note_57"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">57</span></span></a> Among + some of the tribes on the north-west coast of New Guinea a woman + may not leave the house for months after childbirth. When she does + go out, she must cover her head with a hood or mat; for if the sun + were to shine upon her, it is thought that one of her male + relations would die.<a id="noteref_58" name="noteref_58" href= + "#note_58"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">58</span></span></a> Again, + mourners are everywhere taboo; accordingly in mourning the Ainos of + Japan wear peculiar caps in order that the sun may not shine upon + their heads.<a id="noteref_59" name="noteref_59" href= + "#note_59"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">59</span></span></a> During + a solemn fast of three days the Indians of Costa Rica eat no salt, + speak as little as possible, light no fires, and stay strictly + indoors, or if they go out during the day they carefully cover + themselves from the light of the sun, believing that exposure to + the sun's rays would turn them black.<a id="noteref_60" name= + "noteref_60" href="#note_60"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">60</span></span></a> On + Yule Night it has been customary in parts of Sweden from time + immemorial to go on pilgrimage, whereby people learn many secret + things and know what is to happen in the coming year. As a + preparation for this pilgrimage, <span class="tei tei-q">“some + secrete themselves for three days previously in a dark cellar, so + as to be shut out altogether from the light of <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page021">[pg 021]</span><a name="Pg021" id="Pg021" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> heaven. Others retire at an early hour + of the preceding morning to some out-of-the-way place, such as a + hay-loft, where they bury themselves in the hay, that they may + neither see nor hear any living creature; and here they remain, in + silence and fasting, until after sundown; whilst there are those + who think it sufficient if they rigidly abstain from food on the + day before commencing their wanderings. During this period of + probation a man ought not to see fire, but should this have + happened, he must strike a light with flint and steel, whereby the + evil that would otherwise have ensued will be + obviated.”</span><a id="noteref_61" name="noteref_61" href= + "#note_61"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">61</span></span></a> During + the sixteen days that a Pima Indian is undergoing purification for + killing an Apache he may not see a blazing fire.<a id="noteref_62" + name="noteref_62" href="#note_62"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">62</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The story of Prince + Sunless.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Acarnanian + peasants tell of a handsome prince called Sunless, who would die if + he saw the sun. So he lived in an underground palace on the site of + the ancient Oeniadae, but at night he came forth and crossed the + river to visit a famous enchantress who dwelt in a castle on the + further bank. She was loth to part with him every night long before + the sun was up, and as he turned a deaf ear to all her entreaties + to linger, she hit upon the device of cutting the throats of all + the cocks in the neighbourhood. So the prince, whose ear had + learned to expect the shrill clarion of the birds as the signal of + the growing light, tarried too long, and hardly had he reached the + ford when the sun rose over the Aetolian mountains, and its fatal + beams fell on him before he could regain his dark abode.<a id= + "noteref_63" name="noteref_63" href="#note_63"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">63</span></span></a></p> + </div> + </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page022">[pg 022]</span><a name= + "Pg022" id="Pg022" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + <hr class="page" /> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> + <a name="toc9" id="toc9"></a> <a name="pdf10" id="pdf10"></a> + + <h1 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"> + <span style="font-size: 173%">Chapter II. The Seclusion of Girls at + Puberty.</span></h1> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em"> + <a name="toc11" id="toc11"></a> <a name="pdf12" id="pdf12"></a> + + <h2 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em"> + <span style="font-size: 144%">§ 1. Seclusion of Girls at Puberty in + Africa.</span></h2> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Girls at puberty forbidden to + touch the ground and to see the sun. Seclusion of girls at + puberty among the A-Kamba. Seclusion of girls at puberty among + the Baganda.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Now it is + remarkable that the foregoing two rules—not to touch the ground and + not to see the sun—are observed either separately or conjointly by + girls at puberty in many parts of the world. Thus amongst the + negroes of Loango girls at puberty are confined in separate huts, + and they may not touch the ground with any part of their bare + body.<a id="noteref_64" name="noteref_64" href= + "#note_64"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">64</span></span></a> Among + the Zulus and kindred tribes of South Africa, when the first signs + of puberty shew themselves <span class="tei tei-q">“while a girl is + walking, gathering wood, or working in the field, she runs to the + river and hides herself among the reeds for the day, so as not to + be seen by men. She covers her head carefully with her blanket that + the sun may not shine on it and shrivel her up into a withered + skeleton, as would result from exposure to the sun's beams. After + dark she returns to her home and is secluded”</span> in a hut for + some time.<a id="noteref_65" name="noteref_65" href= + "#note_65"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">65</span></span></a> During + her seclusion, which lasts for about a fortnight, neither she nor + the girls who wait upon her may drink any milk, lest the cattle + should die. And should she be overtaken by the first flow while she + is in the fields, she must, after hiding in the bush, scrupulously + avoid all pathways in returning home.<a id="noteref_66" name= + "noteref_66" href="#note_66"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">66</span></span></a> A + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page023">[pg 023]</span><a name= + "Pg023" id="Pg023" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> reason for this + avoidance is assigned by the A-Kamba of British East Africa, whose + girls under similar circumstances observe the same rule. + <span class="tei tei-q">“A girl's first menstruation is a very + critical period of her life according to A-Kamba beliefs. If this + condition appears when she is away from the village, say at work in + the fields, she returns at once to her village, but is careful to + walk through the grass and not on a path, for if she followed a + path and a stranger accidentally trod on a spot of blood and then + cohabited with a member of the opposite sex before the girl was + better again, it is believed that she would never bear a + child.”</span> She remains at home till the symptoms have ceased, + and during this time she may be fed by none but her mother. When + the flux is over, her father and mother are bound to cohabit with + each other, else it is believed that the girl would be barren all + her life.<a id="noteref_67" name="noteref_67" href= + "#note_67"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">67</span></span></a> + Similarly, among the Baganda, when a girl menstruated for the first + time she was secluded and not allowed to handle food; and at the + end of her seclusion the kinsman with whom she was staying (for + among the Baganda young people did not reside with their parents) + was obliged to jump over his wife, which with the Baganda is + regarded as equivalent to having intercourse with her. Should the + girl happen to be living near her parents at the moment when she + attained to puberty, she was expected on her recovery to inform + them of the fact, whereupon her father jumped over her mother. Were + this custom omitted, the Baganda, like the A-Kamba, thought that + the girl would never have children or that they would die in + infancy.<a id="noteref_68" name="noteref_68" href= + "#note_68"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">68</span></span></a> Thus + the pretence of sexual intercourse between the parents or other + relatives of <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page024">[pg + 024]</span><a name="Pg024" id="Pg024" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + the girl was a magical ceremony to ensure her fertility. It is + significant that among the Baganda the first menstruation was often + called a marriage, and the girl was spoken of as a bride.<a id= + "noteref_69" name="noteref_69" href="#note_69"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">69</span></span></a> These + terms so applied point to a belief like that of the Siamese, that a + girl's first menstruation results from her defloration by one of a + host of aerial spirits, and that the wound thus inflicted is + repeated afterwards every month by the same ghostly agency.<a id= + "noteref_70" name="noteref_70" href="#note_70"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">70</span></span></a> For a + like reason, probably, the Baganda imagine that a woman who does + not menstruate exerts a malign influence on gardens and makes them + barren<a id="noteref_71" name="noteref_71" href= + "#note_71"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">71</span></span></a> if she + works in them. For not being herself fertilized by a spirit, how + can she fertilize the garden?</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Seclusion of girls at puberty + among the tribes of the Tanganyika plateau.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Among the + Amambwe, Winamwanga, Alungu, and other tribes of the great plateau + to the west of Lake Tanganyika, <span class="tei tei-q">“when a + young girl knows that she has attained puberty, she forthwith + leaves her mother's hut, and hides herself in the long grass near + the village, covering her face with a cloth and weeping bitterly. + Towards sunset one of the older women—who, as directress of the + ceremonies, is called <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">nachimbusa</span></span>—follows her, places a + cooking-pot by the cross-roads, and boils therein a concoction of + various herbs, with which she anoints the neophyte. At nightfall + the girl is carried on the old woman's back to her mother's hut. + When the customary period of a few days has elapsed, she is allowed + to cook again, after first whitewashing the floor of the hut. But, + by the following month, the preparations for her initiation are + complete. The novice must remain in her hut throughout the whole + period of initiation, and is carefully guarded by the old women, + who accompany her whenever she leaves her quarters, veiling her + head with a native cloth. The ceremonies last for at least one + month.”</span> During this period of seclusion, drumming and songs + are kept up within the mother's hut by the village women, and no + male, except, it is said, the father of twins, is allowed to enter. + The directress of the rites and the older women instruct the + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page025">[pg 025]</span><a name= + "Pg025" id="Pg025" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> young girl as to the + elementary facts of life, the duties of marriage, and the rules of + conduct, decorum, and hospitality to be observed by a married + woman. Amongst other things the damsel must submit to a series of + tests such as leaping over fences, thrusting her head into a collar + made of thorns, and so on. The lessons which she receives are + illustrated by mud figures of animals and of the common objects of + domestic life. Moreover, the directress of studies embellishes the + walls of the hut with rude pictures, each with its special + significance and song, which must be understood and learned by the + girl.<a id="noteref_72" name="noteref_72" href= + "#note_72"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">72</span></span></a> In the + foregoing account the rule that a damsel at puberty may neither see + the sun nor touch the ground seems implied by the statement that on + the first discovery of her condition she hides in long grass and is + carried home after sunset on the back of an old woman.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Seclusion of girls at puberty + among the tribes of British Central Africa.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Among the + Nyanja-speaking tribes of Central Angoniland, in British Central + Africa, when a young girl finds that she has become a woman, she + stands silent by the pathway leading to the village, her face wrapt + in her calico. An old woman, finding her there, takes her off to a + stream to bathe; after that the girl is secluded for six days in + the old woman's hut. She eats her porridge out of an old basket and + her relish, in which no salt is put, from a potsherd. The basket is + afterwards thrown away. On the seventh day the aged matrons gather + together, go with the girl to a stream, and throw her into the + water. In returning they sing songs, and the old woman, who directs + the proceedings, carries the maiden on her back. Then they spread a + mat and fetch her husband and set the two down on the mat and shave + his head. When it is dark, the old women escort the girl to her + husband's hut. There the <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">ndiwo</span></span> relish is cooking on the + fire. During the night the woman rises and puts some salt in the + pot. Next morning, before dawn, while all is dark and the villagers + have not yet opened their doors, the young married woman goes off + and gives some of the relish to her mother and to the old woman who + was mistress of the ceremony. This relish she sets down at the + doors of their <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page026">[pg + 026]</span><a name="Pg026" id="Pg026" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + houses and goes away. And in the morning, when the sun has risen + and all is light in the village, the two women open their doors, + and there they find the relish with the salt in it; and they take + of it and rub it on their feet and under their arm-pits; and if + there are little children in the house, they eat of it. And if the + young wife has a kinsman who is absent from the village, some of + the relish is put on a splinter of bamboo and kept against his + return, that when he comes he, too, may rub his feet with it. But + if the woman finds that her husband is impotent, she does not rise + betimes and go out in the dark to lay the relish at the doors of + her mother and the old woman. And in the morning, when the sun is + up and all the village is light, the old women open their doors, + and see no relish there, and they know what has happened, and so + they go wilily to work. For they persuade the husband to consult + the diviner that he may discover how to cure his impotence; and + while he is closeted with the wizard, they fetch another man, who + finishes the ceremony with the young wife, in order that the relish + may be given out and that people may rub their feet with it. But if + it happens that when a girl comes to maturity she is not yet + betrothed to any man, and therefore has no husband to go to, the + matrons tell her that she must go to a lover instead. And this is + the custom which they call <span class= + "tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">chigango</span></span>. So in the evening she + takes her cooking pot and relish and hies away to the quarters of + the young bachelors, and they very civilly sleep somewhere else + that night. And in the morning the girl goes back to the + <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">kuka</span></span> hut.<a id="noteref_73" + name="noteref_73" href="#note_73"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">73</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Abstinence from salt associated + with a rule of chastity in many tribes.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">From the + foregoing account it appears that among these tribes no sooner has + a girl attained to womanhood than she is expected and indeed + required to give proof of her newly acquired powers by cohabiting + with a man, whether her husband or another. And the abstinence from + salt during the girl's seclusion is all the more remarkable because + as soon as the seclusion is over she has to use salt for a + particular purpose, to which the people evidently attach very great + importance, since in the event of her husband proving impotent she + is even compelled, apparently, to commit <span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page027">[pg 027]</span><a name="Pg027" id="Pg027" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> adultery in order that the salted relish may + be given out as usual. In this connexion it deserves to be noted + that among the Wagogo of German East Africa women at their monthly + periods may not sleep with their husbands and may not put salt in + food.<a id="noteref_74" name="noteref_74" href= + "#note_74"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">74</span></span></a> A + similar rule is observed by the Nyanja-speaking tribes of Central + Angoniland, with whose puberty customs we are here concerned. Among + them, we are told, <span class="tei tei-q">“some superstition + exists with regard to the use of salt. A woman during her monthly + sickness must on no account put salt into any food she is cooking, + lest she give her husband or children a disease called <span class= + "tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">tsempo</span></span> (<span class= + "tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">chitsoko + soko</span></span>), but calls a child to put it in, or, as the + song goes, <span class="tei tei-q">‘<span class= + "tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">Natira mchere ni + bondo chifukwa n'kupanda mwana</span></span>,’</span> and pours in + the salt by placing it on her knee, because there is no child + handy. Should a party of villagers have gone to make salt, all + sexual intercourse is forbidden among the people of the village, + until the people who have gone to make the salt (from grass) + return. When they do come back, they must make their entry into the + village at night, and no one must see them. Then one of the elders + of the village sleeps with his wife. She then cooks some relish, + into which she puts some of the salt. This relish is handed round + to the people who went to make the salt, who rub it on their feet + and under their armpits.”</span><a id="noteref_75" name= + "noteref_75" href="#note_75"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">75</span></span></a> Hence + it would seem that in the mind of these people abstinence from salt + is somehow associated with the idea of chastity. The same + association meets us in the customs of many peoples in various + parts of the world. For example, ancient Hindoo ritual prescribed + that for three nights after a husband had brought his bride home, + the two should sleep on the ground, remain chaste, and eat no + salt.<a id="noteref_76" name="noteref_76" href= + "#note_76"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">76</span></span></a> Among + the Baganda, when a man was making a net, he had to refrain from + eating salt and meat and from living with his wife; these + restrictions he observed until the net took its first catch of + fish. Similarly, so long as a fisherman's nets or traps were in the + water, he must live apart from his wife, and neither he nor she nor + their children might eat salt or <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page028">[pg 028]</span><a name="Pg028" id="Pg028" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> meat.<a id="noteref_77" name="noteref_77" + href="#note_77"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">77</span></span></a> + Evidence of the same sort could be multiplied,<a id="noteref_78" + name="noteref_78" href="#note_78"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">78</span></span></a> but + without going into it further we may say that for some reason which + is not obvious to us primitive man connects salt with the + intercourse of the sexes and therefore forbids the use of that + condiment in a variety of circumstances in which he deems + continence necessary or desirable. As there is nothing which the + savage regards as a greater bar between the sexes than the state of + menstruation, he naturally prohibits the use of salt to women and + girls at their monthly periods.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Seclusion of girls at puberty + among the tribes about Lake Nyassa and on the Zambesi.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">With the + Awa-nkonde, a tribe at the northern end of Lake Nyassa, it is a + rule that after her first menstruation a girl must be kept apart, + with a few companions of her own sex, in a darkened house. The + floor is covered with dry banana leaves, but no fire may be lit in + the house, which is called <span class="tei tei-q">“the house of + the Awasungu,”</span> that is, <span class="tei tei-q">“of maidens + who have no hearts.”</span><a id="noteref_79" name="noteref_79" + href="#note_79"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">79</span></span></a> When a + girl reaches puberty, the Wafiomi of Eastern Africa hold a festival + at which they make a noise with a peculiar kind of rattle. After + that the girl remains for a year in the large common hut + (<span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">tembe</span></span>), where she occupies a + special compartment screened off from the men's quarters. She may + not cut her hair or touch food, but is fed by other women. At + night, however, she quits the hut and dances with young men.<a id= + "noteref_80" name="noteref_80" href="#note_80"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">80</span></span></a> Among + the Barotse or Marotse of the upper Zambesi, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“when a girl arrives at the age of puberty she is sent + into the fields, where a hut is constructed far from the village. + There, with two or three companions, she spends a month, returning + home late and starting before dawn in order not to be seen by the + men. The women of the village visit her, bringing food and honey, + and singing and dancing to amuse her. At the end of a month her + husband comes and fetches her. It is only after this ceremony that + women have the right to smear themselves with ochre.”</span><a id= + "noteref_81" name="noteref_81" href="#note_81"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">81</span></span></a> We may + suspect that the chief reason why <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page029">[pg 029]</span><a name="Pg029" id="Pg029" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> the girl during her seclusion may visit her + home only by night is a fear, not so much lest she should be seen + by men, as that she might be seen by the sun. Among the Wafiomi, as + we have just learned, the young woman in similar circumstances is + even free to dance with men, provided always that the dance is + danced at night. The ceremonies among the Barotse or Marotse are + somewhat more elaborate for a girl of the royal family. She is shut + up for three months in a place which is kept secret from the + public; only the women of her family know where it is. There she + sits alone in the darkness of the hut, waited on by female slaves, + who are strictly forbidden to speak and may communicate with her + and with each other only by signs. During all this time, though she + does nothing, she eats much, and when at last she comes forth, her + appearance is quite changed, so fat has she grown. She is then led + by night to the river and bathed in presence of all the women of + the village. Next day she flaunts before the public in her gayest + attire, her head bedecked with ornaments and her face mottled with + red paint. So everybody knows what has happened.<a id="noteref_82" + name="noteref_82" href="#note_82"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">82</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Seclusion of girls at puberty + among the Thonga of Delagoa Bay.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Among the + northern clans of the Thonga tribe, in South-Eastern Africa, about + Delagoa Bay, when a girl thinks that the time of her nubility is + near, she chooses an adoptive mother, perhaps in a neighbouring + village. When the symptoms appear, she flies away from her own + village and repairs to that of her adopted mother <span class= + "tei tei-q">“to weep near her.”</span> After that she is secluded + with several other girls in the same condition for a month. They + are shut up in a hut, and whenever they come outside they must wear + a dirty greasy cloth over their faces as a veil. Every morning they + are led to a pool and plunged in the water up to their necks. + Initiated girls or women accompany them, singing obscene songs and + driving away with sticks any man who meets them; for no man may see + a girl during this time of seclusion. If he saw her, it is said + that he would be struck blind. On their return from the river, the + girls are again imprisoned in the hut, where they remain wet and + shivering, for they may not go near the fire to warm themselves. + During their seclusion they listen to lascivious songs sung by + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page030">[pg 030]</span><a name= + "Pg030" id="Pg030" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> grown women and are + instructed in sexual matters. At the end of the month the adoptive + mother brings the girl home to her true mother and presents her + with a pot of beer.<a id="noteref_83" name="noteref_83" href= + "#note_83"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">83</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Seclusion of girls at puberty + among the Caffre tribes of South Africa.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Among the Caffre + tribes of South Africa the period of a girl's seclusion at puberty + varies with the rank of her father. If he is a rich man, it may + last twelve days; if he is a chief, it may last twenty-four + days.<a id="noteref_84" name="noteref_84" href= + "#note_84"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">84</span></span></a> And + when it is over, the girl rubs herself over with red earth, and + strews finely powdered red earth on the ground, before she leaves + the hut where she has been shut up. Finally, though she was + forbidden to drink milk all the days of her separation, she washes + out her mouth with milk, and is from that moment regarded as a + full-grown woman.<a id="noteref_85" name="noteref_85" href= + "#note_85"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">85</span></span></a> + Afterwards, in the dusk of the evening, she carries away all the + objects with which she came into contact in the hut during her + seclusion and buries them secretly in a sequestered spot.<a id= + "noteref_86" name="noteref_86" href="#note_86"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">86</span></span></a> When + the girl is a chief's daughter the ceremonies at her liberation + from the hut are more elaborate than usual. She is led forth from + the hut by a son of her father's councillor, who, wearing the wings + of a blue crane, the badge of bravery, on his head, escorts her to + the cattle kraal, where cows are slaughtered and dancing takes + place. Large skins full of milk are sent to the spot from + neighbouring villages; and after the dances are over the girl + drinks milk for the first time since the day she entered into + retreat. But the first mouthful is drunk by the girl's aunt or + other female relative who had charge of her during her seclusion; + and a little of it is poured on the fire-place.<a id="noteref_87" + name="noteref_87" href="#note_87"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">87</span></span></a> + Amongst the Zulus, when the girl was a princess royal, the end of + her time of separation was celebrated by a sort of saturnalia: law + and order were for the time being in abeyance: every man, woman, + and child might appropriate any article of property: the king + abstained from interfering; and if during this reign of misrule he + was robbed of anything he valued he could only <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page031">[pg 031]</span><a name="Pg031" id="Pg031" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> recover it by paying a fine.<a id= + "noteref_88" name="noteref_88" href="#note_88"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">88</span></span></a> Among + the Basutos, when girls at puberty are bathed as usual by the + matrons in a river, they are hidden separately in the turns and + bends of the stream, and told to cover their heads, as they will be + visited by a large serpent. Their limbs are then plastered with + clay, little masks of straw are put on their faces, and thus + arrayed they daily follow each other in procession, singing + melancholy airs, to the fields, there to learn the labours of + husbandry in which a great part of their adult life will be + passed.<a id="noteref_89" name="noteref_89" href= + "#note_89"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">89</span></span></a> We may + suppose, though we are not told, that the straw masks which they + wear in these processions are intended to hide their faces from the + gaze of men and the rays of the sun.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Seclusion of girls at puberty on + the Lower Congo.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Among the tribes + in the lower valley of the Congo, such as the Bavili, when a girl + arrives at puberty, she has to pass two or three months in + seclusion in a small hut built for the purpose. The hair of her + head is shaved off, and every day the whole of her body is smeared + with a red paint (<span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">takulla</span></span>) made from a powdered + wood mixed with water. Some of her companions reside in the hut + with her and prepare the paint for her use. A woman is appointed to + take charge of the hut and to keep off intruders. At the end of her + confinement she is taken to water by the women of her family and + bathed; the paint is rubbed off her body, her arms and legs are + loaded with brass rings, and she is led in solemn procession under + an umbrella to her husband's house. If these ceremonies were not + performed, the people believe that the girl would be barren or + would give birth to monsters, that the rain would cease to fall, + the earth to bear fruit, and the fishing to be successful.<a id= + "noteref_90" name="noteref_90" href="#note_90"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">90</span></span></a> Such + serious importance do these savages <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page032">[pg 032]</span><a name="Pg032" id="Pg032" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> ascribe to the performance of rites which to + us seem so childish.</p> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em"> + <a name="toc13" id="toc13"></a> <a name="pdf14" id="pdf14"></a> + + <h2 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em"> + <span style="font-size: 144%">§ 2. Seclusion of Girls at Puberty in + New Ireland, New Guinea, and Indonesia.</span></h2> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Seclusion of girls at puberty in + New Ireland.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In New Ireland + girls are confined for four or five years in small cages, being + kept in the dark and not allowed to set foot on the ground. The + custom has been thus described by an eye-witness. <span class= + "tei tei-q">“I heard from a teacher about some strange custom + connected with some of the young girls here, so I asked the chief + to take me to the house where they were. The house was about + twenty-five feet in length, and stood in a reed and bamboo + enclosure, across the entrance to which a bundle of dried grass was + suspended to show that it was strictly <span class= + "tei tei-q">‘<span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">tabu</span></span>.’</span> Inside the house + were three conical structures about seven or eight feet in height, + and about ten or twelve feet in circumference at the bottom, and + for about four feet from the ground, at which point they tapered + off to a point at the top. These cages were made of the broad + leaves of the pandanus-tree, sewn quite close together so that no + light and little or no air could enter. On one side of each is an + opening which is closed by a double door of plaited cocoa-nut tree + and pandanus-tree leaves. About three feet from the ground there is + a stage of bamboos which forms the floor. In each of these cages we + were told there was a young woman confined, each of whom had to + remain for at least four or five years, without ever being allowed + to go outside the house. I could scarcely credit the story when I + heard it; the whole thing seemed too horrible to be true. I spoke + to the chief, and told him that I wished to see the inside of the + cages, and also to see the girls that I might make them a present + of a few beads. He told me that it was <span class= + "tei tei-q">‘<span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">tabu</span></span>,’</span> forbidden for any + men but their own relations to look at them; but I suppose the + promised beads <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page033">[pg + 033]</span><a name="Pg033" id="Pg033" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + acted as an inducement, and so he sent away for some old lady who + had charge, and who alone is allowed to open the doors. While we + were waiting we could hear the girls talking to the chief in a + querulous way as if objecting to something or expressing their + fears. The old woman came at length and certainly she did not seem + a very pleasant jailor or guardian; nor did she seem to favour the + request of the chief to allow us to see the girls, as she regarded + us with anything but pleasant looks. However, she had to undo the + door when the chief told her to do so, and then the girls peeped + out at us, and, when told to do so, they held out their hands for + the beads. I, however, purposely sat at some distance away and + merely held out the beads to them, as I wished to draw them quite + outside, that I might inspect the inside of the cages. This desire + of mine gave rise to another difficulty, as these girls were not + allowed to put their feet to the ground all the time they were + confined in these places. However, they wished to get the beads, + and so the old lady had to go outside and collect a lot of pieces + of wood and bamboo, which she placed on the ground, and then going + to one of the girls, she helped her down and held her hand as she + stepped from one piece of wood to another until she came near + enough to get the beads I held out to her. I then went to inspect + the inside of the cage out of which she had come, but could + scarcely put my head inside of it, the atmosphere was so hot and + stifling. It was clean and contained nothing but a few short + lengths of bamboo for holding water. There was only room for the + girl to sit or lie down in a crouched position on the bamboo + platform, and when the doors are shut it must be nearly or quite + dark inside. The girls are never allowed to come out except once a + day to bathe in a dish or wooden bowl placed close to each cage. + They say that they perspire profusely. They are placed in these + stifling cages when quite young, and must remain there until they + are young women, when they are taken out and have each a great + marriage feast provided for them. One of them was about fourteen or + fifteen years old, and the chief told us that she had been there + for five years, but would soon be taken out now. The other two were + about eight and ten years old, and they have to stay there for + several years <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page034">[pg + 034]</span><a name="Pg034" id="Pg034" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + longer.”</span><a id="noteref_91" name="noteref_91" href= + "#note_91"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">91</span></span></a> A more + recent observer has described the custom as it is observed on the + western coast of New Ireland. He says: <span class="tei tei-q">“A + <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">buck</span></span> is the name of a little + house, not larger than an ordinary hen-coop, in which a little girl + is shut up, sometimes for weeks only, and at other times for + months.... Briefly stated, the custom is this. Girls, on attaining + puberty or betrothal, are enclosed in one of these little coops for + a considerable time. They must remain there night and day. We saw + two of these girls in two coops; the girls were not more than ten + years old, still they were lying in a doubled-up position, as their + little houses would not admit of them lying in any other way. These + two coops were inside a large house; but the chief, in + consideration of a present of a couple of tomahawks, ordered the + ends to be torn out of the house to admit the light, so that we + might photograph the <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">buck</span></span>. The occupant was allowed + to put her face through an opening to be photographed, in + consideration of another present.”</span><a id="noteref_92" name= + "noteref_92" href="#note_92"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">92</span></span></a> As a + consequence of their long enforced idleness in the shade the girls + grow fat and their dusky complexion bleaches to a more pallid hue. + Both their corpulence and their pallor are regarded as + beauties.<a id="noteref_93" name="noteref_93" href= + "#note_93"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">93</span></span></a></p><span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page035">[pg 035]</span><a name="Pg035" id="Pg035" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Seclusion of girls at puberty in + New Guinea, Borneo, Ceram, and Yap.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In Kabadi, a + district of British New Guinea, <span class="tei tei-q">“daughters + of chiefs, when they are about twelve or thirteen years of age, are + kept indoors for two or three years, never being allowed, under any + pretence, to descend from the house, and the house is so shaded + that the sun cannot shine on them.”</span><a id="noteref_94" name= + "noteref_94" href="#note_94"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">94</span></span></a> Among + the Yabim and Bukaua, two neighbouring and kindred tribes on the + coast of German New Guinea, a girl at puberty is secluded for some + five or six weeks in an inner part of the house; but she may not + sit on the floor, lest her uncleanness should cleave to it, so a + log of wood is placed for her to squat on. Moreover, she may not + touch the ground with her feet; hence if she is obliged to quit the + house for a short time, she is muffled up in mats and walks on two + halves of a coco-nut shell, which are fastened like sandals to her + feet by creeping plants. During her seclusion she is in charge of + her aunts or other female relatives. At the end of the time she + bathes, her person is loaded with ornaments, her face is + grotesquely painted with red stripes on a white ground, and thus + adorned she is brought forth in public to be admired by everybody. + She is now marriageable.<a id="noteref_95" name="noteref_95" href= + "#note_95"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">95</span></span></a> Among + the Ot Danoms of Borneo girls at the age of eight or ten years are + shut up in a little room or cell of the house, and cut off from all + intercourse with the world for a long time. The cell, like the rest + of the house, is raised on piles above the ground, and is lit by a + single small window opening on a lonely place, so that the girl is + in almost total darkness. She may not leave the room on any pretext + whatever, not even for the most necessary purposes. None of her + family may see her all the time she is shut up, but a single slave + woman is appointed to wait on her. During her lonely confinement, + which often lasts seven years, the girl occupies herself in weaving + mats or with other handiwork. Her bodily growth is stunted by the + long want of exercise, and <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page036">[pg 036]</span><a name="Pg036" id="Pg036" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> when, on attaining womanhood, she is brought + out, her complexion is pale and wax-like. She is now shewn the sun, + the earth, the water, the trees, and the flowers, as if she were + newly born. Then a great feast is made, a slave is killed, and the + girl is smeared with his blood.<a id="noteref_96" name="noteref_96" + href="#note_96"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">96</span></span></a> In + Ceram girls at puberty were formerly shut up by themselves in a hut + which was kept dark.<a id="noteref_97" name="noteref_97" href= + "#note_97"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">97</span></span></a> In + Yap, one of the Caroline Islands, should a girl be overtaken by her + first menstruation on the public road, she may not sit down on the + earth, but must beg for a coco-nut shell to put under her. She is + shut up for several days in a small hut at a distance from her + parents' house, and afterwards she is bound to sleep for a hundred + days in one of the special houses which are provided for the use of + menstruous women.<a id="noteref_98" name="noteref_98" href= + "#note_98"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">98</span></span></a></p> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em"> + <a name="toc15" id="toc15"></a> <a name="pdf16" id="pdf16"></a> + + <h2 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em"> + <span style="font-size: 144%">§ 3. Seclusion of Girls at Puberty in + the Torres Straits Islands and Northern Australia.</span></h2> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Seclusion of girls at puberty in + Mabuiag, Torres Straits.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In the island of + Mabuiag, Torres Straits, when the signs of puberty appear on a + girl, a circle of bushes is made in a dark corner of the house. + Here, decked with shoulder-belts, armlets, leglets just below the + knees, and anklets, wearing a chaplet on her head, and shell + ornaments in her ears, on her chest, and on her back, she squats in + the midst of the bushes, which are piled so high round about her + that only her head is visible. In this state of seclusion she must + remain for three months. All this time the sun may not shine upon + her, but at night she is allowed to slip out of the hut, and the + bushes that hedge her in are then changed. She may not feed herself + or handle food, but is fed by one or two old women, her maternal + aunts, who are especially appointed to look after her. One of these + women cooks food for her at a special fire in the forest. The girl + is forbidden to eat turtle or <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page037">[pg 037]</span><a name="Pg037" id="Pg037" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> turtle eggs during the season when the + turtles are breeding; but no vegetable food is refused her. No man, + not even her own father, may come into the house while her + seclusion lasts; for if her father saw her at this time he would + certainly have bad luck in his fishing, and would probably smash + his canoe the very next time he went out in it. At the end of the + three months she is carried down to a fresh-water creek by her + attendants, hanging on to their shoulders in such a way that her + feet do not touch the ground, while the women of the tribe form a + ring round her, and thus escort her to the beach. Arrived at the + shore, she is stripped of her ornaments, and the bearers stagger + with her into the creek, where they immerse her, and all the other + women join in splashing water over both the girl and her bearers. + When they come out of the water one of the two attendants makes a + heap of grass for her charge to squat upon. The other runs to the + reef, catches a small crab, tears off its claws, and hastens back + with them to the creek. Here in the meantime a fire has been + kindled, and the claws are roasted at it. The girl is then fed by + her attendants with the roasted claws. After that she is freshly + decorated, and the whole party marches back to the village in a + single rank, the girl walking in the centre between her two old + aunts, who hold her by the wrists. The husbands of her aunts now + receive her and lead her into the house of one of them, where all + partake of food, and the girl is allowed once more to feed herself + in the usual manner. A dance follows, in which the girl takes a + prominent part, dancing between the husbands of the two aunts who + had charge of her in her retirement.<a id="noteref_99" name= + "noteref_99" href="#note_99"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">99</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Seclusion of girls at puberty in + Northern Australia.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Among the + Yaraikanna tribe of Cape York Peninsula, in Northern Queensland, a + girl at puberty is said to live by herself for a month or six + weeks; no man may see her, though any woman may. She stays in a hut + or shelter specially made for her, on the floor of which she lies + supine. She may not see the sun, and towards sunset she must keep + her eyes shut until the sun has gone down, otherwise it is thought + that her nose will be diseased. During her seclusion <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page038">[pg 038]</span><a name="Pg038" id="Pg038" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> she may eat nothing that lives in salt + water, or a snake would kill her. An old woman waits upon her and + supplies her with roots, yams, and water.<a id="noteref_100" name= + "noteref_100" href="#note_100"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">100</span></span></a> Some + tribes are wont to bury their girls at such seasons more or less + deeply in the ground, perhaps in order to hide them from the light + of the sun. Thus the Larrakeeyah tribe in the northern territory of + South Australia used to cover a girl up with dirt for three days at + her first monthly period.<a id="noteref_101" name="noteref_101" + href="#note_101"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">101</span></span></a> In + similar circumstances the Otati tribe, on the east coast of the + Cape York Peninsula, make an excavation in the ground, where the + girl squats. A bower is then built over the hole, and sand is + thrown on the young woman till she is covered up to the hips. In + this condition she remains for the first day, but comes out at + night. So long as the period lasts, she stays in the bower during + the day-time, but is not again covered with sand. Afterwards her + body is painted red and white from the head to the hips, and she + returns to the camp, where she squats first on the right side, then + on the left side, and then on the lap of her future husband, who + has been previously selected for her.<a id="noteref_102" name= + "noteref_102" href="#note_102"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">102</span></span></a> Among + the natives of the Pennefather River, in the Cape York Peninsula, + Queensland, when a girl menstruates for the first time, her mother + takes her away from the camp to some secluded spot, where she digs + a circular hole in the sandy soil under the shade of a tree. In + this hole the girl squats with crossed legs and is covered with + sand from the waist downwards. A digging-stick is planted firmly in + the sand on each side of her, and the place is surrounded by a + fence of bushes except in front, where her mother kindles a fire. + Here the girl stays all day, sitting with her arms crossed and the + palms of her hands resting on the sand. She may not move her arms + except to take food from her mother or to scratch herself; and in + scratching herself she may not touch herself with her own hands, + but must use for the purpose a splinter of wood, which, when it is + not in use, is stuck in her hair. She may speak to nobody but her + mother; indeed nobody else would <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page039">[pg 039]</span><a name="Pg039" id="Pg039" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> think of coming near her. At evening she lays + hold of the two digging-sticks and by their help frees herself from + the superincumbent weight of sand and returns to the camp. Next + morning she is again buried in the sand under the shade of the tree + and remains there again till evening. This she does daily for five + days. On her return at evening on the fifth day her mother + decorates her with a waist-band, a forehead-band, and a necklet of + pearl-shell, ties green parrot feathers round her arms and wrists + and across her chest, and smears her body, back and front, from the + waist upwards with blotches of red, white, and yellow paint. She + has in like manner to be buried in the sand at her second and third + menstruations, but at the fourth she is allowed to remain in camp, + only signifying her condition by wearing a basket of empty shells + on her back.<a id="noteref_103" name="noteref_103" href= + "#note_103"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">103</span></span></a> Among + the Kia blacks of the Prosperine River, on the east coast of + Queensland, a girl at puberty has to sit or lie down in a shallow + pit away from the camp; a rough hut of bushes is erected over her + to protect her from the inclemency of the weather. There she stays + for about a week, waited on by her mother and sister, the only + persons to whom she may speak. She is allowed to drink water, but + may not touch it with her hands; and she may scratch herself a + little with a mussel-shell. This seclusion is repeated at her + second and third monthly periods, but when the third is over she is + brought to her husband bedecked with savage finery. Eagle-hawk or + cockatoo feathers are stuck in her hair: a shell hangs over her + forehead: grass bugles encircle her neck and an apron of opossum + skin her waist: strings are tied to her arms and wrists; and her + whole body is mottled with patterns drawn in red, white, and yellow + pigments and charcoal.<a id="noteref_104" name="noteref_104" href= + "#note_104"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">104</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Seclusion of girls at puberty in + the islands of Torres Straits.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Among the + Uiyumkwi tribe in Red Island the girl lies at full length in a + shallow trench dug in the foreshore, and sand is lightly thrown + over her legs and body up to the breasts, which appear not to be + covered. A rough shelter of boughs is then built over her, and thus + she <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page040">[pg 040]</span><a name= + "Pg040" id="Pg040" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> remains lying for a + few hours. Then she and her attendant go into the bush and look for + food, which they cook at a fire close to the shelter. They sleep + under the boughs, the girl remaining secluded from the camp but + apparently not being again buried. At the end of the symptoms she + stands over hot stones and water is poured over her, till, + trickling from her body on the stones, it is converted into steam + and envelops her in a cloud of vapour. Then she is painted with red + and white stripes and returns to the camp. If her future husband + has already been chosen, she goes to him and they eat some food + together, which the girl has previously brought from the + bush.<a id="noteref_105" name="noteref_105" href= + "#note_105"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">105</span></span></a> In + Prince of Wales Island, Torres Strait, the treatment of the patient + is similar, but lasts for about two months. During the day she lies + covered up with sand in a shallow hole on the beach, over which a + hut is built. At night she may get out of the hole, but she may not + leave the hut. Her paternal aunt looks after her, and both of them + must abstain from eating turtle, dugong, and the heads of fish. + Were they to eat the heads of fish no more fish would be caught. + During the time of the girl's seclusion, the aunt who waits upon + her has the right to enter any house and take from it anything she + likes without payment, provided she does so before the sun rises. + When the time of her retirement has come to an end, the girl bathes + in the sea while the morning star is rising, and after performing + various other ceremonies is readmitted to society.<a id= + "noteref_106" name="noteref_106" href="#note_106"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">106</span></span></a> In + Saibai, another island of Torres Straits, at her first monthly + sickness a girl lives secluded in the forest for about a fortnight, + during which no man may see her; even the women who have spoken to + her in the forest must wash in salt water before they speak to a + man. Two girls wait upon and feed the damsel, putting the food into + her mouth, <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page041">[pg + 041]</span><a name="Pg041" id="Pg041" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + for she is not allowed to touch it with her own hands. Nor may she + eat dugong and turtle. At the end of a fortnight the girl and her + attendants bathe in salt water while the tide is running out. + Afterwards they are clean, may again speak to men without ceremony, + and move freely about the village. In Yam and Tutu a girl at + puberty retires for a month to the forest, where no man nor even + her own mother may look upon her. She is waited on by women who + stand to her in a certain relationship (<span class= + "tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">mowai</span></span>), apparently her paternal + aunts. She is blackened all over with charcoal and wears a long + petticoat reaching below her knees. During her seclusion the + married women of the village often assemble in the forest and + dance, and the girl's aunts relieve the tedium of the proceedings + by thrashing her from time to time as a useful preparation for + matrimony. At the end of a month the whole party go into the sea, + and the charcoal is washed off the girl. After that she is + decorated, her body blackened again, her hair reddened with ochre, + and in the evening she is brought back to her father's house, where + she is received with weeping and lamentation because she has been + so long away.<a id="noteref_107" name="noteref_107" href= + "#note_107"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">107</span></span></a></p> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em"> + <a name="toc17" id="toc17"></a> <a name="pdf18" id="pdf18"></a> + + <h2 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em"> + <span style="font-size: 144%">§ 4. Seclusion of Girls at Puberty + among the Indians of North America.</span></h2> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Seclusion of girls at puberty + among the Indians of California.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Among the + Indians of California a girl at her first menstruation <span class= + "tei tei-q">“was thought to be possessed of a particular degree of + supernatural power, and this was not always regarded as entirely + defiling or malevolent. Often, however, there was a strong feeling + of the power of evil inherent in her condition. Not only was she + secluded from her family and the community, but an attempt was made + to seclude the world from her. One of the injunctions most strongly + laid upon her was not to look about her. She kept her head bowed + and was forbidden to see the world and the sun. Some tribes covered + her with a blanket. Many of the customs in this connection + resembled those of the North Pacific Coast most strongly, such as + the prohibition to the girl to touch or scratch her head with her + hand, a special implement being furnished her for the purpose. + Sometimes <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page042">[pg + 042]</span><a name="Pg042" id="Pg042" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + she could eat only when fed and in other cases fasted altogether. + Some form of public ceremony, often accompanied by a dance and + sometimes by a form of ordeal for the girl, was practised nearly + everywhere. Such ceremonies were well developed in Southern + California, where a number of actions symbolical of the girl's + maturity and subsequent life were performed.”</span><a id= + "noteref_108" name="noteref_108" href="#note_108"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">108</span></span></a> Thus + among the Maidu Indians of California a girl at puberty remained + shut up in a small separate hut. For five days she might not eat + flesh or fish nor feed herself, but was fed by her mother or other + old woman. She had a basket, plate, and cup for her own use, and a + stick with which to scratch her head, for she might not scratch it + with her fingers. At the end of five days she took a warm bath and, + while she still remained in the hut and plied the scratching-stick + on her head, was privileged to feed herself with her own hands. + After five days more she bathed in the river, after which her + parents gave a great feast in her honour. At the feast the girl was + dressed in her best, and anybody might ask her parents for anything + he pleased, and they had to give it, even if it was the hand of + their daughter in marriage. During the period of her seclusion in + the hut the girl was allowed to go by night to her parents' house + and listen to songs sung by her friends and relations, who + assembled for the purpose. Among the songs were some that related + to the different roots and seeds which in these tribes it is the + business of women to gather for food. While the singers sang, she + sat by herself in a corner of the house muffled up completely in + mats and skins; no man or boy might come near her.<a id= + "noteref_109" name="noteref_109" href="#note_109"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">109</span></span></a> Among + the Hupa, another Indian tribe of California, when a girl had + reached maturity her male relatives danced all night for nine + successive nights, while the girl remained apart, eating no meat + and blindfolded. But on the tenth night she entered the house and + took part in the last dance.<a id="noteref_110" name="noteref_110" + href="#note_110"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">110</span></span></a> Among + the Wintun, <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page043">[pg + 043]</span><a name="Pg043" id="Pg043" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + another Californian tribe, a girl at puberty was banished from the + camp and lived alone in a distant booth, fasting rigidly from + animal food; it was death to any person to touch or even approach + her.<a id="noteref_111" name="noteref_111" href= + "#note_111"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">111</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Seclusion of girls at puberty + among the Indians of Washington State.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In the interior + of Washington State, about Colville, <span class="tei tei-q">“the + customs of the Indians, in relation to the treatment of females, + are singular. On the first appearance of the menses, they are + furnished with provisions, and sent into the woods, to remain + concealed for two days; for they have a superstition, that if a man + should be seen or met with during that time, death will be the + consequence. At the end of the second day, the woman is permitted + to return to the lodge, when she is placed in a hut just large + enough for her to lie in at full length, in which she is compelled + to remain for twenty days, cut off from all communication with her + friends, and is obliged to hide her face at the appearance of a + man. Provisions are supplied her daily. After this, she is required + to perform repeated ablutions, before she can resume her place in + the family. At every return, the women go into seclusion for two or + more days.”</span><a id="noteref_112" name="noteref_112" href= + "#note_112"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">112</span></span></a> Among + the Chinook Indians who inhabited the coast of Washington State, + from Shoalwater Bay as far as Grey's Harbour, when a chief's + daughter attained to puberty, she was hidden for five days from the + view of the people; she might not look at them nor at the sky, nor + might she pick berries. It was believed that if she were to look at + the sky, the weather would be bad; that if she picked berries, it + would rain; and that when she hung her towel of cedar-bark on a + spruce-tree, the tree withered up at once. She went out of the + house by a separate door and bathed in a creek far from the + village. She fasted for some days, and for many days more she might + not eat fresh food.<a id="noteref_113" name="noteref_113" href= + "#note_113"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">113</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Seclusion of girls at puberty + among the Nootka Indians of Vancouver Island.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Amongst the Aht + or Nootka Indians of Vancouver Island, when girls reach puberty + they are placed in a sort of gallery in the house <span class= + "tei tei-q">“and are there surrounded completely <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page044">[pg 044]</span><a name="Pg044" id="Pg044" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> with mats, so that neither the sun nor + any fire can be seen. In this cage they remain for several days. + Water is given them, but no food. The longer a girl remains in this + retirement the greater honour is it to the parents; but she is + disgraced for life if it is known that she has seen fire or the sun + during this initiatory ordeal.”</span><a id="noteref_114" name= + "noteref_114" href="#note_114"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">114</span></span></a> + Pictures of the mythical thunder-bird are painted on the screens + behind which she hides. During her seclusion she may neither move + nor lie down, but must always sit in a squatting posture. She may + not touch her hair with her hands, but is allowed to scratch her + head with a comb or a piece of bone provided for the purpose. To + scratch her body is also forbidden, as it is believed that every + scratch would leave a scar. For eight months after reaching + maturity she may not eat any fresh food, particularly salmon; + moreover, she must eat by herself, and use a cup and dish of her + own.<a id="noteref_115" name="noteref_115" href= + "#note_115"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">115</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Seclusion of girls at puberty + among the Haida Indians of the Queen Charlotte Islands.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Among the Haida + Indians of the Queen Charlotte Islands girls at puberty were + secluded behind screens in the house for about twenty days. In some + parts of the islands separate fires were provided for the girls, + and they went out and in by a separate door at the back of the + house. If a girl at such a time was obliged to go out by the front + door, all the weapons, gambling-sticks, medicine, and other + articles had to be removed from the house till her return, for + otherwise it was thought that they would be unlucky; and if there + was a good hunter in the house, he also had to go out at the same + time on pain of losing his good luck if he remained. During several + months or even half a year the girl was bound to wear a peculiar + cloak or hood made of cedar-bark, nearly conical in shape and + reaching <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page045">[pg + 045]</span><a name="Pg045" id="Pg045" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + down below the breast, but open before the face. After the twenty + days were over the girl took a bath; none of the water might be + spilled, it had all to be taken back to the woods, else the girl + would not live long. On the west coast of the islands the damsel + might eat nothing but black cod for four years; for the people + believed that other kinds of fish would become scarce if she + partook of them. At Kloo the young woman at such times was + forbidden to look at the sea, and for forty days she might not gaze + at the fire; for a whole year she might not walk on the beach below + high-water mark, because then the tide would come in, covering part + of the food supply, and there would be bad weather. For five years + she might not eat salmon, or the fish would be scarce; and when her + family went to a salmon-creek, she landed from the canoe at the + mouth of the creek and came to the smoke-house from behind; for + were she to see a salmon leap, all the salmon might leave the + creek. Among the Haidas of Masset it was believed that if the girl + looked at the sky, the weather would be bad, and that if she + stepped over a salmon-creek, all the salmon would disappear.<a id= + "noteref_116" name="noteref_116" href="#note_116"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">116</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Seclusion of girls at puberty + among the Tlingit Indians of Alaska.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Amongst the + Tlingit (Thlinkeet) or Kolosh Indians of Alaska, when a girl shewed + signs of womanhood she used to be confined to a little hut or cage, + which was completely blocked up with the exception of a small + air-hole. In this dark and filthy abode she had to remain a year, + without fire, exercise, or associates. Only her mother and a female + slave might supply her with nourishment. Her food was put in at the + little window; she had to drink out of the wing-bone of a + white-headed eagle. The time of her seclusion was afterwards + reduced in some places to six or three months or even less. She had + to wear a sort of hat with long flaps, <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page046">[pg 046]</span><a name="Pg046" id="Pg046" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> that her gaze might not pollute the sky; for + she was thought unfit for the sun to shine upon, and it was + imagined that her look would destroy the luck of a hunter, fisher, + or gambler, turn things to stone, and do other mischief. At the end + of her confinement her old clothes were burnt, new ones were made, + and a feast was given, at which a slit was cut in her under lip + parallel to the mouth, and a piece of wood or shell was inserted to + keep the aperture open.<a id="noteref_117" name="noteref_117" href= + "#note_117"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">117</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Seclusion of girls at puberty + among the Tsetsaut and Bella Coola Indians of British + Columbia.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In the Tsetsaut + tribe of British Columbia a girl at puberty wears a large hat of + skin which comes down over her face and screens it from the sun. It + is believed that if she were to expose her face to the sun or to + the sky, rain would fall. The hat protects her face also against + the fire, which ought not to strike her skin; to shield her hands + she wears mittens. In her mouth she carries the tooth of an animal + to prevent her own teeth from becoming hollow. For a whole year she + may not see blood unless her face is blackened; otherwise she would + grow blind. For two years she wears the hat and lives in a hut by + herself, although she is allowed to see other people. At the end of + two years a man takes the hat from her head and throws it + away.<a id="noteref_118" name="noteref_118" href= + "#note_118"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">118</span></span></a> In + the Bilqula or Bella Coola tribe of British Columbia, when a girl + attains puberty she must stay in the shed which serves as her + bedroom, where she has a separate fireplace. She is not allowed to + descend to the main part of the house, and may not sit by the fire + of the family. For four days she is <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page047">[pg 047]</span><a name="Pg047" id="Pg047" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> bound to remain motionless in a sitting + posture. She fasts during the day, but is allowed a little food and + drink very early in the morning. After the four days' seclusion she + may leave her room, but only through a separate opening cut in the + floor, for the houses are raised on piles. She may not yet come + into the chief room. In leaving the house she wears a large hat + which protects her face against the rays of the sun. It is believed + that if the sun were to shine on her face her eyes would suffer. + She may pick berries on the hills, but may not come near the river + or sea for a whole year. Were she to eat fresh salmon she would + lose her senses, or her mouth would be changed into a long + beak.<a id="noteref_119" name="noteref_119" href= + "#note_119"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">119</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Seclusion of girls at puberty + among the Tinneh Indians of British Columbia.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Among the Tinneh + Indians about Stuart Lake, Babine Lake, and Fraser Lake in British + Columbia <span class="tei tei-q">“girls verging on maturity, that + is when their breasts begin to form, take swans' feathers mixed + with human hair and plait bands, which they tie round their wrists + and ankles to secure long life. At this time they are careful that + the dishes out of which they eat, are used by no other person, and + wholly devoted to their own use; during this period they eat + nothing but dog fish, and starvation <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">only</span></em> + will drive them to eat either fresh fish or meat. When their first + periodical sickness comes on, they are fed by their mothers or + nearest female relation by <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">themselves</span></em>, and on no account will + they touch their food with their own hands. They are at this time + also careful not to touch their heads with their hands, and keep a + small stick to scratch their heads with. They remain outside the + lodge, all the time they are in this state, in a hut made for the + purpose. During all this period they wear a skull-cap made of skin + to fit very tight; this is never taken off until their first + monthly sickness ceases; they also wear a strip of black paint + about one inch wide across their eyes, and wear a fringe of shells, + bones, etc., hanging down from their foreheads to below their eyes; + and this is never taken off <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page048">[pg 048]</span><a name="Pg048" id="Pg048" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> till the second monthly period arrives and + ceases, when the nearest male relative makes a feast; after which + she is considered a fully matured woman; but she has to refrain + from eating anything fresh for one year after her first monthly + sickness; she may however eat partridge, but it must be cooked in + the crop of the bird to render it harmless. I would have thought it + impossible to perform this feat had I not seen it done. The crop is + blown out, and a small bent willow put round the mouth; it is then + filled with water, and the meat being first minced up, put in also, + then put on the fire and boiled till cooked. Their reason for + hanging fringes before their eyes, is to hinder any bad medicine + man from harming them during this critical period: they are very + careful not to drink whilst facing a medicine man, and do so only + when their backs are turned to him. All these habits are left off + when the girl is a recognised woman, with the exception of their + going out of the lodge and remaining in a hut, every time their + periodical sickness comes on. This is a rigidly observed law with + both single and married women.”</span><a id="noteref_120" name= + "noteref_120" href="#note_120"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">120</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Seclusion of girls at puberty + among the Tinneh Indians of Alaska.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Among the + Hareskin Tinneh a girl at puberty was secluded for five days in a + hut made specially for the purpose; she might only drink out of a + tube made from a swan's bone, and for a month she might not break a + hare's bones, nor taste blood, nor eat the heart or fat of animals, + nor birds' eggs.<a id="noteref_121" name="noteref_121" href= + "#note_121"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">121</span></span></a> Among + the Tinneh Indians of the middle Yukon valley, in Alaska, the + period of the girl's seclusion lasts exactly a lunar month; for the + day of the moon on which the symptoms first occur is noted, and she + is sequestered until the same day of the next moon. If the season + is winter, a corner of the house is curtained off for her use by a + blanket or a sheet of canvas; if it is summer, a small tent is + erected for her near the common one. Here she lives and sleeps. She + wears a long robe and a large <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page049">[pg 049]</span><a name="Pg049" id="Pg049" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> hood, which she must pull down over her eyes + whenever she leaves the hut, and she must keep it down till she + returns. She may not speak to a man nor see his face, much less + touch his clothes or anything that belongs to him; for if she did + so, though no harm would come to her, he would grow unmanly. She + has her own dishes for eating out of and may use no other; at + Kaltag she must suck the water through a swan's bone without + applying her lips to the cup. She may eat no fresh meat or fish + except the flesh of the porcupine. She may not undress, but sleeps + with all her clothes on, even her mittens. In her socks she wears, + next to the skin, the horny soles cut from the feet of a porcupine, + in order that for the rest of her life her shoes may never wear + out. Round her waist she wears a cord to which are tied the heads + of femurs of a porcupine; because of all animals known to the + Tinneh the porcupine suffers least in parturition, it simply drops + its young and continues to walk or skip about as if nothing had + happened. Hence it is easy to see that a girl who wears these + portions of a porcupine about her waist, will be delivered just as + easily as the animal. To make quite sure of this, if anybody + happens to kill a porcupine big with young while the girl is + undergoing her period of separation, the foetus is given to her, + and she lets it slide down between her shirt and her body so as to + fall on the ground like an infant.<a id="noteref_122" name= + "noteref_122" href="#note_122"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">122</span></span></a> Here + the imitation of childbirth is a piece of homoeopathic or imitative + magic designed to facilitate the effect which it simulates.<a id= + "noteref_123" name="noteref_123" href="#note_123"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">123</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Seclusion of girls at puberty + among the Thompson Indians of British Columbia.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Among the + Thompson Indians of British Columbia, when a girl attained puberty, + she was at once separated from all the people. A conical hut of fir + branches and bark was erected at some little distance from the + other houses, and in it the girl had to squat on her heels during + the day. Often a deep circular hole was dug in the hut and the girl + squatted in the hole, with her head projecting above the surface of + the ground. She might quit the hut for various purposes in the + early morning, but had always to be back at sunrise. On the first + appearance of the symptoms her face was <span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page050">[pg 050]</span><a name="Pg050" id="Pg050" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> painted red all over, and the paint was + renewed every morning during her term of seclusion. A heavy blanket + swathed her body from top to toe, and during the first four days + she wore a conical cap made of small fir branches, which reached + below the breast but left an opening for the face. In her hair was + fastened an implement made of deer-bone with which she scratched + herself. For the first four days she might neither wash nor eat, + but a little water was given her in a birch-bark cup painted red, + and she sucked up the liquid through a tube made out of the leg of + a crane, a swan, or a goose, for her lips might not touch the + surface of the water. After the four days she was allowed, during + the rest of the period of isolation, to eat, to wash, to lie down, + to comb her hair, and to drink of streams and springs. But in + drinking at these sources she had still to use her tube, otherwise + the spring would dry up. While her seclusion lasted she performed + by night various ceremonies, which were supposed to exert a + beneficial influence on her future life. For example, she ran as + fast as she could, praying at the same time to the Earth or Nature + that she might be fleet of foot and tireless of limb. She dug + trenches, in order that in after life she might be able to dig well + and to work hard. These and other ceremonies she repeated for four + nights or mornings in succession, four times each morning, and each + time she supplicated the Dawn of the Day. Among the Lower Thompson + Indians she carried a staff for one night; and when the day was + breaking she leaned the staff against the stump of a tree and + prayed to the Dawn that she might be blessed with a good husband, + who was symbolized by the staff. She also wandered some nights to + lonely parts of the mountains, where she would dance, imploring the + spirits to pity and protect her during her future life; then, the + dance and prayer over, she would lie down on the spot and fall + asleep. Again, she carried four stones in her bosom to a spring, + where she spat upon the stones and threw them one after the other + into the water, praying that all disease might leave her, as these + stones did. Also she ran four times in the early morning with two + small stones in her bosom; and as she ran the stones slipped down + between her bare body and her clothes and fell to the <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page051">[pg 051]</span><a name="Pg051" id="Pg051" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> ground. At the same time she prayed to + the Dawn that when she should be with child, she might be delivered + as easily as she was delivered of these stones. But whatever + exercises she performed or prayers she offered on the lonely + mountains during the hours of darkness or while the morning light + was growing in the east, she must always be back in her little hut + before the sun rose. There she often passed the tedious hours away + picking the needles, one by one, from the cones on two large + branches of fir, which hung from the roof of her hut on purpose to + provide her with occupation. And as she picked she prayed to the + fir-branch that she might never be lazy, but always quick and + active at work. During her seclusion, too, she had to make + miniatures of all the articles that Indian women make, or used to + make, such as baskets, mats, ropes, and thread. This she did in + order that afterwards she might be able to make the real things + properly. Four large fir-branches also were placed in front of the + hut, so that when she went out or in, she had to step over them. + The branches were renewed every morning and the old ones thrown + away into the water, while the girl prayed, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“May I never bewitch any man, nor my fellow-women! May + it never happen!”</span> The first four times that she went out and + in, she prayed to the fir-branches, saying, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“If ever I step into trouble or difficulties or step + unknowingly inside the magical spell of some person, may you help + me, O Fir-branches, with your power!”</span> Every day she painted + her face afresh, and she wore strings of parts of deer-hoofs round + her ankles and knees, and tied to her waistband on either side, + which rattled when she walked or ran. Even the shape of the hut in + which she lived was adapted to her future rather than to her + present needs and wishes. If she wished to be tall, the hut was + tall; if she wished to be short, it was low, sometimes so low that + there was not room in it for her to stand erect, and she would lay + the palm of her hand on the top of her head and pray to the Dawn + that she might grow no taller. Her seclusion lasted four months. + The Indians say that long ago it extended over a year, and that + fourteen days elapsed before the girl was permitted to wash for the + first time. The dress which she wore during her time of separation + was <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page052">[pg 052]</span><a name= + "Pg052" id="Pg052" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> afterwards taken to + the top of a hill and burned, and the rest of her clothes were hung + up on trees.<a id="noteref_124" name="noteref_124" href= + "#note_124"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">124</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Seclusion of girls at puberty + among the Lillooet Indians of British Columbia.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Among the + Lillooet Indians of British Columbia, neighbours of the Thompsons, + the customs observed by girls at puberty were similar. The damsels + were secluded for a period of not less than one year nor more than + four years, according to their own inclination and the wishes of + their parents. Among the Upper Lillooets the hut in which the girl + lodged was made of bushy fir-trees set up like a conical tent, the + inner branches being lopped off, while the outer branches were + closely interwoven and padded to form a roof. Every month or + half-month the hut was shifted to another site or a new one + erected. By day the girl sat in the hut; for the first month she + squatted in a hole dug in the middle of it; and she passed the time + making miniature baskets of birch-bark and other things, praying + that she might be able to make the real things well in after years. + At the dusk of the evening she left the hut and wandered about all + night, but she returned before the sun rose. Before she quitted the + hut at nightfall to roam abroad, she painted her face red and put + on a mask of fir-branches, and in her hand, as she walked, she + carried a basket-rattle to frighten ghosts and guard herself from + evil. Among the Lower Lillooets, the girl's mask was often made of + goat-skin, covering her head, neck, shoulders and breast, and + leaving only a narrow opening from the brow to the chin. During the + nocturnal hours she performed many ceremonies. Thus she put two + smooth stones in her bosom and ran, and as they fell down between + her body and her clothes, she prayed, saying, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“May I always have easy child-births!”</span> Now one + of these stones represented her future child and the other + represented the afterbirth. Also she dug trenches, praying that in + the years to come she might be strong and tireless in digging + roots; she picked leaves and needles from the fir-trees, praying + that her fingers might be nimble in picking berries; and she tore + sheets of birch-bark into <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page053">[pg + 053]</span><a name="Pg053" id="Pg053" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + shreds, dropping the shreds as she walked and asking that her hands + might never tire and that she might make neat and fine work of + birch-bark. Moreover, she ran and walked much that she might be + light of foot. And every evening, when the shadows were falling, + and every morning, when the day was breaking, she prayed to the + Dusk of the Evening or to the Dawn of Day, saying, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“O Dawn of Day!”</span> or <span class="tei tei-q">“O + Dusk,”</span> as it might be, <span class="tei tei-q">“may I be + able to dig roots fast and easily, and may I always find + plenty!”</span> All her prayers were addressed to the Dusk of the + Evening or the Dawn of Day. She supplicated both, asking for long + life, health, wealth, and happiness.<a id="noteref_125" name= + "noteref_125" href="#note_125"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">125</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Seclusion of girls at puberty + among the Shuswap Indians of British Columbia.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Among the + Shuswap Indians of British Columbia, who are neighbours of the + Thompsons and Lillooets, <span class="tei tei-q">“a girl on + reaching maturity has to go through a great number of ceremonies. + She must leave the village and live alone in a small hut on the + mountains. She cooks her own food, and must not eat anything that + bleeds. She is forbidden to touch her head, for which purpose she + uses a comb with three points. Neither is she allowed to scratch + her body, except with a painted deer-bone. She wears the bone and + the comb suspended from her belt. She drinks out of a painted cup + of birch-bark, and neither more nor less than the quantity it + holds. Every night she walks about her hut, and plants willow + twigs, which she has painted, and to the ends of which she has + attached pieces of cloth, into the ground. It is believed that thus + she will become rich in later life. In order to become strong she + should climb trees and try to break off their points. She plays + with <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">lehal</span></span> sticks that her future + husbands might have good luck when gambling.”</span><a id= + "noteref_126" name="noteref_126" href="#note_126"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">126</span></span></a> + During the day the girl stays in her hut and occupies herself in + making miniature bags, mats, and baskets, in sewing and embroidery, + in manufacturing thread, twine, and so forth; in short she makes a + beginning of all kinds of <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page054">[pg + 054]</span><a name="Pg054" id="Pg054" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + woman's work, in order that she may be a good housewife in after + life. By night she roams the mountains and practises running, + climbing, carrying burdens, and digging trenches, so that she may + be expert at digging roots. If she has wandered far and daylight + overtakes her, she hides herself behind a veil of fir branches; for + no one, except her instructor or nearest relatives, should see her + face during her period of seclusion. She wore a large robe painted + red on the breast and sides, and her hair was done up in a knot at + each ear.<a id="noteref_127" name="noteref_127" href= + "#note_127"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">127</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Seclusion of girls at puberty + among the Delaware and Cheyenne Indians.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Ceremonies of + the same general type were probably observed by girls at puberty + among all the Indian tribes of North America. But the record of + them is far less full for the Central and Eastern tribes, perhaps + because the settlers who first came into contact with the Red Man + in these regions were too busy fighting him to find leisure, even + if they had the desire, to study his manners and customs. However, + among the Delaware Indians, a tribe in the extreme east of the + continent, we read that <span class="tei tei-q">“when a Delaware + girl has her first monthly period, she must withdraw into a hut at + some distance from the village. Her head is wrapped up for twelve + days, so that she can see nobody, and she must submit to frequent + vomits and fasting, and abstain from all labor. After this she is + washed and new clothed, but confined to a solitary life for two + months, at the close of which she is declared + marriageable.”</span><a id="noteref_128" name="noteref_128" href= + "#note_128"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">128</span></span></a> + Again, among the Cheyennes, an Indian tribe of the Missouri valley, + a girl at her first menstruation is painted red all over her body + and secluded in a special little lodge for four days. However, she + may remain in her father's lodge provided that there are no charms + (<span class="tei tei-q">“medicine”</span>), no sacred bundle, and + no shield in it, or that these and all other objects invested with + a sacred character have been removed. For four days she may not eat + boiled meat; the flesh of which she partakes must be roasted over + coals. Young men will not eat from the dish nor drink from the pot, + which has been used by her; because <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page055">[pg 055]</span><a name="Pg055" id="Pg055" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> they believe that were they to do so they + would be wounded in the next fight. She may not handle nor even + touch any weapon of war or any sacred object. If the camp moves, + she may not ride a horse, but is mounted on a mare.<a id= + "noteref_129" name="noteref_129" href="#note_129"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">129</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Seclusion of girls at puberty + among the Esquimaux.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Among the + Esquimaux also, in the extreme north of the continent, who belong + to an entirely different race from the Indians, the attainment of + puberty in the female sex is, or used to be, the occasion of + similar observances. Thus among the Koniags, an Esquimau people of + Alaska, a girl at puberty was placed in a small hut in which she + had to remain on her hands and knees for six months; then the hut + was enlarged a little so as to allow her to straighten her back, + but in this posture she had to remain for six months more. All this + time she was regarded as an unclean being with whom no one might + hold intercourse. At the end of the year she was received back by + her parents and a great feast held.<a id="noteref_130" name= + "noteref_130" href="#note_130"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">130</span></span></a> + Again, among the Malemut, and southward from the lower Yukon and + adjacent districts, when a girl reaches the age of puberty she is + considered unclean for forty days and must therefore live by + herself in a corner of the house with her face to the wall, always + keeping her hood over her head and her hair hanging dishevelled + over her eyes. But if it is summer, she commonly lives in a rough + shelter outside the house. She may not go out by day, and only once + at night, when every one else is asleep. At the end of the period + she bathes and is clothed in new garments, whereupon she may be + taken in marriage. During her seclusion she is supposed to be + enveloped in a peculiar atmosphere of such a sort that were a young + man to come near enough for it to touch him, it would render him + visible to every animal he might hunt, so that his luck as a hunter + would be gone.<a id="noteref_131" name="noteref_131" href= + "#note_131"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">131</span></span></a></p> + </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page056">[pg 056]</span><a name= + "Pg056" id="Pg056" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em"> + <a name="toc19" id="toc19"></a> <a name="pdf20" id="pdf20"></a> + + <h2 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em"> + <span style="font-size: 144%">§ 5. Seclusion of Girls at Puberty + among the Indians of South America.</span></h2> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Seclusion of girls at puberty + among the Guaranis, Chiriguanos, and Lengua Indians of South + America.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">When symptoms of + puberty appeared on a girl for the first time, the Guaranis of + Southern Brazil, on the borders of Paraguay, used to sew her up in + her hammock, leaving only a small opening in it to allow her to + breathe. In this condition, wrapt up and shrouded like a corpse, + she was kept for two or three days or so long as the symptoms + lasted, and during this time she had to observe a most rigorous + fast. After that she was entrusted to a matron, who cut the girl's + hair and enjoined her to abstain most strictly from eating flesh of + any kind until her hair should be grown long enough to hide her + ears. Meanwhile the diviners drew omens of her future character + from the various birds or animals that flew past or crossed her + path. If they saw a parrot, they would say she was a chatterbox; if + an owl, she was lazy and useless for domestic labours, and so + on.<a id="noteref_132" name="noteref_132" href= + "#note_132"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">132</span></span></a> In + similar circumstances the Chiriguanos of south-eastern Bolivia + hoisted the girl in her hammock to the roof, where she stayed for a + month: the second month the hammock was let half-way down from the + roof; and in the third month old women, armed with sticks, entered + the hut and ran about striking everything they met, saying they + were hunting the snake that had wounded the girl.<a id= + "noteref_133" name="noteref_133" href="#note_133"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">133</span></span></a> The + Lengua Indians of the Paraguayan Chaco under similar circumstances + hang the girl in her hammock from the roof of the house, but they + leave her there only three days and nights, during which they give + her nothing to eat but a little Paraguay tea or boiled maize. Only + her mother or grandmother has access to her; nobody else approaches + or speaks to her. If she is obliged to leave the hammock for a + little, <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page057">[pg + 057]</span><a name="Pg057" id="Pg057" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + her friends take great care to prevent her from touching the + <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Boyrusu</span></span>, which is an imaginary + serpent that would swallow her up. She must also be very careful + not to set foot on the droppings of fowls or animals, else she + would suffer from sores on the throat and breast. On the third day + they let her down from the hammock, cut her hair, and make her sit + in a corner of the room with her face turned to the wall. She may + speak to nobody, and must abstain from flesh and fish. These + rigorous observances she must practise for nearly a year. Many + girls die or are injured for life in consequence of the hardships + they endure at this time. Their only occupations during their + seclusion are spinning and weaving.<a id="noteref_134" name= + "noteref_134" href="#note_134"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">134</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Seclusion of girls at puberty + among the Yuracares of Bolivia.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Among the + Yuracares, an Indian tribe of Bolivia, at the eastern foot of the + Andes, when a girl perceives the signs of puberty, she informs her + parents. The mother weeps and the father constructs a little hut of + palm leaves near the house. In this cabin he shuts up his daughter + so that she cannot see the light, and there she remains fasting + rigorously for four days. Meantime the mother, assisted by the + women of the neighbourhood, has brewed a large quantity of the + native intoxicant called <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">chicha</span></span>, and poured it into + wooden troughs and palm leaves. On the morning of the fourth day, + three hours before the dawn, the girl's father, having arrayed + himself in his savage finery, summons all his neighbours with loud + cries. The damsel is seated on a stone, and every guest in turn + cuts off a lock of her hair, and running away hides it in the + hollow trunk of a tree in the depths of the forest. When they have + all done so and seated themselves again gravely in the circle, the + girl offers <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page058">[pg + 058]</span><a name="Pg058" id="Pg058" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + to each of them a calabash full of very strong <span class= + "tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">chicha</span></span>. Before the wassailing + begins, the various fathers perform a curious operation on the arms + of their sons, who are seated beside them. The operator takes a + very sharp bone of an ape, rubs it with a pungent spice, and then + pinching up the skin of his son's arm he pierces it with the bone + through and through, as a surgeon might introduce a seton. This + operation he repeats till the young man's arm is riddled with holes + at regular intervals from the shoulder to the wrist. Almost all who + take part in the festival are covered with these wounds, which the + Indians call <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">culucute</span></span>. Having thus prepared + themselves to spend a happy day, they drink, play on flutes, sing + and dance till evening. Rain, thunder, and lightning, should they + befall, have no effect in damping the general enjoyment or + preventing its continuance till after the sun has set. The motive + for perforating the arms of the young men is to make them skilful + hunters; at each perforation the sufferer is cheered by the promise + of another sort of game or fish which the surgical operation will + infallibly procure for him. The same operation is performed on the + arms and legs of the girls, in order that they may be brave and + strong; even the dogs are operated on with the intention of making + them run down the game better. For five or six months afterwards + the damsel must cover her head with bark and refrain from speaking + to men. The Yuracares think that if they did not submit a young + girl to this severe ordeal, her children would afterwards perish by + accidents of various kinds, such as the sting of a serpent, the + bite of a jaguar, the fall of a tree, the wound of an arrow, or + what not.<a id="noteref_135" name="noteref_135" href= + "#note_135"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">135</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Seclusion of girls at puberty + among the Indians of the Gran Chaco, and Brazil.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Among the + Matacos or Mataguayos, an Indian tribe of the Gran Chaco, a girl at + puberty has to remain in seclusion for some time. She lies covered + up with branches or other things in a corner of the hut, seeing no + one and speaking to no one, and during this time she may eat + neither flesh nor fish. Meantime a man beats a drum in front of the + house.<a id="noteref_136" name="noteref_136" href= + "#note_136"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">136</span></span></a> + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page059">[pg 059]</span><a name= + "Pg059" id="Pg059" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> Similarly among the + Tobas, another Indian tribe of the same region, when a chief's + daughter has just attained to womanhood, she is shut up for two or + three days in the house, all the men of the tribe scour the country + to bring in game and fish for a feast, and a Mataco Indian is + engaged to drum, sing, and dance in front of the house without + cessation, day and night, till the festival is over. As the + merrymaking lasts for two or three weeks, the exhaustion of the + musician at the end of it may be readily conceived. Meat and drink + are supplied to him on the spot where he pays his laborious court + to the Muses. The proceedings wind up with a saturnalia and a + drunken debauch.<a id="noteref_137" name="noteref_137" href= + "#note_137"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">137</span></span></a> Among + the Yaguas, an Indian tribe of the Upper Amazon, a girl at puberty + is shut up for three months in a lonely hut in the forest, where + her mother brings her food daily.<a id="noteref_138" name= + "noteref_138" href="#note_138"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">138</span></span></a> When + a girl of the Peguenches tribe perceives in herself the first signs + of womanhood, she is secluded by her mother in a corner of the hut + screened off with blankets, and is warned not to lift up her eyes + on any man. Next day, very early in the morning and again after + sunset, she is taken out by two women and made to run till she is + tired; in the interval she is again secluded in her corner. On the + following day she lays three packets of wool beside the path near + the house to signify that she is now a woman.<a id="noteref_139" + name="noteref_139" href="#note_139"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">139</span></span></a> Among + the Passes, Mauhes, and other tribes of Brazil the young woman in + similar circumstances is hung in her hammock from the roof and has + to fast there for a month or as long as she can hold out.<a id= + "noteref_140" name="noteref_140" href="#note_140"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">140</span></span></a> One + of the early settlers in Brazil, about the middle of the sixteenth + century, has described the severe ordeal which damsels at puberty + had to undergo among the Indians on the south-east coast of that + country, near what is now Rio de Janeiro. When a girl had reached + this critical period of life, her hair was burned or shaved off + close to the head. <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page060">[pg + 060]</span><a name="Pg060" id="Pg060" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + Then she was placed on a flat stone and cut with the tooth of an + animal from the shoulders all down the back, till she ran with + blood. Next the ashes of a wild gourd were rubbed into the wounds; + the girl was bound hand and foot, and hung in a hammock, being + enveloped in it so closely that no one could see her. Here she had + to stay for three days without eating or drinking. When the three + days were over, she stepped out of the hammock upon the flat stone, + for her feet might not touch the ground. If she had a call of + nature, a female relation took the girl on her back and carried her + out, taking with her a live coal to prevent evil influences from + entering the girl's body. Being replaced in her hammock, she was + now allowed to get some flour, boiled roots, and water, but might + not taste salt or flesh. Thus she continued to the end of the first + monthly period, at the expiry of which she was gashed on the breast + and belly as well as all down the back. During the second month she + still stayed in her hammock, but her rule of abstinence was less + rigid, and she was allowed to spin. The third month she was + blackened with a certain pigment and began to go about as + usual.<a id="noteref_141" name="noteref_141" href= + "#note_141"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">141</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Seclusion of girls at puberty + among the Indians of Guiana. Custom of beating the girls and of + causing them to be stung by ants.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Amongst the + Macusis of British Guiana, when a girl shews the first signs of + puberty, she is hung in a hammock at the highest point of the hut. + For the first few days she may not leave the hammock by day, but at + night she must come down, light a fire, and spend the night beside + it, else she would break out in sores on her neck, throat, and + other parts of her body. So long as the symptoms are at their + height, she must fast rigorously. When they have abated, she may + come down and take up her abode in a little compartment that is + made for her in the darkest corner of the hut. In the morning she + may cook her food, but it must be at a separate fire and in a + vessel of her own. After about ten days the magician comes and + undoes the spell by muttering charms and breathing on her and on + the more valuable of the things with which she has come in contact. + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page061">[pg 061]</span><a name= + "Pg061" id="Pg061" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> The pots and + drinking-vessels which she used are broken and the fragments + buried. After her first bath, the girl must submit to be beaten by + her mother with thin rods without uttering a cry. At the end of the + second period she is again beaten, but not afterwards. She is now + <span class="tei tei-q">“clean,”</span> and can mix again with + people.<a id="noteref_142" name="noteref_142" href= + "#note_142"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">142</span></span></a> Other + Indians of Guiana, after keeping the girl in her hammock at the top + of the hut for a month, expose her to certain large ants, whose + bite is very painful.<a id="noteref_143" name="noteref_143" href= + "#note_143"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">143</span></span></a> + Sometimes, in addition to being stung with ants, the sufferer has + to fast day and night so long as she remains slung up on high in + her hammock, so that when she comes down she is reduced to a + skeleton. The intention of stinging her with ants is said to be to + make her strong to bear the burden of maternity.<a id="noteref_144" + name="noteref_144" href="#note_144"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">144</span></span></a> + Amongst the Uaupes of Brazil a girl at puberty is secluded in the + house for a month, and allowed only a small quantity of bread and + water. Then she is taken out into the midst of her relations and + friends, each of whom gives her four or five blows with pieces of + <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sipo</span></span> (an elastic climber), till + she falls senseless or dead. If she recovers, the operation is + repeated four times at intervals of six hours, and it is considered + an offence to the parents not to strike hard. Meantime, pots of + meats and fish have been made ready; the <span class= + "tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sipos</span></span> are dipped into them and + then given to the girl to lick, who is now considered a + marriageable woman.<a id="noteref_145" name="noteref_145" href= + "#note_145"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">145</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Custom in South America of causing + young men to be stung with ants as an initiatory rite.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The custom of + stinging the girl at such times with ants or beating her with rods + is intended, we may be sure, not as a punishment or a test of + endurance, but as a purification, the object being to drive away + the malignant influences with which a girl in this condition is + believed to be beset and enveloped. Examples of purification, by + beating, by incisions in the flesh, and by <span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page062">[pg 062]</span><a name="Pg062" id="Pg062" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> stinging with ants, have already come before + us.<a id="noteref_146" name="noteref_146" href= + "#note_146"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">146</span></span></a> In + some Indian tribes of Brazil and Guiana young men do not rank as + warriors and may not marry till they have passed through a terrible + ordeal, which consists in being stung by swarms of venomous ants + whose bite is like fire. Thus among the Mauhes on the Tapajos + river, a southern tributary of the Amazon, boys of eight to ten + years are obliged to thrust their arms into sleeves stuffed with + great ferocious ants, which the Indians call <span class= + "tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">tocandeira</span></span> (<span lang="la" + class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Cryptocerus atratus</span></span>, F.). When + the young victim shrieks with pain, an excited mob of men dances + round him, shouting and encouraging him till he falls exhausted to + the ground. He is then committed to the care of old women, who + treat his fearfully swollen arms with fresh juice of the manioc; + and on his recovery he has to shew his strength and skill in + bending a bow. This cruel ordeal is commonly repeated again and + again, till the lad has reached his fourteenth year and can bear + the agony without betraying any sign of emotion. Then he is a man + and can marry. A lad's age is reckoned by the number of times he + has passed through the ordeal.<a id="noteref_147" name= + "noteref_147" href="#note_147"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">147</span></span></a> An + eye-witness has described how a young Mauhe hero bore the torture + with an endurance more than Spartan, dancing and singing, with his + arms cased in the terrible mittens, before every cabin of the great + common house, till pallid, staggering, and with chattering teeth he + triumphantly laid the gloves before the old chief and received the + congratulations of the men and the caresses of the women; then + breaking away from his friends and admirers he threw himself into + the river and remained in its cool soothing water till + nightfall.<a id="noteref_148" name="noteref_148" href= + "#note_148"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">148</span></span></a> + Similarly among the Ticunas of the Upper Amazon, on the border of + Peru, the young man who would take his place among the <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page063">[pg 063]</span><a name="Pg063" id="Pg063" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> warriors must plunge his arm into a + sort of basket full of venomous ants and keep it there for several + minutes without uttering a cry. He generally falls backwards and + sometimes succumbs to the fever which ensues; hence as soon as the + ordeal is over the women are prodigal of their attentions to him, + and rub the swollen arm with a particular kind of herb.<a id= + "noteref_149" name="noteref_149" href="#note_149"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">149</span></span></a> + Ordeals of this sort appear to be in vogue among the Indians of the + Rio Negro as well as of the Amazon.<a id="noteref_150" name= + "noteref_150" href="#note_150"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">150</span></span></a> Among + the Rucuyennes, a tribe of Indians in the north of Brazil, on the + borders of Guiana, young men who are candidates for marriage must + submit to be stung all over their persons not only with ants but + with wasps, which are applied to their naked bodies in curious + instruments of trellis-work shaped like fantastic quadrupeds or + birds. The patient invariably falls down in a swoon and is carried + like dead to his hammock, where he is tightly lashed with cords. As + they come to themselves, they writhe in agony, so that their + hammocks rock violently to and fro, causing the hut to shake as if + it were about to collapse. This dreadful ordeal is called by the + Indians a <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">maraké</span></span>.<a id="noteref_151" name= + "noteref_151" href="#note_151"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">151</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Custom of causing men and women to + be stung with ants to improve their character and health or to + render them invulnerable.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The same ordeal, + under the same name, is also practised by the Wayanas, an Indian + tribe of French Guiana, but with them, we are told, it is no longer + deemed an indispensable preliminary to marriage; <span class= + "tei tei-q">“it is rather a sort of national medicine administered + chiefly to the youth of both sexes.”</span> Applied to men, the + <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">maraké</span></span>, as it is called, + <span class="tei tei-q">“sharpens them, prevents them from being + heavy and lazy, makes them active, brisk, industrious, imparts + strength, and helps them to shoot well with the bow; without it the + Indians would always be slack and rather sickly, would always have + a little fever, and would lie perpetually in their hammocks. As for + the women, the <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">maraké</span></span> keeps them from going to + sleep, renders them active, alert, brisk, <span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page064">[pg 064]</span><a name="Pg064" id="Pg064" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> gives them strength and a liking for work, + makes them good housekeepers, good workers at the stockade, good + makers of <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">cachiri</span></span>. Every one undergoes the + <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">maraké</span></span> at least twice in his + life, sometimes thrice, and oftener if he likes. It may be had from + the age of about eight years and upward, and no one thinks it odd + that a man of forty should voluntarily submit to it.”</span><a id= + "noteref_152" name="noteref_152" href="#note_152"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">152</span></span></a> + Similarly the Indians of St. Juan Capistrano in California used to + be branded on some part of their bodies, generally on the right + arm, but sometimes on the leg also, not as a proof of manly + fortitude, but because they believed that the custom <span class= + "tei tei-q">“added greater strength to the nerves, and gave a + better pulse for the management of the bow.”</span> Afterwards + <span class="tei tei-q">“they were whipped with nettles, and + covered with ants, that they might become robust, and the + infliction was always performed in summer, during the months of + July and August, when the nettle was in its most fiery state. They + gathered small bunches, which they fastened together, and the poor + deluded Indian was chastised, by inflicting blows with them upon + his naked limbs, until unable to walk; and then he was carried to + the nest of the nearest and most furious species of ants, and laid + down among them, while some of his friends, with sticks, kept + annoying the insects to make them still more violent. What torments + did they not undergo! What pain! What hellish inflictions! Yet + their faith gave them power to endure all without a murmur, and + they remained as if dead. Having undergone these dreadful ordeals, + they were considered as invulnerable, and believed that the arrows + of their enemies could no longer harm them.”</span><a id= + "noteref_153" name="noteref_153" href="#note_153"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">153</span></span></a> Among + the Alur, a tribe inhabiting the south-western region of the upper + Nile, to bury a man in an ant-hill and leave him there for a while + is the regular treatment for insanity.<a id="noteref_154" name= + "noteref_154" href="#note_154"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">154</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">In such cases the beating or + stinging was originally a purification; at a later time it is + interpreted as a test of courage and endurance.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In like manner + it is probable that beating or scourging as a religious or + ceremonial rite was originally a <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page065">[pg 065]</span><a name="Pg065" id="Pg065" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> mode of purification. It was meant to wipe + off and drive away a dangerous contagion, whether personified as + demoniacal or not, which was supposed to be adhering physically, + though invisibly, to the body of the sufferer.<a id="noteref_155" + name="noteref_155" href="#note_155"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">155</span></span></a> The + pain inflicted on the person beaten was no more the object of the + beating than it is of a surgical operation with us; it was a + necessary accident, that was all. In later times such customs were + interpreted otherwise, and the pain, from being an accident, became + the prime object of the ceremony, which was now regarded either as + a test of endurance imposed upon persons at critical epochs of + life, or as a mortification of the flesh well pleasing to the god. + But asceticism, under any shape or form, is never primitive. + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page066">[pg 066]</span><a name= + "Pg066" id="Pg066" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> The savage, it is + true, in certain circumstances will voluntarily subject himself to + pains and privations which appear to us wholly needless; but he + never acts thus unless he believes that some solid temporal + advantage is to be gained by so doing. Pain for the sake of pain, + whether as a moral discipline in this life or as a means of winning + a glorious immortality hereafter, is not an object which he sets + himself deliberately to pursue.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">This explanation confirmed with + reference to the beating of girls at puberty among the South + American Indians. Treatment of a girl at puberty among the + Banivas of the Orinoco. Symptoms of puberty in a girl regarded + as wounds inflicted by a demon.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">If this view is + correct, we can understand why so many Indian tribes of South + America compel the youth of both sexes to submit to these painful + and sometimes fatal ordeals. They imagine that in this way they rid + the young folk of certain evils inherent in youth, especially at + the critical age of puberty; and when they picture to themselves + the evils in a personal form as dangerous spirits or demons, the + ceremony of their expulsion may in the strict sense be termed an + exorcism. This certainly appears to be the interpretation which the + Banivas of the Orinoco put upon the cruel scourgings which they + inflict on girls at puberty. At her first menstruation a Baniva + girl must pass several days and nights in her hammock, almost + motionless and getting nothing to eat and drink but water and a + little manioc. While she lies there, the suitors for her hand apply + to her father, and he who can afford to give most for her or can + prove himself the best man, is promised the damsel in marriage. The + fast over, some old men enter the hut, bandage the girl's eyes, + cover her head with a bonnet of which the fringes fall on her + shoulders, and then lead her forth and tie her to a post set up in + an open place. The head of the post is carved in the shape of a + grotesque face. None but the old men may witness what follows. Were + a woman caught peeping and prying, it would go ill with her; she + would be marked out for the vengeance of the demon, who would make + her expiate her crime at the very next moon by madness or death. + Every participant in the ceremony comes armed with a scourge of + cords or of fish skins; some of them reinforce the virtue of the + instrument by tying little sharp stones to the end of the thongs. + Then, to the dismal and deafening notes of shell-trumpets blown by + two or three supernumeraries, the men circle round and round the + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page067">[pg 067]</span><a name= + "Pg067" id="Pg067" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> post, every one + applying his scourge as he passes to the girl's back, till it + streams with blood. At last the musicians, winding tremendous + blasts on their trumpets against the demon, advance and touch the + post in which he is supposed to be incorporate. Then the blows + cease to descend; the girl is untied, often in a fainting state, + and carried away to have her wounds washed and simples applied to + them. The youngest of the executioners, or rather of the exorcists, + hastens to inform her betrothed husband of the happy issue of the + exorcism. <span class="tei tei-q">“The spirit,”</span> he says, + <span class="tei tei-q">“had cast thy beloved into a sleep as deep + almost as that of death. But we have rescued her from his attacks, + and laid her down in such and such a place. Go seek her.”</span> + Then going from house to house through the village he cries to the + inmates, <span class="tei tei-q">“Come, let us burn the demon who + would have taken possession of such and such a girl, our + friend.”</span> The bridegroom at once carries his wounded and + suffering bride to his own house; and all the people gather round + the post for the pleasure of burning it and the demon together. A + great pile of firewood has meanwhile been heaped up about it, and + the women run round the pyre cursing in shrill voices the wicked + spirit who has wrought all this evil. The men join in with hoarser + cries and animate themselves for the business in hand by deep + draughts of an intoxicant which has been provided for the occasion + by the parents-in-law. Soon the bridegroom, having committed the + bride to the care of his mother, appears on the scene brandishing a + lighted torch. He addresses the demon with bitter mockery and + reproaches; informs him that the fair creature on whom he, the + demon, had nefarious designs, is now his, the bridegroom's, + blooming spouse; and shaking his torch at the grinning head on the + post, he screams out, <span class="tei tei-q">“This is how the + victims of thy persecution take vengeance on thee!”</span> With + these words he puts a light to the pyre. At once the drums strike + up, the trumpets blare, and men, women, and children begin to + dance. In two long rows they dance, the men on one side, the women + on the other, advancing till they almost touch and then retiring + again. After that the two rows join hands, and forming a huge + circle trip it round and round the blaze, till the post with its + grotesque face is consumed in the flames <span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page068">[pg 068]</span><a name="Pg068" id="Pg068" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> and nothing of the pyre remains but a heap of + red and glowing embers. <span class="tei tei-q">“The evil spirit + has been destroyed. Thus delivered from her persecutor, the young + wife will be free from sickness, will not die in childbed, and will + bear many children to her husband.”</span><a id="noteref_156" name= + "noteref_156" href="#note_156"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">156</span></span></a> From + this account it appears that the Banivas attribute the symptoms of + puberty in girls to the wounds inflicted on them by an amorous + devil, who, however, can be not only exorcised but burnt to ashes + at the stake.</p> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em"> + <a name="toc21" id="toc21"></a> <a name="pdf22" id="pdf22"></a> + + <h2 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em"> + <span style="font-size: 144%">§ 6. Seclusion of Girls at Puberty in + India and Cambodia.</span></h2> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Seclusion of girls at puberty + among the Hindoos, in Southern India.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">When a Hindoo + maiden reaches maturity she is kept in a dark room for four days, + and is forbidden to see the sun. She is regarded as unclean; no one + may touch her. Her diet is restricted to boiled rice, milk, sugar, + curd, and tamarind without salt. On the morning of the fifth day + she goes to a neighbouring tank, accompanied by five women whose + husbands are alive. Smeared with turmeric water, they all bathe and + return home, throwing away the mat and other things that were in + the room.<a id="noteref_157" name="noteref_157" href= + "#note_157"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">157</span></span></a> The + Rarhi Brahmans of Bengal compel a girl at puberty to live alone, + and do not allow her to see the face of any male. For three days + she remains shut up in a dark room, and has to undergo certain + penances. Fish, flesh, and sweetmeats are forbidden her; she must + live upon rice and ghee.<a id="noteref_158" name="noteref_158" + href="#note_158"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">158</span></span></a> Among + the Tiyans of Malabar a girl is thought to be polluted for four + days from the beginning of her first menstruation. During this time + she must keep to the north side of the house, where she sleeps on a + grass mat of a particular kind, in a room festooned with garlands + of young coco-nut leaves. Another girl keeps her company and sleeps + with her, but she may <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page069">[pg + 069]</span><a name="Pg069" id="Pg069" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + not touch any other person, tree or plant. Further, she may not see + the sky, and woe betide her if she catches sight of a crow or a + cat! Her diet must be strictly vegetarian, without salt, tamarinds, + or chillies. She is armed against evil spirits by a knife, which is + placed on the mat or carried on her person.<a id="noteref_159" + name="noteref_159" href="#note_159"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">159</span></span></a> Among + the Kappiliyans of Madura and Tinnevelly a girl at her first + monthly period remains under pollution for thirteen days, either in + a corner of the house, which is screened off for her use by her + maternal uncle, or in a temporary hut, which is erected by the same + relative on the common land of the village. On the thirteenth day + she bathes in a tank, and, on entering the house, steps over a + pestle and a cake. Near the entrance some food is placed and a dog + is allowed to partake of it; but his enjoyment is marred by + suffering, for while he eats he receives a sound thrashing, and the + louder he howls the better, for the larger will be the family to + which the young woman will give birth; should there be no howls, + there will be no children. The temporary hut in which the girl + passed the days of her seclusion is burnt down, and the pots which + she used are smashed to shivers.<a id="noteref_160" name= + "noteref_160" href="#note_160"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">160</span></span></a> + Similarly among the Parivarams of Madura, when a girl attains to + puberty she is kept for sixteen days in a hut, which is guarded at + night by her relations; and when her sequestration is over the hut + is burnt down and the pots she used are broken into very small + pieces, because they think that if rain-water gathered in any of + them, the girl would be childless.<a id="noteref_161" name= + "noteref_161" href="#note_161"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">161</span></span></a> The + Pulayars of Travancore build a special hut in the jungle for the + use of a girl at puberty; there she remains for seven days. No one + else may enter the hut, not even her mother. Women stand a little + way off and lay down food for her. At the end of the time she is + brought home, clad in a new or clean cloth, and friends are treated + to betel-nut, toddy, and arack.<a id="noteref_162" name= + "noteref_162" href="#note_162"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">162</span></span></a> Among + the Singhalese a girl at her first menstruation is confined to a + room, where she may neither see nor be seen by any male. After + being thus secluded for two weeks she is taken out, with her face + covered, and is bathed by women at the back <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page070">[pg 070]</span><a name="Pg070" id="Pg070" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> of the house. Near the bathing-place + are kept branches of any milk-bearing tree, usually of the + <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">jak</span></span>-tree. In some cases, while + the time of purification or uncleanness lasts, the maiden stays in + a separate hut, which is afterwards burnt down.<a id="noteref_163" + name="noteref_163" href="#note_163"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">163</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Seclusion of girls at puberty in + Cambodia.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In Cambodia a + girl at puberty is put to bed under a mosquito curtain, where she + should stay a hundred days. Usually, however, four, five, ten, or + twenty days are thought enough; and even this, in a hot climate and + under the close meshes of the curtain, is sufficiently + trying.<a id="noteref_164" name="noteref_164" href= + "#note_164"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">164</span></span></a> + According to another account, a Cambodian maiden at puberty is said + to <span class="tei tei-q">“enter into the shade.”</span> During + her retirement, which, according to the rank and position of her + family, may last any time from a few days to several years, she has + to observe a number of rules, such as not to be seen by a strange + man, not to eat flesh or fish, and so on. She goes nowhere, not + even to the pagoda. But this state of seclusion is discontinued + during eclipses; at such times she goes forth and pays her + devotions to the monster who is supposed to cause eclipses by + catching the heavenly bodies between his teeth.<a id="noteref_165" + name="noteref_165" href="#note_165"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">165</span></span></a> This + permission to break her rule of retirement and appear abroad during + an eclipse seems to shew how literally the injunction is + interpreted which forbids maidens entering on womanhood to look + upon the sun.</p> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em"> + <a name="toc23" id="toc23"></a> <a name="pdf24" id="pdf24"></a> + + <h2 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em"> + <span style="font-size: 144%">§ 7. Seclusion of Girls at Puberty in + Folk-tales.</span></h2> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Traces of the seclusion of girls + at puberty in folk-tales. Danish story of the girl who might + not see the sun.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">A superstition + so widely diffused as this might be expected to leave traces in + legends and folk-tales. And it has done so. In a Danish story we + read of a princess who was fated to be carried off by a warlock if + ever the sun shone on her before she had passed her thirtieth year; + so the king her father kept her shut up in the palace, and had all + the windows on the east, south, and west sides blocked up, lest a + sunbeam should fall on his darling child, and he <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page071">[pg 071]</span><a name="Pg071" id="Pg071" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> should thus lose her for ever. Only at + evening, when the sun was down, might she walk for a little in the + beautiful garden of the castle. In time a prince came a-wooing, + followed by a train of gorgeous knights and squires on horses all + ablaze with gold and silver. The king said the prince might have + his daughter to wife on condition that he would not carry her away + to his home till she was thirty years old but would live with her + in the castle, where the windows looked out only to the north. The + prince agreed, so married they were. The bride was only fifteen, + and fifteen more long weary years must pass before she might step + out of the gloomy donjon, breathe the fresh air, and see the sun. + But she and her gallant young bridegroom loved each other and they + were happy. Often they sat hand in hand at the window looking out + to the north and talked of what they would do when they were free. + Still it was a little dull to look out always at the same window + and to see nothing but the castle woods, and the distant hills, and + the clouds drifting silently over them. Well, one day it happened + that all the people in the castle had gone away to a neighbouring + castle to witness a tournament and other gaieties, and the two + young folks were left as usual all alone at the window looking out + to the north. They sat silent for a time gazing away to the hills. + It was a grey sad day, the sky was overcast, and the weather seemed + to draw to rain. At last the prince said, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“There will be no sunshine to-day. What if we were to + drive over and join the rest at the tournament?”</span> His young + wife gladly consented, for she longed to see more of the world than + those eternal green woods and those eternal blue hills, which were + all she ever saw from the window. So the horses were put into the + coach, and it rattled up to the door, and in they got and away they + drove. At first all went well. The clouds hung low over the woods, + the wind sighed in the trees, a drearier day you could hardly + imagine. So they joined the rest at the other castle and took their + seats to watch the jousting in the lists. So intent were they in + watching the gay spectacle of the prancing steeds, the fluttering + pennons, and the glittering armour of the knights, that they failed + to mark the change, the fatal change, in the <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page072">[pg 072]</span><a name="Pg072" id="Pg072" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> weather. For the wind was rising and + had begun to disperse the clouds, and suddenly the sun broke + through, and the glory of it fell like an aureole on the young + wife, and at once she vanished away. No sooner did her husband miss + her from his side than he, too, mysteriously disappeared. The + tournament broke up in confusion, the bereft father hastened home, + and shut himself up in the dark castle from which the light of life + had departed. The green woods and the blue hills could still be + seen from the window that looked to the north, but the young faces + that had gazed out of it so wistfully were gone, as it seemed, for + ever.<a id="noteref_166" name="noteref_166" href= + "#note_166"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">166</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Tyrolese story of the girl who + might not see the sun.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">A Tyrolese story + tells how it was the doom of a lovely maiden with golden hair to be + transported into the belly of a whale if ever a sunbeam fell on + her. Hearing of the fame of her beauty the king of the country sent + for her to be his bride, and her brother drove the fair damsel to + the palace in a carefully closed coach, himself sitting on the box + and handling the reins. On the way they overtook two hideous + witches, who pretended they were weary and begged for a lift in the + coach. At first the brother refused to take them in, but his + tender-hearted sister entreated him to have compassion on the two + poor footsore women; for you may easily imagine that she was not + acquainted with their true character. So down he got rather surlily + from the box, opened the coach door, and in the two witches + stepped, laughing in their sleeves. But no sooner had the brother + mounted the box and whipped up the horses, than one of the two + wicked witches bored a hole in the closed coach. A sunbeam at once + shot through the hole and fell on the fair damsel. So she vanished + from the coach and was spirited away into the belly of a whale in + the neighbouring sea. You can imagine the consternation of the + king, when the coach door opened and instead of his blooming bride + out bounced two hideous hags!<a id="noteref_167" name="noteref_167" + href="#note_167"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">167</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Modern Greek stories of the maid + who might not see the sun.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In a modern + Greek folk-tale the Fates predict that in her fifteenth year a + princess must be careful not to let the sun <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page073">[pg 073]</span><a name="Pg073" id="Pg073" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> shine on her, for if this were to + happen she would be turned into a lizard.<a id="noteref_168" name= + "noteref_168" href="#note_168"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">168</span></span></a> In + another modern Greek tale the Sun bestows a daughter upon a + childless woman on condition of taking the child back to himself + when she is twelve years old. So, when the child was twelve, the + mother closed the doors and windows, and stopped up all the chinks + and crannies, to prevent the Sun from coming to fetch away her + daughter. But she forgot to stop up the key-hole, and a sunbeam + streamed through it and carried off the girl.<a id="noteref_169" + name="noteref_169" href="#note_169"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">169</span></span></a> In a + Sicilian story a seer foretells that a king will have a daughter + who, in her fourteenth year, will conceive a child by the Sun. So, + when the child was born, the king shut her up in a lonely tower + which had no window, lest a sunbeam should fall on her. When she + was nearly fourteen years old, it happened that her parents sent + her a piece of roasted kid, in which she found a sharp bone. With + this bone she scraped a hole in the wall, and a sunbeam shot + through the hole and got her with child.<a id="noteref_170" name= + "noteref_170" href="#note_170"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">170</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The story of Danae and its + parallel in a Kirghiz legend.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The old Greek + story of Danae, who was confined by <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page074">[pg 074]</span><a name="Pg074" id="Pg074" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> her father in a subterranean chamber or a + brazen tower, but impregnated by Zeus, who reached her in the shape + of a shower of gold,<a id="noteref_171" name="noteref_171" href= + "#note_171"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">171</span></span></a> + perhaps belongs to the same class of tales. It has its counterpart + in the legend which the Kirghiz of Siberia tell of their ancestry. + A certain Khan had a fair daughter, whom he kept in a dark iron + house, that no man might see her. An old woman tended her; and when + the girl was grown to maidenhood she asked the old woman, + <span class="tei tei-q">“Where do you go so often?”</span> + <span class="tei tei-q">“My child,”</span> said the old dame, + <span class="tei tei-q">“there is a bright world. In that bright + world your father and mother live, and all sorts of people live + there. That is where I go.”</span> The maiden said, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Good mother, I will tell nobody, but shew me that + bright world.”</span> So the old woman took the girl out of the + iron house. But when she saw the bright world, the girl tottered + and fainted; and the eye of God fell upon her, and she conceived. + Her angry father put her in a golden chest and sent her floating + away (fairy gold can float in fairyland) over the wide sea.<a id= + "noteref_172" name="noteref_172" href="#note_172"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">172</span></span></a> The + shower of gold in the Greek story, and the eye of God in the + Kirghiz legend, probably stand for sunlight and the sun.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Impregnation of women by the sun + in legends.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The idea that + women may be impregnated by the sun is not uncommon in legends. + Thus, for example, among the Indians of Guacheta in Colombia, it is + said, a report once ran that the sun would impregnate one of their + maidens, who should bear a child and yet remain a virgin. The chief + had two daughters, and was very desirous that one of them should + conceive in this miraculous manner. So every day he made them climb + a hill to the east of his house in order to be touched by the first + beams of the rising sun. His wishes were fulfilled, for one of the + damsels conceived and after nine months gave birth to an emerald. + So she wrapped it in cotton and placed it in her bosom, and in a + few days it turned into a child, who received the name of + Garanchacha and was universally recognized as a son of the + sun.<a id="noteref_173" name="noteref_173" href= + "#note_173"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">173</span></span></a> + Again, the Samoans tell of a woman named Mangamangai, <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page075">[pg 075]</span><a name="Pg075" id="Pg075" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> who became pregnant by looking at the + rising sun. Her son grew up and was named <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Child of the Sun.”</span> At his marriage he applied + to his mother for a dowry, but she bade him apply to his father, + the sun, and told him how to go to him. So one morning he took a + long vine and made a noose in it; then climbing up a tree he threw + the noose over the sun and caught him fast. Thus arrested in his + progress, the luminary asked him what he wanted, and being told by + the young man that he wanted a present for his bride, the sun + obligingly packed up a store of blessings in a basket, with which + the youth descended to the earth.<a id="noteref_174" name= + "noteref_174" href="#note_174"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">174</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Traces in marriage customs of the + belief that women can be impregnated by the sun. Belief in the + impregnation of women by the moon.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Even in the + marriage customs of various races we may perhaps detect traces of + this belief that women can be impregnated by the sun. Thus amongst + the Chaco Indians of South America a newly married couple used to + sleep the first night on a mare's or bullock's skin with their + heads towards the west, <span class="tei tei-q">“for the marriage + is not considered ratified till the rising sun shines on their feet + the succeeding morning.”</span><a id="noteref_175" name= + "noteref_175" href="#note_175"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">175</span></span></a> At + old Hindoo marriages the first ceremony was the <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Impregnation-rite”</span> (<span class= + "tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Garbhādhāna</span></span>); during the + previous day the bride was made to look towards the sun or to be in + some way exposed to its rays.<a id="noteref_176" name="noteref_176" + href="#note_176"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">176</span></span></a> + Amongst the Turks of Siberia it was formerly the custom on the + morning after the marriage to lead the young couple out of the hut + to greet the rising sun. The same custom is said to be still + practised in Iran and Central Asia under a belief that the beams of + the rising sun are the surest means of impregnating the new + bride.<a id="noteref_177" name="noteref_177" href= + "#note_177"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">177</span></span></a> And + as some people think that women may be gotten with child by the + sun, so others imagine that they can conceive by the moon. + According to the Greenlanders <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page076">[pg 076]</span><a name="Pg076" id="Pg076" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> the moon is a young man, and he <span class= + "tei tei-q">“now and then comes down to give their wives a visit + and caress them; for which reason no woman dare sleep lying upon + her back, without she first spits upon her fingers and rubs her + belly with it. For the same reason the young maids are afraid to + stare long at the moon, imagining they may get a child by the + bargain.”</span><a id="noteref_178" name="noteref_178" href= + "#note_178"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">178</span></span></a> + Similarly Breton peasants are reported to believe that women or + girls who expose their persons to the moonlight may be impregnated + by it and give birth to monsters.<a id="noteref_179" name= + "noteref_179" href="#note_179"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">179</span></span></a></p> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em"> + <a name="toc25" id="toc25"></a> <a name="pdf26" id="pdf26"></a> + + <h2 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em"> + <span style="font-size: 144%">§ 8. Reasons for the Seclusion of + Girls at Puberty.</span></h2> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The reason for the seclusion of + women at puberty is the dread of menstruous blood.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The motive for + the restraints so commonly imposed on girls at puberty is the + deeply engrained dread which primitive man universally entertains + of menstruous blood. He fears it at all times but especially on its + first appearance; hence the restrictions under which women lie at + their first menstruation are usually more stringent than those + which they have to observe at any subsequent recurrence of the + mysterious flow. Some evidence of the fear and of the customs based + on it has been cited in an earlier part of this work;<a id= + "noteref_180" name="noteref_180" href="#note_180"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">180</span></span></a> but + as the terror, for it is nothing less, which the phenomenon + periodically strikes into the mind of the savage has deeply + influenced his life and institutions, it may be well to illustrate + the subject with some further examples.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Dread and seclusion of menstruous + women among the aborigines of Australia.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Thus in the + Encounter Bay tribe of South Australia there is, or used to be, a + <span class="tei tei-q">“superstition which obliges a woman to + separate herself from the camp at the time of her monthly illness, + when, if a young man or boy should approach, she calls out, and he + immediately makes a circuit to avoid her. If she is neglectful upon + this point, she exposes herself to scolding, and sometimes to + severe beating by her husband or nearest relation, because the boys + are told from their infancy, that if they see the blood they will + early become grey-headed, and their strength will fail + prematurely.”</span><a id="noteref_181" name="noteref_181" href= + "#note_181"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">181</span></span></a> And + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page077">[pg 077]</span><a name= + "Pg077" id="Pg077" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> of the South + Australian aborigines in general we read that there is a + <span class="tei tei-q">“custom requiring all boys and uninitiated + young men to sleep at some distance from the huts of the adults, + and to remove altogether away in the morning as soon as daylight + dawns, and the natives begin to move about. This is to prevent + their seeing the women, some of whom may be menstruating; and if + looked upon by the young males, it is supposed that dire results + will follow.”</span><a id="noteref_182" name="noteref_182" href= + "#note_182"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">182</span></span></a> And + amongst these tribes women in their courses <span class= + "tei tei-q">“are not allowed to eat fish of any kind, or to go near + the water at all; it being one of their superstitions, that if a + female, in that state, goes near the water, no success can be + expected by the men in fishing.”</span><a id="noteref_183" name= + "noteref_183" href="#note_183"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">183</span></span></a> + Similarly, among the natives of the Murray River, menstruous women + <span class="tei tei-q">“were not allowed to go near water for fear + of frightening the fish. They were also not allowed to eat them, + for the same reason. A woman during such periods would never cross + the river in a canoe, or even fetch water for the camp. It was + sufficient for her to say <span class= + "tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">Thama</span></span>, + to ensure her husband getting the water himself.”</span><a id= + "noteref_184" name="noteref_184" href="#note_184"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">184</span></span></a> The + Dieri of Central Australia believe that if women at these times + were to eat fish or bathe in a river, the fish would all die and + the water would dry up. In this tribe a mark made with red ochre + round a woman's mouth indicates that she has her courses; no one + would offer fish to such a woman.<a id="noteref_185" name= + "noteref_185" href="#note_185"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">185</span></span></a> The + Arunta of Central Australia forbid menstruous women to gather the + <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">irriakura</span></span> bulbs, which form a + staple article of diet for both men and women. They believe that + were a woman to break this rule, the supply of bulbs would + fail.<a id="noteref_186" name="noteref_186" href= + "#note_186"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">186</span></span></a> Among + the aborigines of Victoria the wife at her monthly periods had to + sleep on the opposite side of the fire from her husband; she might + partake of nobody's food, and nobody would partake of hers, for + people thought that if they ate or drank anything that had been + touched by a woman in her courses, it would make them weak or ill. + Unmarried girls <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page078">[pg + 078]</span><a name="Pg078" id="Pg078" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + and widows at such times had to paint their heads and the upper + parts of their bodies red,<a id="noteref_187" name="noteref_187" + href="#note_187"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">187</span></span></a> no + doubt as a danger signal.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Severe penalties inflicted for + breaches of the custom of seclusion.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In some + Australian tribes the seclusion of menstruous women was even more + rigid, and was enforced by severer penalties than a scolding or a + beating. Thus with regard to certain tribes of New South Wales and + Southern Queensland we are told that <span class= + "tei tei-q">“during the monthly illness, the woman is not allowed + to touch anything that men use, or even to walk on a path that any + man frequents, on pain of death.”</span><a id="noteref_188" name= + "noteref_188" href="#note_188"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">188</span></span></a> + Again, <span class="tei tei-q">“there is a regulation relating to + camps in the Wakelbura tribe which forbids the women coming into + the encampment by the same path as the men. Any violation of this + rule would in a large camp be punished with death. The reason for + this is the dread with which they regard the menstrual period of + women. During such a time, a woman is kept entirely away from the + camp, half a mile at least. A woman in such a condition has boughs + of some tree of her totem tied round her loins, and is constantly + watched and guarded, for it is thought that should any male be so + unfortunate as to see a woman in such a condition, he would die. If + such a woman were to let herself be seen by a man, she would + probably be put to death. When the woman has recovered, she is + painted red and white, her head covered with feathers, and returns + to the camp.”</span><a id="noteref_189" name="noteref_189" href= + "#note_189"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">189</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Dread and seclusion of menstruous + women in the Torres Straits Islands, New Guinea, Galela, and + Sumatra.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In Muralug, one + of the Torres Straits Islands, a menstruous woman may not eat + anything that lives in the sea, else the natives believe that the + fisheries would fail. Again, in Mabuiag, another of these islands, + women who have their courses on them may not eat turtle flesh nor + turtle eggs, probably for a similar reason. And during the season + when the turtles are pairing the restrictions laid on <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page079">[pg 079]</span><a name="Pg079" id="Pg079" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> such a woman are much severer. She may + not even enter a house in which there is turtle flesh, nor approach + a fire on which the flesh is cooking; she may not go near the sea + and she should not walk on the beach below high-water mark. Nay, + the infection extends to her husband, who may not himself harpoon + or otherwise take an active part in catching turtle; however, he is + permitted to form one of the crew on a turtling expedition, + provided he takes the precaution of rubbing his armpits with + certain leaves, to which no doubt a disinfectant virtue is + ascribed.<a id="noteref_190" name="noteref_190" href= + "#note_190"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">190</span></span></a> Among + the Kai of German New Guinea women at their monthly sickness must + live in little huts built for them in the forest; they may not + enter the cultivated fields, for if they did go to them, and the + pigs were to taste of the blood, it would inspire the animals with + an irresistible desire to go likewise into the fields, where they + would commit great depredations on the growing crops. Hence the + issue from women at these times is carefully buried to prevent the + pigs from getting at it. And conversely, if the pigs often break + into the fields, the blame is laid on the women who by the neglect + of these elementary precautions have put temptation in the way of + the swine.<a id="noteref_191" name="noteref_191" href= + "#note_191"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">191</span></span></a> In + Galela, to the west of New Guinea, women at their monthly periods + may not enter a tobacco-field, or the plants would be attacked by + disease.<a id="noteref_192" name="noteref_192" href= + "#note_192"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">192</span></span></a> The + Minangkabauers of Sumatra are persuaded that if a woman in her + unclean state were to go near a rice-field, the crop would be + spoiled.<a id="noteref_193" name="noteref_193" href= + "#note_193"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">193</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Dread and seclusion of menstruous + women among the tribes of South Africa, Central and East + Africa.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The Bushmen of + South Africa think that, by a glance of a girl's eye at the time + when she ought to be kept in strict retirement, men become fixed in + whatever position they happen to occupy, with whatever they were + holding in their hands, and are changed into trees that talk.<a id= + "noteref_194" name="noteref_194" href="#note_194"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">194</span></span></a> + Cattle-rearing <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page080">[pg + 080]</span><a name="Pg080" id="Pg080" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + tribes of South Africa hold that their cattle would die if the milk + were drunk by a menstruous woman;<a id="noteref_195" name= + "noteref_195" href="#note_195"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">195</span></span></a> and + they fear the same disaster if a drop of her blood were to fall on + the ground and the oxen were to pass over it. To prevent such a + calamity women in general, not menstruous women only, are forbidden + to enter the cattle enclosure; and more than that, they may not use + the ordinary paths in entering the village or in passing from one + hut to another. They are obliged to make circuitous tracks at the + back of the huts in order to avoid the ground in the middle of the + village where the cattle stand or lie down. These women's tracks + may be seen at every Caffre village.<a id="noteref_196" name= + "noteref_196" href="#note_196"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">196</span></span></a> + Similarly among the Bahima, a cattle-breeding tribe of Ankole, in + Central Africa, no menstruous woman may drink milk, lest by so + doing she should injure the cows; and she may not lie on her + husband's bed, no doubt lest she should injure him. Indeed she is + forbidden to lie on a bed at all and must sleep on the ground. Her + diet is restricted to vegetables and beer.<a id="noteref_197" name= + "noteref_197" href="#note_197"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">197</span></span></a> Among + the Baganda, in like manner, no menstruous woman might drink milk + or come into contact with any milk-vessel;<a id="noteref_198" name= + "noteref_198" href="#note_198"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">198</span></span></a> and + she might not touch anything that belonged to her husband, nor sit + on his mat, nor cook his food. If she touched anything of his at + such a time it was deemed equivalent to wishing him dead or to + actually working magic for his destruction.<a id="noteref_199" + name="noteref_199" href="#note_199"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">199</span></span></a> Were + she to handle any article of his, he would surely fall ill; were + she to handle his weapons, he would certainly be killed in the next + battle. Even a woman <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page081">[pg + 081]</span><a name="Pg081" id="Pg081" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + who did not menstruate was believed by the Baganda to be a source + of danger to her husband, indeed capable of killing him. Hence, + before he went to war, he used to wound her slightly with his spear + so as to draw blood; this was thought to ensure his safe + return.<a id="noteref_200" name="noteref_200" href= + "#note_200"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">200</span></span></a> + Apparently the notion was that if the wife did not lose blood in + one way or another, her husband would be bled in war to make up for + her deficiency; so by way of guarding against this undesirable + event, he took care to relieve her of a little superfluous blood + before he repaired to the field of honour. Further, the Baganda + would not suffer a menstruous woman to visit a well; if she did so, + they feared that the water would dry up, and that she herself would + fall sick and die, unless she confessed her fault and the + medicine-man made atonement for her.<a id="noteref_201" name= + "noteref_201" href="#note_201"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">201</span></span></a> Among + the Akikuyu of British East Africa, if a new hut is built in a + village and the wife chances to menstruate in it on the day she + lights the first fire there, the hut must be broken down and + demolished the very next day. The woman may on no account sleep a + second night in it; there is a curse (<span class= + "tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">thahu</span></span>) both on her and on + it.<a id="noteref_202" name="noteref_202" href= + "#note_202"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">202</span></span></a> In + the Suk tribe of British East Africa warriors may not eat anything + that has been touched by menstruous women. If they did so, it is + believed that they would lose their virility; <span class= + "tei tei-q">“in the rain they will shiver and in the heat they will + faint.”</span> Suk men and women take their meals apart, because + the men fear that one or more of the women may be + menstruating.<a id="noteref_203" name="noteref_203" href= + "#note_203"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">203</span></span></a> The + Anyanja of British Central Africa, at the southern end of Lake + Nyassa, think that a man who should sleep with a woman in her + courses would fall sick and die, unless some remedy were applied in + time. And with them it is a rule that at such times a woman should + not put any salt into the food she is cooking, otherwise the people + who partook of the food salted by her would suffer from a certain + disease called <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page082">[pg + 082]</span><a name="Pg082" id="Pg082" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">tsempo</span></span>; hence to obviate the + danger she calls a child to put the salt into the dish.<a id= + "noteref_204" name="noteref_204" href="#note_204"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">204</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Dread and seclusion of menstruous + women among the tribes of West Africa.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Among the Hos, a + tribe of Ewe negroes of Togoland in West Africa, so long as a wife + has her monthly sickness she may not cook for her husband, nor lie + on his bed, nor sit on his stool; an infraction of these rules + would assuredly, it is believed, cause her husband to die. If her + husband is a priest, or a magician, or a chief, she may not pass + the days of her uncleanness in the house, but must go elsewhere + till she is clean.<a id="noteref_205" name="noteref_205" href= + "#note_205"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">205</span></span></a> Among + the Ewe negroes of this region each village has its huts where + women who have their courses on them must spend their time secluded + from intercourse with other people. Sometimes these huts stand by + themselves in public places; sometimes they are mere shelters built + either at the back or front of the ordinary dwelling-houses. A + woman is punishable if she does not pass the time of her monthly + sickness in one of these huts or shelters provided for her use. + Thus, if she shews herself in her own house or even in the yard of + the house, she may be fined a sheep, which is killed, its flesh + divided among the people, and its blood poured on the image of the + chief god as a sin-offering to expiate her offence. She is also + forbidden to go to the place where the villagers draw water, and if + she breaks the rule, she must give a goat to be killed; its flesh + is distributed, and its blood, diluted with water and mixed with + herbs, is sprinkled on the watering-place and on the paths leading + to it. Were any woman to disregard these salutary precautions, the + chief fetish-man in the village would fall sick and die, which + would be an irreparable loss to society.<a id="noteref_206" name= + "noteref_206" href="#note_206"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">206</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Powerful influence ascribed to + menstruous blood in Arab legend.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The miraculous + virtue ascribed to menstruous blood is well illustrated in a story + told by the Arab chronicler Tabari. He relates how Sapor, king of + Persia, besieged the strong city of Atrae, in the desert of + Mesopotamia, for several years without <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page083">[pg 083]</span><a name="Pg083" id="Pg083" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> being able to take it. But the king of the + city, whose name was Daizan, had a daughter, and when it was with + her after the manner of women she went forth from the city and + dwelt for a time in the suburb, for such was the custom of the + place. Now it fell out that, while she tarried there, Sapor saw her + and loved her, and she loved him; for he was a handsome man and she + a lovely maid. And she said to him, <span class="tei tei-q">“What + will you give me if I shew you how you may destroy the walls of + this city and slay my father?”</span> And he said to her, + <span class="tei tei-q">“I will give you what you will, and I will + exalt you above my other wives, and will set you nearer to me than + them all.”</span> Then she said to him, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Take a greenish dove with a ring about its neck, and + write something on its foot with the menstruous blood of a + blue-eyed maid; then let the bird loose, and it will perch on the + walls of the city, and they will fall down.”</span> For that, says + the Arab historian, was the talisman of the city, which could not + be destroyed in any other way. And Sapor did as she bade him, and + the city fell down in a heap, and he stormed it and slew Daizan on + the spot.<a id="noteref_207" name="noteref_207" href= + "#note_207"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">207</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Dread and seclusion of menstruous + women among the Jews, in Syria, India, and Annam.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">According to the + Talmud, if a woman at the beginning of her period passes between + two men, she thereby kills one of them; if she passes between them + towards the end of her period, she only causes them to quarrel + violently.<a id="noteref_208" name="noteref_208" href= + "#note_208"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">208</span></span></a> + Maimonides tells us that down to his time it was a common custom in + the East to keep women at their periods in a separate house and to + burn everything on which they had trodden; a man who spoke with + such a woman or who was merely exposed to the same wind that blew + over her, became thereby unclean.<a id="noteref_209" name= + "noteref_209" href="#note_209"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">209</span></span></a> + Peasants of the Lebanon think that menstruous women are the cause + of many misfortunes; their shadow <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page084">[pg 084]</span><a name="Pg084" id="Pg084" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> causes flowers to wither and trees to perish, + it even arrests the movements of serpents; if one of them mounts a + horse, the animal might die or at least be disabled for a long + time.<a id="noteref_210" name="noteref_210" href= + "#note_210"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">210</span></span></a> In + Syria to this day a woman who has her courses on her may neither + salt nor pickle, for the people think that whatever she pickled or + salted would not keep.<a id="noteref_211" name="noteref_211" href= + "#note_211"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">211</span></span></a> The + Toaripi of New Guinea, doubtless for a similar reason, will not + allow women at such times to cook.<a id="noteref_212" name= + "noteref_212" href="#note_212"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">212</span></span></a> The + Bhuiyars, a Dravidian tribe of South Mirzapur, are said to feel an + intense dread of menstrual pollution. Every house has two doors, + one of which is used only by women in this condition. During her + impurity the wife is fed by her husband apart from the rest of the + family, and whenever she has to quit the house she is obliged to + creep out on her hands and knees in order not to defile the thatch + by her touch.<a id="noteref_213" name="noteref_213" href= + "#note_213"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">213</span></span></a> The + Kharwars, another aboriginal tribe of the same district, keep their + women at such seasons in the outer verandah of the house for eight + days, and will not let them enter the kitchen or the cow-house; + during this time the unclean woman may not cook nor even touch the + cooking vessels. When the eight days are over, she bathes, washes + her clothes, and returns to family life.<a id="noteref_214" name= + "noteref_214" href="#note_214"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">214</span></span></a> + Hindoo women seclude themselves at their monthly periods and + observe a number of rules, such as not to drink milk, not to milk + cows, not to touch fire, not to lie on a high bed, not to walk on + common paths, not to cross the track of animals, not to walk by the + side of flowering plants, and not to observe the heavenly + bodies.<a id="noteref_215" name="noteref_215" href= + "#note_215"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">215</span></span></a> The + motive for these <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page085">[pg + 085]</span><a name="Pg085" id="Pg085" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + restrictions is not mentioned, but probably it is a dread of the + baleful influence which is supposed to emanate from women at these + times. The Parsees, who reverence fire, will not suffer menstruous + women to see it or even to look on a lighted taper;<a id= + "noteref_216" name="noteref_216" href="#note_216"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">216</span></span></a> + during their infirmity the women retire from their houses to little + lodges in the country, whither victuals are brought to them daily; + at the end of their seclusion they bathe and send a kid, a fowl, or + a pigeon to the priest as an offering.<a id="noteref_217" name= + "noteref_217" href="#note_217"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">217</span></span></a> In + Annam a woman at her monthly periods is deemed a centre of + impurity, and contact with her is avoided. She is subject to all + sorts of restrictions which she must observe herself and which + others must observe towards her. She may not touch any food which + is to be preserved by salting, whether it be fish, flesh, or + vegetables; for were she to touch it the food would putrefy. She + may not enter any sacred place, she may not be present at any + religious ceremony. The linen which she wears at such times must be + washed by herself at sunrise, never at night. On reaching puberty + girls may not touch flowers or the fruits of certain trees, for + touched by them the flowers would fade and the fruits fall to the + ground. <span class="tei tei-q">“It is on account of their + reputation for impurity that the women generally live isolated. In + every house they have an apartment reserved for them, and they + never eat at the same table as the men. For the same reason they + are excluded from all religious ceremonies. They may only be + present at family ceremonies, but without ever officiating in + them.”</span><a id="noteref_218" name="noteref_218" href= + "#note_218"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">218</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Dread and seclusion of menstruous + women among the Indians of South and Central America.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The Guayquiries + of the Orinoco think that when a woman has her courses, everything + upon which she steps will die, and that if a man treads on the + place where she has passed, his legs will immediately swell + up.<a id="noteref_219" name="noteref_219" href= + "#note_219"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">219</span></span></a> Among + the Guaraunos of the same great river, women at their periods are + regarded as unclean and kept apart in special huts, where + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page086">[pg 086]</span><a name= + "Pg086" id="Pg086" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> all that they need + is brought to them.<a id="noteref_220" name="noteref_220" href= + "#note_220"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">220</span></span></a> In + like manner among the Piapocos, an Indian tribe on the Guayabero, a + tributary of the Orinoco, a menstruous woman is secluded from her + family every month for four or five days. She passes the time in a + special hut, whither her husband brings her food; and at the end of + the time she takes a bath and resumes her usual occupations.<a id= + "noteref_221" name="noteref_221" href="#note_221"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">221</span></span></a> So + among the Indians of the Mosquito territory in Central America, + when a woman is in her courses, she must quit the village for seven + or eight days. A small hut is built for her in the wood, and at + night some of the village girls go and sleep with her to keep her + company. Or if the nights are dark and jaguars are known to be + prowling in the neighbourhood, her husband will take his gun or bow + and sleep in a hammock near her. She may neither handle nor cook + food; all is prepared and carried to her. When the sickness is + over, she bathes in the river, puts on clean clothes, and returns + to her household duties.<a id="noteref_222" name="noteref_222" + href="#note_222"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">222</span></span></a> Among + the Bri-bri Indians of Costa Rica a girl at her first menstruation + retires to a hut built for the purpose in the forest, and there she + must stay till she has been purified by a medicine-man, who + breathes on her and places various objects, such as feathers, the + beaks of birds, the teeth of beasts, and so forth, upon her body. A + married woman at her periods remains in the house with her husband, + but she is reckoned unclean (<span class= + "tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">bukuru</span></span>) and must avoid all + intimate relations with him. She uses for plates only banana + leaves, which, when she has done with them, she throws away in a + sequestered spot; for should a cow find and eat them, the animal + would waste away and perish. Also she drinks only out of a special + vessel, because any person who should afterwards drink out of the + same vessel would infallibly pine away and die.<a id="noteref_223" + name="noteref_223" href="#note_223"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">223</span></span></a></p><span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page087">[pg 087]</span><a name="Pg087" id="Pg087" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Dread and seclusion of menstruous + women among the Indians of North America.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Among most + tribes of North American Indians the custom was that women in their + courses retired from the camp or the village and lived during the + time of their uncleanness in special huts or shelters which were + appropriated to their use. There they dwelt apart, eating and + sleeping by themselves, warming themselves at their own fires, and + strictly abstaining from all communications with men, who shunned + them just as if they were stricken with the plague. No article of + furniture used in these menstrual huts might be used in any other, + not even the flint and steel with which in the old days the fires + were kindled. No one would borrow a light from a woman in her + seclusion. If a white man in his ignorance asked to light his pipe + at her fire, she would refuse to grant the request, telling him + that it would make his nose bleed and his head ache, and that he + would fall sick in consequence. If an Indian's wooden pipe cracked, + his friends would think that he had either lit it at one of these + polluted fires or had held some converse with a woman during her + retirement, which was esteemed a most disgraceful and wicked thing + to do. Decent men would not approach within a certain distance of a + woman at such times, and if they had to convey anything to her they + would stand some forty or fifty paces off and throw it to her. + Everything which was touched by her hands during this period was + deemed ceremonially unclean. Indeed her touch was thought to convey + such pollution that if she chanced to lay a finger on a chief's + lodge or his gun or anything else belonging to him, it would be + instantly destroyed. If she crossed the path of a hunter or a + warrior, his luck for that day at least would be gone. Were she not + thus secluded, it was supposed that the men would be attacked by + diseases of various kinds, which would prove mortal. In some tribes + a woman who infringed the rules of separation might have to answer + with her life for any misfortunes that might happen to individuals + or to the tribe in consequence, as it was supposed, of her criminal + negligence. When she quitted her tent or hut to go into retirement, + the fire in it was extinguished and the ashes thrown away outside + of the village, and a new fire was kindled, as if the old one had + been defiled by her presence. At the end of their <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page088">[pg 088]</span><a name="Pg088" id="Pg088" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> seclusion the women bathed in running + streams and returned to their usual occupations.<a id="noteref_224" + name="noteref_224" href="#note_224"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">224</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Dread and seclusion of menstruous + women among the Creek, Choctaw, Omaha, and Cheyenne + Indians.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Thus, to take + examples, the Creek and kindred Indians of the United States + compelled women at menstruation to live in separate huts at some + distance from the village. There the women had to stay, at the risk + of being surprised and cut off by enemies. It was thought + <span class="tei tei-q">“a most horrid and dangerous + pollution”</span> to go near the women at such times; and the + danger extended to enemies who, if they slew the women, had to + cleanse themselves from the pollution by means of certain sacred + herbs and roots.<a id="noteref_225" name="noteref_225" href= + "#note_225"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">225</span></span></a> + Similarly, the Choctaw women had to quit their huts during their + monthly periods, and might not return till after they had been + purified. While their uncleanness lasted they had to prepare their + own food. The men believed that if they were to approach a + menstruous woman, they would fall ill, and that some mishap would + overtake them when they went to the wars.<a id="noteref_226" name= + "noteref_226" href="#note_226"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">226</span></span></a> When + an Omaha woman has her courses on her, she retires from the family + to a little shelter of bark or grass, supported by sticks, where + she kindles a fire and cooks her victuals alone. Her seclusion + lasts four days. During this time she may not approach or touch a + horse, for the Indians believe that <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page089">[pg 089]</span><a name="Pg089" id="Pg089" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> such contamination would impoverish or weaken + the animal.<a id="noteref_227" name="noteref_227" href= + "#note_227"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">227</span></span></a> Among + the Potawatomis the women at their monthly periods <span class= + "tei tei-q">“are not allowed to associate with the rest of the + nation; they are completely laid aside, and are not permitted to + touch any article of furniture or food which the men have occasion + to use. If the Indians be stationary at the time, the women are + placed outside of the camp; if on a march, they are not allowed to + follow the trail, but must take a different path and keep at a + distance from the main body.”</span><a id="noteref_228" name= + "noteref_228" href="#note_228"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">228</span></span></a> Among + the Cheyennes menstruous women slept in special lodges; the men + believed that if they slept with their wives at such times, they + would probably be wounded in their next battle. A man who owned a + shield had very particularly to be on his guard against women in + their courses. He might not go into a lodge where one of them + happened to be, nor even into a lodge where one of them had been, + until a ceremony of purification had been performed. Sweet grass + and juniper were burnt in the tent, and the pegs were pulled up and + the covering thrown back, as if the tent were about to be struck. + After this pretence of decamping from the polluted spot the owner + of the shield might enter the tent.<a id="noteref_229" name= + "noteref_229" href="#note_229"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">229</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Dread and seclusion of menstruous + women among the Indians of British Columbia.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The Stseelis + Indians of British Columbia imagined that if a menstruous woman + were to step over a bundle of arrows, the arrows would thereby be + rendered useless and might even cause the death of their owner; and + similarly that if she passed in front of a hunter who carried a + gun, the weapon would never shoot straight again. Neither her + husband nor her father would dream of going out to hunt while she + was in this state; and even if he had wished to do so, the other + hunters would not go with him. Hence to keep them out of harm's + way, the women, both married and unmarried, were secluded at these + times for four days in shelters.<a id="noteref_230" name= + "noteref_230" href="#note_230"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">230</span></span></a> Among + the Thompson <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page090">[pg + 090]</span><a name="Pg090" id="Pg090" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + Indians of British Columbia every woman had to isolate herself from + the rest of the people during every recurring period of + menstruation, and had to live some little way off in a small brush + or bark lodge made for the purpose. At these times she was + considered unclean, must use cooking and eating utensils of her + own, and was supplied with food by some other woman. If she smoked + out of a pipe other than her own, that pipe would ever afterwards + be hot to smoke. If she crossed in front of a gun, that gun would + thenceforth be useless for the war or the chase, unless indeed the + owner promptly washed the weapon in <span class= + "tei tei-q">“medecine”</span> or struck the woman with it once on + each principal part of her body. If a man ate or had any + intercourse with a menstruous woman, nay if he merely wore clothes + or mocassins made or patched by her, he would have bad luck in + hunting and the bears would attack him fiercely. Before being + admitted again among the people, she had to change all her clothes + and wash several times in clear water. The clothes worn during her + isolation were hung on a tree, to be used next time, or to be + washed. For one day after coming back among the people she did not + cook food. Were a man to eat food cooked by a woman at such times, + he would have incapacitated himself for hunting and exposed himself + to sickness or death.<a id="noteref_231" name="noteref_231" href= + "#note_231"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">231</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Dread and seclusion of menstruous + women among the Chippeway Indians.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Among the + Chippeways and other Indians of the Hudson Bay Territory, + menstruous women are excluded from the camp, and take up their + abode in huts of branches. They wear long hoods, which effectually + conceal the head and breast. They may not touch the household + furniture nor any objects used by men; for their touch <span class= + "tei tei-q">“is supposed to defile them, so that their subsequent + use would be followed by certain mischief or misfortune,”</span> + such as disease or death. They must drink out of a swan's bone. + They may not walk on the common paths nor cross the tracks of + animals. They <span class="tei tei-q">“are never permitted to walk + on the ice of rivers or lakes, or near the part where the men are + hunting beaver, or where a fishing-net is set, for fear of averting + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page091">[pg 091]</span><a name= + "Pg091" id="Pg091" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> their success. They + are also prohibited at those times from partaking of the head of + any animal, and even from walking in or crossing the track where + the head of a deer, moose, beaver, and many other animals have + lately been carried, either on a sledge or on the back. To be + guilty of a violation of this custom is considered as of the + greatest importance; because they firmly believe that it would be a + means of preventing the hunter from having an equal success in his + future excursions.”</span><a id="noteref_232" name="noteref_232" + href="#note_232"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">232</span></span></a> So + the Lapps forbid women at menstruation to walk on that part of the + shore where the fishers are in the habit of setting out their + fish;<a id="noteref_233" name="noteref_233" href= + "#note_233"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">233</span></span></a> and + the Esquimaux of Bering Strait believe that if hunters were to come + near women in their courses they would catch no game.<a id= + "noteref_234" name="noteref_234" href="#note_234"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">234</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Dread and seclusion of menstruous + women among the Tinneh or Déné Indians. Customs and beliefs of + the Carrier Indians in regard to menstruous women.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But the beliefs + and superstitions of this sort that prevail among the western + tribes of the great Déné or Tinneh stock, to which the Chippeways + belong, have been so well described by an experienced missionary, + that I will give his description in his own words. Prominent among + the ceremonial rites of these Indians, he says, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“are the observances peculiar to the fair sex, and many + of them are remarkably analogous to those practised by the Hebrew + women, so much so that, were it not savouring of profanity, the + ordinances of the Déné ritual code might be termed a new edition + <span class="tei tei-q">‘revised and considerably augmented’</span> + of the Mosaic ceremonial law. Among the Carriers,<a id= + "noteref_235" name="noteref_235" href="#note_235"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">235</span></span></a> as + soon as a girl has experienced the first flow of the menses which + in the female constitution are a natural discharge, her father + believed himself under the obligation of atoning for her supposedly + sinful condition by a small impromptu distribution of clothes among + the natives. This periodical state of women was considered as one + of legal impurity <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page092">[pg + 092]</span><a name="Pg092" id="Pg092" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + fateful both to the man who happened to have any intercourse, + however indirect, with her, and to the woman herself who failed in + scrupulously observing all the rites prescribed by ancient usage + for persons in her condition.</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Seclusion of Carrier girls at + puberty.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class= + "tei tei-q">“Upon entering into that stage of her life, the maiden + was immediately sequestered from company, even that of her parents, + and compelled to dwell in a small branch hut by herself away from + beaten paths and the gaze of passers-by. As she was supposed to + exercise malefic influence on any man who might inadvertently + glance at her, she had to wear a sort of head-dress combining in + itself the purposes of a veil, a bonnet, and a mantlet. It was made + of tanned skin, its forepart was shaped like a long fringe + completely hiding from view the face and breasts; then it formed on + the head a close-fitting cap or bonnet, and finally fell in a broad + band almost to the heels. This head-dress was made and publicly + placed on her head by a paternal aunt, who received at once some + present from the girl's father. When, three or four years later, + the period of sequestration ceased, only this same aunt had the + right to take off her niece's ceremonial head-dress. Furthermore, + the girl's fingers, wrists, and legs at the ankles and immediately + below the knees, were encircled with ornamental rings and bracelets + of sinew intended as a protection against the malign influences she + was supposed to be possessed with.<a id="noteref_236" name= + "noteref_236" href="#note_236"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">236</span></span></a> To a + belt girding her waist were suspended two bone implements called + respectively <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Tsoenkuz</span></span> (bone tube) and + <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Tsiltsoet</span></span> (head scratcher). The + former was a hollowed swan bone to drink with, any other mode of + drinking being unlawful to her. The latter was fork-like and was + called into requisition whenever she wanted to scratch her + head—immediate contact of the fingers with the head being reputed + injurious to her health. While thus secluded, she was called + <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">asta</span></span>, that <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page093">[pg 093]</span><a name="Pg093" id="Pg093" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> is <span class="tei tei-q">‘interred + alive’</span> in Carrier, and she had to submit to a rigorous fast + and abstinence. Her only allowed food consisted of dried fish + boiled in a small bark vessel which nobody else must touch, and she + had to abstain especially from meat of any kind, as well as fresh + fish. Nor was this all she had to endure; even her contact, however + remote, with these two articles of diet was so dreaded that she + could not cross the public paths or trails, or the tracks of + animals. Whenever absolute necessity constrained her to go beyond + such spots, she had to be packed or carried over them lest she + should contaminate the game or meat which had passed that way, or + had been brought over these paths; and also for the sake of + self-preservation against tabooed, and consequently to her, + deleterious food. In the same way she was never allowed to wade in + streams or lakes, for fear of causing death to the fish.</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class= + "tei tei-q">“It was also a prescription of the ancient ritual code + for females during this primary condition to eat as little as + possible, and to remain lying down, especially in course of each + monthly flow, not only as a natural consequence of the prolonged + fast and resulting weakness; but chiefly as an exhibition of a + becoming penitential spirit which was believed to be rewarded by + long life and continual good health in after years.</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Seclusion of Carrier women at + their monthly periods. Reasons for the seclusion of menstruous + women among the Indians.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class= + "tei tei-q">“These mortifications or seclusion did not last less + than three or four years. Useless to say that during all that time + marriage could not be thought of, since the girl could not so much + as be seen by men. When married, the same sequestration was + practised relatively to husband and fellow-villagers—without the + particular head-dress and rings spoken of—on the occasion of every + recurring menstruation. Sometimes it was protracted as long as ten + days at a time, especially during the first years of cohabitation. + Even when she returned to her mate, she was not permitted to sleep + with him on the first nor frequently on the second night, but would + choose a distant corner of the lodge to spread her blanket, as if + afraid to defile him with her dread uncleanness.”</span><a id= + "noteref_237" name="noteref_237" href="#note_237"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">237</span></span></a> + Elsewhere the same writer tells us that most of <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page094">[pg 094]</span><a name="Pg094" id="Pg094" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> the devices to which these Indians used + to resort for the sake of ensuring success in the chase + <span class="tei tei-q">“were based on their regard for continence + and their excessive repugnance for, and dread of, menstruating + women.”</span><a id="noteref_238" name="noteref_238" href= + "#note_238"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">238</span></span></a> But + the strict observances imposed on Tinneh or Déné women at such + times were designed at the same time to protect the women + themselves from the evil consequences of their dangerous condition. + Thus it was thought that women in their courses could not partake + of the head, heart, or hind part of an animal that had been caught + in a snare without exposing themselves to a premature death through + a kind of rabies. They might not cut or carve salmon, because to do + so would seriously endanger their health, and especially would + enfeeble their arms for life. And they had to abstain from cutting + up the grebes which are caught by the Carriers in great numbers + every spring, because otherwise the blood with which these fowls + abound would occasion hæmorrhage or an unnaturally prolonged flux + in the transgressor.<a id="noteref_239" name="noteref_239" href= + "#note_239"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">239</span></span></a> + Similarly Indian women of the Thompson tribe abstained from venison + and the flesh of other large game during menstruation, lest the + animals should be displeased and the menstrual flow + increased.<a id="noteref_240" name="noteref_240" href= + "#note_240"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">240</span></span></a> For a + similar reason, probably, Shuswap girls during their seclusion at + puberty are forbidden to eat anything that bleeds.<a id= + "noteref_241" name="noteref_241" href="#note_241"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">241</span></span></a> The + same principle may perhaps partly explain the rule, of which we + have had some examples, that women at such times should refrain + from fish and flesh, and restrict themselves to a vegetable + diet.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Similar rules of seclusion + enjoined on menstruous women in ancient Hindoo, Persian, and + Hebrew codes.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The philosophic + student of human nature will observe, or learn, without surprise + that ideas thus deeply ingrained <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page095">[pg 095]</span><a name="Pg095" id="Pg095" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> in the savage mind reappear at a more + advanced stage of society in those elaborate codes which have been + drawn up for the guidance of certain peoples by lawgivers who claim + to have derived the rules they inculcate from the direct + inspiration of the deity. However we may explain it, the + resemblance which exists between the earliest official utterances + of the deity and the ideas of savages is unquestionably close and + remarkable; whether it be, as some suppose, that God communed face + to face with man in those early days, or, as others maintain, that + man mistook his wild and wandering thoughts for a revelation from + heaven. Be that as it may, certain it is that the natural + uncleanness of woman at her monthly periods is a conception which + has occurred, or been revealed, with singular unanimity to several + ancient legislators. The Hindoo lawgiver Manu, who professed to + have received his institutes from the creator Brahman, informs us + that the wisdom, the energy, the strength, the sight, and the + vitality of a man who approaches a woman in her courses will + utterly perish; whereas, if he avoids her, his wisdom, energy, + strength, sight, and vitality will all increase.<a id="noteref_242" + name="noteref_242" href="#note_242"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">242</span></span></a> The + Persian lawgiver Zoroaster, who, if we can take his word for it, + derived his code from the mouth of the supreme being Ahura Mazda, + devoted special attention to the subject. According to him, the + menstrous flow, at least in its abnormal manifestations, is a work + of Ahriman, or the devil. Therefore, so long as it lasts, a woman + <span class="tei tei-q">“is unclean and possessed of the demon; she + must be kept confined, apart from the faithful whom her touch would + defile, and from the fire which her very look would injure; she is + not allowed to eat as much as she wishes, as the strength she might + acquire would accrue to the fiends. Her food is not given her from + hand to hand, but is passed to her from a distance, in a long + leaden spoon.”</span><a id="noteref_243" name="noteref_243" href= + "#note_243"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">243</span></span></a> The + Hebrew lawgiver Moses, whose divine legation is as little open to + question as that of Manu and Zoroaster, treats the subject at still + greater length; but I must leave to the reader the task of + comparing the inspired ordinances <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page096">[pg 096]</span><a name="Pg096" id="Pg096" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> on this head with the merely human + regulations of the Carrier Indians which they so closely + resemble.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Superstitions as to menstruous + women in ancient and modern Europe.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Amongst the + civilized nations of Europe the superstitions which cluster round + this mysterious aspect of woman's nature are not less extravagant + than those which prevail among savages. In the oldest existing + cyclopaedia—the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Natural History</span></span> of Pliny—the + list of dangers apprehended from menstruation is longer than any + furnished by mere barbarians. According to Pliny, the touch of a + menstruous woman turned wine to vinegar, blighted crops, killed + seedlings, blasted gardens, brought down the fruit from trees, + dimmed mirrors, blunted razors, rusted iron and brass (especially + at the waning of the moon), killed bees, or at least drove them + from their hives, caused mares to miscarry, and so forth.<a id= + "noteref_244" name="noteref_244" href="#note_244"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">244</span></span></a> + Similarly, in various parts of Europe, it is still believed that if + a woman in her courses enters a brewery the beer will turn sour; if + she touches beer, wine, vinegar, or milk, it will go bad; if she + makes jam, it will not keep; if she mounts a mare, it will + miscarry; if she touches buds, they will wither; if she climbs a + cherry tree, it will die.<a id="noteref_245" name="noteref_245" + href="#note_245"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">245</span></span></a> In + Brunswick people think that if a menstruous woman assists at the + killing of a pig, the pork will putrefy.<a id="noteref_246" name= + "noteref_246" href="#note_246"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">246</span></span></a> In + the Greek island of Calymnos a woman at such times may not + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page097">[pg 097]</span><a name= + "Pg097" id="Pg097" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> go to the well to + draw water, nor cross a running stream, nor enter the sea. Her + presence in a boat is said to raise storms.<a id="noteref_247" + name="noteref_247" href="#note_247"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">247</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The intention of secluding + menstruous women is to neutralize the dangerous influences + which are thought to emanate from them in that condition. + Suspension between heaven and earth.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Thus the object + of secluding women at menstruation is to neutralize the dangerous + influences which are supposed to emanate from them at such times. + That the danger is believed to be especially great at the first + menstruation appears from the unusual precautions taken to isolate + girls at this crisis. Two of these precautions have been + illustrated above, namely, the rules that the girl may not touch + the ground nor see the sun. The general effect of these rules is to + keep her suspended, so to say, between heaven and earth. Whether + enveloped in her hammock and slung up to the roof, as in South + America, or raised above the ground in a dark and narrow cage, as + in New Ireland, she may be considered to be out of the way of doing + mischief, since, being shut off both from the earth and from the + sun, she can poison neither of these great sources of life by her + deadly contagion. In short, she is rendered harmless by being, in + electrical language, insulated. But the precautions thus taken to + isolate or insulate the girl are dictated by a regard for her own + safety as well as for the safety of others. For it is thought that + she herself would suffer if she were to neglect the prescribed + regimen. Thus Zulu girls, as we have seen, believe that they would + shrivel to skeletons if the sun were to shine on them at puberty, + and in some Brazilian tribes the young women think that a + transgression of the rules would entail sores on the neck and + throat. In short, the girl is viewed as charged with a powerful + force which, if not kept within bounds, may prove destructive both + to herself and to all with whom she comes in contact. To repress + this force within the limits necessary for the safety of all + concerned is the object of the taboos in question.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The same explanation applies to + the similar rules of seclusion observed by divine kings and + priests. Suspension between heaven and earth.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The same + explanation applies to the observance of the same rules by divine + kings and priests. The uncleanness, as it is called, of girls at + puberty and the sanctity of holy men do not, to the primitive mind, + differ materially from each other. They are only different + manifestations of the same mysterious energy which, like energy in + general, is in itself neither good <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page098">[pg 098]</span><a name="Pg098" id="Pg098" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> nor bad, but becomes beneficent or maleficent + according to its application.<a id="noteref_248" name="noteref_248" + href="#note_248"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">248</span></span></a> + Accordingly, if, like girls at puberty, divine personages may + neither touch the ground nor see the sun, the reason is, on the one + hand, a fear lest their divinity might, at contact with earth or + heaven, discharge itself with fatal violence on either; and, on the + other hand, an apprehension that the divine being, thus drained of + his ethereal virtue, might thereby be incapacitated for the future + performance of those magical functions, upon the proper discharge + of which the safety of the people and even of the <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page099">[pg 099]</span><a name="Pg099" id="Pg099" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> world is believed to hang. Thus the + rules in question fall under the head of the taboos which we + examined in the second part of this work;<a id="noteref_249" name= + "noteref_249" href="#note_249"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">249</span></span></a> they + are intended to preserve the life of the divine person and with it + the life of his subjects and worshippers. Nowhere, it is thought, + can his precious yet dangerous life be at once so safe and so + harmless as when it is neither in heaven nor in earth, but, as far + as possible, suspended between the two.<a id="noteref_250" name= + "noteref_250" href="#note_250"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">250</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Stories of immortality attained by + suspension between heaven and earth.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In legends and + folk-tales, which reflect the ideas of earlier ages, we find this + suspension between heaven and earth attributed to beings who have + been endowed with the coveted yet burdensome gift of immortality. + The wizened remains of the deathless Sibyl are said to have been + preserved in a jar or urn which hung in a temple of Apollo at + Cumae; and when a group of merry children, tired, perhaps, of + playing in the sunny streets, sought the shade of the temple and + amused themselves by gathering underneath the familiar jar and + calling out, <span class="tei tei-q">“Sibyl, what do you + wish?”</span> a hollow voice, like an echo, used to answer from the + urn, <span class="tei tei-q">“I wish to die.”</span><a id= + "noteref_251" name="noteref_251" href="#note_251"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">251</span></span></a> A + story, taken down from the lips of a German peasant at Thomsdorf, + relates that once upon a time there was a girl in London who wished + to live for ever, so they say:</p> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 0.90em; margin-top: 0.90em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">London, London is a fine + town.</span></span></span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left"><span class= + "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">A maiden prayed to live + for ever.</span></span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + </div> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">And still she + lives and hangs in a basket in a church, and every St. John's Day, + about the hour of noon, she eats a roll of bread.<a id= + "noteref_252" name="noteref_252" href="#note_252"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">252</span></span></a> + Another German story tells of a lady who <span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page100">[pg 100]</span><a name="Pg100" id="Pg100" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> resided at Danzig and was so rich and so + blest with all that life can give that she wished to live always. + So when she came to her latter end, she did not really die but only + looked like dead, and very soon they found her in a hollow of a + pillar in the church, half standing and half sitting, motionless. + She stirred never a limb, but they saw quite plainly that she was + alive, and she sits there down to this blessed day. Every New + Year's Day the sacristan comes and puts a morsel of the holy bread + in her mouth, and that is all she has to live on. Long, long has + she rued her fatal wish who set this transient life above the + eternal joys of heaven.<a id="noteref_253" name="noteref_253" href= + "#note_253"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">253</span></span></a> A + third German story tells of a noble damsel who cherished the same + foolish wish for immortality. So they put her in a basket and hung + her up in a church, and there she hangs and never dies, though many + a year has come and gone since they put her there. But every year + on a certain day they give her a roll, and she eats it and cries + out, <span class="tei tei-q">“For ever! for ever! for ever!”</span> + And when she has so cried she falls silent again till the same time + next year, and so it will go on for ever and for ever.<a id= + "noteref_254" name="noteref_254" href="#note_254"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">254</span></span></a> A + fourth story, taken down near Oldenburg in Holstein, tells of a + jolly dame that ate and drank and lived right merrily and had all + that heart could desire, and she wished to live always. For the + first hundred years all went well, but after that she began to + shrink and shrivel up, till at last she could neither walk nor + stand nor eat nor drink. But die she could not. At first they fed + her as if she were a little child, but when she grew smaller and + smaller they put her in a glass bottle and hung her up in the + church. And there she still hangs, in the church of St. Mary, at + Lübeck. She is as small as a mouse, but once a year she + stirs.<a id="noteref_255" name="noteref_255" href= + "#note_255"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">255</span></span></a></p> + </div> + </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page101">[pg 101]</span><a name= + "Pg101" id="Pg101" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + <hr class="page" /> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> + <a name="toc27" id="toc27"></a> <a name="pdf28" id="pdf28"></a> + + <h1 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"> + <span style="font-size: 173%">Chapter III. The Myth of + Balder.</span></h1> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">How Balder, the good and beautiful + god, was done to death by a stroke of the mistletoe.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">A deity whose life + might in a sense be said to be neither in heaven nor on earth but + between the two, was the Norse Balder, the good and beautiful god, + the son of the great god Odin, and himself the wisest, mildest, best + beloved of all the immortals. The story of his death, as it is told + in the younger or prose <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Edda</span></span>, runs thus. Once on a time + Balder dreamed heavy dreams which seemed to forebode his death. + Thereupon the gods held a council and resolved to make him secure + against every danger. So the goddess Frigg took an oath from fire and + water, iron and all metals, stones and earth, from trees, sicknesses + and poisons, and from all four-footed beasts, birds, and creeping + things, that they would not hurt Balder. When this was done Balder + was deemed invulnerable; so the gods amused themselves by setting him + in their midst, while some shot at him, others hewed at him, and + others threw stones at him. But whatever they did, nothing could hurt + him; and at this they were all glad, Only Loki, the mischief-maker, + was displeased, and he went in the guise of an old woman to Frigg, + who told him that the weapons of the gods could not wound Balder, + since she had made them all swear not to hurt him. Then Loki asked, + <span class="tei tei-q">“Have all things sworn to spare + Balder?”</span> She answered, <span class="tei tei-q">“East of + Walhalla grows a plant called mistletoe; it seemed to me too young to + swear.”</span> So Loki went and pulled the mistletoe and took it to + the assembly of the gods. There he found the blind god Hother + standing at the outside of the circle. Loki asked him, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Why do you not shoot at Balder?”</span> Hother answered, + <span class="tei tei-q">“Because I do not see where <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page102">[pg 102]</span><a name="Pg102" id="Pg102" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> he stands; besides I have no + weapon.”</span> Then said Loki, <span class="tei tei-q">“Do like the + rest and shew Balder honour, as they all do. I will shew you where he + stands, and do you shoot at him with this twig.”</span> Hother took + the mistletoe and threw it at Balder, as Loki directed him. The + mistletoe struck Balder and pierced him through and through, and he + fell down dead. And that was the greatest misfortune that ever befell + gods and men. For a while the gods stood speechless, then they lifted + up their voices and wept bitterly. They took Balder's body and + brought it to the sea-shore. There stood Balder's ship; it was called + Ringhorn, and was the hugest of all ships. The gods wished to launch + the ship and to burn Balder's body on it, but the ship would not + stir. So they sent for a giantess called Hyrrockin. She came riding + on a wolf and gave the ship such a push that fire flashed from the + rollers and all the earth shook. Then Balder's body was taken and + placed on the funeral pile upon his ship. When his wife Nanna saw + that, her heart burst for sorrow and she died. So she was laid on the + funeral pile with her husband, and fire was put to it. Balder's + horse, too, with all its trappings, was burned on the pile.<a id= + "noteref_256" name="noteref_256" href="#note_256"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">256</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Tale of Balder in the older</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 80%; font-style: italic">Edda</span></span><span style="font-size: 80%">.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In the older or + poetic <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Edda</span></span> the tragic tale of Balder is + hinted at rather than told at length. Among the visions which the + Norse Sibyl sees and describes in the weird prophecy known as the + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Voluspa</span></span> is one of the fatal + mistletoe. <span class="tei tei-q">“I behold,”</span> says she, + <span class="tei tei-q">“Fate looming for Balder, Woden's son, the + bloody victim. There stands the Mistletoe slender and delicate, + blooming high above the ground. Out of this shoot, so slender to look + on, there shall grow a harmful fateful shaft. Hod shall shoot it, but + Frigga in Fen-hall shall weep over the woe of Wal-hall.”</span><a id= + "noteref_257" name="noteref_257" href="#note_257"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">257</span></span></a> Yet + looking far into <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page103">[pg + 103]</span><a name="Pg103" id="Pg103" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> the + future the Sibyl sees a brighter vision of a new heaven and a new + earth, where the fields unsown shall yield their increase and all + sorrows shall be healed; then Balder will come back to dwell in + Odin's mansions of bliss, in a hall brighter than the sun, shingled + with gold, where the righteous shall live in joy for ever more.<a id= + "noteref_258" name="noteref_258" href="#note_258"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">258</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The story of Balder as related by + Saxo Grammaticus.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Writing about the + end of the twelfth century, the old Danish historian Saxo Grammaticus + tells the story of Balder in a form which professes to be historical. + According to him, Balder and Hother were rival suitors for the hand + of Nanna, daughter of Gewar, King of Norway. Now Balder was a demigod + and common steel could not wound his sacred body. The two rivals + encountered each other in a terrific battle, and though Odin and Thor + and the rest of the gods fought for Balder, yet was he defeated and + fled away, and Hother married the princess. Nevertheless Balder took + heart of grace and again met Hother in a stricken field. But he fared + even worse than before; for Hother dealt him a deadly wound with a + magic sword, which he had received from Miming, the Satyr of the + woods; and after lingering three days in pain Balder died of his hurt + and was buried with royal honours in a barrow.<a id="noteref_259" + name="noteref_259" href="#note_259"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">259</span></span></a></p><span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page104">[pg 104]</span><a name="Pg104" id="Pg104" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Balder worshipped in Norway.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Whether he was a + real or merely a mythical personage, Balder was worshipped in Norway. + On one of the bays of the beautiful Sogne Fiord, which penetrates far + into the depths of the solemn Norwegian mountains, with their sombre + pine-forests and their lofty cascades dissolving into spray before + they reach the dark water of the fiord far below, Balder had a great + sanctuary. It was called Balder's Grove. A palisade enclosed the + hallowed ground, and within it stood a spacious temple with the + images of many gods, but none of them was worshipped with such + devotion as Balder. So great was the awe with which the heathen + regarded the place that no man might harm another there, nor steal + his cattle, nor defile himself with women. But women cared for the + images of the gods in the temple; they warmed them at the fire, + anointed them with oil, and dried them with cloths.<a id= + "noteref_260" name="noteref_260" href="#note_260"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">260</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The legendary death of Balder + resembles the legendary death of the Persian hero Isfendiyar in + the epic of Firdusi.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It might be rash + to affirm that the romantic figure of Balder was nothing but a + creation of the mythical fancy, a radiant phantom conjured up as by a + wizard's wand to glitter for a time against the gloomy background of + the stern Norwegian landscape. It may be so; yet it is also possible + that the myth was founded on the tradition of a hero, popular and + beloved in his lifetime, who long survived in the memory of the + people, gathering more and more of the marvellous about him as he + passed from generation to generation of story-tellers. At all events + it is worth while to observe that a somewhat similar story is told of + another national hero, who may well have been a real man. In his + great poem, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">The Epic of Kings</span></span>, which is + founded on Persian traditions, the poet Firdusi tells us that in the + combat between Rustem and Isfendiyar the arrows of the former did no + harm to his adversary, <span class="tei tei-q">“because Zerdusht had + charmed his body against all dangers, so that it was like unto + brass.”</span> But Simurgh, the bird of God, shewed Rustem the way he + should follow in order to vanquish his redoubtable foe. He rode after + her, and they halted not till they came to the sea-shore. There she + led him into a garden, where grew a <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page105">[pg 105]</span><a name="Pg105" id="Pg105" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> tamarisk, tall and strong, and the roots + thereof were in the ground, but the branches pierced even unto the + sky. Then the bird of God bade Rustem break from the tree a branch + that was long and slender, and fashion it into an arrow, and she + said, <span class="tei tei-q">“Only through his eyes can Isfendiyar + be wounded. If, therefore, thou wouldst slay him, direct this arrow + unto his forehead, and verily it shall not miss its aim.”</span> + Rustem did as he was bid; and when next he fought with Isfendiyar, he + shot the arrow at him, and it pierced his eye, and he died. Great was + the mourning for Isfendiyar. For the space of one year men ceased not + to lament for him, and for many years they shed bitter tears for that + arrow, and they said, <span class="tei tei-q">“The glory of Iran hath + been laid low.”</span><a id="noteref_261" name="noteref_261" href= + "#note_261"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">261</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The myth of Balder was perhaps acted + as a magical ceremony. The two chief incidents of the myth, + namely the pulling of the mistletoe and the death and burning of + the god, have perhaps their counterparts in popular + ritual.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Whatever may be + thought of an historical kernel underlying a mythical husk in the + legend of Balder, the details of the story suggest that it belongs to + that class of myths which have been dramatized in ritual, or, to put + it otherwise, which have been performed as magical ceremonies for the + sake of producing those natural effects which they describe in + figurative language. A myth is never so graphic and precise in its + details as when it is, so to speak, the book of the words which are + spoken and acted by the performers of the sacred rite. That the Norse + story of Balder was a myth of this sort will become probable if we + can prove that ceremonies resembling the incidents in the tale have + been performed by Norsemen and other European peoples. Now the main + incidents in the tale are two—first, the pulling of the mistletoe, + and second, the death and burning of the god; and both of them may + perhaps be found to have had their counterparts in yearly rites + observed, whether separately or conjointly, by people in various + parts of Europe. These rites will be described and discussed in the + following chapters. We shall begin with the annual festivals of fire + and shall reserve the pulling of the mistletoe for consideration + later on.</p> + </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page106">[pg 106]</span><a name= + "Pg106" id="Pg106" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + <hr class="page" /> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> + <a name="toc29" id="toc29"></a> <a name="pdf30" id="pdf30"></a> + + <h1 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"> + <span style="font-size: 173%">Chapter IV. The Fire-Festivals of + Europe.</span></h1> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em"> + <a name="toc31" id="toc31"></a> <a name="pdf32" id="pdf32"></a> + + <h2 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em"> + <span style="font-size: 144%">§ 1. The Lenten Fires.</span></h2> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">European custom of kindling + bonfires on certain days of the year, dancing round them and + leaping over them. Effigies are sometimes burnt in the + fires.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">All over Europe + the peasants have been accustomed from time immemorial to kindle + bonfires on certain days of the year, and to dance round or leap + over them. Customs of this kind can be traced back on historical + evidence to the Middle Ages,<a id="noteref_262" name="noteref_262" + href="#note_262"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">262</span></span></a> and + their analogy to similar customs observed in antiquity goes with + strong internal evidence to prove that their origin must be sought + in a period long prior to the spread of Christianity. Indeed the + earliest proof of their observance in Northern Europe is furnished + by the attempts made by Christian synods in the eighth century to + put them down as heathenish rites.<a id="noteref_263" name= + "noteref_263" href="#note_263"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">263</span></span></a> Not + uncommonly effigies are burned in these fires, or a pretence is + made of burning a living person in them; and there are grounds for + believing that anciently human beings were actually burned on these + occasions. A general survey of the customs in question will bring + out the traces of human sacrifice, and will serve at the same time + to throw light on their meaning.<a id="noteref_264" name= + "noteref_264" href="#note_264"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">264</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Seasons of the year at which the + bonfires are lit.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The seasons of + the year when these bonfires are most commonly lit are spring and + midsummer; but in some places they are kindled also at the end of + autumn or during the <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page107">[pg + 107]</span><a name="Pg107" id="Pg107" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + course of the winter, particularly on Hallow E'en (the thirty-first + of October), Christmas Day, and the Eve of Twelfth Day. We shall + consider them in the order in which they occur in the calendar + year. The earliest of them is the winter festival of the Eve of + Twelfth Day (the fifth of January); but as it has been already + described in an earlier part of this work<a id="noteref_265" name= + "noteref_265" href="#note_265"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">265</span></span></a> we + shall pass it over here and begin with the fire-festivals of + spring, which usually fall on the first Sunday of Lent (<span lang= + "la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Quadragesima</span></span> or <span lang="la" + class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Invocavit</span></span>),<a id="noteref_266" + name="noteref_266" href="#note_266"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">266</span></span></a> + Easter Eve, and May Day.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Custom of kindling bonfires on the + first Sunday in Lent in the Belgian Ardennes.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The custom of + kindling bonfires on the first Sunday in Lent has prevailed in + Belgium, the north of France, and many parts of Germany. Thus in + the Belgian Ardennes for a week or a fortnight before the + <span class="tei tei-q">“day of the great fire,”</span> as it is + called, children go about from farm to farm collecting fuel. At + Grand Halleux any one who refuses their request is pursued next day + by the children, who try to blacken his face with the ashes of the + extinct fire. When the day has come, they cut down bushes, + especially juniper and broom, and in the evening great bonfires + blaze on all the heights. It is a common saying that seven bonfires + should be seen if the village is to be safe from conflagrations. If + the Meuse happens to be frozen hard at the time, bonfires are lit + also on the ice. At Grand Halleux they set up a pole called + <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">makral</span></span>, or <span class= + "tei tei-q">“the witch,”</span> in the midst of the pile, and the + fire is kindled by the man who was last married in the village. In + the neighbourhood of Morlanwelz a straw man is burnt in the fire. + Young people and children dance and sing round the bonfires, and + leap over the embers to secure good crops or a happy marriage + within the year, or as a means of guarding themselves against + colic. In Brabant on the same Sunday, down to the beginning of the + nineteenth century, women and men disguised in female attire used + to go with burning torches to the fields, where they danced and + sang comic songs for the purpose, as they alleged, of driving away + <span class="tei tei-q">“the wicked sower,”</span> who is mentioned + in the Gospel for the day. At Maeseyck and in many villages of + Limburg, <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page108">[pg + 108]</span><a name="Pg108" id="Pg108" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + on the evening of the day children run through the streets carrying + lighted torches; then they kindle little fires of straw in the + fields and dance round them. At Ensival old folks tell young folks + that they will have as many Easter eggs as they see bonfires on + this day.<a id="noteref_267" name="noteref_267" href= + "#note_267"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">267</span></span></a> At + Pâturages, in the province of Hainaut, down to about 1840 the + custom was observed under the name of <span class= + "tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Escouvion</span></span> or <span class= + "tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Scouvion</span></span>. Every year on the + first Sunday of Lent, which was called the Day of the Little + Scouvion, young folks and children used to run with lighted torches + through the gardens and orchards. As they ran they cried at the + pitch of their voices,</p> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 0.90em; margin-top: 0.90em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Bear apples, bear + pears</span></span></span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic"> + And cherries all black</span></span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 1.80em"> + <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left"><span class= + "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">To + Scouvion!</span></span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + </div> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">At these words + the torch-bearer whirled his blazing brand and hurled it among the + branches of the apple-trees, the pear-trees, and the cherry-trees. + The next Sunday was called the Day of the Great Scouvion, and the + same race with lighted torches among the trees of the orchards was + repeated in the afternoon till darkness fell. The same custom was + observed on the same two days at Wasmes.<a id="noteref_268" name= + "noteref_268" href="#note_268"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">268</span></span></a> In + the neighbourhood of Liège, where the Lenten fires were put down by + the police about the middle of the nineteenth century, girls + thought that by leaping over the fires without being smirched they + made sure of a happy marriage. Elsewhere in order to get a good + husband it was necessary to see seven of the bonfires from one + spot. In Famenne, a district of Namur, men and cattle who traversed + the Lenten fires were thought to be safe from sickness and + witchcraft. Anybody who saw seven such fires at once had nothing to + fear from sorcerers. An old saying ran, that if you do not light + <span class="tei tei-q">“the great fire,”</span> God will light it + for you; which seems to imply that the kindling of the bonfires was + deemed a protection against conflagrations throughout the + year.<a id="noteref_269" name="noteref_269" href= + "#note_269"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">269</span></span></a></p><span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page109">[pg 109]</span><a name="Pg109" id="Pg109" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Bonfires on the first Sunday of + Lent in the French department of the Ardennes.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In the French + department of the Ardennes the whole village used to dance and sing + round the bonfires which were lighted on the first Sunday in Lent. + Here, too, it was the person last married, sometimes a man and + sometimes a woman, who put the match to the fire. The custom is + still kept up very commonly in the district. Cats used to be burnt + in the fire or roasted to death by being held over it; and while + they were burning the shepherds drove their flocks through the + smoke and flames as a sure means of guarding them against sickness + and witchcraft. In some communes it was believed that the livelier + the dance round the fire, the better would be the crops that + year.<a id="noteref_270" name="noteref_270" href= + "#note_270"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">270</span></span></a> In + the Vosges Mountains it is still customary to light great fires on + the heights and around the villages on the first Sunday in Lent; + and at Rupt and elsewhere the right of kindling them belongs to the + person who was last married. Round the fires the people dance and + sing merrily till the flames have died out. Then the master of the + fire, as they call the man who kindled it, invites all who + contributed to the erection of the pile to follow him to the + nearest tavern, where they partake of good cheer. At Dommartin they + say that, if you would have the hemp tall, it is absolutely + necessary that the women should be tipsy on the evening of this + day.<a id="noteref_271" name="noteref_271" href= + "#note_271"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">271</span></span></a> At + Épinal in the Vosges, on the first Sunday in Lent, bonfires used to + be kindled at various places both in the town and on the banks of + the Moselle. They consisted of pyramids of sticks and faggots, + which had been collected some days earlier by young folks going + from door to door. When the flames blazed up, the names of various + couples, whether young or old, handsome or ugly, rich or poor, were + called out, and the persons thus linked in mock marriage were + forced, whether they liked it or not, to march arm in arm round the + fire amid the laughter and jests of the crowd. The festivity lasted + till the fire died out, and then the spectators dispersed through + the streets, stopping under the windows of the houses and + proclaiming the names of the <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page110">[pg 110]</span><a name="Pg110" id="Pg110" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> <span lang="fr" class="tei tei-foreign" + xml:lang="fr"><span style= + "font-style: italic">féchenots</span></span> and <span lang="fr" + class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="fr"><span style= + "font-style: italic">féchenottes</span></span> or Valentines whom + the popular voice had assigned to each other. These couples had to + exchange presents; the mock bridegroom gave his mock bride + something for her toilet, while she in turn presented him with a + cockade of coloured ribbon. Next Sunday, if the weather allowed it, + all the couples, arrayed in their best attire and attended by their + relations, repaired to the wood of Saint Antony, where they mounted + a famous stone called the <span lang="fr" class="tei tei-foreign" + xml:lang="fr"><span style= + "font-style: italic">danserosse</span></span> or <span lang="fr" + class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="fr"><span style= + "font-style: italic">danseresse</span></span>. Here they found + cakes and refreshments of all sorts, and danced to the music of a + couple of fiddlers. The evening bell, ringing the Angelus, gave the + signal to depart. As soon as its solemn chime was heard, every one + quitted the forest and returned home. The exchange of presents + between the Valentines went by the name of ransom or redemption + (<span lang="fr" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="fr"><span style= + "font-style: italic">rachat</span></span>), because it was supposed + to redeem the couple from the flames of the bonfire. Any pair who + failed thus to ransom themselves were not suffered to share the + merrymaking at the great stone in the forest; and a pretence was + made of burning them in small fires kindled before their own + doors.<a id="noteref_272" name="noteref_272" href= + "#note_272"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">272</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Bonfires on the First Sunday of + Lent in Franche-Comté.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In the French + province of Franche-Comté, to the west of the Jura Mountains, the + first Sunday of Lent is known as the Sunday of the Firebrands + (<span lang="fr" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="fr"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Brandons</span></span>), on account of the + fires which it is customary to kindle on that day. On the Saturday + or the Sunday the village lads harness themselves to a cart and + drag it about the streets, stopping at the doors of the houses + where there are girls and begging for a faggot. When they have got + enough, they cart the fuel to a spot at some little distance from + the village, pile it up, and set it on fire. All the people of the + parish come out to see the bonfire. In some villages, when the + bells have rung the Angelus, the signal for the observance is given + by cries of, <span class="tei tei-q">“To the fire! to the + fire!”</span> Lads, lasses, and children dance round the blaze, and + when the flames have died down they vie with each other in leaping + over the red embers. He or she who does so without singeing his or + her garments will be married within the year. Young folk also carry + lighted torches about the streets or the fields, and when they pass + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page111">[pg 111]</span><a name= + "Pg111" id="Pg111" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> an orchard they cry + out, <span class="tei tei-q">“More fruit than leaves!”</span> Down + to recent years at Laviron, in the department of Doubs, it was the + young married couples of the year who had charge of the bonfires. + In the midst of the bonfire a pole was planted with a wooden figure + of a cock fastened to the top. Then there were races, and the + winner received the cock as a prize.<a id="noteref_273" name= + "noteref_273" href="#note_273"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">273</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Bonfires on the first Sunday of + Lent in Auvergne. The Granno invoked at these bonfires may be + the old Celtic god Grannus, who was identified with + Apollo.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In Auvergne + fires are everywhere kindled on the evening of the first Sunday in + Lent. Every village, every hamlet, even every ward, every isolated + farm has its bonfire or <span lang="fr" class="tei tei-foreign" + xml:lang="fr"><span style="font-style: italic">figo</span></span>, + as it is called, which blazes up as the shades of night are + falling. The fires may be seen flaring on the heights and in the + plains; the people dance and sing round about them and leap through + the flames. Then they proceed to the ceremony of the <span lang= + "fr" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="fr"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Grannas-mias</span></span>. A <span lang="fr" + class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="fr"><span style= + "font-style: italic">granno-mio</span></span><a id="noteref_274" + name="noteref_274" href="#note_274"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">274</span></span></a> is a + torch of straw fastened to the top of a pole. When the pyre is half + consumed, the bystanders kindle the torches at the expiring flames + and carry them into the neighbouring orchards, fields, and gardens, + wherever there are fruit-trees. As they march they sing at the top + of their voices,</p> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 0.90em; margin-top: 0.90em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Granno, mo + mio,</span></span></span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic"> + Granno, mon pouère,</span></span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left"><span class= + "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Granno, mo + mouère!</span></span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + </div> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">that is, + <span class="tei tei-q">“Grannus my friend, Grannus my father, + Grannus my mother.”</span> Then they pass the burning torches under + the branches of every tree, singing,</p> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 0.90em; margin-top: 0.90em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Brando, + brandounci</span></span></span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left"><span class= + "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Tsaque brantso, in plan + panei!</span></span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + </div> + </div> + </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page112">[pg 112]</span><a name= + "Pg112" id="Pg112" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">that is, + <span class="tei tei-q">“Firebrand burn; every branch a + basketful!”</span> In some villages the people also run across the + sown fields and shake the ashes of the torches on the ground; also + they put some of the ashes in the fowls' nests, in order that the + hens may lay plenty of eggs throughout the year. When all these + ceremonies have been performed, everybody goes home and feasts; the + special dishes of the evening are fritters and pancakes.<a id= + "noteref_275" name="noteref_275" href="#note_275"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">275</span></span></a> Here + the application of the fire to the fruit-trees, to the sown fields, + and to the nests of the poultry is clearly a charm intended to + ensure fertility; and the Granno to whom the invocations are + addressed, and who gives his name to the torches, may possibly be, + as Dr. Pommerol suggests,<a id="noteref_276" name="noteref_276" + href="#note_276"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">276</span></span></a> no + other than the ancient Celtic god Grannus, whom the Romans + identified with Apollo, and whose worship is attested by + inscriptions found not only in France but in Scotland and on the + Danube.<a id="noteref_277" name="noteref_277" href= + "#note_277"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">277</span></span></a> If + the name Grannus is derived, as the learned tell us, from a root + meaning <span class="tei tei-q">“to glow, burn, + shine,”</span><a id="noteref_278" name="noteref_278" href= + "#note_278"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">278</span></span></a> the + deity who bore the name and was identified with Apollo may well + have been a sun-god; and in that case the prayers addressed to him + by the peasants of the Auvergne, while they wave the blazing, + crackling torches about the fruit-trees, would be eminently + appropriate. For who could ripen the fruit so well as the sun-god? + and what better process could be devised to draw the blossoms from + the bare boughs than the application to them of that genial warmth + which is ultimately derived from the solar beams? Thus the + fire-festival of the first Sunday in Lent, as it is observed in + Auvergne, may be interpreted very naturally and simply as a + religious or rather perhaps magical ceremony designed to procure a + due supply of the sun's heat for plants and animals. At the same + time we should remember that the employment of fire in this and + kindred ceremonies may have been designed originally, not so much + to stimulate growth and reproduction, as to burn and destroy all + agencies, <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page113">[pg + 113]</span><a name="Pg113" id="Pg113" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + whether in the shape of vermin, witches, or what not, which + threatened or were supposed to threaten the growth of the crops and + the multiplication of animals. It is often difficult to decide + between these two different interpretations of the use of fire in + agricultural rites. In any case the fire-festival of Auvergne on + the first Sunday in Lent may date from Druidical times.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">French custom of carrying lighted + torches (</span><span lang="fr" class="tei tei-foreign" + xml:lang="fr"><span style= + "font-size: 80%; font-style: italic">brandons</span></span><span style="font-size: 80%">) + about the orchards and fields to fertilize them on the first + Sunday of Lent.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The custom of + carrying lighted torches of straw (<span lang="fr" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="fr"><span style= + "font-style: italic">brandons</span></span>) about the orchards and + fields to fertilize them on the first Sunday of Lent seems to have + been common in France, whether it was accompanied with the practice + of kindling bonfires or not. Thus in the province of Picardy + <span class="tei tei-q">“on the first Sunday of Lent people carried + torches through the fields, exorcising the field-mice, the darnel, + and the smut. They imagined that they did much good to the gardens + and caused the onions to grow large. Children ran about the fields, + torch in hand, to make the land more fertile. All that was done + habitually in Picardy, and the ceremony of the torches is not + entirely forgotten, especially in the villages on both sides the + Somme as far as Saint-Valery.”</span><a id="noteref_279" name= + "noteref_279" href="#note_279"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">279</span></span></a> + <span class="tei tei-q">“A very agreeable spectacle, said the + curate of l'Étoile, is to survey from the portal of the church, + situated almost on the top of the mountain, the vast plains of + Vimeux all illuminated by these wandering fires. The same pastime + is observed at Poix, at Conty, and in all the villages round + about.”</span><a id="noteref_280" name="noteref_280" href= + "#note_280"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">280</span></span></a> + Again, in the district of Beauce a festival of torches (<span lang= + "fr" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="fr"><span style= + "font-style: italic">brandons</span></span> or <span lang="fr" + class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="fr"><span style= + "font-style: italic">brandelons</span></span>) used to be held both + on the first and on the second Sunday in Lent; the first was called + <span class="tei tei-q">“the Great Torches”</span> and the second + <span class="tei tei-q">“the Little Torches.”</span> The torches + were, as usual, bundles of straw wrapt round poles. In the evening + the village lads carried the burning brands through the country, + running about in disorder and singing,</p> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 0.90em; margin-top: 0.90em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 7.20em"> + <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Torches + burn</span></span></span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic"> + At these vines, at this wheat;</span></span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 7.20em"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic"> + Torches burn</span></span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left"><span class= + "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">For the maidens that + shall wed!</span></span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + </div> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">From time to + time the bearers would stand still and smite <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page114">[pg 114]</span><a name="Pg114" id="Pg114" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> the earth all together with the blazing + straw of the torches, while they cried, <span class="tei tei-q">“A + sheaf of a peck and a half!”</span> (<span lang="fr" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="fr"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Gearbe à boissiaux</span></span>). If two + torchbearers happened to meet each other on their rounds, they + performed the same ceremony and uttered the same words. When the + straw was burnt out, the poles were collected and a great bonfire + made of them. Lads and lasses danced round the flames, and the lads + leaped over them. Afterwards it was customary to eat a special sort + of hasty-pudding made of wheaten flour. These usages were still in + vogue at the beginning of the nineteenth century, but they have now + almost disappeared. The peasants believed that by carrying lighted + torches through the fields they protected the crops from + field-mice, darnel, and smut.<a id="noteref_281" name="noteref_281" + href="#note_281"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">281</span></span></a> + <span class="tei tei-q">“At Dijon, in Burgundy, it is the custom + upon the first Sunday in Lent to make large fires in the streets, + whence it is called Firebrand Sunday. This practice originated in + the processions formerly made on that day by the peasants with + lighted torches of straw, to drive away, as they called it, the bad + air from the earth.”</span><a id="noteref_282" name="noteref_282" + href="#note_282"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">282</span></span></a> In + some parts of France, while the people scoured the country with + burning brands on the first Sunday in Lent, they warned the + fruit-trees that if they did not take heed and bear fruit they + would surely be cut down and cast into the fire.<a id="noteref_283" + name="noteref_283" href="#note_283"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">283</span></span></a> On + the same day peasants in the department of Loiret used to run about + the sowed fields with burning torches in their hands, while they + adjured the field-mice to quit the wheat on pain of having their + whiskers burned.<a id="noteref_284" name="noteref_284" href= + "#note_284"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">284</span></span></a> In + the department of Ain the great fires of straw and faggots which + are kindled in the fields at this time are or were supposed to + destroy the nests of the caterpillars.<a id="noteref_285" name= + "noteref_285" href="#note_285"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">285</span></span></a> At + Verges, a lonely village surrounded by forests between the Jura and + the Combe d'Ain, the torches used at this season were kindled in + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page115">[pg 115]</span><a name= + "Pg115" id="Pg115" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> a peculiar manner. + The young people climbed to the top of a mountain, where they + placed three nests of straw in three trees. These nests being then + set on fire, torches made of dry lime-wood were lighted at them, + and the merry troop descended the mountain to their flickering + light, and went to every house in the village, demanding roasted + peas and obliging all couples who had been married within the year + to dance.<a id="noteref_286" name="noteref_286" href= + "#note_286"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">286</span></span></a> In + Berry, a district of central France, it appears that bonfires are + not lighted on this day, but when the sun has set the whole + population of the villages, armed with blazing torches of straw, + disperse over the country and scour the fields, the vineyards, and + the orchards. Seen from afar, the multitude of moving lights, + twinkling in the darkness, appear like will-o'-the-wisps chasing + each other across the plains, along the hillsides, and down the + valleys. While the men wave their flambeaus about the branches of + the fruit-trees, the women and children tie bands of wheaten-straw + round the tree-trunks. The effect of the ceremony is supposed to be + to avert the various plagues from which the fruits of the earth are + apt to suffer; and the bands of straw fastened round the stems of + the trees are believed to render them fruitful.<a id="noteref_287" + name="noteref_287" href="#note_287"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">287</span></span></a> In + the peninsula of La Manche the Norman peasants used to spend almost + the whole night of the first Sunday in Lent rushing about the + country with lighted torches for the purpose, as they supposed, of + driving away the moles and field-mice; fires were also kindled on + some of the dolmens.<a id="noteref_288" name="noteref_288" href= + "#note_288"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">288</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Bonfires on the first Sunday of + Lent in Germany and Austria.</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 80%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 80%">Burning the witch.</span><span style= + "font-size: 80%">”</span></span><span style= + "font-size: 80%">Burning discs thrown into the air. Burning + wheels rolled down hill.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In Germany, + Austria, and Switzerland at the same season similar customs have + prevailed. Thus in the Eifel Mountains, Rhenish Prussia, on the + first Sunday in Lent young people used to collect straw and + brushwood from house to house. These they carried to an eminence + and piled up round a tall, slim beech-tree, to which a piece of + wood was fastened at <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page116">[pg + 116]</span><a name="Pg116" id="Pg116" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + right angles to form a cross. The structure was known as the + <span class="tei tei-q">“hut”</span> or <span class= + "tei tei-q">“castle.”</span> Fire was set to it and the young + people marched round the blazing <span class= + "tei tei-q">“castle”</span> bareheaded, each carrying a lighted + torch and praying aloud. Sometimes a straw-man was burned in the + <span class="tei tei-q">“hut.”</span> People observed the direction + in which the smoke blew from the fire. If it blew towards the + corn-fields, it was a sign that the harvest would be abundant. On + the same day, in some parts of the Eifel, a great wheel was made of + straw and dragged by three horses to the top of a hill. Thither the + village boys marched at nightfall, set fire to the wheel, and sent + it rolling down the slope. Two lads followed it with levers to set + it in motion again, in case it should anywhere meet with a check. + At Oberstattfeld the wheel had to be provided by the young man who + was last married.<a id="noteref_289" name="noteref_289" href= + "#note_289"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">289</span></span></a> About + Echternach in Luxemburg the same ceremony is called <span class= + "tei tei-q">“burning the witch”</span>; while it is going on, the + older men ascend the heights and observe what wind is blowing, for + that is the wind which will prevail the whole year.<a id= + "noteref_290" name="noteref_290" href="#note_290"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">290</span></span></a> At + Voralberg in the Tyrol, on the first Sunday in Lent, a slender + young fir-tree is surrounded with a pile of straw and firewood. To + the top of the tree is fastened a human figure called the + <span class="tei tei-q">“witch,”</span> made of old clothes and + stuffed with gunpowder. At night the whole is set on fire and boys + and girls dance round it, swinging torches and singing rhymes in + which the words <span class="tei tei-q">“corn in the + winnowing-basket, the plough in the earth”</span> may be + distinguished.<a id="noteref_291" name="noteref_291" href= + "#note_291"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">291</span></span></a> In + Swabia on the first Sunday in Lent a figure called the <span class= + "tei tei-q">“witch”</span> or the <span class="tei tei-q">“old + wife”</span> or <span class="tei tei-q">“winter's + grandmother”</span> is made up of clothes and fastened to a pole. + This is stuck in the middle of a pile of wood, to which fire is + applied. While the <span class="tei tei-q">“witch”</span> is + burning, the young people throw blazing discs into the air. The + discs are thin round pieces of wood, a few inches in diameter, with + notched edges to imitate the <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page117">[pg 117]</span><a name="Pg117" id="Pg117" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> rays of the sun or stars. They have a hole in + the middle, by which they are attached to the end of a wand. Before + the disc is thrown it is set on fire, the wand is swung to and fro, + and the impetus thus communicated to the disc is augmented by + dashing the rod sharply against a sloping board. The burning disc + is thus thrown off, and mounting high into the air, describes a + long fiery curve before it reaches the ground. A single lad may + fling up forty or fifty of these discs, one after the other. The + object is to throw them as high as possible. The wand by which they + are hurled must, at least in some parts of Swabia, be of hazel. + Sometimes the lads also leap over the fire brandishing lighted + torches of pine-wood. The charred embers of the burned <span class= + "tei tei-q">“witch”</span> and discs are taken home and planted in + the flax-fields the same night, in the belief that they will keep + vermin from the fields.<a id="noteref_292" name="noteref_292" href= + "#note_292"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">292</span></span></a> At + Wangen, near Molsheim in Baden, a like custom is observed on the + first Sunday in Lent. The young people kindle a bonfire on the + crest of the mountain above the village; and the burning discs + which they hurl into the air are said to present in the darkness + the aspect of a continual shower of falling stars. When the supply + of discs is exhausted and the bonfire begins to burn low, the boys + light torches and run with them at full speed down one or other of + the three steep and winding paths that descend the mountain-side to + the village. Bumps, bruises, and scratches are often the result of + their efforts to outstrip each other in the headlong race.<a id= + "noteref_293" name="noteref_293" href="#note_293"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">293</span></span></a> In + the Rhön Mountains, situated on the borders of Hesse and Bavaria, + the people used to march to the top of a hill or eminence on the + first Sunday in Lent. Children and lads carried torches, brooms + daubed with tar, and poles swathed in straw. A wheel, wrapt in + combustibles, was kindled and rolled down <span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page118">[pg 118]</span><a name="Pg118" id="Pg118" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> the hill; and the young people rushed about + the fields with their burning torches and brooms, till at last they + flung them in a heap, and standing round them, struck up a hymn or + a popular song. The object of running about the fields with the + blazing torches was to <span class="tei tei-q">“drive away the + wicked sower.”</span> Or it was done in honour of the Virgin, that + she might preserve the fruits of the earth throughout the year and + bless them.<a id="noteref_294" name="noteref_294" href= + "#note_294"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">294</span></span></a> In + neighbouring villages of Hesse, between the Rhön and the Vogel + Mountains, it is thought that wherever the burning wheels roll, the + fields will be safe from hail and storm.<a id="noteref_295" name= + "noteref_295" href="#note_295"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">295</span></span></a> At + Konz on the Moselle, on the Thursday before the first Sunday in + Lent, the two guilds of the butchers and the weavers used to repair + to the Marxberg and there set up an oak-tree with a wheel fastened + to it. On the following Sunday the people ascended the hill, cut + down the oak, set fire to the wheel, and sent both oak and wheel + rolling down the hillside, while a guard of butchers, mounted on + horses, fired at the flaming wheel in its descent. If the wheel + rolled down into the Moselle, the butchers were rewarded with a + waggon-load of wine by the archbishop of Treves.<a id="noteref_296" + name="noteref_296" href="#note_296"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">296</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Bonfires on the first Sunday in + Lent in Switzerland. Burning discs thrown into the air.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In Switzerland, + also, it is or used to be customary to kindle bonfires on high + places on the evening of the first Sunday in Lent, and the day is + therefore popularly known as Spark Sunday. The custom prevailed, + for example, throughout the canton of Lucerne. Boys went about from + house to house begging for wood and straw, then piled the fuel on a + conspicuous mountain or hill round about a pole, which bore a straw + effigy called <span class="tei tei-q">“the witch.”</span> At + nightfall the pile was set on fire, and the young folks danced + wildly round it, some of them cracking whips or ringing bells; and + when the fire burned low enough, they leaped over it. This + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page119">[pg 119]</span><a name= + "Pg119" id="Pg119" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> was called + <span class="tei tei-q">“burning the witch.”</span> In some parts + of the canton also they used to wrap old wheels in straw and + thorns, put a light to them, and send them rolling and blazing down + hill. The same custom of rolling lighted wheels down hill is + attested by old authorities for the cantons of Aargau and Bâle. The + more bonfires could be seen sparkling and flaring in the darkness, + the more fruitful was the year expected to be; and the higher the + dancers leaped beside or over the fire, the higher, it was thought, + would grow the flax. In the district of Freiburg and at Birseck in + the district of Bâle it was the last married man or woman who must + kindle the bonfire. While the bonfires blazed up, it was customary + in some parts of Switzerland to propel burning discs of wood + through the air by means of the same simple machinery which is used + for the purpose in Swabia. Each lad tried to send his disc fizzing + and flaring through the darkness as far as possible, and in + discharging it he mentioned the name of the person to whose honour + it was dedicated. But in Prättigau the words uttered in launching + the fiery discs referred to the abundance which was apparently + expected to follow the performance of the ceremony. Among them + were, <span class="tei tei-q">“Grease in the pan, corn in the fan, + and the plough in the earth!”</span><a id="noteref_297" name= + "noteref_297" href="#note_297"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">297</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Connexion of these bonfires with + the custom of</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 80%">“</span><span style="font-size: 80%">carrying + out Death.</span><span style="font-size: 80%">”</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Effigies burnt on Shrove + Tuesday.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It seems hardly + possible to separate from these bonfires, kindled on the first + Sunday in Lent, the fires in which, about the same season, the + effigy called Death is burned as part of the ceremony of + <span class="tei tei-q">“carrying out Death.”</span> We have seen + that at Spachendorf, in Austrian Silesia, on the morning of + Rupert's Day (Shrove Tuesday?), a straw-man, dressed in a fur coat + and a fur cap, is laid in a hole outside the village and there + burned, and that while it is blazing every one seeks to snatch a + fragment of it, which he fastens to a branch of the highest tree in + his garden or buries in his field, believing that this will make + the crops to grow better. The ceremony is known as the <span class= + "tei tei-q">“burying of Death.”</span><a id="noteref_298" name= + "noteref_298" href="#note_298"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">298</span></span></a> Even + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page120">[pg 120]</span><a name= + "Pg120" id="Pg120" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> when the straw-man + is not designated as Death, the meaning of the observance is + probably the same; for the name Death, as I have tried to shew, + does not express the original intention of the ceremony. At Cobern + in the Eifel Mountains the lads make up a straw-man on Shrove + Tuesday. The effigy is formally tried and accused of having + perpetrated all the thefts that have been committed in the + neighbourhood throughout the year. Being condemned to death, the + straw-man is led through the village, shot, and burned upon a pyre. + They dance round the blazing pile, and the last bride must leap + over it.<a id="noteref_299" name="noteref_299" href= + "#note_299"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">299</span></span></a> In + Oldenburg on the evening of Shrove Tuesday people used to make long + bundles of straw, which they set on fire, and then ran about the + fields waving them, shrieking, and singing wild songs. Finally they + burned a straw-man on the field.<a id="noteref_300" name= + "noteref_300" href="#note_300"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">300</span></span></a> In + the district of Düsseldorf the straw-man burned on Shrove Tuesday + was made of an unthreshed sheaf of corn.<a id="noteref_301" name= + "noteref_301" href="#note_301"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">301</span></span></a> On + the first Monday after the spring equinox the urchins of Zurich + drag a straw-man on a little cart through the streets, while at the + same time the girls carry about a May-tree. When vespers ring, the + straw-man is burned.<a id="noteref_302" name="noteref_302" href= + "#note_302"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">302</span></span></a> In + the district of Aachen on Ash Wednesday a man used to be encased in + peas-straw and taken to an appointed place. Here he slipped quietly + out of his straw casing, which was then burned, the children + thinking that it was the man who was being burned.<a id= + "noteref_303" name="noteref_303" href="#note_303"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">303</span></span></a> In + the Val di Ledro (Tyrol) on the last day of the Carnival a figure + is made up of straw and brushwood and then burned. The figure is + called the Old Woman, and the ceremony <span class= + "tei tei-q">“burning the Old Woman.”</span><a id="noteref_304" + name="noteref_304" href="#note_304"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">304</span></span></a></p> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em"> + <a name="toc33" id="toc33"></a> <a name="pdf34" id="pdf34"></a> + + <h2 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em"> + <span style="font-size: 144%">§ 2. The Easter Fires.</span></h2> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Fire-festivals on Easter Eve. + Custom in Catholic countries of kindling a holy new fire at the + church on Easter Saturday; marvellous properties ascribed to + the embers of the fire. The burning of Judas.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Another occasion + on which these fire-festivals are held is <span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page121">[pg 121]</span><a name="Pg121" id="Pg121" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> Easter Eve, the Saturday before Easter + Sunday. On that day it has been customary in Catholic countries to + extinguish all the lights in the churches, and then to make a new + fire, sometimes with flint and steel, sometimes with a + burning-glass. At this fire is lit the great Paschal or Easter + candle, which is then used to rekindle all the extinguished lights + in the church. In many parts of Germany a bonfire is also kindled, + by means of the new fire, on some open space near the church. It is + consecrated, and the people bring sticks of oak, walnut, and beech, + which they char in the fire, and then take home with them. Some of + these charred sticks are thereupon burned at home in a + newly-kindled fire, with a prayer that God will preserve the + homestead from fire, lightning, and hail. Thus every house receives + <span class="tei tei-q">“new fire.”</span> Some of the sticks are + kept throughout the year and laid on the hearth-fire during heavy + thunder-storms to prevent the house from being struck by lightning, + or they are inserted in the roof with the like intention. Others + are placed in the fields, gardens, and meadows, with a prayer that + God will keep them from blight and hail. Such fields and gardens + are thought to thrive more than others; the corn and the plants + that grow in them are not beaten down by hail, nor devoured by + mice, vermin, and beetles; no witch harms them, and the ears of + corn stand close and full. The charred sticks are also applied to + the plough. The ashes of the Easter bonfire, together with the + ashes of the consecrated palm-branches, are mixed with the seed at + sowing. A wooden figure called Judas is sometimes burned in the + consecrated bonfire, and even where this custom has been abolished + the bonfire itself in some places goes by the name of <span class= + "tei tei-q">“the burning of Judas.”</span><a id="noteref_305" name= + "noteref_305" href="#note_305"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">305</span></span></a></p><span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page122">[pg 122]</span><a name="Pg122" id="Pg122" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Easter fires in Bavaria and the + Abruzzi.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In the + Hollertau, Bavaria, the young men used to light their lanterns at + the newly-kindled Easter candle in the church and then race to the + bonfire; he who reached it first set fire to the pile, and next + day, Easter Sunday, was rewarded at the church-door by the + housewives, who presented him with red eggs. Great was the + jubilation while the effigy of the traitor was being consumed in + the flames. The ashes were carefully collected and thrown away at + sunrise in running water.<a id="noteref_306" name="noteref_306" + href="#note_306"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">306</span></span></a> In + many parts of the Abruzzi, also, pious people kindle their fires on + Easter Saturday with a brand brought from the sacred new fire in + the church. When the brand has thus served to bless the fire on the + domestic hearth, it is extinguished, and the remainder is + preserved, partly in a cranny of the outer wall of the house, + partly on a tree to which it is tied. This is done for the purpose + of guarding the homestead against injury by storms. At Campo di + Giove the people say that if you can get a piece of one of the + three holy candles which the priest lights from the new fire, you + should allow a few drops of the wax to fall into the crown of your + hat; for after that, if it should thunder and lighten, you have + nothing to do but to clap the hat on your head, and no flash of + lightning can possibly strike you.<a id="noteref_307" name= + "noteref_307" href="#note_307"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">307</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Water as well as fire consecrated + in the Abruzzi on Easter Saturday. Water consecrated in + Calabria on Easter Saturday. Water and fire consecrated on + Easter Saturday among the Germans of Bohemia. Easter rites of + fire and water at Hildesheim.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Further, it + deserves to be noted that in the Abruzzi water as well as fire is, + as it were, renewed and consecrated on Easter Saturday. Most people + fetch holy water on <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page123">[pg + 123]</span><a name="Pg123" id="Pg123" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + that day from the churches, and every member of the family drinks a + little of it, believing that it has power to protect him or her + against witchcraft, fever, and stomach-aches of all sorts. And when + the church bells ring again after their enforced silence, the water + is sprinkled about the house, and especially under the beds, with + the help of a palm-branch. Some of this blessed water is also kept + in the house for use in great emergencies, when there is no time to + fetch a priest; thus it may be employed to baptize a new-born + infant gasping for life or to sprinkle a sick man in the last + agony; such a sprinkling is reckoned equal to priestly + absolution.<a id="noteref_308" name="noteref_308" href= + "#note_308"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">308</span></span></a> In + Calabria the customs with regard to the new water, as it is called, + on Easter Saturday are similar; it is poured into a new vessel, + adorned with ribbons and flowers, is blessed by the priest, and is + tasted by every one of the household, beginning with the parents. + And when the air vibrates with the glad music of the church bells + announcing the resurrection, the people sprinkle the holy water + about the houses, bidding in a loud voice all evil things to go + forth and all good things to come in. At the same time, to + emphasize the exorcism, they knock on doors, window-shutters, + chests, and other domestic articles of furniture. At Cetraro people + who suffer from diseases of the skin bathe in the sea at this + propitious moment; at Pietro in Guarano they plunge into the river + on the night of Easter Saturday before Easter Sunday dawns, and + while they bathe they utter never a word. Moreover, the Calabrians + keep the <span class="tei tei-q">“new water”</span> as a sacred + thing. They believe that it serves as a protection against + witchcraft if it is sprinkled on a fire or a lamp, when the wood + crackles or the wick sputters; for they regard it as a bad omen + when the fire talks, as they say.<a id="noteref_309" name= + "noteref_309" href="#note_309"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">309</span></span></a> Among + the Germans of Western Bohemia, also, water as well as fire is + consecrated by the priest in front of the church on Easter + Saturday. People bring jugs full of water to the church and set + them beside the holy fire; afterwards they use the water to + sprinkle on the palm-branches which are stuck in the fields. + Charred sticks of the Judas fire, as it is popularly called, are + supposed to possess a magical and healing virtue; <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page124">[pg 124]</span><a name="Pg124" id="Pg124" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> hence the people take them home with + them, and even scuffle with each other for the still glowing embers + in order to carry them, still glimmering, to their houses and so + obtain <span class="tei tei-q">“the light”</span> or <span class= + "tei tei-q">“the holy light.”</span><a id="noteref_310" name= + "noteref_310" href="#note_310"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">310</span></span></a> At + Hildesheim, also, and the neighbouring villages of central Germany + rites both of fire and water are or were till lately observed at + Easter. Thus on Easter night many people fetch water from the + Innerste river and keep it carefully, believing it to be a remedy + for many sorts of ailments both of man and beast. In the villages + on the Leine river servant men and maids used to go silently on + Easter night between the hours of eleven and twelve and silently + draw water in buckets from the river; they mixed the water with the + fodder and the drink of the cattle to make the animals thrive, and + they imagined that to wash in it was good for human beings. Many + were also of opinion that at the same mystic hour the water turned + to wine as far as the crowing of a cock could be heard, and in this + belief they laid themselves flat on their stomachs and kept their + tongues in the water till the miraculous change occurred, when they + took a great gulp of the transformed water. At Hildesheim, too, and + the neighbouring villages fires used to blaze on all the heights on + Easter Eve; and embers taken from the bonfires were dipped in the + cattle troughs to benefit the beasts and were kept in the houses to + avert lightning.<a id="noteref_311" name="noteref_311" href= + "#note_311"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">311</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">New fire at Easter in Carinthia. + Consecration of fire and water by the Catholic Church at + Easter.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In the + Lesachthal, Carinthia, all the fires in the houses used to be + extinguished on Easter Saturday, and rekindled with a fresh fire + brought from the churchyard, where the priest had lit it by the + friction of flint and steel and had bestowed his blessing on + it.<a id="noteref_312" name="noteref_312" href= + "#note_312"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">312</span></span></a> Such + customs were probably widespread. In a Latin poem of the sixteenth + century, written by a certain Thomas Kirchmeyer and translated into + English by Barnabe Googe, we read:—</p> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 0.90em; margin-top: 0.90em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">On Easter Eve the fire + all is quencht in every place,</span></span></span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic"> + And fresh againe from out the flint is fetcht with solemne + grace:</span></span> + </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page125">[pg + 125]</span><a name="Pg125" id="Pg125" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic"> + The priest doth halow this against great daungers many + one,</span></span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic"> + A brande whereof doth every man with greedie mind take + home,</span></span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic"> + That when the fearefull storme appeares, or tempest black + arise,</span></span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic"> + By lighting this he safe may be from stroke of hurtful + skies:</span></span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic"> + A taper great, the Paschall namde, with musicke then they + blesse,</span></span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic"> + And franckensence herein they pricke, for greater + holynesse:</span></span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic"> + This burneth night and day as signe of Christ that conquerde + hell,</span></span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic"> + As if so be this foolish toye suffiseth this to + tell.</span></span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic"> + Then doth the Bishop or the Priest, the water halow + straight,</span></span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic"> + That for their baptisme is reservde: for now no more of + waight</span></span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic"> + Is that they usde the yeare before, nor can they any + more,</span></span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic"> + Yong children christen with the same, as they have done + before.</span></span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic"> + With wondrous pompe and furniture, amid the Church they + go,</span></span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic"> + With candles, crosses, banners, Chrisme, and oyle appoynted + tho:</span></span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic"> + Nine times about the font they marche, and on the saintes doe + call,</span></span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic"> + Then still at length they stande, and straight the Priest + begins withall,</span></span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic"> + And thrise the water doth he touche, and crosses thereon + make,</span></span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic"> + Here bigge and barbrous wordes he speakes, to make the devill + quake:</span></span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic"> + And holsome waters conjureth, and foolishly doth + dresse,</span></span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic"> + Supposing holyar that to make, which God before did + blesse:</span></span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic"> + And after this his candle than, he thrusteth in the + floode,</span></span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic"> + And thrise he breathes thereon with breath, that stinkes of + former foode:</span></span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic"> + And making here an ende, his Chrisme he poureth + thereupon,</span></span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic"> + The people staring hereat stande, amazed every + one:</span></span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic"> + Beleeving that great powre is given to this water + here,</span></span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic"> + By gaping of these learned men, and such like trifling + gere.</span></span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic"> + Therefore in vessels brought they draw, and home they carie + some,</span></span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic"> + Against the grieves that to themselves, or to their beastes + may come.</span></span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic"> + Then Clappers ceasse, and belles are set againe at + libertée,</span></span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left"><span class= + "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">And herewith all the + hungrie times of fasting ended bée.</span></span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <a id="noteref_313" name= + "noteref_313" href="#note_313"><span class="tei tei-noteref" + style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">313</span></span></a> + </div> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It is said that + formerly all the fires in Rome were lighted afresh from the holy + fire kindled in St. Peter's on Easter Saturday. <a id="noteref_314" + name="noteref_314" href="#note_314"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">314</span></span></a></p><span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page126">[pg 126]</span><a name="Pg126" id="Pg126" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The new fire on Easter Saturday at + Florence.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In Florence the + ceremony of kindling the new fire on Easter Eve is peculiar. The + holy flame is elicited from certain flints which are said to have + been brought by a member of the Pazzi family from the Holy Land. + They are kept in the church of the Holy Apostles on the Piazza del + Limbo, and on the morning of Easter Saturday the prior strikes fire + from them and lights a candle from the new flame. The burning + candle is then carried in solemn procession by the clergy and + members of the municipality to the high altar in the cathedral. A + vast crowd has meanwhile assembled in the cathedral and the + neighbouring square to witness the ceremony; amongst the spectators + are many peasants drawn from the surrounding country, for it is + commonly believed that on the success or failure of the ceremony + depends the fate of the crops for the year. Outside the door of the + cathedral stands a festal car drawn by two fine white oxen with + gilded horns. The body of the car is loaded with a pyramid of + squibs and crackers and is connected by a wire with a pillar set up + in front of the high altar. The wire extends down the middle of the + nave at a height of about six feet from the ground. Beneath it a + clear passage is left, the spectators being ranged on either side + and crowding the vast interior from wall to wall. When all is + ready, High Mass is celebrated, and precisely at noon, when the + first words of the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Gloria</span></span> are being chanted, the + sacred fire is applied to the pillar, which like the car is + wreathed with fireworks. A moment more and a fiery dove comes + flying down the nave, with a hissing sound and a sputter of sparks, + between the two hedges of eager spectators. If all goes well, the + bird pursues its course along the wire and out at the door, and in + another moment a prolonged series of fizzes, pops and bangs + announces to the excited crowd in the cathedral that the fireworks + on the car are going off. Great is the joy accordingly, especially + among the bumpkins, who are now sure of an abundant harvest. But + if, as sometimes happens, the dove stops short in its career and + fizzles out, revealing itself as a stuffed bird with a packet of + squibs tied to its tail, great is the consternation, and deep the + curses that issue from between the set teeth of the clodhoppers, + who now give up the harvest for lost. Formerly the unskilful + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page127">[pg 127]</span><a name= + "Pg127" id="Pg127" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> mechanician who was + responsible for the failure would have been clapped into gaol; but + nowadays he is thought sufficiently punished by the storm of public + indignation and the loss of his pay. The disaster is announced by + placards posted about the streets in the evening; and next morning + the newspapers are full of gloomy prognostications.<a id= + "noteref_315" name="noteref_315" href="#note_315"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">315</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The new fire and the burning of + Judas on Easter Saturday in Mexico.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Some of these + customs have been transported by the Catholic Church to the New + World. Thus in Mexico the new fire is struck from a flint early in + the morning of Easter Saturday, and a candle which has been lighted + at the sacred flame is carried through the church by a deacon + shouting <span class="tei tei-q">“<span lang="la" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Lumen Christi</span></span>.”</span> Meantime + the whole city, we are informed, has been converted into a vast + place of execution. Ropes stretch across the streets from house to + house, and from every house dangles an effigy of Judas, made of + paper pulp. Scores or hundreds of them may adorn a single street. + They are of all shapes and sizes, grotesque in form and garbed in + strange attire, stuffed with gunpowder, squibs and crackers, + sometimes, too, with meat, bread, soap, candy, and clothing, for + which the crowd will scramble and scuffle while the effigies are + burning. There they hang grim, black, and sullen in the strong + sunshine, greeted with a roar of execration by the pious mob. A + peal of bells from the cathedral tower on the stroke of noon gives + the signal for the execution. At the sound a frenzy seizes the + crowd. They throw themselves furiously on the figures of the + detested traitor, cut them down, hurl them with curses into the + fire, and fight and struggle with each other in their efforts to + tear the effigies to tatters and appropriate their contents. Smoke, + stink, sputter of crackers, oaths, curses, yells are now the order + of the day. But the traitor does not perish unavenged. For the + anatomy of his frame has been cunningly contrived so as in burning + to discharge volleys of squibs into his assailants; and the wounds + and burns with which their <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page128">[pg 128]</span><a name="Pg128" id="Pg128" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> piety is rewarded form a feature of the + morning's entertainment. The English Jockey Club in Mexico used to + improve on this popular pastime by suspending huge figures of + Judas, stuffed with copper coins, from ropes in front of their + clubhouse. These were ignited at the proper moment and lowered + within reach of the expectant rabble, and it was the privilege of + members of the club, seated in the balcony, to watch the grimaces + and to hear the shrieks of the victims, as they stamped and capered + about with the hot coppers sticking to their hands, divided in + their minds between an acute sense of pain and a thirst for filthy + lucre.<a id="noteref_316" name="noteref_316" href= + "#note_316"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">316</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The burning of Judas at Easter in + South America.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Scenes of the + same sort, though on a less ambitious scale, are witnessed among + the Catholics of South America on the same day. In Brazil the + mourning for the death of Christ ceases at noon on Easter Saturday + and gives place to an extravagant burst of joy at his resurrection. + Shots are fired everywhere, and effigies of Judas are hung on trees + or dragged about the streets, to be finally burned or otherwise + destroyed.<a id="noteref_317" name="noteref_317" href= + "#note_317"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">317</span></span></a> In + the Indian villages scattered among the wild valleys of the + Peruvian Andes figures of the traitor, made of pasteboard and + stuffed with squibs and crackers, are hanged on gibbets before the + door of the church on Easter Saturday. Fire is set to them, and + while they crackle and explode, the Indians dance and shout for joy + at the destruction of their hated enemy.<a id="noteref_318" name= + "noteref_318" href="#note_318"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">318</span></span></a> + Similarly at Rio Hacha, in Colombia, Judas is represented during + Holy Week by life-sized effigies, and the people fire at them as if + they were discharging a sacred duty.<a id="noteref_319" name= + "noteref_319" href="#note_319"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">319</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The new fire on Easter Saturday in + the Church of the Holy Sepulchre at Jerusalem.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But usages of + this sort are not confined to the Latin Church; they are common to + the Greek Church also. Every year on the Saturday before Easter + Sunday a new fire is miraculously kindled at the Holy Sepulchre in + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page129">[pg 129]</span><a name= + "Pg129" id="Pg129" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> Jerusalem. It + descends from heaven and ignites the candles which the patriarch + holds in his hands, while with closed eyes he wrestles in prayer + all alone in the chapel of the Angel. The worshippers meanwhile + wait anxiously in the body of the church, and great are their + transports of joy when at one of the windows of the chapel, which + had been all dark a minute before, there suddenly appears the hand + of an angel, or of the patriarch, holding a lighted taper. This is + the sacred new fire; it is passed out to the expectant believers, + and the desperate struggle which ensues among them to get a share + of its blessed influence is only terminated by the intervention of + the Turkish soldiery, who restore peace and order by hustling the + whole multitude impartially out of the church. In days gone by many + lives were often lost in these holy scrimmages. For example, in the + year 1834, the famous Ibrahim Pasha witnessed the frantic scene + from one of the galleries, and, being moved with compassion at the + sight, descended with a few guards into the arena in the chimerical + hope of restoring peace and order among the contending Christians. + He contrived to force his way into the midst of the dense crowd, + but there the heat and pressure were so great that he fainted away; + a body of soldiers, seeing his danger, charged straight into the + throng and carried him out of it in their arms, trampling under + foot the dying and dead in their passage. Nearly two hundred people + were killed that day in the church. The fortunate survivors on + these occasions who succeeded in obtaining a portion of the coveted + fire applied it freely to their faces, their beards, and their + garments. The theory was that the fire, being miraculous, could + only bless and not burn them; but the practical results of the + experiment were often disappointing, for while the blessings were + more or less dubious, there could be no doubt whatever about the + burns.<a id="noteref_320" name="noteref_320" href= + "#note_320"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">320</span></span></a> The + history of the miracle has been carefully <span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page130">[pg 130]</span><a name="Pg130" id="Pg130" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> investigated by a Jesuit father. The + conclusions at which he arrives are that the miracle was a miracle + indeed so long as the Catholics had the management of it; but that + since it fell into the hands of the heretics it has been nothing + but a barefaced trick and imposture.<a id="noteref_321" name= + "noteref_321" href="#note_321"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">321</span></span></a> Many + people will be disposed to agree with the latter conclusion who + might hesitate to accept the former.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The new fire and the burning of + Judas on Easter Saturday in Greece.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">At Athens the + new fire is kindled in the cathedral at midnight on Holy Saturday. + A dense crowd with unlit candles in their hands fills the square in + front of the cathedral; the king, the archbishop, and the highest + dignitaries of the church, arrayed in their gorgeous robes, occupy + a platform; and at the exact moment of the resurrection the bells + ring out, and the whole square bursts as by magic into a blaze of + light. Theoretically all the candles are lit from the sacred new + fire in the cathedral, but practically it may be suspected that the + matches which bear the name of Lucifer have some share in the + sudden illumination.<a id="noteref_322" name="noteref_322" href= + "#note_322"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">322</span></span></a> + Effigies of Judas used to be burned at Athens on Easter Saturday, + but the custom has been forbidden by the Government. However, + firing goes on more or less continuously all over the city both on + Easter Saturday and Easter Sunday, and the cartridges used on this + occasion are not always blank. The shots are aimed at Judas, but + sometimes they miss him and hit other people. Outside of Athens the + practice of burning Judas in effigy still survives in some places. + For example, in Cos a straw image of the traitor is made on Easter + Day, and after being hung up and shot at it is burned.<a id= + "noteref_323" name="noteref_323" href="#note_323"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">323</span></span></a> A + similar custom <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page131">[pg + 131]</span><a name="Pg131" id="Pg131" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + appears to prevail at Thebes;<a id="noteref_324" name="noteref_324" + href="#note_324"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">324</span></span></a> it + used to be observed by the Macedonian peasantry, and it is still + kept up at Therapia, a fashionable summer resort of + Constantinople.<a id="noteref_325" name="noteref_325" href= + "#note_325"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">325</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The new fire at Candlemas in + Armenia.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In the Armenian + Church the sacred new fire is kindled not at Easter but at + Candlemas, that is, on the second of February, or on the eve of + that festival. The materials of the bonfire are piled in an open + space near a church, and they are generally ignited by young + couples who have been married within the year. However, it is the + bishop or his vicar who lights the candles with which fire is set + to the pile. All young married pairs are expected to range + themselves about the fire and to dance round it. Young men leap + over the flames, but girls and women content themselves with going + round them, while they pray to be preserved from the itch and other + skin-diseases. When the ceremony is over, the people eagerly pick + up charred sticks or ashes of the fire and preserve them or scatter + them on the four corners of the roof, in the cattle-stall, in the + garden, and on the pastures; for these holy sticks and ashes + protect men and cattle against disease, and fruit-trees against + worms and caterpillars. Omens, too, are drawn from the direction in + which the wind blows the flames and the smoke: if it carries them + eastward, there is hope of a good harvest; but if it inclines them + westward, the people fear that the crops will fail.<a id= + "noteref_326" name="noteref_326" href="#note_326"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">326</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The new fire and the burning of + Judas at Easter are probably relics of paganism.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In spite of the + thin cloak of Christianity thrown over these customs by + representing the new fire as an emblem of Christ and the figure + burned in it as an effigy of Judas, we can hardly doubt that both + practices are of pagan origin. Neither of them has the authority of + Christ or of his disciples; but both of them have abundant + analogies in popular custom <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page132">[pg 132]</span><a name="Pg132" id="Pg132" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> and superstition. Some instances of the + practice of annually extinguishing fires and relighting them from a + new and sacred flame have already come before us;<a id= + "noteref_327" name="noteref_327" href="#note_327"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">327</span></span></a> but a + few examples may here be cited for the sake of illustrating the + wide diffusion of a custom which has found its way into the ritual + both of the Eastern and of the Western Church.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The new fire at the summer + solstice among the Incas of Peru. The new fire among the + Indians of Mexico and New Mexico. The new fire among the + Esquimaux.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The Incas of + Peru celebrated a festival called Raymi, a word which their native + historian Garcilasso de la Vega tells us was equivalent to our + Easter. It was held in honour of the sun at the solstice in June. + For three days before the festival the people fasted, men did not + sleep with their wives, and no fires were lighted in Cuzco, the + capital. The sacred new fire was obtained direct from the sun by + concentrating his beams on a highly polished concave plate and + reflecting them on a little cotton wool. With this holy fire the + sheep and lambs offered to the sun were consumed, and the flesh of + such as were to be eaten at the festival was roasted. Portions of + the new fire were also conveyed to the temple of the sun and to the + convent of the sacred virgins, where they were kept burning all the + year, and it was an ill omen if the holy flame went out.<a id= + "noteref_328" name="noteref_328" href="#note_328"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">328</span></span></a> At a + festival held in the last month of the old Mexican year all the + fires both in the temples and in the houses were extinguished, and + the priest kindled a new fire by rubbing two sticks against each + other before the image of the fire-god.<a id="noteref_329" name= + "noteref_329" href="#note_329"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">329</span></span></a> The + Zuni Indians of New Mexico kindle a new fire by the friction of + wood both at the winter and the summer solstice. At the winter + solstice the chosen fire-maker collects a faggot of cedar-wood from + every house in the village, and each person, as he hands the wood + to the fire-maker, prays that the crops may be good in the coming + year. For several days before the new fire is kindled, no + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page133">[pg 133]</span><a name= + "Pg133" id="Pg133" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> ashes or sweepings + may be removed from the houses and no artificial light may appear + outside of them, not even a burning cigarette or the flash of + firearms. The Indians believe that no rain will fall on the fields + of the man outside whose house a light has been seen at this + season. The signal for kindling the new fire is given by the rising + of the Morning Star. The flame is produced by twirling an upright + stick between the hands on a horizontal stick laid on the floor of + a sacred chamber, the sparks being caught by a tinder of + cedar-dust. It is forbidden to blow up the smouldering tinder with + the breath, for that would offend the gods. After the fire has thus + been ceremonially kindled, the women and girls of all the families + in the village clean out their houses. They carry the sweepings and + ashes in baskets or bowls to the fields and leave them there. To + the sweepings the woman says: <span class="tei tei-q">“I now + deposit you as sweepings, but in one year you will return to me as + corn.”</span> And to the ashes she says: <span class="tei tei-q">“I + now deposit you as ashes, but in one year you will return to me as + meal.”</span> At the summer solstice the sacred fire which has been + procured by the friction of wood is used to kindle the grass and + trees, that there may be a great cloud of smoke, while bull-roarers + are swung and prayers offered that the Rain-makers up aloft will + water the earth.<a id="noteref_330" name="noteref_330" href= + "#note_330"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">330</span></span></a> From + this account we see how intimately the kindling of a new fire at + the two turning-points of the sun's course is associated in the + minds of these Indians with the fertility of the land, particularly + with the growth of the corn. The rolling smoke is apparently an + imitation of rain-clouds designed, on the principle of homoeopathic + magic, to draw showers from the blue sky. Once a year the Iroquois + priesthood supplied the people with a new fire. As a preparation + for the annual rite <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page134">[pg + 134]</span><a name="Pg134" id="Pg134" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + the fires in all the huts were extinguished and the ashes scattered + about. Then the priest, wearing the insignia of his office, went + from hut to hut relighting the fires by means of a flint.<a id= + "noteref_331" name="noteref_331" href="#note_331"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">331</span></span></a> Among + the Esquimaux with whom C. F. Hall resided, it was the custom that + at a certain time, which answered to our New Year's Day, two men + went about from house to house blowing out every light in the + village. One of the men was dressed to represent a woman. + Afterwards the lights were rekindled from a fresh fire. An Esquimau + woman being asked what all this meant, replied, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“New sun—new light.”</span><a id="noteref_332" name= + "noteref_332" href="#note_332"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">332</span></span></a> Among + the Esquimaux of Iglulik, when the sun first rises above the + horizon after the long night of the Arctic winter, the children who + have watched for his reappearance run into the houses and blow out + the lamps. Then they receive from their mothers presents of pieces + of wick.<a id="noteref_333" name="noteref_333" href= + "#note_333"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">333</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The new fire in Wadai, among the + Swahili, and in other parts of Africa.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In the Sudanese + kingdom of Wadai all the fires in the villages are put out and the + ashes removed from the houses on the day which precedes the New + Year festival. At the beginning of the new year a new fire is lit + by the friction of wood in the great straw hut where the village + elders lounge away the sultry hours together; and every man takes + thence a burning brand with which he rekindles the fire on his + domestic hearth.<a id="noteref_334" name="noteref_334" href= + "#note_334"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">334</span></span></a> In + the Bahr-el-Ghazal province of the Egyptian Sudan the people + extinguish their old fires at the Arab New Year and bring in new + fire. On the same occasion they beat the walls of their huts, the + grass thatches, and the walls of their enclosures in order to drive + away the devil or evil spirits. The beating of the walls and roofs + is accompanied by the firing of guns, the shouting of men, and the + shriller cries of the women.<a id="noteref_335" name="noteref_335" + href="#note_335"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">335</span></span></a> Thus + these people combine <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page135">[pg + 135]</span><a name="Pg135" id="Pg135" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + an annual expulsion of demons with an annual lighting of a new + fire. Among the Swahili of East Africa the greatest festival is + that of the New Year, which falls in the second half of August. At + a given moment all the fires are extinguished with water and + afterwards relit by the friction of two dry pieces of wood. The + ashes of the old fires are carried out and deposited at + cross-roads. All the people get up very early in the morning and + bathe in the sea or some other water, praying to be kept in good + health and to live that they may bathe again next year. Sham-fights + form part of the amusements of the day; sometimes they pass into + grim reality. Indeed the day was formerly one of general license; + every man did that which was good in his own eyes. No awkward + questions were asked about any crimes committed on this occasion, + so some people improved the shining hour by knocking a few poor + devils on the head. Shooting still goes on during the whole day, + and at night the proceedings generally wind up with a great + dance.<a id="noteref_336" name="noteref_336" href= + "#note_336"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">336</span></span></a> The + King of Benametapa, as the early Portuguese traders called him, in + East Africa used to send commissioners annually to every town in + his dominions; on the arrival of one of these officers the + inhabitants of each town had to put out all their fires and to + receive a new fire from him. Failure to comply with this custom was + treated as rebellion.<a id="noteref_337" name="noteref_337" href= + "#note_337"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">337</span></span></a> Some + tribes of British Central Africa carefully extinguish the fires on + the hearths at <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page136">[pg + 136]</span><a name="Pg136" id="Pg136" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + the beginning of the hoeing season and at harvest; the fires are + afterwards rekindled by friction, and the people indulge in dances + of various kinds.<a id="noteref_338" name="noteref_338" href= + "#note_338"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">338</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The new fire among the Todas of + Southern India and among the Nagas of North-Eastern + India.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The Todas of the + Neilgherry Hills, in Southern India, annually kindle a sacred new + fire by the friction of wood in the month which begins with the + October moon. The ceremony is performed by two holy dairymen at the + foot of a high hill. When they have lighted the fire by rubbing two + dry sticks together, and it begins to burn well, they stand a + little way off and pray, saying, <span class="tei tei-q">“May the + young grass flower! May honey flourish! May fruit ripen!”</span> + The purpose of the ceremony is to make the grass and honey + plentiful. In ancient times the Todas lived largely on wild fruits, + and then the rite of the new fire was very important. Now that they + subsist chiefly on the milk of their buffaloes, the ceremony has + lost much of its old significance.<a id="noteref_339" name= + "noteref_339" href="#note_339"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">339</span></span></a> When + the Nagas of North-Eastern India have felled the timber and cut + down the scrub in those patches of jungle which they propose to + cultivate, they put out all the fires in the village and light a + new fire by rubbing two dry pieces of wood together. Then having + kindled torches at it they proceed with them to the jungle and + ignite the felled timber and brushwood. The flesh of a cow or + buffalo is also roasted on the new fire and furnishes a sacrificial + meal.<a id="noteref_340" name="noteref_340" href= + "#note_340"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">340</span></span></a> Near + the small town of Kahma in Burma, between Prome and Thayetmyo, + certain gases escape from a hollow in the ground and burn with a + steady flame during the dry season of the year. The people regard + the flame as the forge of a spectral smith who here carried on his + business after death had removed him from his old smithy in the + village. Once a year all the household fires in Kahma are + extinguished and then lighted afresh from the ghostly flame.<a id= + "noteref_341" name="noteref_341" href="#note_341"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">341</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The new fire in China and + Japan.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In China every + year, about the beginning of April, certain <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page137">[pg 137]</span><a name="Pg137" id="Pg137" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> officials, called <span lang="zh" + class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="zh"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Sz'hüen</span></span>, used of old to go about + the country armed with wooden clappers. Their business was to + summon the people and command them to put out every fire. This was + the beginning of a season called <span lang="zh" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="zh"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Han-shih-tsieh</span></span>, or <span class= + "tei tei-q">“eating cold food.”</span> For three days all household + fires remained extinct as a preparation for the solemn renewal of + the fire, which took place on the fifth or sixth day of April, + being the hundred and fifth day after the winter solstice. The + ceremony was performed with great pomp by the same officials, who + procured the new fire from heaven by reflecting the sun's rays + either from a metal mirror or from a crystal on dry moss. Fire thus + obtained is called by the Chinese heavenly fire, and its use is + enjoined in sacrifices; whereas fire elicited by the friction of + wood is termed by them earthly fire, and its use is prescribed for + cooking and other domestic purposes. When once the new fire had + thus been drawn from the sun, all the people were free to rekindle + their domestic hearths; and, as a Chinese distich has it—</p> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 0.90em; margin-top: 0.90em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">At the festival of the + cold food there are a thousand white stalks among the + flowers;</span></span></span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left"><span class= + "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">On the day Tsing-ming, + at sunrise, you may see the smoke of ten thousand + houses.</span></span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + </div> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">According to a + Chinese philosopher, the reason for thus renewing fire periodically + is that the vital principle grows weaker and weaker in old fire, + whereas in new fire it is young and vigorous. This annual renewal + of fire was a ceremony of very great antiquity in China, since it + is known to have been observed in the time of the first dynasty, + about two thousand years before Christ. Under the Tcheou dynasty a + change in the calendar led to shifting the fire-festival from + spring to the summer solstice, but afterwards it was brought back + to its original date. Although the custom appears to have long + fallen into disuse, the barbarous inhabitants of Hainan, an island + to the south of China, still call a year <span class="tei tei-q">“a + fire,”</span> as if in memory of the time when the years were + reckoned by the annually recurring ceremony of rekindling the + sacred fire.<a id="noteref_342" name="noteref_342" href= + "#note_342"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">342</span></span></a> + <span class="tei tei-q">“A Japanese book written two <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page138">[pg 138]</span><a name="Pg138" id="Pg138" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> centuries ago informs us that sticks + resembling the wands used for offerings at the purification + ceremony were part shaven and set up in bundles at the four corners + of the Gion shrine on the last day of the year. The priests, after + prayers were recited, broke up the bundles and set fire to the + sticks, which the people then carried home to light their household + fires with for the New Year. The object of this ceremony was to + avert pestilence.”</span><a id="noteref_343" name="noteref_343" + href="#note_343"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">343</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The new fire in ancient Greece and + Rome.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In classical + antiquity the Greek island of Lemnos was devoted to the worship of + the smith-god Hephaestus, who was said to have fallen on it when + Zeus hurled him from heaven.<a id="noteref_344" name="noteref_344" + href="#note_344"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">344</span></span></a> Once + a year every fire in the island was extinguished and remained + extinct for nine days, during which sacrifices were offered to the + dead and to the infernal powers. New fire was brought in a ship + from the sacred isle of Delos, and with it the fires in the houses + and the workshops were relit. The people said that with the new + fire they made a new beginning of life. If the ship that bore the + sacred flame arrived too soon, it might not put in to shore, but + had to cruise in the offing till the nine days were expired.<a id= + "noteref_345" name="noteref_345" href="#note_345"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">345</span></span></a> At + Rome the sacred fire in the temple of Vesta was kindled anew every + year on the first of March, which used to be the beginning of the + Roman year;<a id="noteref_346" name="noteref_346" href= + "#note_346"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">346</span></span></a> the + task of lighting it was entrusted to the Vestal Virgins, and they + performed it by drilling a hole in a board of lucky wood till the + flame was elicited by friction. The new fire thus produced was + carried into the temple of Vesta by one of the virgins in a bronze + sieve.<a id="noteref_347" name="noteref_347" href= + "#note_347"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">347</span></span></a></p><span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page139">[pg 139]</span><a name="Pg139" id="Pg139" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The new fire at Hallow E'en among + the old Celts of Ireland. The new fire on September 1st among + the Russian peasants.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Among the Celts + of Ireland a new fire was annually kindled on Hallowe'en or the Eve + of Samhain, as they called it, the last day of October, from which + the Irish new year began; and all the hearths throughout the + country are said to have been relighted from the fresh fire. The + place where this holy flame was lit bore the name of Tlachtga or + Tlactga; it has been identified with a rath or native fort on the + Hill of Ward near Athboy in the county of Meath. <span class= + "tei tei-q">“It was there,”</span> says the old Irish historian, + Geoffrey Keating, <span class="tei tei-q">“that the Festival of the + Fire of Tlactga was ordered to be held, and it was thither that the + Druids of Ireland were wont to repair and to assemble, in solemn + meeting, on the eve of Samhain, for the purpose of making a + sacrifice to all the gods. It was in that fire at Tlactga, that + their sacrifice was burnt; and it was made obligatory, under pain + of punishment, to extinguish all the fires of Ireland, on that eve; + and the men of Ireland were allowed to kindle no other fire but + that one; and for each of the other fires, which were all to be + lighted from it, the king of Munster was to receive a tax of a + <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sgreball</span></span>, that is, of three + pence, because the land, upon which Tlactga was built, belongs to + the portion of Meath which had been taken from + Munster.”</span><a id="noteref_348" name="noteref_348" href= + "#note_348"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">348</span></span></a> In + the villages near Moscow at the present time the peasants put out + all their fires on the eve of the first of September, and next + morning at sunrise a wise man or a wise woman rekindles them with + the help of muttered incantations and spells.<a id="noteref_349" + name="noteref_349" href="#note_349"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">349</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Thus the ceremony of the new fire + in the Eastern and Western Church is probably a relic of an old + heathen rite.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Instances of + such practices might doubtless be multiplied, but the foregoing + examples may suffice to render it <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page140">[pg 140]</span><a name="Pg140" id="Pg140" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> probable that the ecclesiastical ceremony of + lighting a sacred new fire on Easter Saturday had originally + nothing to do with Christianity, but is merely one case of a + world-wide custom which the Church has seen fit to incorporate in + its ritual. It might be supposed that in the Western Church the + custom was merely a survival of the old Roman usage of renewing the + fire on the first of March, were it not that the observance by the + Eastern Church of the custom on the same day seems to point back to + a still older period when the ceremony of lighting a new fire in + spring, perhaps at the vernal equinox, was common to many peoples + of the Mediterranean area. We may conjecture that wherever such a + ceremony has been observed, it originally marked the beginning of a + new year, as it did in ancient Rome and Ireland, and as it still + does in the Sudanese kingdom of Wadai and among the Swahili of + Eastern Africa.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The pagan character of the Easter + fire appears from the superstitions associated with it, such as + the belief that the fire fertilizes the fields and protects + houses from conflagration and sickness.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The essentially + pagan character of the Easter fire festival appears plainly both + from the mode in which it is celebrated by the peasants and from + the superstitious beliefs which they associate with it. All over + northern and central Germany, from Altmark and Anhalt on the east, + through Brunswick, Hanover, Oldenburg, the Harz district, and Hesse + to Westphalia the Easter bonfires still blaze simultaneously on the + hill-tops. As many as forty may sometimes be counted within sight + at once. Long before Easter the young people have been busy + collecting firewood; every farmer contributes, and tar-barrels, + petroleum cases, and so forth go to swell the pile. Neighbouring + villages vie with each other as to which shall send up the greatest + blaze. The fires are always kindled, year after year, on the same + hill, which accordingly often takes the name of Easter Mountain. It + is a fine spectacle to watch from some eminence the bonfires + flaring up one after another on the neighbouring heights. As far as + their light reaches, so far, in the belief of the peasants, the + fields will be fruitful, and the houses on which they shine will be + safe from conflagration or sickness. At Volkmarsen and other places + in Hesse the people used to observe which way the wind blew the + flames, and then they sowed flax seed in that direction, confident + that it would grow well. Brands taken from the bonfires preserve + houses from <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page141">[pg + 141]</span><a name="Pg141" id="Pg141" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + being struck by lightning; and the ashes increase the fertility of + the fields, protect them from mice, and mixed with the + drinking-water of cattle make the animals thrive and ensure them + against plague. As the flames die down, young and old leap over + them, and cattle are sometimes driven through the smouldering + embers. In some places tar-barrels or wheels wrapt in straw used to + be set on fire, and then sent rolling down the hillside. In others + the boys light torches and wisps of straw at the bonfires and rush + about brandishing them in their hands. Where the people are divided + between Protestantism and Catholicism, as in Hildesheim, it has + been observed that among Protestants the Easter bonfires are + generally left to the boys, while in Catholic districts they are + cared for by grown-up persons, and here the whole population will + gather round the blazing pile and join in singing choral hymns, + which echo far and wide in the stillness of night.<a id= + "noteref_350" name="noteref_350" href="#note_350"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">350</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The Easter fires in Münsterland, + Oldenburg, the Harz Mountains, and the Altmark.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In Münsterland + these Easter fires are always kindled upon certain definite hills, + which are hence known as Easter or Paschal Mountains. The whole + community assembles about the fire. Fathers of families form an + inner circle round it. An outer circle is composed of the young men + and maidens, who, singing Easter hymns, march round and round the + fire in the direction of the sun, till the blaze dies down. Then + the girls jump over the fire in a line, one after the other, each + supported by two young men who hold her hands and run beside her. + When the fire has burned out, the whole assembly marches in solemn + procession to the church, singing hymns. They go thrice round the + church, and then break up. In the twilight boys with <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page142">[pg 142]</span><a name="Pg142" id="Pg142" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> blazing bundles of straw run over the + fields to make them fruitful.<a id="noteref_351" name="noteref_351" + href="#note_351"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">351</span></span></a> At + Delmenhorst, in Oldenburg, it used to be the custom to cut down two + trees, plant them in the ground side by side, and pile twelve + tar-barrels, one above the other, against each of the trees. + Brushwood was then heaped about the trees, and on the evening of + Easter Saturday the boys, after rushing about with blazing + bean-poles in their hands, set fire to the whole. At the end of the + ceremony the urchins tried to blacken each other and the clothes of + grown-up people.<a id="noteref_352" name="noteref_352" href= + "#note_352"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">352</span></span></a> In + Schaumburg the Easter bonfires may be seen blazing on all the + mountains around for miles. They are made with a tar-barrel + fastened to a pine-tree, which is wrapt in straw. The people dance + singing round them.<a id="noteref_353" name="noteref_353" href= + "#note_353"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">353</span></span></a> In + the Harz Mountains the fire is commonly made by piling brushwood + about a tree and setting it on fire. At Osterode every one tries to + snatch a brand from the bonfire and runs about with it; the better + it burns, the more lucky it is. In Grund there are + torch-races.<a id="noteref_354" name="noteref_354" href= + "#note_354"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">354</span></span></a> In + the Altmark the Easter bonfires are composed of tar-barrels, + bee-hives, and so forth, piled round a pole. The young folk dance + round the fire; and when it has died out, the old folk come and + collect the ashes, which they preserve as a remedy for the ailments + of bees. It is also believed that as far as the blaze of the + bonfire is visible, the corn will grow well throughout the year, + and no conflagration will break out.<a id="noteref_355" name= + "noteref_355" href="#note_355"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">355</span></span></a> At + Braunröde, in the Harz Mountains, it was the custom to burn + squirrels in the Easter bonfire.<a id="noteref_356" name= + "noteref_356" href="#note_356"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">356</span></span></a> In + the Altmark, bones were burned in it.<a id="noteref_357" name= + "noteref_357" href="#note_357"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">357</span></span></a></p><span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page143">[pg 143]</span><a name="Pg143" id="Pg143" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The Easter fires in Bavaria. The + burning of Judas. Burning the Easter Man.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Further south + the Easter fires are, or used to be, lit in many districts of + Bavaria. Thus on Easter Monday in some parts of Middle Franken the + schoolboys collect all the old worn-out besoms they can lay hands + on, and march with them in a long procession to a neighbouring + height. When the first chime of the evening bell comes up from the + dale they set fire to the brooms, and run along the ridges waving + them, so that seen from below the hills appear to be crested with a + twinkling and moving chain of fire.<a id="noteref_358" name= + "noteref_358" href="#note_358"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">358</span></span></a> In + some parts of Upper Bavaria at Easter burning arrows or discs of + wood were shot from hill-tops high into the air, as in the Swabian + and Swiss customs already described.<a id="noteref_359" name= + "noteref_359" href="#note_359"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">359</span></span></a> At + Oberau, instead of the discs, an old cart-wheel was sometimes wrapt + in straw, ignited, and sent rolling and blazing down the mountain. + The lads who hurled the discs received painted Easter eggs from the + girls.<a id="noteref_360" name="noteref_360" href= + "#note_360"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">360</span></span></a> Near + Forchheim, in Upper Franken, a straw-man called the Judas used to + be burned in the churchyards on Easter Saturday. The whole village + contributed wood to the pyre on which he perished, and the charred + sticks were afterwards kept and planted in the fields on Walpurgis + Day (the first of May) to preserve the wheat from blight and + mildew.<a id="noteref_361" name="noteref_361" href= + "#note_361"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">361</span></span></a> About + a hundred years ago or more the custom at Althenneberg, in Upper + Bavaria, used to be as follows. On the afternoon of Easter Saturday + the lads collected wood, which they piled in a cornfield, while in + the middle of the pile they set up a tall wooden cross all swathed + in straw. After the evening service they lighted their lanterns at + the consecrated candle in the church, and ran with them at full + speed to the pyre, each striving to get there first. The first to + arrive set fire to the heap. No woman or girl might come near the + bonfire, but they were allowed to watch it from a distance. As the + flames rose the men and lads rejoiced and made merry, shouting, + <span class="tei tei-q">“We are burning the Judas!”</span> Two of + them had to watch the glowing embers the whole night long, lest + people should come and steal them. Next morning at sunrise they + carefully collected the <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page144">[pg + 144]</span><a name="Pg144" id="Pg144" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + ashes, and threw them into the running water of the Röten brook. + The man who had been the first to reach the pyre and to kindle it + was rewarded on Easter Sunday by the women, who gave him coloured + eggs at the church door. Well-to-do women gave him two; poorer + women gave him only one. The object of the whole ceremony was to + keep off the hail. About a century ago the Judas fire, as it was + called, was put down by the police.<a id="noteref_362" name= + "noteref_362" href="#note_362"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">362</span></span></a> At + Giggenhausen and Aufkirchen, two other villages of Upper Bavaria, a + similar custom prevailed, yet with some interesting differences. + Here the ceremony, which took place between nine and ten at night + on Easter Saturday, was called <span class="tei tei-q">“burning the + Easter Man.”</span> On a height about a mile from the village the + young fellows set up a tall cross enveloped in straw, so that it + looked like a man with his arms stretched out. This was the Easter + Man. No lad under eighteen years of age might take part in the + ceremony. One of the young men stationed himself beside the Easter + Man, holding in his hand a consecrated taper which he had brought + from the church and lighted. The rest stood at equal intervals in a + great circle round the cross. At a given signal they raced thrice + round the circle, and then at a second signal ran straight at the + cross and at the lad with the lighted taper beside it; the one who + reached the goal first had the right of setting fire to the Easter + Man. Great was the jubilation while he was burning. When he had + been consumed in the flames, three lads were chosen from among the + rest, and each of the three drew a circle on the ground with a + stick thrice round the ashes. Then they all left the spot. On + Easter Monday the villagers gathered the ashes and strewed them on + their fields; also they planted in the fields palm-branches which + had been consecrated on Palm Sunday, and sticks which had been + charred and hallowed on Good Friday, all for the purpose of + protecting their fields against showers of hail. The custom of + burning an Easter Man made of straw on Easter Saturday was observed + also at Abensberg, in Lower Bavaria.<a id="noteref_363" name= + "noteref_363" href="#note_363"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">363</span></span></a> In + some parts of Swabia the Easter fires might <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page145">[pg 145]</span><a name="Pg145" id="Pg145" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> not be kindled with iron or steel or + flint, but only by the friction of wood.<a id="noteref_364" name= + "noteref_364" href="#note_364"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">364</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The Easter fires in Baden.</span> + <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 80%">“</span><span style="font-size: 80%">Thunder + poles.</span><span style="font-size: 80%">”</span></span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In Baden + bonfires are still kindled in the churchyards on Easter Saturday, + and ecclesiastical refuse of various sorts, such as candle-ends, + old surplices, and the wool used by the priest in the application + of extreme unction, is consumed in the flames. At Zoznegg down to + about 1850 the fire was lighted by the priest by means of a flint + which had never been used before. People bring sticks, especially + oaken sticks, char them in the fire, and then carry them home and + keep them in the house as a preservative against lightning. At + Zoznegg these oaken sticks were sword-shaped, each about an ell and + a half long, and they went by the name of <span class= + "tei tei-q">“weather or thunder poles”</span> (<span lang="de" + class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="de"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Wetterpfähle</span></span>). When a + thunder-storm threatened to break out, one of the sticks was put + into a small fire, in order that the hallowed smoke, ascending to + the clouds, might ward off the lightning from the house and the + hail from the fields and gardens. At Schöllbronn the oaken sticks, + which are thus charred in the Easter bonfire and kept in the house + as a protective against thunder and lightning, are three in number, + perhaps with an allusion to the Trinity; they are brought every + Easter to be consecrated afresh in the bonfire, till they are quite + burnt away. In the lake district of Baden it is also customary to + burn one of these holy sticks in the fire when a heavy thunderstorm + is raging.<a id="noteref_365" name="noteref_365" href= + "#note_365"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">365</span></span></a> Hence + it seems that the ancient association of the oak with the + thunder<a id="noteref_366" name="noteref_366" href= + "#note_366"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">366</span></span></a> + persists in the minds of German peasants to the present day.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Easter fires in Holland and + Sweden. The burning of Judas in Bohemia.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Thus the custom + of the Easter fires appears to have prevailed all over central and + western Germany from north to south. We find it also in Holland, + where the fires were kindled on the highest eminences, and the + people danced round them and leaped through the flames or over the + glowing embers. Here too, as so often in Germany, the materials for + the bonfire were collected by the young folk <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page146">[pg 146]</span><a name="Pg146" id="Pg146" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> from door to door.<a id="noteref_367" + name="noteref_367" href="#note_367"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">367</span></span></a> In + many parts of Sweden firearms are, as at Athens, discharged in all + directions on Easter eve, and huge bonfires are lighted on hills + and eminences. Some people think that the intention is to keep off + the Troll and other evil spirits who are especially active at this + season.<a id="noteref_368" name="noteref_368" href= + "#note_368"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">368</span></span></a> When + the afternoon service on Good Friday is over, German children in + Bohemia drive Judas out of the church by running about the sacred + edifice and even the streets shaking rattles and clappers. Next + day, on Easter Saturday, the remains of the holy oil are burnt + before the church door in a fire which must be kindled with flint + and steel. This fire is called <span class="tei tei-q">“the burning + of Judas,”</span> but in spite of its evil name a beneficent virtue + is ascribed to it, for the people scuffle for the cinders, which + they put in the roofs of their houses as a safeguard against fire + and lightning.<a id="noteref_369" name="noteref_369" href= + "#note_369"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">369</span></span></a></p> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em"> + <a name="toc35" id="toc35"></a> <a name="pdf36" id="pdf36"></a> + + <h2 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em"> + <span style="font-size: 144%">§ 3. The Beltane Fires.</span></h2> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The Beltane fires on the first of + May in the Highlands of Scotland. Description of the Beltane + fires by John Ramsay of Ochtertyre in the eighteenth + century.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In the central + Highlands of Scotland bonfires, known as the Beltane fires, were + formerly kindled with great ceremony on the first of May, and the + traces of human sacrifices at them were particularly clear and + unequivocal. The custom of lighting the bonfires lasted in various + places far into the eighteenth century, and the descriptions of the + ceremony by writers of that period present such a curious and + interesting picture of ancient heathendom surviving in our own + country that I will reproduce them in the words of their authors. + The fullest of the descriptions, so far as I know, is the one + bequeathed to us by John Ramsay, laird of Ochtertyre, near Crieff, + the patron of Burns and the friend of Sir <span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page147">[pg 147]</span><a name="Pg147" id="Pg147" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> Walter Scott. From his voluminous + manuscripts, written in the last quarter of the eighteenth century, + a selection was published in the latter part of the nineteenth + century. The following account of Beltane is extracted from a + chapter dealing with Highland superstitions. Ramsay says: + <span class="tei tei-q">“But the most considerable of the Druidical + festivals is that of Beltane, or May-day, which was lately observed + in some parts of the Highlands with extraordinary ceremonies. Of + later years it is chiefly attended to by young people, persons + advanced in years considering it as inconsistent with their gravity + to give it any countenance. Yet a number of circumstances relative + to it may be collected from tradition, or the conversation of very + old people, who witnessed this feast in their youth, when the + ancient rites were better observed.</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Need-fire.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class= + "tei tei-q">“This festival is called in Gaelic <span lang="gd" + class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="gd"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Beal-tene</span></span>—<span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">i.e.</span></span>, + the fire of Bel.... Like the other public worship of the Druids, + the Beltane feast seems to have been performed on hills or + eminences. They thought it degrading to him whose temple is the + universe, to suppose that he would dwell in any house made with + hands. Their sacrifices were therefore offered in the open air, + frequently upon the tops of hills, where they were presented with + the grandest views of nature, and were nearest the seat of warmth + and order. And, according to tradition, such was the manner of + celebrating this festival in the Highlands within the last hundred + years. But since the decline of superstition, it has been + celebrated by the people of each hamlet on some hill or rising + ground around which their cattle were pasturing. Thither the young + folks repaired in the morning, and cut a trench, on the summit of + which a seat of turf was formed for the company. And in the middle + a pile of wood or other fuel was placed, which of old they kindled + with <span lang="gd" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang= + "gd"><span style= + "font-style: italic">tein-eigin</span></span>—<span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">i.e.</span></span>, + forced-fire or <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">need-fire</span></em>. Although, for many + years past, they have been contented with common fire, yet we shall + now describe the process, because it will hereafter appear that + recourse is still had to the <span lang="gd" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="gd"><span style= + "font-style: italic">tein-eigin</span></span> upon extraordinary + emergencies.</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Need-fire kindled by the friction + of oak wood.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class= + "tei tei-q">“The night before, all the fires in the country were + carefully extinguished, and next morning the materials for exciting + this sacred fire were prepared. The most primitive method seems to + be that which was used in the islands of <span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page148">[pg 148]</span><a name="Pg148" id="Pg148" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> Skye, Mull, and Tiree. A well-seasoned plank + of oak was procured, in the midst of which a hole was bored. A + wimble of the same timber was then applied, the end of which they + fitted to the hole. But in some parts of the mainland the machinery + was different. They used a frame of green wood, of a square form, + in the centre of which was an axle-tree. In some places three times + three persons, in others three times nine, were required for + turning round by turns the axle-tree or wimble. If any of them had + been guilty of murder, adultery, theft, or other atrocious crime, + it was imagined either that the fire would not kindle, or that it + would be devoid of its usual virtue. So soon as any sparks were + emitted by means of the violent friction, they applied a species of + agaric which grows on old birch-trees, and is very combustible. + This fire had the appearance of being immediately derived from + heaven, and manifold were the virtues ascribed to it. They esteemed + it a preservative against witchcraft, and a sovereign remedy + against malignant diseases, both in the human species and in + cattle; and by it the strongest poisons were supposed to have their + nature changed.</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The Beltane cake and the Beltane + carline (</span><span lang="gd" class="tei tei-foreign" + xml:lang="gd"><span style= + "font-size: 80%; font-style: italic">cailleach</span></span><span style="font-size: 80%">).</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class= + "tei tei-q">“After kindling the bonfire with the <span lang="gd" + class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="gd"><span style= + "font-style: italic">tein-eigin</span></span> the company prepared + their victuals. And as soon as they had finished their meal, they + amused themselves a while in singing and dancing round the fire. + Towards the close of the entertainment, the person who officiated + as master of the feast produced a large cake baked with eggs and + scalloped round the edge, called <span lang="gd" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="gd"><span style="font-style: italic">am + bonnach beal-tine</span></span>—<span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">i.e.</span></span>, + the Beltane cake. It was divided into a number of pieces, and + distributed in great form to the company. There was one particular + piece which whoever got was called <span lang="gd" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="gd"><span style= + "font-style: italic">cailleach beal-tine</span></span>—<span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">i.e.</span></span>, + the Beltane <span lang="gd" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang= + "gd"><span style="font-style: italic">carline</span></span>, a term + of great reproach. Upon his being known, part of the company laid + hold of him and made a show of putting him into the fire; but the + majority interposing, he was rescued. And in some places they laid + him flat on the ground, making as if they would quarter him. + Afterwards, he was pelted with egg-shells, and retained the odious + appellation during the whole year. And while the feast was fresh in + people's memory, they affected to speak of the <span lang="gd" + class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="gd"><span style= + "font-style: italic">cailleach beal-tine</span></span> as + dead.</span></p><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page149">[pg + 149]</span><a name="Pg149" id="Pg149" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Local differences in the Beltane + cakes.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class= + "tei tei-q">“This festival was longest observed in the interior + Highlands, for towards the west coast the traces of it are + faintest. In Glenorchy and Lorne, a large cake is made on that day, + which they consume in the house; and in Mull it has a large hole in + the middle, through which each of the cows in the fold is milked. + In Tiree it is of a triangular form. The more elderly people + remember when this festival was celebrated without-doors with some + solemnity in both these islands. There are at present no vestiges + of it in Skye or the Long Island, the inhabitants of which have + substituted the <span lang="gd" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang= + "gd"><span style="font-style: italic">connach Micheil</span></span> + or St. Michael's cake. It is made at Michaelmas with milk and + oatmeal, and some eggs are sprinkled on its surface. Part of it is + sent to the neighbours.</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Evidence of two fires at + Beltane.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class= + "tei tei-q">“It is probable that at the original Beltane festival + there were two fires kindled near one another. When any person is + in a critical dilemma, pressed on each side by unsurmountable + difficulties, the Highlanders have a proverb, <span lang="gd" + class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="gd"><span style= + "font-style: italic">The e' eada anda theine + bealtuin</span></span>—<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">i.e.</span></span>, he is between the two + Beltane fires. There are in several parts small round hills, which, + it is like, owe their present names to such solemn uses. One of the + highest and most central in Icolmkil is called <span lang="gd" + class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="gd"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Cnoch-nan-ainneal</span></span>—<span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">i.e.</span></span>, + the hill of the fires. There is another of the same name near the + kirk of Balquhidder; and at Killin there is a round green eminence + which seems to have been raised by art. It is called <span lang= + "gd" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="gd"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Tom-nan-ainneal</span></span>—<span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">i.e.</span></span>, + the eminence of the fires. Around it there are the remains of a + circular wall about two feet high. On the top a stone stands upon + end. According to the tradition of the inhabitants, it was a place + of Druidical worship; and it was afterwards pitched on as the most + venerable spot for holding courts of justice for the country of + Breadalbane. The earth of this eminence is still thought to be + possessed of some healing virtue, for when cattle are observed to + be diseased some of it is sent for, which is rubbed on the part + affected.”</span><a id="noteref_370" name="noteref_370" href= + "#note_370"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">370</span></span></a></p><span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page150">[pg 150]</span><a name="Pg150" id="Pg150" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Beltane fires and cakes in the + parish of Callander.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In the parish of + Callander, a beautiful district of western Perthshire, the Beltane + custom was still in vogue towards the end of the eighteenth + century. It has been described as follows by the parish minister of + the time: <span class="tei tei-q">“Upon the first day of May, which + is called <span lang="gd" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang= + "gd"><span style="font-style: italic">Beltan</span></span>, or + <span lang="gd" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="gd"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Bal-tein</span></span> day, all the boys in a + township or hamlet, meet in the moors. They cut a table in the + green sod, of a round figure, by casting a trench in the ground, of + such circumference as to hold the whole company. They kindle a + fire, and dress a repast of eggs and milk in the consistence of a + custard. They knead a cake of oatmeal, which is toasted at the + embers against a stone. After the custard is eaten up, they divide + the cake into so many portions, as similar as possible to one + another in size and shape, as there are persons in the company. + They daub one of these portions all over with charcoal, until it be + perfectly black. They put all the bits of the cake into a bonnet. + Every one, blindfold, draws out a portion. He who holds the bonnet, + is entitled to the last bit. Whoever draws the black bit, is the + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">devoted</span></em> person who is to be + sacrificed to <span lang="gd" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang= + "gd"><span style="font-style: italic">Baal</span></span>,<a id= + "noteref_371" name="noteref_371" href="#note_371"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">371</span></span></a> whose + favour they mean to implore, in <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page151">[pg 151]</span><a name="Pg151" id="Pg151" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> rendering the year productive of the + sustenance of man and <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page152">[pg + 152]</span><a name="Pg152" id="Pg152" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + beast. There is little doubt of these inhuman sacrifices having + been once offered in this country, as well as in the east, although + they now pass from the act of sacrificing, and only compel the + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">devoted</span></em> person to leap three times + through the flames; with which the ceremonies of this festival are + closed.”</span><a id="noteref_372" name="noteref_372" href= + "#note_372"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">372</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Pennant's description of the + Beltane fires and cakes in Perthshire.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Thomas Pennant, + who travelled in Perthshire in the year 1769, tells us that + <span class="tei tei-q">“on the first of May, the herdsmen of every + village hold their Bel-tien, a rural sacrifice. They cut a square + trench on the ground, leaving the turf in the middle; on that they + make a fire of wood, on which they dress a large caudle of eggs, + butter, oatmeal and milk; and bring besides the ingredients of the + caudle, plenty of beer and whisky; for each of the company must + contribute something. The rites begin with spilling some of the + caudle on the ground, by way of libation: on that every one takes a + cake of oatmeal, upon which are raised nine square knobs, each + dedicated to some particular being, the supposed preserver of their + flocks and herds, or to some particular animal, the real destroyer + of them: each person then turns his face to the fire, breaks off a + knob, and flinging it over his shoulders, says, <span class= + "tei tei-q">‘This I give to thee, preserve thou my horses; this to + thee, preserve thou my sheep; and so on.’</span> After that, they + use the same ceremony to the noxious animals: <span class= + "tei tei-q">‘This I give to thee, O fox! spare thou my lambs; this + to thee, O hooded crow! this to thee, O eagle!’</span> When the + ceremony is over, they dine on the caudle; and after the feast is + finished, what is left is hid by two persons deputed for that + purpose; but on the next Sunday they re-assemble, and finish the + reliques of the first entertainment.”</span><a id="noteref_373" + name="noteref_373" href="#note_373"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">373</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Beltane cakes and fires in the + parishes of Logierait and Kirkmichael. Omens drawn from the + cakes.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Another writer + of the eighteenth century has described the Beltane festival as it + was held in the parish of Logierait in Perthshire. He says: + <span class="tei tei-q">“On the first of May, O.S., a festival + called <span lang="gd" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang= + "gd"><span style="font-style: italic">Beltan</span></span> is + annually held here. It is chiefly celebrated by the cow-herds, who + assemble by scores in the fields, to dress a dinner for themselves, + of boiled milk <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page153">[pg + 153]</span><a name="Pg153" id="Pg153" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + and eggs. These dishes they eat with a sort of cakes baked for the + occasion, and having small lumps in the form of <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">nipples</span></em>, raised all over the + surface.”</span><a id="noteref_374" name="noteref_374" href= + "#note_374"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">374</span></span></a> In + this last account no mention is made of bonfires, but they were + probably lighted, for a contemporary writer informs us that in the + parish of Kirkmichael, which adjoins the parish of Logierait on the + east, the custom of lighting a fire in the fields and baking a + consecrated cake on the first of May was not quite obsolete in his + time.<a id="noteref_375" name="noteref_375" href= + "#note_375"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">375</span></span></a> We + may conjecture that the cake with knobs was formerly used for the + purpose of determining who should be the <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Beltane carline”</span> or victim doomed to the + flames. A trace of this custom survived, perhaps, in the custom of + baking oatmeal cakes of a special kind and rolling them down hill + about noon on the first of May; for it was thought that the person + whose cake broke as it rolled would die or be unfortunate within + the year. These cakes, or bannocks as we call them in Scotland, + were baked in the usual way, but they were washed over with a thin + batter composed of whipped egg, milk or cream, and a little + oatmeal. This custom appears to have prevailed at or near Kingussie + in Inverness-shire. At Achterneed, near Strathpeffer in Ross-shire, + the Beltane bannocks were called <span lang="gd" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="gd"><span style= + "font-style: italic">tcharnican</span></span> or hand-cakes, + because they were kneaded entirely in the hand, and not on a board + or table like common cakes; and after being baked they might not be + placed anywhere but in the hands of the children who were to eat + them.<a id="noteref_376" name="noteref_376" href= + "#note_376"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">376</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Beltane fires in the north-east of + Scotland to burn the witches. Burning the witches. The Beltane + cake.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In the + north-east of Scotland the Beltane fires were still kindled in the + latter half of the eighteenth century; the herdsmen of several + farms used to gather dry wood, kindle it, and dance three times + <span class="tei tei-q">“southways”</span> about the burning + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page154">[pg 154]</span><a name= + "Pg154" id="Pg154" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> pile.<a id= + "noteref_377" name="noteref_377" href="#note_377"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">377</span></span></a> But + in this region, according to a later authority, the Beltane fires + were lit not on the first but on the second of May, Old Style. They + were called bone-fires. The people believed that on that evening + and night the witches were abroad and busy casting spells on cattle + and stealing cows' milk. To counteract their machinations, pieces + of rowan-tree and woodbine, but especially of rowan-tree, were + placed over the doors of the cow-houses, and fires were kindled by + every farmer and cottar. Old thatch, straw, furze, or broom was + piled in a heap and set on fire a little after sunset. While some + of the bystanders kept tossing the blazing mass, others hoisted + portions of it on pitchforks or poles and ran hither and thither, + holding them as high as they could. Meantime the young people + danced round the fire or ran through the smoke shouting, + <span class="tei tei-q">“Fire! blaze and burn the witches; fire! + fire! burn the witches.”</span> In some districts a large round + cake of oat or barley meal was rolled through the ashes. When all + the fuel was consumed, the people scattered the ashes far and wide, + and till the night grew quite dark they continued to run through + them, crying, <span class="tei tei-q">“Fire! burn the + witches.”</span><a id="noteref_378" name="noteref_378" href= + "#note_378"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">378</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Beltane cakes and fires in the + Hebrides.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In the Hebrides + <span class="tei tei-q">“the Beltane bannock is smaller than that + made at St. Michael's, but is made in the same way; it is no longer + made in Uist, but Father Allan remembers seeing his grandmother + make one about twenty-five years ago. There was also a cheese made, + generally on the first of May, which was kept to the next Beltane + as a sort of charm against the bewitching of milk-produce. The + Beltane customs seem to have been the same as elsewhere. Every fire + was put out and a large one lit on the top of the hill, and the + cattle driven round it sunwards (<span lang="gd" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="gd"><span style= + "font-style: italic">dessil</span></span>), to keep off murrain all + the year. Each man would take home fire wherewith to kindle his + own.”</span><a id="noteref_379" name="noteref_379" href= + "#note_379"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">379</span></span></a></p><span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page155">[pg 155]</span><a name="Pg155" id="Pg155" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Beltane fires and cakes in + Wales.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In Wales also + the custom of lighting Beltane fires at the beginning of May used + to be observed, but the day on which they were kindled varied from + the Eve of May Day to the third of May. The flame was sometimes + elicited by the friction of two pieces of oak, as appears from the + following description. <span class="tei tei-q">“The fire was done + in this way. Nine men would turn their pockets inside out, and see + that every piece of money and all metals were off their persons. + Then the men went into the nearest woods, and collected sticks of + nine different kinds of trees. These were carried to the spot where + the fire had to be built. There a circle was cut in the sod, and + the sticks were set crosswise. All around the circle the people + stood and watched the proceedings. One of the men would then take + two bits of oak, and rub them together until a flame was kindled. + This was applied to the sticks, and soon a large fire was made. + Sometimes two fires were set up side by side. These fires, whether + one or two, were called <span lang="cy" class="tei tei-foreign" + xml:lang="cy"><span style= + "font-style: italic">coelcerth</span></span> or bonfire. Round + cakes of oatmeal and brown meal were split in four, and placed in a + small flour-bag, and everybody present had to pick out a portion. + The last bit in the bag fell to the lot of the bag-holder. Each + person who chanced to pick up a piece of brown-meal cake was + compelled to leap three times over the flames, or to run thrice + between the two fires, by which means the people thought they were + sure of a plentiful harvest. Shouts and screams of those who had to + face the ordeal could be heard ever so far, and those who chanced + to pick the oatmeal portions sang and danced and clapped their + hands in approval, as the holders of the brown bits leaped three + times over the flames, or ran three times between the two fires. As + a rule, no danger attended <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page156">[pg 156]</span><a name="Pg156" id="Pg156" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> these curious celebrations, but occasionally + somebody's clothes caught fire, which was quickly put out. The + greatest fire of the year was the eve of May, or May first, second, + or third. The Midsummer Eve fire was more for the harvest. Very + often a fire was built on the eve of November. The high ground near + the Castle Ditches at Llantwit Major, in the Vale of Glamorgan, was + a familiar spot for the Beltane on May third and on Midsummer + Eve.... Sometimes the Beltane fire was lighted by the flames + produced by stone instead of wood friction. Charred logs and + faggots used in the May Beltane were carefully preserved, and from + them the next fire was lighted. May fires were always started with + old faggots of the previous year, and midsummer from those of the + last summer. It was unlucky to build a midsummer fire from May + faggots. People carried the ashes left after these fires to their + homes, and a charred brand was not only effectual against + pestilence, but magical in its use. A few of the ashes placed in a + person's shoes protected the wearer from any great sorrow or + woe.”</span><a id="noteref_380" name="noteref_380" href= + "#note_380"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">380</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Welsh belief that passage over or + between the fires ensured good crops.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">From the + foregoing account we learn that bonfires were kindled in Wales on + Midsummer Eve and Hallowe'en (the thirty-first of October), as well + as at the beginning of May, but that the Beltane fires in May were + deemed the most important. To the Midsummer Eve and Hallowe'en + fires we shall return presently. The belief of the people that by + leaping thrice over the bonfires or running thrice between them + they ensured a plentiful harvest is worthy of note. The mode in + which this result was supposed to be brought about is indicated by + another writer on Welsh folk-lore, according to whom it used to be + held that <span class="tei tei-q">“the bonfires lighted in May or + Midsummer protected the lands from sorcery, so that good crops + would follow. The ashes were also considered valuable as + charms.”</span><a id="noteref_381" name="noteref_381" href= + "#note_381"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">381</span></span></a> Hence + it appears that the heat of the fires was thought to fertilize the + fields, not directly by quickening the seeds in the ground, but + indirectly by counteracting the baleful influence <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page157">[pg 157]</span><a name="Pg157" id="Pg157" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> of witchcraft or perhaps by burning up + the persons of the witches.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Beltane fires in the Isle of Man + to burn the witches. Beltane fires in Nottinghamshire.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class= + "tei tei-q">“The Druidical anniversary of Beil or Baal is still + celebrated in the Isle of Man. On the first of May, 1837, the Baal + fires were, as usual on that day, so numerous as to give the island + the appearance of a general conflagration.”</span><a id= + "noteref_382" name="noteref_382" href="#note_382"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">382</span></span></a> By + May Day in Manx folk-lore is meant May Day Old Style, or + <span lang="gv" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="gv"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Shenn Laa Boaldyn</span></span>, as it is + called in Manx. The day was one on which the power of elves and + witches was particularly dreaded, and the people resorted to many + precautions in order to protect themselves against these + mischievous beings. Hence at daybreak they set fire to the ling or + gorse, for the purpose of burning out the witches, who are wont to + lurk in the form of hares.<a id="noteref_383" name="noteref_383" + href="#note_383"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">383</span></span></a> On + the Hemlock Stone, a natural pillar of sandstone standing on + Stapleford Hill in Nottinghamshire, a fire used to be solemnly + kindled every year on Beltane Eve. The custom seems to have + survived down to the beginning of the nineteenth century; old + people could remember and describe the ceremony long after it had + fallen into desuetude.<a id="noteref_384" name="noteref_384" href= + "#note_384"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">384</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Beltane fires in Ireland.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The Beltane + fires appear to have been kindled also in Ireland, for Cormac, + <span class="tei tei-q">“or somebody in his name, says that + <span lang="ga" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ga"><span style= + "font-style: italic">belltaine</span></span>, May-day, was so + called from the <span class="tei tei-q">‘lucky fire,’</span> or the + <span class="tei tei-q">‘two fires,’</span> which the druids of + Erin used to make on that day with great incantations; and cattle, + he adds, used to be brought to those fires, or to be driven between + them, as a safeguard against the diseases of the + year.”</span><a id="noteref_385" name="noteref_385" href= + "#note_385"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">385</span></span></a> + Again, a very ancient Irish poem, enumerating the May Day + celebrations, mentions among them a bonfire on a hill (<span lang= + "ga" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ga"><span style= + "font-style: italic">tendal ar cnuc</span></span>); and another old + authority says that these fires were kindled in the name of the + idol-god Bel.<a id="noteref_386" name="noteref_386" href= + "#note_386"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">386</span></span></a> From + an old life of St. Patrick we learn that on a day <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page158">[pg 158]</span><a name="Pg158" id="Pg158" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> in spring the heathen of Ireland were + wont to extinguish all their fires until a new fire was kindled + with solemn ceremony in the king's house at Tara. In the year in + which St. Patrick landed in Ireland it chanced that the night of + the extinguished fires coincided with the Eve of Easter; and the + saint, ignorant of this pagan superstition, resolved to celebrate + his first Easter in Ireland after the true Christian fashion by + lighting the holy Paschal fire on the hill of Slane, which rises + high above the left bank of the Boyne, about twelve miles from the + mouth of the river. So that night, looking from his palace at Tara + across the darkened landscape, the king of Tara saw the solitary + fire flaring on the top of the hill of Slane, and in consternation + he asked his wise men what that light meant. They warned him of the + danger that it betokened for the ancient faith of Erin.<a id= + "noteref_387" name="noteref_387" href="#note_387"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">387</span></span></a> In + spite of the difference of date between Easter and Beltane, we may + suspect that the new fire annually kindled with solemn ceremony + about Easter in the king of Ireland's palace at Tara was no other + than the Beltane fire. We have seen that in the Highlands of + Scotland down to modern times it was customary to extinguish all + fires in the neighbourhood before proceeding to kindle the sacred + flame.<a id="noteref_388" name="noteref_388" href= + "#note_388"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">388</span></span></a> The + Irish historian Geoffrey Keating, who wrote in the first part of + the seventeenth century, tells us that the men of Ireland held a + great fair every year in the month of May at Uisnech (<span lang= + "ga" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ga"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Ushnagh</span></span>) in the county of Meath, + <span class="tei tei-q">“and at it they were wont to exchange their + goods and their wares and their jewels. At it, they were, also, + wont to make a sacrifice to the Arch-God that they adored, whose + name was Bèl (<span lang="ga" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang= + "ga"><span style="font-style: italic">bayl</span></span>). It was, + likewise, their usage to light two fires to Bèl, in every district + of Ireland, at this season, and to drive a pair of each kind of + cattle that the district contained, between those two fires, as a + preservative to guard them against all the diseases of that year. + It is from that fire, thus made in honour of Bèl, that the day [the + first of May] on which the noble feast of the apostles, Philip and + James, is held, has been called Bèltaini, or Bèaltaine (<span lang= + "ga" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ga"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Bayltinnie</span></span>); for Beltaini is the + same as Bèil-teinè, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">i.e.</span></span> Teiné Bhèil (<span lang= + "ga" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ga"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Tinnie Vayl</span></span>) or <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page159">[pg 159]</span><a name="Pg159" id="Pg159" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> Bèl's Fire.”</span><a id="noteref_389" + name="noteref_389" href="#note_389"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">389</span></span></a> The + custom of driving cattle through or between fires on May Day or the + eve of May Day persisted in Ireland down to a time within living + memory. Thus Sir John Rhys was informed by a Manxman that an Irish + cattle-dealer of his acquaintance used to drive his cattle through + fire on May Day so as to singe them a little, since he believed + that it would preserve them from harm. When the Manxman was asked + where the dealer came from, he answered, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“From the mountains over there,”</span> pointing to the + Mourne Mountains then looming faintly in the mists on the western + horizon.<a id="noteref_390" name="noteref_390" href= + "#note_390"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">390</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Fires on the Eve of May Day in + Sweden. Fires on the Eve of May Day in Austria and Saxony for + the purpose of burning the witches.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The first of May + is a great popular festival in the more midland and southern parts + of Sweden. On the eve of the festival, huge bonfires, which should + be lighted by striking two flints together, blaze on all the hills + and knolls. Every large hamlet has its own fire, round which the + young people dance in a ring. The old folk notice whether the + flames incline to the north or to the south. In the former case, + the spring will be cold and backward; in the latter, it will be + mild and genial.<a id="noteref_391" name="noteref_391" href= + "#note_391"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">391</span></span></a> + Similarly, in Bohemia, on the eve of May Day, young people kindle + fires on hills and eminences, at crossways, and in pastures, and + dance round them. They leap over the glowing embers or even through + the flames. The ceremony is called <span class="tei tei-q">“burning + the witches.”</span> In some places an effigy representing a witch + used to be burnt in the bonfire.<a id="noteref_392" name= + "noteref_392" href="#note_392"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">392</span></span></a> We + have to remember that the eve of May Day is the notorious Walpurgis + Night, when the witches are everywhere speeding unseen through the + air on their hellish <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page160">[pg + 160]</span><a name="Pg160" id="Pg160" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + errands. On this witching night children in Voigtland also light + bonfires on the heights and leap over them. Moreover, they wave + burning brooms or toss them into the air. So far as the light of + the bonfire reaches, so far will a blessing rest on the fields. The + kindling of the fires on Walpurgis Night is called <span class= + "tei tei-q">“driving away the witches.”</span><a id="noteref_393" + name="noteref_393" href="#note_393"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">393</span></span></a> The + custom of kindling fires on the eve of May Day (Walpurgis Night) + for the purpose of burning the witches is, or used to be, + widespread in the Tyrol, Moravia, Saxony and Silesia.<a id= + "noteref_394" name="noteref_394" href="#note_394"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">394</span></span></a></p> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em"> + <a name="toc37" id="toc37"></a> <a name="pdf38" id="pdf38"></a> + + <h2 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em"> + <span style="font-size: 144%">§ 4. The Midsummer Fires.</span></h2> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The great season for + fire-festivals in Europe is the summer solstice, Midsummer Eve + or Midsummer Day, which the church has dedicated to St. John + the Baptist. The bonfires, the torches, and the burning wheels + of the festival.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But the season + at which these fire-festivals have been mostly generally held all + over Europe is the summer solstice, that is Midsummer Eve (the + twenty-third of June) or Midsummer Day (the twenty-fourth of June). + A faint tinge of Christianity has been given to them by naming + Midsummer Day after St. John the Baptist, but we cannot doubt that + the celebration dates from a time long before the beginning of our + era. The summer solstice, or Midsummer Day, is the great + turning-point in the sun's career, when, after climbing higher and + higher day by day in the sky, the luminary stops and thenceforth + retraces his steps down the heavenly road. Such a moment could not + but be regarded with anxiety by primitive man so soon as he began + to observe and ponder the courses of the great lights across the + celestial vault; and having still to learn his own powerlessness in + face of the vast cyclic changes of nature, he may have fancied that + he could help the sun in his seeming decline—could prop his failing + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page161">[pg 161]</span><a name= + "Pg161" id="Pg161" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> steps and rekindle + the sinking flame of the red lamp in his feeble hand. In some such + thoughts as these the midsummer festivals of our European peasantry + may perhaps have taken their rise. Whatever their origin, they have + prevailed all over this quarter of the globe, from Ireland on the + west to Russia on the east, and from Norway and Sweden on the north + to Spain and Greece on the south.<a id="noteref_395" name= + "noteref_395" href="#note_395"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">395</span></span></a> + According to a mediæval writer, the three great features of the + midsummer celebration were the bonfires, the procession with + torches round the fields, and the custom of rolling a wheel. He + tells us that boys burned bones and filth of various kinds to make + a foul smoke, and that the smoke drove away certain noxious dragons + which at this time, excited by the summer heat, copulated in the + air and poisoned the wells and rivers by dropping their seed into + them; and he explains the custom of trundling a wheel to mean that + the sun, having now reached the highest point in the ecliptic, + begins thenceforward to descend.<a id="noteref_396" name= + "noteref_396" href="#note_396"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">396</span></span></a></p><span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page162">[pg 162]</span><a name="Pg162" id="Pg162" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Th. Kirchmeyer's description of + the Midsummer festival.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">A good general + account of the midsummer customs, together with some of the reasons + popularly alleged for observing them, is given by Thomas + Kirchmeyer, a writer of the sixteenth century, in his poem + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The + Popish Kingdome</span></span>:—</p> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 0.90em; margin-top: 0.90em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Then doth the joyfull + feast of John the Baptist take his + turne,</span></span></span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic"> + When bonfiers great with loftie flame, in every towne doe + burne;</span></span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic"> + And yong men round about with maides, doe daunce in every + streete,</span></span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic"> + With garlands wrought of Motherwort, or else with Vervain + sweete,</span></span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic"> + And many other flowres faire, with Violets in their + handes,</span></span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic"> + Whereas they all do fondly thinke, that whosoever + standes,</span></span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic"> + And thorow the flowres beholds the flame, his eyes shall + feele no paine.</span></span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic"> + When thus till night they daunced have, they through the fire + amaine</span></span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic"> + With striving mindes doe runne, and all their hearbes they + cast therin,</span></span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic"> + And then with wordes devout and prayers, they solemnely + begin,</span></span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic"> + Desiring God that all their illes may there consumed + bee,</span></span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic"> + Whereby they thinke through all that yeare from Agues to be + free.</span></span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic"> + Some others get a rotten wheele, all worne and cast + aside,</span></span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic"> + Which covered round about with strawe, and tow, they closely + hide:</span></span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic"> + And caryed to some mountaines top, being all with fire + light,</span></span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic"> + They hurle it downe with violence, when darke appeares the + night:</span></span> + </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page163">[pg + 163]</span><a name="Pg163" id="Pg163" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic"> + Resembling much the Sunne, that from the heavens downe should + fal,</span></span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic"> + A straunge and monstrous sight it seemes, and fearfull to + them all:</span></span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic"> + But they suppose their mischiefes all are likewise throwne to + hell,</span></span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left"><span class= + "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">And that from harmes and + daungers now, in safetie here they + dwell.</span></span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span><a id="noteref_397" name= + "noteref_397" href="#note_397"><span class="tei tei-noteref" + style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">397</span></span></a> + </div> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">From these + general descriptions, which to some extent still hold good, or did + so till lately, we see that the main features of the midsummer + fire-festival resemble those which we have found to characterize + the vernal festivals of fire. The similarity of the two sets of + ceremonies will plainly appear from the following examples.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The Midsummer fires in Germany. + The celebration at Konz on the Moselle: the rolling of a + burning wheel down hill.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">A writer of the + first half of the sixteenth century informs us that in almost every + village and town of Germany public bonfires were kindled on the Eve + of St. John, and young and old, of both sexes, gathered about them + and passed the time in dancing and singing. People on this occasion + wore chaplets of mugwort and vervain, and they looked at the fire + through bunches of larkspur which they held in their hands, + believing that this would preserve their eyes in a healthy state + throughout the year. As each departed, he threw the mugwort and + vervain into the fire, saying, <span class="tei tei-q">“May all my + ill-luck depart and be burnt up with these.”</span><a id= + "noteref_398" name="noteref_398" href="#note_398"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">398</span></span></a> At + Lower Konz, a village prettily situated on a hillside overlooking + the Moselle, in the midst of a wood of walnut-trees and + fruit-trees, the midsummer festival used to be celebrated as + follows. A quantity of straw was collected on the top of the steep + Stromberg Hill. Every inhabitant, or at least every householder, + had to contribute his share of straw to the pile; a recusant was + looked at askance, and if in the course of the year he happened to + break a leg or lose a child, there was not a gossip in the village + but knew the reason why. At nightfall the whole male population, + men and boys, mustered on the top of the hill; the women and girls + were not allowed to join them, but had to take up their position at + a certain spring half-way down the slope. On the summit stood a + huge wheel completely encased in some of the straw which had been + jointly contributed by the villagers; the rest of the <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page164">[pg 164]</span><a name="Pg164" id="Pg164" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> straw was made into torches. From each + side of the wheel the axle-tree projected about three feet, thus + furnishing handles to the lads who were to guide it in its descent. + The mayor of the neighbouring town of Sierck, who always received a + basket of cherries for his services, gave the signal; a lighted + torch was applied to the wheel, and as it burst into flame, two + young fellows, strong-limbed and swift of foot, seized the handles + and began running with it down the slope. A great shout went up. + Every man and boy waved a blazing torch in the air, and took care + to keep it alight so long as the wheel was trundling down the hill. + Some of them followed the fiery wheel, and watched with amusement + the shifts to which its guides were put in steering it round the + hollows and over the broken ground on the mountainside. The great + object of the young men who guided the wheel was to plunge it + blazing into the water of the Moselle; but they rarely succeeded in + their efforts, for the vineyards which cover the greater part of + the declivity impeded their progress, and the wheel was often + burned out before it reached the river. As it rolled past the women + and girls at the spring, they raised cries of joy which were + answered by the men on the top of the mountain; and the shouts were + echoed by the inhabitants of neighbouring villages who watched the + spectacle from their hills on the opposite bank of the Moselle. If + the fiery wheel was successfully conveyed to the bank of the river + and extinguished in the water, the people looked for an abundant + vintage that year, and the inhabitants of Konz had the right to + exact a waggon-load of white wine from the surrounding vineyards. + On the other hand, they believed that, if they neglected to perform + the ceremony, the cattle would be attacked by giddiness and + convulsions and would dance in their stalls.<a id="noteref_399" + name="noteref_399" href="#note_399"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">399</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The Midsummer fires in Bavaria. + Cattle driven through the fire. The new fire. Omens of the + harvest drawn from the fires. Burning discs thrown into the + air.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Down at least to + the middle of the nineteenth century the midsummer fires used to + blaze all over Upper Bavaria. <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page165">[pg 165]</span><a name="Pg165" id="Pg165" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> They were kindled especially on the + mountains, but also far and wide in the lowlands, and we are told + that in the darkness and stillness of night the moving groups, lit + up by the flickering glow of the flames, presented an impressive + spectacle. In some places the people shewed their sense of the + sanctity of the fires by using for fuel the trees past which the + gay procession had defiled, with fluttering banners, on Corpus + Christi Day. In others the children collected the firewood from + door to door on the eve of the festival, singing their request for + fuel at every house in doggerel verse. Cattle were driven through + the fire to cure the sick animals and to guard such as were sound + against plague and harm of every kind throughout the year. Many a + householder on that day put out the fire on the domestic hearth and + rekindled it by means of a brand taken from the midsummer bonfire. + The people judged of the height to which the flax would grow in the + year by the height to which the flames of the bonfire rose; and + whoever leaped over the burning pile was sure not to suffer from + backache in reaping the corn at harvest. But it was especially the + practice for lovers to spring over the fire hand in hand, and the + way in which each couple made the leap was the subject of many a + jest and many a superstition. In one district the custom of + kindling the bonfires was combined with that of lighting wooden + discs and hurling them in the air after the manner which prevails + at some of the spring festivals.<a id="noteref_400" name= + "noteref_400" href="#note_400"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">400</span></span></a> In + many parts of Bavaria it was believed that the flax would grow as + high as the young people leaped over the fire.<a id="noteref_401" + name="noteref_401" href="#note_401"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">401</span></span></a> In + others the old folk used to plant three charred sticks from the + bonfire in the fields, believing that this would make the flax grow + tall.<a id="noteref_402" name="noteref_402" href= + "#note_402"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">402</span></span></a> + Elsewhere an extinguished brand was put in the roof of the house to + protect it against fire. In the towns about Würzburg the bonfires + used to be kindled in the market-places, and the young people who + jumped over them wore garlands of flowers, especially of mugwort + and vervain, and carried sprigs of larkspur in their hands. They + thought <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page166">[pg + 166]</span><a name="Pg166" id="Pg166" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + that such as looked at the fire holding a bit of larkspur before + their face would be troubled by no malady of the eyes throughout + the year.<a id="noteref_403" name="noteref_403" href= + "#note_403"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">403</span></span></a> + Further, it was customary at Würzburg, in the sixteenth century, + for the bishop's followers to throw burning discs of wood into the + air from a mountain which overhangs the town. The discs were + discharged by means of flexible rods, and in their flight through + the darkness presented the appearance of fiery dragons.<a id= + "noteref_404" name="noteref_404" href="#note_404"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">404</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The Midsummer fires in Swabia. + Omens drawn from the leaps over the fires. Burning wheels + rolled down hill. Burning the Angel-Man at Rottenburg.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In the valley of + the Lech, which divides Upper Bavaria from Swabia, the midsummer + customs and beliefs are, or used to be, very similar. Bonfires are + kindled on the mountains on Midsummer Day; and besides the bonfire + a tall beam, thickly wrapt in straw and surmounted by a + cross-piece, is burned in many places. Round this cross as it burns + the lads dance with loud shouts; and when the flames have subsided, + the young people leap over the fire in pairs, a young man and a + young woman together. If they escape unsmirched, the man will not + suffer from fever, and the girl will not become a mother within the + year. Further, it is believed that the flax will grow that year as + high as they leap over the fire; and that if a charred billet be + taken from the fire and stuck in a flax-field it will promote the + growth of the flax.<a id="noteref_405" name="noteref_405" href= + "#note_405"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">405</span></span></a> + Similarly in Swabia, lads and lasses, hand in hand, leap over the + midsummer bonfire, praying that the hemp may grow three ells high, + and they set fire to wheels of straw and send them rolling down the + hill. Among the places where burning wheels were thus bowled down + hill at Midsummer were the Hohenstaufen mountains in Wurtemberg and + the Frauenberg near Gerhausen.<a id="noteref_406" name= + "noteref_406" href="#note_406"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">406</span></span></a> At + Deffingen, in Swabia, as the people sprang over the midsummer + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page167">[pg 167]</span><a name= + "Pg167" id="Pg167" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> bonfire they cried + out, <span class="tei tei-q">“Flax, flax! may the flax this year + grow seven ells high!”</span><a id="noteref_407" name="noteref_407" + href="#note_407"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">407</span></span></a> At + Rottenburg in Swabia, down to the year 1807 or 1808, the festival + was marked by some special features. About mid-day troops of boys + went about the town begging for firewood at the houses. In each + troop there were three leaders, one of whom carried a dagger, a + second a paper banner, and a third a white plate covered with a + white cloth. These three entered each house and recited verses, in + which they expressed an intention of roasting Martin Luther and + sending him to the devil; and for this meritorious service they + expected to be paid, the contributions being received in the + cloth-covered plate. In the evening they counted up their money and + proceeded to <span class="tei tei-q">“behead the Angel-man.”</span> + For this ceremony an open space was chosen, sometimes in the middle + of the town. Here a stake was thrust into the ground and straw + wrapt about it, so as to make a rude effigy of human form with + arms, head, and face. Every boy brought a handful of nosegays and + fastened them to the straw-man, who was thus enveloped in flowers. + Fuel was heaped about the stake and set on fire. When the + Angel-man, as the straw-effigy was called, blazed up, all the boys + of the neighbourhood, who had gathered expectantly around, fell + upon him with their wooden swords and hewed him to pieces. As soon + as he had vanished in smoke and flame, the lads leaped backward and + forward over the glowing embers, and later in the evening they + feasted on the proceeds of their collection.<a id="noteref_408" + name="noteref_408" href="#note_408"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">408</span></span></a> Here + the Angel-man burnt in the fire appears to be identified with + Martin Luther, to whom, as we have seen, allusion was made during + the house-to-house visitation. The identification was probably + modern, for we may assume that the custom of burning an effigy in + the Midsummer bonfire is far older than the time of Luther.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The Midsummer fires in Baden. + Omens drawn from leaps over the fires. Burning discs thrown + into the air. Midsummer fires in Alsace, Lorraine, the Eifel, + the Harz districts and Thuringia. Burning barrel swung round a + pole.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In Baden the + children used to collect fuel from house to house for the Midsummer + bonfire on St. John's Day; and lads and lasses leaped over the fire + in couples. Here, <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page168">[pg + 168]</span><a name="Pg168" id="Pg168" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + as elsewhere, a close connexion was traced between these bonfires + and the harvest. In some places it was thought that those who + leaped over the fires would not suffer from backache at reaping. + Sometimes, as the young folk sprang over the flames, they cried, + <span class="tei tei-q">“Grow, that the hemp may be three ells + high!”</span> This notion that the hemp or the corn would grow as + high as the flames blazed or as the people jumped over them, seems + to have been widespread in Baden. It was held that the parents of + the young people who bounded highest over the fire would have the + most abundant harvest; and on the other hand, if a man contributed + nothing to the bonfire, it was imagined that there would be no + blessing on his crops, and that his hemp in particular would never + grow.<a id="noteref_409" name="noteref_409" href= + "#note_409"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">409</span></span></a> In + the neighbourhood of Bühl and Achern the St. John's fires were + kindled on the tops of hills; only the unmarried lads of the + village brought the fuel, and only the unmarried young men and + women sprang through the flames. But most of the villagers, old and + young, gathered round the bonfires, leaving a clear space for the + leapers to take their run. One of the bystanders would call out the + names of a pair of sweethearts; on which the two would step out + from the throng, take each other by the hand, and leap high and + lightly through the swirling smoke and flames, while the spectators + watched them critically and drew omens of their married life from + the height to which each of them bounded. Such an invitation to + jump together over the bonfire was regarded as tantamount to a + public betrothal.<a id="noteref_410" name="noteref_410" href= + "#note_410"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">410</span></span></a> Near + Offenburg, in the Black Forest, on Midsummer Day the village boys + used to collect faggots and straw on some steep and conspicuous + height, and they spent some time in making circular wooden discs by + slicing the trunk of a pine-tree across. When darkness had fallen, + they kindled the bonfire, and then, as it blazed up, they lighted + the discs at it, and, after swinging them to and fro at the end of + a stout and supple hazel-wand, they hurled them one after the + other, whizzing and flaming, into the air, where they described + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page169">[pg 169]</span><a name= + "Pg169" id="Pg169" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> great arcs of fire, + to fall at length, like shooting-stars, at the foot of the + mountain.<a id="noteref_411" name="noteref_411" href= + "#note_411"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">411</span></span></a> In + many parts of Alsace and Lorraine the midsummer fires still blaze + annually or did so not very many years ago.<a id="noteref_412" + name="noteref_412" href="#note_412"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">412</span></span></a> At + Speicher in the Eifel, a district which lies on the middle Rhine, + to the west of Coblentz, a bonfire used to be kindled in front of + the village on St. John's Day, and all the young people had to jump + over it. Those who failed to do so were not allowed to join the + rest in begging for eggs from house to house. Where no eggs were + given, they drove a wedge into the keyhole of the door. On this day + children in the Eifel used also to gather flowers in the fields, + weave them into garlands, and throw the garlands on the roofs or + hang them on the doors of the houses. So long as the flowers + remained there, they were supposed to guard the house from fire and + lightning.<a id="noteref_413" name="noteref_413" href= + "#note_413"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">413</span></span></a> In + the southern Harz district and in Thuringia the Midsummer or St. + John's fires used to be commonly lighted down to about the middle + of the nineteenth century, and the custom has probably not died + out. At Edersleben, near Sangerhausen, a high pole was planted in + the ground and a tar-barrel was hung from it by a chain which + reached to the ground. The barrel was then set on fire and swung + round the pole amid shouts of joy.<a id="noteref_414" name= + "noteref_414" href="#note_414"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">414</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Midsummer fires kindled by the + friction of wood in Germany and Switzerland. Driving away + demons and witches.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">According to one + account, German tradition required that the midsummer fire should + be lighted, not from a common hearth, but by the friction of two + sorts of wood, namely oak and fir.<a id="noteref_415" name= + "noteref_415" href="#note_415"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">415</span></span></a> In + some old farm-houses of the Surenthal and Winenthal, in + Switzerland, a couple of holes or a whole row of them may be seen + facing each other in the door-posts of the barn or stable. + Sometimes the holes are smooth and <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page170">[pg 170]</span><a name="Pg170" id="Pg170" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> round; sometimes they are deeply burnt and + blackened. The explanation of them is this. About midsummer, but + especially on Midsummer Day, two such holes are bored opposite each + other, into which the extremities of a strong pole are fixed. The + holes are then stuffed with tow steeped in resin and oil; a rope is + looped round the pole, and two young men, who must be brothers or + must have the same baptismal name, and must be of the same age, + pull the ends of the rope backwards and forwards so as to make the + pole revolve rapidly, till smoke and sparks issue from the two + holes in the door-posts. The sparks are caught and blown up with + tinder, and this is the new and pure fire, the appearance of which + is greeted with cries of joy. Heaps of combustible materials are + now ignited with the new fire, and blazing bundles are placed on + boards and sent floating down the brook. The boys light torches at + the new fire and run to fumigate the pastures. This is believed to + drive away all the demons and witches that molest the cattle. + Finally the torches are thrown in a heap on the meadow and allowed + to burn out. On their way back the boys strew the ashes over the + fields, which is supposed to make them fertile. If a farmer has + taken possession of a new house, or if servants have changed + masters, the boys fumigate the new abode and are rewarded by the + farmer with a supper.<a id="noteref_416" name="noteref_416" href= + "#note_416"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">416</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Midsummer fires in Silesia. + Scaring away the witches.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In Silesia, from + the south-eastern part of the Sudeten range and north-westward as + far as Lausitz, the mountains are ablaze with bonfires on Midsummer + Eve; and from the valleys and the plains round about Leobschütz, + Neustadt, Zülz, Oels, and other places answering fires twinkle + through the deepening gloom. While they are smouldering and sending + forth volumes of smoke across the fields, young men kindle + broom-stumps, soaked in pitch, at the bonfires and then, + brandishing the stumps, which emit showers of sparks, they chase + one another or dance with the girls round the burning pile. Shots, + too, are fired, and shouts raised. The fire, the smoke, the shots, + and the shouts are all intended to scare away the witches, who are + let loose on this witching day, and who would certainly work harm + to the crops and the cattle, if they were not deterred by these + salutary measures. <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page171">[pg + 171]</span><a name="Pg171" id="Pg171" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + Mere contact with the fire brings all sorts of blessings. Hence + when the bonfire is burning low, the lads leap over it, and the + higher they bound, the better is the luck in store for them. He who + surpasses his fellows is the hero of the day and is much admired by + the village girls. It is also thought to be very good for the eyes + to stare steadily at the bonfire without blinking; moreover he who + does so will not drowse and fall asleep betimes in the long winter + evenings. On Midsummer Eve the windows and doors of houses in + Silesia are crowned with flowers, especially with the blue + corn-flowers and the bright corn-cockles; in some villages long + strings of garlands and nosegays are stretched across the streets. + The people believe that on that night St. John comes down from + heaven to bless the flowers and to keep all evil things from house + and home.<a id="noteref_417" name="noteref_417" href= + "#note_417"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">417</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The Midsummer fires in Denmark and + Norway. Keeping off the witches. The Midsummer fires in + Sweden.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In Denmark and + Norway also Midsummer fires were kindled on St. John's Eve on + roads, open spaces, and hills. People in Norway thought that the + fires banished sickness from among the cattle.<a id="noteref_418" + name="noteref_418" href="#note_418"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">418</span></span></a> Even + yet the fires are said to be lighted all over Norway on the night + of June the twenty-third, Midsummer Eve, Old Style. As many as + fifty or sixty bonfires may often be counted burning on the hills + round Bergen. Sometimes fuel is piled on rafts, ignited, and + allowed to drift blazing across the fiords in the darkness of + night. The fires are thought to be kindled in order to keep off the + witches, who are said to be flying from all parts that night to the + Blocksberg, where the big witch lives.<a id="noteref_419" name= + "noteref_419" href="#note_419"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">419</span></span></a> + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page172">[pg 172]</span><a name= + "Pg172" id="Pg172" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> In Sweden the Eve of + St. John (St. Hans) is the most joyous night of the whole year. + Throughout some parts of the country, especially in the provinces + of Bohus and Scania and in districts bordering on Norway, it is + celebrated by the frequent discharge of firearms and by huge + bonfires, formerly called Balder's Balefires (<span lang="sv" + class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="sv"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Balder's Bălar</span></span>), which are + kindled at dusk on hills and eminences and throw a glare of light + over the surrounding landscape. The people dance round the fires + and leap over or through them. In parts of Norrland on St. John's + Eve the bonfires are lit at the cross-roads. The fuel consists of + nine different sorts of wood, and the spectators cast into the + flames a kind of toad-stool (<span lang="sv" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="sv"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Bäran</span></span>) in order to counteract + the power of the Trolls and other evil spirits, who are believed to + be abroad that night; for at that mystic season the mountains open + and from their cavernous depths the uncanny crew pours forth to + dance and disport themselves for a time. The peasants believe that + should any of the Trolls be in the vicinity they will shew + themselves; and if an animal, for example a he or she goat, happens + to be seen near the blazing, crackling pile, the peasants are + firmly persuaded that it is no other than the Evil One in + person.<a id="noteref_420" name="noteref_420" href= + "#note_420"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">420</span></span></a> + Further, it deserves to be remarked that in Sweden St. John's Eve + is a festival of water as well as of fire; for certain holy springs + are then supposed to be endowed with wonderful medicinal virtues, + and many sick people resort to them for the healing of their + infirmities.<a id="noteref_421" name="noteref_421" href= + "#note_421"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">421</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The Midsummer fires in Switzerland + and Austria. Effigies burnt in the fires. Burning wheels rolled + down hill.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In Switzerland + on Midsummer Eve fires are, or used to be, kindled on high places + in the cantons of Bern, Neuchatel, Valais, and Geneva.<a id= + "noteref_422" name="noteref_422" href="#note_422"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">422</span></span></a> In + Austria the midsummer customs and superstitions resemble those of + Germany. Thus in some parts of the Tyrol bonfires are kindled and + burning discs hurled into the air.<a id="noteref_423" name= + "noteref_423" href="#note_423"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">423</span></span></a> In + the lower valley of the Inn a taterdemalian effigy is carted about + the village on Midsummer <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page173">[pg + 173]</span><a name="Pg173" id="Pg173" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + Day and then burned. He is called the <span lang="de" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="de"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Lotter</span></span>, which has been corrupted + into Luther. At Ambras, one of the villages where Martin Luther is + thus burned in effigy, they say that if you go through the village + between eleven and twelve on St. John's Night and wash yourself in + three wells, you will see all who are to die in the following + year.<a id="noteref_424" name="noteref_424" href= + "#note_424"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">424</span></span></a> At + Gratz on St. John's Eve (the twenty-third of June) the common + people used to make a puppet called the <span lang="de" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="de"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Tatermann</span></span>, which they dragged to + the bleaching ground, and pelted with burning besoms till it took + fire.<a id="noteref_425" name="noteref_425" href= + "#note_425"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">425</span></span></a> At + Reutte, in the Tyrol, people believed that the flax would grow as + high as they leaped over the midsummer bonfire, and they took + pieces of charred wood from the fire and stuck them in their + flax-fields the same night, leaving them there till the flax + harvest had been got in.<a id="noteref_426" name="noteref_426" + href="#note_426"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">426</span></span></a> In + Lower Austria fires are lit in the fields, commonly in front of a + cross, and the people dance and sing round them and throw flowers + into the flames. Before each handful of flowers is tossed into the + fire, a set speech is made; then the dance is resumed and the + dancers sing in chorus the last words of the speech. At evening + bonfires are kindled on the heights, and the boys caper round them, + brandishing lighted torches drenched in pitch. Whoever jumps thrice + across the fire will not suffer from fever within the year. + Cart-wheels are often smeared with pitch, ignited, and sent rolling + and blazing down the hillsides.<a id="noteref_427" name= + "noteref_427" href="#note_427"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">427</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Midsummer fires in Bohemia. + Wreaths thrown across the fire. Uses made of the singed + wreaths. Burning wheels rolled down hill. Embers of the fire + stuck in fields, gardens, and houses as a talisman against + lightning and conflagration. Use of mugwort. Cattle protected + against witchcraft.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">All over Bohemia + bonfires still burn on Midsummer Eve. In the afternoon boys go + about with handcarts from house to house collecting fuel, such as + sticks, brushwood, old besoms, and so forth. They make their + request at each house in rhyming verses, threatening with evil + consequences the curmudgeons who refuse them a dole. Sometimes the + young men fell a tall straight fir in the woods and set it up on a + height, where the girls deck it with nosegays, wreaths of leaves, + and red ribbons. Then brushwood is piled about it, and at nightfall + the whole is set on fire. While the flames break out, the young men + climb <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page174">[pg 174]</span><a name= + "Pg174" id="Pg174" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> the tree and fetch + down the wreaths which the girls had placed on it. After that, lads + and lasses stand on opposite sides of the fire and look at one + another through the wreaths to see whether they will be true to + each other and marry within the year. Also the girls throw the + wreaths across the flames to the men, and woe to the awkward swain + who fails to catch the wreath thrown him by his sweetheart. When + the blaze has died down, each couple takes hands, and leaps thrice + across the fire. He or she who does so will be free from ague + throughout the year, and the flax will grow as high as the young + folks leap. A girl who sees nine bonfires on Midsummer Eve will + marry before the year is out. The singed wreaths are carried home + and carefully preserved throughout the year. During thunderstorms a + bit of the wreath is burned on the hearth with a prayer; some of it + is given to kine that are sick or calving, and some of it serves to + fumigate house and cattle-stall, that man and beast may keep hale + and well. Sometimes an old cart-wheel is smeared with resin, + ignited, and sent rolling down the hill. Often the boys collect all + the worn-out besoms they can get hold of, dip them in pitch, and + having set them on fire wave them about or throw them high into the + air. Or they rush down the hillside in troops, brandishing the + flaming brooms and shouting, only however to return to the bonfire + on the summit when the brooms have burnt out. The stumps of the + brooms and embers from the fire are preserved and stuck in cabbage + gardens to protect the cabbages from caterpillars and gnats. Some + people insert charred sticks and ashes from the bonfire in their + sown fields and meadows, in their gardens and the roofs of their + houses, as a talisman against lightning and foul weather; or they + fancy that the ashes placed in the roof will prevent any fire from + breaking out in the house. In some districts they crown or gird + themselves with mugwort while the midsummer fire is burning, for + this is supposed to be a protection against ghosts, witches, and + sickness; in particular, a wreath of mugwort is a sure preventive + of sore eyes. Sometimes the girls look at the bonfires through + garlands of wild flowers, praying the fire to strengthen their eyes + and eyelids. She who does this thrice will have no sore eyes + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page175">[pg 175]</span><a name= + "Pg175" id="Pg175" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> all that year. In + some parts of Bohemia they used to drive the cows through the + midsummer fire to guard them against witchcraft.<a id="noteref_428" + name="noteref_428" href="#note_428"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">428</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The Midsummer fires in Moravia, + Austrian Silesia, and the district of Cracow. Fire kindled by + the friction of wood.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The Germans of + Moravia in like manner still light bonfires on open grounds and + high places on Midsummer Eve; and they kindle besoms in the flames + and then stick the charred stumps in the cabbage-fields as a + powerful protection against caterpillars. On the same mystic + evening Moravian girls gather flowers of nine sorts and lay them + under their pillow when they go to sleep; then they dream every one + of him who is to be her partner for life. For in Moravia maidens in + their beds as well as poets by haunted streams have their Midsummer + Night's dreams.<a id="noteref_429" name="noteref_429" href= + "#note_429"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">429</span></span></a> In + Austrian Silesia the custom also prevails of lighting great + bonfires on hilltops on Midsummer Eve, and here too the boys swing + blazing besoms or hurl them high in the air, while they shout and + leap and dance wildly. Next morning every door is decked with + flowers and birchen saplings.<a id="noteref_430" name="noteref_430" + href="#note_430"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">430</span></span></a> In + the district of Cracow, especially towards the Carpathian + Mountains, great fires are kindled by the peasants in the fields or + on the heights at nightfall on Midsummer Eve, which among them goes + by the name of Kupalo's Night. The fire must be kindled by the + friction of two sticks. The young people dance round or leap over + it; and a band of sturdy fellows run a race with lighted torches, + the winner being rewarded with a peacock's feather, which he keeps + throughout the year as a distinction. Cattle also are driven round + the fire in the belief that this is a charm against pestilence and + disease of every sort.<a id="noteref_431" name="noteref_431" href= + "#note_431"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">431</span></span></a></p><span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page176">[pg 176]</span><a name="Pg176" id="Pg176" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The Midsummer fires among the + Slavs of Russia. Cattle protected against witchcraft. The fires + lighted by the friction of wood.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The name of + Kupalo's Night, applied in this part of Galicia to Midsummer Eve, + reminds us that we have now passed from German to Slavonic ground; + even in Bohemia the midsummer celebration is common to Slavs and + Germans. We have already seen that in Russia the summer solstice or + Eve of St. John is celebrated by young men and maidens, who jump + over a bonfire in couples carrying a straw effigy of Kupalo in + their arms.<a id="noteref_432" name="noteref_432" href= + "#note_432"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">432</span></span></a> In + some parts of Russia an image of Kupalo is burnt or thrown into a + stream on St. John's Night.<a id="noteref_433" name="noteref_433" + href="#note_433"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">433</span></span></a> + Again, in some districts of Russia the young folk wear garlands of + flowers and girdles of holy herbs when they spring through the + smoke or flames; and sometimes they drive the cattle also through + the fire in order to protect the animals against wizards and + witches, who are then ravenous after milk.<a id="noteref_434" name= + "noteref_434" href="#note_434"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">434</span></span></a> In + Little Russia a stake is driven into the ground on St. John's + Night, wrapt in straw, and set on fire. As the flames rise the + peasant women throw birchen boughs into them, saying, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“May my flax be as tall as this bough!”</span><a id= + "noteref_435" name="noteref_435" href="#note_435"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">435</span></span></a> In + Ruthenia the bonfires are lighted by a flame procured by the + friction of wood. While the elders of the party are engaged in thus + <span class="tei tei-q">“churning”</span> the fire, the rest + maintain a respectful silence; but when the flame bursts from the + wood, they break forth into joyous songs. As soon as the bonfires + are kindled, the young people take hands and leap in pairs through + the smoke, if not through the flames; and after that the cattle in + their turn are driven through the fire.<a id="noteref_436" name= + "noteref_436" href="#note_436"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">436</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The Midsummer fires in Prussia and + Lithuania thought to protect against witchcraft, thunder, hail, + and cattle disease. The fire kindled by the friction of + wood.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In many parts of + Prussia and Lithuania great fires are kindled on Midsummer Eve. All + the heights are ablaze with them, as far as the eye can see. The + fires are supposed to be a protection against witchcraft, thunder, + hail, and cattle disease, especially if next morning the cattle are + driven over the places where the fires burned. Above all, the + bonfires ensure the farmer against the arts of witches, who try to + steal the milk from his cows by charms and <span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page177">[pg 177]</span><a name="Pg177" id="Pg177" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> spells. That is why next morning you may see + the young fellows who lit the bonfire going from house to house and + receiving jugfuls of milk. And for the same reason they stick burs + and mugwort on the gate or the hedge through which the cows go to + pasture, because that is supposed to be a preservative against + witchcraft.<a id="noteref_437" name="noteref_437" href= + "#note_437"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">437</span></span></a> In + Masuren, a district of Eastern Prussia inhabited by a branch of the + Polish family, it is the custom on the evening of Midsummer Day to + put out all the fires in the village. Then an oaken stake is driven + into the ground and a wheel is fixed on it as on an axle. This + wheel the villagers, working by relays, cause to revolve with great + rapidity till fire is produced by friction. Every one takes home a + lighted brand from the new fire and with it rekindles the fire on + the domestic hearth.<a id="noteref_438" name="noteref_438" href= + "#note_438"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">438</span></span></a> In + the sixteenth century Martin of Urzedow, a Polish priest, denounced + the heathen practices of the women who on St. John's Eve (Midsummer + Eve) kindled fires by the friction of wood, danced, and sang songs + in honour of the devil.<a id="noteref_439" name="noteref_439" href= + "#note_439"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">439</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The Midsummer fires among the + Letts of Russia. Midsummer Day in ancient Rome.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Among the Letts + who inhabit the Baltic provinces of Russia the most joyful festival + of the year is held on Midsummer Day. The people drink and dance + and sing and adorn themselves and their houses with flowers and + branches. Chopped boughs of fir are strewn about the rooms, and + leaves are stuck in the roofs. In every farm-yard a birch tree is + set up, and every person of the name of John who enters the farm + that day must break off a twig from the tree and hang up on its + branches in return a small present for the family. When the serene + twilight of the summer night has veiled the landscape, bonfires + gleam on all the hills, and wild shouts of <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Ligho! Ligho!”</span> echo from the woods and fields. + In Riga the day is a festival of flowers. From all the + neighbourhood the peasants stream into the city laden with flowers + and garlands. A market of flowers is held in an open square and on + the chief bridge over the river; here wreaths of immortelles, which + grow wild in the meadows and woods, are sold in great profusion and + deck the houses <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page178">[pg + 178]</span><a name="Pg178" id="Pg178" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + of Riga for long afterwards. Roses, too, are now at the prime of + their beauty, and masses of them adorn the flower-stalls. Till far + into the night gay crowds parade the streets to music or float on + the river in gondolas decked with flowers.<a id="noteref_440" name= + "noteref_440" href="#note_440"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">440</span></span></a> So + long ago in ancient Rome barges crowned with flowers and crowded + with revellers used to float down the Tiber on Midsummer Day, the + twenty-fourth of June,<a id="noteref_441" name="noteref_441" href= + "#note_441"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">441</span></span></a> and + no doubt the strains of music were wafted as sweetly across the + water to listeners on the banks as they still are to the throngs of + merrymakers at Riga.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The Midsummer fires among the + South Slavs.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Bonfires are + commonly kindled by the South Slavonian peasantry on Midsummer Eve, + and lads and lasses dance and shout round them in the usual way. + The very names of St. John's Day (<span class= + "tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Ivanje</span></span>) and the St. John's fires + (<span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">kries</span></span>) are said to act like + electric sparks on the hearts and minds of these swains, kindling a + thousand wild, merry, and happy fancies and ideas in their rustic + breasts. At Kamenagora in Croatia the herdsmen throw nine + three-year old vines into the bonfire, and when these burst into + flames the young men who are candidates for matrimony jump through + the blaze. He who succeeds in leaping over the fire without + singeing himself will be married within the year. At Vidovec in + Croatia parties of two girls and one lad unite to kindle a + Midsummer bonfire and to leap through the flames; he or she who + leaps furthest will soonest wed. Afterwards lads and lasses dance + in separate rings, but the ring of lads bumps up against the ring + of girls and breaks it, and the girl who has to let go her + neighbour's hand will forsake her true love hereafter.<a id= + "noteref_442" name="noteref_442" href="#note_442"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">442</span></span></a> In + Servia on Midsummer Eve herdsmen light torches of birch bark and + march round the sheepfolds and cattle-stalls; then they climb the + hills and there allow the torches to burn out.<a id="noteref_443" + name="noteref_443" href="#note_443"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">443</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The Midsummer fires among the + Magyars of Hungary.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Among the + Magyars in Hungary the midsummer fire-festival is marked by the + same features that meet us in so many parts of Europe. On Midsummer + Eve in many <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page179">[pg + 179]</span><a name="Pg179" id="Pg179" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + places it is customary to kindle bonfires on heights and to leap + over them, and from the manner in which the young people leap the + bystanders predict whether they will marry soon. At Nograd-Ludany + the young men and women, each carrying a truss of straw, repair to + a meadow, where they pile the straw in seven or twelve heaps and + set it on fire. Then they go round the fire singing, and hold a + bunch of iron-wort in the smoke, while they say, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“No boil on my body, no sprain in my foot!”</span> This + holding of the flowers over the flames is regarded, we are told, as + equally important with the practice of walking through the fire + barefoot and stamping it out. On this day also many Hungarian + swineherds make fire by rotating a wheel round a wooden axle wrapt + in hemp, and through the fire thus made they drive their pigs to + preserve them from sickness.<a id="noteref_444" name="noteref_444" + href="#note_444"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">444</span></span></a> In + villages on the Danube, where the population is a cross between + Magyar and German, the young men and maidens go to the high banks + of the river on Midsummer Eve; and while the girls post themselves + low down the slope, the lads on the height above set fire to little + wooden wheels and, after swinging them to and fro at the end of a + wand, send them whirling through the air to fall into the Danube. + As he does so, each lad sings out the name of his sweetheart, and + she listens well pleased down below.<a id="noteref_445" name= + "noteref_445" href="#note_445"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">445</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The Midsummer fires among the + Esthonians. The Midsummer fires in Oesel.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The Esthonians + of Russia, who, like the Magyars, belong to the great Turanian + family of mankind, also celebrate the summer solstice in the usual + way. On the Eve of St. John all the people of a farm, a village, or + an estate, walk solemnly in procession, the girls decked with + flowers, the men with leaves and carrying bundles of straw under + their arms. The lads carry lighted torches or flaming hoops steeped + in tar at the top of long poles. Thus they go singing to the + cattle-sheds, the granaries, and so forth, and afterwards march + thrice round the dwelling-house. Finally, preceded by the shrill + music of the bagpipes and shawms, they repair to a neighbouring + hill, where the materials of a bonfire have <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page180">[pg 180]</span><a name="Pg180" id="Pg180" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> been collected. Tar-barrels filled with + combustibles are hung on poles, or the trunk of a felled tree has + been set up with a great mass of juniper piled about it in the form + of a pyramid. When a light has been set to the pile, old and young + gather about it and pass the time merrily with song and music till + break of day. Every one who comes brings fresh fuel for the fire, + and they say, <span class="tei tei-q">“Now we all gather together, + where St. John's fire burns. He who comes not to St. John's fire + will have his barley full of thistles, and his oats full of + weeds.”</span> Three logs are thrown into the fire with special + ceremony; in throwing the first they say, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Gold of pleasure (a plant with yellow flowers) into + the fire!”</span> in throwing the second they say, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Weeds to the unploughed land!”</span> but in throwing + the third they cry, <span class="tei tei-q">“Flax on my + field!”</span> The fire is said to keep the witches from the + cattle.<a id="noteref_446" name="noteref_446" href= + "#note_446"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">446</span></span></a> + According to others, it ensures that for the whole year the milk + shall be <span class="tei tei-q">“as pure as silver and as the + stars in the sky, and the butter as yellow as the sun and the fire + and the gold.”</span><a id="noteref_447" name="noteref_447" href= + "#note_447"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">447</span></span></a> In + the Esthonian island of Oesel, while they throw fuel into the + midsummer fire, they call out, <span class="tei tei-q">“Weeds to + the fire, flax to the field,”</span> or they fling three billets + into the flames, saying, <span class="tei tei-q">“Flax grow + long!”</span> And they take charred sticks from the bonfire home + with them and keep them to make the cattle thrive. In some parts of + the island the bonfire is formed by piling brushwood and other + combustibles round a tree, at the top of which a flag flies. + Whoever succeeds in knocking down the flag with a pole before it + begins to burn will have good luck. Formerly the festivities lasted + till daybreak, and ended in scenes of debauchery which looked + doubly hideous by the growing light of a summer morning.<a id= + "noteref_448" name="noteref_448" href="#note_448"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">448</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The Midsummer fires among the + Finns and Cheremiss of Russia.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Still farther + north, among a people of the same Turanian <span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page181">[pg 181]</span><a name="Pg181" id="Pg181" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> stock, we learn from an eye-witness that + Midsummer Night used to witness a sort of witches' sabbath on the + top of every hill in Finland. The bonfire was made by setting up + four tall birches in a square and piling the intermediate space + with fuel. Round the roaring flames the people sang and drank and + gambolled in the usual way.<a id="noteref_449" name="noteref_449" + href="#note_449"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">449</span></span></a> + Farther east, in the valley of the Volga, the Cheremiss celebrate + about midsummer a festival which Haxthausen regarded as identical + with the midsummer ceremonies of the rest of Europe. A sacred tree + in the forest, generally a tall and solitary oak, marks the scene + of the solemnity. All the males assemble there, but no woman may be + present. A heathen priest lights seven fires in a row from + north-west to south-east; cattle are sacrificed and their blood + poured in the fires, each of which is dedicated to a separate + deity. Afterwards the holy tree is illumined by lighted candles + placed on its branches; the people fall on their knees and with + faces bowed to the earth pray that God would be pleased to bless + them, their children, their cattle, and their bees, grant them + success in trade, in travel, and in the chase, enable them to pay + the Czar's taxes, and so forth.<a id="noteref_450" name= + "noteref_450" href="#note_450"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">450</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The Midsummer fires in France. + Bossuet on the Midsummer festival.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">When we pass + from the east to the west of Europe we still find the summer + solstice celebrated with rites of the same general character. Down + to about the middle of the nineteenth century the custom of + lighting bonfires at midsummer prevailed so commonly in France that + there was hardly a town or a village, we are told, where they were + not kindled.<a id="noteref_451" name="noteref_451" href= + "#note_451"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">451</span></span></a> + Though the pagan origin of the custom may be regarded as certain, + the Catholic Church threw a Christian cloak over it by boldly + declaring that the bonfires were lit in token of the general + rejoicing at the birth of the Baptist, who opportunely came into + the world at the solstice of summer, just as his greater successor + did at the solstice of winter; so that the whole year might be said + to revolve on <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page182">[pg + 182]</span><a name="Pg182" id="Pg182" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + the golden hinges of these two great birthdays.<a id="noteref_452" + name="noteref_452" href="#note_452"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">452</span></span></a> + Writing in the seventeenth century Bishop Bossuet expressly affirms + this edifying theory of the Midsummer bonfires, and he tells his + catechumens that the Church herself participated in the + illumination, since in several dioceses, including his own diocese + of Meaux, a number of parishes kindled what were called + ecclesiastical fires for the purpose of banishing the superstitions + practised at the purely mundane bonfires. These superstitions, he + goes on to say, consisted in dancing round the fire, playing, + feasting, singing ribald songs, throwing herbs across the fire, + gathering herbs at noon or while fasting, carrying them on the + person, preserving them throughout the year, keeping brands or + cinders of the fire, and other similar practices.<a id= + "noteref_453" name="noteref_453" href="#note_453"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">453</span></span></a> + However excellent the intentions of the ecclesiastical authorities + may have been, they failed of effecting their purpose; for the + superstitions as well as the bonfires survived in France far into + the nineteenth century, if indeed they are extinct even now at the + beginning of the twentieth. Writing in the latter part of the + nineteenth century Mr. Ch. Cuissard tells us that he himself + witnessed in Touraine and Poitou the superstitious practices which + he describes as follows: <span class="tei tei-q">“The most + credulous examine the ways in which the flame burns and draw good + or bad omens accordingly. Others, after leaping through the flames + crosswise, pass their little children through them thrice, fully + persuaded that the little ones will then be able to walk at once. + In some places the shepherds make their sheep tread the embers of + the extinct fire in order to preserve them from the foot-rot. Here + you may see about midnight an old woman grubbing among the cinders + of the pyre to find the hair of the Holy Virgin or Saint + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page183">[pg 183]</span><a name= + "Pg183" id="Pg183" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> John, which she + deems an infallible specific against fever. There, another woman is + busy plucking the roots of the herbs which have been burned on the + surface of the ground; she intends to eat them, imagining that they + are an infallible preservative against cancer. Elsewhere a girl + wears on her neck a flower which the touch of St. John's fire has + turned for her into a talisman, and she is sure to marry within the + year. Shots are fired at the tree planted in the midst of the fire + to drive away the demons who might purpose to send sicknesses about + the country. Seats are set round about the bonfire, in order that + the souls of dead relations may come and enjoy themselves for a + little with the living.”</span><a id="noteref_454" name= + "noteref_454" href="#note_454"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">454</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The Midsummer fires in Brittany. + Uses made of the charred sticks and flowers.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In Brittany, + apparently, the custom of the Midsummer bonfires is kept up to this + day. Thus in Lower Brittany every town and every village still + lights its <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">tantad</span></span> or bonfire on St. John's + Night. When the flames have died down, the whole assembly kneels + round about the bonfire and an old man prays aloud. Then they all + rise and march thrice round the fire; at the third turn they stop + and every one picks up a pebble and throws it on the burning pile. + After that they disperse.<a id="noteref_455" name="noteref_455" + href="#note_455"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">455</span></span></a> In + Finistère the bonfires of St. John's Day are kindled by preference + in an open space near a chapel of St. John; but if there is no such + chapel, they are lighted in the square facing the parish church and + in some districts at cross-roads. Everybody brings fuel for the + fire, it may be a faggot, a log, a branch, or an armful of gorse. + When the vespers are over, the parish priest sets a light to the + pile. All heads are bared, prayers recited, and hymns sung. Then + the dancing begins. The young folk skip round the blazing pile and + leap over it, when the flames have died down. If anybody makes a + false step and falls or rolls in the hot embers, he or she is + greeted with hoots and retires abashed from the circle of dancers. + Brands are carried home from the bonfire to protect the houses + against lightning, conflagrations, and certain maladies and spells. + The precious talisman is carefully kept in a cupboard till + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page184">[pg 184]</span><a name= + "Pg184" id="Pg184" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> St. John's Day of + the following year.<a id="noteref_456" name="noteref_456" href= + "#note_456"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">456</span></span></a> At + Quimper, and in the district of Léon, chairs used to be placed + round the midsummer bonfire, that the souls of the dead might sit + on them and warm themselves at the blaze.<a id="noteref_457" name= + "noteref_457" href="#note_457"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">457</span></span></a> At + Brest on this day thousands of people used to assemble on the + ramparts towards evening and brandish lighted torches, which they + swung in circles or flung by hundreds into the air. The closing of + the town gates put an end to the spectacle, and the lights might be + seen dispersing in all directions like wandering + will-o'-the-wisps.<a id="noteref_458" name="noteref_458" href= + "#note_458"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">458</span></span></a> In + Upper Brittany the materials for the midsummer bonfires, which + generally consist of bundles of furze and heath, are furnished by + voluntary contributions, and piled on the tops of hills round + poles, each of which is surmounted by a nosegay or a crown. This + nosegay or crown is generally provided by a man named John or a + woman named Jean, and it is always a John or a Jean who puts a + light to the bonfire. While the fire is blazing the people dance + and sing round it, and when the flames have subsided they leap over + the glowing embers. Charred sticks from the bonfire are thrown into + wells to improve the water, and they are also taken home as a + protection against thunder.<a id="noteref_459" name="noteref_459" + href="#note_459"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">459</span></span></a> To + make them thoroughly effective, however, against thunder and + lightning you should keep them near your bed, between a bit of a + Twelfth Night cake and a sprig of boxwood which has been blessed on + Palm Sunday.<a id="noteref_460" name="noteref_460" href= + "#note_460"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">460</span></span></a> + Flowers from the nosegay or crown which overhung the fire are + accounted charms against disease and pain, both bodily and + spiritual; hence girls hang them at their breast by a thread of + scarlet wool. In many parishes of Brittany the priest used to go in + procession with the crucifix and kindle the bonfire with his own + hands; <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page185">[pg + 185]</span><a name="Pg185" id="Pg185" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + and farmers were wont to drive their flocks and herds through the + fire in order to preserve them from sickness till midsummer of the + following year. Also it was believed that every girl who danced + round nine of the bonfires would marry within the year.<a id= + "noteref_461" name="noteref_461" href="#note_461"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">461</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The Midsummer fires in Normandy. + The fires as a protection against witchcraft. The Brotherhood + of the Green Wolf at Jumièges. Pretence of throwing the Green + Wolf into the fire.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In Normandy the + midsummer fires have now almost disappeared, at least in the + district known as the Bocage, but they used to shine on every hill. + They were commonly made by piling brushwood, broom, and ferns about + a tall tree, which was decorated with a crown of moss and sometimes + with flowers. While they burned, people danced and sang round them, + and young folk leaped over the flames or the glowing ashes. In the + valley of the Orne the custom was to kindle the bonfire just at the + moment when the sun was about to dip below the horizon; and the + peasants drove their cattle through the fires to protect them + against witchcraft, especially against the spells of witches and + wizards who attempted to steal the milk and butter.<a id= + "noteref_462" name="noteref_462" href="#note_462"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">462</span></span></a> At + Jumièges in Normandy, down to the first half of the nineteenth + century, the midsummer festival was marked by certain singular + features which bore the stamp of a very high antiquity. Every year, + on the twenty-third of June, the Eve of St. John, the Brotherhood + of the Green Wolf chose a new chief or master, who had always to be + taken from the hamlet of Conihout. On being elected, the new head + of the brotherhood assumed the title of the Green Wolf, and donned + a peculiar costume consisting of a long green mantle and a very + tall green hat of a conical shape and without a brim. Thus arrayed + he stalked solemnly at the head of the brothers, chanting the hymn + of St. John, the crucifix and holy banner leading the way, to a + place called Chouquet. Here the procession was met by the priest, + precentors, and choir, who conducted the brotherhood to the parish + church. After hearing mass the company adjourned to the house of + the Green Wolf, where a simple repast, such as is required by the + church on fast-days, was served up to them. Then they <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page186">[pg 186]</span><a name="Pg186" id="Pg186" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> danced before the door till it was time + to light the bonfire. Night being come, the fire was kindled to the + sound of hand-bells by a young man and a young woman, both decked + with flowers. As the flames rose, the <span lang="la" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style="font-style: italic">Te + Deum</span></span> was sung, and a villager thundered out a parody + in the Norman dialect of the hymn <span lang="la" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style="font-style: italic">ut + queant laxis</span></span>. Meantime the Green Wolf and his + brothers, with their hoods down on their shoulders and holding each + other by the hand, ran round the fire after the man who had been + chosen to be the Green Wolf of the following year. Though only the + first and the last man of the chain had a hand free, their business + was to surround and seize thrice the future Green Wolf, who in his + efforts to escape belaboured the brothers with a long wand which he + carried. When at last they succeeded in catching him they carried + him to the burning pile and made as if they would throw him on it. + This ceremony over, they returned to the house of the Green Wolf, + where a supper, still of the most meagre fare, was set before them. + Up till midnight a sort of religious solemnity prevailed. No + unbecoming word might fall from the lips of any of the company, and + a censor, armed with a hand-bell, was appointed to mark and punish + instantly any infraction of the rule. But at the stroke of twelve + all this was changed. Constraint gave way to license; pious hymns + were replaced by Bacchanalian ditties, and the shrill quavering + notes of the village fiddle hardly rose above the roar of voices + that went up from the merry brotherhood of the Green Wolf. Next + day, the twenty-fourth of June or Midsummer Day, was celebrated by + the same personages with the same noisy gaiety. One of the + ceremonies consisted in parading, to the sound of musketry, an + enormous loaf of consecrated bread, which, rising in tiers, was + surmounted by a pyramid of verdure adorned with ribbons. After that + the holy hand-bells, deposited on the step of the altar, were + entrusted as insignia of office to the man who was to be the Green + Wolf next year.<a id="noteref_463" name="noteref_463" href= + "#note_463"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">463</span></span></a></p><span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page187">[pg 187]</span><a name="Pg187" id="Pg187" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The Midsummer fires in + Picardy.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In the canton of + Breteuil in Picardy (department of Oise) the priest used to kindle + the midsummer bonfire, and the people marched thrice round it in + procession. Some of them took ashes of the fire home with them to + protect the houses against lightning.<a id="noteref_464" name= + "noteref_464" href="#note_464"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">464</span></span></a> The + custom is, or was down to recent years, similar at Vorges, near + Laon. An enormous pyre, some fifty or sixty feet high, supported in + the middle by a tall pole, is constructed every year on the + twenty-third of June, the Eve of St. John. It stands at one end of + the village, and all the inhabitants contribute fuel to it: a cart + goes round the village in the morning, by order of the mayor, + collecting combustibles from house to house: no one would dream of + refusing to comply with the customary obligation. In the evening, + after a service in honour of St. John has been performed in the + church, the clergy, the mayor, the municipal authorities, the rural + police, and the fire-brigade march in procession to the bonfire, + accompanied by the inhabitants and a crowd of idlers drawn by + curiosity from the neighbouring villages. After addressing the + throng in a sermon, to which they pay little heed, the parish + priest sprinkles the pyre with holy water, and taking a lighted + torch from the hand of an assistant sets fire to the pile. The + enormous blaze, flaring up against the dark sky of the summer + night, is seen for many miles around, particularly from the hill of + Laon. When it has died down into a huge heap of glowing embers and + grey ashes, every one carries home a charred stick or some cinders; + and the fire-brigade, playing their hose on what remains, + extinguishes the smouldering fire. The people preserve the charred + sticks and cinders throughout the year, believing that these relics + of St. John's bonfire have power to guard them from lightning and + from contagious diseases.<a id="noteref_465" name="noteref_465" + href="#note_465"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">465</span></span></a> At + Château-Thierry, a town of the department of Aisne, between Paris + and Reims, the custom of lighting bonfires and dancing round them + at the midsummer festival of St. John lasted down to about 1850; + the fires were kindled especially when June had <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page188">[pg 188]</span><a name="Pg188" id="Pg188" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> been rainy, and the people thought that + the lighting of the bonfires would cause the rain to cease.<a id= + "noteref_466" name="noteref_466" href="#note_466"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">466</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The Midsummer fires in Beauce and + Perche. The fires as a protection against witchcraft.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In Beauce and + Perche, two neighbouring districts of France to the south-west of + Paris, the midsummer bonfires have nearly or wholly disappeared, + but formerly they were commonly kindled and went by the name of the + <span class="tei tei-q">“fires of St. John.”</span> The site of the + bonfire was either the village square or beside the cross in the + cemetery. Here a great pile of faggots, brushwood, and grass was + accumulated about a huge branch, which bore at the top a crown of + fresh flowers. The priest blessed the bonfire and the people danced + round it. When it blazed and crackled, the bystanders thrust their + heads into the puffs of smoke, in the belief that it would preserve + them from a multitude of ills; and when the fire was burnt out, + they rushed upon the charred embers and ashes and carried them + home, imagining that they had a secret virtue to guard their houses + from being struck by lightning or consumed by fire. Some of the + Perche farmers in the old days, not content with the public + bonfire, used to light little private bonfires in their farmyards + and make all their cattle pass through the smoke and flames for the + purpose of protecting them against witchcraft or disease.<a id= + "noteref_467" name="noteref_467" href="#note_467"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">467</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The Midsummer fires in the + Ardennes, the Vosges, and the Jura. The Midsummer fires in + Franche-Comté. The Midsummer fires in Berry and other parts of + Central France.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In the + department of the Ardennes every one was wont to contribute his + faggot to the midsummer bonfire, and the clergy marched at the head + of the procession to kindle it. Failure to light the fires would, + in the popular belief, have exposed the fields to the greatest + danger. At Revin the young folk, besides dancing round the fire to + the strains of the village fiddler, threw garlands of flowers + across the flames to each other.<a id="noteref_468" name= + "noteref_468" href="#note_468"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">468</span></span></a> In + the Vosges it is still customary to kindle bonfires upon the + hill-tops on Midsummer Eve; the people believe that the fires help + to preserve the fruits of the earth and ensure good crops.<a id= + "noteref_469" name="noteref_469" href="#note_469"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">469</span></span></a> In + the Jura Mountains the midsummer <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page189">[pg 189]</span><a name="Pg189" id="Pg189" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> bonfires went by the name of <span lang="fr" + class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="fr"><span style= + "font-style: italic">bâ</span></span> or <span lang="fr" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="fr"><span style= + "font-style: italic">beau</span></span>. They were lit on the most + conspicuous points of the landscape.<a id="noteref_470" name= + "noteref_470" href="#note_470"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">470</span></span></a> Near + St. Jean, in the Jura, it appears that at this season young people + still repair to the cross-roads and heights, and there wave burning + torches so as to present the appearance of fiery wheels in the + darkness.<a id="noteref_471" name="noteref_471" href= + "#note_471"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">471</span></span></a> In + Franche-Comté, the province of France which lies immediately to the + west of the Jura mountains, the fires of St. John still shone on + the saint's day in several villages down to recent years. They were + generally lit on high ground and the young folks of both sexes sang + and danced round them, and sprang over the dying flames.<a id= + "noteref_472" name="noteref_472" href="#note_472"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">472</span></span></a> In + Bresse bonfires used to be kindled on Midsummer Eve (the + twenty-third of June) and the people danced about them in a circle. + Devout persons, particularly old women, circumambulated the fires + fourteen times, telling their beads and mumbling seven <span lang= + "la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Paters</span></span> and seven <span lang="la" + class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Aves</span></span> in the hope that thereby + they would feel no pains in their backs when they stooped over the + sickle in the harvest field.<a id="noteref_473" name="noteref_473" + href="#note_473"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">473</span></span></a> In + Berry, a district of Central France, the midsummer fire was lit on + the Eve of St. John and went by the name of the <span lang="fr" + class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="fr"><span style= + "font-style: italic">jônée</span></span>, <span lang="fr" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="fr"><span style= + "font-style: italic">joannée</span></span>, or <span lang="fr" + class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="fr"><span style= + "font-style: italic">jouannée</span></span>. Every family according + to its means contributed faggots, which were piled round a pole on + the highest ground in the neighbourhood. In the hamlets the office + of kindling the fire devolved on the oldest man, but in the towns + it was the priest or the mayor who discharged the duty. Here, as in + Brittany, people supposed that a girl who had danced round nine of + the midsummer bonfires would marry within the year. To leap several + times over the fire was regarded as a sort of purification which + kept off sickness and brought good luck to the leaper. Hence the + nimble youth bounded through the smoke and flames, and when the + fire had somewhat abated parents jumped across it with their + children in their arms in order that the little ones might also + partake of its beneficent <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page190">[pg + 190]</span><a name="Pg190" id="Pg190" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + influence. Embers from the extinct bonfire were taken home, and + after being dipped in holy water were kept as a talisman against + all kinds of misfortune, but especially against lightning.<a id= + "noteref_474" name="noteref_474" href="#note_474"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">474</span></span></a> The + same virtue was ascribed to the ashes and charred sticks of the + midsummer bonfire in Périgord, where everybody contributed his + share of fuel to the pile and the whole was crowned with flowers, + especially with roses and lilies.<a id="noteref_475" name= + "noteref_475" href="#note_475"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">475</span></span></a> On + the borders of the departments of Creuse and Corrèze, in Central + France, the fires of St. John used to be lit on the Eve of the + saint's day (the twenty-third of June); the custom seems to have + survived till towards the end of the nineteenth century. Men, + women, and children assembled round the fires, and the young people + jumped over them. Children were brought by their parents or elder + brothers into contact with the flames in the belief that this would + save them from fever. Older people girded themselves with stalks of + rye taken from a neighbouring field, because they fancied that by + so doing they would not grow weary in reaping the corn at + harvest.<a id="noteref_476" name="noteref_476" href= + "#note_476"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">476</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The Midsummer fires in + Poitou.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Bonfires were + lit in almost all the hamlets of Poitou on the Eve of St. John. + People marched round them thrice, carrying a branch of walnut in + their hand. Shepherdesses and children passed sprigs of mullein + (<span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style= + "font-style: italic">verbascum</span></span>) and nuts across the + flames; the nuts were supposed to cure toothache, and the mullein + to protect the cattle from sickness and sorcery. When the fire died + down people took some of the ashes home with them, either to keep + them in the house as a preservative against thunder or to scatter + them on the fields for the purpose of destroying corn-cockles and + darnel. Stones were also placed round the fire, and it was believed + that the first to lift one of these stones next morning would find + under it the hair of St. John.<a id="noteref_477" name= + "noteref_477" href="#note_477"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">477</span></span></a> In + Poitou also it used to be <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page191">[pg + 191]</span><a name="Pg191" id="Pg191" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + customary on the Eve of St. John to trundle a blazing wheel wrapt + in straw over the fields to fertilize them.<a id="noteref_478" + name="noteref_478" href="#note_478"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">478</span></span></a> This + last custom is said to be now extinct,<a id="noteref_479" name= + "noteref_479" href="#note_479"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">479</span></span></a> but + it is still usual, or was so down to recent years, in Poitou to + kindle fires on this day at cross-roads or on the heights. The + oldest or youngest person present sets a light to the pile, which + consists of broom, gorse, and heath. A bright and crackling blaze + shoots up, but soon dies down, and over it the young folk leap. + They also throw stones into it, picking the stone according to the + size of the turnips that they wish to have that year. It is said + that <span class="tei tei-q">“the good Virgin”</span> comes and + sits on the prettiest of the stones, and next morning they see + there her beautiful golden tresses. At Lussac, in Poitou, the + lighting of the midsummer bonfire is still an affair of some + ceremony. A pyramid of faggots is piled round a tree or tall pole + on the ground where the fair is held; the priest goes in procession + to the spot and kindles the pile. When prayers have been said and + the clergy have withdrawn, the people continue to march round the + fire, telling their beads, but it is not till the flames have begun + to die down that the youth jump over them. A brand from the + midsummer bonfire is supposed to be a preservative against + thunder.<a id="noteref_480" name="noteref_480" href= + "#note_480"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">480</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The Midsummer fires in the + departments of Vienne and Deux-Sèvres and in the provinces of + Saintonge and Aunis.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In the + department of Vienne the bonfire was kindled by the oldest man, and + before the dance round the flames began it was the custom to pass + across them a great bunch of mullein (<span lang="fr" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="fr"><span style= + "font-style: italic">bouillon blanc</span></span>) and a branch of + walnut, which next morning before sunrise were fastened over the + door of the chief cattle-shed.<a id="noteref_481" name= + "noteref_481" href="#note_481"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">481</span></span></a> A + similar custom prevailed in the neighbouring department of + Deux-Sèvres; but here it was the priest who kindled the bonfire, + and old men used to put embers of the fire in their wooden shoes as + a preservative <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page192">[pg + 192]</span><a name="Pg192" id="Pg192" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + against many evils.<a id="noteref_482" name="noteref_482" href= + "#note_482"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">482</span></span></a> In + some towns and villages of Saintonge and Aunis, provinces of + Western France now mostly comprised in the department of Charente + Inférieure, the fires of St. John are still kindled on Midsummer + Eve, but the custom is neither so common nor carried out with so + much pomp and ceremony as formerly. Great quantities of wood used + to be piled on an open space round about a huge post or a tree + stripped of its leaves and branches. Every one took care to + contribute a faggot to the pile, and the whole population marched + to the spot in procession with the crucifix at their head and the + priest bringing up the rear. The squire, or other person of high + degree, put the torch to the pyre, and the priest blessed it. In + the southern and eastern parts of Saintonge children and cattle + were passed through the smoke of the bonfires to preserve them from + contagious diseases, and when the fire had gone out the people + scuffled for the charred fragments of the great post, which they + regarded as talismans against thunder. Next morning, on Midsummer + Day, every shepherdess in the neighbourhood was up very early, for + the first to drive her sheep over the blackened cinders and ashes + of the great bonfire was sure to have the best flock all that year. + Where the shepherds shrunk from driving their flocks through the + smoke and flames of the bonfire they contented themselves with + marking the hinder-quarters of the animals with a broom which had + been blackened in the ashes.<a id="noteref_483" name="noteref_483" + href="#note_483"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">483</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The Midsummer fires in Southern + France. Midsummer festival of fire and water in Provence. + Bathing in the sea at Midsummer. Temporary Midsummer kings at + Aix and Marseilles.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In the + mountainous part of Comminges, a province of Southern France, now + comprised in the department of Haute Garonne, the midsummer fire is + made by splitting open the trunk of a tall tree, stuffing the + crevice with shavings, and igniting the whole. A garland of flowers + is fastened to the top of the tree, and at the moment when the fire + is lighted the man who was last married has to climb up a ladder + and bring the flowers down. In the flat parts of the same district + the materials of the midsummer bonfires consist of fuel piled in + the usual way; but they must be <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page193">[pg 193]</span><a name="Pg193" id="Pg193" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> put together by men who have been married + since the last midsummer festival, and each of these benedicts is + obliged to lay a wreath of flowers on the top of the pile.<a id= + "noteref_484" name="noteref_484" href="#note_484"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">484</span></span></a> At + the entrance of the valley of Aran young people set up on the banks + of the Garonne a tree covered with ribbons and garlands; at the end + of a year the withered tree and faded flowers furnish excellent + fuel. So on the Eve of St. John the villagers assemble, and an old + man or a child kindles the fire which is to consume tree and + garlands together. While the blaze lasts the people sing and dance; + and the burnt tree is then replaced by another which will suffer + the same fate after the lapse of a year.<a id="noteref_485" name= + "noteref_485" href="#note_485"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">485</span></span></a> In + some districts of the French Pyrenees it is deemed necessary to + leap nine times over the midsummer fire if you would be assured of + prosperity.<a id="noteref_486" name="noteref_486" href= + "#note_486"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">486</span></span></a> A + traveller in Southern France at the beginning of the nineteenth + century tells us that <span class="tei tei-q">“the Eve of St. John + is also a day of joy for the Provençals. They light great fires and + the young folk leap over them. At Aix they shower squibs and + crackers on the passers-by, which has often had disagreeable + consequences. At Marseilles they drench each other with scented + water, which is poured from the windows or squirted from little + syringes; the roughest jest is to souse passers-by with clean + water, which gives rise to loud bursts of laughter.”</span><a id= + "noteref_487" name="noteref_487" href="#note_487"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">487</span></span></a> At + Draguignan, in the department of Var, fires used to be lit in every + street on the Eve of St. John, and the people roasted pods of + garlic at them; the pods were afterwards distributed to every + family. Another diversion of the evening was to pour cans of water + from the houses on the heads of people in the streets.<a id= + "noteref_488" name="noteref_488" href="#note_488"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">488</span></span></a> In + Provence the midsummer fires are still popular. Children go from + door to door begging for fuel, and they are seldom sent empty away. + Formerly the priest, the mayor, and the aldermen used to walk in + procession to the bonfire, and even deigned to light it; after + which the assembly marched thrice round the burning pile, while the + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page194">[pg 194]</span><a name= + "Pg194" id="Pg194" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> church bells pealed + and rockets fizzed and sputtered in the air. Dancing began later, + and the bystanders threw water on each other. At Ciotat, while the + fire was blazing, the young people plunged into the sea and + splashed each other vigorously. At Vitrolles they bathed in a pond + in order that they might not suffer from fever during the year, and + at Saintes-Maries they watered the horses to protect them from the + itch.<a id="noteref_489" name="noteref_489" href= + "#note_489"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">489</span></span></a> At + Aix a nominal king, chosen from among the youth for his skill in + shooting at a popinjay, presided over the festival. He selected his + own officers, and escorted by a brilliant train marched to the + bonfire, kindled it, and was the first to dance round it. Next day + he distributed largesse to his followers. His reign lasted a year, + during which he enjoyed certain privileges. He was allowed to + attend the mass celebrated by the commander of the Knights of St. + John on St. John's Day: the right of hunting was accorded to him; + and soldiers might not be quartered in his house. At Marseilles + also on this day one of the guilds chose a king of the <span lang= + "fr" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="fr"><span style= + "font-style: italic">badache</span></span> or double axe; but it + does not appear that he kindled the bonfire, which is said to have + been lighted with great ceremony by the préfet and other + authorities.<a id="noteref_490" name="noteref_490" href= + "#note_490"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">490</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The Midsummer fires in Belgium. + Bonfires on St. Peter's Day in Brabant. The King and Queen of + the Roses. Effigies burnt in the Midsummer fires.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In Belgium the + custom of kindling the midsummer bonfires has long disappeared from + the great cities, but it is still kept up in rural districts and + small towns of Brabant, Flanders, and Limburg. People leap across + the fires to protect themselves against fever, and in eastern + Flanders women perform similar leaps for the purpose of ensuring an + easy delivery. At Termonde young people go from door to door + collecting fuel for the fires and reciting verses, in which they + beg the inmates to give them <span class="tei tei-q">“wood of St. + John”</span> and to keep some wood for St. Peter's Day (the + twenty-ninth of June); for in Belgium the Eve of St. Peter's Day is + celebrated by bonfires and dances exactly like those which + commemorate St. John's Eve. The ashes of <span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page195">[pg 195]</span><a name="Pg195" id="Pg195" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> the St. John's fires are deemed by Belgian + peasants an excellent remedy for consumption, if you take a + spoonful or two of them, moistened with water, day by day. People + also burn vervain in the fires, and they say that in the ashes of + the plant you may find, if you look for it, the <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Fool's Stone.”</span><a id="noteref_491" name= + "noteref_491" href="#note_491"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">491</span></span></a> In + many parts of Brabant St. Peter's bonfire used to be much larger + than that of his rival St. John. When it had burned out, both sexes + engaged in a game of ball, and the winner became the King of Summer + or of the Ball and had the right to choose his Queen. Sometimes the + winner was a woman, and it was then her privilege to select her + royal mate. This pastime was well known at Louvain and it continued + to be practised at Grammont and Mespelaer down to the second half + of the nineteenth century. At Mespelaer, which is a village near + Termonde, a huge pile of eglantine, reeds, and straw was collected + in a marshy meadow for the bonfire; and next evening after vespers + the young folk who had lit it assembled at the <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Good Life”</span> tavern to play the game. The winner + was crowned with a wreath of roses, and the rest danced and sang in + a ring about him. At Grammont, while the bonfire was lit and the + dances round it took place on St. Peter's Eve, the festival of the + <span class="tei tei-q">“Crown of Roses”</span> was deferred till + the following Sunday. The young folk arranged among themselves + beforehand who should be King and Queen of the Roses: the rosy + wreaths were hung on cords across the street: the dancers danced + below them, and at a given moment the wreaths fell on the heads of + the chosen King and Queen, who had to entertain their fellows at a + feast. According to some people the fires of St. Peter, like those + of St. John, were lighted in order to drive away dragons.<a id= + "noteref_492" name="noteref_492" href="#note_492"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">492</span></span></a> In + French Flanders down to 1789 a straw figure representing a man was + always burned in the midsummer bonfire, and the figure of a woman + was burned on St. Peter's Day.<a id="noteref_493" name= + "noteref_493" href="#note_493"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">493</span></span></a> In + Belgium people jump over the midsummer bonfires as a <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page196">[pg 196]</span><a name="Pg196" id="Pg196" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> preventive of colic, and they keep the + ashes at home to hinder fire from breaking out.<a id="noteref_494" + name="noteref_494" href="#note_494"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">494</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The Midsummer fires in England. + Stow's description of the Midsummer fires in London. The + Midsummer fires at Eton.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The custom of + lighting bonfires at midsummer has been observed in many parts of + our own country. <span class="tei tei-q">“On the Vigil of Saint + John the Baptist, commonly called Midsummer Eve, it was usual in + most country places, and also in towns and cities, for the + inhabitants, both old and young, and of both sexes, to meet + together, and make merry by the side of a large fire made in the + middle of the street, or in some open and convenient place, over + which the young men frequently leaped by way of frolic, and also + exercised themselves with various sports and pastimes, more + especially with running, wrestling, and dancing. These diversions + they continued till midnight, and sometimes till + cock-crowing.”</span><a id="noteref_495" name="noteref_495" href= + "#note_495"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">495</span></span></a> In + the streets of London the midsummer fires were lighted in the time + of Queen Elizabeth down to the end of the sixteenth century, as we + learn from Stow's description, which runs thus: <span class= + "tei tei-q">“In the months of June and July, on the vigils of + festival days, and on the same festival days in the evenings after + the sun setting, there were usually made bonfires in the streets, + every man bestowing wood or labour towards them; the wealthier sort + also, before their doors near to the said bonfires, would set out + tables on the vigils furnished with sweet bread and good drink, and + on the festival days with meats and drinks plentifully, whereunto + they would invite their neighbours and passengers also to sit and + be merry with them in great familiarity, praising God for His + benefits bestowed on them. These were called bonfires as well of + good amity amongst neighbours that being before at controversy, + were there, by the labour of others, reconciled, and made of bitter + enemies loving friends; and also for the virtue that a great fire + hath to purge the infection of the air. On the vigil of St. John + the Baptist, and on St. Peter and Paul the Apostles, every man's + door being shadowed with green birch, long fennel, St. John's wort, + orpin, white lilies, and such like, garnished upon with garlands of + beautiful flowers, had also lamps of glass, with oil burning in + them all the night; some hung <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page197">[pg 197]</span><a name="Pg197" id="Pg197" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> out branches of iron curiously wrought, + containing hundreds of lamps alight at once, which made a goodly + show, namely, in New Fish Street, Thames Street, etc.”</span><a id= + "noteref_496" name="noteref_496" href="#note_496"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">496</span></span></a> In + the sixteenth century the Eton boys used to kindle a bonfire on the + east side of the church both on St. John's Day and on St. Peter's + Day.<a id="noteref_497" name="noteref_497" href= + "#note_497"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">497</span></span></a> + Writing in the second half of the seventeenth century, the + antiquary John Aubrey tells us that bonfires were still kindled in + many places on St. John's Night, but that the civil wars had thrown + many of these old customs out of fashion. Wars, he adds, extinguish + superstition as well as religion and laws, and there is nothing + like gunpowder for putting phantoms to flight.<a id="noteref_498" + name="noteref_498" href="#note_498"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">498</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The Midsummer fires in the north + of England. The Midsummer fires in Northumberland. The + Midsummer fires at Whalton in Northumberland.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In the north of + England these fires used to be lit in the open streets. Young and + old gathered round them, and while the young leaped over the fires + and engaged in games, their elders looked on and probably + remembered with regret the days when they used to foot it as + nimbly. Sometimes the fires were kindled on the tops of high hills. + The people also carried firebrands about the fields.<a id= + "noteref_499" name="noteref_499" href="#note_499"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">499</span></span></a> The + custom of kindling bonfires on Midsummer Eve prevailed all over + Cumberland down to the second half of the eighteenth century.<a id= + "noteref_500" name="noteref_500" href="#note_500"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">500</span></span></a> In + Northumberland the custom seems to have lasted into the first + quarter of the nineteenth century; the fires were lit in the + villages and on the tops of high hills, and the people sported and + danced round them.<a id="noteref_501" name="noteref_501" href= + "#note_501"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">501</span></span></a> + Moreover, the villagers used to run with burning brands round their + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page198">[pg 198]</span><a name= + "Pg198" id="Pg198" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> fields and to snatch + ashes from a neighbour's fire, saying as they did so, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“We have the flower (or flour) of the + wake.”</span><a id="noteref_502" name="noteref_502" href= + "#note_502"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">502</span></span></a> At + Sandhill bonfires were kindled on the Eve of St. Peter as well as + on Midsummer Eve; the custom is attested for the year 1575, when it + was described as ancient.<a id="noteref_503" name="noteref_503" + href="#note_503"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">503</span></span></a> We + are told that <span class="tei tei-q">“on Midsummer's eve, reckoned + according to the old style, it was formerly the custom of the + inhabitants, young and old, not only of Whalton, but of most of the + adjacent villages, to collect a large cartload of whins and other + combustible materials, which was dragged by them with great + rejoicing (a fiddler being seated on the top of the cart) into the + village and erected into a pile. The people from the surrounding + country assembled towards evening, when it was set on fire; and + whilst the young danced around it, the elders looked on smoking + their pipes and drinking their beer, until it was consumed. There + can be little doubt that this curious old custom dates from a very + remote antiquity.”</span> In a law-suit, which was tried in 1878, + the rector of Whalton gave evidence of the constant use of the + village green for the ceremony since 1843. <span class= + "tei tei-q">“The bonfire,”</span> he said, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“was lighted a little to the north-east of the well at + Whalton, and partly on the footpath, and people danced round it and + jumped through it. That was never interrupted.”</span> The Rev. G. + R. Hall, writing in 1879, says that <span class="tei tei-q">“the + fire festivals or bonfires of the summer solstice at the Old + Midsummer until recently were commemorated on Christenburg Crags + and elsewhere by leaping through and dancing round the fires, as + those who have been present have told me.”</span><a id= + "noteref_504" name="noteref_504" href="#note_504"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">504</span></span></a> Down + to the early part of the nineteenth century bonfires called + Beal-fires used to be lit on Midsummer Eve all over the wolds in + the East Riding of Yorkshire.<a id="noteref_505" name="noteref_505" + href="#note_505"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">505</span></span></a></p><span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page199">[pg 199]</span><a name="Pg199" id="Pg199" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The Midsummer fires in + Herefordshire, Somersetshire, Devonshire, and Cornwall. The + Cornish fires on Midsummer Eve and St. Peter's Eve.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In Herefordshire + and Somersetshire the peasants used to make fires in the fields on + Midsummer Eve <span class="tei tei-q">“to bless the + apples.”</span><a id="noteref_506" name="noteref_506" href= + "#note_506"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">506</span></span></a> In + Devonshire the custom of leaping over the midsummer fires was also + observed.<a id="noteref_507" name="noteref_507" href= + "#note_507"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">507</span></span></a> + <span class="tei tei-q">“In Cornwall, the festival fires, called + bonfires, are kindled on the Eves of St. John Baptist and St. + Peter's day; and Midsummer is thence, in the Cornish tongue, called + <span lang="kw" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="kw"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Goluan</span></span>, which signifies both + light and rejoicing. At these fires the Cornish attend with lighted + torches, tarred and pitched at the end, and make their + perambulations round their fires, going from village to village and + carrying their torches before them; this is certainly the remains + of Druid superstition; for, <span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" + xml:lang="la"><span style="font-style: italic">Faces + praeferre</span></span>, to carry lighted torches was reckoned a + kind of gentilism, and as such particularly prohibited by the + Gallick Councils.”</span><a id="noteref_508" name="noteref_508" + href="#note_508"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">508</span></span></a> At + Penzance and elsewhere in the county the people danced and sang + about the bonfires on Midsummer Eve. On Whiteborough, a large + tumulus near Launceston, a huge bonfire used to be kindled on + Midsummer Eve; a tall summer pole with a large bush at the top was + fixed in the centre of the bonfire.<a id="noteref_509" name= + "noteref_509" href="#note_509"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">509</span></span></a> The + Cornish fires at this season appear to have been commonly lit on + high and conspicuous hills, such as Tregonan, Godolphin, Carnwarth, + and Carn Brea. When it grew dusk on Midsummer Eve, old men would + hobble away to some height whence they counted the fires and drew a + presage from their number.<a id="noteref_510" name="noteref_510" + href="#note_510"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">510</span></span></a> + <span class="tei tei-q">“It is the immemorial usage in Penzance, + and the neighbouring towns and villages, to kindle bonfires and + torches on Midsummer-eve; and on Midsummer-day to hold a fair on + Penzance quay, where the country folks assemble from the adjoining + parishes in great numbers to make excursions on the water. St. + Peter's Eve <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page200">[pg + 200]</span><a name="Pg200" id="Pg200" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + [the twenty-eighth of June] is distinguished by a similar display + of bonfires and torches, although the <span class= + "tei tei-q">‘quay-fair’</span> on St. Peter's-day [the twenty-ninth + of June], has been discontinued upwards of forty years. On these + eves a line of tar-barrels, relieved occasionally by large + bonfires, is seen in the centre of each of the principal streets in + Penzance. On either side of this line young men and women pass up + and down, swinging round their heads heavy torches made of large + pieces of folded canvas steeped in tar, and nailed to the ends of + sticks between three and four feet long; the flames of some of + these almost equal those of the tar-barrels. Rows of lighted + candles, also, when the air is calm, are fixed outside the windows + or along the sides of the streets. In St. Just, and other mining + parishes, the young miners, mimicking their fathers' employments, + bore rows of holes in the rocks, load them with gunpowder, and + explode them in rapid succession by trains of the same substance. + As the holes are not deep enough to split the rocks, the same + little batteries serve for many years. On these nights, Mount's Bay + has a most animating appearance, although not equal to what was + annually witnessed at the beginning of the present century, when + the whole coast, from the Land's End to the Lizard, wherever a town + or a village existed, was lighted up with these stationary or + moving fires. In the early part of the evening, children may be + seen wearing wreaths of flowers—a custom in all probability + originating from the ancient use of these ornaments when they + danced around the fires. At the close of the fireworks in Penzance, + a great number of persons of both sexes, chiefly from the + neighbourhood of the quay, used always, until within the last few + years, to join hand in hand, forming a long string, and run through + the streets, playing <span class="tei tei-q">‘thread the + needle,’</span> heedless of the fireworks showered upon them, and + oftentimes leaping over the yet glowing embers. I have on these + occasions seen boys following one another, jumping through flames + higher than themselves.”</span><a id="noteref_511" name= + "noteref_511" href="#note_511"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">511</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The Midsummer fires in Wales and + the Isle of Man. Burning wheel rolled down hill.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In Wales the + midsummer fires were kindled on St. John's <span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page201">[pg 201]</span><a name="Pg201" id="Pg201" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> Eve and on St. John's Day. Three or nine + different kinds of wood and charred faggots carefully preserved + from the last midsummer were deemed necessary to build the bonfire, + which was generally done on rising ground. Various herbs were + thrown into the blaze; and girls with bunches of three or nine + different kinds of flowers would take the hands of boys, who wore + flowers in their buttonholes and hats, and together the young + couples would leap over the fires. On the same two midsummer days + roses and wreaths of flowers were hung over the doors and windows. + <span class="tei tei-q">“Describing a midsummer fire, an old + inhabitant, born in 1809, remembered being taken to different hills + in the Vale of Glamorgan to see festivities in which people from + all parts of the district participated. She was at that time about + fourteen, and old enough to retain a vivid recollection of the + circumstances. People conveyed trusses of straw to the top of the + hill, where men and youths waited for the contributions. Women and + girls were stationed at the bottom of the hill. Then a large + cart-wheel was thickly swathed with straw, and not an inch of wood + was left in sight. A pole was inserted through the centre of the + wheel, so that long ends extended about a yard on each side. If any + straw remained, it was made up into torches at the top of tall + sticks. At a given signal the wheel was lighted, and sent rolling + downhill. If this fire-wheel went out before it reached the bottom + of the hill, a very poor harvest was promised. If it kept lighted + all the way down, and continued blazing for a long time, the + harvest would be exceptionally abundant. Loud cheers and shouts + accompanied the progress of the wheel.”</span><a id="noteref_512" + name="noteref_512" href="#note_512"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">512</span></span></a> At + Darowen in Wales small bonfires were kindled on Midsummer + Eve.<a id="noteref_513" name="noteref_513" href= + "#note_513"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">513</span></span></a> On + the same day people in the Isle of Man were wont to light fires to + the windward of every field, so that the smoke might pass over the + corn; and they folded their cattle and carried blazing furze or + gorse round them several times.<a id="noteref_514" name= + "noteref_514" href="#note_514"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">514</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The Midsummer fires in Ireland. + Passage of people and cattle through the fires. Cattle driven + through the fire; ashes used to fertilize the fields. The White + Horse at the Midsummer fire.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">A writer of the + last quarter of the seventeenth century <span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page202">[pg 202]</span><a name="Pg202" id="Pg202" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> tells us that in Ireland, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“on the Eves of St. John Baptist and St. Peter, they + always have in every town a bonfire, late in the evenings, and + carry about bundles of reeds fast tied and fired; these being dry, + will last long, and flame better than a torch, and be a pleasing + divertive prospect to the distant beholder; a stranger would go + near to imagine the whole country was on fire.”</span><a id= + "noteref_515" name="noteref_515" href="#note_515"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">515</span></span></a> + Another writer says of the South of Ireland: <span class= + "tei tei-q">“On Midsummer's Eve, every eminence, near which is a + habitation, blazes with bonfires; and round these they carry + numerous torches, shouting and dancing, which affords a beautiful + sight.”</span><a id="noteref_516" name="noteref_516" href= + "#note_516"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">516</span></span></a> An + author who described Ireland in the first quarter of the eighteenth + century says: <span class="tei tei-q">“On the vigil of St. John the + Baptist's Nativity, they make bonfires, and run along the streets + and fields with wisps of straw blazing on long poles to purify the + air, which they think infectious, by believing all the devils, + spirits, ghosts, and hobgoblins fly abroad this night to hurt + mankind.”</span><a id="noteref_517" name="noteref_517" href= + "#note_517"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">517</span></span></a> + Another writer states that he witnessed the festival in Ireland in + 1782: <span class="tei tei-q">“At the house where I was + entertained, it was told me, that we should see, at midnight, the + most singular sight in Ireland, which was the lighting of fires in + honour of the sun. Accordingly, exactly at midnight, the fires + began to appear; and taking the advantage of going up to the leads + of the house, which had a widely extended view, I saw on a radius + of thirty miles, all around, the fires burning on every eminence + which the country afforded. I had a farther satisfaction in + learning, from undoubted authority, that the people danced round + the fires, and at the close went through these fires, and made + their sons and daughters, together with their cattle, pass through + the fire; and the whole was conducted with religious + solemnity.”</span><a id="noteref_518" name="noteref_518" href= + "#note_518"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">518</span></span></a> That + the custom prevailed in full force as late as 1867 appears from a + notice in a newspaper of that date, which runs thus: <span class= + "tei tei-q">“The old pagan fire-worship still survives in Ireland, + though nominally <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page203">[pg + 203]</span><a name="Pg203" id="Pg203" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + in honour of St. John. On Sunday night bonfires were observed + throughout nearly every county in the province of Leinster. In + Kilkenny, fires blazed on every hillside at intervals of about a + mile. There were very many in the Queen's County, also in Kildare + and Wexford. The effect in the rich sunset appeared to travellers + very grand. The people assemble, and dance round the fires, the + children jump through the flames, and in former times live coals + were carried into the corn-fields to prevent blight.”</span><a id= + "noteref_519" name="noteref_519" href="#note_519"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">519</span></span></a> In + County Leitrim on St. John's Eve, which is called Bonfire Day, + fires are still lighted after dusk on the hills and along the sides + of the roads.<a id="noteref_520" name="noteref_520" href= + "#note_520"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">520</span></span></a> All + over Kerry the same thing continues to be done, though not so + commonly as of old. Small fires were made across the road, and to + drive through them brought luck for the year. Cattle were also + driven through the fires. On Lettermore Island, in South Connemara, + some of the ashes from the midsummer bonfire are thrown on the + fields to fertilize them.<a id="noteref_521" name="noteref_521" + href="#note_521"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">521</span></span></a> One + writer informs us that in Munster and Connaught a bone must always + be burned in the fire; for otherwise the people believe that the + fire will bring no luck. He adds that in many places sterile beasts + and human beings are passed through the fire, and that as a boy he + himself jumped through the fire <span class="tei tei-q">“for + luck.”</span><a id="noteref_522" name="noteref_522" href= + "#note_522"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">522</span></span></a> An + eye-witness has described as follows a remarkable ceremony observed + in Ireland on Midsummer Eve: <span class="tei tei-q">“When the fire + burned for some hours, and got low, an indispensable part of the + ceremony commenced. Every one present of the peasantry passed + through it, and several children were thrown across the sparkling + embers; while a wooden frame, of some eight feet long, with a + horse's head fixed to one end, and a large white sheet thrown over + it concealing the wood and the man on whose head it was carried, + made its appearance. This was greeted with loud shouts of + <span class="tei tei-q">‘The white horse!’</span> and having been + safely carried by the skill of its <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page204">[pg 204]</span><a name="Pg204" id="Pg204" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> bearer several times through the fire with a + bold leap, it pursued the people, who ran screaming and laughing in + every direction. I asked what the horse was meant for, and was told + that it represented <span class="tei tei-q">‘all + cattle.’</span> ”</span><a id="noteref_523" name="noteref_523" + href="#note_523"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">523</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Lady Wilde's account of the + Midsummer fires in Ireland.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Lady Wilde's + account of the midsummer festival in Ireland is picturesque and + probably correct in substance, although she does not cite her + authorities. As it contains some interesting features which are not + noticed by the other writers on Ireland whom I have consulted, I + will quote the greater part of it in full. <span class= + "tei tei-q">“In ancient times,”</span> she says, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“the sacred fire was lighted with great ceremony on + Midsummer Eve; and on that night all the people of the adjacent + country kept fixed watch on the western promontory of Howth, and + the moment the first flash was seen from that spot the fact of + ignition was announced with wild cries and cheers repeated from + village to village, when all the local fires began to blaze, and + Ireland was circled by a cordon of flame rising up from every hill. + Then the dance and song began round every fire, and the wild + hurrahs filled the air with the most frantic revelry. Many of these + ancient customs are still continued, and the fires are still + lighted on St. John's Eve on every hill in Ireland. When the fire + has burned down to a red glow the young men strip to the waist and + leap over or through the flames; this is done backwards and + forwards several times, and he who braves the greatest blaze is + considered the victor over the powers of evil, and is greeted with + tremendous applause. When the fire burns still lower, the young + girls leap the flame, and those who leap clean over three times + back and forward will be certain of a speedy marriage and good luck + in after-life, with many children. The married women then walk + through the lines of the burning embers; and when the fire is + nearly burnt and trampled down, the yearling cattle are driven + through the hot ashes, and their back is singed with a lighted + hazel twig. These rods are kept safely afterwards, being considered + of immense power to drive the cattle to and from the watering + places. As the fire diminishes the shouting grows fainter, and the + song and the dance commence; while professional <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page205">[pg 205]</span><a name="Pg205" id="Pg205" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> story-tellers narrate tales of + fairy-land, or of the good old times long ago, when the kings and + princes of Ireland dwelt amongst their own people, and there was + food to eat and wine to drink for all comers to the feast at the + king's house. When the crowd at length separate, every one carries + home a brand from the fire, and great virtue is attached to the + lighted <span lang="ga" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang= + "ga"><span style="font-style: italic">brone</span></span> which is + safely carried to the house without breaking or falling to the + ground. Many contests also arise amongst the young men; for whoever + enters his house first with the sacred fire brings the good luck of + the year with him.”</span><a id="noteref_524" name="noteref_524" + href="#note_524"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">524</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Holy wells resorted to on + Midsummer Eve in Ireland.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In Ireland, as + elsewhere, water was also apparently thought to acquire a certain + mystical virtue at midsummer. <span class="tei tei-q">“At Stoole, + near Downpatrick, there is a ceremony commencing at twelve o'clock + at night on Midsummer Eve. Its sacred mount is consecrated to St. + Patrick; the plain contains three wells, to which the most + extraordinary virtues are attributed. Here and there are heaps of + stones, around some of which appear great numbers of people, + running with as much speed as possible; around others crowds of + worshippers kneel with bare legs and feet as an indispensable part + of the penance. The men, without coats, with handkerchiefs on their + heads instead of hats, having gone seven times round each heap, + kiss the ground, cross themselves, and proceed to the hill; here + they ascend, on their bare knees, by a path so steep and rugged + that it would be difficult to walk up. Many hold their hands + clasped at the back of their necks, and several carry large stones + on their heads. Having repeated this ceremony seven times, they go + to what is called St. Patrick's Chair, which are two great flat + stones fixed upright in the hill; here they cross and bless + themselves as they step in between these stones, and, while + repeating prayers, an old man, seated for the purpose, turns them + round on their feet three times, for which he is paid; the devotee + then goes to conclude his penance at a pile of stones, named the + Altar. While this busy scene is continued by the multitude, the + wells and streams issuing from them are thronged by crowds of halt, + maimed, and blind, pressing <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page206">[pg 206]</span><a name="Pg206" id="Pg206" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> to wash away their infirmities with water + consecrated by their patron saint, and so powerful is the + impression of its efficacy on their minds, that many of those who + go to be healed, and who are not totally blind, or altogether + crippled, really believe for a time that they are by means of its + miraculous virtues perfectly restored.”</span><a id="noteref_525" + name="noteref_525" href="#note_525"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">525</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The Midsummer fires in Scotland. + Fires on St. Peter's Day (the twenty-ninth of June).</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In Scotland the + traces of midsummer fires are few. We are told by a writer of the + eighteenth century that <span class="tei tei-q">“the midsummer-even + fire, a relict of Druidism,”</span> was kindled in some parts of + the county of Perth.<a id="noteref_526" name="noteref_526" href= + "#note_526"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">526</span></span></a> + Another writer of the same period, describing what he calls the + Druidical festivals of the Highlanders, says that <span class= + "tei tei-q">“the least considerable of them is that of midsummer. + In the Highlands of Perthshire there are some vestiges of it. The + cowherd goes three times round the fold, according to the course of + the sun, with a burning torch in his hand. They imagined this rite + had a tendency to purify their herds and flocks, and to prevent + diseases. At their return the landlady makes an entertainment for + the cowherd and his associates.”</span><a id="noteref_527" name= + "noteref_527" href="#note_527"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">527</span></span></a> In + the north-east of Scotland, down to the latter half of the + eighteenth century, farmers used to go round their lands with + burning torches about the middle of June.<a id="noteref_528" name= + "noteref_528" href="#note_528"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">528</span></span></a> On + the hill of Cairnshee, in the parish of Durris, Kincardineshire, + the herdsmen of the country round about annually kindle a bonfire + at sunset on Midsummer Day (the twenty-fourth of June); the men or + lads collect the fuel and push each other through the smoke and + flames. The custom is kept up through the benefaction of a certain + Alexander Hogg, a native of the parish, who died about 1790 and + left a small sum for the maintenance of a midsummer bonfire on the + spot, because as <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page207">[pg + 207]</span><a name="Pg207" id="Pg207" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> a + boy he had herded cattle on the hill. We may conjecture that in + doing so he merely provided for the continuance of an old custom + which he himself had observed in the same place in his youth.<a id= + "noteref_529" name="noteref_529" href="#note_529"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">529</span></span></a> At + the village of Tarbolton in Ayrshire a bonfire has been annually + kindled from time immemorial on the evening of the first Monday + after the eleventh of June. A noted cattle-market was formerly held + at the fair on the following day. The bonfire is still lit at the + gloaming by the lads and lasses of the village on a high mound or + hillock just outside of the village. Fuel for it is collected by + the lads from door to door. The youth dance round the fire and leap + over the fringes of it. The many cattle-drovers who used to + assemble for the fair were wont to gather round the blazing pile, + smoke their pipes, and listen to the young folk singing in chorus + on the hillock. Afterwards they wrapped themselves in their plaids + and slept round the bonfire, which was intended to last all + night.<a id="noteref_530" name="noteref_530" href= + "#note_530"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">530</span></span></a> + Thomas Moresin of Aberdeen, a writer of the sixteenth century, says + that on St. Peter's Day, which is the twenty-ninth of June, the + Scotch ran about at night with lighted torches on mountains and + high grounds, <span class="tei tei-q">“as Ceres did when she roamed + the whole earth in search of Proserpine”</span>;<a id="noteref_531" + name="noteref_531" href="#note_531"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">531</span></span></a> and + towards the end of the eighteenth century the parish minister of + Loudoun, a district of Ayrshire whose <span class= + "tei tei-q">“bonny woods and braes”</span> have been sung by Burns, + wrote that <span class="tei tei-q">“the custom still remains + amongst the herds and young people to kindle fires in the high + grounds in honour of Beltan. <span lang="gd" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="gd"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Beltan</span></span>, which in Gaelic + signifies <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Baal</span></span>, or <span class= + "tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Bel's-fire</span></span>, was antiently the + time of this solemnity. It is now kept on St. Peter's + day.”</span><a id="noteref_532" name="noteref_532" href= + "#note_532"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">532</span></span></a></p><span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page208">[pg 208]</span><a name="Pg208" id="Pg208" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The Midsummer fires in Spain and + the Azores. Divination on Midsummer Eve in the Azores. The + Midsummer fires in Corsica and Sardinia.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">All over Spain + great bonfires called <span lang="es" class="tei tei-foreign" + xml:lang="es"><span style="font-style: italic">lumes</span></span> + are still lit on Midsummer Eve. They are kept up all night, and the + children leap over them in a certain rhythmical way which is said + to resemble the ancient dances. On the coast, people at this season + plunge into the sea; in the inland districts the villagers go and + roll naked in the dew of the meadows, which is supposed to be a + sovereign preservative against diseases of the skin. On this + evening, too, girls who would pry into the future put a vessel of + water on the sill outside their window; and when the clocks strike + twelve, they break an egg in the water and see, or fancy they see, + in the shapes assumed by the pulp, as it blends with the liquid, + the likeness of future bridegrooms, castles, coffins, and so forth. + But generally, as might perhaps have been anticipated, the obliging + egg exhibits the features of a bridegroom.<a id="noteref_533" name= + "noteref_533" href="#note_533"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">533</span></span></a> In + the Azores, also, bonfires are lit on Midsummer Eve (St. John's + Eve), and boys jump over them for luck. On that night St. John + himself is supposed to appear in person and bless all the seas and + waters, driving out the devils and demons who had been disporting + themselves in them ever since the second day of November; that is + why in the interval between the second of November and the + twenty-third of June nobody will bathe in the sea or in a hot + spring. On Midsummer Eve, too, you can always see the devil, if you + will go into a garden at midnight. He is invariably found standing + near a mustard-plant. His reason for adopting this posture has not + been ascertained; perhaps in the chilly air of the upper world he + is attracted by the genial warmth of the mustard. Various forms of + divination are practised by people in the Azores on Midsummer Eve. + Thus a new-laid egg is broken <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page209">[pg 209]</span><a name="Pg209" id="Pg209" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> into a glass of water, and the shapes which + it assumes foreshadow the fate of the person concerned. Again, + seven saucers are placed in a row, filled respectively with water, + earth, ashes, keys, a thimble, money, and grass, which things + signify travel, death, widowhood, housekeeping, spinsterhood, + riches, and farming. A blindfolded person touches one or other of + the saucers with a wand and so discovers his or her fate. Again, + three broad beans are taken; one is left in its skin, one is half + peeled, and the third is peeled outright. The three denote + respectively riches, competence, and poverty. They are hidden and + searched for; and he who finds one of them knows accordingly + whether he will be rich, moderately well-off, or poor. Again, girls + take slips of paper and write the names of young men twice over on + them. These they fold up and crumple and place one set under their + pillows and the other set in a saucer full of water. In the morning + they draw one slip of paper from under their pillow, and see + whether one in the water has opened out. If the names on the two + slips are the same, it is the name of her future husband. Young men + do the same with girls' names. Once more, if a girl rises at + sunrise, goes out into the street, and asks the first passer-by his + Christian name, that will be her husband's name.<a id="noteref_534" + name="noteref_534" href="#note_534"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">534</span></span></a> Some + of these modes of divination resemble those which are or used to be + practised in Scotland at Hallowe'en.<a id="noteref_535" name= + "noteref_535" href="#note_535"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">535</span></span></a> In + Corsica on the Eve of St. John the people set fire to the trunk of + a tree or to a whole tree, and the young men and maidens dance + round the blaze, which is called <span lang="fr" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="fr"><span style= + "font-style: italic">fucaraia</span></span>.<a id="noteref_536" + name="noteref_536" href="#note_536"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">536</span></span></a> We + have seen that at Ozieri, in Sardinia, a great bonfire is kindled + on St. John's Eve, and that the young people dance round it.<a id= + "noteref_537" name="noteref_537" href="#note_537"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">537</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The Midsummer fires in the + Abruzzi. Bathing on Midsummer Eve in the Abruzzi. The Midsummer + fires in Sicily. The witches at Midsummer.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Passing to + Italy, we find that the midsummer fires are still lighted on St. + John's Eve in many parts of the Abruzzi. They are commonest in the + territory which was inhabited in antiquity by the Vestini; they are + rarer in the land of the ancient Marsi, and they disappear entirely + in the lower valley <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page210">[pg + 210]</span><a name="Pg210" id="Pg210" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + of the Sangro. For the most part, the fires are fed with straw and + dry grass, and are kindled in the fields near the villages or on + high ground. As they blaze up, the people dance round or over them. + In leaping across the flames the boys cry out, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“St. John, preserve my thighs and legs!”</span> + Formerly it used to be common to light the bonfires also in the + towns in front of churches of St. John, and the remains of the + sacred fire were carried home by the people; but this custom has + mostly fallen into disuse. However, at Celano the practice is still + kept up of taking brands and ashes from the bonfires to the houses, + although the fires are no longer kindled in front of the churches, + but merely in the streets.<a id="noteref_538" name="noteref_538" + href="#note_538"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">538</span></span></a> In + the Abruzzi water also is supposed to acquire certain marvellous + and beneficent properties on St. John's Night. Hence many people + bathe or at least wash their faces and hands in the sea or a river + at that season, especially at the moment of sunrise. Such a bath is + said to be an excellent cure for diseases of the skin. At + Castiglione a Casauria the people, after washing in the river or in + springs, gird their waists and wreath their brows with sprigs of + briony in order to keep them from aches and pains.<a id= + "noteref_539" name="noteref_539" href="#note_539"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">539</span></span></a> In + various parts of Sicily, also, fires are kindled on Midsummer Eve + (St. John's Eve), the twenty-third of June. On the Madonie + mountains, in the north of the island, the herdsmen kindle them at + intervals, so that the crests of the mountains are seen ablaze in + the darkness for many miles. About Acireale, on the east coast of + the island, the bonfires are lit by boys, who jump over them. At + Chiaromonte the witches that night acquire extraordinary powers; + hence everybody then puts a broom outside of his house, because a + broom is an excellent protective against witchcraft.<a id= + "noteref_540" name="noteref_540" href="#note_540"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">540</span></span></a> At + Orvieto the midsummer fires were specially excepted from the + prohibition directed against bonfires in general.<a id= + "noteref_541" name="noteref_541" href="#note_541"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">541</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The Midsummer fires in + Malta.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In Malta also + the people celebrate Midsummer Eve <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page211">[pg 211]</span><a name="Pg211" id="Pg211" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> (St. John's Eve) <span class="tei tei-q">“by + kindling great fires in the public streets, and giving their + children dolls to carry in their arms on this day, in order to make + good the prophecy respecting the Baptist, <span lang="mt" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="mt"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Multi in nativitate ejus + gaudebunt</span></span>. Days and even weeks before this festival, + groups of children are seen going out into the country fields to + gather straw, twigs, and all sorts of other combustibles, which + they store up for St. John's Eve. On the night of the twenty-third + of June, the day before the festival of the Saint, great fires are + kindled in the streets, squares, and market places of the towns and + villages of the Island, and as fire after fire blazes out of the + darkness of that summer night, the effect is singularly striking. + These fires are sometimes kept up for hours, being continually fed + by the scores of bystanders, who take great delight in throwing + amidst the flames some old rickety piece of furniture which they + consider as lumber in their houses. Lots of happy and reckless + children, and very often men, are seen merrily leaping in + succession over and through the crackling flames. At the time of + the Order of St. John of Jerusalem, the Grand Master himself, soon + after the <span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang= + "la"><span style="font-style: italic">Angelus</span></span>, used + to leave his palace, accompanied by the Grand Prior, the Bishop, + and two bailiffs, to set fire to some pitch barrels which were + placed for the occasion in the square facing the sacred Hospital. + Great crowds used to assemble here in order to assist at this + ceremony. The setting ablaze of the five casks, and later on of the + eight casks, by the Grand Master, was a signal for the others to + kindle their fires in the different parts of the + town.”</span><a id="noteref_542" name="noteref_542" href= + "#note_542"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">542</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The Midsummer fires in Greece. The + Midsummer fires in Macedonia and Albania.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In Greece, the + custom of kindling fires on St. John's Eve and jumping over them is + said to be still universal. One reason assigned for it is a wish to + escape from the fleas.<a id="noteref_543" name="noteref_543" href= + "#note_543"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">543</span></span></a> + According to another account, the women cry out, as they leap over + the fire, <span class="tei tei-q">“I leave my sins behind + me.”</span><a id="noteref_544" name="noteref_544" href= + "#note_544"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">544</span></span></a> In + Lesbos the fires on St. John's Eve are usually lighted by threes, + and <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page212">[pg 212]</span><a name= + "Pg212" id="Pg212" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> the people spring + thrice over them, each with a stone on his head, saying, + <span class="tei tei-q">“I jump the hare's fire, my head a + stone!”</span> On the morning of St. John's Day those who dwell + near the coast go to bathe in the sea. As they go they gird + themselves with osiers, and when they are in the water they let the + osiers float away, saying, <span class="tei tei-q">“Let my maladies + go away!”</span> Then they look for what is called <span class= + "tei tei-q">“the hairy stone,”</span> which possesses the + remarkable property not only of keeping moths from clothes but even + of multiplying the clothes in the chest where it is laid up, and + the more hairs on the stone the more will the clothes multiply in + the chest.<a id="noteref_545" name="noteref_545" href= + "#note_545"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">545</span></span></a> In + Calymnos the midsummer fire is supposed to ensure abundance in the + coming year as well as deliverance from fleas. The people dance + round the fires singing, with stones on their heads, and then jump + over the blaze or the glowing embers. When the fire is burning low, + they throw the stones into it; and when it is nearly out, they make + crosses on their legs and then go straightway and bathe in the + sea.<a id="noteref_546" name="noteref_546" href= + "#note_546"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">546</span></span></a> In + Cos the lads and lasses dance round the bonfires on St. John's Eve. + Each of the lads binds a black stone on his head, signifying that + he wishes to become as strong as the stone. Also they make the sign + of the cross on their feet and legs and jump over the fire.<a id= + "noteref_547" name="noteref_547" href="#note_547"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">547</span></span></a> On + Midsummer Eve the Greeks of Macedonia light fires after supper in + front of their gates. The garlands, now faded, which were hung over + the doors on May Day, are taken down and cast into the flames, + after which the young folk leap over the blaze, fully persuaded + that St. John's fire will not burn them.<a id="noteref_548" name= + "noteref_548" href="#note_548"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">548</span></span></a> In + Albania fires of dry herbage are, or used to be, lit everywhere on + St. John's Eve; young and old leap over them, for such a leap is + thought to be good for the health.<a id="noteref_549" name= + "noteref_549" href="#note_549"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">549</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The Midsummer fires in + America.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">From the Old + World the midsummer fires have been <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page213">[pg 213]</span><a name="Pg213" id="Pg213" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> carried across the Atlantic to America. In + Brazil people jump over the fires of St. John, and at this season + they can take hot coals in their mouths without burning + themselves.<a id="noteref_550" name="noteref_550" href= + "#note_550"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">550</span></span></a> In + Bolivia on the Eve of St. John it is usual to see bonfires lighted + on the hills and even in the streets of the capital La Paz. As the + city stands at the bottom of an immense ravine, and the Indians of + the neighbourhood take a pride in kindling bonfires on heights + which might seem inaccessible, the scene is very striking when the + darkness of night is suddenly and simultaneously lit up by hundreds + of fires, which cast a glare on surrounding objects, producing an + effect at once weird and picturesque.<a id="noteref_551" name= + "noteref_551" href="#note_551"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">551</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The Midsummer fires among the + Mohammedans of Morocco and Algeria.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The custom of + kindling bonfires on Midsummer Day or on Midsummer Eve is widely + spread among the Mohammedan peoples of North Africa, particularly + in Morocco and Algeria; it is common both to the Berbers and to + many of the Arabs or Arabic-speaking tribes. In these countries + Midsummer Day (the twenty-fourth of June, Old Style) is called + <span lang="ar" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ar"><span style= + "font-style: italic">l'ánṣăra</span></span>. The fires are lit in + the courtyards, at cross-roads, in the fields, and sometimes on the + threshing-floors. Plants which in burning give out a thick smoke + and an aromatic smell are much sought after for fuel on these + occasions; among the plants used for the purpose are giant-fennel, + thyme, rue, chervil-seed, camomile, geranium, and penny-royal. + People expose themselves, and especially their children, to the + smoke, and drive it towards the orchards and the crops. Also they + leap across the fires; in some places everybody ought to repeat the + leap seven times. Moreover they take burning brands from the fires + and carry them through the houses in order to fumigate them. They + pass things through the fire, and bring the sick into contact with + it, while they utter prayers for their recovery. The ashes of the + bonfires are also reputed to possess beneficial properties; hence + in some places people rub their hair or their bodies with + them.<a id="noteref_552" name="noteref_552" href= + "#note_552"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">552</span></span></a> For + example, the Andjra <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page214">[pg + 214]</span><a name="Pg214" id="Pg214" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + mountaineers of Morocco kindle large fires in open places of their + villages on Midsummer Day. Men, women, and children jump over the + flames or the glowing embers, believing that by so doing they rid + themselves of all misfortune which may be clinging to them; they + imagine, also, that such leaps cure the sick and procure offspring + for childless couples. Moreover, they burn straw, together with + some marjoram and alum, in the fold where the cattle, sheep, and + goats are penned for the night; the smoke, in their opinion, will + make the animals thrive. On Midsummer Day the Arabs of the Mnasara + tribe make fires outside their tents, near their animals, on their + fields, and in their gardens. Large quantities of penny-royal are + burned in these fires, and over some of them the people leap thrice + to and fro. Sometimes small fires are also kindled inside the + tents. They say that the smoke confers blessings on everything with + which it comes into contact. At Salee, on the Atlantic coast of + Morocco, persons who suffer from diseased eyes rub them with the + ashes of the midsummer fire; and in Casablanca and Azemmur the + people hold their faces over the fire, because the smoke is thought + to be good for the eyes. The Arab tribe Ulad Bu Aziz, in the + Dukkala province of Morocco, kindle midsummer bonfires, not for + themselves and their cattle, but only for crops and fruit; nobody + likes to reap his crops before Midsummer Day, because if he did + they would lose the benefit of the blessed influence which flows + from the smoke of the bonfires. <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page215">[pg 215]</span><a name="Pg215" id="Pg215" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> Again, the Beni Mgild, a Berber tribe of + Morocco, light fires of straw on Midsummer Eve and leap thrice over + them to and fro. They let some of the smoke pass underneath their + clothes, and married women hold their breasts over the fire, in + order that their children may be strong. Moreover, they paint their + eyes and lips with some black powder, in which ashes of the bonfire + are mixed. And in order that their horses may also benefit by the + fires, they dip the right forelegs of the animals in the smoke and + flames or in the hot embers, and they rub ashes on the foreheads + and between the nostrils of the horses. Berbers of the Rif + province, in northern Morocco, similarly make great use of fires at + midsummer for the good of themselves, their cattle, and their + fruit-trees. They jump over the bonfires in the belief that this + will preserve them in good health, and they light fires under + fruit-trees to keep the fruit from falling untimely. And they + imagine that by rubbing a paste of the ashes on their hair they + prevent the hair from falling off their heads.<a id="noteref_553" + name="noteref_553" href="#note_553"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">553</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Beneficial effect ascribed to the + smoke of the fires. Ill luck supposed to be burnt in the + Midsummer fires.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In all these + Moroccan customs, we are told, the beneficial effect is attributed + wholly to the smoke, which is supposed to be endued with a magical + quality that removes misfortune from men, animals, fruit-trees, and + crops. But in some parts of Morocco people at midsummer kindle + fires of a different sort, not for the sake of fumigation, but in + order to burn up misfortune in the flames. Thus on Midsummer Eve + the Berber tribe of the Beni Mgild burn three sheaves of unthreshed + wheat or barley, <span class="tei tei-q">“one for the children, one + for the crops, and one for the animals.”</span> On the same + occasion they burn the tent of a widow who has never given birth to + a child; by so doing they think to rid the village of ill luck. It + is said that at midsummer the Zemmur burn a tent, which belongs to + somebody who was killed in war during a feast; or if there is no + such person in the village, the schoolmaster's tent is burned + instead. Among the Arabic-speaking Beni Ahsen it is customary for + those who live near the river Sbu to make a little hut of straw at + midsummer, set it on fire, <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page216">[pg 216]</span><a name="Pg216" id="Pg216" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> and let it float down the river. Similarly + the inhabitants of Salee burn a straw hut on the river which flows + past their town.<a id="noteref_554" name="noteref_554" href= + "#note_554"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">554</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The Midsummer festival in North + Africa comprises rites concerned with water as well as with + fire.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Further it + deserves to be noticed that in Northern Africa, as in Southern + Europe, the midsummer festival comprises rites concerned with water + as well as with fire. For example, among the Beni-Snous the women + light a fire in an oven, throw perfumes into it, and circumambulate + a tank, which they also incense after a fashion. In many places on + the coast, as in the province of Oran and particularly in the north + of Morocco, everybody goes and bathes in the sea at midsummer; and + in many towns of the interior, such as Fez, Mequinez, and + especially Merrakech, people throw water over each other on this + day; and where water is scarce, earth is used instead, according to + the Mohammedan principle which permits ablutions to be performed + with earth or sand when water cannot be spared for the + purpose.<a id="noteref_555" name="noteref_555" href= + "#note_555"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">555</span></span></a> + People of the Andjra district in Morocco not only bathe themselves + in the sea or in rivers at midsummer, they also bathe their + animals, their horses, mules, donkeys, cattle, sheep, and goats; + for they think that on that day water possesses a blessed virtue + (<span lang="ar" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ar"><span style= + "font-style: italic">baraka</span></span>), which removes sickness + and misfortune. In Aglu, again, men, women, and children bathe in + the sea or springs or rivers at midsummer, alleging that by so + doing they protect themselves against disease for the whole year. + Among the Berbers of the Rif district the custom of bathing on this + day is commonly observed, and animals share the ablutions.<a id= + "noteref_556" name="noteref_556" href="#note_556"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">556</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The Midsummer festival in North + Africa is probably older than Mohammedanism. Some Mohammedans + of North Africa kindle fires and observe water ceremonies at + their movable New Year. Water ceremonies at New Year in + Morocco.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The celebration + of a midsummer festival by Mohammedan peoples is particularly + remarkable, because the Mohammedan calendar, being purely lunar and + uncorrected by intercalation, necessarily takes no note of + festivals which occupy fixed points in the solar year; all strictly + Mohammedan feasts, being pinned to the moon, slide <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page217">[pg 217]</span><a name="Pg217" id="Pg217" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> gradually with that luminary through + the whole period of the earth's revolution about the sun. This fact + of itself seems to prove that among the Mohammedan peoples of + Northern Africa, as among the Christian peoples of Europe, the + midsummer festival is quite independent of the religion which the + people publicly profess, and is a relic of a far older paganism. + There are, indeed, independent grounds for thinking that the Arabs + enjoyed the advantage of a comparatively well-regulated solar year + before the prophet of God saddled them with the absurdity and + inconvenience of a purely lunar calendar.<a id="noteref_557" name= + "noteref_557" href="#note_557"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">557</span></span></a> Be + that as it may, it is notable that some Mohammedan people of North + Africa kindle fires and bathe in water at the movable New Year of + their lunar calendar instead of at the fixed Midsummer of the solar + year; while others again practise these observances at both + seasons. New Year's Day, on which the rites are celebrated, is + called <span lang="ar" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang= + "ar"><span style="font-style: italic">Ashur</span></span>; it is + the tenth day of Moharram, the first month of the Mohammedan + calendar. On that day bonfires are kindled in Tunis and also at + Merrakech and among some tribes of the neighbourhood.<a id= + "noteref_558" name="noteref_558" href="#note_558"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">558</span></span></a> At + Demnat, in the Great Atlas mountains, people kindle a large bonfire + on New Year's Eve and leap to and fro over the flames, uttering + words which imply that by these leaps they think to purify + themselves from all kinds of evil. At Aglu, in the province of Sus, + the fire is lighted at three different points by an unmarried girl, + and when it has died down the young men leap over the glowing + embers, saying, <span class="tei tei-q">“We shook on you, O Lady + Ashur, fleas, and lice, and the illnesses of the heart, as also + those of the bones; we shall pass through you again next year and + the following years with safety and health.”</span> Both at Aglu + and Glawi, in the Great Atlas, smaller fires are also kindled, over + which the animals <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page218">[pg + 218]</span><a name="Pg218" id="Pg218" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + are driven. At Demnat girls who wish to marry wash themselves in + water which has been boiled over the New Year fire; and in Dukkala + people use the ashes of that fire to rub sore eyes with. New Year + fires appear to be commonly kindled among the Berbers who inhabit + the western portion of the Great Atlas, and also among the + Arabic-speaking tribes of the plains; but Dr. Westermarck found no + traces of such fires among the Arabic-speaking mountaineers of + Northern Morocco and the Berbers of the Rif province. Further, it + should be observed that water ceremonies like those which are + practised at Midsummer are very commonly observed in Morocco at the + New Year, that is, on the tenth day of the first month. On the + morning of that day (<span lang="ar" class="tei tei-foreign" + xml:lang="ar"><span style="font-style: italic">Ashur</span></span>) + all water or, according to some people, only spring water is + endowed with a magical virtue (<span lang="ar" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ar"><span style= + "font-style: italic">baraka</span></span>), especially before + sunrise. Hence at that time the people bathe and pour water over + each other; in some places they also sprinkle their animals, tents, + or rooms. In Dukkala some of the New Year water is preserved at + home till New Year's Day (<span lang="ar" class="tei tei-foreign" + xml:lang="ar"><span style="font-style: italic">Ashur</span></span>) + of next year; some of it is kept to be used as medicine, some of it + is poured on the place where the corn is threshed, and some is used + to water the money which is to be buried in the ground; for the + people think that the earth-spirits will not be able to steal the + buried treasures which have thus been sanctified with the holy + water.<a id="noteref_559" name="noteref_559" href= + "#note_559"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">559</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The rites of fire and water at + Midsummer and New Year in Morocco seem to be identical in + character; the duplication of the festival is probably due to a + conflict between the solar calendar of the Romans and the lunar + calendar of the Arabs. The Midsummer festival in Morocco seems + to be of Berber origin.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Thus the rites + of fire and water which are observed in Morocco at Midsummer and + New Year appear to be identical in character and intention, and it + seems certain that the duplication of the rites is due to a + conflict between two calendars, namely the old Julian calendar of + the Romans, which was based on the sun, and the newer Mohammedan + calendar of the Arabs, which is based on the moon. For not only was + the Julian calendar in use throughout the whole of Northern Africa + under the Roman Empire; to this day it is everywhere employed among + Mohammedans for the regulation of agriculture and all the affairs + of daily life; its practical convenience has made it indispensable, + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page219">[pg 219]</span><a name= + "Pg219" id="Pg219" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> and the lunar + calendar of orthodox Mohammedanism is scarcely used except for + purposes of chronology. Even the old Latin names of the months are + known and employed, in slightly disguised forms, throughout the + whole Moslem world; and little calendars of the Julian year + circulate in manuscript among Mohammedans, permitting them to + combine the practical advantages of pagan science with a nominal + adherence to orthodox absurdity.<a id="noteref_560" name= + "noteref_560" href="#note_560"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">560</span></span></a> Thus + the heathen origin of the midsummer festival is too palpable to + escape the attention of good Mohammedans, who accordingly frown + upon the midsummer bonfires as pagan superstitions, precisely as + similar observances in Europe have often been denounced by orthodox + Christianity. Indeed, many religious people in Morocco entirely + disapprove of the whole of the midsummer ceremonies, maintaining + that they are all bad; and a conscientious schoolmaster will even + refuse his pupils a holiday at midsummer, though the boys sometimes + offer him a bribe if he will sacrifice his scruples to his + avarice.<a id="noteref_561" name="noteref_561" href= + "#note_561"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">561</span></span></a> As + the midsummer customs appear to flourish among all the Berbers of + Morocco but to be unknown among the pure Arabs who have not been + affected by Berber influence, it seems reasonable to infer with Dr. + Westermarck that the midsummer festival has belonged from time + immemorial to the Berber race, and that so far as it is now + observed by the Arabs of Morocco, it has been learned by them from + the Berbers, the old indigenous inhabitants of the country. Dr. + Westermarck may also be right in holding that, in spite of the + close similarity which obtains between the midsummer festival of + Europe and the midsummer festival of North Africa, the latter is + not a copy of the former, but that both have been handed down + independently from a time beyond the purview of history, when such + ceremonies were common to the Mediterranean race.<a id= + "noteref_562" name="noteref_562" href="#note_562"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">562</span></span></a></p> + </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page220">[pg 220]</span><a name= + "Pg220" id="Pg220" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em"> + <a name="toc39" id="toc39"></a> <a name="pdf40" id="pdf40"></a> + + <h2 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em"> + <span style="font-size: 144%">§ 5. The Autumn Fires.</span></h2> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Festivals of fire in August. + Russian feast of Florus and Laurus on August 18th.</span> + <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 80%">“</span><span style="font-size: 80%">Living + fire</span><span style="font-size: 80%">”</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 80%">made by the friction of + wood.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In the months + which elapse between midsummer and the setting in of winter the + European festivals of fire appear to be few and unimportant. On the + evening of the first day of August, which is the Festival of the + Cross, bonfires are commonly lit in Macedonia and boys jump over + them, shouting, <span class="tei tei-q">“Dig up! bury!”</span> but + whom or what they wish to dig up or bury they do not know.<a id= + "noteref_563" name="noteref_563" href="#note_563"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">563</span></span></a> The + Russians hold the feast of two martyrs, Florus and Laurus, on the + eighteenth day of August, Old Style. <span class="tei tei-q">“On + this day the Russians lead their horses round the church of their + village, beside which on the foregoing evening they dig a hole with + two mouths. Each horse has a bridle made of the bark of the + linden-tree. The horses go through this hole one after the other, + opposite to one of the mouths of which the priest stands with a + sprinkler in his hand, with which he sprinkles them. As soon as the + horses have passed by their bridles are taken off, and they are + made to go between two fires that they kindle, called by the + Russians <span lang="ru" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang= + "ru"><span style="font-style: italic">Givoy Agon</span></span>, + that is to say, living fires, of which I shall give an account. I + shall before remark, that the Russian peasantry throw the bridles + of their horses into one of these fires to be consumed. This is the + manner of their lighting these <span lang="ru" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ru"><span style= + "font-style: italic">givoy agon</span></span>, or living fires. + Some men hold the ends of a stick made of the plane-tree, very dry, + and about a fathom long. This stick they hold firmly over one of + birch, perfectly dry, and rub with violence and quickly against the + former; the birch, which is somewhat softer than the plane, in a + short time inflames, and serves them to light both the fires I have + described.”</span><a id="noteref_564" name="noteref_564" href= + "#note_564"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">564</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Feast of the Nativity of the + Virgin on the eighth of September at Capri and Naples.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The Feast of the + Nativity of the Virgin on the eighth day of September is celebrated + at Naples and Capri with fireworks, bonfires, and assassinations. + On this subject my <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page221">[pg + 221]</span><a name="Pg221" id="Pg221" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + friend Professor A. E. Housman, who witnessed the celebration in + different years at both places, has kindly furnished me with the + following particulars: <span class="tei tei-q">“In 1906 I was in + the island of Capri on September the eighth, the feast of the + Nativity of the Virgin. The anniversary was duly solemnised by + fire-works at nine or ten in the evening, which I suppose were + municipal; but just after sundown the boys outside the villages + were making small fires of brushwood on waste bits of ground by the + wayside. Very pretty it looked, with the flames blowing about in + the twilight; but what took my attention was the listlessness of + the boys and their lack of interest in the proceeding. A single + lad, the youngest, would be raking the fire together and keeping it + alight, but the rest stood lounging about and looking in every + other direction, with the air of discharging mechanically a + traditional office from which all zest had evaporated.”</span> + <span class="tei tei-q">“The pious orgy at Naples on September the + eighth went through the following phases when I witnessed it in + 1897. It began at eight in the evening with an illumination of the + façade of Santa Maria Piedigrotta and with the whole population + walking about blowing penny trumpets. After four hours of this I + went to bed at midnight, and was lulled to sleep by barrel-organs, + which supersede the trumpets about that hour. At four in the + morning I was waked by detonations as if the British fleet were + bombarding the city, caused, I was afterwards told, by dynamite + rockets. The only step possible beyond this is assassination, which + accordingly takes place about peep of day: I forget now the number + of the slain, but I think the average is eight or ten, and I know + that in honour of my presence they murdered a few more than + usual.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The Feast of the Nativity of the + Virgin may have replaced a pagan festival.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It is no doubt + possible that these illuminations and fire-works, like the + assassinations, are merely the natural and spontaneous expressions + of that overflowing joy with which the thought of the birth of the + Virgin must fill every pious heart; but when we remember how often + the Church has skilfully decanted the new wine of Christianity into + the old bottles of heathendom, we may be allowed to conjecture that + the ecclesiastical authorities adroitly timed the Nativity of the + Virgin so as to coincide with an old pagan festival <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page222">[pg 222]</span><a name="Pg222" id="Pg222" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> of that day, in which fire, noise, and + uproar, if not broken heads and bloodshed, were conspicuous + features. The penny trumpets blown on this occasion recall the like + melodious instruments which figure so largely in the celebration of + Befana (the Eve of Epiphany) at Rome.<a id="noteref_565" name= + "noteref_565" href="#note_565"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">565</span></span></a></p> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em"> + <a name="toc41" id="toc41"></a> <a name="pdf42" id="pdf42"></a> + + <h2 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em"> + <span style="font-size: 144%">§ 6. The Hallowe'en + Fires.</span></h2> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The coincidence of the Midsummer + festival with the summer solstice implies that the founders of + the festival regulated their calendar by observation of the + sun.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">From the + foregoing survey we may infer that among the heathen forefathers of + the European peoples the most popular and widespread fire-festival + of the year was the great celebration of Midsummer Eve or Midsummer + Day. The coincidence of the festival with the summer solstice can + hardly be accidental. Rather we must suppose that our pagan + ancestors purposely timed the ceremony of fire on earth to coincide + with the arrival of the sun at the highest point of his course in + the sky. If that was so, it follows that the old founders of the + midsummer rites had observed the solstices or turning-points of the + sun's apparent path in the sky, and that they accordingly regulated + their festal calendar to some extent by astronomical + considerations.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">On the other hand the Celts + divided their year, not by the solstices, but by the beginning + of summer (the first of May) and the beginning of winter (the + first of November). The division seems to have been neither + astronomical nor agricultural but pastoral, being determined by + the times when cattle are driven to and from their summer + pasture.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But while this + may be regarded as fairly certain for what we may call the + aborigines throughout a large part of the continent, it appears not + to have been true of the Celtic peoples who inhabited the Land's + End of Europe, the islands and promontories that stretch out into + the Atlantic ocean on the North-West. The principal fire-festivals + of the Celts, which have survived, though in a restricted area and + with diminished pomp, to modern times and even to our own day, were + seemingly timed without any reference to the position of the sun in + the heaven. They were two in number, and fell at an interval of six + months, one being celebrated on the eve of May Day and the other on + Allhallow Even or Hallowe'en, as it is now commonly called, that + is, on the thirty-first of October, the day preceding All Saints' + or Allhallows' Day. These dates coincide with none of the four + great hinges on which the solar year revolves, to wit, the + solstices and the equinoxes. Nor do they agree with the principal + seasons of the agricultural <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page223">[pg 223]</span><a name="Pg223" id="Pg223" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> year, the sowing in spring and the reaping in + autumn. For when May Day comes, the seed has long been committed to + the earth; and when November opens, the harvest has long been + reaped and garnered, the fields lie bare, the fruit-trees are + stripped, and even the yellow leaves are fast fluttering to the + ground. Yet the first of May and the first of November mark + turning-points of the year in Europe; the one ushers in the genial + heat and the rich vegetation of summer, the other heralds, if it + does not share, the cold and barrenness of winter. Now these + particular points of the year, as has been well pointed out by a + learned and ingenious writer,<a id="noteref_566" name="noteref_566" + href="#note_566"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">566</span></span></a> while + they are of comparatively little moment to the European husbandman, + do deeply concern the European herdsman; for it is on the approach + of summer that he drives his cattle out into the open to crop the + fresh grass, and it is on the approach of winter that he leads them + back to the safety and shelter of the stall. Accordingly it seems + not improbable that the Celtic bisection of the year into two + halves at the beginning of May and the beginning of November dates + from a time when the Celts were mainly a pastoral people, dependent + for their subsistence on their herds, and when accordingly the + great epochs of the year for them were the days on which the cattle + went forth from the homestead in early summer and returned to it + again in early winter.<a id="noteref_567" name="noteref_567" href= + "#note_567"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">567</span></span></a> Even + in Central Europe, remote from the region now occupied by the + Celts, a similar bisection of the year may be clearly traced in the + great popularity, on the one hand, of May Day and its Eve + (Walpurgis Night), and, on the other hand, of the Feast of All + Souls at the beginning of November, <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page224">[pg 224]</span><a name="Pg224" id="Pg224" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> which under a thin Christian cloak conceals + an ancient pagan festival of the dead.<a id="noteref_568" name= + "noteref_568" href="#note_568"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">568</span></span></a> Hence + we may conjecture that everywhere throughout Europe the celestial + division of the year according to the solstices was preceded by + what we may call a terrestrial division of the year according to + the beginning of summer and the beginning of winter.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The two great Celtic festivals, + Beltane and Hallowe'en.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Be that as it + may, the two great Celtic festivals of May Day and the first of + November or, to be more accurate, the Eves of these two days, + closely resemble each other in the manner of their celebration and + in the superstitions associated with them, and alike, by the + antique character impressed upon both, betray a remote and purely + pagan origin. The festival of May Day or Beltane, as the Celts + called it, which ushered in summer, has already been + described;<a id="noteref_569" name="noteref_569" href= + "#note_569"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">569</span></span></a> it + remains to give some account of the corresponding festival of + Hallowe'en, which announced the arrival of winter.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Hallowe'en (the evening of October + 31st) seems to have marked the beginning of the Celtic year. + The many forms of divination resorted to at Hallowe'en are + appropriate to the beginning of a New Year. Hallowe'en also a + festival of the dead.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Of the two + feasts Hallowe'en was perhaps of old the more important, since the + Celts would seem to have dated the beginning of the year from it + rather than from Beltane. In the Isle of Man, one of the fortresses + in which the Celtic language and lore longest held out against the + siege of the Saxon invaders, the first of November, Old Style, has + been regarded as New Year's day down to recent times. Thus Manx + mummers used to go round on Hallowe'en (Old Style), singing, in the + Manx language, a sort of Hogmanay song which began <span class= + "tei tei-q">“To-night is New Year's Night, <span lang="gv" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="gv"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Hogunnaa</span></span>!”</span><a id= + "noteref_570" name="noteref_570" href="#note_570"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">570</span></span></a> One + of Sir John Rhys's Manx informants, an old man of sixty-seven, + <span class="tei tei-q">“had been a farm servant from the age of + sixteen till he was twenty-six to the same man, near Regaby, in the + parish of Andreas, and he remembers his master and a near neighbour + of his discussing the term New Year's Day as applied to the first + of November, and explaining to the younger men that it had always + been so in old <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page225">[pg + 225]</span><a name="Pg225" id="Pg225" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + times. In fact, it seemed to him natural enough, as all tenure of + land ends at that time, and as all servant men begin their service + then.”</span><a id="noteref_571" name="noteref_571" href= + "#note_571"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">571</span></span></a> In + ancient Ireland, as we saw, a new fire used to be kindled every + year on Hallowe'en or the Eve of Samhain, and from this sacred + flame all the fires in Ireland were rekindled.<a id="noteref_572" + name="noteref_572" href="#note_572"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">572</span></span></a> Such + a custom points strongly to Samhain or All Saints' Day (the first + of November) as New Year's Day; since the annual kindling of a new + fire takes place most naturally at the beginning of the year, in + order that the blessed influence of the fresh fire may last + throughout the whole period of twelve months. Another confirmation + of the view that the Celts dated their year from the first of + November is furnished by the manifold modes of divination which, as + we shall see presently, were commonly resorted to by Celtic peoples + on Hallowe'en for the purpose of ascertaining their destiny, + especially their fortune in the coming year; for when could these + devices for prying into the future be more reasonably put in + practice than at the beginning of the year? As a season of omens + and auguries Hallowe'en seems to have far surpassed Beltane in the + imagination of the Celts; from which we may with some probability + infer that they reckoned their year from Hallowe'en rather than + Beltane. Another circumstance of great moment which points to the + same conclusion is the association of the dead with Hallowe'en. Not + only among the Celts but throughout Europe, Hallowe'en, the night + which marks the transition from autumn to winter, seems to have + been of old the time of year when the souls of the departed were + supposed to revisit their old homes in order to warm themselves by + the fire and to comfort themselves with the good cheer provided for + them in the kitchen or the parlour by their affectionate + kinsfolk.<a id="noteref_573" name="noteref_573" href= + "#note_573"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">573</span></span></a> It + was, perhaps, a <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page226">[pg + 226]</span><a name="Pg226" id="Pg226" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + natural thought that the approach of winter should drive the poor + shivering hungry ghosts from the bare fields and the leafless + woodlands to the shelter of the cottage with its familiar + fireside.<a id="noteref_574" name="noteref_574" href= + "#note_574"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">574</span></span></a> Did + not the lowing kine then troop back from the summer pastures in the + forests and on the hills to be fed and cared for in the stalls, + while the bleak winds whistled among the swaying boughs and the + snow drifts deepened in the hollows? and could the good-man and the + good-wife deny to the spirits of their dead the welcome which they + gave to the cows?</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Fairies and hobgoblins let loose + at Hallowe'en. Dancing with the fairies at Hallowe'en.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But it is not + only the souls of the departed who are supposed to be hovering + unseen on the day <span class="tei tei-q">“when autumn to winter + resigns the pale year.”</span> Witches then speed on their errands + of mischief, some sweeping through the air on besoms, others + galloping along the roads on tabby-cats, which for that evening are + turned into coal-black steeds.<a id="noteref_575" name= + "noteref_575" href="#note_575"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">575</span></span></a> The + fairies, too, are all let loose, and hobgoblins of every sort roam + freely about. In South Uist and Eriskay there is a saying:—</p> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 0.90em; margin-top: 0.90em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Hallowe'en will come, + will come,</span></span></span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic"> + Witchcraft [or divination] will be set agoing,</span></span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic"> + Fairies will be at full speed,</span></span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic"> + Running in every pass.</span></span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left"><span class= + "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Avoid the road, + children, children.</span></span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span><a id="noteref_576" name= + "noteref_576" href="#note_576"><span class="tei tei-noteref" + style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">576</span></span></a> + </div> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In Cardiganshire + on November Eve a bogie sits on every stile.<a id="noteref_577" + name="noteref_577" href="#note_577"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">577</span></span></a> On + that night in Ireland all the fairy hills are thrown wide open and + the fairies swarm forth; any man who is bold enough may then peep + into the open green hills and see the treasures hidden in them. + Worse than that, the cave of Cruachan in Connaught, known as + <span class="tei tei-q">“the Hell-gate of Ireland,”</span> is + unbarred on Samhain Eve or Hallowe'en, and a host of horrible + fiends and goblins used to rush forth, particularly a flock of + copper-red birds, which <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page227">[pg + 227]</span><a name="Pg227" id="Pg227" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + blighted crops and killed animals by their poisonous breath.<a id= + "noteref_578" name="noteref_578" href="#note_578"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">578</span></span></a> The + Scotch Highlanders have a special name <span lang="gd" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="gd"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Samhanach</span></span> (derived from + <span lang="gd" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="gd"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Samhain</span></span>, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“All-hallows”</span>) for the dreadful bogies that go + about that night stealing babies and committing other + atrocities.<a id="noteref_579" name="noteref_579" href= + "#note_579"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">579</span></span></a> And + though the fairies are a kindlier folk, it is dangerous to see even + them at their revels on Hallowe'en. A melancholy case of this sort + is reported from the Ferintosh district of the Highlands, though + others say that it happened at the Slope of Big Stones in Harris. + Two young men were coming home after nightfall on Hallowe'en, each + with a jar of whisky on his back, when they saw, as they thought, a + house all lit up by the roadside, from which proceeded the sounds + of music and dancing. In reality it was not a house at all but a + fairy knoll, and it was the fairies who were jigging it about there + so merrily. But one of the young men was deceived and stepping into + the house joined in the dance, without even stopping to put down + the jar of whisky. His companion was wiser; he had a shrewd + suspicion that the place was not what it seemed, and on entering he + took the precaution of sticking a needle in the door. That disarmed + the power of the fairies, and he got away safely. Well, that day + twelve months he came back to the spot and what should he see but + his poor friend still dancing away with the jar of whisky on his + back? A weary man was he, as you may well believe, but he begged to + be allowed to finish the reel which he was in the act of executing, + and when they took him out into the open air, there was nothing of + him left but skin and bones.<a id="noteref_580" name="noteref_580" + href="#note_580"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">580</span></span></a> + Again, the wicked fairies are apt to carry off men's wives with + them to fairyland; but the lost spouses can be recovered within a + year and a day when the procession of the fairies is defiling past + on Hallowe'en, always provided that the mortals did not partake of + elfin food while they were in elfinland.<a id="noteref_581" name= + "noteref_581" href="#note_581"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">581</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Guleesh and the revels of the + fairies at Hallowe'en.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Sometimes + valuable information may be obtained from the fairies on + Hallowe'en. There was a young man named <span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page228">[pg 228]</span><a name="Pg228" id="Pg228" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> Guleesh in the County of Mayo. Near his house + was a <span lang="ga" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang= + "ga"><span style="font-style: italic">rath</span></span> or old + fort with a fine grass bank running round it. One Hallowe'en, when + the darkness was falling, Guleesh went to the rath and stood on a + gray old flag. The night was calm and still; there was not a breath + of wind stirring, nor a sound to be heard except the hum of the + insects flitting past, or the whistle of the plovers, or the hoarse + scream of the wild geese as they winged their way far overhead. + Above the white fog the moon rose like a knob of fire in the east, + and a thousand thousand stars were twinkling in the sky. There was + a little frost in the air, the grass was white and crisp and + crackled under foot. Guleesh expected to see the fairies, but they + did not come. Hour after hour wore away, and he was just bethinking + him of going home to bed, when his ear caught a sound far off + coming towards him, and he knew what it was in a moment. The sound + grew louder and louder; at first it was like the beating of waves + on a stony shore, then it was like the roar of a waterfall, at last + it was like a mighty rushing wind in the tops of the trees, then + the storm burst upon the rath, and sure enough the fairies were in + it. The rout went by so suddenly that Guleesh lost his breath; but + he came to himself and listened. The fairies were now gathered + within the grassy bank of the rath, and a fine uproar they made. + But Guleesh listened with all his ears, and he heard one fairy + saying to another that a magic herb grew by Guleesh's own door, and + that Guleesh had nothing to do but pluck it and boil it and give it + to his sweetheart, the daughter of the King of France, and she + would be well, for just then she was lying very ill. Guleesh took + the hint, and everything went as the fairy had said. And he married + the daughter of the King of France; and they had never a cark nor a + care, a sickness nor a sorrow, a mishap nor a misfortune to the day + of their death.<a id="noteref_582" name="noteref_582" href= + "#note_582"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">582</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Divination resorted to in Celtic + countries at Hallowe'en.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In all Celtic + countries Hallowe'en seems to have been the great season of the + year for prying into the future; all kinds of divination were put + in practice that night. We read that Dathi, a king of Ireland in + the fifth century, <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page229">[pg + 229]</span><a name="Pg229" id="Pg229" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + happening to be at the Druids' Hill (<span lang="ga" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ga"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Cnoc-nan-druad</span></span>) in the county of + Sligo one Hallowe'en, ordered his druid to forecast for him the + future from that day till the next Hallowe'en should come round. + The druid passed the night on the top of the hill, and next morning + made a prediction to the king which came true.<a id="noteref_583" + name="noteref_583" href="#note_583"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">583</span></span></a> In + Wales Hallowe'en was the weirdest of all the <span lang="ga" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ga"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Teir Nos Ysbrydion</span></span>, or Three + Spirit Nights, when the wind, <span class="tei tei-q">“blowing over + the feet of the corpses,”</span> bore sighs to the houses of those + who were to die within the year. People thought that if on that + night they went out to a cross-road and listened to the wind, they + would learn all the most important things that would befall them + during the next twelve months.<a id="noteref_584" name= + "noteref_584" href="#note_584"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">584</span></span></a> In + Wales, too, not so long ago women used to congregate in the parish + churches on the night of Hallowe'en and read their fate from the + flame of the candle which each of them held in her hand; also they + heard the names or saw the coffins of the parishioners who would + die within the year, and many were the sad scenes to which these + gloomy visions gave rise.<a id="noteref_585" name="noteref_585" + href="#note_585"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">585</span></span></a> And + in the Highlands of Scotland anybody who pleased could hear + proclaimed aloud the names of parishioners doomed to perish within + the next twelve months, if he would only take a three-legged stool + and go and sit on it at three cross-roads, while the church clock + was striking twelve at midnight on Hallowe'en. It was even in his + power to save the destined victims from their doom by taking with + him articles of wearing apparel and throwing them away, one by one, + as each name was called out by the mysterious voice.<a id= + "noteref_586" name="noteref_586" href="#note_586"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">586</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Hallowe'en bonfires in the + Highlands of Scotland. John Ramsay's account of the Hallowe'en + bonfires. Divination from stones at the fire. Hallowe'en fires + in the parishes of Callander and Logierait. Divination from + stones.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But while a + glamour of mystery and awe has always clung to Hallowe'en in the + minds of the Celtic peasantry, the popular celebration of the + festival has been, at least in modern times, by no means of a + prevailingly gloomy cast; on the contrary it has been attended by + picturesque features and <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page230">[pg + 230]</span><a name="Pg230" id="Pg230" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + merry pastimes, which rendered it the gayest night of all the year. + Amongst the things which in the Highlands of Scotland contributed + to invest the festival with a romantic beauty were the bonfires + which used to blaze at frequent intervals on the heights. + <span class="tei tei-q">“On the last day of autumn children + gathered ferns, tar-barrels, the long thin stalks called + <span lang="gd" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="gd"><span style= + "font-style: italic">gàinisg</span></span>, and everything suitable + for a bonfire. These were placed in a heap on some eminence near + the house, and in the evening set fire to. The fires were called + <span lang="gd" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="gd"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Samhnagan</span></span>. There was one for + each house, and it was an object of ambition who should have the + biggest. Whole districts were brilliant with bonfires, and their + glare across a Highland loch, and from many eminences, formed an + exceedingly picturesque scene.”</span><a id="noteref_587" name= + "noteref_587" href="#note_587"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">587</span></span></a> Like + the Beltane fires on the first of May, the Hallowe'en bonfires seem + to have been kindled most commonly in the Perthshire Highlands. + Travelling in the parish of Moulin, near Pitlochrie, in the year + 1772, the Englishman Thomas Pennant writes that <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Hallow Eve is also kept sacred: as soon as it is dark, + a person sets fire to a bush of broom fastened round a pole, and, + attended with a crowd, runs about the village. He then flings it + down, heaps great quantity of combustible matters on it, and makes + a great bonfire. A whole tract is thus illuminated at the same + time, and makes a fine appearance.”</span><a id="noteref_588" name= + "noteref_588" href="#note_588"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">588</span></span></a> The + custom has been described more fully by a Scotchman of the + eighteenth century, John Ramsay of Ochtertyre. On the evening of + Hallowe'en <span class="tei tei-q">“the young people of every + hamlet assembled upon some eminence near the houses. There they + made a bonfire of ferns or other fuel, cut the same day, which from + the feast was called <span lang="gd" class="tei tei-foreign" + xml:lang="gd"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Samh-nag</span></span> or <span lang="gd" + class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="gd"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Savnag</span></span>, a fire of rest and + pleasure. Around it was placed a circle of stones, one for each + person of the families to whom they belonged. And when it grew dark + the bonfire was kindled, at which a loud shout was set up. Then + each person taking a torch of ferns or sticks in his hand, ran + round the fire exulting; and sometimes <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page231">[pg 231]</span><a name="Pg231" id="Pg231" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> times they went into the adjacent fields, + where, if there was another company, they visited the bonfire, + taunting the others if inferior in any respect to themselves. After + the fire was burned out they returned home, where a feast was + prepared, and the remainder of the evening was spent in mirth and + diversions of various kinds. Next morning they repaired betimes to + the bonfire, where the situation of the stones was examined with + much attention. If any of them were misplaced, or if the print of a + foot could be discerned near any particular stone, it was imagined + that the person for whom it was set would not live out the year. Of + late years this is less attended to, but about the beginning of the + present century it was regarded as a sure prediction. The + Hallowe'en fire is still kept up in some parts of the Low country; + but on the western coast and in the Isles it is never kindled, + though the night is spent in merriment and + entertainments.”</span><a id="noteref_589" name="noteref_589" href= + "#note_589"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">589</span></span></a> In + the Perthshire parish of Callander, which includes the now famous + pass of the Trossachs opening out on the winding and wooded shores + of the lovely Loch Katrine, the Hallowe'en bonfires were still + kindled down to near the end of the eighteenth century. When the + fire had died down, the ashes were carefully collected in the form + of a circle, and a stone was put in, near the circumference, for + every person of the several families interested in the bonfire. + Next morning, if any of these stones was found to be displaced or + injured, the people made sure that the person represented by it was + <span lang="gd" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="gd"><span style= + "font-style: italic">fey</span></span> or devoted, and that he + could not live twelve months from that day.<a id="noteref_590" + name="noteref_590" href="#note_590"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">590</span></span></a> In + the parish of Logierait, which covers the beautiful valley of the + Tummel, one of the fairest regions of all Scotland, the Hallowe'en + fire was somewhat different. Faggots of heath, broom, and the + dressings of flax were kindled and carried on poles by men, who ran + with them round the villages, attended by a crowd. As soon as one + faggot was burnt out, a fresh one was lighted and fastened to the + pole. Numbers of these blazing faggots were often carried about + together, and when <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page232">[pg + 232]</span><a name="Pg232" id="Pg232" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + the night happened to be dark, they formed a splendid + illumination.<a id="noteref_591" name="noteref_591" href= + "#note_591"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">591</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Hallowe'en fires on Loch Tay. + Hallowe'en fires at Balquhidder.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Nor did the + Hallowe'en fires die out in Perthshire with the end of the + eighteenth century. Journeying from Dunkeld to Aberfeldy on + Hallowe'en in the first half of the nineteenth century, Sheriff + Barclay counted thirty fires blazing on the hill tops, and saw the + figures of the people dancing like phantoms round the flames.<a id= + "noteref_592" name="noteref_592" href="#note_592"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">592</span></span></a> + Again, <span class="tei tei-q">“in 1860, I was residing near the + head of Loch Tay during the season of the Hallowe'en feast. For + several days before Hallowe'en, boys and youths collected wood and + conveyed it to the most prominent places on the hill sides in their + neighbourhood. Some of the heaps were as large as a corn-stack or + hay-rick. After dark on Hallowe'en, these heaps were kindled, and + for several hours both sides of Loch Tay were illuminated as far as + the eye could see. I was told by old men that at the beginning of + this century men as well as boys took part in getting up the + bonfires, and that, when the fire was ablaze, all joined hands and + danced round the fire, and made a great noise; but that, as these + gatherings generally ended in drunkenness and rough and dangerous + fun, the ministers set their faces against the observance, and were + seconded in their efforts by the more intelligent and well-behaved + in the community; and so the practice was discontinued by adults + and relegated to school boys.”</span><a id="noteref_593" name= + "noteref_593" href="#note_593"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">593</span></span></a> At + Balquhidder down to the latter part of the nineteenth century each + household kindled its bonfire at Hallowe'en, but the custom was + chiefly observed by children. The fires were lighted on any high + knoll near the house; there was no dancing round them.<a id= + "noteref_594" name="noteref_594" href="#note_594"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">594</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Hallowe'en fires in Buchan to burn + the witches. Processions with torches at Hallowe'en in the + Braemar Highlands.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Hallowe'en fires + were also lighted in some districts of the north-east of Scotland, + such as Buchan. Villagers and farmers alike must have their fire. + In the villages the boys went from house to house and begged a peat + from each householder, usually with the words, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Ge's a peat t' burn <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page233">[pg 233]</span><a name="Pg233" id="Pg233" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> the witches.”</span> In some villages the + lads collected the peats in a cart, some of them drawing it along + and the others receiving the peats and loading them on the cart. + Along with the peats they accumulated straw, furze, potato haulm, + everything that would burn quickly, and when they had got enough + they piled it all in a heap and set it on fire. Then each of the + youths, one after another, laid himself down on the ground as near + to the fire as he could without being scorched, and thus lying + allowed the smoke to roll over him. The others ran through the + smoke and jumped over their prostrate comrade. When the heap was + burned down, they scattered the ashes. Each one took a share in + this part of the ceremony, giving a kick first with the right foot + and then with the left; and each vied with the other who should + scatter the most. After that some of them still continued to run + through the scattered ashes and to pelt each other with the + half-burned peats. At each farm a spot as high as possible, not too + near the steading, was chosen for the fire, and the proceedings + were much the same as at the village bonfire. The lads of one farm, + when their own fire was burned down and the ashes scattered, + sometimes went to a neighbouring fire and helped to kick the ashes + about.<a id="noteref_595" name="noteref_595" href= + "#note_595"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">595</span></span></a> + Referring to this part of Scotland, a writer at the end of the + eighteenth century observes that <span class="tei tei-q">“the + Hallow-even fire, another relict of druidism, was kindled in + Buchan. Various magic ceremonies were then celebrated to counteract + the influence of witches and demons, and to prognosticate to the + young their success or disappointment in the matrimonial lottery. + These being devoutly finished, the hallow fire was kindled, and + guarded by the male part of the family. Societies were formed, + either by pique or humour, to scatter certain fires, and the attack + and defence were often conducted with art and with + fury.”</span><a id="noteref_596" name="noteref_596" href= + "#note_596"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">596</span></span></a> Down + to about the middle of the nineteenth century <span class= + "tei tei-q">“the Braemar Highlanders made the circuit of their + fields with lighted torches at Hallowe'en to ensure their fertility + in the coming year. <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page234">[pg + 234]</span><a name="Pg234" id="Pg234" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + At that date the custom was as follows: Every member of the family + (in those days households were larger than they are now) was + provided with a bundle of fir <span class= + "tei tei-q">‘can'les’</span> with which to go the round. The father + and mother stood at the hearth and lit the splints in the peat + fire, which they passed to the children and servants, who trooped + out one after the other, and proceeded to tread the bounds of their + little property, going slowly round at equal distances apart, and + invariably with the sun. To go <span class= + "tei tei-q">‘withershins’</span> seems to have been reserved for + cursing and excommunication. When the fields had thus been + circumambulated the remaining spills were thrown together in a heap + and allowed to burn out.”</span><a id="noteref_597" name= + "noteref_597" href="#note_597"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">597</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Divination at Hallowe'en in the + Highlands and Lowlands of Scotland. The stolen kail. Sowing + hemp seed. The clue of blue yarn. The winnowing basket. The wet + shirt. The thrown shoe.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In the Highlands + of Scotland, as the evening of Hallowe'en wore on, young people + gathered in one of the houses and resorted to an almost endless + variety of games, or rather forms of divination, for the purpose of + ascertaining the future fate of each member of the company. Were + they to marry or remain single, was the marriage to take place that + year or never, who was to be married first, what sort of husband or + wife she or he was to get, the name, the trade, the colour of the + hair, the amount of property of the future spouse—these were + questions that were eagerly canvassed and the answers to them + furnished never-failing entertainment.<a id="noteref_598" name= + "noteref_598" href="#note_598"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">598</span></span></a> Nor + were these modes of divination at Hallowe'en confined to the + Highlands, where the bonfires were kindled; they were practised + with equal faith and in practically the same forms in the Lowlands, + as we learn, for example, from Burns's poem <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Hallowe'en</span></span>, which describes the + auguries drawn from a variety of omens by the Ayrshire peasantry. + These Lowlanders of Saxon descent may well have inherited the rites + from the Celts who preceded them in the possession of the south + country. A common practice at Hallowe'en was to go out stealthily + to a neighbour's kailyard and there, with shut eyes, to pull up the + first kail <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page235">[pg + 235]</span><a name="Pg235" id="Pg235" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + stock that came to hand. It was necessary that the plants should be + stolen without the knowledge or consent of their owner; otherwise + they were quite useless for the purpose of divination. Strictly + speaking, too, the neighbour upon whose garden the raid was made + should be unmarried, whether a bachelor or a spinster. The stolen + kail was taken home and examined, and according to its height, + shape, and features would be the height, shape, and features of the + future husband or wife. The taste of the <span lang="gd" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="gd"><span style= + "font-style: italic">custock</span></span>, that is, the heart of + the stem, was an infallible indication of his or her temper; and a + clod of earth adhering to the root signified, in proportion to its + size, the amount of property which he or she would bring to the + common stock. Then the kail-stock or <span lang="gd" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="gd"><span style= + "font-style: italic">runt</span></span>, as it was called in + Ayrshire, was placed over the lintel of the door; and the baptismal + name of the young man or woman who first entered the door after the + kail was in position would be the baptismal name of the husband or + wife.<a id="noteref_599" name="noteref_599" href= + "#note_599"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">599</span></span></a> + Again, young women sowed hemp seed over nine ridges of ploughed + land, saying, <span class="tei tei-q">“I sow hemp seed, and he who + is to be my husband, let him come and harrow it.”</span> On looking + back over her left shoulder the girl would see the figure of her + future mate behind her in the darkness. In the north-east of + Scotland lint seed was used instead of hemp seed and answered the + purpose quite as well.<a id="noteref_600" name="noteref_600" href= + "#note_600"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">600</span></span></a> + Again, a mode of ascertaining your future husband or wife was this. + Take a clue of blue yarn and go to a lime-kiln. Throw the clue into + the kiln, but keep one end of the thread in your hand and wind it + on to another clue. As you come near the end somebody or something + will hold the other end tight in the kiln. Then you call out, + <span class="tei tei-q">“Who holds?”</span> giving the thread at + the same time a gentle pull. Some one or something will thereupon + pull the other end of the thread, and a voice will mention the name + of your future husband or wife.<a id="noteref_601" name= + "noteref_601" href="#note_601"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">601</span></span></a> + Another way is this. Go to the <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page236">[pg 236]</span><a name="Pg236" id="Pg236" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> barn alone and secretly. Be sure to open both + doors and if possible take them off their hinges; for if the being + who is about to appear should catch you in the barn and clap the + doors to on you, he or she might do you a mischief. Having done + this, take the sieve or winnowing-basket, which in Lowland Scotch + is called a <span lang="gd" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang= + "gd"><span style="font-style: italic">wecht</span></span> or + <span lang="gd" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="gd"><span style= + "font-style: italic">waicht</span></span>, and go through the + action of winnowing corn. Repeat it thrice, and at the third time + the apparition of your future husband or wife will pass through the + barn, entering at the windy door and passing out at the + other.<a id="noteref_602" name="noteref_602" href= + "#note_602"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">602</span></span></a> Or + this. Go to a southward running stream, where the lands of three + lairds meet, or to a ford where the dead and living have crossed. + Dip the left sleeve of your shirt in the water. Then go home, take + off the shirt, hang it up before a fire to dry, and go to bed, + taking care that the bed stands so that you can see your shirt + hanging before the fire. Keep awake, and at midnight you will see + the form of your future spouse come into the room and turn the + other side of the sleeve to the fire to dry it.<a id="noteref_603" + name="noteref_603" href="#note_603"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">603</span></span></a> A + Highland form of divination at Hallowe'en is to take a shoe by the + tip and throw it over the house, then observe the direction in + which the toe points as it lies on the ground on the other side; + for in that direction you are destined to go before long. If the + shoe should fall sole uppermost, it is very unlucky for you.<a id= + "noteref_604" name="noteref_604" href="#note_604"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">604</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The white of eggs in water. The + names on the chimney-piece. The nuts in the fire. The milk and + meal. The apples in the water. The three plates.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">These ways of + prying into the future are practised outside of the house; others + are observed in the kitchen or the parlour before the cheerful + blaze of the fire. Thus the white of eggs, dropped in a glass of + pure water, indicates by certain marks how many children a person + will have. The impatience and clamour of the children, eager to + ascertain the exact number of their future progeny, often induced + the housewife to perform this ceremony for them by daylight; and + the kindly mother, standing with her face to the window, dropping + the white of an egg into a crystal <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page237">[pg 237]</span><a name="Pg237" id="Pg237" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> glass of clean water, and surrounded by a + group of children intently watching her proceedings, made up a + pretty picture.<a id="noteref_605" name="noteref_605" href= + "#note_605"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">605</span></span></a> When + the fun of the evening had fairly commenced, the names of eligible + or likely matches were written on the chimney-piece, and the young + man who wished to try his fortune was led up blindfolded to the + list. Whatever name he put his finger on would prove that of his + future wife.<a id="noteref_606" name="noteref_606" href= + "#note_606"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">606</span></span></a> + Again, two nuts, representing a lad and a lass whose names were + announced to the company, were put side by side in the fire. If + they burned quietly together, the pair would be man and wife, and + from the length of time they burned and the brightness of the flame + the length and happiness of the married life of the two were + augured. But if instead of burning together one of the nuts leaped + away from the other, then there would be no marriage, and the blame + would rest with the person whose nut had thus started away by + itself.<a id="noteref_607" name="noteref_607" href= + "#note_607"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">607</span></span></a> + Again, a dish of milk and meal (in Gaelic <span lang="gd" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="gd"><span style= + "font-style: italic">fuarag</span></span>, in Lowland Scotch + <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">crowdie</span></span>) or of beat potatoes was + made and a ring was hidden in it. Spoons were served out to the + company, who supped the contents of the dish hastily with them, and + the one who got the ring would be the first to be married.<a id= + "noteref_608" name="noteref_608" href="#note_608"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">608</span></span></a> + Again, apples and a silver sixpence were put in a tub of water; the + apples naturally floated on the top and the sixpence sank to the + bottom. Whoever could lift an apple or the sixpence from the water + with his mouth, without using his teeth, was counted very lucky and + got the prize to himself.<a id="noteref_609" name="noteref_609" + href="#note_609"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">609</span></span></a> + Again, three plates or basins were placed on the hearth. One was + filled with clean water, another with dirty water, and the third + was empty. The enquirer was blindfolded, knelt in front of the + hearth, and groped about till he put his finger in one of them. If + he lighted on the plate with the clean water, he would wed a maid; + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page238">[pg 238]</span><a name= + "Pg238" id="Pg238" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> if on the plate with + the dirty water, he would marry a widow; and if on the empty plate, + he would remain a bachelor. For a girl the answer of the oracle was + analogous; she would marry a bachelor, a widower, or nobody + according to the plate into which she chanced to dip her finger. + But to make sure, the operation had to be repeated thrice, the + position of the plates being changed each time. If the enquirer put + his or her finger into the same plate thrice or even twice, it was + quite conclusive.<a id="noteref_610" name="noteref_610" href= + "#note_610"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">610</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The sliced apple. The white of egg + in water. The salt cake or salt herring.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">These forms of + divination in the house were practised by the company in a body; + but the following had to be performed by the person alone. You took + an apple and stood with it in your hand in front of a + looking-glass. Then you sliced the apple, stuck each slice on the + point of the knife, and held it over your left shoulder, while you + looked into the glass and combed your hair. The spectre of your + future husband would then appear in the mirror stretching forth his + hand to take the slices of the apple over your shoulder. Some say + that the number of slices should be nine, that you should eat the + first eight yourself, and only throw the ninth over your left + shoulder for your husband; also that at each slice you should say, + <span class="tei tei-q">“In the name of the Father and the + Son.”</span><a id="noteref_611" name="noteref_611" href= + "#note_611"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">611</span></span></a> + Again, take an egg, prick it with a pin, and let the white drop + into a wine-glass nearly full of water. Take some of this in your + mouth and go out for a walk. The first name you hear called out + aloud will be that of your future husband or wife. An old woman + told a lady that she had tried this mode of divination in her + youth, that the name of Archibald <span class="tei tei-q">“came up + as it were from the very ground,”</span> and that Archibald sure + enough was the name of her husband.<a id="noteref_612" name= + "noteref_612" href="#note_612"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">612</span></span></a> In + South Uist and Eriskay, two of the outer Hebrides, a salt cake + called <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Bonnach Salainn</span></span> is eaten at + Hallowe'en to induce dreams that will reveal the future. It is + baked of <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page239">[pg + 239]</span><a name="Pg239" id="Pg239" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + common meal with a great deal of salt. After eating it you may not + drink water nor utter a word, not even to say your prayers. A salt + herring, eaten bones and all in three bites, is equally + efficacious, always provided that you drink no water and hold your + tongue.<a id="noteref_613" name="noteref_613" href= + "#note_613"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">613</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Hallowe'en fires in Wales. Omens + drawn from stones thrown into the fire. Divination by stones in + the ashes.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In the northern + part of Wales it used to be customary for every family to make a + great bonfire called <span lang="cy" class="tei tei-foreign" + xml:lang="cy"><span style="font-style: italic">Coel + Coeth</span></span> on Hallowe'en. The fire was kindled on the most + conspicuous spot near the house; and when it had nearly gone out + everyone threw into the ashes a white stone, which he had first + marked. Then having said their prayers round the fire, they went to + bed. Next morning, as soon as they were up, they came to search out + the stones, and if any one of them was found to be missing, they + had a notion that the person who threw it would die before he saw + another Hallowe'en.<a id="noteref_614" name="noteref_614" href= + "#note_614"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">614</span></span></a> A + writer on Wales at the beginning of the nineteenth century says + that <span class="tei tei-q">“the autumnal fire is still kindled in + North Wales, being on the eve of the first day of November, and is + attended by many ceremonies; such as running through the fire and + smoke, each casting a stone into the fire, and all running off at + the conclusion to escape from the black short-tailed sow; then + supping upon parsnips, nuts, and apples; catching up an apple + suspended by a string with the mouth alone, and the same by an + apple in a tub of water: each throwing a nut into the fire; and + those that burn bright, betoken prosperity to the owners through + the following year, but those that burn black and crackle, denote + misfortune. On the following morning the stones are searched for in + the fire, and if any be missing, they betide ill to those who threw + them in.”</span><a id="noteref_615" name="noteref_615" href= + "#note_615"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">615</span></span></a> + According to Sir John Rhys, the habit of celebrating Hallowe'en by + lighting bonfires on the hills is perhaps not yet extinct in Wales, + and men still living <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page240">[pg + 240]</span><a name="Pg240" id="Pg240" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + can remember how the people who assisted at the bonfires would wait + till the last spark was out and then would suddenly take to their + heels, shouting at the top of their voices, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“The cropped black sow seize the hindmost!”</span> The + saying, as Sir John Rhys justly remarks, implies that originally + one of the company became a victim in dead earnest. Down to the + present time the saying is current in Carnarvonshire, where + allusions to the cutty black sow are still occasionally made to + frighten children.<a id="noteref_616" name="noteref_616" href= + "#note_616"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">616</span></span></a> We + can now understand why in Lower Brittany every person throws a + pebble into the midsummer bonfire.<a id="noteref_617" name= + "noteref_617" href="#note_617"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">617</span></span></a> + Doubtless there, as in Wales and the Highlands of Scotland,<a id= + "noteref_618" name="noteref_618" href="#note_618"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">618</span></span></a> omens + of life and death have at one time or other been drawn from the + position and state of the pebbles on the morning of All Saints' + Day. The custom, thus found among three separate branches of the + Celtic stock, probably dates from a period before their dispersion, + or at least from a time when alien races had not yet driven home + the wedges of separation between them.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Divination as to love and marriage + at Hallowe'en in Wales.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In Wales, as in + Scotland, Hallowe'en was also the great season for forecasting the + future in respect of love and marriage, and some of the forms of + divination employed for this purpose resembled those which were in + use among the Scotch peasantry. Two girls, for example, would make + a little ladder of yarn, without breaking it from the ball, and + having done so they would throw it out of the window. Then one of + the girls, holding the ball in her hand, would wind the yarn back, + repeating a rhyme in Welsh. This she did thrice, and as she wound + the yarn she would see her future husband climbing up the little + ladder. Again, three bowls or basins were placed on a table. One of + them contained clean water, one dirty water, and one was empty. The + girls of the household, and sometimes the boys too, then eagerly + tried their fortunes. They were blindfolded, led up to the table, + and dipped their hands into a bowl. If they happened to dip into + the clean water, they would marry maidens or bachelors; if into the + dirty water, they would be widowers or widows; if into the empty + bowl, they would <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page241">[pg + 241]</span><a name="Pg241" id="Pg241" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + live unmarried. Again, if a girl, walking backwards, would place a + knife among the leeks on Hallowe'en, she would see her future + husband come and pick up the knife and throw it into the middle of + the garden.<a id="noteref_619" name="noteref_619" href= + "#note_619"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">619</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Divination at Hallowe'en in + Ireland.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In Ireland the + Hallowe'en bonfires would seem to have died out, but the Hallowe'en + divination has survived. Writing towards the end of the eighteenth + century, General Vallancey tells us that on Hallowe'en or the vigil + of Saman, as he calls it, <span class="tei tei-q">“the peasants in + Ireland assemble with sticks and clubs (the emblems of laceration) + going from house to house, collecting money, bread-cake, butter, + cheese, eggs, etc., etc., for the feast, repeating verses in honour + of the solemnity, demanding preparations for the festival, in the + name of St. Columb Kill, desiring them to lay aside the fatted + calf, and to bring forth the black sheep. The good women are + employed in making the griddle cake and candles; these last are + sent from house to house in the vicinity, and are lighted up on the + (Saman) next day, before which they pray, or are supposed to pray, + for the departed souls of the donor. Every house abounds in the + best viands they can afford: apples and nuts are devoured in + abundance: the nut-shells are burnt, and from the ashes many + strange things are foretold: cabbages are torn up by the root: hemp + seed is sown by the maidens, and they believe, that if they look + back, they will see the apparition of the man intended for their + future spouse: they hang a smock before the fire, on the close of + the feast, and sit up all night, concealed in a corner of the room, + convinced that his apparition will come down the chimney and turn + the smock: they throw a ball of yarn out of the window, and wind it + on the reel within, convinced, that if they repeat the <span lang= + "la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Pater Noster</span></span> backwards, and look + at the ball of yarn without, they will then also see his + <span lang="ga" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ga"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sith</span></span> or apparition: they dip for + apples in a tub of water, and endeavour to bring one up in the + mouth: they suspend a cord with a cross-stick, with apples at one + point, and candles lighted at the other, and endeavour to catch the + apple, while it is in a circular motion, in the mouth. These, and + many other superstitious ceremonies, the remains of Druidism, are + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page242">[pg 242]</span><a name= + "Pg242" id="Pg242" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> observed on this + holiday, which will never be eradicated, while the name of + <span lang="ga" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ga"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Saman</span></span> is permitted to + remain.”</span><a id="noteref_620" name="noteref_620" href= + "#note_620"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">620</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Divination at Hallowe'en in + Queen's County. Divination at Hallowe'en in County Leitrim. + Divination at Hallowe'en in County Roscommon.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In Queen's + County, Ireland, down to the latter part of the nineteenth century + children practised various of these rites of divination on + Hallowe'en. Girls went out into the garden blindfold and pulled up + cabbages: if the cabbage was well grown, the girl would have a + handsome husband, but if it had a crooked stalk, the future spouse + would be a stingy old man. Nuts, again, were placed in pairs on the + bar of the fire, and from their behaviour omens were drawn of the + fate in love and marriage of the couple whom they represented. + Lead, also, was melted and allowed to drop into a tub of cold + water, and from the shapes which it assumed in the water + predictions were made to the children of their future destiny. + Again, apples were bobbed for in a tub of water and brought up with + the teeth; or a stick was hung from a hook with an apple at one end + and a candle at the other, and the stick being made to revolve you + made a bite at the apple and sometimes got a mouthful of candle + instead.<a id="noteref_621" name="noteref_621" href= + "#note_621"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">621</span></span></a> In + County Leitrim, also, down to near the end of the nineteenth + century various forms of divination were practised at Hallowe'en. + Girls ascertained the character of their future husbands by the + help of cabbages just as in Queen's County. Again, if a girl found + a branch of a briar-thorn which had bent over and grown into the + ground so as to form a loop, she would creep through the loop + thrice late in the evening in the devil's name, then cut the briar + and put it under her pillow, all without speaking a word. Then she + would lay her head on the pillow and dream of the man she was to + marry. Boys, also, would dream in like manner of love and marriage + at Hallowe'en, if only they would gather ten leaves of ivy without + speaking, throw away one, and put the other nine under their + pillow. Again, divination was practised by means of a cake called + <span lang="ga" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ga"><span style= + "font-style: italic">barm-breac</span></span>, in which a nut and a + ring were baked. Whoever got the ring would be married first; + whoever got the nut would marry a widow or a widower; but if the + nut were an empty shell, he or she <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page243">[pg 243]</span><a name="Pg243" id="Pg243" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> would remain unwed. Again, a girl would take + a clue of worsted, go to a lime kiln in the gloaming, and throw the + clew into the kiln in the devil's name, while she held fast the + other end of the thread. Then she would rewind the thread and ask, + <span class="tei tei-q">“Who holds my clue?”</span> and the name of + her future husband would come up from the depth of the kiln. + Another way was to take a rake, go to a rick and walk round it nine + times, saying, <span class="tei tei-q">“I rake this rick in the + devil's name.”</span> At the ninth time the wraith of your destined + partner for life would come and take the rake out of your hand. + Once more, before the company separated for the night, they would + rake the ashes smooth on the hearth, and search them next morning + for tracks, from which they judged whether anybody should come to + the house, or leave it, or die in it before another year was + out.<a id="noteref_622" name="noteref_622" href= + "#note_622"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">622</span></span></a> In + County Roscommon, which borders on County Leitrim, a cake is made + in nearly every house on Hallowe'en, and a ring, a coin, a sloe, + and a chip of wood are put into it. Whoever gets the coin will be + rich; whoever gets the ring will be married first; whoever gets the + chip of wood, which stands for a coffin, will die first; and + whoever gets the sloe will live longest, because the fairies blight + the sloes in the hedges on Hallowe'en, so that the sloe in the cake + will be the last of the year. Again, on the same mystic evening + girls take nine grains of oats in their mouths, and going out + without speaking walk about till they hear a man's name pronounced; + it will be the name of their future husband. In County Roscommon, + too, on Hallowe'en there is the usual dipping in water for apples + or sixpences, and the usual bites at a revolving apple and tallow + candle.<a id="noteref_623" name="noteref_623" href= + "#note_623"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">623</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Hallowe'en fires in the Isle of + Man. Divination at Hallowe'en in the Isle of Man.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In the Isle of + Man also, another Celtic country, Hallowe'en was celebrated down to + modern times by the kindling of fires, accompanied with all the + usual ceremonies designed to prevent the baneful influence of + fairies and witches. Bands of young men perambulated the island by + night, and at the door of every dwelling-house they struck up a + Manx rhyme, beginning</p> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 0.90em; margin-top: 0.90em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Noght oie howney + hop-dy-naw,</span></span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + </div> + </div> + </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page244">[pg 244]</span><a name= + "Pg244" id="Pg244" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">that is to say, + <span class="tei tei-q">“This is Hollantide Eve.”</span> For + Hollantide is the Manx way of expressing the old English <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">All hallowen + tide</span></em>, that is, All Saints' Day, the first of November. + But as the people reckon this festival according to the Old Style, + Hollantide in the Isle of Man is our twelfth of November. The + native Manx name for the day is <span lang="gv" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="gv"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Sauin</span></span> or <span lang="gv" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="gv"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Laa Houney</span></span>. Potatoes, parsnips + and fish, pounded up together and mixed with butter, formed the + proper evening meal (<span lang="gv" class="tei tei-foreign" + xml:lang="gv"><span style= + "font-style: italic">mrastyr</span></span>) on Hallowe'en in the + Isle of Man.<a id="noteref_624" name="noteref_624" href= + "#note_624"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">624</span></span></a> Here, + too, as in Scotland forms of divination are practised by some + people on this important evening. For example, the housewife fills + a thimble full of salt for each member of the family and each + guest; the contents of the thimblefuls are emptied out in as many + neat little piles on a plate, and left there over night. Next + morning the piles are examined, and if any of them has fallen down, + he or she whom it represents will die within the year. Again, the + women carefully sweep out the ashes from under the fireplace and + flatten them down neatly on the open hearth. If they find next + morning a footprint turned towards the door, it signifies a death + in the family within the year; but if the footprint is turned in + the opposite direction, it bodes a marriage. Again, divination by + eavesdropping is practised in the Isle of Man in much the same way + as in Scotland. You go out with your mouth full of water and your + hands full of salt and listen at a neighbour's door, and the first + name you hear will be the name of your husband. Again, Manx maids + bandage their eyes and grope about the room till they dip their + hands in vessels full of clean or dirty water, and so on; and from + the thing they touch they draw corresponding omens. But some people + in the Isle of Man observe these auguries, not on Hallowe'en or + Hollantide Eve, as they call it, which was the old Manx New Year's + Eve, but on the modern New Year's Eve, that is, on the thirty-first + of December. The change no doubt marks a transition from the + ancient to the modern mode of dating the beginning of the + year.<a id="noteref_625" name="noteref_625" href= + "#note_625"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">625</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Hallowe'en fires and divination in + Lancashire. Candles lighted to keep off the witches. Divination + at Hallowe'en in Northumberland. Hallowe'en fires in + France.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In Lancashire, + also, some traces of the old Celtic celebration <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page245">[pg 245]</span><a name="Pg245" id="Pg245" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> of Hallowe'en have been reported in + modern times. It is said that <span class="tei tei-q">“fires are + still lighted in Lancashire, on Hallowe'en, under the name of + Beltains or Teanlas; and even such cakes as the Jews are said to + have made in honour of the Queen of Heaven, are yet to be found at + this season amongst the inhabitants of the banks of the Ribble.... + Both the fires and the cakes, however, are now connected with + superstitious notions respecting Purgatory, etc.”</span><a id= + "noteref_626" name="noteref_626" href="#note_626"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">626</span></span></a> On + Hallowe'en, too, the Lancashire maiden <span class= + "tei tei-q">“strews the ashes which are to take the form of one or + more letters of her lover's name; she throws hemp-seed over her + shoulder and timidly glances to see who follows her.”</span><a id= + "noteref_627" name="noteref_627" href="#note_627"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">627</span></span></a> + Again, witches in Lancashire used to gather on Hallowe'en at the + Malkin Tower, a ruined and desolate farm-house in the forest of + Pendle. They assembled for no good purpose; but you could keep the + infernal rout at bay by carrying a lighted candle about the fells + from eleven to twelve o'clock at night. The witches tried to blow + out the candle, and if they succeeded, so much the worse for you; + but if the flame burned steadily till the clocks had struck + midnight, you were safe. Some people performed the ceremony by + deputy; and parties went about from house to house in the evening + collecting candles, one for each inmate, and offering their + services to <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">late</span></span> or <span class= + "tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">leet</span></span> the witches, as the phrase + ran. This custom was practised at Longridge Fell in the early part + of the nineteenth century.<a id="noteref_628" name="noteref_628" + href="#note_628"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">628</span></span></a> In + Northumberland on Hallowe'en omens of marriage were drawn from nuts + thrown into the fire; and the sports of ducking for apples and + biting at a revolving apple and lighted candle were also practised + on that evening.<a id="noteref_629" name="noteref_629" href= + "#note_629"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">629</span></span></a> The + equivalent of the Hallowe'en bonfires is reported also from France. + We are told that in the department of Deux-Sèvres, <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page246">[pg 246]</span><a name="Pg246" id="Pg246" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> which forms part of the old province of + Poitou, young people used to assemble in the fields on All Saints' + Day (the first of November) and kindle great fires of ferns, + thorns, leaves, and stubble, at which they roasted chestnuts. They + also danced round the fires and indulged in noisy pastimes.<a id= + "noteref_630" name="noteref_630" href="#note_630"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">630</span></span></a></p> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em"> + <a name="toc43" id="toc43"></a> <a name="pdf44" id="pdf44"></a> + + <h2 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em"> + <span style="font-size: 144%">§ 7. The Midwinter Fires.</span></h2> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">A Midwinter festival of fire. + Christmas the continuation of an old heathen festival of the + sun.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">If the heathen + of ancient Europe celebrated, as we have good reason to believe, + the season of Midsummer with a great festival of fire, of which the + traces have survived in many places down to our own time, it is + natural to suppose that they should have observed with similar + rites the corresponding season of Midwinter; for Midsummer and + Midwinter, or, in more technical language, the summer solstice and + the winter solstice, are the two great turning-points in the sun's + apparent course through the sky, and from the standpoint of + primitive man nothing might seem more appropriate than to kindle + fires on earth at the two moments when the fire and heat of the + great luminary in heaven begin to wane or to wax. In this way the + savage philosopher, to whose meditations on the nature of things we + owe many ancient customs and ceremonies, might easily imagine that + he helped the labouring sun to relight his dying lamp, or at all + events to blow up the flame into a brighter blaze. Certain it is + that the winter solstice, which the ancients erroneously assigned + to the twenty-fifth of December, was celebrated in antiquity as the + Birthday of the Sun, and that festal lights or fires were kindled + on this joyful occasion. Our Christmas festival is nothing but a + continuation under a Christian name of this old solar festivity; + for the ecclesiastical authorities saw fit, about the end of the + third or the beginning of the fourth century, arbitrarily to + transfer the nativity of Christ from the sixth of January to the + twenty-fifth of December, for the purpose of diverting to their + Lord the worship which the heathen had hitherto paid on that day to + the sun.<a id="noteref_631" name="noteref_631" href= + "#note_631"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">631</span></span></a></p><span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page247">[pg 247]</span><a name="Pg247" id="Pg247" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The Yule log is the Midwinter + counterpart of the Midsummer bonfire.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In modern + Christendom the ancient fire-festival of the winter solstice + appears to survive, or to have survived down to recent years, in + the old custom of the Yule log, clog, or block, as it was variously + called in England.<a id="noteref_632" name="noteref_632" href= + "#note_632"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">632</span></span></a> The + custom was widespread in Europe, but seems to have flourished + especially in England, France, and among the South Slavs; at least + the fullest accounts of the custom come from these quarters. That + the Yule log was only the winter counterpart of the Midsummer + bonfire, kindled within doors instead of in the open air on account + of the cold and inclement weather of the season, was pointed out + long ago by our English antiquary John Brand;<a id="noteref_633" + name="noteref_633" href="#note_633"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">633</span></span></a> and + the view is supported by the many quaint superstitions attaching to + the Yule log, superstitions which have no apparent connexion with + Christianity but carry their heathen origin plainly stamped upon + them. But while the two solstitial celebrations were both festivals + of fire, the necessity or desirability of holding the winter + celebration within doors lent it the character of a private or + domestic festivity, which contrasts strongly with the publicity of + the summer celebration, at which the people gathered on some open + space or conspicuous height, kindled a huge bonfire in common, and + danced and made merry round it together.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The Yule log in Germany and + Switzerland.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Among the + Germans the custom of the Yule log is known to have been observed + in the eleventh century; for in the year 1184 the parish priest of + Ahlen, in Münsterland, spoke of <span class="tei tei-q">“bringing a + tree to kindle the festal fire at the Lord's + Nativity.”</span><a id="noteref_634" name="noteref_634" href= + "#note_634"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">634</span></span></a> Down + to about the middle of the nineteenth century the old rite was kept + up in some parts of central Germany, as we learn from an account of + it given by a contemporary writer. After mentioning the custom of + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page248">[pg 248]</span><a name= + "Pg248" id="Pg248" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> feeding the cattle + and shaking the fruit-trees on Christmas night, to make them bear + fruit, he goes on as follows: <span class="tei tei-q">“Other + customs pointing back to the far-off times of heathendom may still + be met with among the old-fashioned peasants of the mountain + regions. Such is in the valleys of the Sieg and Lahn the practice + of laying a new log as a foundation of the hearth. A heavy block of + oak-wood, generally a stump grubbed up from the ground, is fitted + either into the floor of the hearth, or into a niche made for the + purpose in the wall under the hook on which the kettle hangs. When + the fire on the hearth glows, this block of wood glows too, but it + is so placed that it is hardly reduced to ashes within a year. When + the new foundation is laid, the remains of the old block are + carefully taken out, ground to powder, and strewed over the fields + during the Twelve Nights. This, so people fancied, promotes the + fruitfulness of the year's crops.”</span><a id="noteref_635" name= + "noteref_635" href="#note_635"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">635</span></span></a> In + some parts of the Eifel Mountains, to the west of Coblentz, a log + of wood called the <span lang="de" class="tei tei-foreign" + xml:lang="de"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Christbrand</span></span> used to be placed on + the hearth on Christmas Eve; and the charred remains of it on + Twelfth Night were put in the corn-bin to keep the mice from + devouring the corn.<a id="noteref_636" name="noteref_636" href= + "#note_636"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">636</span></span></a> At + Weidenhausen and Girkshausen, in Westphalia, the practice was to + withdraw the Yule log (<span lang="de" class="tei tei-foreign" + xml:lang="de"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Christbrand</span></span>) from the fire so + soon as it was slightly charred; it was then kept carefully to be + replaced on the fire whenever a thunder-storm broke, because the + people believed that lightning would not strike a house in which + the Yule log was smouldering.<a id="noteref_637" name="noteref_637" + href="#note_637"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">637</span></span></a> In + some villages near Berleburg in Westphalia the old custom was to + tie up the Yule log in the last sheaf cut at harvest.<a id= + "noteref_638" name="noteref_638" href="#note_638"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">638</span></span></a> On + Christmas Eve the peasantry of the Oberland, in Meiningen, a + province of Central Germany, used to put a great block of wood + called the <span lang="de" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang= + "de"><span style="font-style: italic">Christklotz</span></span> on + the fire before they went to bed; it should burn all night, and the + charred remains were believed to guard the house for the whole year + against the risk of <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page249">[pg + 249]</span><a name="Pg249" id="Pg249" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + fire, burglary, and other misfortunes.<a id="noteref_639" name= + "noteref_639" href="#note_639"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">639</span></span></a> The + Yule log seems to be known only in the French-speaking parts of + Switzerland, where it goes by the usual French name of <span lang= + "fr" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="fr"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Bûche de Noël</span></span>. In the Jura + mountains of the canton of Bern, while the log is burning on the + hearth the people sing a blessing over it as follows:—</p> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 0.90em; margin-top: 0.90em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">May the log + burn!</span></span></span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic"> + May all good come in!</span></span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic"> + May the women have children</span></span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic"> + And the sheep lambs!</span></span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic"> + White bread for every one</span></span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left"><span class= + "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">And the vat full of + wine!</span></span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + </div> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The embers of + the Yule log were kept carefully, for they were believed to be a + protection against lightning.<a id="noteref_640" name="noteref_640" + href="#note_640"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">640</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The Yule log in Belgium.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class= + "tei tei-q">“The Christmas fires, which were formerly lit + everywhere in the Low Countries, have fallen into disuse. But in + Flanders a great log of wood, called the <span class= + "tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">kersavondblok</span></span> and usually cut + from the roots of a fir or a beech, is still put on the fire; all + the lights in the house are extinguished, and the whole family + gathers round the log to spend part of the night in singing, in + telling stories, especially about ghosts, were-wolves, and so on, + and also in drinking gin. At Grammont and in the neighbourhood of + that town, where the Yule log is called <span class= + "tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Kersmismot</span></span>, it is customary to + set fire to the remainder of the gin at the moment when the log is + reduced to ashes. Elsewhere a piece of the log is kept and put + under the bed to protect the house against thunder and lightning. + The charcoal of the log which burned during Christmas Night, if + pounded up and mixed with water, is a cure for consumption. In the + country of Limburg the log burns several nights, and the pounded + charcoal is kept as a preventive (so they say), of + toothache.”</span><a id="noteref_641" name="noteref_641" href= + "#note_641"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">641</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The Yule log in France.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In several + provinces of France, and particularly in Provence, the custom of + the Yule log or <span lang="fr" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang= + "fr"><span style="font-style: italic">tréfoir</span></span>, as it + was called in many places, was long observed. A French <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page250">[pg 250]</span><a name="Pg250" id="Pg250" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> writer of the seventeenth century tells + us that on Christmas Eve the log was prepared, and when the whole + family had assembled in the kitchen or parlour of the house, they + went and brought it in, walking in procession and singing Provençal + verses to the following effect:—</p> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 0.90em; margin-top: 0.90em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Let the log + rejoice,</span></span></span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic"> + To-morrow is the day of bread;</span></span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic"> + Let all good enter here;</span></span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic"> + Let the women bear children;</span></span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic"> + Let the she-goats bring forth kids;</span></span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic"> + Let the ewes drop lambs;</span></span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic"> + Let there be much wheat and flour,</span></span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left"><span class= + "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">And the vat full of + wine.</span></span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + </div> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Then the log was + blessed by the smallest and youngest child of the house, who poured + a glass of wine over it saying, <span lang="la" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style="font-style: italic">In + nomine patris</span></span>, etc.; after which the log was set on + the fire. The charcoal of the burnt wood was kept the whole year, + and used as an ingredient in several remedies.<a id="noteref_642" + name="noteref_642" href="#note_642"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">642</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">French superstitions as to the + Yule log.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Amongst the + superstitions denounced by the same writer is <span class= + "tei tei-q">“the belief that a log called the <span lang="fr" + class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="fr"><span style= + "font-style: italic">trefoir</span></span> or Christmas brand, + which you put on the fire for the first time on Christmas Eve and + continue to put on the fire for a little while every day till + Twelfth Night, can, if kept under the bed, protect the house for a + whole year from fire and thunder; that it can prevent the inmates + from having chilblains on their heels in winter; that it can cure + the cattle of many maladies; that if a piece of it be steeped in + the water which cows drink it helps them to calve; and lastly that + if the ashes of the log be strewn on the fields it can save the + wheat from mildew.”</span><a id="noteref_643" name="noteref_643" + href="#note_643"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">643</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The Yule log at Marseilles and in + Perigord. Virtues ascribed to the charcoal and ashes of the + burnt log. The Yule log in Berry.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In Marseilles + the Yule log used to be a great block of oak, which went by the + name of <span lang="fr" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang= + "fr"><span style="font-style: italic">calendeau</span></span> or + <span lang="fr" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="fr"><span style= + "font-style: italic">calignau</span></span>; it was sprinkled with + wine and oil, and the head of the house kindled it himself.<a id= + "noteref_644" name="noteref_644" href="#note_644"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">644</span></span></a> + <span class="tei tei-q">“The Yule log plays a great part at the + festival of the winter solstice in Perigord. The countryman thinks + that it is best made of plum-tree, cherry, or oak, and <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page251">[pg 251]</span><a name="Pg251" id="Pg251" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> that the larger it is the better. If it + burns well, it is a good omen, the blessing of heaven rests upon + it. The charcoal and ashes, which are collected very carefully, are + excellent for healing swollen glands; the part of the trunk which + has not been burnt in the fire is used by ploughmen to make the + wedge (<span lang="fr" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang= + "fr"><span style="font-style: italic">técoin ou cale</span></span>) + for their plough, because they allege that it causes the seeds to + thrive better; and the women keep pieces of it till Twelfth Night + for the sake of their chickens. Nevertheless if you sit down on the + log, you become subject to boils, and to cure yourself of them you + must pass nine times under a bramble branch which happens to be + rooted in the ground at both ends. The charcoal heals sheep of a + disease called the <span lang="fr" class="tei tei-foreign" + xml:lang="fr"><span style= + "font-style: italic">goumon</span></span>; and the ashes, carefully + wrapt up in white linen, preserve the whole household from + accidents. Some people think that they will have as many chickens + as there are sparks that fly out of the brands of the log when they + shake them; and others place the extinct brands under the bed to + drive away vermin. In Vienne, on Christmas Eve, when supper is + over, the master of the house has a great log—the Christmas + brand—brought in, and then, surrounded by all the spectators + gathered in profound silence, he sprinkles salt and water on the + log. It is then put on the fire to burn during the three festivals; + but they carefully preserve a piece to be kindled every time that + it thunders.”</span><a id="noteref_645" name="noteref_645" href= + "#note_645"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">645</span></span></a> In + Berry, a district of Central France, the Yule log was called the + <span lang="fr" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="fr"><span style= + "font-style: italic">cosse de Nau</span></span>, the last word + being an abbreviation of the usual French word for Christmas + (Noël). It consisted of an enormous tree-trunk, so heavy that the + united strength of several men was needed to carry it in and place + it on the hearth, where it served to feed the fire during the three + days of the Christmas festivity. Strictly speaking, it should be + the trunk of an old oak-tree which had never been lopped and had + been felled at midnight. It <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page252">[pg 252]</span><a name="Pg252" id="Pg252" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> was placed on the hearth at the moment when + the tinkle of the bell announced the elevation of the host at the + midnight mass; and the head of the family, after sprinkling it with + holy water, set it on fire. The remains of the log were preserved + till the same day next year. They were kept under the bed of the + master of the house; and whenever thunder was heard, one of the + family would take a piece of the log and throw it on the fire, + which was believed to guard the family against lightning. In the + Middle Ages, we are told, several fiefs were granted on condition + that the vassal should bring in person a Yule log every year for + the hearth of his liege lord.<a id="noteref_646" name="noteref_646" + href="#note_646"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">646</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The Yule log in Normandy and + Brittany.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Similar customs + and beliefs survived till recent years in some of the remote + country villages of the picturesque district known as the Bocage of + Normandy. There it was the grandfather or other oldest man of the + family who chose the Yule log in good time and had it ready for + Christmas Eve. Then he placed it on the hearth at the moment when + the church bell began to ring for the evening service. Kneeling + reverently at the hearth with the members of his family in a like + attitude of devotion, the old man recited three <span lang="la" + class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Pater Nosters</span></span> and three + <span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Aves</span></span>, and invoked the blessing + of heaven on the log and on the cottage. Then at the sound of the + bell which proclaimed the sacrament of the mass, or, if the church + was too far off to allow the tinkle of the bell to be heard, at the + moment when they judged that the priest was elevating the host + before the high altar, the patriarch sprinkled the burning log with + holy water, blessed it in the name of the Father and of the Son and + of the Holy Ghost, and drew it out of the fire. The charred log was + then carefully kept till the following Christmas as a precious + relic which would guard the house against the levin bolt, evil + spirits, sorcerers, and every misfortune that might befall in the + course of the year.<a id="noteref_647" name="noteref_647" href= + "#note_647"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">647</span></span></a> In + the department of Orne <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page253">[pg + 253]</span><a name="Pg253" id="Pg253" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + <span class="tei tei-q">“the Yule-log is called <span lang="fr" + class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="fr"><span style= + "font-style: italic">trefouet</span></span>; holy water is poured + on it; it should last the three days of the festival, and the + remains of it are kept to be put on the fire when it thunders. This + brand is a protection both against thunder and against + sorcerers.”</span><a id="noteref_648" name="noteref_648" href= + "#note_648"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">648</span></span></a> In + Upper Brittany, also, the Yule log is thought to be a safeguard + against thunder and lightning. It is sprinkled with holy water on + Christmas morning and allowed to burn till evening. If a piece of + it is thrown into the well, it will ensure a supply of good + water.<a id="noteref_649" name="noteref_649" href= + "#note_649"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">649</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The Yule log in the + Ardennes.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class= + "tei tei-q">“In almost all the families of the Ardennes,”</span> we + are told, <span class="tei tei-q">“at the present day they never + fail to put the Yule log on the fireplace, but formerly it was the + object of a superstitious worship which is now obsolete. The + charred remains of it, placed under the pillow or under the house, + preserved the house from storms, and before it was burned the + Virgin used to come and sit on it, invisible, swaddling the infant + Jesus. At Nouzon, twenty years ago, the traditional log was brought + into the kitchen on Christmas Eve, and the grandmother, with a + sprig of box in her hand, sprinkled the log with holy water as soon + as the clock struck the first stroke of midnight. As she did so she + chanted,</span></p> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 0.90em; margin-top: 0.90em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left"><span class= + "tei tei-q" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">‘</span><span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">When Christmas + comes,</span></span></span></span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic"> + Every one should rejoice,</span></span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left"><span class= + "tei tei-q" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-hi" + style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">For it is a New + Covenant.</span></span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">’</span></span></span> + </div> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class= + "tei tei-q">Following the grandmother and joining in the song, the + children and the rest of the family marched thrice round the log, + which was as fine a log as could be got.”</span><a id="noteref_650" + name="noteref_650" href="#note_650"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">650</span></span></a> We + can now, perhaps, understand why in Perigord people who sat on the + Yule log suffered from boils,<a id="noteref_651" name="noteref_651" + href="#note_651"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">651</span></span></a> and + why in Lorraine young folks used to be warned that if they sat on + it they would have the scab.<a id="noteref_652" name="noteref_652" + href="#note_652"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">652</span></span></a> The + reason probably was that the Virgin and child were supposed to be + seated, <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page254">[pg + 254]</span><a name="Pg254" id="Pg254" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + invisible, upon the log and to resent the indignity of contact with + mortal children.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The Yule log in the Vosges. The + Yule log in Franche-Comté and Burgundy.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">On Christmas Eve + the mountaineers of Rupt, in the Vosges, also never fail to put on + the hearth the largest log which the hearth can hold; they call it + <span lang="fr" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="fr"><span style= + "font-style: italic">la galeuche de Noë</span></span>, that is, the + Yule log. Next morning they rake the ashes for any charred + fragments and keep them as valuable talismans to guard them against + the stroke of lightning. At Vagney and other places near it in the + Vosges it used to be customary on the same evening to grease the + hinges and the latches of the doors, that no harsh grating sound + should break the slumbers of the infant Christ. In the Vosges + Mountains, too, as indeed in many other places, cattle acquired the + gift of speech on Christmas Eve and conversed with each other in + the language of Christians. Their conversation was, indeed, most + instructive; for the future, it seems, had no secret worth + mentioning for them. Yet few people cared to be caught + eavesdropping at the byre; wise folk contented themselves with + setting a good store of fodder in the manger, then shut the door, + and left the animals to their ruminations. A farmer of Vecoux once + hid in a corner of the byre to overhear the edifying talk of the + beasts. But it did him little good; for one ox said to another ox, + <span class="tei tei-q">“What shall we do to-morrow?”</span> and + the other replied, <span class="tei tei-q">“We shall carry our + master to the churchyard.”</span> Sure enough the farmer died that + very night and was buried next morning.<a id="noteref_653" name= + "noteref_653" href="#note_653"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">653</span></span></a> In + Franche-Comté, the province of France to the west of the Jura + mountains, if the Yule log is really to protect a house against + thunder and lightning, it is essential that it should burn during + the midnight mass, and that the flame should not go out before the + divine service is concluded. Otherwise the log is quite useless for + the purpose.<a id="noteref_654" name="noteref_654" href= + "#note_654"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">654</span></span></a> In + Burgundy the log which is placed on the fire on Christmas Eve is + called the <span lang="fr" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang= + "fr"><span style="font-style: italic">suche</span></span>. While it + is burning, the father of the family, assisted by his wife and + children, sings Christmas carols; and when he has finished, + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page255">[pg 255]</span><a name= + "Pg255" id="Pg255" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> he tells the + smallest children to go into a corner of the room and pray God that + the log may give them sweeties. The prayer is invariably + answered.<a id="noteref_655" name="noteref_655" href= + "#note_655"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">655</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The Yule log and the Yule candle + in England.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In England the + customs and beliefs concerning the Yule log, clog, or block, as it + was variously called, used to be similar. On the night of Christmas + Eve, says the antiquary John Brand, <span class="tei tei-q">“our + ancestors were wont to light up candles of an uncommon size, called + Christmas Candles, and lay a log of wood upon the fire, called a + Yule-clog or Christmas-block, to illuminate the house, and, as it + were, to turn night into day. This custom is, in some measure, + still kept up in the North of England. In the buttery of St. John's + College, Oxford, an ancient candle-socket of stone still remains + ornamented with the figure of the Holy Lamb. It was formerly used + to burn the Christmas Candle in, on the high table at supper, + during the twelve nights of that festival.”</span><a id= + "noteref_656" name="noteref_656" href="#note_656"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">656</span></span></a> + <span class="tei tei-q">“A tall mould candle, called a Yule candle, + is lighted and set on the table; these candles are presented by the + chandlers and grocers to their customers. The Yule-log is bought of + the carpenters' lads. It would be unlucky to light either of them + before the time, or to stir the fire or candle during the supper; + the candle must not be snuffed, neither must any one stir from the + table till supper is ended. In these suppers it is considered + unlucky to have an odd number at table. A fragment of the log is + occasionally saved, and put under a bed, to remain till next + Christmas: it secures the house from fire; a small piece of it + thrown into a fire occurring at the house of a neighbour, will + quell the raging flame. A piece of the candle should likewise be + kept to ensure good luck.”</span><a id="noteref_657" name= + "noteref_657" href="#note_657"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">657</span></span></a> In + the seventeenth century, as we learn from some verses of Herrick, + the English custom was to light the Yule log with a fragment of its + predecessor, which had been kept throughout the year for the + purpose; where it was so kept, the fiend could do no + mischief.<a id="noteref_658" name="noteref_658" href= + "#note_658"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">658</span></span></a> + Indeed the practice of preserving a piece of the <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page256">[pg 256]</span><a name="Pg256" id="Pg256" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> Yule-log of one year to light that of + the next was observed by at least one family at Cheadle in + Staffordshire down to the latter part of the nineteenth + century.<a id="noteref_659" name="noteref_659" href= + "#note_659"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">659</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The Yule log in the North of + England, in Lincolnshire, Warwickshire, Shropshire, + Herefordshire. The Yule log in Wales.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In the North of + England farm-servants used to lay by a large knotty block of wood + for the Christmas fire, and so long as the block lasted they were + entitled by custom to ale at their meals. The log was as large as + the hearth could hold.<a id="noteref_660" name="noteref_660" href= + "#note_660"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">660</span></span></a> At + Belford, in Northumberland, <span class="tei tei-q">“the lord of + the manor sends round to every house, on the afternoon of Christmas + Eve, the Yule Logs—four or five large logs—to be burnt on Christmas + Eve and Day. This old custom has always, I am told, been kept up + here.”</span><a id="noteref_661" name="noteref_661" href= + "#note_661"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">661</span></span></a> The + custom of burning the Yule log at Christmas used to be observed in + Wensleydale and other parts of Yorkshire, and prudent housewives + carefully preserved pieces of the log throughout the year. At + Whitby the portions so kept were stowed away under the bed till + next Christmas, when they were burnt with the new log; in the + interval they were believed to protect the house from + conflagration, and if one of them were thrown into the fire, it + would quell a raging storm.<a id="noteref_662" name="noteref_662" + href="#note_662"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">662</span></span></a> The + practice and the belief were similar at Filey on the coast of + Yorkshire, where besides the Yule log a tall Yule candle was lit on + the same evening.<a id="noteref_663" name="noteref_663" href= + "#note_663"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">663</span></span></a> In + the West Riding, while the log <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page257">[pg 257]</span><a name="Pg257" id="Pg257" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> blazed cheerfully, the people quaffed their + ale and sang, <span class="tei tei-q">“Yule! Yule! a pack of new + cards and a Christmas stool!”</span><a id="noteref_664" name= + "noteref_664" href="#note_664"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">664</span></span></a> At + Clee, in Lincolnshire, <span class="tei tei-q">“when Christmas Eve + has come the Yule cake is duly cut and the Yule log lit, and I know + of some even middle-class houses where the new log must always rest + upon and be lighted by the old one, a small portion of which has + been carefully stored away to preserve a continuity of light and + heat.”</span><a id="noteref_665" name="noteref_665" href= + "#note_665"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">665</span></span></a> At + the village of Wootton Wawen in Warwickshire, down to 1759 at + least, the Yule-block, as it was called, was drawn into the house + by a horse on Christmas Eve <span class="tei tei-q">“as a + foundation for the fire on Christmas Day, and according to the + superstition of those times for the twelve days following, as the + said block was not to be entirely reduc'd to ashes till that time + had passed by.”</span><a id="noteref_666" name="noteref_666" href= + "#note_666"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">666</span></span></a> As + late as 1830, or thereabout, the scene of lighting the hearth-fire + on Christmas Eve, to continue burning throughout the Christmas + season, might have been witnessed in the secluded and beautiful + hill-country of West Shropshire, from Chirbury and Worthen to + Pulverbatch and Pontesbury. The Christmas brand or brund, as they + called it, was a great trunk of seasoned oak, holly, yew, or + crab-tree, drawn by horses to the farm-house door and thence rolled + by means of rollers and levers to the back of the wide open hearth, + where the fire was made up in front of it. The embers were raked up + to it every night, and it was carefully tended, that it might not + go out during the whole Christmas season. All those days no light + might be struck, given, or borrowed. Such was the custom at Worthen + in the early part of the nineteenth century.<a id="noteref_667" + name="noteref_667" href="#note_667"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">667</span></span></a> In + Herefordshire the Christmas feast <span class="tei tei-q">“lasted + for twelve days, and no work was <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page258">[pg 258]</span><a name="Pg258" id="Pg258" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> done. All houses were, and are now, decorated + with sprigs of holly and ivy, which must not be brought in until + Christmas Eve. A Yule log, as large as the open hearth could + accommodate, was brought into the kitchen of each farmhouse, and + smaller ones were used in the cottages. W—— P—— said he had seen a + tree drawn into the kitchen at Kingstone Grange years ago by two + cart horses; when it had been consumed a small portion was + carefully kept to be used for lighting next year's log. + <span class="tei tei-q">‘Mother always kept it very carefully; she + said it was lucky, and kept the house from fire and from + lightning.’</span> It seems to have been the general practice to + light it on Christmas Eve.”</span><a id="noteref_668" name= + "noteref_668" href="#note_668"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">668</span></span></a> + <span class="tei tei-q">“In many parts of Wales it is still + customary to keep part of the Yule-log until the following + Christmas Eve <span class="tei tei-q">‘for luck.’</span> It is then + put into the fireplace and burnt, but before it is consumed the new + log is put on, and thus <span class="tei tei-q">‘the old fire and + the new’</span> burn together. In some families this is done from + force of habit, and they cannot now tell why they do it; but in the + past the observance of this custom was to keep witches away, and + doubtless was a survival of fire-worship.”</span><a id= + "noteref_669" name="noteref_669" href="#note_669"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">669</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The Yule log in Servia. The + cutting of the oak tree to form the Yule log.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But nowhere, + apparently, in Europe is the old heathen ritual of the Yule log + preserved to the present day more perfectly than in Servia. At + early dawn on Christmas Eve (<span lang="sr" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="sr"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Badnyi Dan</span></span>) every peasant house + sends two of its strongest young men to the nearest forest to cut + down a young oak tree and bring it home. There, after offering up a + short prayer or crossing themselves thrice, they throw a handful of + wheat on the chosen oak and greet it with the words, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Happy <span lang="sr" class="tei tei-foreign" + xml:lang="sr"><span style="font-style: italic">Badnyi</span></span> + day to you!”</span> Then they cut it down, taking care that it + shall fall towards the east at the moment when the sun's orb + appears over the rim of the eastern horizon. Should the tree fall + towards the west, it would be the worst possible omen for the house + and its inmates in the ensuing year; and it is also an evil omen if + the tree should be caught and stopped in its fall by another tree. + It is important <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page259">[pg + 259]</span><a name="Pg259" id="Pg259" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + to keep and carry home the first chip from the fallen oak. The + trunk is sawn into two or three logs, one of them rather longer + than the others. A flat, unleavened cake of the purest wheaten + flour is brought out of the house and broken on the larger of the + logs by a woman. The logs are left for the present to stand + outside, leaning on one of the walls of the house. Each of them is + called a Yule log (<span lang="sr" class="tei tei-foreign" + xml:lang="sr"><span style= + "font-style: italic">badnyak</span></span>).</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Prayers to Colleda.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Meanwhile the + children and young people go from house to house singing special + songs called <span lang="sr" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang= + "sr"><span style="font-style: italic">Colleda</span></span> because + of an old pagan divinity Colleda, who is invoked in every line. In + one of them she is spoken of as <span class="tei tei-q">“a + beautiful little maid”</span>; in another she is implored to make + the cows yield milk abundantly. The day is spent in busy + preparations. The women bake little cakes of a special sort in the + shape of lambs, pigs, and chickens; the men make ready a pig for + roasting, for in every Servian house roast pig is the principal + dish at Christmas. A bundle of straw, tied with a rope, is brought + into the courtyard and left to stand there near the Yule logs.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The bringing in of the Yule + log.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">At the moment + when the sun is setting all the members of the family assemble in + the central hall (the great family kitchen) of the principal house. + The mother of the family (or the wife of the chief of the + Zadrooga)<a id="noteref_670" name="noteref_670" href= + "#note_670"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">670</span></span></a> gives + a pair of <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page260">[pg + 260]</span><a name="Pg260" id="Pg260" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + woollen gloves to one of the young men, who goes out and presently + returns carrying in his gloved hands the largest of the logs. The + mother receives him at the threshold, throwing at him a handful of + wheat, in which the first chip of the oak tree cut in the early + morning for the Yule log has been kept all day. Entering the + central hall with the Yule log the young man greets all present + with the words: <span class="tei tei-q">“Good evening, and may you + have a happy Christmas!”</span> and they all answer in chorus, + <span class="tei tei-q">“May God and the happy and holy Christmas + help thee!”</span> In some parts of Servia the chief of the family, + holding a glass of red wine in his hand, greets the Yule log as if + it were a living person, and drinks to its health. After that, + another glass of red wine is poured on the log. Then the oldest + male member of the family, assisted by the young man who brought in + the log, places it on the burning fire so that the thicker end of + the log protrudes for about a foot from the hearth. In some places + this end is smeared with honey.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The ceremony with the straw. The + Yule candle.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Next the mother + of the family brings in the bundle of straw which was left standing + outside. All the young children arrange themselves behind her in a + row. She then walks slowly round the hall and the adjoining rooms, + throwing handfuls of straw on the floor and imitating the cackling + of a hen, while all the children follow her peeping with their lips + as if they were chickens cheeping and waddling after the mother + bird. When the floor is well strewn with straw, the father or the + eldest member of the family throws a few walnuts in every corner of + the hall, pronouncing the words: <span class="tei tei-q">“In the + name of God the Father, and the Son, and the Holy Ghost, + Amen!”</span> A large pot, or a small wooden box, filled with wheat + is placed high in the east corner of the hall, and a tall candle of + yellow wax is stuck in the middle of the wheat. Then the father of + the family reverently lights the candle <span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page261">[pg 261]</span><a name="Pg261" id="Pg261" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> and prays God to bless the family with health + and happiness, the fields with a good harvest, the beehives with + plenty of honey, the cattle and sheep with young, and the cows with + abundant milk and rich cream. After that they all sit down to + supper, squatting on the floor, for the use of chairs and tables is + forbidden on this occasion.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The roast pig. The drawing of the + water.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">By four o'clock + next morning (Christmas Day) the whole village is astir; indeed + most people do not sleep at all that night. It is deemed most + important to keep the Yule log burning brightly all night long. + Very early, too, the pig is laid on the fire to roast, and at the + same moment one of the family goes out into the yard and fires a + pistol or gun; and when the roast pig is removed from the fire the + shot is repeated. Hence for several hours in the early morning of + Christmas Day such a popping and banging of firearms goes on that a + stranger might think a stubborn skirmish was in progress. Just + before the sun rises a girl goes and draws water at the village + spring or at the brook. Before she fills her vessels, she wishes + the water a happy Christmas and throws a handful of wheat into it. + The first cupfuls of water she brings home are used to bake a + special Christmas cake (<span lang="sr" class="tei tei-foreign" + xml:lang="sr"><span style= + "font-style: italic">chesnitsa</span></span>), of which all the + members partake at dinner, and portions are kept for absent + relatives. A small silver coin is baked in the cake, and he or she + who gets it will be lucky during the year.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The Christmas visiter + (</span><span lang="sr" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang= + "sr"><span style= + "font-size: 80%; font-style: italic">polaznik</span></span><span style="font-size: 80%">).</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">All the family + gathered round the blazing Yule log now anxiously expect the + arrival of the special Christmas visiter, who bears the title of + <span lang="sr" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="sr"><span style= + "font-style: italic">polaznik</span></span>. He is usually a young + boy of a friendly family. No other person, not even the priest or + the mayor of the village, would be allowed to set foot in the house + before the arrival of this important personage. Therefore he ought + to come, and generally does come, very early in the morning. He + carries a woollen glove full of wheat, and when the door is opened + at his knock he throws handfuls of wheat on the family gathered + round the hearth, greeting them with the words, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Christ is born!”</span> They all answer, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“He is born indeed,”</span> and the hostess flings a + handful of wheat over the Christmas visiter, who moreover casts + some of his wheat into the corners of the hall as well as upon the + people. Then he walks straight to the hearth, <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page262">[pg 262]</span><a name="Pg262" id="Pg262" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> takes a shovel and strikes the burning + log so that a cloud of sparks flies up the chimney, while he says, + <span class="tei tei-q">“May you have this year so many oxen, so + many horses, so many sheep, so many pigs, so many beehives full of + honey, so much good luck, prosperity, progress, and + happiness!”</span> Having uttered these good wishes, he embraces + and kisses his host. Then he turns again to the hearth, and after + crossing himself falls on his knees and kisses the projecting part + of the Yule log. On rising to his feet he places a coin on the log + as his gift. Meanwhile a low wooden chair has been brought in by a + woman, and the visiter is led to it to take his seat. But just as + he is about to do so, the chair is jerked away from under him by a + male member of the family and he measures his length on the floor. + By this fall he is supposed to fix into the ground all the good + wishes which he has uttered that morning. The hostess thereupon + wraps him in a thick blanket, and he sits quietly muffled in it for + a few minutes; the thick blanket in which he is swathed is + believed, on the principles of homoeopathic magic, to ensure that + the cows will give thick cream the next year. While he sits thus + enriching the milk of the dairy, the lads who are to herd the sheep + in the coming year go to the hearth and kneeling down before it + kiss each other across the projecting end of the Yule log. By this + demonstration of affection they are thought to seal the love of the + ewes for their lambs.<a id="noteref_671" name="noteref_671" href= + "#note_671"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">671</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The Yule log among the Servians of + Slavonia. The Christmas visiter (</span><span lang="sr" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="sr"><span style= + "font-size: 80%; font-style: italic">polazenik</span></span><span style="font-size: 80%">).</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The ritual of + the Yule log is observed in a similar form by the Servians who + inhabit the southern provinces of Austria. Thus in Syrmia, a + district of Slavonia which borders on Servia, the head of the house + sends out one or two young men on Christmas Eve to cut the Yule log + in the nearest forest. On being brought in, the log is not mixed + with the ordinary fuel but placed by itself, generally leaning + against a fruit-tree till the evening shadows begin to fall. When a + man carries it into the kitchen and lays it on the fire, the master + of the house throws corn over him, and the two greet each other + solemnly, the one saying, <span class="tei tei-q">“Christ is + born,”</span> and the other answering, <span class="tei tei-q">“He + is born indeed.”</span> Later in the evening the master of + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page263">[pg 263]</span><a name= + "Pg263" id="Pg263" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> the house pours a + glass of wine on the charred end of the log, whereupon one of the + younger men takes the burnt piece of wood, carries it to the + orchard, and sets it up against one of the fruit-trees. For this + service he is rewarded by the master of the house with a piece of + money. On Christmas Day, when the family is assembled at table, + they expect the arrival of the special Christmas visiter (called + <span lang="sr" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="sr"><span style= + "font-style: italic">polazenik</span></span>), the only person who + is allowed to enter the house that day. When he comes, he goes to + the hearth, stirs the fire with the poker and says, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Christ is born. May the family enjoy all good luck and + happiness in this year! May the cattle increase in number like the + sparks I have struck!”</span> As he says these words, the mistress + of the house pours corn over him and leads him to the parlour, + where he takes the place of honour beside the master of the house. + He is treated with marked attention and respect. The family are at + pains to entertain him; they sing their best songs for his + amusement, and after midnight a numerous band of men and maidens + escorts him by torchlight, with songs and jubilation, to his own + house.<a id="noteref_672" name="noteref_672" href= + "#note_672"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">672</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The Yule log among the Servians of + Dalmatia, Herzegovina, and Montenegro. The Yule log in + Albania.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Among the + Servians of Dalmatia, Herzegovina, and Montenegro it is customary + on Christmas Eve (<span lang="sr" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang= + "sr"><span style="font-style: italic">Badnyi Dan</span></span>) to + fetch a great Yule log (<span lang="sr" class="tei tei-foreign" + xml:lang="sr"><span style= + "font-style: italic">badnyak</span></span>), which serves as a + symbol of family luck. It is generally cut from an evergreen oak, + but sometimes from an olive-tree or a beech. At nightfall the + master of the house himself brings in the log and lays it on the + fire. Then he and all present bare their heads, sprinkle the log + with wine, and make a cross on it. After that the master of the + house says, <span class="tei tei-q">“Welcome, O log! May God keep + you from mishap!”</span> So saying he strews peas, maize, raisins, + and wheat on the log, praying for God's blessing on all members of + the family living and dead, for heaven's blessing on their + undertakings, and for domestic prosperity. In Montenegro they meet + the log with a loaf of bread and a jug of wine, drink to it, and + pour wine on it, whereupon the whole family drinks out of the same + beaker. In Dalmatia and other places, for example in Rizano, the + Yule logs are decked by young women with red silk, flowers, + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page264">[pg 264]</span><a name= + "Pg264" id="Pg264" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> laurel leaves, + ribbons, and even gold wire; and the lights near the doorposts are + kindled when the log is brought into the house. Among the Morlaks, + as soon as the master of the house crosses the threshold with the + Yule log, one of the family must sprinkle corn on him and say, + <span class="tei tei-q">“God bless you,”</span> to which he + answers, <span class="tei tei-q">“The same to you.”</span> A piece + of the log is kept till New Year's Day to kindle a light with or it + is carried out to the fields to protect them from hail. It is + customary to invite before hand a Christmas visiter (<span lang= + "sr" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="sr"><span style= + "font-style: italic">polažaynik</span></span>) and to admit no one + else into the house on that day. He comes early, carrying in his + sleeves a quantity of corn which he throws into the house, saying, + <span class="tei tei-q">“Christ is born.”</span> One of the + household replies, <span class="tei tei-q">“He is born + indeed,”</span> and throws corn on the visiter. Then the newcomer + goes up to the hearth, pokes the fire and strikes the burning log + with the poker so hard that sparks fly off in all directions. At + each blow he says, <span class="tei tei-q">“I wish the family as + many cows, calves, sucking pigs, goats, and sheep, and as many + strokes of good luck, as the sparks that now fly from the + log.”</span> With these words he throws some small coins into the + ashes.<a id="noteref_673" name="noteref_673" href= + "#note_673"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">673</span></span></a> In + Albania down to recent years it was a common custom to burn a Yule + log at Christmas, and with it corn, maize, and beans; moreover, + wine and <span lang="sq" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang= + "sq"><span style="font-style: italic">rakia</span></span> were + poured on the flames, and the ashes of the fire were scattered on + the fields to make them fertile.<a id="noteref_674" name= + "noteref_674" href="#note_674"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">674</span></span></a> The + Huzuls, a Slavonic people of the Carpathians, kindle fire by the + friction of wood on Christmas Eve (Old Style, the fifth of January) + and keep it burning till Twelfth Night.<a id="noteref_675" name= + "noteref_675" href="#note_675"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">675</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Belief that the Yule log protects + against fire and lightning.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It is remarkable + how common the belief appears to have been that the remains of the + Yule-log, if kept throughout the year, had power to protect the + house against fire and especially against lightning.<a id= + "noteref_676" name="noteref_676" href="#note_676"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">676</span></span></a> As + the Yule log was <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page265">[pg + 265]</span><a name="Pg265" id="Pg265" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + frequently of oak,<a id="noteref_677" name="noteref_677" href= + "#note_677"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">677</span></span></a> it + seems possible that this belief may be a relic of the old Aryan + creed which associated the oak-tree with the god of thunder.<a id= + "noteref_678" name="noteref_678" href="#note_678"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">678</span></span></a> + Whether the curative and fertilizing virtues ascribed to the ashes + of the Yule log, which are supposed to heal cattle as well as men, + to enable cows to calve, and to promote the fruitfulness of the + earth,<a id="noteref_679" name="noteref_679" href= + "#note_679"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">679</span></span></a> may + not be derived from the same ancient source, is a question which + deserves to be considered.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Public celebrations of the + fire-festival at Midwinter. The bonfire on Christmas Eve at + Schweina in Thuringia.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Thus far we have + regarded only the private or domestic celebration of the + fire-festival at midwinter. The public celebration of such rites at + that season of the year appears to have been rare and exceptional + in Central and Northern Europe. However, some instances are on + record. Thus at Schweina, in Thuringia, down to the second half of + the nineteenth century, the young people used to kindle a great + bonfire on the Antonius Mountain every year on Christmas Eve. + Neither the civil nor the ecclesiastical authorities were able to + suppress the celebration; nor could the cold, rain, and snow of the + season damp or chill the enthusiasm of the celebrants. For some + time before Christmas the young men and boys were busy building a + foundation for the bonfire on the top of the mountain, where the + oldest church of the village used to stand. The foundation + consisted of a pyramidal structure composed of stones, turf, and + moss. When Christmas Eve came round, a strong pole, with bundles of + brushwood tied to it, was erected on the pyramid. The young folk + also provided themselves with poles to which old brooms or faggots + of shavings were attached. These were to serve as torches. When the + evening grew dark and the church bells rang to service, the troop + of lads ascended the mountain; and soon from the top the glare of + the bonfire lit up the darkness, and the sound of a hymn broke the + stillness of night. In a circle round the great fire lesser fires + were kindled; and last of all the lads ran about swinging their + lighted torches, till these twinkling points of fire, moving down + the mountain-side, went out one by one in the darkness. At midnight + the bells rang out from the church <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page266">[pg 266]</span><a name="Pg266" id="Pg266" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> tower, mingled with the blast of horns and + the sound of singing. Feasting and revelry were kept up throughout + the night, and in the morning young and old went to early mass to + be edified by hearing of the light eternal.<a id="noteref_680" + name="noteref_680" href="#note_680"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">680</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Bonfires on Christmas Eve in + Normandy.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In the Bocage of + Normandy the peasants used to repair, often from a distance of + miles, to the churches to hear the midnight mass on Christmas Eve. + They marched in procession by torchlight, chanting Christmas + carols, and the fitful illumination of the woods, the hedges, and + the fields as they moved through the darkness, presented a + succession of picturesque scenes. Mention is also made of bonfires + kindled on the heights; the custom is said to have been observed at + Athis near Condé down to recent years.<a id="noteref_681" name= + "noteref_681" href="#note_681"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">681</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Bonfires on St. Thomas's Day in + the Isle of Man. The</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 80%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 80%">Burning of the Clavie</span><span style= + "font-size: 80%">”</span></span><span style="font-size: 80%">at + Burghead on the last day of December. The old rampart at + Burghead.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In the Isle of + Man, <span class="tei tei-q">“on the twenty-first of December, a + day dedicated to Saint Thomas, the people went to the mountains to + catch deer and sheep for Christmas, and in the evenings always + kindled a large fire on the top of every <span lang="gv" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="gv"><span style= + "font-style: italic">fingan</span></span> or cliff. Hence, at the + time of casting peats, every one laid aside a large one, saying, + <span class="tei tei-q">‘<span lang="gv" class="tei tei-foreign" + xml:lang="gv"><span style="font-style: italic">Faaid mooar moayney + son oie'l fingan</span></span>’</span>; that is, <span class= + "tei tei-q">‘a large turf for Fingan Eve.’</span> ”</span><a id= + "noteref_682" name="noteref_682" href="#note_682"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">682</span></span></a> At + Burghead, an ancient village on the southern shore of the Moray + Firth, about nine miles from the town of Elgin, a festival of fire + called <span class="tei tei-q">“the Burning of the Clavie”</span> + has been celebrated from time immemorial on Hogmanay, the last day + of December. A tar-barrel is sawn in two, one half of it is set on + the top of a stout pole, and filled with tar and other + combustibles. The half-barrel is fastened to the pole by means of a + long nail, which is made for the purpose and furnished gratuitously + by the village blacksmith. The nail must be knocked in with a + stone; the use of a hammer is forbidden. When the shades of evening + have begun to fall, the Clavie, as it is called, is set on fire by + means of a burning peat, which is always fetched from the same + house; it may not be kindled with a match. As soon as it is in a + blaze, it is shouldered by a man, who proceeds to carry it at a + run, flaring and dripping melted tar, round the old <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page267">[pg 267]</span><a name="Pg267" id="Pg267" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> boundaries of the village; the modern + part of the town is not included in the circuit. Close at his heels + follows a motley crowd, cheering and shouting. One bearer relieves + another as each wearies of his burden. The first to shoulder the + Clavie, which is esteemed an honour, is usually a man who has been + lately married. Should the bearer stumble or fall, it is deemed a + very ill omen for him and for the village. In bygone times it was + thought necessary that one man should carry it all round the + village; hence the strongest man was chosen for the purpose. + Moreover it was customary to carry the burning Clavie round every + fishing-boat and vessel in the harbour; but this part of the + ceremony was afterwards discontinued. Finally, the blazing + tar-barrel is borne to a small hill called the Doorie, which rises + near the northern end of the promontory. Here the pole is fixed + into a socket in a pillar of freestone, and fresh fuel is heaped + upon the flames, which flare up higher and brighter than ever. + Formerly the Clavie was allowed to burn here the whole night, but + now, after blazing for about half an hour, it is lifted from the + socket and thrown down the western slope of the hill. Then the + crowd rushes upon it, demolishes it, and scrambles for the burning, + smoking embers, which they carry home and carefully preserve as + charms to protect them against witchcraft and misfortune.<a id= + "noteref_683" name="noteref_683" href="#note_683"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">683</span></span></a> The + great antiquity of Burghead, where this curious and no doubt + ancient festival is still annually observed, appears from the + remains of a very remarkable rampart which formerly encircled the + place. It consists of a mound of earth faced on both sides with a + solid wall of stone and strengthened internally by oak beams and + planks, the whole being laid on a foundation of boulders. The style + of the rampart agrees in general with Caesar's description of the + mode in which the Gauls constructed their walls of earth, stone, + and logs,<a id="noteref_684" name="noteref_684" href= + "#note_684"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">684</span></span></a> and + it resembles the ruins of Gallic fortifications which have been + discovered <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page268">[pg + 268]</span><a name="Pg268" id="Pg268" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + in France, though it is said to surpass them in the strength and + solidity of its structure. No similar walls appear to be known in + Britain. A great part of this interesting prehistoric fortress was + barbarously destroyed in the early part of the nineteenth century, + much of it being tumbled into the sea and many of the stones used + to build the harbour piers.<a id="noteref_685" name="noteref_685" + href="#note_685"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">685</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Procession with burning + tar-barrels on Christmas Eve (Old Style) at Lerwick.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In Lerwick, the + capital of the Shetland Islands, <span class="tei tei-q">“on + Christmas Eve, the fourth of January,—for the old style is still + observed—the children go <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">a guizing</span></span>, that is to say, they + disguising themselves in the most fantastic and gaudy costumes, + parade the streets, and infest the houses and shops, begging for + the wherewithal to carry on their Christmas amusements. One o'clock + on Yule morning having struck, the young men turn out in large + numbers, dressed in the coarsest of garments, and, at the + double-quick march, drag huge tar barrels through the town, + shouting and cheering as they go, or blowing loud blasts with their + <span class="tei tei-q">‘louder horns.’</span> The tar barrel + simply consists of several—say from four to eight—tubs filled with + tar and chips, placed on a platform of wood. It is dragged by means + of a chain, to which scores of jubilant youths readily yoke + themselves. They have recently been described by the worthy burgh + officer of Lerwick as <span class="tei tei-q">‘fiery chariots, the + effect of which is truly grand and terrific.’</span> In a Christmas + morning the dark streets of Lerwick are generally lighted up by the + bright glare, and its atmosphere blackened by the dense smoke of + six or eight tar barrels in succession. On the appearance of + daybreak, at six <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">a.m.</span></span>, the morning + revellers put off their coarse garments—well begrimed by this + time—and in their turn become guizards. They assume every + imaginable form of costume—those of <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page269">[pg 269]</span><a name="Pg269" id="Pg269" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> soldiers, sailors, highlanders, Spanish + chevaliers, etc. Thus disguised, they either go in pairs, as man + and wife, or in larger groups, and proceed to call on their + friends, to wish them the compliments of the season. Formerly, + these adolescent guizards used to seat themselves in crates, and + accompanied by fiddlers, were dragged through the + town.”</span><a id="noteref_686" name="noteref_686" href= + "#note_686"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">686</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Persian festival of fire at the + winter solstice.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The Persians + used to celebrate a festival of fire called <span lang="fa" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="fa"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Sada</span></span> or <span lang="fa" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="fa"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Saza</span></span> at the winter solstice. On + the longest night of the year they kindled bonfires everywhere, and + kings and princes tied dry grass to the feet of birds and animals, + set fire to the grass, and then let the birds and beasts fly or run + blazing through the air or over the fields and mountains, so that + the whole air and earth appeared to be on fire.<a id="noteref_687" + name="noteref_687" href="#note_687"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">687</span></span></a></p> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em"> + <a name="toc45" id="toc45"></a> <a name="pdf46" id="pdf46"></a> + + <h2 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em"> + <span style="font-size: 144%">§ 8. The Need-fire.</span></h2> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">European festivals of fire in + seasons of distress and calamity. The need-fire.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The + fire-festivals hitherto described are all celebrated periodically + at certain stated times of the year. But besides these regularly + recurring celebrations the peasants in many parts of Europe have + been wont from time immemorial to resort to a ritual of fire at + irregular intervals in seasons of distress and calamity, above all + when their cattle were attacked by epidemic disease. No account of + the popular European fire-festivals would be complete without some + notice of these remarkable rites, which have all the greater claim + on our attention because they may perhaps be regarded as the source + and origin of all the other fire-festivals; certainly they must + date from a very remote antiquity. The general name by which they + are known among the Teutonic peoples is need-fire.<a id= + "noteref_688" name="noteref_688" href="#note_688"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">688</span></span></a></p><span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page270">[pg 270]</span><a name="Pg270" id="Pg270" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The need-fire in the Middle Ages. + The need-fire at Neustadt in 1598.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The history of + the need-fire can be traced back to the early Middle Ages; for in + the reign of Pippin, King of the Franks, the practice of kindling + need-fires was denounced as a heathen superstition by a synod of + prelates and nobles held under the presidency of Boniface, + Archbishop of Mainz.<a id="noteref_689" name="noteref_689" href= + "#note_689"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">689</span></span></a> Not + long afterwards the custom was again forbidden, along with many + more relics of expiring paganism, in an <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Index of Superstitions and Heathenish + Observances,”</span> which has been usually referred to the year + 743 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span>, though some scholars + assign it a later date under the reign of Charlemagne.<a id= + "noteref_690" name="noteref_690" href="#note_690"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">690</span></span></a> In + Germany the need-fires would seem to have been popular down to the + second half of the nineteenth century. Thus in the year 1598, when + a fatal cattle-plague was raging at Neustadt, near Marburg, a wise + man of the name of Joh. Köhler induced the authorities of the town + to adopt the following remedy. A new waggon-wheel was taken and + twirled round an axle, which had never been used before, until the + friction elicited fire. With this fire a bonfire was next kindled + between the gates of the town, and all the cattle were driven + through the smoke and flames. Moreover, every householder had to + rekindle the fire on his hearth by means of a light taken from the + bonfire. Strange to say, this salutary measure had no effect + whatever in staying the <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page271">[pg + 271]</span><a name="Pg271" id="Pg271" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + cattle-plague, and seven years later the sapient Joh. Köhler + himself was burnt as a witch. The farmers, whose pigs and cows had + derived no benefit from the need-fire, perhaps assisted as + spectators at the burning, and, while they shook their heads, + agreed among themselves that it served Joh. Köhler perfectly + right.<a id="noteref_691" name="noteref_691" href= + "#note_691"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">691</span></span></a> + According to a writer who published his book about nine years + afterwards, some of the Germans, especially in the Wassgaw + mountains, confidently believed that a cattle-plague could be + stayed by driving the animals through a need-fire which had been + kindled by the violent friction of a pole on a quantity of dry oak + wood; but it was a necessary condition of success that all fires in + the village should previously be extinguished with water, and any + householder who failed to put out his fire was heavily fined.<a id= + "noteref_692" name="noteref_692" href="#note_692"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">692</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Method of kindling the + need-fire.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The method of + kindling the need-fire is described as follows by a writer towards + the end of the seventeenth century: <span class="tei tei-q">“When + an evil plague has broken out among the cattle, large and small, + and the herds have thereby suffered great ravages, the peasants + resolve to light a need-fire. On a day appointed there must be no + single flame in any house nor on any hearth. From every house a + quantity of straw and water and underwood must be brought forth; + then a strong oaken pole is fixed firmly in the earth, a hole is + bored in it, and a wooden winch, well smeared with pitch and tar, + is inserted in the hole and turned round forcibly till great heat + and then fire is generated. The fire so produced is caught in fuel + and fed with straw, heath, and underwood till it bursts out into a + regular need-fire, which must then be somewhat spread out between + walls or fences, and the cattle and horses driven through it twice + or thrice with sticks and whips. Others set up two posts, each with + a hole in it, and insert a winch, along with old greasy rags, in + the holes. Others use a thick rope, collect nine kinds of wood, and + keep them in violent motion till fire leaps forth. Perhaps there + may be other <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page272">[pg + 272]</span><a name="Pg272" id="Pg272" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + ways of generating or kindling this fire, but they are all directed + simply at the cure of the cattle. After passing twice or thrice + through the fire the cattle are driven to their stalls or to + pasture, and the heap of wood that had been collected is destroyed, + but in some places every householder must take with him a brand, + extinguish it in a washing-tub or trough, and put it in the manger + where the cattle are fed, where it must lie for some time. The + poles that were used to make the need-fire, together with the wood + that was employed as a winch, are sometimes burned with the rest of + the fuel, sometimes carefully preserved after the cattle have been + thrice driven through the flames.”</span><a id="noteref_693" name= + "noteref_693" href="#note_693"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">693</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The mode of kindling the need-fire + about Hildesheim.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Sometimes the + need-fire was known as the <span class="tei tei-q">“wild + fire,”</span> to distinguish it no doubt from the tame fire + produced by more ordinary methods. The following is Grimm's account + of the mode of kindling it which prevailed in some parts of Central + Germany, particularly about Hildesheim, down apparently to the + first half of the nineteenth century: <span class="tei tei-q">“In + many places of Lower Saxony, especially among the mountains, the + custom prevails of preparing the so-called <span class= + "tei tei-q">‘wild fire’</span> for the purpose of preventing + cattle-plague; and through it first the pigs, then the cows, and + last of all the geese are driven. The proceedings on the occasion + are as follows. The principal farmers and parishioners assemble, + and notice is served to every inhabitant to extinguish entirely all + fire in his house, so that not even a spark remains alight in the + whole village. Then young and old repair to a road in a hollow, + usually towards evening, the women carrying linen, and the men wood + and tow. Two oaken poles are driven into the ground about a foot + and a half from each other. Each pole has in the side facing the + other a socket into which a cross-piece as thick as a man's arm is + fitted. The sockets are stuffed with linen, and the cross-piece is + rammed in as tight as possible, while the poles are bound together + at the top by ropes. A rope is wound about the round, smooth + cross-piece, and the free ends of the rope at both sides are + gripped by several <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page273">[pg + 273]</span><a name="Pg273" id="Pg273" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + persons, who pull the cross-piece to and fro with the utmost + rapidity, till through the friction the linen in the sockets takes + fire. The sparks of the linen are immediately caught in tow or + oakum and waved about in a circle until they burst into a bright + glow, when straw is applied to it, and the flaming straw used to + kindle the brushwood which has been stacked in piles in the hollow + way. When this wood has blazed up and the fire has nearly died out + again, the people hasten to the herds, which have been waiting in + the background, and drive them forcibly, one after the other, + through the glow. As soon as all the beasts are through, the young + folk rush wildly at the ashes and cinders, sprinkling and + blackening each other with them; those who have been most sprinkled + and blackened march in triumph behind the cattle into the village + and do not wash themselves for a long time. If after long rubbing + the linen should not catch fire, they guess that there is still + fire somewhere in the village; then a strict search is made from + house to house, any fire that may be found is put out, and the + householder is punished or upbraided. The <span class= + "tei tei-q">‘wild fire’</span> must be made by prolonged friction; + it may not be struck with flint and steel. Some villages do not + prepare it yearly as a preventive of cattle-plague, but only kindle + it when the disease has actually broken out.”</span><a id= + "noteref_694" name="noteref_694" href="#note_694"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">694</span></span></a> In + the Halberstadt district the ends of the rope which was used to + make the cross-piece revolve in the sockets had to be pulled by two + chaste young men.<a id="noteref_695" name="noteref_695" href= + "#note_695"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">695</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The mode of kindling the need-fire + in the Mark.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In the Mark down + to the first half of the nineteenth century the practice was + similar. We read that <span class="tei tei-q">“in many parts of the + Mark there still prevails on certain occasions the custom of + kindling a need-fire, it happens particularly when a farmer has + sick pigs. Two posts of dry wood are planted in the earth amid + solemn silence before the sun rises, and round these posts hempen + ropes are pulled to and fro till the wood kindles; whereupon the + fire is fed with dry leaves and twigs and the sick beasts are + driven through it. In some places the fire is produced by the + friction of an old cart-wheel.”</span><a id="noteref_696" name= + "noteref_696" href="#note_696"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">696</span></span></a></p><span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page274">[pg 274]</span><a name="Pg274" id="Pg274" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The mode of kindling the need-fire + in Mecklenburg.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In Mecklenburg + the need-fire used to be lighted by the friction of a rope wound + about an oaken pole or by rubbing two boards against each other. + Having been thus elicited, the flame was fed with wood of seven + kinds. The practice was forbidden by Gustavus Adolphus, Duke of + Mecklenburg, in 1682; but the prohibition apparently had little + effect, for down to the end of the eighteenth century the custom + was so common that the inhabitants even of large towns made no + scruple of resorting to it. For example, in the month of July 1792 + sickness broke out among the cattle belonging to the town of + Sternberg; some of the beasts died suddenly, and so the people + resolved to drive all the survivors through a need-fire. On the + tenth day of July the magistrates issued a proclamation announcing + that next morning before sunrise a need-fire would be kindled for + the behoof of all the cattle of the town, and warning all the + inhabitants against lighting fires in their kitchens that evening. + So next morning very early, about two o'clock, nearly the whole + population was astir, and having assembled outside one of the gates + of the town they helped to drive the timid cattle, not without much + ado, through three separate need-fires; after which they dispersed + to their homes in the unalterable conviction that they had rescued + the cattle from destruction. But to make assurance doubly sure they + deemed it advisable to administer the rest of the ashes as a bolus + to the animals. However, some people in Mecklenburg used to strew + the ashes of the need-fire on fields for the purpose of protecting + the crops against vermin. As late as June 1868 a traveller in + Mecklenburg saw a couple of peasants sweating away at a rope, which + they were pulling backwards and forwards so as to make a tarry + roller revolve with great speed in the socket of an upright post. + Asked what they were about, they vouchsafed no reply; but an old + woman who appeared on the scene from a neighbouring cottage was + more communicative. In the fulness of her heart she confided to the + stranger that her pigs were sick, that the two taciturn bumpkins + were her sons, who were busy extracting a need-fire from the + roller, and that, when they succeeded, the flame would be used to + ignite a heap of rags and brushwood, through which <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page275">[pg 275]</span><a name="Pg275" id="Pg275" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> the ailing swine would be driven. She + further explained that the persons who kindle a need-fire should + always be two brothers or at least bear the same Christian + name.<a id="noteref_697" name="noteref_697" href= + "#note_697"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">697</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The mode of kindling the need-fire + in Hanover.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In the summer of + 1828 there was much sickness among the pigs and the cows of + Eddesse, a village near Meinersen, in the south of Hanover. When + all ordinary measures to arrest the malady failed, the farmers met + in solemn conclave on the village green and determined that next + morning there should be a need-fire. Thereupon the head man of the + village sent word from house to house that on the following day + nobody should kindle a fire before sunrise, and that everybody + should stand by ready to drive out the cattle. The same afternoon + all the necessary preparations were made for giving effect to the + decision of the collective wisdom. A narrow street was enclosed + with planks, and the village carpenter set to work at the machinery + for kindling the fire. He took two posts of oak wood, bored a hole + about three inches deep and broad in each, and set the two poles up + facing each other at a distance of about two feet. Then he fitted a + roller of oak wood into the two holes of the posts, so that it + formed a cross-piece between them. About two o'clock next morning + every householder brought a bundle of straw and brushwood and laid + it down across the street in a prescribed order. The sturdiest + swains who could be found were chosen to make the need-fire. For + this purpose a long hempen rope was wound twice round the oaken + roller in the oaken posts: the pivots were well smeared with pitch + and tar: a bundle of tow and other tinder was laid close at hand, + and all was ready. The stalwart clodhoppers now seized the two ends + of the rope and went to work with a will. Puffs of smoke soon + issued from the sockets, but to the consternation of the bystanders + not a spark of fire could be elicited. Some people openly declared + their suspicion that some rascal had not put out the fire in his + house, when suddenly the tinder burst into flame. The cloud passed + away from all faces; the fire was applied to the heaps of fuel, and + when the flames had somewhat died down, the herds were forcibly + driven through the fire, first the pigs, <span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page276">[pg 276]</span><a name="Pg276" id="Pg276" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> next the cows, and last of all the horses. + The herdsmen then drove the beasts to pasture, and persons whose + faith in the efficacy of the need-fire was particularly robust + carried home brands.<a id="noteref_698" name="noteref_698" href= + "#note_698"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">698</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The mode of kindling the need-fire + in the Harz Mountains.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Again, at a + village near Quedlinburg, in the Harz Mountains, it was resolved to + put a herd of sick swine through the need-fire. Hearing of this + intention the Superintendent of Quedlinburg hurried to the spot and + has described for us what he saw. The beadles went from house to + house to see that there was no fire in any house; for it is well + known that should there be common fire burning in a house the + need-fire will not kindle. The men made their rounds very early in + the morning to make quite sure that all lights were out. At two + o'clock a night-light was still burning in the parsonage, and this + was of course a hindrance to the need-fire. The peasants knocked at + the window and earnestly entreated that the night-light might be + extinguished. But the parson's wife refused to put the light out; + it still glimmered at the window; and in the darkness outside the + angry rustics vowed that the parson's pigs should get no benefit of + the need-fire. However, as good luck would have it, just as the + morning broke, the night-light went out of itself, and the hopes of + the people revived. From every house bundles of straw, tow, faggots + and so forth were now carried to feed the bonfire. The noise and + the cheerful bustle were such that you might have thought they were + all hurrying to witness a public execution. Outside the village, + between two garden walls, an oaken post had been driven into the + ground and a hole bored through it. In the hole a wooden winch, + smeared with tar, was inserted and made to revolve with such force + and rapidity that fire and smoke in time issued from the socket. + The collected fuel was then thrown upon the fire and soon a great + blaze shot up. The pigs were now driven into the upper end of the + street. As soon as they saw the fire, they turned tail, but the + peasants drove them through with shrieks and shouts and lashes of + whips. At the other end of the street there was another crowd + waiting, who <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page277">[pg + 277]</span><a name="Pg277" id="Pg277" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + chased the swine back through the fire a second time. Then the + other crowd repeated the manœuvre, and the herd of swine was driven + for the third time through the smoke and flames. That was the end + of the performance. Many pigs were scorched so severely that they + gave up the ghost. The bonfire was broken up, and every householder + took home with him a brand, which he washed in the water-barrel and + laid for some time, as a treasure of great price, in the manger + from which the cattle were fed. But the parson's wife had reason + bitterly to repent her folly in refusing to put out that + night-light; for not one of her pigs was driven through the + need-fire, so they died.<a id="noteref_699" name="noteref_699" + href="#note_699"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">699</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The mode of kindling the need-fire + in Brunswick.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In Brunswick, + also, the need-fire is known to have been repeatedly kindled during + the nineteenth century. After driving the pigs through the fire, + which was kindled by the friction of wood, some people took brands + home, dipped them in water, and then gave the water to the pigs to + drink, no doubt for the purpose of inoculating them still more + effectually with the precious virtue of the need-fire. In the + villages of the Drömling district everybody who bore a hand in + kindling the <span class="tei tei-q">“wild fire”</span> must have + the same Christian name; otherwise they laboured in vain. The fire + was produced by the friction of a rope round the beams of a door; + and bread, corn, and old boots contributed their mites to swell the + blaze through which the pigs as usual were driven. In one place, + apparently not far from Wolfenbüttel, the need-fire is said to have + been kindled, contrary to custom, by the smith striking a spark + from the cold anvil.<a id="noteref_700" name="noteref_700" href= + "#note_700"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">700</span></span></a> At + Gandersheim down to about the beginning of the nineteenth century + the need-fire was lit in the common way by causing a cross-bar to + revolve rapidly on its axis between two upright posts. The rope + which produced the revolution of the bar had to be new, but it was + if possible woven from threads taken from a gallows-rope, with + which people had been hanged. While the need-fire was being kindled + in this fashion, every other fire in the town had to be put out; + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page278">[pg 278]</span><a name= + "Pg278" id="Pg278" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> search was made + through the houses, and any fire discovered to be burning was + extinguished. If in spite of every precaution no flame could be + elicited by the friction of the rope, the failure was set down to + witchcraft; but if the efforts were successful, a bonfire was lit + with the new fire, and when the flames had died down, the sick + swine were driven thrice through the glowing embers.<a id= + "noteref_701" name="noteref_701" href="#note_701"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">701</span></span></a> On + the lower Rhine the need-fire is said to have been kindled by the + friction of oak-wood on fir-wood, all fires in the village having + been previously extinguished. The bonfires so kindled were composed + of wood of nine different sorts; there were three such bonfires, + and the cattle were driven round them with great gravity and + devotion.<a id="noteref_702" name="noteref_702" href= + "#note_702"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">702</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The mode of kindling the need-fire + in Silesia and Bohemia.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In Silesia, + also, need-fires were often employed for the purpose of curing a + murrain or preventing its spread. While all other lights within the + boundaries were extinguished, the new fire was produced by the + friction of nine kinds of wood, and the flame so obtained was used + to kindle heaps of brushwood or straw to which every inhabitant had + contributed. Through these fires the cattle, both sick and sound, + were driven in the confident expectation that thereby the sick + would be healed and the sound saved from sickness.<a id= + "noteref_703" name="noteref_703" href="#note_703"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">703</span></span></a> When + plague breaks out among the herds at Dobischwald, in Austrian + Silesia, a splinter of wood is chipped from the threshold of every + house, the cattle are driven to a cross-road, and there a tree, + growing at the boundary, is felled by a pair of twin brothers. The + wood of the tree and the splinters from the thresholds furnish the + fuel of a bonfire, which is kindled by the rubbing of two pieces of + wood together. When the bonfire is ablaze, the horns of the cattle + are pared and the parings thrown into the flames, after which the + animals are driven through the fire. This is believed to guard the + herd against the plague.<a id="noteref_704" name="noteref_704" + href="#note_704"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">704</span></span></a> The + Germans of Western Bohemia resort to similar measures for staying a + murrain. You set up a post, bore a hole in it, and insert in the + hole a stick, which you have first of all smeared <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page279">[pg 279]</span><a name="Pg279" id="Pg279" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> with pitch and wrapt in inflammable + stuffs. Then you wind a rope round the stick and give the two ends + of the rope to two persons who must either be brothers or have the + same baptismal name. They haul the rope backwards and forwards so + as to make the tarred stick revolve rapidly till the rope first + smokes and then emits sparks. The sparks are used to kindle a + bonfire, through which the cattle are driven in the usual way. And + as usual no other fire may burn in the village while the need-fire + is being kindled; for otherwise the rope could not possibly be + ignited.<a id="noteref_705" name="noteref_705" href= + "#note_705"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">705</span></span></a> In + Upper Austria sick pigs are reported to have been driven through a + need-fire about the beginning of the nineteenth century.<a id= + "noteref_706" name="noteref_706" href="#note_706"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">706</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The use of the need-fire in + Switzerland.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The need-fire is + still in use in some parts of Switzerland, but it seems to have + degenerated into a children's game and to be employed rather for + the dispersal of a mist than for the prevention or cure of + cattle-plague. In some cantons it goes by the name of <span class= + "tei tei-q">“mist-healing,”</span> while in others it is called + <span class="tei tei-q">“butter-churning.”</span> On a misty or + rainy day a number of children will shut themselves up in a stable + or byre and proceed to make fire for the purpose of improving the + weather. The way in which they make it is this. A boy places a + board against his breast, takes a peg pointed at both ends, and, + setting one end of the peg against the board on his breast, presses + the other end firmly against a second board, the surface of which + has been flaked into a nap. A string is tied round the peg, and two + other boys pull it to and fro, till through the rapid motion of the + point of the peg a hole is burnt in the flaked board, to which tow + or dry moss is then applied as a tinder. In this way fire and smoke + are elicited, and with their appearance the children fancy that the + mist will vanish.<a id="noteref_707" name="noteref_707" href= + "#note_707"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">707</span></span></a> We + may conjecture that this method of dispersing a mist, which is now + left to children, was formerly practised in all seriousness by + grown men in Switzerland. It is thus that religious or magical + rites dwindle away into the sports <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page280">[pg 280]</span><a name="Pg280" id="Pg280" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> of children. In the canton of the Grisons + there is still in common use an imprecation, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Mist, go away, or I'll heal you,”</span> which points + to an old custom of burning up the fog with fire. A longer form of + the curse lingers in the Vallée des Bagnes of the canton Valais. It + runs thus: <span class="tei tei-q">“Mist, mist, fly, fly, or St. + Martin will come with a sheaf of straw to burn your guts, a great + log of wood to smash your brow, and an iron chain to drag you to + hell.”</span><a id="noteref_708" name="noteref_708" href= + "#note_708"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">708</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The mode of kindling the need-fire + in Sweden and Norway. The need-fire as a protection against + witchcraft.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In Sweden the + need-fire is called, from the mode of its production, either + <span lang="sv" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="sv"><span style= + "font-style: italic">vrid-eld</span></span>, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“turned fire,”</span> or <span lang="sv" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="sv"><span style= + "font-style: italic">gnid-eld</span></span>, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“rubbed fire.”</span> Down to near the end of the + eighteenth century the need-fire was kindled, as in Germany, by the + violent rubbing of two pieces of wood against each other; sometimes + nine different kinds of wood were used for the purpose. The smoke + of the fire was deemed salutary; fruit-trees and nets were + fumigated with it, in order that the trees might bear fruit and the + nets catch fish. Cattle were also driven through the smoke.<a id= + "noteref_709" name="noteref_709" href="#note_709"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">709</span></span></a> In + Sundal, a narrow Norwegian valley, shut in on both sides by + precipitous mountains, there lived down to the second half of the + nineteenth century an old man who was very superstitious. He set + salmon-traps in the river Driva, which traverses the valley, and he + caught many fish both in spring and autumn. When his fishing went + wrong, he kindled <span lang="no" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang= + "no"><span style="font-style: italic">naueld</span></span> + (<span class="tei tei-q">“need-fire”</span>) or <span lang="no" + class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="no"><span style= + "font-style: italic">gnideild</span></span> (<span class= + "tei tei-q">“rubbed fire,”</span> <span class="tei tei-q">“friction + fire”</span>) to counteract the witchcraft, which he believed to be + the cause of his bad luck. He set up two planks near each other, + bored a hole in each, inserted a pointed rod in the holes, and + twisted a long cord round the rod. Then he pulled the cord so as to + make the rod revolve rapidly. Thus by reason of the friction he at + last drew fire from the wood. That contented him, for <span class= + "tei tei-q">“he believed that the witchery was thus rendered + powerless, and that good luck in his fishing was now + ensured.”</span><a id="noteref_710" name="noteref_710" href= + "#note_710"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">710</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The need-fire among the Slavonic + peoples.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Slavonic peoples + hold the need-fire in high esteem. <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page281">[pg 281]</span><a name="Pg281" id="Pg281" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> They call it <span class="tei tei-q">“living + fire,”</span> and attribute to it a healing virtue. The ascription + of medicinal power to fire kindled by the friction of wood is said + to be especially characteristic of the Slavs who inhabit the + Carpathian Mountains and the Balkan peninsula. The mode in which + they produce the need-fire differs somewhat in different places. + Thus in the Schar mountains of Servia the task is entrusted to a + boy and girl between eleven and fourteen years of age. They are led + into a perfectly dark room, and having stripped themselves naked + kindle the fire by rubbing two rollers of lime wood against each + other, till the friction produces sparks, which are caught in + tinder. The Serbs of Western Macedonia drive two oaken posts into + the ground, bore a round hole in the upper end of each, insert a + roller of lime wood in the holes, and set it revolving rapidly by + means of a cord, which is looped round the roller and worked by a + bow. Elsewhere the roller is put in motion by two men, who hold + each one end of the cord and pull it backwards and forwards + forcibly between them. Bulgarian shepherds sometimes kindle the + need-fire by drawing a prism-shaped piece of lime wood to and fro + across the flat surface of a tree-stump in the forest.<a id= + "noteref_711" name="noteref_711" href="#note_711"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">711</span></span></a> But + in the neighbourhood of Küstendil, in Bulgaria, the need-fire is + kindled by the friction of two pieces of oak wood and the cattle + are driven through it.<a id="noteref_712" name="noteref_712" href= + "#note_712"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">712</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The need-fire in Russia, Poland, + and Slavonia..</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In many + districts of Russia, also, <span class="tei tei-q">“living + fire”</span> is made by the friction of wood on St. John's Day, and + the herds are driven through it, and the people leap over it in the + conviction that their health is thereby assured; when a + cattle-plague is raging, the fire is produced by rubbing two pieces + of oak wood against each other, and it is used to kindle the lamps + before the holy pictures and the censers in the churches.<a id= + "noteref_713" name="noteref_713" href="#note_713"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">713</span></span></a> Thus + it appears that in Russia the need-fire is kindled for the sake of + the cattle periodically as well as on special emergencies. + Similarly in Poland the peasants are said to kindle fires in + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page282">[pg 282]</span><a name= + "Pg282" id="Pg282" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> the village streets + on St. Rochus's day and to drive the cattle thrice through them in + order to protect the animals against the murrain. The fire is + produced by rubbing a pole of poplar wood on a plank of poplar or + fir wood and catching the sparks in tow. The embers are carried + home to be used as remedies in sickness.<a id="noteref_714" name= + "noteref_714" href="#note_714"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">714</span></span></a> As + practised in Slavonia, the custom of the need-fire used to present + some interesting features, which are best described in the words of + an eye-witness:—<span class="tei tei-q">“In the year 1833 I came + for the first time as a young merchant to Slavonia; it was to Gaj + that I went, in the Požega district. The time was autumn, and it + chanced that a cattle-plague was raging in the neighbourhood, which + inflicted much loss on the people. The peasants believed that the + plague was a woman, an evil spirit (<span class= + "tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Kuga</span></span>), who was destroying the + cattle; so they sought to banish her. I had then occasion to + observe the proceedings in the villages of Gaj, Kukunjevac, + Brezina, and Brekinjska. Towards evening the whole population of + the village was busy laying a ring of brushwood round the + boundaries of the village. All fires were extinguished throughout + the village. Then pairs of men in several places took pieces of + wood, which had been specially prepared for the purpose, and rubbed + them together till they emitted sparks. The sparks were allowed to + fall on tinder and fanned into a flame, with which the dry + brushwood was kindled. Thus the fire burned all round the village. + The peasants persuaded themselves that thereupon <span class= + "tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Kuga</span></span> must take her + departure.”</span><a id="noteref_715" name="noteref_715" href= + "#note_715"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">715</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The need-fire in Servia.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This last + account leaves no doubt as to the significance of the need-fire in + the minds of Slavonian peasantry. They regard it simply as a + barrier interposed between their cattle and the evil spirit, which + prowls, like a hungry wolf, round the fold and can, like a wolf, be + kept at bay by fire. The same interpretation of the need-fire comes + out, hardly less clearly, in the account which another writer gives + of a ceremony witnessed by him at the village of Setonje, at the + foot of the Homolje mountains in the great forest of Servia. An + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page283">[pg 283]</span><a name= + "Pg283" id="Pg283" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> epidemic was raging + among the children, and the need-fire was resorted to as a means of + staying the plague. It was produced by an old man and an old woman + in the first of the ways described above; that is, they made it in + the dark by rubbing two sticks of lime wood against each other. + Before the healing virtue of the fire was applied to the + inhabitants of the village, two old women performed the following + ceremony. Both bore the name of Stana, from the verb <span lang= + "sr" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="sr"><span style= + "font-style: italic">stati</span></span>, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“to remain standing”</span>; for the ceremony could not + be successfully performed by persons of any other name. One of them + carried a copper kettle full of water, the other an old house-lock + with the key. Thus equipped they repaired to a spot outside of the + village, and there the old dame with the kettle asked the old dame + with the lock, <span class="tei tei-q">“Whither away?”</span> and + the other answered her, <span class="tei tei-q">“I came to shut the + village against ill-luck.”</span> With that she locked the lock and + threw it with the key into the kettle of water. Then they marched + thrice round the village, repeating the ceremony of the lock and + key at each round. Meantime all the villagers, arrayed in their + best clothes, were assembled in an open place. All the fires in the + houses had been previously extinguished. Two sturdy yokels now dug + a tunnel through a mound beside an oak tree; the tunnel was just + high enough to let a man creep through it on all fours. Two fires, + lit by the need-fire, were now laid, one at each end of the tunnel; + and the old woman with the kettle took her stand at the entrance of + the tunnel, while the one with the lock posted herself at the exit. + Facing the latter stood another woman with a great pot of milk + before her, and on the other side was set a pot full of melted + swine's fat. All was now ready. The villagers thereupon crawled + through the tunnel on hands and knees, one behind the other. Each, + as he emerged from the tunnel, received a spoonful of milk from the + woman and looked at his face reflected in the pot of melted swine's + fat. Then another woman made a cross with a piece of charcoal on + his back. When all the inhabitants had thus crept through the + tunnel and been doctored at the other end, each took some glowing + embers home with him in a pot wherewith to rekindle the fire on the + domestic hearth. Lastly they put some of the charcoal in a vessel + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page284">[pg 284]</span><a name= + "Pg284" id="Pg284" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> of water and drank + the mixture in order to be thereby magically protected against the + epidemic.<a id="noteref_716" name="noteref_716" href= + "#note_716"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">716</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It would be + superfluous to point out in detail how admirably these measures are + calculated to arrest the ravages of disease; but for the sake of + those, if there are any, to whom the medicinal effect of crawling + through a hole on hands and knees is not at once apparent, I shall + merely say that the procedure in question is one of the most + powerful specifics which the wit of man has devised for maladies of + all sorts. Ample evidence of its application will be adduced in a + later part of this work.<a id="noteref_717" name="noteref_717" + href="#note_717"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">717</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The need-fire in Bulgaria.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In Bulgaria the + herds suffer much from the raids of certain blood-sucking vampyres + called <span lang="bg" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang= + "bg"><span style="font-style: italic">Ustrels</span></span>. An + <span lang="bg" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="bg"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Ustrel</span></span> is the spirit of a + Christian child who was born on a Saturday and died unfortunately + before he could be baptized. On the ninth day after burial he grubs + his way out of the grave and attacks the cattle at once, sucking + their blood all night and returning at peep of dawn to the grave to + rest from his labours. In ten days or so the copious draughts of + blood which he has swallowed have so fortified his constitution + that he can undertake longer journeys; so when he falls in with + great herds of cattle or flocks of sheep he returns no more to the + grave for rest and refreshment at night, but takes up his quarters + during the day either between the horns of a sturdy calf or ram or + between the hind legs of a milch-cow. Beasts whose blood he has + sucked die the same night. In any herd that he may fasten on he + begins with the fattest animal and works his way down steadily + through the leaner kine till not one single beast is left alive. + The carcases of the victims swell up, and when the hide is stripped + off you can always perceive the livid patch of flesh where the + monster sucked the blood of the poor creature. In a single night he + may, by working hard, kill five cows; but he seldom exceeds that + number. He can change his shape and weight very easily; for + example, when he is sitting by day between the horns of a ram, the + animal scarcely feels his weight, but at night he will sometimes + throw himself on an ox or a cow <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page285">[pg 285]</span><a name="Pg285" id="Pg285" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> so heavily that the animal cannot stir, and + lows so pitifully that it would make your heart bleed to hear. + People who were born on a Saturday can see these monsters, and they + have described them accurately, so that there can be no doubt + whatever about their existence. It is, therefore, a matter of great + importance to the peasant to protect his flocks and herds against + the ravages of such dangerous vampyres. The way in which he does so + is this. On a Saturday morning before sunrise the village drummer + gives the signal to put out every fire in the village; even smoking + is forbidden. Next all the domestic animals, with the exception of + fowls, geese, and ducks, are driven out into the open. In front of + the flocks and herds march two men, whose names during the ceremony + may not be mentioned in the village. They go into the wood, pick + two dry branches, and having stript themselves of their clothes + they rub the two branches together very hard till they catch fire; + then with the fire so obtained they kindle two bonfires, one on + each side of a cross-road which is known to be frequented by + wolves. After that the herd is driven between the two fires. Coals + from the bonfires are then taken back to the village and used to + rekindle the fires on the domestic hearths. For several days no one + may go near the charred and blackened remains of the bonfires at + the cross-road. The reason is that the vampyre is lying there, + having dropped from his seat between the cow's horns when the + animals were driven between the two fires. So if any one were to + pass by the spot during these days, the monster would be sure to + call him by name and to follow him to the village; whereas if he is + left alone, a wolf will come at midnight and strangle him, and in a + few days the herdsmen can see the ground soaked with his slimy + blood. So that is the end of the vampyre.<a id="noteref_718" name= + "noteref_718" href="#note_718"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">718</span></span></a> In + this Bulgarian custom, as in the Slavonian custom described above, + the conception of the need-fire as a barrier set up between the + cattle and a dangerous spirit is clearly worked out. The spirit + rides the cow till he comes to the narrow pass between the two + fires, but the heat there is too much for him; he drops in a faint + from the saddle, or rather from the horns, and the now riderless + animal escapes safe and sound <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page286">[pg 286]</span><a name="Pg286" id="Pg286" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> beyond the smoke and flame, leaving her + persecutor prostrate on the ground on the further side of the + blessed barrier.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The need-fire in Bosnia and + Herzegovina.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In Bosnia and + Herzegovina there are some local differences in the mode of + kindling the need-fire, or <span class="tei tei-q">“living + fire,”</span> as it is called. Thus at Jablanica both the uprights + and the roller or cross-piece, which by its revolution kindles the + fire, are made of cornel-tree wood; whereas at Dolac, near + Sarajevo, the uprights and the cross-piece or roller are all made + of lime wood. In Gacko, contrary to the usual custom, the fire is + made by striking a piece of iron on an anvil, till sparks are given + out, which are caught in tinder. The <span class= + "tei tei-q">“living fire”</span> thus produced is employed for + purposes of healing. In particular, if any one suffers from wounds + or sores, ashes of the need-fire are sprinkled on the ailing part. + In Gacko it is also believed that if a pregnant woman witnesses a + conflagration, her child will either be born with a red eruption on + its skin or will contract the malady sooner or later afterwards. + The only remedy consists in ashes of the need-fire, which are mixed + with water and given to the child to drink.<a id="noteref_719" + name="noteref_719" href="#note_719"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">719</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The need-fire in England, in + Yorkshire.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In England the + earliest notice of the need-fire seems to be contained in the + Chronicle of Lanercost for the year 1268. The annalist tells with + pious horror how, when an epidemic was raging in that year among + the cattle, <span class="tei tei-q">“certain beastly men, monks in + garb but not in mind, taught the idiots of their country to make + fire by the friction of wood and to set up an image of Priapus, + whereby they thought to succour the animals.”</span><a id= + "noteref_720" name="noteref_720" href="#note_720"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">720</span></span></a> The + use of the need-fire is particularly attested for the counties of + Yorkshire and Northumberland. Thus in Yorkshire down to the middle + of the eighteenth century <span class="tei tei-q">“the favourite + remedy of the country <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page287">[pg + 287]</span><a name="Pg287" id="Pg287" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + people, not only in the way of cure, but of prevention, was an odd + one; it was to smoke the cattle almost to suffocation, by kindling + straw, litter, and other combustible matter about them. The effects + of this mode of cure are not stated, but the most singular part of + it was that by which it was reported to have been discovered. An + angel (says the legend), descended into Yorkshire, and there set a + large tree on fire; the strange appearance of which or else the + savour of the smoke, incited the cattle around (some of which were + infected) to draw near the miracle, when they all either received + an immediate cure or an absolute prevention of the disorder. It is + not affirmed that the angel staid to speak to anybody, but only + that he left a <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">written</span></em> direction for the + neighbouring people to catch this supernatural fire, and to + communicate it from one to another with all possible speed + throughout the country; and in case it should be extinguished and + utterly lost, that then new fire, of equal virtue, might be + obtained, not by any common method, but by rubbing two pieces of + wood together till they ignited. Upon what foundation this story + stood, is not exactly known, but it put the farmers actually into a + hurry of communicating flame and smoke from one house to another + with wonderful speed, making it run like wildfire over the + country.”</span><a id="noteref_721" name="noteref_721" href= + "#note_721"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">721</span></span></a> + Again, we read that <span class="tei tei-q">“the father of the + writer, who died in 1843, in his seventy-ninth year, had a perfect + remembrance of a great number of persons, belonging to the upper + and middle classes of his native parish of Bowes, assembling on the + banks of the river Greta to work for need-fire. A disease among + cattle, called the murrain, then prevailed to a very great extent + through that district of Yorkshire. The cattle were made to pass + through the smoke raised by this miraculous fire, and their cure + was looked upon as certain, and to neglect doing so was looked upon + as wicked. This fire was produced by the violent and continued + friction of two dry pieces of wood until such time as it was + thereby obtained. <span class="tei tei-q">‘To work as though one + was working for need-fire’</span> <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page288">[pg 288]</span><a name="Pg288" id="Pg288" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> is a common proverb in the North of + England.”</span><a id="noteref_722" name="noteref_722" href= + "#note_722"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">722</span></span></a> At + Ingleton, a small town nestling picturesquely at the foot of the + high hill of Ingleborough in western Yorkshire, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“within the last thirty years or so it was a common + practice to kindle the so-called <span class= + "tei tei-q">‘Need-fire’</span> by rubbing two pieces of wood + briskly together, and setting ablaze a large heap of sticks and + brushwood, which were dispersed, and cattle then driven through the + smoking brands. This was thought to act as a charm against the + spread or developement of the various ailments to which cattle are + liable, and the farmers seem to have had great faith in + it.”</span><a id="noteref_723" name="noteref_723" href= + "#note_723"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">723</span></span></a> + Writing about the middle of the nineteenth century, Kemble tells us + that the will-fire or need-fire had been used in Devonshire for the + purpose of staying a murrain within the memory of man.<a id= + "noteref_724" name="noteref_724" href="#note_724"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">724</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The need-fire in + Northumberland.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">So in + Northumberland, down to the first half of the nineteenth century, + <span class="tei tei-q">“when a contagious disease enters among + cattle, the fires are extinguished in the adjacent villages. Two + pieces of dried wood are then rubbed together until fire be + produced; with this a quantity of straw is kindled, juniper is + thrown into the flame, and the cattle are repeatedly driven through + the smoke. Part of the forced fire is sent to the neighbours, who + again forward it to others, and, as great expedition is used, the + fires may be seen blazing over a great extent of country in a very + short space of time.”</span><a id="noteref_725" name="noteref_725" + href="#note_725"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">725</span></span></a> + <span class="tei tei-q">“It is strange,”</span> says the antiquary + William Henderson, writing about 1866, <span class="tei tei-q">“to + find the custom of lighting <span class= + "tei tei-q">‘need-fires’</span> on the occasion of epidemics among + cattle still lingering among us, but so it is. The vicar of + Stamfordham writes thus <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page289">[pg + 289]</span><a name="Pg289" id="Pg289" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + respecting it: <span class="tei tei-q">‘When the murrain broke out + among the cattle about eighteen years ago, this fire was produced + by rubbing two pieces of dry wood together, and was carried from + place to place all through this district, as a charm against cattle + taking the disease. Bonfires were kindled with it, and the cattle + driven into the smoke, where they were left for some time. Many + farmers hereabouts, I am informed, had the + need-fire.’</span> ”</span><a id="noteref_726" name="noteref_726" + href="#note_726"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">726</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Martin's account of the need-fire + in the Highlands of Scotland.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In the earliest + systematic account of the western islands of Scotland we read that + <span class="tei tei-q">“the inhabitants here did also make use of + a fire called <span lang="gd" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang= + "gd"><span style="font-style: italic">Tin-egin</span></span>, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">i.e.</span></span> a forced fire, or fire of + necessity, which they used as an antidote against the plague or + murrain in cattle; and it was performed thus: all the fires in the + parish were extinguished, and then eighty-one married men, being + thought the necessary number for effecting this design, took two + great planks of wood, and nine of them were employed by turns, who + by their repeated efforts rubbed one of the planks against the + other until the heat thereof produced fire; and from this forced + fire each family is supplied with new fire, which is no sooner + kindled than a pot full of water is quickly set on it, and + afterwards sprinkled upon the people infected with the plague, or + upon the cattle that have the murrain. And this they all say they + find successful by experience: it was practised in the main land, + opposite to the south of Skie, within these thirty + years.”</span><a id="noteref_727" name="noteref_727" href= + "#note_727"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">727</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The need-fire in the island of + Mull. Sacrifice of a heifer.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In the island of + Mull, one of the largest of the Hebrides, the need-fire was kindled + as late as 1767. <span class="tei tei-q">“In consequence of a + disease among the black cattle the people agreed to perform an + incantation, though they esteemed it a wicked thing. They carried + to the top of Cammoor a wheel and nine spindles of oakwood. They + extinguished every fire in <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page290">[pg 290]</span><a name="Pg290" id="Pg290" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> every house within sight of the hill; the + wheel was then turned from east to west over the nine spindles long + enough to produce fire by friction. If the fire were not produced + before noon, the incantation lost its effect. They failed for + several days running. They attributed this failure to the obstinacy + of one householder, who would not let his fires be put out for what + he considered so wrong a purpose. However, by bribing his servants + they contrived to have them extinguished and on that morning raised + their fire. They then sacrificed a heifer, cutting in pieces and + burning, while yet alive, the diseased part. They then lighted + their own hearths from the pile and ended by feasting on the + remains. Words of incantation were repeated by an old man from + Morven, who came over as master of the ceremonies, and who + continued speaking all the time the fire was being raised. This man + was living a beggar at Bellochroy. Asked to repeat the spell, he + said, the sin of repeating it once had brought him to beggary, and + that he dared not say those words again. The whole country believed + him accursed.”</span><a id="noteref_728" name="noteref_728" href= + "#note_728"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">728</span></span></a> From + this account we see that in Mull the kindling of the need-fire as a + remedy for cattle disease was accompanied by the sacrifice of one + of the diseased animals; and though the two customs are for the + most part mentioned separately by our authorities, we may surmise + that they were often, perhaps usually, practised together for the + purpose of checking the ravages of sickness in the herds.<a id= + "noteref_729" name="noteref_729" href="#note_729"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">729</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The need-fire in Caithness.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In the county of + Caithness, forming the extreme north-east corner of the mainland of + Scotland, the practice of the need-fire survived down at least to + about 1788. We read that <span class="tei tei-q">“in those days, + when the stock of any considerable farmer was seized with the + murrain, he would send for one of the charm-doctors to superintend + the raising of a <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">need-fire</span></em>. It was done by + friction, thus; upon any small island, where the stream of a river + or burn ran on each side, a circular booth was erected, of stone + and turf, as it could be had, in <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page291">[pg 291]</span><a name="Pg291" id="Pg291" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> which a semicircular or highland couple of + birch, or other hard wood, was set; and, in short, a roof closed on + it. A straight pole was set up in the centre of this building, the + upper end fixed by a wooden pin to the top of the couple, and the + lower end in an oblong <span lang="gd" class="tei tei-foreign" + xml:lang="gd"><span style="font-style: italic">trink</span></span> + in the earth or floor; and lastly, another pole was set across + horizontally, having both ends tapered, one end of which was + supported in a hole in the side of the perpendicular pole, and the + other in a similar hole in the couple leg. The horizontal stick was + called the auger, having four short arms or levers fixed in its + centre, to work it by; the building having been thus finished, as + many men as could be collected in the vicinity, (being divested of + all kinds of metal in their clothes, etc.), would set to work with + the said auger, two after two, constantly turning it round by the + arms or levers, and others occasionally driving wedges of wood or + stone behind the lower end of the upright pole, so as to press it + the more on the end of the auger: by this constant friction and + pressure, the ends of the auger would take fire, from which a fire + would be instantly kindled, and thus the <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">need-fire</span></em> would be accomplished. + The fire in the farmer's house, etc., was immediately quenched with + water, a fire kindled from this need-fire, both in the farm-houses + and offices, and the cattle brought to feel the smoke of this new + and sacred fire, which preserved them from the + murrain.”</span><a id="noteref_730" name="noteref_730" href= + "#note_730"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">730</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The need-fire in Caithness.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The last + recorded case of the need-fire in Caithness happened in 1809 or + 1810. At Houstry, Dunbeath, a crofter named David Gunn had made for + himself a kail-yard and in doing so had wilfully encroached on one + of those prehistoric ruins called <span lang="gd" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="gd"><span style= + "font-style: italic">brochs</span></span>, which the people of the + neighbourhood believed to be a fairy habitation. Soon afterwards a + murrain broke out among the cattle of the district and carried off + many beasts. So the wise men put their heads together and resolved + to light a <span lang="gd" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang= + "gd"><span style="font-style: italic">teine-eigin</span></span> or + need-fire as the best way of stopping the plague. They cut a branch + from a tree in a neighbouring wood, stripped it of bark, and + carried it to a small island in the Houstry Burn. Every fire in the + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page292">[pg 292]</span><a name= + "Pg292" id="Pg292" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> district having been + quenched, new fire was made by the friction of wood in the island, + and from this sacred flame all the hearths of the houses were lit + afresh. One of the sticks used in making the fire was preserved + down to about the end of the nineteenth century; apparently the + mode of operation was the one known as the fire-drill: a pointed + stick was twirled in a hole made in another stick till fire was + elicited by the friction.<a id="noteref_731" name="noteref_731" + href="#note_731"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">731</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Another account of the need-fire + in the Highlands.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Another account + of the use of need-fire in the Highlands of Scotland runs as + follows: <span class="tei tei-q">“When, by the neglect of the + prescribed safeguards [against witchcraft], the seeds of iniquity + have taken root, and a person's means are decaying in consequence, + the only alternative, in this case, is to resort to that grand + remedy, the <span lang="gd" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang= + "gd"><span style="font-style: italic">Tein Econuch</span></span>, + or <span class="tei tei-q">‘Forlorn Fire,’</span> which seldom + fails of being productive of the best effects. The cure for + witchcraft, called <span lang="gd" class="tei tei-foreign" + xml:lang="gd"><span style="font-style: italic">Tein + Econuch</span></span>, is wrought in the following manner:—A + consultation being held by the unhappy sufferer and his friends as + to the most advisable measures of effecting a cure, if this process + is adopted, notice is privately communicated to all those + householders who reside within the nearest of two running streams, + to extinguish their lights and fires on some appointed morning. On + its being ascertained that this notice has been duly observed, a + spinning-wheel, or some other convenient instrument, calculated to + produce fire by friction, is set to work with the most furious + earnestness by the unfortunate sufferer, and all who wish well to + his cause. Relieving each other by turns, they drive on with such + persevering diligence, that at length the spindle of the wheel, + ignited by excessive friction, emits <span class= + "tei tei-q">‘forlorn fire’</span> in abundance, which, by the + application of tow, or some other combustible material, is widely + extended over the whole neighbourhood. Communicating the fire to + the tow, the tow communicates it to a candle, the candle to a + fir-torch, the torch to a cartful of peats, which the master of the + ceremonies, with pious ejaculations for the success of the + experiment, distributes to messengers, who will proceed with + portions of it to the different houses within the said two running + streams, to kindle the different fires. By the influence + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page293">[pg 293]</span><a name= + "Pg293" id="Pg293" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> of this operation, + the machinations and spells of witchcraft are rendered null and + void.”</span><a id="noteref_732" name="noteref_732" href= + "#note_732"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">732</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Alexander Carmichael's account of + the need-fire in the Highlands of Scotland during the + nineteenth century.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In various parts + of the Highlands of Scotland the need-fire was still kindled during + the first half of the nineteenth century, as we learn from the + following account:—</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class= + "tei tei-q">“<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Tein-eigin</span></em>, neid-fire, need-fire, + forced fire, fire produced by the friction of wood or iron against + wood.</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class= + "tei tei-q">“The fire of purification was kindled from the + neid-fire, while the domestic fire on the hearth was re-kindled + from the purification fire on the knoll. Among other names, the + purification fire was called <span lang="gd" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="gd"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Teine Bheuil</span></span>, fire of Beul, and + <span lang="gd" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="gd"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Teine mor Bheuil</span></span>, great fire of + Beul. The fire of Beul was divided into two fires between which + people and cattle rushed australly for purposes of purification. + The ordeal was trying, as may be inferred from phrases still + current. <span lang="gd" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang= + "gd"><span style="font-style: italic">Is teodha so na teine teodha + Bheuil</span></span>, <span class="tei tei-q">‘Hotter is this than + the hot fire of Beul.’</span> Replying to his grandchild, an old + man in Lewis said ... <span class="tei tei-q">‘Mary! sonnie, it + were worse for me to do that for thee than to go between the two + great fires of Beul.’</span></span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class= + "tei tei-q">“The neid-fire was resorted to in imminent or actual + calamity upon the first day of the quarter, and to ensure success + in great or important events.</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The need-fire in Arran.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class= + "tei tei-q">“The writer conversed with several persons who saw the + neid-fire made, and who joined in the ceremony. As mentioned + elsewhere, a woman in Arran said that her father, and the other men + of the townland, made the neid-fire on the knoll on <span lang="gd" + class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="gd"><span style= + "font-style: italic">La buidhe Bealltain</span></span>—Yellow Day + of Beltane. They fed the fire from <span lang="gd" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="gd"><span style= + "font-style: italic">cuaile mor conaidh caoin</span></span>—great + bundles of sacred faggots brought to the knoll on Beltane Eve. When + the sacred fire became kindled, the people rushed home and brought + their herds and drove them through and round the fire of + purification, to sain them from the <span lang="gd" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="gd"><span style= + "font-style: italic">bana bhuitseach mhor Nic Creafain Mac + Creafain</span></span>—the great arch witch Mac Crauford, now + Crawford. That was in the second decade of this century.</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The need-fire in North + Uist.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class= + "tei tei-q">“John Macphail, Middlequarter, North Uist, said that + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page294">[pg 294]</span><a name= + "Pg294" id="Pg294" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> the last occasion on + which the neid-fire was made in North Uist was <span lang="gd" + class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="gd"><span style= + "font-style: italic">bliadhna an t-sneachda + bhuidhe</span></span>—the year of the yellow snow—1829 (?). The + snow lay so deep and remained so long on the ground, that it became + yellow. Some suggest that the snow was originally yellow, as snow + is occasionally red. This extraordinary continuance of snow caused + much want and suffering throughout the Isles. The people of North + Uist extinguished their own fires and generated a purification fire + at Sail Dharaich, Sollas. The fire was produced from an oak log by + rapidly boring with an auger. This was accomplished by the + exertions of <span lang="gd" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang= + "gd"><span style="font-style: italic">naoi naoinear ciad ginealach + mac</span></span>—the nine nines of first-begotten sons. From the + neid-fire produced on the knoll the people of the parish obtained + fire for their dwellings. Many cults and ceremonies were observed + on the occasion, cults and ceremonies in which Pagan and Christian + beliefs intermingled. <span lang="gd" class="tei tei-foreign" + xml:lang="gd"><span style="font-style: italic">Sail + Dharaich</span></span>, Oak Log, obtained its name from the log of + oak for the neid-fire being there. A fragment of this log riddled + with auger holes marks a grave in <span lang="gd" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="gd"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Cladh Sgealoir</span></span>, the + burying-ground of <span lang="gd" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang= + "gd"><span style="font-style: italic">Sgealoir</span></span>, in + the neighbourhood.</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The need-fire in Reay, + Sutherland.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class= + "tei tei-q">“Mr. Alexander Mackay, Edinburgh, a native of Reay, + Sutherland, says:—<span class="tei tei-q">‘My father was the + skipper of a fishing crew. Before beginning operations for the + season, the crew of the boat met at night in our house to settle + accounts for the past, and to plan operations for the new season. + My mother and the rest of us were sent to bed. I lay in the + kitchen, and was listening and watching, though they thought I was + asleep. After the men had settled their past affairs and future + plans, they put out the fire on the hearth, not a spark being + allowed to live. They then rubbed two pieces of wood one against + another so rapidly as to produce fire, the men joining in one after + the other, and working with the utmost energy and never allowing + the friction to relax. From this friction-fire they rekindled the + fire on the hearth, from which all the men present carried away a + kindling to their own homes. Whether their success was due to their + skill, their industry, their perseverance, or to the neid-fire, I + do not know, but I know that they were much the most successful + crew in the place. They met on Saturday, and went to church on + Sunday like the good men <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page295">[pg + 295]</span><a name="Pg295" id="Pg295" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + and the good Christians they were—a little of their Pagan faith + mingling with their Christian belief. I have reason to believe that + other crews in the place as well as my father's crew practised the + neid-fire.’</span></span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class= + "tei tei-q">“A man at Helmsdale, Sutherland, saw the <span lang= + "gd" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="gd"><span style= + "font-style: italic">tein-eigin</span></span> made in his + boyhood.</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class= + "tei tei-q">“The neid-fire was made in North Uist about the year + 1829, in Arran about 1820, in Helmsdale about 1818, in Reay about + 1830.”</span><a id="noteref_733" name="noteref_733" href= + "#note_733"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">733</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The Beltane fires a precaution + against witchcraft.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">From the + foregoing account we learn that in Arran the annual Beltane fire + was regularly made by the friction of wood, and that it was used to + protect men and cattle against a great witch. When we remember that + Beltane Eve or the Eve of May Day (Walpurgis Night) is the great + witching time of the year throughout Europe, we may surmise that + wherever bonfires have been ceremonially kindled on that day it has + been done simply as a precaution against witchcraft; indeed this + motive is expressly alleged not only in Scotland, but in Wales, the + Isle of Man, and many parts of Central Europe.<a id="noteref_734" + name="noteref_734" href="#note_734"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">734</span></span></a> It + deserves, further, to be noticed that in North Uist the wood used + to kindle the need-fire was oak, and that the nine times nine men + by whose exertions the flame was elicited were all first-born sons. + Apparently the first-born son of a family was thought to be endowed + with more magical virtue than his younger brothers. Similarly in + the Punjaub <span class="tei tei-q">“the supernatural power + ascribed to the first born is not due to his being unlucky, but the + idea underlying the belief seems to be that being the first product + of the parents, he inherits the spiritual powers (or magnetism) in + a high degree. The success of such persons in stopping rain and + hail and in stupefying snakes is proverbial. It is believed that a + first child born with feet forward can cure backache by kicking the + patient in the back, on a crossing.”</span><a id="noteref_735" + name="noteref_735" href="#note_735"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">735</span></span></a></p><span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page296">[pg 296]</span><a name="Pg296" id="Pg296" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The need-fire in + Aberdeenshire.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In the + north-east of Aberdeenshire and the neighbourhood, when the + cattle-disease known as the <span class= + "tei tei-q">“quarter-ill”</span> broke out, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“the <span class="tei tei-q">‘muckle wheel’</span> was + set in motion and turned till fire was produced. From this virgin + flame fires were kindled in the byres. At the same time, if + neighbours requested the favour, live coals were given them to + kindle fires for the purification of their homesteads and turning + off the disease. Fumigating the byres with juniper was a method + adopted to ward off disease. Such a fire was called <span class= + "tei tei-q">‘needfyre.’</span> The kindling of it came under the + censure of the Presbytery at times.”</span><a id="noteref_736" + name="noteref_736" href="#note_736"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">736</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The need-fire in + Perthshire.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In Perthshire + the need-fire was kindled as a remedy for cattle-disease as late as + 1826. <span class="tei tei-q">“A wealthy old farmer, <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page297">[pg 297]</span><a name="Pg297" id="Pg297" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> having lost several of his cattle by + some disease very prevalent at present, and being able to account + for it in no way so rationally as by witchcraft, had recourse to + the following remedy, recommended to him by a weird sister in his + neighbourhood, as an effectual protection from the attacks of the + foul fiend. A few stones were piled together in the barnyard, and + woodcoals having been laid thereon, the fuel was ignited by + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">will-fire</span></em>, that is fire obtained + by friction; the neighbours having been called in to witness the + solemnity, the cattle were made to pass through the flames, in the + order of their dignity and age, commencing with the horses and + ending with the swine. The ceremony having been duly and decorously + gone through, a neighbouring farmer observed to the enlightened + owner of the herd, that he, along with his family, ought to have + followed the example of the cattle, and the sacrifice to Baal would + have been complete.”</span><a id="noteref_737" name="noteref_737" + href="#note_737"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">737</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The need-fire in Ireland.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In County + Leitrim, Ireland, in order to prevent fever from spreading, + <span class="tei tei-q">“all the fires on the townland, and the two + adjoining (one on each side), would be put out. Then the men of the + three townlands would come to one house, and get two large blocks + of wood. One would be set in the ground, and the other one, fitted + with two handles, placed on the top of it. The men would then draw + the upper block backwards and forwards over the lower until fire + was produced by friction, and from this the fires would be lighted + again. This would prevent the fever from spreading.”</span><a id= + "noteref_738" name="noteref_738" href="#note_738"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">738</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The use of the need-fire a relic + of a time when all fires were kindled by the friction of + wood.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Thus it appears + that in many parts of Europe it has been customary to kindle fire + by the friction of wood for the purpose of curing or preventing the + spread of disease, particularly among cattle. The mode of striking + a light by rubbing two dry sticks against each other is the one to + which all over the world savages have most commonly resorted for + the sake of providing themselves with fire;<a id="noteref_739" + name="noteref_739" href="#note_739"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">739</span></span></a> and + we can scarcely doubt that the practice of kindling the need-fire + in this primitive fashion is merely a survival from the time + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page298">[pg 298]</span><a name= + "Pg298" id="Pg298" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> when our savage + forefathers lit all their fires in that way. Nothing is so + conservative of old customs as religious or magical ritual, which + invests these relics of the past with an atmosphere of mysterious + virtue and sanctity. To the educated mind it seems obvious that a + fire which a man kindles with the sweat of his brow by laboriously + rubbing one stick against each other can possess neither more nor + less virtue than one which he has struck in a moment by the + friction of a lucifer match; but to the ignorant and superstitious + this truth is far from apparent, and accordingly they take infinite + pains to do in a roundabout way what they might have done directly + with the greatest ease, and what, even when it is done, is of no + use whatever for the purpose in hand. A vast proportion of the + labour which mankind has expended throughout the ages has been no + better spent; it has been like the stone of Sisyphus eternally + rolled up hill only to revolve eternally down again, or like the + water poured for ever by the Danaids into broken pitchers which it + could never fill.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The belief that the need-fire + cannot kindle if any other fire remains alight in the + neighbourhood.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The curious + notion that the need-fire cannot kindle if any other fire remains + alight in the neighbourhood seems to imply that fire is conceived + as a unity which is broken up into fractions and consequently + weakened in exact proportion to the number of places where it + burns; hence in order to obtain it at full strength you must light + it only at a single point, for then the flame will burst out with a + concentrated energy derived from the tributary fires which burned + on all the extinguished hearths of the country. So in a modern city + if all the gas were turned off simultaneously at all the burners + but one, the flame would no doubt blaze at that one burner with a + fierceness such as no single burner could shew when all are burning + at the same time. The analogy may help us to understand the process + of reasoning which leads the peasantry to insist on the extinction + of all common fires when the need-fire is about to be kindled. + Perhaps, too, it may partly explain that ceremonial extinction of + all old fires on other occasions which is often required by custom + as a preliminary to the lighting of a new and sacred fire.<a id= + "noteref_740" name="noteref_740" href="#note_740"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">740</span></span></a> We + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page299">[pg 299]</span><a name= + "Pg299" id="Pg299" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> have seen that in + the Highlands of Scotland all common fires were extinguished on the + Eve of May-day as a preparation for kindling the Beltane bonfire by + friction next morning;<a id="noteref_741" name="noteref_741" href= + "#note_741"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">741</span></span></a> and + no doubt the reason for the extinction was the same as in the case + of the need-fire. Indeed we may assume with a fair degree of + probability that the need-fire was the parent of the periodic + fire-festivals; at first invoked only at irregular intervals to + cure certain evils as they occurred, the powerful virtue of fire + was afterwards employed at regular intervals to prevent the + occurrence of the same evils as well as to remedy such as had + actually arisen.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The need-fire among the Iroquois + of North America.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The need-fire of + Europe has its parallel in a ceremony which used to be observed by + the Iroquois Indians of North America. <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Formerly when an epidemic prevailed among the Iroquois + despite the efforts to stay it, it was customary for the principal + shaman to order the fires in every cabin to be extinguished and the + ashes and cinders to be carefully removed; for it was believed that + the pestilence was sent as a punishment for neglecting to rekindle + <span class="tei tei-q">‘new fire’</span> or because of the manner + in which the fire then in use had been kindled. So, after all the + fires were out, two suitable logs of slippery elm (<span lang="la" + class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Ulmus fulva</span></span>) were provided for + the new fire. One of the logs was from six to eight inches in + diameter and from eight to ten feet long; the other was from ten to + twelve inches in diameter and about ten feet long. About midway + across the larger log a cuneiform notch or cut about six inches + deep was made, and in the wedge-shaped notch punk was placed. The + other log was drawn rapidly to and fro in the cut by four strong + men chosen for the purpose until the punk was ignited by the + friction thus produced. Before and during the progress of the work + of igniting the fire the shaman votively sprinkled <span class= + "tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">tcar-hŭ'-ĕñ-wĕ</span></span>, <span class= + "tei tei-q">‘real tobacco,’</span> three several times into the + cuneiform notch and offered earnest prayers to the Fire-god, + beseeching him <span class="tei tei-q">‘to aid, to bless, and + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page300">[pg 300]</span><a name= + "Pg300" id="Pg300" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> to redeem the people + from their calamities.’</span> The ignited punk was used to light a + large bonfire, and then the head of every family was required to + take home <span class="tei tei-q">‘new fire’</span> to rekindle a + fire in his or her fire-place.”</span><a id="noteref_742" name= + "noteref_742" href="#note_742"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">742</span></span></a></p> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em"> + <a name="toc47" id="toc47"></a> <a name="pdf48" id="pdf48"></a> + + <h2 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em"> + <span style="font-size: 144%">§ 9. The Sacrifice of an Animal to + stay a Cattle-Plague.</span></h2> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The burnt sacrifice of a calf in + England and Wales. Burnt sacrifice of a pig in Scotland.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Sometimes + apparently in England as well as in Scotland the kindling of a + need-fire was accompanied by the sacrifice of a calf. Thus in + Northamptonshire, at some time during the first half of the + nineteenth century, <span class="tei tei-q">“Miss C—— and her + cousin walking saw a fire in a field and a crowd round it. They + said, <span class="tei tei-q">‘What is the matter?’</span> + <span class="tei tei-q">‘Killing a calf.’</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q">‘What for?’</span> <span class="tei tei-q">‘To stop the + murrain.’</span> They went away as quickly as possible. On speaking + to the clergyman he made enquiries. The people did not like to talk + of the affair, but it appeared that when there is a disease among + the cows or the calves are born sickly, they sacrifice + (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">i.e.</span></span> kill and burn) one + <span class="tei tei-q">‘for good luck.’</span> ”</span><a id= + "noteref_743" name="noteref_743" href="#note_743"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">743</span></span></a> It is + not here said that the fire was a need-fire, of which indeed the + two horrified ladies had probably never heard; but the analogy of + the parallel custom in Mull<a id="noteref_744" name="noteref_744" + href="#note_744"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">744</span></span></a> + renders it probable that in Northamptonshire also the fire was + kindled by the friction of wood, and that the calf or some part of + it was burnt in the fire. Certainly the practice of burning a + single animal alive in order to save all the others would seem to + have been not uncommon in England down to the nineteenth century. + Thus a farmer in Cornwall about the year 1800, having lost many + cattle by disease, and tried many remedies in vain, consulted with + some of his neighbours and laying their heads together <span class= + "tei tei-q">“they recalled to their recollections a tale, which + tradition had handed down from remote antiquity, that the calamity + would not cease until he had actually burned alive the finest calf + which he had upon his farm; but that, when this sacrifice was made, + the murrain would afflict his cattle no more.”</span> Accordingly, + on a day appointed they met, lighted a large fire, placed the best + calf in it, and standing round the blazing <span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page301">[pg 301]</span><a name="Pg301" id="Pg301" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> pile drove the animal with pitchforks back + into the flames whenever it attempted to escape. Thus the victim + was burned alive to save the rest of the cattle.<a id="noteref_745" + name="noteref_745" href="#note_745"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">745</span></span></a> + <span class="tei tei-q">“There can be no doubt but that a belief + prevailed until a very recent period, amongst the small farmers in + the districts remote from towns in Cornwall, that a living + sacrifice appeased the wrath of God. This sacrifice must be by + fire; and I have heard it argued that the Bible gave them warranty + for this belief.... While correcting these sheets I am informed of + two recent instances of this superstition. One of them was the + sacrifice of a calf by a farmer near Portreath, for the purpose of + removing a disease which had long followed his horses and his cows. + The other was the burning of a living lamb, to save, as the farmer + said, <span class="tei tei-q">‘his flocks from spells which had + been cast on 'em.’</span> ”</span><a id="noteref_746" name= + "noteref_746" href="#note_746"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">746</span></span></a> In a + recent account of the fire-festivals of Wales we read that + <span class="tei tei-q">“I have also heard my grandfather and + father say that in times gone by the people would throw a calf in + the fire when there was any disease among the herds. The same would + be done with a sheep if there was anything the matter with a flock. + I can remember myself seeing cattle being driven between two fires + to <span class="tei tei-q">‘stop the disease spreading.’</span> + When in later times it was not considered humane to drive the + cattle between the fires, the herdsmen were accustomed to force the + animals over the wood ashes to protect them against various + ailments.”</span><a id="noteref_747" name="noteref_747" href= + "#note_747"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">747</span></span></a> + Writing about 1866, the antiquary W. Henderson says that a live ox + was burned near Haltwhistle in Northumberland <span class= + "tei tei-q">“only twenty years ago”</span> to stop a murrain.<a id= + "noteref_748" name="noteref_748" href="#note_748"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">748</span></span></a> + <span class="tei tei-q">“About the year 1850 disease broke out + among the cattle of a small farm in the parish of Resoliss, Black + Isle, Ross-shire. The farmer prevailed on his wife to undertake a + journey to a wise woman of renown <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page302">[pg 302]</span><a name="Pg302" id="Pg302" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> in Banffshire to ask a charm against the + effects of the <span class="tei tei-q">‘ill ee.’</span> The long + journey of upwards of fifty miles was performed by the good wife, + and the charm was got. One chief thing ordered was to burn to death + a pig, and sprinkle the ashes over the byre and other farm + buildings. This order was carried out, except that the pig was + killed before it was burned. A more terrible sacrifice was made at + times. One of the diseased animals was rubbed over with tar, driven + forth, set on fire, and allowed to run till it fell down and + died.”</span><a id="noteref_749" name="noteref_749" href= + "#note_749"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">749</span></span></a> + <span class="tei tei-q">“Living animals have been burnt alive in + sacrifice within memory to avert the loss of other stock. The + burial of three puppies <span class= + "tei tei-q">‘brandise-wise’</span> in a field is supposed to rid it + of weeds. Throughout the rural districts of Devon witchcraft is an + article of current faith, and the toad is thrown into the flames as + an emissary of the evil one.”</span><a id="noteref_750" name= + "noteref_750" href="#note_750"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">750</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The calf is burnt in order to + break a spell which has been cast on the herd.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But why, we may + ask, should the burning alive of a calf or a sheep be supposed to + save the rest of the herd or the flock from the murrain? According + to one writer, as we have seen, the burnt sacrifice was thought to + appease the wrath of God.<a id="noteref_751" name="noteref_751" + href="#note_751"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">751</span></span></a> The + idea of appeasing the wrath of a ferocious deity by burning an + animal alive is probably no more than a theological gloss put on an + old heathen rite; it would hardly occur to the simple mind of an + English bumpkin, who, though he may be stupid, is not naturally + cruel and does not conceive of a divinity who takes delight in the + contemplation of suffering. To his thinking God has little or + nothing to do with the murrain, but witches, ill-wishers, and + fairies have a great deal to do with it. The English farmer who + burned one of his lambs alive said that he did it <span class= + "tei tei-q">“to save his flocks from spells which had been cast on + them”</span>; and the Scotch farmer who was bidden to burn a pig + alive for a similar <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page303">[pg + 303]</span><a name="Pg303" id="Pg303" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + purpose, but who had the humanity to kill the animal first, + believed that this was a remedy for the <span class= + "tei tei-q">“evil eye”</span> which had been cast upon his beasts. + Again, we read that <span class="tei tei-q">“a farmer, who + possessed broad acres, and who was in many respects a sensible man, + was greatly annoyed to find that his cattle became diseased in the + spring. Nothing could satisfy him but that they were bewitched, and + he was resolved to find out the person who had cast the evil eye on + his oxen. According to an anciently-prescribed rule, the farmer + took one of his bullocks and bled it to death, catching all the + blood on bundles of straw. The bloody straw was then piled into a + heap, and set on fire. Burning with a vast quantity of smoke, the + farmer expected to see the witch, either in reality or in shadow, + amidst the smoke.”</span><a id="noteref_752" name="noteref_752" + href="#note_752"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">752</span></span></a> Such + reasons express the real beliefs of the peasants. <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Cattle, like human beings, were exposed to the + influences of the evil eye, of forespeaking, and of the casting of + evil. Witches and warlocks did the work of evil among their + neighbours' cattle if their anger had been aroused in any way. The + fairies often wrought injury amongst cattle. Every animal that died + suddenly was killed by the dart of the fairies, or, in the language + of the people, was <span class="tei tei-q">‘shot-a-dead.’</span> + Flint arrows and spear-heads went by the name of <span class= + "tei tei-q">‘faery dairts.’</span> ... When an animal died suddenly + the canny woman of the district was sent for to search for the + <span class="tei tei-q">‘faery dairt,’</span> and in due course she + found one, to the great satisfaction of the owner of the dead + animal.”</span><a id="noteref_753" name="noteref_753" href= + "#note_753"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">753</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Mode in which the burning of a + bewitched animal is supposed to break the spell.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But how, we must + still ask, can burning an animal alive break the spell that has + been cast upon its fellows by a witch or a warlock? Some light is + thrown on the question by the following account of measures which + rustic wiseacres in Suffolk are said to have adopted as a remedy + for witchcraft. <span class="tei tei-q">“A woman I knew forty-three + years had been employed by my predecessor to take care of his + poultry. At the time I came to make her acquaintance she was a + bedridden toothless crone, with chin and nose all but meeting. She + did <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page304">[pg 304]</span><a name= + "Pg304" id="Pg304" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> not discourage in + her neighbours the idea that she knew more than people ought to + know, and had more power than others had. Many years before I knew + her it happened one spring that the ducks, which were a part of her + charge, failed to lay eggs.... She at once took it for granted that + the ducks had been bewitched. This misbelief involved very shocking + consequences, for it necessitated the idea that so diabolical an + act could only be combated by diabolical cruelty. And the most + diabolical act of cruelty she could imagine was that of baking + alive in a hot oven one of the ducks. And that was what she did. + The sequence of thought in her mind was that the spell that had + been laid on the ducks was that of preternaturally wicked + wilfulness; that this spell could only be broken through intensity + of suffering, in this case death by burning; that the intensity of + suffering would break the spell in the one roasted to death; and + that the spell broken in one would be altogether broken, that is, + in all the ducks.... Shocking, however, as was this method of + exorcising the ducks, there was nothing in it original. Just about + a hundred years before, everyone in the town and neighbourhood of + Ipswich had heard, and many had believed, that a witch had been + burnt to death in her own house at Ipswich by the process of + burning alive one of the sheep she had bewitched. It was curious, + but it was as convincing as curious, that the hands and feet of + this witch were the only parts of her that had not been + incinerated. This, however, was satisfactorily explained by the + fact that the four feet of the sheep, by which it had been + suspended over the fire, had not been destroyed in the flames that + had consumed its body.”</span><a id="noteref_754" name= + "noteref_754" href="#note_754"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">754</span></span></a> + According to a slightly different account of the same tragic + incident, the last of the <span class="tei tei-q">“Ipswitch + witches,”</span> one Grace Pett, <span class="tei tei-q">“laid her + hand heavily on a farmer's sheep, who, in order to punish her, + fastened one of the sheep in the ground and burnt it, except the + feet, which were under the earth. The next morning Grace Pett was + found burnt to a cinder, except her <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page305">[pg 305]</span><a name="Pg305" id="Pg305" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> feet. Her fate is recorded in the + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Philosophical Transactions</span></span> as a + case of spontaneous combustion.”</span><a id="noteref_755" name= + "noteref_755" href="#note_755"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">755</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">In burning the bewitched animal + you burn the witch herself.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This last + anecdote is instructive, if perhaps not strictly authentic. It + shews that in burning alive one of a bewitched flock or herd what + you really do is to burn the witch, who is either actually + incarnate in the animal or perhaps more probably stands in a + relation of sympathy with it so close as almost to amount to + identity. Hence if you burn the creature to ashes, you utterly + destroy the witch and thereby save the whole of the rest of the + flock or herd from her abominable machinations; whereas if you only + partially burn the animal, allowing some parts of it to escape the + flames, the witch is only half-baked, and her power for mischief + may be hardly, if at all, impaired by the grilling. We can now see + that in such matters half-measures are useless. To kill the animal + first and burn it afterwards is a weak compromise, dictated no + doubt by a well-meant but utterly mistaken kindness; it is like + shutting the stable-door when the steed is stolen, for obviously by + leaving the animal's, and therefore the witch's, body nearly intact + at the moment of death, it allows her soul to escape and return + safe and sound to her own human body, which all the time is + probably lying quietly at home in bed. And the same train of + reasoning that justifies the burning alive of bewitched animals + justifies and indeed requires the burning alive of the witches + themselves; it is really the only way of destroying them, body and + soul, and therefore of thoroughly extirpating the whole infernal + crew.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Practice of burning cattle and + sheep as sacrifices in the Isle of Man.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In the Isle of + Man the practice of burning cattle alive in order to stop a murrain + seems to have persisted down to a time within living memory. On + this subject I will quote the evidence collected by Sir John Rhys: + <span class="tei tei-q">“A respectable farmer from Andreas told me + that he was driving with his wife to the neighbouring parish of + Jurby some years ago, and that on the way they beheld the carcase + of a cow or an ox burning in a field, with a woman engaged in + stirring the fire. On reaching the village to which they were + going, they found that the burning beast belonged to a farmer + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page306">[pg 306]</span><a name= + "Pg306" id="Pg306" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> whom they knew. They + were further told it was no wonder that the said farmer had one of + his cattle burnt, as several of them had recently died. Whether + this was a case of sacrifice or not I cannot say. But let me give + you another instance: a man whom I have already mentioned, saw at a + farm nearer the centre of the island a live calf being burnt. The + owner bears an English name, but his family has long been settled + in Man. The farmer's explanation to my informant was that the calf + was burnt to secure luck for the rest of the herd, some of which + were threatening to die. My informant thought there was absolutely + nothing the matter with them, except that they had too little to + eat. Be that as it may, the one calf was sacrificed as a + burnt-offering to secure luck for the rest of the cattle. Let me + here also quote Mr. Moore's note in his <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Manx + Surnames</span></span>, p. 184, on the place name <span lang="gv" + class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="gv"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Cabbal yn Oural Losht</span></span>, or the + Chapel of the Burnt Sacrifice. <span class="tei tei-q">‘This + name,’</span> he says, <span class="tei tei-q">‘records a + circumstance which took place in the nineteenth century, but which, + it is to be hoped, was never customary in the Isle of Man. A + farmer, who had lost a number of his sheep and cattle by murrain, + burned a calf as a propitiatory offering to the Deity on this spot, + where a chapel was afterwards built. Hence the name.’</span> + Particulars, I may say, of time, place, and person could be easily + added to Mr. Moore's statement, excepting, perhaps as to the deity + in question; on that point I have never been informed, but Mr. + Moore is probably right in the use of the capital <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">d</span></em>, as + the sacrificer is, according to all accounts, a highly devout + Christian. One more instance: an octogenarian woman, born in the + parish of Bride, and now living at Kirk Andreas, saw, when she was + a <span class="tei tei-q">‘lump of a girl’</span> of ten or fifteen + years of age, a live sheep being burnt in a field in the parish of + Andreas, on May-day, whereby she meant the first of May reckoned + according to the Old Style. She asserts very decidedly that it was + <span lang="gv" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="gv"><span style= + "font-style: italic">son oural</span></span>, <span class= + "tei tei-q">‘as a sacrifice,’</span> as she put it, and + <span class="tei tei-q">‘for an object to the public’</span>: those + were her words when she expressed herself in English. Further, she + made the statement that it was a custom to burn a sheep on old + May-day for a sacrifice. I was fully alive to the interest of this + evidence, and cross-examined her so far as <span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page307">[pg 307]</span><a name="Pg307" id="Pg307" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> her age allows of it, and I find that she + adheres to her statement with all firmness.”</span><a id= + "noteref_756" name="noteref_756" href="#note_756"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">756</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">By burning a bewitched animal you + compel the witch to appear.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But Manxmen burn + beasts when they are dead as well as when they are alive; and their + reasons for burning the dead animals may help us to understand + their reasons for burning the living animals. On this subject I + will again quote Sir John Rhys: <span class="tei tei-q">“When a + beast dies on a farm, of course it dies, according to the + old-fashioned view of things, as I understand it, from the + influence of the evil eye or the interposition of a witch. So if + you want to know to whom you are indebted for the loss of the + beast, you have simply to burn its carcase in the open air and + watch who comes first to the spot or who first passes by; that is + the criminal to be charged with the death of the animal, and he + cannot help coming there—such is the effect of the fire. A Michael + woman, who is now about thirty, related to me how she watched while + the carcase of a bewitched colt was burning, how she saw the witch + coming, and how she remembers her shrivelled face, with nose and + chin in close proximity. According to another native of Michael, a + well-informed middle-aged man, the animal in question was oftenest + a calf, and it was wont to be burnt whole, skin and all. The + object, according to him, is invariably to bring the bewitcher on + the spot, and he always comes; but I am not clear what happens to + him when he appears. My informant added, however, that it was + believed that, unless the bewitcher got possession of the heart of + the burning beast, he lost all his power of + bewitching.”</span><a id="noteref_757" name="noteref_757" href= + "#note_757"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">757</span></span></a></p><span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page308">[pg 308]</span><a name="Pg308" id="Pg308" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Magic sympathy between the witch + and the bewitched animal.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">These statements + shew that in the Isle of Man the sympathetic relation between the + witch and his or her animal victim is believed to be so close that + by burning the animal you compel the witch to appear. The original + idea may have been that, by virtue of a magic sympathy which binds + the two together, whatever harm you do to the animal is felt by the + witch as if it were done to herself. That notion would fully + explain why Manx people used also to burn bewitched animals alive; + in doing so they probably imagined that they were simultaneously + burning the witch who had cast the spell on their cattle.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Parallel belief in magic sympathy + between the animal shape of a were-wolf and his or her ordinary + human shape: by wounding the wolf you simultaneously wound the + man or woman.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This explanation + of the reason for burning a bewitched animal, dead or alive, is + confirmed by the parallel belief concerning were-wolves. It is + commonly supposed that certain men and women can transform + themselves by magic art into wolves or other animals, but that any + wound inflicted on such a transformed beast (a were-wolf or other + were-animal) is simultaneously inflicted on the human body of the + witch or warlock who had transformed herself or himself into the + creature. This belief is widely diffused; it meets us in Europe, + Asia, and Africa. For example, Olaus Magnus tells us that in + Livonia, not many years before he wrote, a noble lady had a dispute + with her slave on the subject of were-wolves, she doubting whether + there were any such things, and he maintaining that there were. To + convince her he retired to a room, from which he soon appeared in + the form of a wolf. Being chased by the dogs into the forest and + brought to bay, the wolf defended himself fiercely, but lost an eye + in the struggle. Next day the slave returned to his mistress in + human form but with only one eye.<a id="noteref_758" name= + "noteref_758" href="#note_758"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">758</span></span></a> + Again, it happened in the year 1588 that a gentleman in a village + among the mountains of Auvergne, looking out of the window one + evening, saw a friend of his going out to hunt. He begged him to + bring him back some of his bag, and his friend said that he would. + Well, he had not gone very far before he met a huge wolf. He fired + and missed it, and the animal attacked him furiously, but he stood + on his guard and with an adroit stroke of his <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page309">[pg 309]</span><a name="Pg309" id="Pg309" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> hunting knife he cut off the right + fore-paw of the brute, which thereupon fled away and he saw it no + more. He returned to his friend, and drawing from his pouch the + severed paw of the wolf he found to his horror that it was turned + into a woman's hand with a golden ring on one of the fingers. His + friend recognized the ring as that of his own wife and went to find + her. She was sitting by the fire with her right arm under her + apron. As she refused to draw it out, her husband confronted her + with the hand and the ring on it. She at once confessed the truth, + that it was she in the form of a were-wolf whom the hunter had + wounded. Her confession was confirmed by applying the severed hand + to the stump of her arm, for the two fitted exactly. The angry + husband delivered up his wicked wife to justice; she was tried and + burnt as a witch.<a id="noteref_759" name="noteref_759" href= + "#note_759"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">759</span></span></a> It is + said that a were-wolf, scouring the streets of Padua, was caught, + and when they cut off his four paws he at once turned into a man, + but with both his hands and feet amputated.<a id="noteref_760" + name="noteref_760" href="#note_760"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">760</span></span></a> + Again, in a farm of the French district of Beauce, there was once a + herdsman who never slept at home. These nocturnal absences + naturally attracted attention and set people talking. At the same + time, by a curious coincidence, a wolf used to prowl round the farm + every night and to excite the dogs in the farmyard to fury by + thrusting his snout derisively through the cat's hole in the great + gate. The farmer had his suspicions and he determined to watch. One + night, when the herdsman went out as usual, his master followed him + quietly till he came to a hut, where with his own eyes he saw the + man put on a broad belt and at once turn into a wolf, which scoured + away over the fields. The farmer smiled a sickly sort of smile and + went back to the farm. There he took a stout stick and sat down at + the cat's hole to wait. He had not long to wait. The dogs barked + like mad, a wolf's snout shewed through the hole, down came the + stick, out gushed the blood, and a voice was heard to say without + the gate, <span class="tei tei-q">“A good job too. I had still + three years to run.”</span> Next day the herdsman appeared as + usual, <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page310">[pg + 310]</span><a name="Pg310" id="Pg310" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + but he had a scar on his brow, and he never went out again at + night.<a id="noteref_761" name="noteref_761" href= + "#note_761"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">761</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Were-wolves in China.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In China also + the faith in similar transformations is reflected in the following + tale. A certain man in Sungyang went into the mountains to gather + fuel. Night fell and he was pursued by two tigers, but scrambled up + a tree out of their reach. Then said the one tiger to the other + tiger, <span class="tei tei-q">“If we can find Chu-Tu-shi, we are + sure to catch this man up the tree.”</span> So off went one of them + to find Chu-Tu-shi, while the other kept watch at the foot of the + tree. Soon after that another tiger, leaner and longer than the + other two, appeared on the scene and made a grab at the man's coat. + But fortunately the moon was shining, the man saw the paw, and with + a stroke of his axe cut off one of its claws. The tigers roared and + fled, one after the other, so the man climbed down the tree and + went home. When he told his tale in the village, suspicion + naturally fell on the said Chu-Tu-shi; and next day some men went + to see him in his house. They <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page311">[pg 311]</span><a name="Pg311" id="Pg311" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> were told that they could not see him; for he + had been out the night before and had hurt his hand, and he was now + ill in bed. So they put two and two together and reported him to + the police. The police arrived, surrounded the house, and set fire + to it; but Chu-Tu-shi rose from his bed, turned into a tiger, + charged right through the police, and escaped, and to this day + nobody ever knew where he went to.<a id="noteref_762" name= + "noteref_762" href="#note_762"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">762</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Were-wolves among the Toradjas of + Central Celebes. The were-wolf in human shape.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The Toradjas of + Central Celebes stand in very great fear of were-wolves, that is of + men and women, who have the power of transforming their spirits + into animals such as cats, crocodiles, wild pigs, apes, deer, and + buffaloes, which roam about battening on human flesh, and + especially on human livers, while the men and women in their own + proper human form are sleeping quietly in their beds at home. Among + them a man is either born a were-wolf or becomes one by infection; + for mere contact with a were-wolf, or even with anything that has + been touched by his spittle, is quite enough to turn the most + innocent person into a were-wolf; nay even to lean your head + against anything against which a were-wolf has leaned his head + suffices to do it. The penalty for being a were-wolf is death; but + the sentence is never passed until the accused has had a fair trial + and his guilt has been clearly demonstrated by an ordeal, which + consists in dipping the middle finger into boiling resin. If the + finger is not burnt, the man is no were-wolf; but if it is burnt, a + were-wolf he most assuredly is, so they take him away to a quiet + spot and hack him to bits. In cutting him up the executioners are + naturally very careful not to be bespattered with his blood, for if + that were to happen they would of course be turned into were-wolves + themselves. Further, they place his severed head beside his + hinder-quarters to prevent his soul from coming to life again and + pursuing his depredations. So great is the horror of were-wolves + among the Toradjas, and so great is their fear of contracting the + deadly taint by infection, that many persons have assured a + missionary that they would not spare their own child if they knew + him to be a were-wolf.<a id="noteref_763" name="noteref_763" href= + "#note_763"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">763</span></span></a> Now + these people, <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page312">[pg + 312]</span><a name="Pg312" id="Pg312" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + whose faith in were-wolves is not a mere dying or dead superstition + but a living, dreadful conviction, tell stories of were-wolves + which conform to the type which we are examining. They say that + once upon a time a were-wolf came in human shape under the house of + a neighbour, while his real body lay asleep as usual at home, and + calling out softly to the man's wife made an assignation with her + to meet him in the tobacco-field next day. But the husband was + lying awake and he heard it all, but he said nothing to anybody. + Next day chanced to be a busy one in the village, for a roof had to + be put on a new house and all the men were lending a hand with the + work, and among them to be sure was the were-wolf himself, I mean + to say his own human self; there he was up on the roof working away + as hard as anybody. But the woman went out to the tobacco-field, + and behind went unseen her husband, slinking through the underwood. + When they were come to the field, he saw the were-wolf make up to + his wife, so out he rushed and struck at him with a stick. Quick as + thought, the were-wolf turned himself into a leaf, but the man was + as nimble, for he caught up the leaf, thrust it into the joint of + bamboo, in which he kept his tobacco, and bunged it up tight. Then + he walked back with his wife to the village, carrying the bamboo + with the were-wolf in it. When they came to the village, the human + body of the were-wolf was still on the roof, working away with the + rest. The man put the bamboo in a fire. At that the human were-wolf + looked down from the roof and said, <span class="tei tei-q">“Don't + do that.”</span> The man drew the bamboo from the fire, but a + moment afterwards he put it in the fire again, and again the human + were-wolf on the roof looked down and cried, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Don't do that.”</span> But this time the man kept the + bamboo in the fire, and when it blazed up, down fell the human + were-wolf from the roof as dead as a stone.<a id="noteref_764" + name="noteref_764" href="#note_764"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">764</span></span></a> + Again, the following story went round among the Toradjas not so + very many years ago. The thing happened at Soemara, on the Gulf of + Tomori. It was evening and some men sat chatting with a certain + Hadji Mohammad. When it had grown dark, one of the men went out of + the house for something or other. A little while afterwards one of + the company <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page313">[pg + 313]</span><a name="Pg313" id="Pg313" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + thought he saw a stag's antlers standing out sharp and clear + against the bright evening sky. So Hadji Mohammad raised his gun + and fired. A minute or two afterwards back comes the man who had + gone out, and says he to Hadji Mohammad, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“You shot at me and hit me. You must pay me a + fine.”</span> They searched him but found no wound on him anywhere. + Then they knew that he was a were-wolf who had turned himself into + a stag and had healed the bullet-wound by licking it. However, the + bullet had found its billet, for two days afterwards he was a dead + man.<a id="noteref_765" name="noteref_765" href= + "#note_765"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">765</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Were-wolves in the Egyptian + Sudan.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In Sennar, a + province of the Egyptian Sudan, the Hammeg and Fungi enjoy the + reputation of being powerful magicians who can turn themselves into + hyaenas and in that guise scour the country at night, howling and + gorging themselves. But by day they are men again. It is very + dangerous to shoot at such human hyaenas by night. On the Jebel + Bela mountain a soldier once shot at a hyaena and hit it, but it + dragged itself off, bleeding, in the darkness and escaped. Next + morning he followed up the trail of blood and it led him straight + to the hut of a man who was everywhere known for a wizard. Nothing + of the hyaena was to be seen, but the man himself was laid up in + the house with a fresh wound and died soon afterwards. And the + soldier did not long survive him.<a id="noteref_766" name= + "noteref_766" href="#note_766"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">766</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The were-wolf story in + Petronius.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But the + classical example of these stories is an old Roman tale told by + Petronius. It is put in the mouth of one Niceros. Late at night he + left the town to visit a friend of his, a widow, who lived at a + farm five miles down the road. He <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page314">[pg 314]</span><a name="Pg314" id="Pg314" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> was accompanied by a soldier, who lodged in + the same house, a man of Herculean build. When they set out it was + near dawn, but the moon shone as bright as day. Passing through the + outskirts of the town, they came amongst the tombs, which lined the + highroad for some distance. There the soldier made an excuse for + retiring behind a monument, and Niceros sat down to wait for him, + humming a tune and counting the tombstones to pass the time. In a + little he looked round for his companion, and saw a sight which + froze him with horror. The soldier had stripped off his clothes to + the last rag and laid them at the side of the highway. Then he + performed a certain ceremony over them, and immediately was changed + into a wolf, and ran howling into the forest. When Niceros had + recovered himself a little, he went to pick up the clothes, but + found that they were turned to stone. More dead than alive, he drew + his sword, and, striking at every shadow cast by the tombstones on + the moonlit road, he tottered to his friend's house. He entered it + like a ghost, to the surprise of the widow, who wondered to see him + abroad so late. <span class="tei tei-q">“If you had only been here + a little ago,”</span> said she, <span class="tei tei-q">“you might + have been of some use. For a wolf came tearing into the yard, + scaring the cattle and bleeding them like a butcher. But he did not + get off so easily, for the servant speared him in the neck.”</span> + After hearing these words, Niceros felt that he could not close an + eye, so he hurried away home again. It was now broad daylight, but + when he came to the place where the clothes had been turned to + stone, he found only a pool of blood. He reached home, and there + lay the soldier in bed like an ox in the shambles, and the doctor + was bandaging his neck. <span class="tei tei-q">“Then I + knew,”</span> said Niceros, <span class="tei tei-q">“that the man + was a were-wolf, and never again could I break bread with him, no, + not if you had killed me for it.”</span><a id="noteref_767" name= + "noteref_767" href="#note_767"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">767</span></span></a></p><span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page315">[pg 315]</span><a name="Pg315" id="Pg315" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Witches like were-wolves can + temporarily transform themselves into animals.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">These stories + may help us to understand the custom of burning a bewitched animal, + which has been observed in our own country down to recent times, if + indeed it is even now extinct. For a close parallel may be traced + in some respects between witches and were-wolves. Like were-wolves, + witches are commonly supposed to be able to transform themselves + temporarily into animals for the purpose of playing their + mischievous pranks;<a id="noteref_768" name="noteref_768" href= + "#note_768"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">768</span></span></a> and + like were-wolves they can in their animal disguise be compelled to + unmask themselves to any one who succeeds in drawing their blood. + In either case the animal-skin is conceived as a cloak thrown round + the wicked enchanter; and if you can only pierce the skin, whether + by the stab of a knife or the shot of a gun, you so rend the + disguise that the man or woman inside of it stands revealed in his + or her true colours. Strictly speaking, the stab should be given on + the brow or between the eyes in the case both of a witch and of a + were-wolf;<a id="noteref_769" name="noteref_769" href= + "#note_769"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">769</span></span></a> and + it is vain to shoot at a were-wolf unless you have had the bullet + blessed in a chapel <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page316">[pg + 316]</span><a name="Pg316" id="Pg316" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + of St. Hubert or happen to be carrying about you, without knowing + it, a four-leaved clover; otherwise the bullet will merely rebound + from the were-wolf like water from a duck's back.<a id= + "noteref_770" name="noteref_770" href="#note_770"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">770</span></span></a> + However, in Armenia they say that the were-wolf, who in that + country is usually a woman, can be killed neither by shot nor by + steel; the only way of delivering the unhappy woman from her + bondage is to get hold of her wolf's skin and burn it; for that + naturally prevents her from turning into a wolf again. But it is + not easy to find the skin, for she is cunning enough to hide it by + day.<a id="noteref_771" name="noteref_771" href= + "#note_771"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">771</span></span></a> So + with witches, it is not only useless but even dangerous to shoot at + one of them when she has turned herself into a hare; if you do, the + gun may burst in your hand or the shot come back and kill you. The + only way to make quite sure of hitting a witch-animal is to put a + silver sixpence or a silver button in your gun.<a id="noteref_772" + name="noteref_772" href="#note_772"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">772</span></span></a> For + example, it happened one evening that a native of the island of + Tiree was going home with a new gun, when he saw a black sheep + running towards him across the plain of Reef. Something about the + creature excited his suspicion, so he put a silver sixpence in his + gun and fired at it. Instantly the black sheep became a woman with + a drugget coat wrapt round her head. The man knew her quite well, + for she was a witch who had often persecuted him before in the + shape of a cat.<a id="noteref_773" name="noteref_773" href= + "#note_773"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">773</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Wounds inflicted on an animal into + which a witch has transformed herself are inflicted on the + witch herself.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Again, the + wounds inflicted on a witch-hare or a witch-cat are to be seen on + the witch herself, just as the wounds inflicted on a were-wolf are + to be seen on the man himself when he has doffed the wolf's skin. + To take a few instances out of a multitude, a young man in the + island of Lismore was out shooting. When he was near Balnagown + loch, he started <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page317">[pg + 317]</span><a name="Pg317" id="Pg317" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> a + hare and fired at it. The animal gave an unearthly scream, and then + for the first time it occurred to him that there were no real hares + in Lismore. He threw away his gun in terror and fled home; and next + day he heard that a notorious witch was laid up with a broken leg. + A man need be no conjuror to guess how she came by that broken + leg.<a id="noteref_774" name="noteref_774" href= + "#note_774"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">774</span></span></a> + Again, at Thurso certain witches used to turn themselves into cats + and in that shape to torment an honest man. One night he lost + patience, whipped out his broadsword, and put them to flight. As + they were scurrying away he struck at them and cut off a leg of one + of the cats. To his astonishment it was a woman's leg, and next + morning he found one of the witches short of the corresponding + limb.<a id="noteref_775" name="noteref_775" href= + "#note_775"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">775</span></span></a> + Glanvil tells a story of <span class="tei tei-q">“an old woman in + Cambridge-shire, whose astral spirit, coming into a man's house (as + he was sitting alone at the fire) in the shape of an huge cat, and + setting her self before the fire, not far from him, he stole a + stroke at the back of it with a fire-fork, and seemed to break the + back of it, but it scambled from him, and vanisht he knew not how. + But such an old woman, a reputed witch, was found dead in her bed + that very night, with her back broken, as I have heard some years + ago credibly reported.”</span><a id="noteref_776" name= + "noteref_776" href="#note_776"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">776</span></span></a> In + Yorkshire during the latter half of the nineteenth century a parish + clergyman was told a circumstantial story of an old witch named + Nanny, who was hunted in the form of a hare for several miles over + the Westerdale moors and kept well away from the dogs, till a black + one joined the pack and succeeded in taking a bit out of one of the + hare's legs. That was the end of the chase, and immediately + afterwards the sportsmen found old Nanny laid up in bed with a sore + leg. On examining the wounded limb they discovered that the hurt + was precisely in that part of it which in the hare had been bitten + by the black dog and, what was still more significant, the wound + had all the appearance of having been inflicted by a dog's teeth. + So they put two and two together.<a id="noteref_777" name= + "noteref_777" href="#note_777"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">777</span></span></a> The + same sort of thing <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page318">[pg + 318]</span><a name="Pg318" id="Pg318" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + is often reported in Lincolnshire. <span class="tei tei-q">“One + night,”</span> said a servant from Kirton Lindsey, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“my father and brother saw a cat in front of them. + Father knew it was a witch, and took a stone and hammered it. Next + day the witch had her face all tied up, and shortly afterwards + died.”</span> Again, a Bardney bumpkin told how a witch in his + neighbourhood could take all sorts of shapes. One night a man shot + a hare, and when he went to the witch's house he found her + plastering a wound just where he had shot the hare.<a id= + "noteref_778" name="noteref_778" href="#note_778"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">778</span></span></a> So in + County Leitrim, in Ireland, they say that a hare pursued by dogs + fled to a house near at hand, but just as it was bolting in at the + door one of the dogs came up with it and nipped a piece out of its + leg. The hunters entered the house and found no hare there but only + an old woman, and her side was bleeding; so they knew what to think + of her.<a id="noteref_779" name="noteref_779" href= + "#note_779"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">779</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Wounded witches in the + Vosges.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Again, in the + Vosges Mountains a great big hare used to come out every evening to + take the air at the foot of the Mont des Fourches. All the + sportsmen of the neighbourhood tried their hands on that hare for a + month, but not one of them could hit it. At last one marksman, more + knowing than the rest, loaded his gun with some pellets of a + consecrated wafer in addition to the usual pellets of lead. That + did the trick. If puss was not killed outright, she was badly hurt, + and limped away uttering shrieks and curses in a human voice. Later + it transpired that she was no other than the witch of a + neighbouring village who had the power of putting on the shape of + any animal she pleased.<a id="noteref_780" name="noteref_780" href= + "#note_780"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">780</span></span></a> + Again, a hunter of Travexin, in the Vosges, fired at a hare and + almost shot away one of its hind legs. Nevertheless the creature + contrived to escape into a cottage through the open door. + Immediately a child's cries were heard to proceed from the cottage, + and the hunter could distinguish these words, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Daddy, daddy, come quick! Poor mammy has her leg + broken.”</span><a id="noteref_781" name="noteref_781" href= + "#note_781"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">781</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Wounded witches in Swabia.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In Swabia the + witches are liable to accidents of the same sort when they go about + their business in the form <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page319">[pg 319]</span><a name="Pg319" id="Pg319" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> of animals. For example, there was a soldier + who was betrothed to a young woman and used to visit her every + evening when he was off duty. But one evening the girl told him + that he must not come to the house on Friday nights, because it was + never convenient to her to see him then. This roused his suspicion, + and the very next Friday night he set out to go to his sweetheart's + house. On the way a white cat ran up to him in the street and + dogged his steps, and when the animal would not make off he drew + his sword and slashed off one of its paws. On that the cat bolted. + The soldier walked on, but when he came to his sweetheart's house + he found her in bed, and when he asked her what was the matter, she + gave a very confused reply. Noticing stains of blood on the bed, he + drew down the coverlet and saw that the girl was weltering in her + gore, for one of her feet was lopped off. <span class= + "tei tei-q">“So that's what's the matter with you, you + witch!”</span> said he, and turned on his heel and left her, and + within three days she was dead.<a id="noteref_782" name= + "noteref_782" href="#note_782"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">782</span></span></a> + Again, a farmer in the neighbourhood of Wiesensteig frequently + found in his stable a horse over and above the four horses he + actually owned. He did not know what to make of it and mentioned + the matter to the smith. The smith said quietly, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“The next time you see a fifth horse in the stable, + just you send for me.”</span> Well, it was not long before the + strange horse was there again, and the farmer at once sent for the + smith. He came bringing four horse-shoes with him, and said, + <span class="tei tei-q">“I'm sure the nag has no shoes; I'll shoe + her for you.”</span> No sooner said than done. However, the smith + overreached himself; for next day when his friend the farmer paid + him a visit he found the smith's own wife prancing about with + horse-shoes nailed on her hands and feet. But it was the last time + she ever appeared in the shape of a horse.<a id="noteref_783" name= + "noteref_783" href="#note_783"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">783</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The miller's wife and the two grey + cats.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Once more, in + Silesia they tell of a miller's apprentice, a sturdy and + industrious young fellow, who set out on his travels. One day he + came to a mill, and the miller told <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page320">[pg 320]</span><a name="Pg320" id="Pg320" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> him that he wanted an apprentice but did not + care to engage one, because hitherto all his apprentices had run + away in the night, and when he came down in the morning the mill + was at a stand. However, he liked the looks of the young chap and + took him into his pay. But what the new apprentice heard about the + mill and his predecessors was not encouraging; so the first night + when it was his duty to watch in the mill he took care to provide + himself with an axe and a prayer-book, and while he kept one eye on + the whirring, humming wheels he kept the other on the good book, + which he read by the flickering light of a candle set on a table. + So the hours at first passed quietly with nothing to disturb him + but the monotonous drone and click of the machinery. But on the + stroke of twelve, as he was still reading with the axe lying on the + table within reach, the door opened and in came two grey cats + mewing, an old one and a young one. They sat down opposite him, but + it was easy to see that they did not like his wakefulness and the + prayer-book and the axe. Suddenly the old cat reached out a paw and + made a grab at the axe, but the young chap was too quick for her + and held it fast. Then the young cat tried to do the same for the + prayer-book, but the apprentice gripped it tight. Thus balked, the + two cats set up such a squalling that the young fellow could hardly + say his prayers. Just before one o'clock the younger cat sprang on + the table and fetched a blow with her right paw at the candle to + put it out. But the apprentice struck at her with his axe and + sliced the paw off, whereupon the two cats vanished with a + frightful screech. The apprentice wrapped the paw up in paper to + shew it to his master. Very glad the miller was next morning when + he came down and found the mill going and the young chap at his + post. The apprentice told him what had happened in the night and + gave him the parcel containing the cat's paw. But when the miller + opened it, what was the astonishment of the two to find in it no + cat's paw but a woman's hand! At breakfast the miller's young wife + did not as usual take her place at the table. She was ill in bed, + and the doctor had to be called in to bind up her right arm, + because in hewing wood, so they said, she had made a slip and cut + off her own right hand. But <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page321">[pg 321]</span><a name="Pg321" id="Pg321" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> the apprentice packed up his traps and turned + his back on that mill before the sun had set.<a id="noteref_784" + name="noteref_784" href="#note_784"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">784</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The analogy of were-wolves + confirms the view that the reason for burning bewitched animals + is either to burn the witch or to compel her to appear.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It would no + doubt be easy to multiply instances, all equally well attested and + authentic, of the transformation of witches into animals and of the + damage which the women themselves have sustained through injuries + inflicted on the animals.<a id="noteref_785" name="noteref_785" + href="#note_785"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">785</span></span></a> But + the foregoing evidence may suffice to establish the complete + parallelism between witches and were-wolves in these respects. The + analogy appears to confirm the view that the reason for burning a + bewitched animal alive is a belief that the witch herself is in the + animal, and that by burning it you either destroy the witch + completely or at least unmask her and compel her to reassume her + proper human shape, in which she is naturally far less potent for + mischief than when she is careering about the country in the + likeness of a cat, a hare, a horse, or what not. This principle is + still indeed clearly recognized by people in Oldenburg, though, as + might be expected, they do not now carry out the principle to its + logical conclusion by burning the bewitched animal or person alive; + instead they resort to a feeble and, it must be added, perfectly + futile subterfuge dictated by a mistaken humanity or a fear of the + police. <span class="tei tei-q">“When anything living is bewitched + in a house, for example, children or animals, they burn or boil the + nobler inwards of animals, especially the hearts, but also the + lungs or the liver. If animals have died, they take the inwards of + one of them or of an animal of the same kind slaughtered for the + purpose; but if that is not possible they take the inwards of a + cock, by preference a black one. The <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page322">[pg 322]</span><a name="Pg322" id="Pg322" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> heart, lung, or liver is stuck all over with + needles, or marked with a cross cut, or placed on the fire in a + tightly closed vessel, strict silence being observed and doors and + windows well shut. When the heart boils or is reduced to ashes, the + witch must appear, for during the boiling she feels the burning + pain. She either begs to be released or seeks to borrow something, + for example, salt or a coal of fire, or she takes the lid off the + pot, or tries to induce the person whose spell is on her to speak. + They say, too, that a woman comes with a spinning-wheel. If it is a + sheep that has died, you proceed in the same way with a tripe from + its stomach and prick it with needles while it is on the boil. + Instead of boiling it, some people nail the heart to the highest + rafter of the house, or lay it on the edge of the hearth, in order + that it may dry up, no doubt because the same thing happens to the + witch. We may conjecture that other sympathetic means of + destruction are employed against witchcraft. The following is + expressly reported: the heart of a calf that has died is stuck all + over with needles, enclosed in a bag, and thrown into flowing water + before sunset.”</span><a id="noteref_786" name="noteref_786" href= + "#note_786"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">786</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">There is the same reason for + burning bewitched things.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">And the same + thing holds good also of inanimate objects on which a witch has + cast her spell. In Wales they say that <span class="tei tei-q">“if + a thing is bewitched, burn it, and immediately afterwards the witch + will come to borrow something of you. If you give what she asks, + she will go free; if you refuse it, she will burn, and a mark will + be on her body the next day.”</span><a id="noteref_787" name= + "noteref_787" href="#note_787"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">787</span></span></a> So, + too, in Oldenburg, <span class="tei tei-q">“the burning of things + that are bewitched or that have been received from witches is + another way of breaking the spell. It is often said that the + burning should take place at a cross-road, and in several places + cross-roads are shewn where the burning used to be performed.... As + a rule, while the things are burning, the guilty witches appear, + though not always in their own shape. At the burning of bewitched + butter they often appear as cockchafers and can be killed with + impunity. Victuals received from witches may be safely consumed if + only you <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page323">[pg + 323]</span><a name="Pg323" id="Pg323" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + first burn a portion of them.”</span><a id="noteref_788" name= + "noteref_788" href="#note_788"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">788</span></span></a> For + example, a young man in Oldenburg was wooing a girl, and she gave + him two fine apples as a gift. Not feeling any appetite at the + time, he put the apples in his pocket, and when he came home he + laid them by in a chest. Two or three days afterwards he remembered + the apples and went to the chest to fetch them. But when he would + have put his hand on them, what was his horror to find in their + stead two fat ugly toads in the chest! He hastened to a wise man + and asked him what he should do with the toads. The man told him to + boil the toads alive, but while he was doing so he must be sure on + no account to lend anything out of the house. Well, just as he had + the toads in a pot on the fire and the water began to grow nicely + warm, who should come to the door but the girl who had given him + the apples, and she wished to borrow something; but he refused to + give her anything, rated her as a witch, and drove her out of the + house. A little afterwards in came the girl's mother and begged + with tears in her eyes for something or other; but he turned her + out also. The last word she said to him was that he should at least + spare her daughter's life; but he paid no heed to her and let the + toads boil till they fell to bits. Next day word came that the girl + was dead.<a id="noteref_789" name="noteref_789" href= + "#note_789"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">789</span></span></a> Can + any reasonable man doubt that the witch herself was boiled alive in + the person of the toads?</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Similarly by burning alive a + person whose form a witch has assumed, you compel the witch to + disclose herself. The burning alive of a supposed witch in + Ireland in 1895.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Moreover, just + as a witch can assume the form of an animal, so she can assume the + form of some other human being, and the likeness is sometimes so + good that it is difficult to detect the fraud. However, by burning + alive the person whose shape the witch has put on, you force the + witch to disclose herself, just as by burning alive the bewitched + animal you in like manner oblige the witch to appear. This + principle may perhaps be unknown to science, falsely so called, but + it is well understood in Ireland and has been acted on within + recent years. In March 1895 a peasant named Michael Cleary, + residing at Ballyvadlea, a remote and lonely district in the county + of Tipperary, burned his wife <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page324">[pg 324]</span><a name="Pg324" id="Pg324" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> Bridget Cleary alive over a slow fire on the + kitchen hearth in the presence of and with the active assistance of + some neighbours, including the woman's own father and several of + her cousins. They thought that she was not Bridget Cleary at all, + but a witch, and that when they held her down on the fire she would + vanish up the chimney; so they cried, while she was burning, + <span class="tei tei-q">“Away she goes! Away she goes!”</span> Even + when she lay quite dead on the kitchen floor (for contrary to the + general expectation she did not disappear up the chimney), her + husband still believed that the woman lying there was a witch, and + that his own dear wife had gone with the fairies to the old + <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">rath</span></span> or fort on the hill of + Kylenagranagh, where he would see her at night riding a grey horse + and roped to the saddle, and that he would cut the ropes, and that + she would stay with him ever afterwards. So he went with some + friends to the fort night after night, taking a big table-knife + with him to cut the ropes. But he never saw his wife again. He and + the men who had held the woman on the fire were arrested and tried + at Clonmel for wilful murder in July 1895; they were all found + guilty of manslaughter and sentenced to various terms of penal + servitude and imprisonment; the sentence passed on Michael Cleary + was twenty years' penal servitude.<a id="noteref_790" name= + "noteref_790" href="#note_790"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">790</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Sometimes bewitched animals are + buried alive instead of being burned.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">However, our + British peasants, it must be confessed, have not always acted up to + the strict logical theory which seems to call for death by fire as + the proper treatment both of bewitched animals and of witches. + Sometimes, perhaps in moments of weakness, they have merely buried + the bewitched animals alive instead of burning them. For example, + in the year 1643, <span class="tei tei-q">“many cattle having died, + John Brughe and Neane Nikclerith, also one of the initiated, + conjoined their mutual skill for the safety of the herd. The + surviving animals were drove past a tub of water containing two + enchanted stones: and each was sprinkled from the liquid contents + in its course. One, however, being unable to walk, <span class= + "tei tei-q">‘was by force drawin out at the byre dure; <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page325">[pg 325]</span><a name="Pg325" id="Pg325" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> and the said Johnne with Nikclerith + smelling the nois thereof said it wald not leive, caused ane hoill + to be maid in Maw Greane, quhilk was put quick in the hole and maid + all the rest of the cattell theireftir to go over that place: and + in that devillische maner, be charmeing,’</span> they were + cured.”</span><a id="noteref_791" name="noteref_791" href= + "#note_791"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">791</span></span></a> + Again, during the prevalence of a murrain about the year 1629, + certain persons proposed to stay the plague with the help of a + celebrated <span class="tei tei-q">“cureing stane”</span> of which + the laird of Lee was the fortunate owner. But from this they were + dissuaded by one who <span class="tei tei-q">“had sene bestiall + curet be taking ane quik seik ox, and making ane deip pitt, and + bureing him therin, and be calling the oxin and bestiall over that + place.”</span> Indeed Issobell Young, the mother of these persons, + had herself endeavoured to check the progress of the distemper by + taking <span class="tei tei-q">“ane quik ox with ane catt, and ane + grit quantitie of salt,”</span> and proceeding <span class= + "tei tei-q">“to burie the ox and catt quik with the salt, in ane + deip hoill in the grund, as ane sacrifice to the devill, that the + rest of the guidis might be fred of the seiknes or + diseases.”</span><a id="noteref_792" name="noteref_792" href= + "#note_792"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">792</span></span></a> + Writing towards the end of the eighteenth century, John Ramsay of + Ochtertyre tells us that <span class="tei tei-q">“the violent death + even of a brute is in some cases held to be of great avail. There + is a disease called the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">black spauld</span></em>, which sometimes + rages like a pestilence among black cattle, the symptoms of which + are a mortification in the legs and a corruption of the mass of + blood. Among the other engines of superstition that are directed + against this fatal malady, the first cow seized with it is commonly + buried alive, and the other cattle are forced to pass backwards and + forwards over the pit. At other times the heart is taken out of the + beast alive, and then the carcass is buried. It is remarkable that + the leg affected is cut off, and hung up in some part of the house + or byre, where it remains suspended, notwithstanding the seeming + danger of infection. There is hardly a house in Mull where these + may not be seen. This practice seems to have taken its rise + antecedent to Christianity, as it reminds us of the pagan custom of + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page326">[pg 326]</span><a name= + "Pg326" id="Pg326" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> hanging up offerings + in their temples. In Breadalbane, when a cow is observed to have + symptoms of madness, there is recourse had to a peculiar process. + They tie the legs of the mad creature, and throw her into a pit dug + at the door of the fold. After covering the hole with earth, a + large fire is kindled upon it; and the rest of the cattle are + driven out, and forced to pass through the fire one by + one.”</span><a id="noteref_793" name="noteref_793" href= + "#note_793"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">793</span></span></a> In + this latter custom we may suspect that the fire kindled on the + grave of the buried cow was originally made by the friction of + wood, in other words, that it was a need-fire. Again, writing in + the year 1862, Sir Arthur Mitchell tells us that <span class= + "tei tei-q">“for the cure of the murrain in cattle, one of the herd + is still sacrificed for the good of the whole. This is done by + burying it alive. I am assured that within the last ten years such + a barbarism occurred in the county of Moray.”</span><a id= + "noteref_794" name="noteref_794" href="#note_794"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">794</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Calves killed and buried to save + the rest of the herd.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Sometimes, + however, the animal has not even been buried alive, it has been + merely killed and then buried. In this emasculated form the + sacrifice, we may say with confidence, is absolutely useless for + the purpose of stopping a murrain. Nevertheless, it has been tried. + Thus in Lincolnshire, <span class="tei tei-q">“when the cattle + plague was so prevalent in 1866, there was, I believe, not a single + cowshed in Marshland but had its wicken cross over the door; and + other charms more powerful than this were in some cases resorted + to. I never heard of the use of the needfire in the Marsh, though + it was, I believe, used on the wolds not many miles off. But I knew + of at least one case in which a calf was killed and solemnly buried + feet pointing upwards at the threshold of the cowshed. When our + garthman told me of this, I pointed out to him that the charm had + failed, for the disease had not spared that shed. But he promptly + replied, <span class="tei tei-q">‘Yis, but owd Edwards were a + soight too cliver; he were that mean he slew nobbutt a wankling + cauf as were bound to deny anny road; if he had nobbutt tekken his + best cauf it wud hev worked reight enuff; 'tain't <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page327">[pg 327]</span><a name="Pg327" id="Pg327" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> in reason that owd skrat 'ud be + hanselled wi' wankling draffle.’</span> ”</span><a id="noteref_795" + name="noteref_795" href="#note_795"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">795</span></span></a></p> + </div> + </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page328">[pg 328]</span><a name= + "Pg328" id="Pg328" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + <hr class="page" /> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> + <a name="toc49" id="toc49"></a> <a name="pdf50" id="pdf50"></a> + + <h1 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"> + <span style="font-size: 173%">Chapter V. The Interpretation of the + Fire-Festivals.</span></h1> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em"> + <a name="toc51" id="toc51"></a> <a name="pdf52" id="pdf52"></a> + + <h2 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em"> + <span style="font-size: 144%">§ 1. On the Fire-festivals in + general.</span></h2> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">General resemblance of the + European fire-festivals to each other.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The foregoing + survey of the popular fire-festivals of Europe suggests some + general observations. In the first place we can hardly help being + struck by the resemblance which the ceremonies bear to each other, + at whatever time of the year and in whatever part of Europe they + are celebrated. The custom of kindling great bonfires, leaping over + them, and driving cattle through or round them would seem to have + been practically universal throughout Europe, and the same may be + said of the processions or races with blazing torches round fields, + orchards, pastures, or cattle-stalls. Less widespread are the + customs of hurling lighted discs into the air<a id="noteref_796" + name="noteref_796" href="#note_796"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">796</span></span></a> and + trundling a burning wheel down hill;<a id="noteref_797" name= + "noteref_797" href="#note_797"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">797</span></span></a> for + to judge by the evidence which I have collected these modes of + distributing the beneficial influence of the fire have been + confined in the main to Central Europe. The ceremonial of the Yule + log is distinguished from that of the other fire-festivals by the + privacy and domesticity which characterize it; but, as we have + already seen, this distinction may well be due simply to the rough + weather of midwinter, which is apt not only to render a public + assembly in the open air disagreeable, but also at any moment to + defeat the object of the assembly by extinguishing the + all-important fire under a downpour of rain or a fall of snow. + Apart from these local or seasonal differences, the general + resemblance between <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page329">[pg + 329]</span><a name="Pg329" id="Pg329" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + the fire-festivals at all times of the year and in all places is + tolerably close. And as the ceremonies themselves resemble each + other, so do the benefits which the people expect to reap from + them. Whether applied in the form of bonfires blazing at fixed + points, or of torches carried about from place to place, or of + embers and ashes taken from the smouldering heap of fuel, the fire + is believed to promote the growth of the crops and the welfare of + man and beast, either positively by stimulating them, or negatively + by averting the dangers and calamities which threaten them from + such causes as thunder and lightning, conflagration, blight, + mildew, vermin, sterility, disease, and not least of all + witchcraft.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Two explanations suggested of the + fire-festivals. According to W. Mannhardt, they are charms to + secure a supply of sunshine; according to Dr. E. Westermarck + they are purificatory, being intended to burn and destroy all + harmful influences.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But we naturally + ask, How did it come about that benefits so great and manifold were + supposed to be attained by means so simple? In what way did people + imagine that they could procure so many goods or avoid so many ills + by the application of fire and smoke, of embers and ashes? In + short, what theory underlay and prompted the practice of these + customs? For that the institution of the festivals was the outcome + of a definite train of reasoning may be taken for granted; the view + that primitive man acted first and invented his reasons to suit his + actions afterwards, is not borne out by what we know of his nearest + living representatives, the savage and the peasant. Two different + explanations of the fire-festivals have been given by modern + enquirers. On the one hand it has been held that they are + sun-charms or magical ceremonies intended, on the principle of + imitative magic, to ensure a needful supply of sunshine for men, + animals, and plants by kindling fires which mimic on earth the + great source of light and heat in the sky. This was the view of + Wilhelm Mannhardt.<a id="noteref_798" name="noteref_798" href= + "#note_798"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">798</span></span></a> It + may be called the solar theory. On the other hand it has been + maintained that the ceremonial fires have no necessary reference to + the sun but are simply purificatory in intention, being designed to + burn up and destroy all harmful influences, whether these are + conceived in a personal form as witches, demons, and monsters, or + in an impersonal form as a sort of pervading taint or corruption of + the air. This is the view of Dr. <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page330">[pg 330]</span><a name="Pg330" id="Pg330" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> Edward Westermarck<a id="noteref_799" name= + "noteref_799" href="#note_799"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">799</span></span></a> and + apparently of Professor Eugen Mogk.<a id="noteref_800" name= + "noteref_800" href="#note_800"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">800</span></span></a> It + may be called the purificatory theory. Obviously the two theories + postulate two very different conceptions of the fire which plays + the principal part in the rites. On the one view, the fire, like + sunshine in our latitude, is a genial creative power which fosters + the growth of plants and the development of all that makes for + health and happiness; on the other view, the fire is a fierce + destructive power which blasts and consumes all the noxious + elements, whether spiritual or material, that menace the life of + men, of animals, and of plants. According to the one theory the + fire is a stimulant, according to the other it is a disinfectant; + on the one view its virtue is positive, on the other it is + negative.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The two explanations are perhaps + not mutually exclusive.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Yet the two + explanations, different as they are in the character which they + attribute to the fire, are perhaps not wholly irreconcilable. If we + assume that the fires kindled at these festivals were primarily + intended to imitate the sun's light and heat, may we not regard the + purificatory and disinfecting qualities, which popular opinion + certainly appears to have ascribed to them, as attributes derived + directly from the purificatory and disinfecting qualities of + sunshine? In this way we might conclude that, while the imitation + of sunshine in these ceremonies was primary and original, the + purification attributed to them was secondary and derivative. Such + a conclusion, occupying an intermediate position between the two + opposing theories and recognizing an element of truth in both of + them, was adopted by me in earlier editions of this work;<a id= + "noteref_801" name="noteref_801" href="#note_801"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">801</span></span></a> but + in the meantime Dr. Westermarck <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page331">[pg 331]</span><a name="Pg331" id="Pg331" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> has argued powerfully in favour of the + purificatory theory alone, and I am bound to say that his arguments + carry great weight, and that on a fuller review of the facts the + balance of evidence seems to me to incline decidedly in his favour. + However, the case is not so clear as to justify us in dismissing + the solar theory without discussion, and accordingly I propose to + adduce the considerations which tell for it before proceeding to + notice those which tell against it. A theory which had the support + of so learned and sagacious an investigator as W. Mannhardt is + entitled to a respectful hearing.</p> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em"> + <a name="toc53" id="toc53"></a> <a name="pdf54" id="pdf54"></a> + + <h2 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em"> + <span style="font-size: 144%">§ 2. The Solar Theory of the + Fire-festivals.</span></h2> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Theory that the fire-festivals are + charms to ensure a supply of sunshine.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In an earlier + part of this work we saw that savages resort to charms for making + sunshine,<a id="noteref_802" name="noteref_802" href= + "#note_802"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">802</span></span></a> and + it would be no wonder if primitive man in Europe did the same. + Indeed, when we consider the cold and cloudy climate of Europe + during a great part of the year, we shall find it natural that + sun-charms should have played a much more prominent part among the + superstitious practices of European peoples than among those of + savages who live nearer the equator and who consequently are apt to + get in the course of nature more sunshine than they want. This view + of the festivals may be supported by various arguments drawn partly + from their dates, partly from the nature of the rites, and partly + from the influence which they are believed to exert upon the + weather and on vegetation.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Coincidence of two of the + festivals with the solstices.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">First, in regard + to the dates of the festivals it can be no mere accident that two + of the most important and widely spread of the festivals are timed + to coincide more or less exactly with the summer and winter + solstices, that is, with the two turning-points in the sun's + apparent course in the sky when he reaches respectively his highest + and his lowest elevation at noon. Indeed with respect to the + midwinter celebration of Christmas we are not left to conjecture; + we <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page332">[pg 332]</span><a name= + "Pg332" id="Pg332" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> know from the + express testimony of the ancients that it was instituted by the + church to supersede an old heathen festival of the birth of the + sun,<a id="noteref_803" name="noteref_803" href= + "#note_803"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">803</span></span></a> which + was apparently conceived to be born again on the shortest day of + the year, after which his light and heat were seen to grow till + they attained their full maturity at midsummer. Therefore it is no + very far-fetched conjecture to suppose that the Yule log, which + figures so prominently in the popular celebration of Christmas, was + originally designed to help the labouring sun of midwinter to + rekindle his seemingly expiring light.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Attempt of the Bushmen to warm up + the fire of Sirius in midwinter by kindling sticks.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The idea that by + lighting a log on earth you can rekindle a fire in heaven or fan it + into a brighter blaze, naturally seems to us absurd; but to the + savage mind it wears a different aspect, and the institution of the + great fire-festivals which we are considering probably dates from a + time when Europe was still sunk in savagery or at most in + barbarism. Now it can be shewn that in order to increase the + celestial source of heat at midwinter savages resort to a practice + analogous to that of our Yule log, if the kindling of the Yule log + was originally a magical rite intended to rekindle the sun. In the + southern hemisphere, where the order of the seasons is the reverse + of ours, the rising of Sirius or the Dog Star in July marks the + season of the greatest cold instead of, as with us, the greatest + heat; and just as the civilized ancients ascribed the torrid heat + of midsummer to that brilliant star,<a id="noteref_804" name= + "noteref_804" href="#note_804"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">804</span></span></a> so + the modern savage of South Africa attributes to it the piercing + cold of midwinter and seeks to mitigate its rigour by warming up + the chilly star with the genial heat of the sun. How he does so may + be best described in his own words as follows:—<a id="noteref_805" + name="noteref_805" href="#note_805"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">805</span></span></a></p><span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page333">[pg 333]</span><a name="Pg333" id="Pg333" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class= + "tei tei-q">“The Bushmen perceive Canopus, they say to a child: + <span class="tei tei-q">‘Give me yonder piece of wood, that I may + put the end of it in the fire, that I may point it burning towards + grandmother, for grandmother carries Bushman rice; grandmother + shall make a little warmth for us; for she coldly comes out; the + sun<a id="noteref_806" name="noteref_806" href= + "#note_806"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">806</span></span></a> shall + warm grandmother's eye for us.’</span> Sirius comes out; the people + call out to one another: <span class="tei tei-q">‘Sirius comes + yonder;’</span> they say to one another: <span class= + "tei tei-q">‘Ye must burn a stick for us towards Sirius.’</span> + They say to one another: <span class="tei tei-q">‘Who was it who + saw Sirius?’</span> One man says to the other: <span class= + "tei tei-q">‘Our brother saw Sirius.’</span> The other man says to + him: <span class="tei tei-q">‘I saw Sirius.’</span> The other man + says to him: <span class="tei tei-q">‘I wish thee to burn a stick + for us towards Sirius; that the sun may shining come out for us; + that Sirius may not coldly come out.’</span> The other man (the one + who saw Sirius) says to his son: <span class="tei tei-q">‘Bring me + the small piece of wood yonder, that I may put the end of it in the + fire, that I may burn it towards grandmother; that grandmother may + ascend the sky, like the other one, Canopus.’</span> The child + brings him the piece of wood, he (the father) holds the end of it + in the fire. He points it burning towards Sirius; he says that + Sirius shall twinkle like Canopus. He sings; he sings about + Canopus, he sings about Sirius; he points to them with fire,<a id= + "noteref_807" name="noteref_807" href="#note_807"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">807</span></span></a> that + they may twinkle like each other. He throws fire at them. He covers + himself up entirely (including his head) in his kaross and lies + down. He arises, he sits down; while he does not again lie down; + because he feels that he has worked, putting Sirius into the sun's + warmth; so that Sirius may warmly come out. The women go out early + to seek for Bushman rice; they walk, sunning their shoulder + blades.”</span><a id="noteref_808" name="noteref_808" href= + "#note_808"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">808</span></span></a> What + the Bushmen thus do to temper the cold of midwinter in the southern + hemisphere by blowing up the celestial fires may have been done by + our rude forefathers at the corresponding season in the northern + hemisphere.</p><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page334">[pg + 334]</span><a name="Pg334" id="Pg334" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The burning wheels and discs of + the fire-festivals may be direct imitations of the sun.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Not only the + date of some of the festivals but the manner of their celebration + suggests a conscious imitation of the sun. The custom of rolling a + burning wheel down a hill, which is often observed at these + ceremonies, might well pass for an imitation of the sun's course in + the sky, and the imitation would be especially appropriate on + Midsummer Day when the sun's annual declension begins. Indeed the + custom has been thus interpreted by some of those who have recorded + it.<a id="noteref_809" name="noteref_809" href= + "#note_809"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">809</span></span></a> Not + less graphic, it may be said, is the mimicry of his apparent + revolution by swinging a burning tar-barrel round a pole.<a id= + "noteref_810" name="noteref_810" href="#note_810"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">810</span></span></a> + Again, the common practice of throwing fiery discs, sometimes + expressly said to be shaped like suns, into the air at the + festivals may well be a piece of imitative magic. In these, as in + so many cases, the magic force may be supposed to take effect + through mimicry or sympathy: by imitating the desired result you + actually produce it: by counterfeiting the sun's progress through + the heavens you really help the luminary to pursue his celestial + journey with punctuality and despatch. The name <span class= + "tei tei-q">“fire of heaven,”</span> by which the midsummer fire is + sometimes popularly known,<a id="noteref_811" name="noteref_811" + href="#note_811"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">811</span></span></a> + clearly implies a consciousness of a connexion between the earthly + and the heavenly flame.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The wheel sometimes used to kindle + the fire by friction may also be an imitation of the + sun.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Again, the + manner in which the fire appears to have been originally kindled on + these occasions has been alleged in support of the view that it was + intended to be a mock-sun. As some scholars have perceived, it is + highly probable <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page335">[pg + 335]</span><a name="Pg335" id="Pg335" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + that at the periodic festivals in former times fire was universally + obtained by the friction of two pieces of wood.<a id="noteref_812" + name="noteref_812" href="#note_812"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">812</span></span></a> We + have seen that it is still so procured in some places both at the + Easter and the midsummer festivals, and that it is expressly said + to have been formerly so procured at the Beltane celebration both + in Scotland and Wales.<a id="noteref_813" name="noteref_813" href= + "#note_813"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">813</span></span></a> But + what makes it nearly certain that this was once the invariable mode + of kindling the fire at these periodic festivals is the analogy of + the need-fire, which has almost always been produced by the + friction of wood, and sometimes by the revolution of a wheel. It is + a plausible conjecture that the wheel employed for this purpose + represents the sun,<a id="noteref_814" name="noteref_814" href= + "#note_814"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">814</span></span></a> and + if the fires at the regularly recurring celebrations were formerly + produced in the same way, it might be regarded as a confirmation of + the view that they were originally sun-charms. In point of fact + there is, as Kuhn has indicated,<a id="noteref_815" name= + "noteref_815" href="#note_815"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">815</span></span></a> some + evidence to shew that the midsummer fire was originally thus + produced. We have seen that many Hungarian swine-herds make fire on + Midsummer Eve by rotating a wheel round a wooden axle wrapt in + hemp, and that they drive their pigs through the fire thus + made.<a id="noteref_816" name="noteref_816" href= + "#note_816"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">816</span></span></a> At + Obermedlingen, in Swabia, the <span class="tei tei-q">“fire of + heaven,”</span> as it was called, was made on St. Vitus's Day (the + fifteenth of June) by igniting a cart-wheel, which, smeared with + pitch and plaited with straw, was fastened on a pole twelve feet + high, the top of the pole being inserted in the nave of the wheel. + This fire was <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page336">[pg + 336]</span><a name="Pg336" id="Pg336" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + made on the summit of a mountain, and as the flame ascended, the + people uttered a set form of words, with eyes and arms directed + heavenward.<a id="noteref_817" name="noteref_817" href= + "#note_817"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">817</span></span></a> Here + the fixing of a wheel on a pole and igniting it suggests that + originally the fire was produced, as in the case of the need-fire, + by the revolution of a wheel. The day on which the ceremony takes + place (the fifteenth of June) is near midsummer; and we have seen + that in Masuren fire is, or used to be, actually made on Midsummer + Day by turning a wheel rapidly about an oaken pole,<a id= + "noteref_818" name="noteref_818" href="#note_818"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">818</span></span></a> + though it is not said that the new fire so obtained is used to + light a bonfire. However, we must bear in mind that in all such + cases the use of a wheel may be merely a mechanical device to + facilitate the operation of fire-making by increasing the friction; + it need not have any symbolical significance.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The influence which the fires are + supposed to exert on the weather and vegetation may be thought + to be due to an increase of solar heat produced by the + fires.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Further, the + influence which these fires, whether periodic or occasional, are + supposed to exert on the weather and vegetation may be cited in + support of the view that they are sun-charms, since the effects + ascribed to them resemble those of sunshine. Thus, the French + belief that in a rainy June the lighting of the midsummer bonfires + will cause the rain to cease<a id="noteref_819" name="noteref_819" + href="#note_819"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">819</span></span></a> + appears to assume that they can disperse the dark clouds and make + the sun to break out in radiant glory, drying the wet earth and + dripping trees. Similarly the use of the need-fire by Swiss + children on foggy days for the purpose of clearing away the + mist<a id="noteref_820" name="noteref_820" href= + "#note_820"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">820</span></span></a> may + very naturally be interpreted as a sun-charm. Again, we have seen + that in the Vosges Mountains the people believe that the midsummer + fires help to preserve the fruits of the earth and ensure good + crops.<a id="noteref_821" name="noteref_821" href= + "#note_821"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">821</span></span></a> In + Sweden the warmth or cold of the coming season is inferred from the + direction in which the flames of the May Day bonfire are blown; if + they blow to the south, it will be warm, if to the north, + cold.<a id="noteref_822" name="noteref_822" href= + "#note_822"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">822</span></span></a> No + doubt at present the direction of the flames is regarded merely as + an augury of the weather, not as a mode of influencing it. But we + may be pretty sure that this is one of the cases in which magic has + dwindled into divination. So in the Eifel <span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page337">[pg 337]</span><a name="Pg337" id="Pg337" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> Mountains, when the smoke blows towards the + corn-fields, this is an omen that the harvest will be + abundant.<a id="noteref_823" name="noteref_823" href= + "#note_823"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">823</span></span></a> But + the older view may have been not merely that the smoke and flames + prognosticated, but that they actually produced an abundant + harvest, the heat of the flames acting like sunshine on the corn. + Perhaps it was with this view that people in the Isle of Man lit + fires to windward of their fields in order that the smoke might + blow over them.<a id="noteref_824" name="noteref_824" href= + "#note_824"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">824</span></span></a> So in + South Africa, about the month of April, the Matabeles light huge + fires to the windward of their gardens, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“their idea being that the smoke, by passing over the + crops, will assist the ripening of them.”</span><a id="noteref_825" + name="noteref_825" href="#note_825"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">825</span></span></a> Among + the Zulus also <span class="tei tei-q">“medicine is burned on a + fire placed to windward of the garden, the fumigation which the + plants in consequence receive being held to improve the + crop.”</span><a id="noteref_826" name="noteref_826" href= + "#note_826"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">826</span></span></a> + Again, the idea of our European peasants that the corn will grow + well as far as the blaze of the bonfire is visible,<a id= + "noteref_827" name="noteref_827" href="#note_827"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">827</span></span></a> may + be interpreted as a remnant of the belief in the quickening and + fertilizing power of the bonfires. The same belief, it may be + argued, reappears in the notion that embers taken from the bonfires + and inserted in the fields will promote the growth of the + crops,<a id="noteref_828" name="noteref_828" href= + "#note_828"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">828</span></span></a> and + it may be thought to underlie the customs of sowing flax-seed in + the direction in which the flames blow,<a id="noteref_829" name= + "noteref_829" href="#note_829"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">829</span></span></a> of + mixing the ashes of the bonfire with the seed-corn at sowing,<a id= + "noteref_830" name="noteref_830" href="#note_830"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">830</span></span></a> of + scattering the ashes by themselves over the field to fertilize + it,<a id="noteref_831" name="noteref_831" href= + "#note_831"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">831</span></span></a> and + of incorporating a piece of the Yule log in the plough to make the + seeds thrive.<a id="noteref_832" name="noteref_832" href= + "#note_832"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">832</span></span></a> The + opinion that the flax or hemp will grow as high as the flames rise + or the people leap over them<a id="noteref_833" name="noteref_833" + href="#note_833"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">833</span></span></a> + belongs clearly to the same class of ideas. Again, at Konz, on the + banks of the Moselle, if the blazing wheel which was trundled down + the hillside reached the river without being extinguished, this was + hailed as a proof that the <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page338">[pg 338]</span><a name="Pg338" id="Pg338" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> vintage would be abundant. So firmly was this + belief held that the successful performance of the ceremony + entitled the villagers to levy a tax upon the owners of the + neighbouring vineyards.<a id="noteref_834" name="noteref_834" href= + "#note_834"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">834</span></span></a> Here + the unextinguished wheel might be taken to represent an unclouded + sun, which in turn would portend an abundant vintage. So the + waggon-load of white wine which the villagers received from the + vineyards round about might pass for a payment for the sunshine + which they had procured for the grapes. Similarly we saw that in + the Vale of Glamorgan a blazing wheel used to be trundled down hill + on Midsummer Day, and that if the fire were extinguished before the + wheel reached the foot of the hill, the people expected a bad + harvest; whereas if the wheel kept alight all the way down and + continued to blaze for a long time, the farmers looked forward to + heavy crops that summer.<a id="noteref_835" name="noteref_835" + href="#note_835"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">835</span></span></a> Here, + again, it is natural to suppose that the rustic mind traced a + direct connexion between the fire of the wheel and the fire of the + sun, on which the crops are dependent.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The effect which the bonfires are + supposed to have in fertilizing cattle and women may also be + attributed to an increase of solar heat produced by the + fires.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But in popular + belief the quickening and fertilizing influence of the bonfires is + not limited to the vegetable world; it extends also to animals. + This plainly appears from the Irish custom of driving barren cattle + through the mid-summer fires,<a id="noteref_836" name="noteref_836" + href="#note_836"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">836</span></span></a> from + the French belief that the Yule-log steeped in water helps cows to + calve,<a id="noteref_837" name="noteref_837" href= + "#note_837"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">837</span></span></a> from + the French and Servian notion that there will be as many chickens, + calves, lambs, and kids as there are sparks struck out of the Yule + log,<a id="noteref_838" name="noteref_838" href= + "#note_838"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">838</span></span></a> from + the French custom of putting the ashes of the bonfires in the + fowls' nests to make the hens lay eggs,<a id="noteref_839" name= + "noteref_839" href="#note_839"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">839</span></span></a> and + from the German practice of mixing the ashes of the bonfires with + the drink of cattle in order to make the animals thrive.<a id= + "noteref_840" name="noteref_840" href="#note_840"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">840</span></span></a> + Further, there are clear indications that even human fecundity is + supposed to be promoted by the genial heat of the fires. In Morocco + the people think that childless couples can obtain offspring by + leaping over the midsummer bonfire.<a id="noteref_841" name= + "noteref_841" href="#note_841"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">841</span></span></a> It is + an Irish belief that a girl who jumps thrice over the midsummer + bonfire will soon marry and become the mother <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page339">[pg 339]</span><a name="Pg339" id="Pg339" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> of many children;<a id="noteref_842" + name="noteref_842" href="#note_842"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">842</span></span></a> in + Flanders women leap over the Midsummer fires to ensure an easy + delivery;<a id="noteref_843" name="noteref_843" href= + "#note_843"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">843</span></span></a> and + in various parts of France they think that if a girl dances round + nine fires she will be sure to marry within the year.<a id= + "noteref_844" name="noteref_844" href="#note_844"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">844</span></span></a> On + the other hand, in Lechrain people say that if a young man and + woman, leaping over the midsummer fire together, escape unsmirched, + the young woman will not become a mother within twelve + months:<a id="noteref_845" name="noteref_845" href= + "#note_845"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">845</span></span></a> the + flames have not touched and fertilized her. In parts of Switzerland + and France the lighting of the Yule log is accompanied by a prayer + that the women may bear children, the she-goats bring forth kids, + and the ewes drop lambs.<a id="noteref_846" name="noteref_846" + href="#note_846"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">846</span></span></a> The + rule observed in some places that the bonfires should be kindled by + the person who was last married<a id="noteref_847" name= + "noteref_847" href="#note_847"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">847</span></span></a> seems + to belong to the same class of ideas, whether it be that such a + person is supposed to receive from, or to impart to, the fire a + generative and fertilizing influence. The common practice of lovers + leaping over the fires hand in hand may very well have originated + in a notion that thereby their marriage would be blessed with + offspring; and the like motive would explain the custom which + obliges couples married within the year to dance to the light of + torches.<a id="noteref_848" name="noteref_848" href= + "#note_848"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">848</span></span></a> And + the scenes of profligacy which appear to have marked the midsummer + celebration among the Esthonians,<a id="noteref_849" name= + "noteref_849" href="#note_849"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">849</span></span></a> as + they once marked the celebration of May Day among ourselves, may + have sprung, not from the mere license of holiday-makers, but from + a crude notion that such orgies were justified, if not required, by + some mysterious bond which linked the life of man to the courses of + the heavens at this turning-point of the year.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The custom of carrying lighted + torches about the country at the festivals may be explained as + an attempt to diffuse the sun's heat.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">At the festivals + which we are considering the custom of kindling bonfires is + commonly associated with a custom of carrying lighted torches about + the fields, the orchards, the pastures, the flocks and the herds; + and we can hardly doubt that the two customs are only two different + ways of attaining the same object, namely, the benefits which are + believed to flow from the fire, whether it be stationary or + portable. <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page340">[pg + 340]</span><a name="Pg340" id="Pg340" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + Accordingly if we accept the solar theory of the bonfires, we seem + bound to apply it also to the torches; we must suppose that the + practice of marching or running with blazing torches about the + country is simply a means of diffusing far and wide the genial + influence of the sunshine, of which these flickering flames are a + feeble imitation. In favour of this view it may be said that + sometimes the torches are carried about the fields for the express + purpose of fertilizing them,<a id="noteref_850" name="noteref_850" + href="#note_850"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">850</span></span></a> and + for the same purpose live coals from the bonfires are sometimes + placed in the fields <span class="tei tei-q">“to prevent + blight.”</span><a id="noteref_851" name="noteref_851" href= + "#note_851"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">851</span></span></a> On + the Eve of Twelfth Day in Normandy men, women, and children run + wildly through the fields and orchards with lighted torches, which + they wave about the branches and dash against the trunks of the + fruit-trees for the sake of burning the moss and driving away the + moles and field mice. <span class="tei tei-q">“They believe that + the ceremony fulfils the double object of exorcizing the vermin + whose multiplication would be a real calamity, and of imparting + fecundity to the trees, the fields, and even the cattle”</span>; + and they imagine that the more the ceremony is prolonged, the + greater will be the crop of fruit next autumn.<a id="noteref_852" + name="noteref_852" href="#note_852"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">852</span></span></a> In + Bohemia they say that the corn will grow as high as they fling the + blazing besoms into the air.<a id="noteref_853" name="noteref_853" + href="#note_853"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">853</span></span></a> Nor + are such notions confined to Europe. In Corea, a few days before + the New Year festival, the eunuchs of the palace swing burning + torches, chanting invocations the while, and this is supposed to + ensure bountiful crops for the next season.<a id="noteref_854" + name="noteref_854" href="#note_854"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">854</span></span></a> The + custom of trundling a burning wheel <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page341">[pg 341]</span><a name="Pg341" id="Pg341" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> over the fields, which used to be observed in + Poitou for the express purpose of fertilizing them,<a id= + "noteref_855" name="noteref_855" href="#note_855"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">855</span></span></a> may + be thought to embody the same idea in a still more graphic form; + since in this way the mock-sun itself, not merely its light and + heat represented by torches, is made actually to pass over the + ground which is to receive its quickening and kindly influence. + Once more, the custom of carrying lighted brands round cattle<a id= + "noteref_856" name="noteref_856" href="#note_856"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">856</span></span></a> is + plainly equivalent to driving the animals through the bonfire; and + if the bonfire is a sun-charm, the torches must be so also.</p> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em"> + <a name="toc55" id="toc55"></a> <a name="pdf56" id="pdf56"></a> + + <h2 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em"> + <span style="font-size: 144%">§ 3. The Purificatory Theory of the + Fire-festivals.</span></h2> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Theory that the fires at the + festivals are purificatory, being intended to burn up all + harmful things.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Thus far we have + considered what may be said for the theory that at the European + fire-festivals the fire is kindled as a charm to ensure an abundant + supply of sunshine for man and beast, for corn and fruits. It + remains to consider what may be said against this theory and in + favour of the view that in these rites fire is employed not as a + creative but as a cleansing agent, which purifies men, animals, and + plants by burning up and consuming the noxious elements, whether + material or spiritual, which menace all living things with disease + and death.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The purificatory or destructive + effect of the fires is often alleged by the people who light + them. The great evil against which the fire at the festivals is + directed appears to be witchcraft.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">First, then, it + is to be observed that the people who practise the fire-customs + appear never to allege the solar theory in explanation of them, + while on the contrary they do frequently and emphatically put + forward the purificatory theory. This is a strong argument in + favour of the purificatory and against the solar theory; for the + popular explanation of a popular custom is never to be rejected + except for grave cause. And in the present case there seems to be + no adequate reason for rejecting it. The conception of fire as a + destructive agent, which can be turned to account for the + consumption of evil things, is so simple and obvious that it could + hardly escape the minds even of the rude peasantry with whom these + festivals originated. On the other hand the conception of fire as + an emanation of the sun, or at all events as linked to it by a bond + of physical sympathy, is far less simple and obvious; and though + the <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page342">[pg 342]</span><a name= + "Pg342" id="Pg342" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> use of fire as a + charm to produce sunshine appears to be undeniable,<a id= + "noteref_857" name="noteref_857" href="#note_857"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">857</span></span></a> + nevertheless in attempting to explain popular customs we should + never have recourse to a more recondite idea when a simpler one + lies to hand and is supported by the explicit testimony of the + people themselves. Now in the case of the fire-festivals the + destructive aspect of fire is one upon which the people dwell again + and again; and it is highly significant that the great evil against + which the fire is directed appears to be witchcraft. Again and + again we are told that the fires are intended to burn or repel the + witches;<a id="noteref_858" name="noteref_858" href= + "#note_858"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">858</span></span></a> and + the intention is sometimes graphically expressed by burning an + effigy of a witch in the fire.<a id="noteref_859" name= + "noteref_859" href="#note_859"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">859</span></span></a> + Hence, when we remember the great hold which the dread of + witchcraft has had on the popular European mind in all ages, we may + suspect that the primary intention of all these fire-festivals was + simply to destroy or at all events get rid of the witches, who were + regarded as the causes of nearly all the misfortunes and calamities + that befall men, their cattle, and their crops.<a id="noteref_860" + name="noteref_860" href="#note_860"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">860</span></span></a></p><span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page343">[pg 343]</span><a name="Pg343" id="Pg343" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Amongst the evils for which the + fire-festivals are deemed remedies the fore-most is + cattle-disease, and cattle-disease is often supposed to be an + effect of witchcraft.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This suspicion + is confirmed when we examine the evils for which the bonfires and + torches were supposed to provide a remedy. Foremost, perhaps, among + these evils we may reckon the diseases of cattle; and of all the + ills that witches are believed to work there is probably none which + is so constantly insisted on as the harm they do to the herds, + particularly by stealing the milk from the cows.<a id="noteref_861" + name="noteref_861" href="#note_861"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">861</span></span></a> Now + it is significant that the need-fire, which may perhaps be regarded + as the parent of the periodic fire-festivals, is kindled above all + as a remedy for a murrain or other disease of cattle; and the + circumstance suggests, what on general grounds seems probable, that + the custom of kindling the need-fire goes back to a time when the + ancestors of the European peoples subsisted chiefly on the products + of their herds, and when agriculture as yet played a subordinate + part in their lives. Witches and wolves are the two great foes + still dreaded by the herdsman in many parts of Europe;<a id= + "noteref_862" name="noteref_862" href="#note_862"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">862</span></span></a> and + we need not wonder that he should resort to fire as a powerful + means of <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page344">[pg + 344]</span><a name="Pg344" id="Pg344" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + banning them both. Among Slavonic peoples it appears that the foes + whom the need-fire is designed to combat are not so much living + witches as vampyres and other evil spirits,<a id="noteref_863" + name="noteref_863" href="#note_863"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">863</span></span></a> and + the ceremony, as we saw, aims rather at repelling these baleful + beings than at actually consuming them in the flames. But for our + present purpose these distinctions are immaterial. The important + thing to observe is that among the Slavs the need-fire, which is + probably the original of all the ceremonial fires now under + consideration, is not a sun-charm, but clearly and unmistakably + nothing but a means of protecting man and beast against the attacks + of maleficent creatures, whom the peasant thinks to burn or scare + by the heat of the fire, just as he might burn or scare wild + animals.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Again, the bonfires are thought to + avert hail, thunder, lightning, and other maladies, all of + which are attributed to the maleficent arts of witches.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Again, the + bonfires are often supposed to protect the fields against + hail<a id="noteref_864" name="noteref_864" href= + "#note_864"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">864</span></span></a> and + the homestead against thunder and lightning.<a id="noteref_865" + name="noteref_865" href="#note_865"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">865</span></span></a> But + both hail and thunderstorms are frequently thought to be caused by + witches;<a id="noteref_866" name="noteref_866" href= + "#note_866"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">866</span></span></a> hence + the fire which bans the witches necessarily serves at the same time + as a talisman against hail, thunder, and lightning. Further, brands + taken from the bonfires are commonly kept in the houses to guard + them against conflagration;<a id="noteref_867" name="noteref_867" + href="#note_867"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">867</span></span></a> and + though this may perhaps be done on the principle of homoeopathic + magic, one fire being thought to act as a preventive of another, it + is also possible that the intention may be to keep + witch-incendiaries at bay. Again, people leap over the bonfires as + a preventive of colic,<a id="noteref_868" name="noteref_868" href= + "#note_868"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">868</span></span></a> and + look at the flames steadily in order to preserve their eyes in good + health;<a id="noteref_869" name="noteref_869" href= + "#note_869"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">869</span></span></a> and + both colic and sore eyes are in Germany, and probably elsewhere, + set down to the machinations of witches.<a id="noteref_870" name= + "noteref_870" href="#note_870"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">870</span></span></a> Once + more, to leap over the Midsummer fires or <span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page345">[pg 345]</span><a name="Pg345" id="Pg345" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> to circumambulate them is thought to prevent + a person from feeling pains in his back at reaping;<a id= + "noteref_871" name="noteref_871" href="#note_871"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">871</span></span></a> and + in Germany such pains are called <span class= + "tei tei-q">“witch-shots”</span> and ascribed to witchcraft.<a id= + "noteref_872" name="noteref_872" href="#note_872"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">872</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The burning wheels rolled down + hills and the burning discs and brooms thrown into the air may + be intended to burn the invisible witches.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But if the + bonfires and torches of the fire-festivals are to be regarded + primarily as weapons directed against witches and wizards, it + becomes probable that the same explanation applies not only to the + flaming discs which are hurled into the air, but also to the + burning wheels which are rolled down hill on these occasions; discs + and wheels, we may suppose, are alike intended to burn the witches + who hover invisible in the air or haunt unseen the fields, the + orchards, and the vineyards on the hillside.<a id="noteref_873" + name="noteref_873" href="#note_873"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">873</span></span></a> + Certainly witches are constantly thought to ride through the air on + broomsticks or other equally convenient vehicles; and if they do + so, how can you get at them so effectually as by hurling lighted + missiles, whether discs, torches, or besoms, after them as they + flit past overhead in the gloom? The South Slavonian peasant + believes that witches ride in the dark hail-clouds; so he shoots at + the clouds to bring down the hags, while he curses them, saying, + <span class="tei tei-q">“Curse, curse Herodias, thy mother is a + heathen, damned of God and fettered through the Redeemer's + blood.”</span> Also he brings out a pot of glowing charcoal on + which he has thrown holy oil, laurel leaves, and wormwood to make a + smoke. The fumes are supposed to ascend to the clouds and stupefy + the witches, so that they tumble down to earth. And in order that + they may not fall soft, but may hurt themselves very much, the + yokel hastily brings out a chair and tilts it bottom up so that the + witch in falling may break her legs on the legs of the chair. Worse + than that, he cruelly lays scythes, bill-hooks and other formidable + weapons edge upwards so as to cut and mangle <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page346">[pg 346]</span><a name="Pg346" id="Pg346" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> the poor wretches when they drop plump + upon them from the clouds.<a id="noteref_874" name="noteref_874" + href="#note_874"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">874</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">On this view the fertility + supposed to follow the use of fire results indirectly from + breaking the spells of witches.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">On this view the + fertility supposed to follow the application of fire in the form of + bonfires, torches, discs, rolling wheels, and so forth, is not + conceived as resulting directly from an increase of solar heat + which the fire has magically generated; it is merely an indirect + result obtained by freeing the reproductive powers of plants and + animals from the fatal obstruction of witchcraft. And what is true + of the reproduction of plants and animals may hold good also of the + fertility of the human sexes. We have seen that the bonfires are + supposed to promote marriage and to procure offspring for childless + couples. This happy effect need not flow directly from any + quickening or fertilizing energy in the fire; it may follow + indirectly from the power of the fire to remove those obstacles + which the spells of witches and wizards notoriously present to the + union of man and wife.<a id="noteref_875" name="noteref_875" href= + "#note_875"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">875</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">On the whole the theory of the + purificatory or destructive intention of the fire-festivals + seems the more probable.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">On the whole, + then, the theory of the purificatory virtue of the ceremonial fires + appears more probable and more in accordance with the evidence than + the opposing theory of their connexion with the sun. But Europe is + not the only part of the world where ceremonies of this sort have + been performed; elsewhere the passage through the flames or smoke + or over the glowing embers of a bonfire, which is the central + feature of most of the rites, has been employed as a cure or a + preventive of various ills. We have seen that the midsummer ritual + of fire in Morocco is practically identical with that of our + European peasantry; and customs more or less similar have been + observed by many races in various parts of the world. A + consideration of some of them may help us to decide between the + conflicting claims of the two rival theories, which explain the + ceremonies as sun-charms or purifications respectively.</p> + </div> + </div> + </div> + <hr class="doublepage" /> + + <div class="tei tei-back" style= + "margin-bottom: 2.00em; margin-top: 6.00em"> + <div id="footnotes" class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> + <a name="toc57" id="toc57"></a> <a name="pdf58" id="pdf58"></a> + + <h1 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"> + <span style="font-size: 173%">Footnotes</span></h1> + + <dl class="tei tei-list-footnotes"> + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_1" name="note_1" href= + "#noteref_1">1.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">The Magic Art and the Evolution of + Kings</span></span>, i. 44.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_2" name="note_2" href= + "#noteref_2">2.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">H. H. Bancroft, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Native Races of the + Pacific States</span></span> (London, 1875-1876), ii. 142; Brasseur + de Bourbourg, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Histoire des Nations civilisées du Mexique et + de l'Amérique-Centrale</span></span> (Paris, 1857-1859), iii. + 29.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_3" name="note_3" href= + "#noteref_3">3.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Manuscrit Ramirez, Histoire de l'origine des + Indiens</span></span>, publié par D. Charnay (Paris, 1903), p. 108; + J. de Acosta, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">The Natural and Moral History of the + Indies</span></span>, bk. vii. chap. 22, vol. ii. p. 505 of E. + Grimston's translation, edited by (Sir) Clements R. Markham + (Hakluyt Society, London, 1880).</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_4" name="note_4" href= + "#noteref_4">4.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Memorials of the Empire of Japon in the XVI. + and XVII. Centuries</span></span>, edited by T. Rundall (Hakluyt + Society, London, 1850), pp. 14, 141; B. Varenius, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Descriptio regni + Japoniae et Siam</span></span> (Cambridge, 1673), p. 11; Caron, + <span class="tei tei-q">“Account of Japan,”</span> in John + Pinkerton's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Voyages and Travels</span></span> (London, + 1808-1814), vii. 613; Kaempfer, <span class="tei tei-q">“History of + Japan,”</span> in <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">id.</span></span> vii. 716.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_5" name="note_5" href= + "#noteref_5">5.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. Ellis, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Polynesian + Researches</span></span>, Second Edition (London, 1832-1836), iii. + 102 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; Captain James Wilson, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Missionary Voyage to the Southern Pacific + Ocean</span></span> (London, 1799), p. 329.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_6" name="note_6" href= + "#noteref_6">6.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">A. Bastian, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Der Mensch in der + Geschichte</span></span> (Leipsic, 1860), iii. 81.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_7" name="note_7" href= + "#noteref_7">7.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Athenaeus, xii. 8, p. 514 c.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_8" name="note_8" href= + "#noteref_8">8.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">The Voiages and Travels of John + Struys</span></span> (London, 1684), p. 30.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_9" name="note_9" href= + "#noteref_9">9.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Rev. J. Roscoe, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Further Notes on the Manners and Customs of the + Baganda,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Journal of the Anthropological + Institute</span></span>, xxxii. (1902) pp. 62, 67; <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">id.</span></span>, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The + Baganda</span></span> (London, 1911), pp. 154 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span> + Compare L. Decle, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Three Years in Savage Africa</span></span> + (London, 1898), p. 445 note: <span class="tei tei-q">“Before horses + had been introduced into Uganda the king and his mother never + walked, but always went about perched astride the shoulders of a + slave—a most ludicrous sight. In this way they often travelled + hundreds of miles.”</span> The use both of horses and of chariots + by royal personages may often have been intended to prevent their + sacred feet from touching the ground.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_10" name="note_10" href= + "#noteref_10">10.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">E. Torday et T. A. Joyce, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Les + Bushongo</span></span> (Brussels, 1910), p. 61.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_11" name="note_11" href= + "#noteref_11">11.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Northcote W. Thomas, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Anthropological + Report on the Ibo-speaking Peoples of Nigeria</span></span> + (London, 1913), i. 57 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_12" name="note_12" href= + "#noteref_12">12.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Satapatha Brâhmana</span></span>, translated + by Julius Eggeling, Part iii. (Oxford, 1894) pp. 81, 91, 92, 102, + 128 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span> (<span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Sacred Books of the + East</span></span>, vol. xli.).</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_13" name="note_13" href= + "#noteref_13">13.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">A. W. Nieuwenhuis, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Quer durch + Borneo</span></span> (Leyden, 1904-1907), i. 172.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_14" name="note_14" href= + "#noteref_14">14.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Letter of Missionary Krick, in + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Annales + de la Propagation de la Foi</span></span>, xxvi. (1854) pp. + 86-88.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_15" name="note_15" href= + "#noteref_15">15.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Pechuel-Loesche, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Indiscretes aus Loango,”</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Zeitschrift für + Ethnologie</span></span>, x. (1878) pp. 29 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_16" name="note_16" href= + "#noteref_16">16.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Edgar Thurston, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ethnographic Notes in + Southern India</span></span> (Madras, 1906), p. 70.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_17" name="note_17" href= + "#noteref_17">17.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">M. C. Schadee, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Het familieleven en familierecht der Dajaks van Landak + en Tajan,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Bijdragen tot de Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde + van Nederlandsch-Indië</span></span>, lxiii. (1910) p. 433.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_18" name="note_18" href= + "#noteref_18">18.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">James Adair, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">History of the + American Indians</span></span> (London, 1775), p. 382; <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Narrative of the + Captivity and Adventures of John Tanner</span></span> (London, + 1830), p. 123. As to the taboos to which warriors are subject see + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Taboo and + the Perils of the Soul</span></span>, pp. 157 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_19" name="note_19" href= + "#noteref_19">19.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Etienne Aymonier, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Notes sur le + Laos</span></span> (Saigon, 1885), p. 26.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_20" name="note_20" href= + "#noteref_20">20.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Die gestriegelte + Rockenphilosophie</span></span><span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="vertical-align: super">5</span></span> + (Chemnitz, 1759), pp. 586 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_21" name="note_21" href= + "#noteref_21">21.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Baldwin Spencer and F. J. Gillen, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Native + Tribes of Central Australia</span></span> (London, 1899), pp. 364, + 370 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>, 629; <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">id.</span></span>, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Across + Australia</span></span> (London, 1912), ii. 280, 285 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_22" name="note_22" href= + "#noteref_22">22.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">C. G. Seligmann, M.D., <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Melanesians of + British New Guinea</span></span> (Cambridge, 1910), pp. + 589-599.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_23" name="note_23" href= + "#noteref_23">23.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">George Brown, D.D., <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Melanesians and + Polynesians</span></span> (London, 1910), pp. 60 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, + 64. As to the Duk-duk society, see below, vol. ii. pp. 246 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_24" name="note_24" href= + "#noteref_24">24.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">John Keast Lord, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Naturalist in + Vancouver Island and British Columbia</span></span> (London, 1866), + ii. 237.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_25" name="note_25" href= + "#noteref_25">25.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Edwin James, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Account of an + Expedition from Pittsburgh to the Rocky Mountains</span></span> + (London, 1823), ii. 47; Rev. J. Owen Dorsey, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Omaha Sociology,”</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Third Annual Report + of the Bureau of Ethnology</span></span> (Washington, 1884), p. + 226.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_26" name="note_26" href= + "#noteref_26">26.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">James Adair, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">History of the + American Indians</span></span> (London, 1775), pp. 161-163.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_27" name="note_27" href= + "#noteref_27">27.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">(Sir) Henry Babington Smith, in + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Folk-lore</span></span>, v. (1894) p. + 340.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_28" name="note_28" href= + "#noteref_28">28.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Miss C. F. Gordon Cumming, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">In the + Hebrides</span></span> (London, 1883), p. 211.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_29" name="note_29" href= + "#noteref_29">29.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. Gregor, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Quelques coutumes du Nord-est du Comté + d'Aberdeen,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Revue des Traditions populaires</span></span>, + iii. (1888) p. 485 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">b</span></span>. Compare <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Spirits of the Corn + and of the Wild</span></span>, i. 158 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_30" name="note_30" href= + "#noteref_30">30.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">R. Brough Smyth, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Aborigines of + Victoria</span></span> (Melbourne and London, 1878), i. 450.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_31" name="note_31" href= + "#noteref_31">31.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">E. Gerard, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Land beyond the + Forest</span></span> (Edinburgh and London, 1888), ii. 7.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_32" name="note_32" href= + "#noteref_32">32.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">F. Grabowsky, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Der Distrikt Dusson Timor in Südost-Borneo und seine + Bewohner,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Das Ausland</span></span>, 1884, No. 24, p. + 470.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_33" name="note_33" href= + "#noteref_33">33.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Narrative of the Second Arctic Expedition made + by Charles F. Hall</span></span>, edited by Prof. J. E. Nourse + (Washington, 1879), pp. 110 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_34" name="note_34" href= + "#noteref_34">34.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Taboo and Perils of + the Soul</span></span>, pp. 207 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_35" name="note_35" href= + "#noteref_35">35.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Walter E. Roth, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ethnological Studies + among the North-West-Central Queensland Aborigines</span></span> + (Brisbane and London, 1897), p. 156, § 265. The custom of killing a + man by pointing a bone or stick at him, while the sorcerer utters + appropriate curses, is common among the tribes of Central + Australia; but amongst them there seems to be no objection to place + the bone or stick on the ground; on the contrary, an Arunta wizard + inserts the bone or stick in the ground while he invokes death and + destruction on his enemy. See Baldwin Spencer and F. J. Gillen, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Native + Tribes of Central Australia</span></span> (London, 1899), pp. 534 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>; <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">id.</span></span>, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Northern + Tribes of Central Australia</span></span> (London, 1904), pp. 455 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_36" name="note_36" href= + "#noteref_36">36.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Hugh Low, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Sarawak</span></span> + (London, 1848), pp. 145 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_37" name="note_37" href= + "#noteref_37">37.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Pliny, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Naturalis + Historia</span></span>, xxviii. 33 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_38" name="note_38" href= + "#noteref_38">38.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Rev. Walter Gregor, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Notes on the + Folk-lore of the North-East of Scotland</span></span> (London, + 1881), p. 184. As to the superstitions attaching to stone + arrow-heads and axeheads (celts), commonly known as <span class= + "tei tei-q">“thunderbolts,”</span> in the British Islands, see W. + W. Skeat, <span class="tei tei-q">“Snake-stones and Stone + Thunderbolts,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Folk-lore</span></span>, xxiii. (1912) pp. 60 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>; and as to such + superstitions in general, see Chr. Blinkenberg, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Thunderweapon in + Religion and Folklore</span></span> (Cambridge, 1911).</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_39" name="note_39" href= + "#noteref_39">39.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Pliny, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Naturalis + Historia</span></span>, xxix. 52-54.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_40" name="note_40" href= + "#noteref_40">40.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. Borlase, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Antiquities, + Historical and Monumental, of the County of Cornwall</span></span> + (London, 1769), pp. 142 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; J. Brand, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Popular Antiquities + of Great Britain</span></span> (London, 1882-1883), i. 322; J. G. + Dalyell, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Darker Superstitions of Scotland</span></span> + (Edinburgh, 1834), pp. 140 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; Daniel Wilson, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Archaeology and + Prehistoric Annals of Scotland</span></span> (Edinburgh, 1851), pp. + 303 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>; Lieut.-Col. Forbes Leslie, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Early + Races of Scotland and their Monuments</span></span> (Edinburgh, + 1866), i. 75 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>; J. G. Campbell, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Witchcraft and Second Sight in the Highlands + and Islands of Scotland</span></span> (Glasgow, 1902), pp. 84-88; + Marie Trevelyan, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Folk-lore and Folk-stories of + Wales</span></span> (London, 1909), pp. 170 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; J. + C. Davies, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Folk-lore of West and Mid-Wales</span></span> + (Aberystwyth, 1911), p. 76. Compare W. W. Skeat, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Snakestones and Stone Thunderbolts,”</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Folk-lore</span></span>, xxiii. (1912) pp. 45 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span> The superstition is + described as follows by Edward Lhwyd in a letter quoted by W. + Borlase (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">op. cit.</span></span> p. 142): <span class= + "tei tei-q">“In most parts of Wales, and throughout all Scotland, + and in Cornwall, we find it a common opinion of the vulgar, that + about Midsummer-Eve (though in the time they do not all agree) it + is usual for snakes to meet in companies; and that, by joining + heads together, and hissing, a kind of bubble is formed, which the + rest, by continual hissing, blow on till it passes quite through + the body, and then it immediately hardens, and resembles a + glass-ring, which whoever finds (as some old women and children are + persuaded) shall prosper in all his undertakings. The rings thus + generated, are called <span lang="gd" class="tei tei-foreign" + xml:lang="gd"><span style="font-style: italic">Gleineu + Nadroeth</span></span>; in English, Snake-stones. They are small + glass amulets, commonly about half as wide as our finger-rings, but + much thicker, of a green colour usually, though sometimes blue, and + waved with red and white.”</span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_41" name="note_41" href= + "#noteref_41">41.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Pliny, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Naturalis + Historia</span></span>, xxiv. 12 and 68, xxv. 171.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_42" name="note_42" href= + "#noteref_42">42.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Marcellus, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">De + medicamentis</span></span>, ed. G. Helmreich (Leipsic, 1889), + preface, p. i.: <span class="tei tei-q">“<span lang="la" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Nec solum veteres medicinae artis auctores + Latino dumtaxat sermone perscriptos ... lectione scrutatus sum, sed + etiam ab agrestibus et plebeis remedia fortuita atque simplicia, + quae experimentis probaverant didici.</span></span>”</span> As to + Marcellus and his work, see Jacob Grimm, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Ueber Marcellus Burdigalensis,”</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Abhandlungen der + königlichen Akademie der Wissenschaft zu Berlin</span></span>, + 1847, pp. 429-460; <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">id.</span></span>, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Ueber die Marcellischen Formeln,”</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">ibid.</span></span>, + 1855, pp. 50-68.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_43" name="note_43" href= + "#noteref_43">43.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Marcellus, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">De + medicamentis</span></span>, i. 68.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_44" name="note_44" href= + "#noteref_44">44.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Marcellus, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. + cit.</span></span> i. 76.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_45" name="note_45" href= + "#noteref_45">45.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Marcellus, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. + cit.</span></span> xxviii. 28 and 71, xxix. 35.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_46" name="note_46" href= + "#noteref_46">46.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Marcellus, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. + cit.</span></span> xxix. 51.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_47" name="note_47" href= + "#noteref_47">47.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Edward Westermarck, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Midsummer Customs in Morocco,”</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Folk-lore</span></span>, xvi. (1905) pp. 32 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">id.</span></span>, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Ceremonies and Beliefs connected with + Agriculture, certain Dates of the Solar Year, and the Weather in + Morocco</span></span> (Helsingfors, 1913), pp. 75 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_48" name="note_48" href= + "#noteref_48">48.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">E. Westermarck, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Midsummer Customs in Morocco,”</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Folk-lore</span></span>, xvi. (1905) p. 35; + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">id.</span></span>, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ceremonies and + Beliefs connected with Agriculture, certain Dates of the Solar + Year, and the Weather in Morocco</span></span> (Helsingfors, 1913), + pp. 88 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_49" name="note_49" href= + "#noteref_49">49.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Matthäus Prätorius, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Deliciae + Prussicae</span></span>, herausgegeben von Dr. W. Pierson (Berlin, + 1871), p. 54.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_50" name="note_50" href= + "#noteref_50">50.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">H. H. Bancroft, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Native Races of the + Pacific States</span></span> (London, 1875-1876), ii. 142; Brasseur + de Bourbourg, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Histoire des Nations civilisées du Mexique et + de l'Amérique Centrale</span></span> (Paris, 1857-1859), iii. + 29.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_51" name="note_51" href= + "#noteref_51">51.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Kaempfer, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“History of Japan,”</span> in J. Pinkerton's + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Voyages + and Travels</span></span>, vii. 717; Caron, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Account of Japan,”</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">ibid.</span></span> + vii. 613; B. Varenius, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Descriptio regni Japoniae et + Siam</span></span> (Cambridge, 1673), p. 11: <span class= + "tei tei-q">“<span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang= + "la"><span style="font-style: italic">Radiis solis caput nunquam + illustrabatur: in apertum aërem non + procedebat.</span></span>”</span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_52" name="note_52" href= + "#noteref_52">52.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">A. de Herrera, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">General History of + the vast Continent and Islands of America</span></span>, trans. by + Capt. John Stevens (London, 1725-1726), v. 88.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_53" name="note_53" href= + "#noteref_53">53.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">H. Ternaux-Compans, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Essai sur l'ancien + Cundinamarca</span></span> (Paris, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">n.d.</span></span>), p. 56; Theodor + Waitz, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Anthropologie der Naturvölker</span></span>, + iv. (Leipsic, 1864) p. 359.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_54" name="note_54" href= + "#noteref_54">54.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Alonzo de Zurita, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Rapport sur les differentes classes de chefs de la + Nouvelle-Espagne,”</span> p. 30, in H. Ternaux-Compans's + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Voyages, + Relations et Mémoires originaux, pour servir à l'Histoire de la + Découverte de l'Amérique</span></span> (Paris, 1840); Th. Waitz, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">l.c.</span></span>; A. Bastian, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Die Culturländer des + alten Amerika</span></span> (Berlin, 1878), ii. 204.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_55" name="note_55" href= + "#noteref_55">55.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Cieza de Leon, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Second Part of the + Chronicle of Peru</span></span> (Hakluyt Society, London, 1883), p. + 18.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_56" name="note_56" href= + "#noteref_56">56.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">The Grihya Sûtras</span></span>, translated by + H. Oldenberg, Part ii. (Oxford, 1892) pp. 165, 275 (<span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Sacred Books of the + East</span></span>, vol. xxx.). Umbrellas appear to have been + sometimes used in ritual for the purpose of preventing the sunlight + from falling on sacred persons or things. See W. Caland, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Altindisches Zauberritual</span></span> + (Amsterdam, 1900), p. 110 note 12. At an Athenian festival called + Scira the priestess of Athena, the priest of Poseidon, and the + priest of the Sun walked from the Acropolis under the shade of a + huge white umbrella which was borne over their heads by the + Eteobutads. See Harpocration and Suidas, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">s.v.</span></span> + Σκίρον; Scholiast on Aristophanes, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Eccles.</span></span> + 18.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_57" name="note_57" href= + "#noteref_57">57.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Mrs. Bishop, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Korea and her + Neighbours</span></span> (London, 1898), ii. 248.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_58" name="note_58" href= + "#noteref_58">58.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">J. L. van Hasselt, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Eenige aanteekeningen aangaande de bewoners der N. + Westkust van Nieuw Guinea,”</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Tijdschrift voor + Indische Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde</span></span>, xxxi. (1886) p. + 587.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_59" name="note_59" href= + "#noteref_59">59.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">A. Bastian, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Die Völker des + östlichen Asien</span></span>, v. (Jena, 1869) p. 366.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_60" name="note_60" href= + "#noteref_60">60.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. M. Gabb, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“On the Indian Tribes and Languages of Costa + Rica,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Proceedings of the American Philosophical + Society held at Philadelphia</span></span>, xiv. (Philadelphia, + 1876), p. 510.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_61" name="note_61" href= + "#noteref_61">61.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">L. Lloyd, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Peasant Life in + Sweden</span></span> (London, 1870), p. 194.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_62" name="note_62" href= + "#noteref_62">62.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">H. H. Bancroft, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Native Races of the + Pacific States</span></span>, i. 553. See <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Taboo and the Perils + of the Soul</span></span>, p. 182.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_63" name="note_63" href= + "#noteref_63">63.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">L. Heuzey, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Le Mont Olympe et + l'Acarnanie</span></span> (Paris, 1860), pp. 458 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_64" name="note_64" href= + "#noteref_64">64.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Pechuel-Loesche, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Indiscretes aus Loango,”</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Zeitschrift für + Ethnologie</span></span>, x. (1878) p. 23.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_65" name="note_65" href= + "#noteref_65">65.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Rev. J. Macdonald, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Manners, Customs, Superstitions, and Religions of + South African Tribes,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Journal of the Anthropological + Institute</span></span>, xx. (1891) p. 118.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_66" name="note_66" href= + "#noteref_66">66.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Dudley Kidd, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Essential + Kafir</span></span> (London, 1904), p. 209. The prohibition to + drink milk under such circumstances is also mentioned, though + without the reason for it, by L. Alberti (<span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">De Kaffers aan de + Zuidkust van Afrika</span></span>, Amsterdam, 1810, p. 79), George + Thompson (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Travels and Adventures in Southern + Africa</span></span>, London, 1827, ii. 354 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>), + and Mr. Warner (in Col. Maclean's <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Compendium of Kafir + Laws and Customs</span></span>, Cape Town, 1866, p. 98). As to the + reason for the prohibition, see below, p. <a href="#Pg080" class= + "tei tei-ref">80</a>.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_67" name="note_67" href= + "#noteref_67">67.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">C. W. Hobley, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ethnology of A-Kamba + and other East African Tribes</span></span> (Cambridge, 1910), p. + 65.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_68" name="note_68" href= + "#noteref_68">68.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Rev. J. Roscoe, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The + Baganda</span></span> (London, 1911), p. 80. As to the + interpretation which the Baganda put on the act of jumping or + stepping over a woman, see <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">id.</span></span>, pp. 48, 357 note 1. + Apparently some of the Lower Congo people interpret the act + similarly. See J. H. Weeks, <span class="tei tei-q">“Notes on some + Customs of the Lower Congo People,”</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Folk-lore</span></span>, xix. (1908) p. 431. + Among the Baganda the separation of children from their parents + took place after weaning; girls usually went to live either with an + elder married brother or (if there was none such) with one of their + father's brothers; boys in like manner went to live with one of + their father's brothers. See J. Roscoe, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. + cit.</span></span> p. 74. As to the prohibition to touch food with + the hands, see <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Taboo and the Perils of the + Soul</span></span>, pp. 138 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>, 146 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>, + etc.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_69" name="note_69" href= + "#noteref_69">69.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Rev. J. Roscoe, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The + Baganda</span></span>, p. 80.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_70" name="note_70" href= + "#noteref_70">70.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">De la Loubère, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Du royaume de + Siam</span></span> (Amsterdam, 1691), i. 203. In Travancore it is + believed that women at puberty and after childbirth are peculiarly + liable to be attacked by demons. See S. Mateer, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Land of + Charity</span></span> (London, 1871), p. 208.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_71" name="note_71" href= + "#noteref_71">71.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Rev. J. Roscoe, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The + Baganda</span></span>, p. 80.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_72" name="note_72" href= + "#noteref_72">72.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">C. Gouldsbury and H. Sheane, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Great + Plateau of Northern Nigeria</span></span> (London, 1911), pp. + 158-160.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_73" name="note_73" href= + "#noteref_73">73.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">R. Sutherland Rattray, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Some Folk-lore + Stories and Songs in Chinyanja</span></span> (London, 1907), pp. + 102-105.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_74" name="note_74" href= + "#noteref_74">74.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Rev. H. Cole, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Notes on the Wagogo of German East Africa,”</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Journal + of the Anthropological Institute</span></span>, xxxii. (1902) pp. + 309 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_75" name="note_75" href= + "#noteref_75">75.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">R. Sutherland Rattray, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. + cit.</span></span> pp. 191 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_76" name="note_76" href= + "#noteref_76">76.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">The Grihya Sûtras</span></span>, translated by + H. Oldenberg, Part i. p. 357, Part ii. p. 267 (<span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Sacred Books of the + East</span></span>, vols. xxix., xxx.).</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_77" name="note_77" href= + "#noteref_77">77.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Rev. J. Roscoe, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The + Baganda</span></span> (London, 1911), pp. 393 sq., compare pp. 396, + 398.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_78" name="note_78" href= + "#noteref_78">78.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Totemism and + Exogamy</span></span>, iv. 224 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_79" name="note_79" href= + "#noteref_79">79.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Sir Harry H. Johnston, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">British Central + Africa</span></span> (London, 1897), p. 411.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_80" name="note_80" href= + "#noteref_80">80.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Oscar Baumann, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Durch Massailand zur + Nilquelle</span></span> (Berlin, 1894), p. 178.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_81" name="note_81" href= + "#noteref_81">81.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Lionel Decle, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Three Years in Savage + Africa</span></span> (London, 1898), p. 78. Compare E. Jacottet, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Études + sur les Langues du Haut-Zambèze</span></span>, Troisième Partie + (Paris, 1901), pp. 174 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span> (as to the A-Louyi).</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_82" name="note_82" href= + "#noteref_82">82.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">E. Béguin, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Les + Ma-rotsé</span></span> (Lausanne and Fontaines, 1903), p. 113.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_83" name="note_83" href= + "#noteref_83">83.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Henri A. Junod, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Life of a South + African Tribe</span></span> (Neuchatel, 1912-1913), i. 178 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_84" name="note_84" href= + "#noteref_84">84.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">G. McCall Theal, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Kaffir + Folk-lore</span></span> (London, 1886), p. 218.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_85" name="note_85" href= + "#noteref_85">85.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">L. Alberti, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">De Kaffers aan de + Zuidkust van Afrika</span></span> (Amsterdam, 1810), pp. 79 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; H. Lichtenstein, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Reisen im + südlichen Africa</span></span> (Berlin, 1811-1812), i. 428.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_86" name="note_86" href= + "#noteref_86">86.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Gustav Fritsch, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Die Eingeborenen + Süd-Afrika's</span></span> (Breslau, 1872), p. 112. This statement + applies especially to the Ama-Xosa.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_87" name="note_87" href= + "#noteref_87">87.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">G. McCall Theal, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Kaffir + Folk-lore</span></span>, p. 218.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_88" name="note_88" href= + "#noteref_88">88.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Rev. Canon Henry Callaway, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Nursery + Tales, Traditions, and Histories of the Zulus</span></span> (Natal + and London, 1868), p. 182, note 20. From one of the Zulu texts + which the author edits and translates (p. 189) we may infer that + during the period of her seclusion a Zulu girl may not light a + fire. Compare above, p. <a href="#Pg028" class= + "tei tei-ref">28</a>.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_89" name="note_89" href= + "#noteref_89">89.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">E. Casalis, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The + Basutos</span></span> (London, 1861), p. 268.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_90" name="note_90" href= + "#noteref_90">90.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">J. Merolla, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Voyage to Congo,”</span> in J. Pinkerton's + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Voyages + and Travels</span></span> (London, 1808-1814), xvi. 238; Father + Campana, <span class="tei tei-q">“Congo; Mission Catholique de + Landana,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Les Missions Catholiques</span></span>, xxvii. + (1895) p. 161; R. E. Dennett, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">At the Back of the Black Man's + Mind</span></span> (London, 1906), pp. 69 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span> + According to Merolla, it is thought that if girls did not go + through these ceremonies, they would <span class="tei tei-q">“never + be fit for procreation.”</span> The other consequences supposed to + flow from the omission of the rites are mentioned by Father + Campana. From Mr. Dennett's account (<span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. + cit.</span></span> pp. 53, 67-71) we gather that drought and famine + are thought to result from the intercourse of a man with a girl who + has not yet passed through the <span class= + "tei tei-q">“paint-house,”</span> as the hut is called where the + young women live in seclusion. According to O. Dapper, the women of + Loango paint themselves red on every recurrence of their monthly + sickness; also they tie a cord tightly round their heads and take + care neither to touch their husband's food nor to appear before him + (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Description de l'Afrique</span></span>, + Amsterdam, 1686, p. 326).</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_91" name="note_91" href= + "#noteref_91">91.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">The Rev. G. Brown, quoted by the Rev. + B. Danks, <span class="tei tei-q">“Marriage Customs of the New + Britain Group,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Journal of the Anthropological + Institute</span></span>, xviii. (1889) pp. 284 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">id.</span></span>, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Melanesians and + Polynesians</span></span> (London, 1910), pp. 105-107. Compare + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">id.</span></span>, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Notes on the Duke of York Group, New Britain, and New + Ireland,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Journal of the Royal Geographical + Society</span></span>, xlvii. (1877) pp. 142 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; A. + Hahl, <span class="tei tei-q">“Das mittlere Neumecklenburg,”</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Globus</span></span>, xci. (1907) p. 313. + Wilfred Powell's description of the New Ireland custom is similar + (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Wanderings in a Wild Country</span></span>, + London, 1883, p. 249). According to him, the girls wear wreaths of + scented herbs round the waist and neck; an old woman or a little + child occupies the lower floor of the cage; and the confinement + lasts only a month. Probably the long period mentioned by Dr. Brown + is that prescribed for chiefs' daughters. Poor people could not + afford to keep their children so long idle. This distinction is + sometimes expressly stated. See above, p. <a href="#Pg030" class= + "tei tei-ref">30</a>. Among the Goajiras of Colombia rich people + keep their daughters shut up in separate huts at puberty for + periods varying from one to four years, but poor people cannot + afford to do so for more than a fortnight or a month. See F. A. + Simons, <span class="tei tei-q">“An Exploration of the Goajira + Peninsula,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Proceedings of the Royal Geographical + Society</span></span>, N.S., vii. (1885) p. 791. In Fiji, brides + who were being tattooed were kept from the sun (Thomas Williams, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Fiji and + the Fijians</span></span>, Second Edition, London, 1860, i. 170). + This was perhaps a modification of the Melanesian custom of + secluding girls at puberty. The reason mentioned by Mr. Williams, + <span class="tei tei-q">“to improve her complexion,”</span> can + hardly have been the original one.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_92" name="note_92" href= + "#noteref_92">92.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Rev. R. H. Rickard, quoted by Dr. + George Brown, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Melanesians and Polynesians</span></span>, pp. + 107 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span> His observations were made + in 1892.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_93" name="note_93" href= + "#noteref_93">93.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">R. Parkinson, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Dreissig Jahre in der + Südsee</span></span> (Stuttgart, 1907), p. 272. The natives told + Mr. Parkinson that the confinement of the girls lasts from twelve + to twenty months. The length of it may have been reduced since Dr. + George Brown described the custom in 1876.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_94" name="note_94" href= + "#noteref_94">94.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">J. Chalmers and W. Wyatt Gill, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Work and + Adventure in New Guinea</span></span> (London, 1885), p. 159.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_95" name="note_95" href= + "#noteref_95">95.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">H. Zahn and S. Lehner, in R. + Neuhauss's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Deutsch Neu-Guinea</span></span> (Berlin, + 1911), iii. 298, 418-420. The customs of the two tribes seem to be + in substantial agreement, and the accounts of them supplement each + other. The description of the Bukaua practice is the fuller.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_96" name="note_96" href= + "#noteref_96">96.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">C. A. L. M. Schwaner, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Borneo, Beschrijving + van het stroomgebied van den Barito</span></span> (Amsterdam, + 1853-1854), ii. 77 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; W. F. A. Zimmermann, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Die + Inseln des Indischen und Stillen Meeres</span></span> (Berlin, + 1864-1865), ii. 632 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; Otto Finsch, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Neu Guinea und seine + Bewohner</span></span> (Bremen, 1865), pp. 116 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_97" name="note_97" href= + "#noteref_97">97.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">J. G. F. Riedel, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">De sluik- en + kroesharige rassen tusschen Selebes en Papua</span></span> (The + Hague, 1886), p. 138.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_98" name="note_98" href= + "#noteref_98">98.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">A. Senfft, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Ethnographische Beiträge über die Karolineninsel + Yap,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Petermanns Mitteilungen</span></span>, xlix. + (1903) p. 53; <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">id.</span></span>, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Die Rechtssitten der Jap-Eingeborenen,”</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Globus</span></span>, xci. (1907) pp. 142 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_99" name="note_99" href= + "#noteref_99">99.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Dr. C. G. Seligmann, in <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Journal of the + Anthropological Institute</span></span>, xxix. (1899) pp. 212 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">id.</span></span>, in + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Reports + of the Cambridge Anthropological Expedition to Torres + Straits</span></span>, v. (Cambridge, 1904) pp. 203 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_100" name="note_100" + href="#noteref_100">100.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Dr. C. G. Seligmann, in <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Reports of the + Cambridge Expedition to Torres Straits</span></span>, v. + (Cambridge, 1904) p. 205.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_101" name="note_101" + href="#noteref_101">101.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">L. Crauford, in <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Journal of the + Anthropological Institute</span></span>, xxiv. (1895) p. 181.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_102" name="note_102" + href="#noteref_102">102.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Dr. C. G. Seligmann, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. + cit.</span></span> v. 206.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_103" name="note_103" + href="#noteref_103">103.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Walter E. Roth, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">North Queensland + Ethnography, Bulletin No. 5, Superstition, Magic, and + Medicine</span></span> (Brisbane, 1903), pp. 24 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_104" name="note_104" + href="#noteref_104">104.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Walter E. Roth, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. + cit.</span></span> p. 25.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_105" name="note_105" + href="#noteref_105">105.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Dr. C. G. Seligmann, in <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Reports of the + Cambridge Anthropological Expedition to Torres + Straits</span></span>, v. (Cambridge, 1904), p. 205.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_106" name="note_106" + href="#noteref_106">106.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">From notes kindly sent me by Dr. C. G. + Seligmann. The practice of burying a girl at puberty was observed + also by some Indian tribes of California, but apparently rather for + the purpose of producing a sweat than for the sake of concealment. + The treatment lasted only twenty-four hours, during which the + patient was removed from the ground and washed three or four times, + to be afterwards reimbedded. Dancing was kept up the whole time by + the women. See H. R. Schoolcraft, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Indian Tribes of the + United States</span></span> (Philadelphia, 1853-1856), v. 215.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_107" name="note_107" + href="#noteref_107">107.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Dr. C. G. Seligmann, in <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Reports of the + Cambridge Anthropological Expedition to Torres + Straits</span></span>, v. 201 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_108" name="note_108" + href="#noteref_108">108.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">A. L. Kroeber, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“The Religion of the Indians of California,”</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">University of California Publications in + American Archaeology and Ethnology</span></span>, vol. iv. No. 6 + (September, 1907), p. 324.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_109" name="note_109" + href="#noteref_109">109.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Roland B. Dixon, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“The Northern Maidu,”</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Bulletin of the + American Museum of Natural History</span></span>, vol. xvii. Part + iii. (May, 1905) pp. 232 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, compare pp. 233-238.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_110" name="note_110" + href="#noteref_110">110.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Stephen Powers, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Tribes of + California</span></span> (Washington, 1877), p. 85 (<span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Contributions to + North American Ethnology</span></span>, vol. iii.).</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_111" name="note_111" + href="#noteref_111">111.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Stephen Powers, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. + cit.</span></span> p. 235.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_112" name="note_112" + href="#noteref_112">112.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Charles Wilkes, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Narrative of the + United States Exploring Expedition</span></span>, New Edition (New + York, 1851), iv. 456.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_113" name="note_113" + href="#noteref_113">113.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Franz Boas, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Chinook + Texts</span></span> (Washington, 1894), pp. 246 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span> The + account, taken down from the lips of a Chinook Indian, is not + perfectly clear; some of the restrictions were prolonged after the + girl's second monthly period.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_114" name="note_114" + href="#noteref_114">114.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">G. M. Sproat, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Scenes and Studies of + Savage Life</span></span> (London, 1868), pp. 93 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_115" name="note_115" + href="#noteref_115">115.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Franz Boas, in <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Sixth Report on the + North-Western Tribes of Canada</span></span>, pp. 40-42 (separate + reprint from the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Report of the British Association for the + Advancement of Science</span></span>, Leeds meeting, 1890). The + rule not to lie down is observed also during their seclusion at + puberty by Tsimshian girls, who always sit propped up between boxes + and mats; their heads are covered with small mats, and they may not + look at men nor at fresh salmon and olachen. See Franz Boas, in + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Fifth + Report on the North-Western Tribes of Canada</span></span>, p. 41 + (separate reprint from the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Report of the British Association for the + Advancement of Science</span></span>, Newcastle-upon-Tyne meeting, + 1889); G. M. Dawson, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Report on the Queen Charlotte Islands, + 1878</span></span> (Montreal, 1880), pp. 130 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">b</span></span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span> Some divine kings are not + allowed to lie down. See <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Taboo and the Perils of the + Soul</span></span>, p. 5.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_116" name="note_116" + href="#noteref_116">116.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">George M. Dawson, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Report on the Queen + Charlotte Islands, 1878</span></span> (Montreal, 1880), p. 130 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">b</span></span>; J. R. Swanton, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Contributions to the Ethnology of the + Haida</span></span> (Leyden and New York, 1905), pp. 48-50 + (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The + Jesup North Pacific Expedition, Memoir of the American Museum of + Natural History</span></span>, New York). Speaking of the customs + observed at Kloo, where the girls had to abstain from salmon for + five years, Mr. Swanton says (p. 49): <span class="tei tei-q">“When + five years had passed, the girl came out, and could do as she + pleased.”</span> This seems to imply that the girl was secluded in + the house for five years. We have seen (above, p. <a href="#Pg032" + class="tei tei-ref">32</a>) that in New Ireland the girls used + sometimes to be secluded for the same period.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_117" name="note_117" + href="#noteref_117">117.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">G. H. von Langsdorff, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Reise um die + Welt</span></span> (Frankfort, 1812), ii. 114 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; H. + J. Holmberg, <span class="tei tei-q">“Ethnographische Skizzen über + die Völker des Russischen Amerika,”</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Acta Societatis + Scientiarum Fennicae</span></span>, iv. (Helsingfors, 1856) pp. 319 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; T. de Pauly, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Description + Ethnographique des Peuples de la Russie</span></span> (St. + Petersburg, 1862), <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Peuples de l'Amérique Russe</span></span>, p. + 13; A. Erman, <span class="tei tei-q">“Ethnographische + Wahrnehmungen und Erfahrungen an den Küsten des + Berings-Meeres,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Zeitschrift für Ethnologie</span></span>, ii. + (1870) pp. 318 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; H. H. Bancroft, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Native + Races of the Pacific States</span></span> (London, 1875-1876), i. + 110 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; Rev. Sheldon Jackson, + <span class="tei tei-q">“Alaska and its Inhabitants,”</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The + American Antiquarian</span></span>, ii. (Chicago, 1879-1880) pp. + 111 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; A. Woldt, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Captain Jacobsen's + Reise an der Nordwestküste Americas, 1881-1883</span></span> + (Leipsic, 1884), p. 393; Aurel Krause, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Die + Tlinkit-Indianer</span></span> (Jena, 1885), pp. 217 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; W. + M. Grant, in <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Journal of American Folk-lore</span></span>, + i. (1888) p. 169; John R. Swanton, <span class="tei tei-q">“Social + Conditions, Beliefs, and Linguistic Relationship of the Tlingit + Indians,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Twenty-sixth Annual Report of the Bureau of + American Ethnology</span></span> (Washington, 1908), p. 428.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_118" name="note_118" + href="#noteref_118">118.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Franz Boas, in <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Tenth Report of the + Committee on the North-Western Tribes of Canada</span></span>, p. + 45 (separate reprint from the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Report of the British Association for the + Advancement of Science</span></span>, Ipswich meeting, 1895).</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_119" name="note_119" + href="#noteref_119">119.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Franz Boas, in <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Fifth Report of the + Committee on the North-Western Tribes of Canada</span></span>, p. + 42 (separate reprint from the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Report of the British Association for the + Advancement of Science</span></span>, Newcastle-upon-Tyne meeting, + 1889); <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">id.</span></span>, in <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Seventh + Report</span></span>, etc., p. 12 (separate reprint from the + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Report of + the British Association for the Advancement of + Science</span></span>, Cardiff meeting, 1891).</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_120" name="note_120" + href="#noteref_120">120.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-q">“Customs of + the New Caledonian women belonging to the Nancaushy Tine, or + Stuart's Lake Indians, Natotin Tine, or Babine's and Nantley Tine, + or Fraser Lake Tribes,”</span> from information supplied by Gavin + Hamilton, chief factor of the Hudson's Bay Company's service, who + has been for many years among these Indians, both he and his wife + speaking their languages fluently (communicated by Dr. John Rae), + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Journal + of the Anthropological Institute</span></span>, vii. (1878) pp. 206 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_121" name="note_121" + href="#noteref_121">121.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Émile Petitot, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Traditions Indiennes + du Canada Nord-ouest</span></span> (Paris, 1886), pp. 257 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_122" name="note_122" + href="#noteref_122">122.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Fr. Julius Jetté, S.J., <span class= + "tei tei-q">“On the Superstitions of the Ten'a Indians,”</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Anthropos</span></span>, vi. (1911) pp. + 700-702.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_123" name="note_123" + href="#noteref_123">123.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Compare <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Magic Art and the + Evolution of Kings</span></span>, i. 70 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_124" name="note_124" + href="#noteref_124">124.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">James Teit, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Thompson Indians + of British Columbia</span></span>, pp. 311-317 (<span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Jesup North + Pacific Expedition, Memoir of the American Museum of Natural + History</span></span>, New York, April, 1900). As to the customs + observed among these Indians by the father of a girl at such times + in order not to lose his luck in hunting, see <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Spirits of the Corn + and of the Wild</span></span>, ii. 268.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_125" name="note_125" + href="#noteref_125">125.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">James Teit, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Lillooet + Indians</span></span> (Leyden and New York, 1906), pp. 263-265 + (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The + Jesup North Pacific Expedition, Memoir of the American Museum of + Natural History</span></span>, New York). Compare C. Hill Tout, + <span class="tei tei-q">“Report on the Ethnology of the Stlatlumh + of British Columbia,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Journal of the Anthropological + Institute</span></span>, xxxv. (1905) p. 136.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_126" name="note_126" + href="#noteref_126">126.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Franz Boas, in <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Sixth Report of the + Committee on the North-Western Tribes of Canada</span></span>, pp. + 89 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span> (separate reprint from the + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Report of + the British Association for the Advancement of + Science</span></span>, Leeds meeting, 1890).</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_127" name="note_127" + href="#noteref_127">127.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">James Teit, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The + Shuswap</span></span> (Leyden and New York, 1909), pp. 587 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span> (<span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Jesup North + Pacific Expedition, Memoir of the American Museum of Natural + History</span></span>, New York).</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_128" name="note_128" + href="#noteref_128">128.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">G. H. Loskiel, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">History of the + Mission of the United Brethren among the Indians of North + America</span></span> (London, 1794), Part i. pp. 56 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_129" name="note_129" + href="#noteref_129">129.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">G. B. Grinnell, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Cheyenne Woman Customs,”</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">American + Anthropologist</span></span>, New Series, iv. (New York, 1902) pp. + 13 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span> The Cheyennes appear to have + been at first settled on the Mississippi, from which they were + driven westward to the Missouri. See <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Handbook of American + Indians north of Mexico</span></span>, edited by F. W. Hodge + (Washington, 1907-1910), i. 250 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_130" name="note_130" + href="#noteref_130">130.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">H. J. Holmberg, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Ueber die Völker des Russischen Amerika,”</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Acta + Societatis Scientiarum Fennicae</span></span>, iv. (Helsingfors, + 1856) pp. 401 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; Ivan Petroff, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Report on the + Population, Industries and Resources of Alaska</span></span>, p. + 143.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_131" name="note_131" + href="#noteref_131">131.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">E. W. Nelson, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“The Eskimo about Bering Strait,”</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Eighteenth Annual + Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology</span></span>, Part i. + (Washington, 1899) p. 291.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_132" name="note_132" + href="#noteref_132">132.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Jose Guevara, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Historia del Paraguay, Rio de la Plata, y + Tucuman,”</span> pp. 16 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, in Pedro de Angelis, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Coleccion + de Obras y Documentos relativos a la Historia antigua y moderna de + las Provincias del Rio de la Plata</span></span>, vol. ii. + (Buenos-Ayres, 1836); J. F. Lafitau, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Mœurs des Sauvages + Ameriquains</span></span> (Paris, 1724), i. 262 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_133" name="note_133" + href="#noteref_133">133.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Father Ignace Chomé, in <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Lettres Édifiantes et + Curieuses</span></span>, Nouvelle Édition (Paris, 1780-1783), viii. + 333. As to the Chiriguanos, see C. F. Phil. von Martius, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Zur + Ethnographie Amerika's, zumal Brasiliens</span></span> (Leipsic, + 1867), pp. 212 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>; Colonel G. E. Church, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Aborigines of South America</span></span> + (London, 1912), pp. 207-227.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_134" name="note_134" + href="#noteref_134">134.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">A. Thouar, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Explorations dans + l'Amérique du Sud</span></span> (Paris, 1891), pp. 48 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; G. + Kurze, <span class="tei tei-q">“Sitten und Gebräuche der + Lengua-Indianer,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Mitteilungen der Geographischen Gesellschaft + zu Jena</span></span>, xxiii. (1905) pp. 26 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span> The + two accounts appear to be identical; but the former attributes the + custom to the Chiriguanos, the latter to the Lenguas. As the latter + account is based on the reports of the Rev. W. B. Grubb, a + missionary who has been settled among the Indians of the Chaco for + many years and is our principal authority on them, I assume that + the ascription of the custom to the Lenguas is correct. However, in + the volume on the Lengua Indians, which has been edited from Mr. + Grubb's papers (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">An Unknown People in an Unknown + Land</span></span>, London, 1911), these details as to the + seclusion of girls at puberty are not mentioned, though what seems + to be the final ceremony is described (<span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. + cit.</span></span> pp. 177 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>). From the description we + learn that boys dressed in ostrich feathers and wearing masks + circle round the girl with shrill cries, but are repelled by the + women.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_135" name="note_135" + href="#noteref_135">135.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Alcide d'Orbigny, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Voyage dans + l'Amérique Méridionale</span></span>, vol. iii. 1<span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="vertical-align: super">re</span></span> + Partie (Paris and Strasburg, 1844), pp. 205 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_136" name="note_136" + href="#noteref_136">136.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">A. Thouar, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Explorations dans + l'Amérique du Sud</span></span> (Paris, 1891) pp. 56 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; + Father Cardus, quoted in J. Pelleschi's <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Los Indios + Matacos</span></span> (Buenos Ayres, 1897), pp. 47 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_137" name="note_137" + href="#noteref_137">137.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">A. Thouar, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. + cit.</span></span> p. 63.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_138" name="note_138" + href="#noteref_138">138.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Francis de Castelnau, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Expédition dans les + parties centrales de l'Amérique du Sud</span></span> (Paris, + 1850-1851), v. 25.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_139" name="note_139" + href="#noteref_139">139.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">D. Luis de la Cruz, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Descripcion de la Naturaleza de los Terrenos que se + comprenden en los Andes, poseidos por los Peguenches y los demas + espacios hasta el rio de Chadileuba,”</span> p. 62, in Pedro de + Angelis, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Coleccion de Obras y Documentos relativos a la + Historia antigua y moderna de las Provincias del Rio de la + Plata</span></span>, vol. i. (Buenos-Ayres, 1836). Apparently the + Peguenches are an Indian tribe of Chili.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_140" name="note_140" + href="#noteref_140">140.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">J. B. von Spix und C. F. Ph. von + Martius, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Reise in Brasilien</span></span> (Munich, + 1823-1831), iii. 1186, 1187, 1318.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_141" name="note_141" + href="#noteref_141">141.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">André Thevet, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Cosmographie + Universelle</span></span> (Paris, 1575), ii. 946 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">b</span></span> + [980] <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">id.</span></span>, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Les + Singularitez de la France Antarctique, autrement nommée + Amerique</span></span> (Antwerp, 1558), p. 76; J. F. Lafitau, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Mœurs des + Sauvages Ameriquains</span></span> (Paris, 1724), i. 290 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>,</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_142" name="note_142" + href="#noteref_142">142.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">R. Schomburgk, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Reisen in Britisch + Guiana</span></span> (Leipsic, 1847-1848), ii. 315 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; C. + F. Ph. von Martius, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Zur Ethnographie Amerika's, zumal + Brasiliens</span></span> (Leipsic, 1867), p. 644.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_143" name="note_143" + href="#noteref_143">143.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Labat, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Voyage du Chevalier + des Marchais en Guinée, Isles voisines, et à Cayenne</span></span>, + iv. 365 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span> (Paris, 1730), pp. 17 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span> (Amsterdam, 1731).</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_144" name="note_144" + href="#noteref_144">144.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">A. Caulin, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Historia + Coro-graphica natural y evangelica dela Nueva + Andalucia</span></span> (1779), p. 93. A similar custom, with the + omission of the stinging, is reported of the Tamanaks in the region + of the Orinoco. See F. S. Gilij, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Saggio di Storia + Americana</span></span>, ii. (Rome, 1781), p. 133.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_145" name="note_145" + href="#noteref_145">145.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">A. R. Wallace, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Narrative of Travels + on the Amazon and Rio Negro</span></span>, p. 496 (p. 345 of the + Minerva Library edition, London, 1889).</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_146" name="note_146" + href="#noteref_146">146.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Taboo and the Perils of the + Soul</span></span>, pp. 105 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>; <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The + Scapegoat</span></span>, pp. 259 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_147" name="note_147" + href="#noteref_147">147.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">J. B. von Spix and C. F. Ph. von + Martius, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Reise in Brasilien</span></span> (Munich, + 1823-1831), iii. 1320.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_148" name="note_148" + href="#noteref_148">148.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. Lewis Herndon, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Exploration of the + Valley of the Amazon</span></span> (Washington, 1854), pp. 319 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span> The scene was described to + Mr. Herndon by a French engineer and architect, M. de Lincourt, who + witnessed it at Manduassu, a village on the Tapajos river. Mr. + Herndon adds: <span class="tei tei-q">“The <span class= + "tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Tocandeira</span></span> ants not only bite, + but are also armed with a sting like the wasp; but the pain felt + from it is more violent. I think it equal to that occasioned by the + sting of the black scorpion.”</span> He gives the name of the + Indians as Mahues, but I assume that they are the same as the + Mauhes described by Spix and Martius.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_149" name="note_149" + href="#noteref_149">149.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Francis de Castelnau, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Expédition dans les + parties centrales de l'Amérique du Sud</span></span> (Paris, + 1850-1851), v. 46.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_150" name="note_150" + href="#noteref_150">150.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">L'Abbé Durand, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Le Rio Negro du Nord et son bassin,”</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Bulletin + de la Société de Géographie</span></span> (Paris), vi. Série, iii. + (1872) pp. 21 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span> The writer says that the + candidate has to keep his arms plunged up to the shoulders in + vessels full of ants, <span class="tei tei-q">“as in a bath of + vitriol,”</span> for hours. He gives the native name of the ant as + <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">issauba</span></span>.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_151" name="note_151" + href="#noteref_151">151.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">J. Crevaux, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Voyages dans + l'Amérique du Sud</span></span> (Paris, 1883), pp. 245-250.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_152" name="note_152" + href="#noteref_152">152.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">H. Coudreau, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Chez nos Indiens: + quatre années dans la Guyane Française</span></span> (Paris, 1895), + p. 228. For details as to the different modes of administering the + <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">maraké</span></span>, see <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">ibid.</span></span> + pp. 228-235.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_153" name="note_153" + href="#noteref_153">153.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Father Geronimo Boscana, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Chinigchinich,”</span> in <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Life in California by + an American</span></span> [A. Robinson] (New York, 1846), pp. 273 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_154" name="note_154" + href="#noteref_154">154.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">F. Stuhlmann, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Mit Emin Pascha ins + Herz von Afrika</span></span> (Berlin, 1894), p. 506.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_155" name="note_155" + href="#noteref_155">155.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">As a confirmation of this view it may + be pointed out that beating or scourging is inflicted on inanimate + objects expressly for the purpose indicated in the text. Thus the + Indians of Costa Rica hold that there are two kinds of ceremonial + uncleanness, <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">nya</span></span> and <span class= + "tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">bu-ku-rú</span></span>. Anything that has been + connected with a death is <span class= + "tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">nya</span></span>. + But <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">bu-ku-rú</span></span> is much more virulent. + It can not only make one sick but kill. <span class= + "tei tei-q">“<span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Bu-ku-rú</span></span> emanates in a variety + of ways; arms, utensils, even houses become affected by it after + long disuse, and before they can be used again must be purified. In + the case of portable objects left undisturbed for a long time, the + custom is to beat them with a stick before touching them. I have + seen a woman take a long walking-stick and beat a basket hanging + from the roof of a house by a cord. On asking what that was for, I + was told that the basket contained her treasures, that she would + probably want to take something out the next day, and that she was + driving off the <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">bu-ku-rú</span></span>. A house long unused + must be swept, and then the person who is purifying it must take a + stick and beat not only the movable objects, but the beds, posts, + and in short every accessible part of the interior. The next day it + is fit for occupation. A place not visited for a long time or + reached for the first time is <span class= + "tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">bu-ku-rú</span></span>. On our return from the + ascent of Pico Blanco, nearly all the party suffered from little + calenturas, the result of extraordinary exposure to wet and cold + and of want of food. The Indians said that the peak was especially + <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">bu-ku-rú</span></span>, since nobody had ever + been on it before.”</span> One day Mr. Gabb took down some dusty + blow-guns amid cries of <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">bu-ku-rú</span></span> from the Indians. Some + weeks afterwards a boy died, and the Indians firmly believed that + the <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">bu-ku-rú</span></span> of the blow-guns had + killed him. <span class="tei tei-q">“From all the foregoing, it + would seem that <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">bu-ku-rú</span></span> is a sort of evil + spirit that takes possession of the object, and resents being + disturbed; but I have never been able to learn from the Indians + that they consider it so. They seem to think of it as a property + the object acquires. But the worst <span class= + "tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">bu-ku-rú</span></span> of all, is that of a + young woman in her first pregnancy. She infects the whole + neighbourhood. Persons going from the house where she lives, carry + the infection with them to a distance, and all the deaths or other + serious misfortunes in the vicinity are laid to her charge. In the + old times, when the savage laws and customs were in full force, it + was not an uncommon thing for the husband of such a woman to pay + damages for casualties thus caused by his unfortunate wife.”</span> + See Wm. M. Gabb, <span class="tei tei-q">“On the Indian Tribes and + Languages of Costa Rica,”</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Proceedings of the + American Philosophical Society held at Philadelphia</span></span>, + xiv. (Philadelphia, 1876) pp. 504 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_156" name="note_156" + href="#noteref_156">156.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">J. Chaffanjon, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">L'Orénoque et le + Caura</span></span> (Paris, 1889), pp. 213-215.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_157" name="note_157" + href="#noteref_157">157.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Shib Chunder Bose, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Hindoos as they + are</span></span> (London and Calcutta, 1881), p. 86. Similarly, + after a Brahman boy has been invested with the sacred thread, he is + for three days strictly forbidden to see the sun. He may not eat + salt, and he is enjoined to sleep either on a carpet or a deer's + skin, without a mattress or mosquito curtain (<span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">ibid.</span></span> + p. 186). In Bali, boys who have had their teeth filed, as a + preliminary to marriage, are kept shut up in a dark room for three + days (R. Van Eck, <span class="tei tei-q">“Schetsen van het eiland + Bali,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Tijdschrift voor Nederlandsch + Indië</span></span>, N.S., ix. (1880) pp. 428 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>).</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_158" name="note_158" + href="#noteref_158">158.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">(Sir) H. H. Risley, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Tribes and Castes of + Bengal, Ethnographic Glossary</span></span> (Calcutta, 1891-1892), + i. 152.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_159" name="note_159" + href="#noteref_159">159.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Edgar Thurston, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Castes and Tribes of + Southern India</span></span> (Madras, 1909), vii. 63 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_160" name="note_160" + href="#noteref_160">160.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Edgar Thurston, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. + cit.</span></span> iii. 218.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_161" name="note_161" + href="#noteref_161">161.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Edgar Thurston, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. + cit.</span></span> vi. 157.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_162" name="note_162" + href="#noteref_162">162.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">S. Mateer, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Native Life in + Travancore</span></span> (London, 1883), p. 45.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_163" name="note_163" + href="#noteref_163">163.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Arthur A. Perera, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Glimpses of Singhalese Social Life,”</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Indian + Antiquary</span></span>, xxxi. (1902) p. 380.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_164" name="note_164" + href="#noteref_164">164.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">J. Moura, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Le Royaume du + Cambodge</span></span> (Paris, 1883), i. 377.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_165" name="note_165" + href="#noteref_165">165.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Étienne Aymonier, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Notes sur les coutumes et croyances superstitieuses + des Cambodgiens,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Cochinchine Française: Excursions et + Reconnaissances</span></span>, No. 16 (Saigon, 1883), pp. 193 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span> Compare <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">id.</span></span>, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Notice + sur le Cambodge</span></span> (Paris, 1875), p. 50; <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">id.</span></span>, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Notes sur + le Laos</span></span> (Saigon, 1885), p. 177.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_166" name="note_166" + href="#noteref_166">166.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Svend Grundtvig, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Dänische + Volksmärchen</span></span>, übersetzt von A. Strodtmann, Zweite + Sammlung (Leipsic, 1879), pp. 199 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_167" name="note_167" + href="#noteref_167">167.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Christian Schneller, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Märchen und Sagen aus + Wälschtirol</span></span> (Innsbruck, 1867), No. 22, pp. 51 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_168" name="note_168" + href="#noteref_168">168.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Bernhard Schmidt, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Griechische Märchen, + Sagen und Volkslieder</span></span> (Leipsic, 1877), p. 98.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_169" name="note_169" + href="#noteref_169">169.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">J. G. von Hahn, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Griechische und + albanesische Märchen</span></span> (Leipsic, 1864), No. 41, vol. i. + pp. 245 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_170" name="note_170" + href="#noteref_170">170.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Laura Gonzenbach, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Sicilianische + Märchen</span></span> (Leipsic, 1870), No. 28, vol. i. pp. 177 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span> The incident of the bone + occurs in other folk-tales. A prince or princess is shut up for + safety in a tower and makes his or her escape by scraping a hole in + the wall with a bone which has been accidentally conveyed into the + tower; sometimes it is expressly said that care was taken to let + the princess have no bones with her meat (J. G. von Hahn, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. + cit.</span></span> No. 15; L. Gonzenbach, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. + cit.</span></span> Nos. 26, 27; <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Der Pentamerone, aus + dem Neapolitanischen übertragen</span></span> von Felix Liebrecht + (Breslau, 1846), No. 23, vol. i. pp. 294 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>). + From this we should infer that it is a rule with savages not to let + women handle the bones of animals during their monthly seclusions. + We have already seen the great respect with which the savage treats + the bones of game (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Spirits of the Corn and of the + Wild</span></span>, ii. 238 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>, 256 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>); + and women in their courses are specially forbidden to meddle with + the hunter or fisher, as their contact or neighbourhood would spoil + his sport (see below, pp. <a href="#Pg077" class= + "tei tei-ref">77</a>, <a href="#Pg078" class="tei tei-ref">78</a> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg087" class= + "tei tei-ref">87</a>, <a href="#Pg089" class="tei tei-ref">89</a> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>). In folk-tales the hero + who uses the bone is sometimes a boy; but the incident might easily + be transferred from a girl to a boy after its real meaning had been + forgotten. Amongst the Tinneh Indians a girl at puberty is + forbidden to break the bones of hares (above, p. <a href="#Pg048" + class="tei tei-ref">48</a>). On the other hand, she drinks out of a + tube made of a swan's bone (above, pp. <a href="#Pg048" class= + "tei tei-ref">48</a>, <a href="#Pg049" class="tei tei-ref">49</a>), + and the same instrument is used for the same purpose by girls of + the Carrier tribe of Indians (see below, p. <a href="#Pg092" class= + "tei tei-ref">92</a>). We have seen that a Tlingit (Thlinkeet) girl + in the same circumstances used to drink out of the wing-bone of a + white-headed eagle (above, p. <a href="#Pg045" class= + "tei tei-ref">45</a>), and that among the Nootka and Shuswap tribes + girls at puberty are provided with bones or combs with which to + scratch themselves, because they may not use their fingers for this + purpose (above, pp. <a href="#Pg044" class="tei tei-ref">44</a>, + <a href="#Pg053" class="tei tei-ref">53</a>).</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_171" name="note_171" + href="#noteref_171">171.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Sophocles, Antigone, 944 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>; + Apollodorus, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Bibliotheca</span></span>, ii. 4. 1; Horace, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Odes</span></span>, iii. 16. 1. <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>; + Pausanias, ii. 23. 7.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_172" name="note_172" + href="#noteref_172">172.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. Radloff, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Proben der + Volkslitteratur der türkischen Stämme Süd-Sibiriens</span></span>, + iii. (St. Petersburg, 1870) pp. 82 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_173" name="note_173" + href="#noteref_173">173.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">H. Ternaux-Compans, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Essai sur l'ancien + Cundinamarca</span></span> (Paris, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">n.d.</span></span>), p. 18.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_174" name="note_174" + href="#noteref_174">174.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">George Turner, LL.D., <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Samoa, a Hundred + Years ago and long before</span></span> (London, 1884), p. 200. For + other examples of such tales, see Adolph Bastian, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Die Voelker des + Oestlichen Asien</span></span>, i. 416, vi. 25; <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Panjab Notes and + Queries</span></span>, ii. p. 148, § 797 (June, 1885); A. + Pfizmaier, <span class="tei tei-q">“Nachrichten von den alten + Bewohnern des heutigen Corea,”</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Sitzungsberichte der + philosoph. histor. Classe der kaiser. Akademie der + Wissenschaften</span></span> (Vienna), lvii. (1868) pp. 495 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_175" name="note_175" + href="#noteref_175">175.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Thomas J. Hutchinson, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“On the Chaco and other Indians of South + America,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Transactions of the Ethnological Society of + London</span></span>, N.S. iii. (1865) p. 327. Amongst the Lengua + Indians of the Paraguayan Chaco the marriage feast is now + apparently extinct. See W. Barbrooke Grubb, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">An Unknown People in + an Unknown Land</span></span> (London, 1911), p. 179.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_176" name="note_176" + href="#noteref_176">176.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Monier Williams, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Religious Thought and + Life in India</span></span> (London, 1883), p. 354.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_177" name="note_177" + href="#noteref_177">177.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">H. Vambery, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Das + Türkenvolk</span></span> (Leipsic, 1885), p. 112.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_178" name="note_178" + href="#noteref_178">178.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Hans Egede, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">A Description of + Greenland</span></span> (London, 1818), p. 209.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_179" name="note_179" + href="#noteref_179">179.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Revue des Traditions Populaires</span></span>, + xv. (1900) p. 471.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_180" name="note_180" + href="#noteref_180">180.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Taboo and the Perils of the + Soul</span></span>, pp. 145 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_181" name="note_181" + href="#noteref_181">181.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">H. E. A. Meyer, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Manners and Customs of the Aborigines of the Encounter + Bay Tribe, South Australia,”</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Native Tribes of + South Australia</span></span> (Adelaide, 1879), p. 186.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_182" name="note_182" + href="#noteref_182">182.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">E. J. Eyre, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Journals of + Expeditions of Discovery into Central Australia</span></span> + (London, 1845), ii. 304.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_183" name="note_183" + href="#noteref_183">183.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">E. J. Eyre, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. + cit.</span></span> ii. 295.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_184" name="note_184" + href="#noteref_184">184.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">R. Brough Smyth, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Aborigines of + Victoria</span></span> (Melbourne and London, 1878), i. 236.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_185" name="note_185" + href="#noteref_185">185.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Samuel Gason, in <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Journal of the + Anthropological Institute</span></span>, xxiv. (1895) p. 171.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_186" name="note_186" + href="#noteref_186">186.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Baldwin Spencer and F. J. Gillen, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Native + Tribes of Central Australia</span></span> (London, 1899), p. 473; + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">idem</span></span>, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Northern Tribes of + Central Australia</span></span> (London, 1904), p. 615.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_187" name="note_187" + href="#noteref_187">187.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">James Dawson, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Australian + Aborigines</span></span> (Melbourne, Sydney, and Adelaide, 1881), + pp. ci. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_188" name="note_188" + href="#noteref_188">188.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Rev. William Ridley, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Report on Australian Languages and Traditions,”</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Journal + of the Anthropological Institute</span></span>, ii. (1873) p. 268. + Compare <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">id.</span></span>, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Kamilaroi and other + Australian Languages</span></span> (Sydney, 1875), p. 157.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_189" name="note_189" + href="#noteref_189">189.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">A. W. Howitt, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Native Tribes of + South-East Australia</span></span> (London, 1904), pp. 776 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, on the authority of Mr. J. + C. Muirhead. The Wakelbura are in Central Queensland. Compare + Captain W. E. Armit, quoted in <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Journal of the + Anthropological Institute</span></span>, ix. (1880) pp. 459 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_190" name="note_190" + href="#noteref_190">190.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Reports of the Cambridge Anthropological + Expedition to Torres Straits</span></span>, v. (Cambridge, 1904) + pp. 196, 207.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_191" name="note_191" + href="#noteref_191">191.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ch. Keysser, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Aus dem Leben der Kaileute,”</span> in R. Neuhauss's + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Deutsch + Neu-Guinea</span></span> (Berlin, 1911), iii. 91.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_192" name="note_192" + href="#noteref_192">192.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">M. J. van Baarda, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Fabelen, Verhalen en Overleveringen der + Galelareezen,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Bijdragen tot de Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde + van Nederlandsch-Indië</span></span>, xlv. (1895) p. 489.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_193" name="note_193" + href="#noteref_193">193.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">J. L. van der Toorn, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Het animisme bij den Minangkabauer der Padangsche + Bovenlanden,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Bijdragen tot de Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde + van Nederlandsch-Indië</span></span>, xxxix. (1890) p. 66.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_194" name="note_194" + href="#noteref_194">194.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. H. I. Bleek, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">A Brief Account of + Bushman Folk-lore</span></span> (London, 1875), p. 14; compare + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">ibid.</span></span>, p. 10.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_195" name="note_195" + href="#noteref_195">195.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Rev. James Macdonald, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Manners, Customs, Superstitions and Religions of South + African Tribes,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Journal of the Anthropological + Institute</span></span>, xx. (1891) p. 138; <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">id.</span></span>, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Light in + Africa</span></span>, Second Edition (London, 1890), p. 221.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_196" name="note_196" + href="#noteref_196">196.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Dudley Kidd, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Essential + Kafir</span></span> (London, 1904), p. 238; Mr. Warren's Notes, in + Col. Maclean's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Compendium of Kafir Laws and + Customs</span></span> (Cape Town, 1866), p. 93; Rev. J. Macdonald, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Light in + Africa</span></span>, p. 221; <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">id.</span></span>, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Religion and + Myth</span></span> (London, 1893), p. 198. Compare Henri A. Junod, + <span class="tei tei-q">“Les conceptions physiologiques des Bantou + Sud-Africains et leurs tabous,”</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Revue d'Ethnographie + et de Sociologie</span></span>, i. (1910) p. 139. The danger of + death to the cattle from the blood of women is mentioned only by + Mr. Kidd. The part of the village which is frequented by the + cattle, and which accordingly must be shunned by women, has a + special name, <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">inkundhla</span></span> (Mr. Warner's Notes, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">l.c.</span></span>).</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_197" name="note_197" + href="#noteref_197">197.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Rev. J. Roscoe, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“The Bahima, a Cow Tribe of Enkole,”</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Journal + of the Royal Anthropological Institute</span></span>, xxxvii. + (1907) p. 106.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_198" name="note_198" + href="#noteref_198">198.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Rev. J. Roscoe, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The + Baganda</span></span> (London, 1911), p. 419.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_199" name="note_199" + href="#noteref_199">199.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Rev. J. Roscoe, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The + Baganda</span></span>, p. 96.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_200" name="note_200" + href="#noteref_200">200.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Rev. J. Roscoe, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Notes on the Manners and Customs of the + Baganda,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Journal of the Anthropological + Institute</span></span>, xxxi. (1901) p. 121; <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">id.</span></span>, + <span class="tei tei-q">“Further Notes on the Manners and Customs + of the Baganda,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Journal of the Anthropological + Institute</span></span>, xxxii. (1902) p. 39; <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">id.</span></span>, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The + Baganda</span></span>, p. 352.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_201" name="note_201" + href="#noteref_201">201.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Rev. J. Roscoe, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The + Baganda</span></span>, p. 459.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_202" name="note_202" + href="#noteref_202">202.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">C. W. Hobley, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Further Researches into Kikuyu and Kamba Religious + Beliefs and Customs,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Journal of the Royal Anthropological + Institute</span></span>, xli. (1911) p. 409.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_203" name="note_203" + href="#noteref_203">203.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Mervyn W. H. Beech, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Suk, their + Language and Folklore</span></span> (Oxford, 1911), p. 11.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_204" name="note_204" + href="#noteref_204">204.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">H. S. Stannus, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Notes on some Tribes of British Central + Africa,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Journal of the Royal Anthropological + Institute</span></span>, xl. (1910) p. 305; R. Sutherland Rattray, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Some + Folk-lore Stories and Songs in Chinyanja</span></span> (London, + 1907), p. 191. See above, p. <a href="#Pg027" class= + "tei tei-ref">27</a>.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_205" name="note_205" + href="#noteref_205">205.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Jakob Spieth, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Die + Ewe-Stämme</span></span> (Berlin, 1906), p. 192.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_206" name="note_206" + href="#noteref_206">206.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Anton Witte, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Menstruation und Pubertätsfeier der Mädchen in + Kpandugebiet Togo,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Baessler-Archiv</span></span>, i. (1911) p. + 279.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_207" name="note_207" + href="#noteref_207">207.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Th. Nöldeke, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Geschichte der Perser + und Araber zur Zeit der Sassaniden, aus der arabischen Chronik des + Tabari übersetzt</span></span> (Leyden, 1879), pp. 33-38. I have to + thank my friend Professor A. A. Bevan for pointing out to me this + passage. Many ancient cities had talismans on the preservation of + which their safety was believed to depend. The Palladium of Troy is + the most familiar instance. See Chr. A. Lobeck, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Aglaophamus</span></span> (Königsberg, 1829), + pp. 278 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>, and my note on Pausanias, + viii. 47. 5 (vol. iv. pp. 433 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>).</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_208" name="note_208" + href="#noteref_208">208.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">J. Mergel, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Die Medezin der + Talmudisten</span></span> (Leipsic and Berlin, 1885), pp. 15 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_209" name="note_209" + href="#noteref_209">209.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Maimonides, quoted by D. Chwolsohn, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Die + Ssabier und der Ssabismus</span></span> (St. Petersburg, 1856), ii. + 483. According to the editor (p. 735) by the East Maimonides means + India and eastern countries generally.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_210" name="note_210" + href="#noteref_210">210.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">L'abbé Béchara Chémali, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Naissance et premier âge au Liban,”</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Anthropos</span></span>, v. (1910) p. + 735.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_211" name="note_211" + href="#noteref_211">211.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Eijūb Abēla, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Beiträge zur Kenntniss abergläubischer Gebräuche in + Syrien,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Zeitschrift des deutschen + Palaestina-Vereins</span></span>, vii. (1884) p. 111.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_212" name="note_212" + href="#noteref_212">212.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">J. Chalmers, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Toaripi,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Journal of the Anthropological + Institute</span></span>, xxvii. (1898) p. 328.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_213" name="note_213" + href="#noteref_213">213.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. Crooke, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Tribes and Castes of + the North-Western Provinces and Oudh</span></span> (Calcutta, + 1896), ii. 87.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_214" name="note_214" + href="#noteref_214">214.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. Crooke, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">in North Indian Notes + and Queries</span></span>, i. p. 67, § 467 (July, 1891).</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_215" name="note_215" + href="#noteref_215">215.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">L. K. Anantha Krishna Iyer, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The + Cochin Tribes and Castes</span></span>, i. (Madras, 1909) pp. + 201-203. As to the seclusion of menstruous women among the Hindoos, + see also Sonnerat, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Voyage aux Indes Orientales et à la + Chine</span></span> (Paris, 1782), i. 31; J. A. Dubois, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Mœurs, + Institutions et Cérémonies des Peuples de l'Inde</span></span> + (Paris, 1825), i. 245 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span> Nair women in Malabar + seclude themselves for three days at menstruation and prepare their + food in separate pots and pans. See Duarte Barbosa, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Description of the + Coasts of East Africa and Malabar in the beginning of the Sixteenth + Century</span></span> (Hakluyt Society, London, 1866), pp. 132 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_216" name="note_216" + href="#noteref_216">216.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">G. Hoffman, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Auszüge aus Syrischen + Akten persisischer Martyrer übersetzt</span></span> (Leipsic, + 1880), p. 99. This passage was pointed out to me by my friend + Professor A. A. Bevan.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_217" name="note_217" + href="#noteref_217">217.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">J. B. Tavernier, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Voyages en Turquie, + en Perse, et aux Indes</span></span> (The Hague, 1718), i. + 488.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_218" name="note_218" + href="#noteref_218">218.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Paul Giran, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Magie et Religion + Annamites</span></span> (Paris, 1912), pp. 107 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, + 112.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_219" name="note_219" + href="#noteref_219">219.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Joseph Gumilla, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Histoire Naturelle, + Civile, et Géographique de l'Orenoque</span></span> (Avignon, + 1758), i. 249.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_220" name="note_220" + href="#noteref_220">220.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Dr. Louis Plassard, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Les Guaraunos et le delta de l'Orénoque,”</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Bulletin + de la Société de Géographie</span></span> (Paris), v. Série, xv. + (1868) p. 584.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_221" name="note_221" + href="#noteref_221">221.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">J. Crevaux, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Voyages dans + l'Amérique du Sud</span></span> (Paris, 1883), p. 526. As to the + customs observed at menstruation by Indian women in South America, + see further A. d'Orbigny, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">L'Homme Americain</span></span> (Paris, 1839), + i. 237.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_222" name="note_222" + href="#noteref_222">222.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Chas. N. Bell, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“The Mosquito Territory,”</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Journal of the Royal + Geographical Society</span></span>, xxxii. (1862) p. 254.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_223" name="note_223" + href="#noteref_223">223.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">H. Pittier de Fabrega, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Die Sprache der Bribri-Indianer in Costa Rica,”</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Sitzungsberichte der + philosophischen-historischen Classe der Kaiserlichen Akademie der + Wissenschaften</span></span> (Vienna), cxxxviii. (1898) pp. 19 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_224" name="note_224" + href="#noteref_224">224.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Gabriel Sagard, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Le Grand Voyage du + Pays des Hurons</span></span>, Nouvelle Édition (Paris, 1865), p. + 54 (original edition, Paris, 1632); J. F. Lafitau, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Mœurs des Sauvages + Ameriquains</span></span> (Paris, 1724), i. 262; Charlevoix, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Histoire + de la Nouvelle France</span></span> (Paris, 1744), v. 423 sq.; + Captain Jonathan Carver, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Travels through the Interior Parts of North + America</span></span>, Third Edition (London, 1781), pp. 236 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; Captains Lewis and Clark, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Expedition to the Sources of the + Missouri</span></span>, etc. (London, 1905), iii. 90 (original + edition, 1814); Rev. Jedidiah Morse, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Report to the + Secretary of War of the United States on Indian + Affairs</span></span> (New Haven, 1822), pp. 136 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Annales + de l'Association de la Propagation de la Foi</span></span>, iv. + (Paris and Lyons, 1830) pp. 483, 494 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; + George Catlin, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Letters and Notes on the Manners, Customs, and + Condition of the North American Indians</span></span>, Fourth + Edition (London, 1844), ii. 233; H. R. Schoolcraft, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Indian Tribes of the + United States</span></span> (Philadelphia, 1853-1856), v. 70; A. L. + Kroeber, <span class="tei tei-q">“The Religion of the Indians of + California,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">University of California Publications in + American Archaeology and Ethnology</span></span>, vol. iv. No. 6 + (Berkeley, September, 1907), pp. 323 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; + Frank G. Speck, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Ethnology of the Yuchi Indians</span></span> + (Philadelphia, 1909), p. 96. Among the Hurons of Canada women at + their periods did not retire from the house or village, but they + ate from small dishes apart from the rest of the family at these + times (Gabriel Sagard, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">l.c.</span></span>).</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_225" name="note_225" + href="#noteref_225">225.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">James Adair, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">History of the + American Indians</span></span> (London, 1775), pp. 123 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_226" name="note_226" + href="#noteref_226">226.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Bossu, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Nouveaux Voyages aux + Indes occidentales</span></span> (Paris, 1768), ii. 105.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_227" name="note_227" + href="#noteref_227">227.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Edwin James, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Account of an + Expedition from Pittsburgh to the Rocky Mountains</span></span> + (London, 1823), i. 214.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_228" name="note_228" + href="#noteref_228">228.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">William H. Keating, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Narrative of an + Expedition to the Source of St. Peter's River</span></span> + (London, 1825), i. 132.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_229" name="note_229" + href="#noteref_229">229.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">G. B. Grinnell, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Cheyenne Woman Customs,”</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">American + Anthropologist</span></span>, New Series, iv. (New York, 1902) p. + 14.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_230" name="note_230" + href="#noteref_230">230.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">C. Hill Tout, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Ethnological Report on the Stseelis and Skaulits + Tribes of the Halokmelem Division of the Salish of British + Columbia,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Journal of the Anthropological + Institute</span></span>, xxxiv. (1904) p. 320.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_231" name="note_231" + href="#noteref_231">231.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">James Teit, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Thompson Indians + of British Columbia</span></span>, pp. 326 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span> + (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The + Jesup North Pacific Expedition, Memoir of the American Museum of + Natural History</span></span>, New York, April, 1900).</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_232" name="note_232" + href="#noteref_232">232.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Samuel Hearne, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Journey from Prince + of Wales's Fort in Hudson's Bay to the Northern Ocean</span></span> + (London, 1795), pp. 314 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; Alex. Mackenzie, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Voyages + through the Continent of North America</span></span> (London, + 1801), p. cxxiii.; E. Petitot, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Monographie des + Dènè-Dindjié</span></span> (Paris, 1876), pp. 75 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_233" name="note_233" + href="#noteref_233">233.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">C. Leemius, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">De Lapponibus + Finmarchiae eorumque lingua vita et religione + pristina</span></span> (Copenhagen, 1767), p. 494.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_234" name="note_234" + href="#noteref_234">234.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">E. W. Nelson, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“The Eskimo about Bering Strait,”</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Eighteenth Annual + Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology</span></span>, Part i. + (Washington, 1899) p. 440.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_235" name="note_235" + href="#noteref_235">235.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">The Carriers are a tribe of Déné or + Tinneh Indians who get their name from a custom observed among them + by widows, who carry, or rather used to carry, the charred bones of + their dead husbands about with them in bundles.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_236" name="note_236" + href="#noteref_236">236.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Hence we may conjecture that the + similar ornaments worn by Mabuiag girls in similar circumstances + are also amulets. See above, p. <a href="#Pg036" class= + "tei tei-ref">36</a>. Among the aborigines of the Upper Yarra river + in Victoria, a girl at puberty used to have cords tied very tightly + round several parts of her body. The cords were worn for several + days, causing the whole body to swell very much and inflicting + great pain. The girl might not remove them till she was clean. See + R. Brough Smyth, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Aborigines of Victoria</span></span> + (Melbourne and London, 1878), i. 65. Perhaps the cords were + intended to arrest the flow of blood.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_237" name="note_237" + href="#noteref_237">237.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Rev. Father A.G. Morice, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“The Western Dénés, their Manners and Customs,”</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Proceedings of the Canadian + Institute</span></span>, Toronto, Third Series, vii. (1888-89) pp. + 162-164. The writer has repeated the substance of this account in a + later work, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Au pays de l'Ours Noir: chez les sauvages de + la Colombie Britannique</span></span> (Paris and Lyons, 1897), pp. + 72 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_238" name="note_238" + href="#noteref_238">238.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">A. G. Morice, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Notes, Archaeological, Industrial, and Sociological, + on the Western Dénés,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Transactions of the Canadian + Institute</span></span>, iv. (1892-93) pp. 106 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span> + Compare Rev. Father Julius Jetté, <span class="tei tei-q">“On the + Superstitions of the Ten'a Indians,”</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Anthropos</span></span>, vi. (1911) pp. 703 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, who tells us that Tinneh + women at these times may not lift their own nets, may not step over + other people's nets, and may not pass in a boat or canoe near a + place where nets are being set.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_239" name="note_239" + href="#noteref_239">239.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">A. G. Morice, in <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Transactions of the + Canadian Institute</span></span>, iv. (1892-93) pp. 107, 110.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_240" name="note_240" + href="#noteref_240">240.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">James Teit, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Thompson Indians + of British Columbia</span></span>, p. 327 (<span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Jesup North + Pacific Expedition, Memoir of the American Museum of Natural + History</span></span>, New York, April 1900).</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_241" name="note_241" + href="#noteref_241">241.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See above, p. <a href="#Pg053" class= + "tei tei-ref">53</a>.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_242" name="note_242" + href="#noteref_242">242.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Laws of Manu</span></span>, translated by G. + Bühler (Oxford, 1886), ch. iv. 41 sq., p. 135 (<span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Sacred Books of the + East</span></span>, vol. xxv.).</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_243" name="note_243" + href="#noteref_243">243.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">The Zend-Avesta</span></span>, translated by + J. Darmesteter, i. (Oxford, 1880) p. xcii. (<span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Sacred Books of the + East</span></span>, vol. iv.). See <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">id.</span></span>, + pp. 9, 181-185, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Fargard</span></span>, i. 18 and 19, xvi. + 1-18.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_244" name="note_244" + href="#noteref_244">244.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Pliny, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Nat. + Hist.</span></span> vii. 64 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, xxviii. 77 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span> + Compare <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Geoponica</span></span>, xii. 20. 5 and 25. 2; + Columella, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">De re rustica</span></span>, xi. 357 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_245" name="note_245" + href="#noteref_245">245.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">August Schleicher, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Volkstümliches ans + Sonnenberg</span></span> (Weimar, 1858), p. 134; B. Souché, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Croyances, Présages et Traditions + diverses</span></span> (Niort, 1880), p. 11; A. Meyrac, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Traditions, Coutumes, Légendes et Contes des + Ardennes</span></span> (Charleville, 1890), p. 171; V. Fossel, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Volksmedicin und medicinischer Aberglaube in + Steiermark</span></span><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "vertical-align: super">2</span></span> (Graz, 1886), p. 124. A + correspondent, who withholds her name, writes to me that in a + Suffolk village, where she used to live some twenty or thirty years + ago, <span class="tei tei-q">“every one pickled their own beef, and + it was held that if the pickling were performed by a woman during + her menstrual period the meat would not keep. If the cook were + incapacitated at the time when the pickling was due, another woman + was sent for out of the village rather than risk what was + considered a certainty.”</span> Another correspondent informs me + that in some of the dales in the north of Yorkshire a similar + belief prevailed down to recent years with regard to the salting of + pork. Another correspondent writes to me: <span class= + "tei tei-q">“The prohibition that a menstruating woman must not + touch meat that is intended for keeping appears to be common all + over the country; at least I have met with it as a confirmed and + active custom in widely separated parts of England.... It is in + regard to the salting of meat for bacon that the prohibition is + most usual, because that is the commonest process; but it exists in + regard to any meat food that is required to be kept.”</span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_246" name="note_246" + href="#noteref_246">246.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">R. Andree, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Braunschweiger + Volkskunde</span></span> (Brunswick, 1896), p. 291.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_247" name="note_247" + href="#noteref_247">247.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. R. Paton, in <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Folk-lore</span></span>, i. (1890) p. + 524.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_248" name="note_248" + href="#noteref_248">248.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">The Greeks and Romans thought that a + field was completely protected against insects if a menstruous + woman walked round it with bare feet and streaming hair (Pliny, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Nat. + Hist.</span></span> xvii. 266, xxviii. 78; Columella, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">De re + rustica</span></span>, x. 358 sq., xi. 3. 64; Palladius, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">De re + rustica</span></span>, i. 35. 3; <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Geoponica</span></span>, xii. 8. 5 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; Aelian, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Nat. + Anim.</span></span> vi. 36). A similar preventive is employed for + the same purpose by North American Indians and European peasants. + See H. R. Schoolcraft, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Indian Tribes of the United + States</span></span> (Philadelphia, 1853-1856), v. 70; F. J. + Wiedemann, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Aus dem inneren und äussern Leben der + Ehsten</span></span> (St. Petersburg, 1876), p. 484. Compare J. + Haltrich, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Zur Volkskunde der Siebenbürger + Sachsen</span></span> (Vienna, 1885), p. 280; Adolph Heinrich, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Agrarische Sitten und Gebräuche unter den + Sachsen Siebenbürgens</span></span> (Hermannstadt, 1880), p. 14; J. + Grimm, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Deutsche Mythologie</span></span>,<span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="vertical-align: super">4</span></span> + iii. 468; G. Lammert, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Volksmedizin und medizinischer Aberglaube aus + Bayern</span></span> (Würzburg, 1869), p. 147. Among the Western + Dénés it is believed that one or two transverse lines tattooed on + the arms or legs of a young man by a pubescent girl are a specific + against premature weakness of these limbs. See A. G. Morice, + <span class="tei tei-q">“Notes, Archaeological, Industrial, and + Sociological, on the Western Dénés,”</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Transactions of the + Canadian Institute</span></span>, iv. (1892-93) p. 182. The + Thompson Indians of British Columbia thought that the Dawn of Day + could and would cure hernia if only an adolescent girl prayed to it + to do so. Just before daybreak the girl would put some charcoal in + her mouth, chew it fine, and spit it out four times on the diseased + place. Then she prayed: <span class="tei tei-q">“O Day-dawn! thy + child relies on me to obtain healing from thee, who art mystery. + Remove thou the swelling of thy child. Pity thou him, + Day-Dawn!”</span> See James Teit, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Thompson Indians + of British Columbia</span></span>, pp. 345 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span> + (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The + Jesup North Pacific Expedition, Memoir of the American Museum of + Natural History</span></span>, New York, April, 1900). To cure the + painful and dangerous wound inflicted by a ray-fish, the Indians of + the Gran Chaco smoke the wounded limb and then cause a woman in her + courses to sit astride of it. See G. Pelleschi, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Eight Months on the + Gran Chaco of the Argentine Republic</span></span> (London, 1886), + p. 106. An ancient Hindoo method of securing prosperity was to + swallow a portion of the menstruous fluid. See W. Caland, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Altindisches Zauberritual</span></span> + (Amsterdam, 1900), pp. 57 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span> To preserve a new cow from + the evil eye Scottish Highlanders used to sprinkle menstruous blood + on the animal; and at certain seasons of the year, especially at + Beltane (the first of May) and Lammas (the first of August) it was + their custom to sprinkle the same potent liquid on the doorposts + and houses all round to guard them from harm. The fluid was applied + by means of a wisp of straw, and the person who discharged this + salutary office went round the house in the direction of the sun. + See J. G. Campbell, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Superstitions of the Highlands and Islands of + Scotland</span></span> (Glasgow, 1900), p. 248. These are examples + of the beneficent application of the menstruous energy.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_249" name="note_249" + href="#noteref_249">249.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Taboo and the Perils of the + Soul</span></span>, pp. 1 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_250" name="note_250" + href="#noteref_250">250.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">For a similar reason, perhaps, ancient + Hindoo ritual prescribed that when the hair of a child's head was + shorn in the third year, the clippings should be buried in a + cow-stable, or near an <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">udumbara</span></span> tree, or in a clump of + <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">darbha</span></span> grass, with the words, + <span class="tei tei-q">“Where Pushan, Brihaspati, Savitri, Soma, + Agni dwell, they have in many ways searched where they should + deposit it, between heaven and earth, the waters and + heaven.”</span> See <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">The Grihya-Sûtras</span></span>, translated by + H. Oldenberg, Part ii. (Oxford, 1892) p. 218 (<span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Sacred Books of the + East</span></span>, vol. xxx.).</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_251" name="note_251" + href="#noteref_251">251.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Petronius, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Sat.</span></span> + 48; Pausanias, x. 12. 8; Justin Martyr, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Cohort ad + Graecos</span></span>, 37, p. 34 c (ed. 1742). According to another + account, the remains of the Sibyl were enclosed in an iron cage + which hung from a pillar in an ancient temple of Hercules at + Argyrus (Ampelius, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Liber Memorialis</span></span>, viii. + 16).</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_252" name="note_252" + href="#noteref_252">252.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">A. Kuhn und W. Schwartz, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Norddeutsche Sagen, + Märchen und Gebräuche</span></span> (Leipsic, 1848), p. 70, No. 72. + 1. This and the following German parallels to the story of the + Sibyl's wish were first indicated by Dr. M. R. James (<span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Classical + Review</span></span>, vi. (1892) p. 74). I have already given the + stories at length in a note on Pausanias, x. 12. 8 (vol. v. pp. 292 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>).</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_253" name="note_253" + href="#noteref_253">253.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">A. Kuhn und W. Schwartz, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. + cit.</span></span> pp. 70 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, No. 72. 2.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_254" name="note_254" + href="#noteref_254">254.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">A. Kuhn und W. Schwartz, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. + cit.</span></span> p. 71, No. 72. 3.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_255" name="note_255" + href="#noteref_255">255.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Karl Müllenhoff, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Sagen, Märchen und + Lieder der Herzogthümer Holstein und Lauenburg</span></span> (Kiel, + 1845), pp. 158 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, No. 217.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_256" name="note_256" + href="#noteref_256">256.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Die Edda</span></span>, übersetzt von K. + Simrock<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "vertical-align: super">8</span></span> (Stuttgart, 1882), pp. + 286-288. Compare pp. 8, 34, 264. Balder's story is told in a + professedly historical form by the old Danish historian Saxo + Grammaticus in his third book. See below, p. 103. In English the + story is told at length by Professor (Sir) John Rhys, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Celtic + Heathendom</span></span> (London and Edinburgh, 1888), pp. 529 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span> It is elaborately discussed + by Professor F. Kauffmann in a learned monograph, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Balder, Mythus und + Sage</span></span> (Strasburg, 1902).</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_257" name="note_257" + href="#noteref_257">257.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Gudbrand Vigfusson and F. York Powell, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Corpus + Poeticum Boreale</span></span>, i. (Oxford, 1883) p. 197. Compare + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Edda + Rhythmica seu Antiquior, vulgo Saemundina dicta</span></span>, Pars + iii. (Copenhagen, 1828) pp. 39 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Die + Edda</span></span>, übersetzt von K. Simrock<span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="vertical-align: super">8</span></span> + (Stuttgart, 1882), p. 8; K. Müllenhoff, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Deutsche + Altertumskunde</span></span>, v. Zweite Abteilung (Berlin, 1891), + pp. 78 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; Fr. Kauffmann, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Balder, Mythus und + Sage</span></span>, pp. 20 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span> In this passage the words + translated <span class="tei tei-q">“bloody victim”</span> + (<span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">blauþom tivor</span></span>) and <span class= + "tei tei-q">“fate looming”</span> (<span class= + "tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">ørlog + fólgen</span></span>) are somewhat uncertain and have been + variously interpreted. The word <span class= + "tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">tivor</span></span>, usually understood to + mean <span class="tei tei-q">“god,”</span> seems to be found + nowhere else. Professor H. M. Chadwick has kindly furnished me with + the following literal translation of the passage: <span class= + "tei tei-q">“I saw (or <span class="tei tei-q">‘have seen’</span>) + held in safe keeping the life of Balder, the bloody god, Othin's + son. High above the fields (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">i.e.</span></span> the surface of the earth) + grew a mistletoe, slender and very beautiful. From a shaft (or + <span class="tei tei-q">‘stem’</span>) which appeared slender, came + a dangerous sorrow-bringing missile (<span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">i.e.</span></span> + the shaft became a ... missile); Hodr proceeded to shoot. Soon was + a brother of Balder born. He, Othin's son, proceeded to do battle + when one day old. He did not wash his hands or comb his head before + he brought Balder's antagonist on to the pyre. But Frigg in + Fen-salir (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">i.e.</span></span> the Fen-abode) lamented the + trouble of Valholl.”</span> In translating the words <span class= + "tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">ørlog + fólgen</span></span> <span class="tei tei-q">“held in safe keeping + the life”</span> Professor Chadwick follows Professor F. + Kauffmann's rendering (<span class="tei tei-q">“<span lang="de" + class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="de"><span style= + "font-style: italic">das Leben verwahrt</span></span>”</span>); but + he writes to me that he is not quite confident about it, as the + word <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">ørlog</span></span> usually means <span class= + "tei tei-q">“fate”</span> rather than <span class= + "tei tei-q">“life.”</span> Several sentences translated by + Professor Chadwick (<span class="tei tei-q">“Soon was a brother of + Balder born ... he brought Balder's antagonist on the pyre”</span>) + are omitted by some editors and translators of the <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Edda</span></span>.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_258" name="note_258" + href="#noteref_258">258.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">G. Vigfusson and F. York Powell, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Corpus + Poeticum Boreale</span></span>, i. 200 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Edda + Rhythmica seu Antiquior, vulgo Saemundina dicta</span></span>, Pars + iii. pp. 51-54; <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Die Edda</span></span>, übersetzt von K. + Simrock<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "vertical-align: super">8</span></span> pp. 10 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; K. + Müllenhoff, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Deutsche Altertumskunde</span></span>, v. + Zweite Abteilung, pp. 84 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_259" name="note_259" + href="#noteref_259">259.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Saxo Grammaticus, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Historia + Danica</span></span>, ed. P. E. Müller (Copenhagen, 1839-1858), + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">lib.</span></span> iii. vol. i. pp. 110 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>; <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The First Nine Books + of the Danish History of Saxo Grammaticus</span></span>, translated + by Oliver Elton (London, 1894), pp. 83-93.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_260" name="note_260" + href="#noteref_260">260.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Fridthjofs Saga, aus dem + Altisländischen</span></span>, von J. C. Poestion (Vienna, 1879), + pp. 3 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, 14-17, 45-52.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_261" name="note_261" + href="#noteref_261">261.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">The Epic of Kings, Stories retold from + Firdusi</span></span>, by Helen Zimmern (London, 1883), pp. + 325-331. The parallel between Balder and Isfendiyar was pointed out + in the <span class="tei tei-q">“Lexicon Mythologicum”</span> + appended to the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Edda Rhythmica seu Antiquior, vulgo Saemundina + dicta</span></span>, Pars iii. (Copenhagen, 1828) p. 513 note, with + a reference to <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Schah Nameh, verdeutscht von + Görres</span></span>, ii. 324, 327 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span> It + is briefly mentioned by Dr. P. Wagler, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Die Eiche in alter + und neuer Zeit</span></span>, ii. Teil (Berlin, 1891), p. 40.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_262" name="note_262" + href="#noteref_262">262.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See Jacob Grimm, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Deutsche + Mythologie</span></span><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "vertical-align: super">4</span></span> (Berlin, 1875-1878), i. + 502, 510, 516.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_263" name="note_263" + href="#noteref_263">263.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. Mannhardt, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Der Baumkultus der + Germanen und ihrer Nachbarstämme</span></span> (Berlin, 1875), pp. + 518 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_264" name="note_264" + href="#noteref_264">264.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">In the following survey of these + fire-customs I follow chiefly W. Mannhardt, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Der + Baumkultus</span></span>, kap. vi. pp. 497 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span> + Compare also J. Grimm, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Deutsche Mythologie</span></span>,<span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="vertical-align: super">4</span></span> i. + 500 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>; Walter K. Kelly, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Curiosities of Indo-European Tradition and + Folk-lore</span></span> (London, 1863), pp. 46 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>; + F. Vogt, <span class="tei tei-q">“Scheibentreiben und + Frühlingsfeuer,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Zeitschrift des Vereins für + Volkskunde</span></span>, iii. (1893) pp. 349-369; <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">ibid.</span></span> + iv. (1894) pp. 195-197.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_265" name="note_265" + href="#noteref_265">265.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">The Scapegoat</span></span>, pp. 316 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_266" name="note_266" + href="#noteref_266">266.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">The first Sunday in Lent is known as + <span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Invocavit</span></span> from the first word of + the mass for the day (O. Frh. von Reinsberg-Düringsfeld, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Fest-Kalender aus Böhmen</span></span>, p. + 67).</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_267" name="note_267" + href="#noteref_267">267.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Le Baron de Reinsberg-Düringsfeld, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Calendrier Belge</span></span> (Brussels, + 1861-1862), i. 141-143; E. Monseur, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Le Folklore + Wallon</span></span> (Brussels, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">n.d.</span></span>), pp. 124 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_268" name="note_268" + href="#noteref_268">268.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Emile Hublard, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Fêtes du Temps Jadis, + les Feux du Carême</span></span> (Mons, 1899), pp. 25. For the loan + of this work I am indebted to Mrs. Wherry of St. Peter's Terrace, + Cambridge.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_269" name="note_269" + href="#noteref_269">269.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">É. Hublard, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. + cit.</span></span> pp. 27 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_270" name="note_270" + href="#noteref_270">270.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">A. Meyrac, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Traditions, coutumes, + légendes et contes des Ardennes</span></span> (Charleville, 1890), + p. 68.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_271" name="note_271" + href="#noteref_271">271.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">L. F. Sauvé, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Le Folk-lore des + Hautes-Vosges</span></span> (Paris, 1889), p. 56. The popular name + for the bonfires in the Upper Vosges (<span lang="fr" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="fr"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Hautes-Vosges</span></span>) is <span lang= + "fr" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="fr"><span style= + "font-style: italic">chavandes</span></span>.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_272" name="note_272" + href="#noteref_272">272.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">E. Cortet, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Essai sur les fêtes + religieuses</span></span> (Paris, 1867), pp. 101 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span> The + local name for these bonfires is <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">bures</span></span>.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_273" name="note_273" + href="#noteref_273">273.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Charles Beauquier, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Les mois en + Franche-Comté</span></span> (Paris, 1900), pp. 33 sq. In Bresse the + custom was similar. See <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">La Bresse Louhannaise, Bulletin Mensuel, + Organe de la Société d'Agriculture et d'Horticulture de + l'Arrondissement de Louhans</span></span>, Mars, 1906, pp. 111 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; E. Cortet, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. + cit.</span></span> p. 100. The usual name for the bonfires is + <span lang="fr" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="fr"><span style= + "font-style: italic">chevannes</span></span> or <span lang="fr" + class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="fr"><span style= + "font-style: italic">schvannes</span></span>; but in some places + they are called <span lang="fr" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang= + "fr"><span style="font-style: italic">foulères</span></span>, + <span lang="fr" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="fr"><span style= + "font-style: italic">foualères</span></span>, <span lang="fr" + class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="fr"><span style= + "font-style: italic">failles</span></span>, or <span lang="fr" + class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="fr"><span style= + "font-style: italic">bourdifailles</span></span> (Ch. Beauquier, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. + cit.</span></span> p. 34). But the Sunday is called the Sunday of + the <span lang="fr" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang= + "fr"><span style="font-style: italic">brandons</span></span>, + <span lang="fr" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="fr"><span style= + "font-style: italic">bures</span></span>, <span lang="fr" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="fr"><span style= + "font-style: italic">bordes</span></span>, or <span lang="fr" + class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="fr"><span style= + "font-style: italic">boidès</span></span>, according to the place. + The <span lang="fr" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang= + "fr"><span style="font-style: italic">brandons</span></span> are + the torches which are carried about the streets and the fields; the + bonfires, as we have seen, bear another name. A curious custom, + observed on the same Sunday in Franche-Comté, requires that couples + married within the year should distribute boiled peas to all the + young folks of both sexes who demand them at the door. The lads and + lasses go about from house to house, making the customary request; + in some places they wear masks or are otherwise disguised. See Ch. + Beauquier, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">op. cit.</span></span> pp. 31-33.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_274" name="note_274" + href="#noteref_274">274.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Curiously enough, while the singular + is <span lang="fr" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang= + "fr"><span style="font-style: italic">granno-mio</span></span>, the + plural is <span lang="fr" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang= + "fr"><span style= + "font-style: italic">grannas-mias</span></span>.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_275" name="note_275" + href="#noteref_275">275.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Dr. Pommerol, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“La fête des Brandons et le dieu Gaulois + Grannus,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Bulletins et Mémoires de la Société + d'Anthropologie de Paris</span></span>, v. Série, ii. (1901) pp. + 427-429.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_276" name="note_276" + href="#noteref_276">276.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Op. cit.</span></span> pp. 428 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_277" name="note_277" + href="#noteref_277">277.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">H. Dessau, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Inscriptiones Latinae + Selectae</span></span>, vol. ii. Pars i. (Berlin, 1902) pp. 216 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, Nos. 4646-4652.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_278" name="note_278" + href="#noteref_278">278.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">(Sir) John Rhys, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Celtic + Heathendom</span></span> (London, 1888), pp. 22-25.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_279" name="note_279" + href="#noteref_279">279.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Émile Hublard, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Fêtes du Temps Jadis, + les Feux du Carême</span></span> (Mons, 1899), p. 38, quoting Dom + Grenier, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Histoire de la Province de + Picardie</span></span>.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_280" name="note_280" + href="#noteref_280">280.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">É. Hublard, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. + cit.</span></span> p. 39, quoting Dom Grenier.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_281" name="note_281" + href="#noteref_281">281.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">M. Desgranges, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Usages du Canton de Bonneval,”</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Mémoires de la + Société Royale des Antiquaires de France</span></span>, i. (Paris, + 1817) pp. 236-238; Felix Chapiseau, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Le folk-lore de la + Beauce et du Perche</span></span> (Paris, 1902), i. 315 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_282" name="note_282" + href="#noteref_282">282.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">John Brand, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Popular Antiquities + of Great Britain</span></span> (London, 1882-1883), i. 100.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_283" name="note_283" + href="#noteref_283">283.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">E. Cortet, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Essai sur les fêtes + religieuses</span></span> (Paris, 1867), pp. 99 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">La Bresse + Louhannaise</span></span>, Mars, 1906, p. 111.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_284" name="note_284" + href="#noteref_284">284.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">A. de Nore, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Coutumes, mythes et + traditions des provinces de France</span></span> (Paris and Lyons, + 1846), pp. 283 sq. A similar, though not identical, custom + prevailed at Valenciennes (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">ibid.</span></span> p. 338).</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_285" name="note_285" + href="#noteref_285">285.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">A. de Nore, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. + cit.</span></span> p. 302.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_286" name="note_286" + href="#noteref_286">286.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Désiré Monnier, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Traditions populaires + comparées</span></span> (Paris, 1854), pp. 191 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_287" name="note_287" + href="#noteref_287">287.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Laisnel de la Salle, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Croyances et légendes + du centre de la France</span></span> (Paris, 1875), i. 35 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_288" name="note_288" + href="#noteref_288">288.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Jules Lecœur, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Esquisses du Bocage + Normand</span></span> (Condé-sur-Noireau, 1887), ii. 131 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span> For more evidence of customs + of this sort observed in various parts of France on the first + Sunday in Lent, see Madame Clément, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Histoire des Fêtes + civiles et religieuses, etc., du Département du + Nord</span></span><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "vertical-align: super">2</span></span> (Cambrai, 1836), pp. 351 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>; Émile Hublard, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Fêtes du + Temps Jadis, les Feux du Carême</span></span> (Mons, 1899), pp. 33 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_289" name="note_289" + href="#noteref_289">289.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">J. H. Schmitz, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Sitten und Sagen, + Lieder, Sprüchwörter und Räthsel des Eifler Volkes</span></span> + (Trèves, 1856-1858), i. 21-25; N. Hocker, in <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Zeitschrift für + deutsche Mythologie und Sittenkunde</span></span>, i. (1853) p. 90; + W. Mannhardt, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Der Baumkultus der Germanen und ihrer + Nachbarstämme</span></span> (Berlin, 1875), p. 501.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_290" name="note_290" + href="#noteref_290">290.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">N. Hocker, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. + cit.</span></span> pp. 89 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; W. Mannhardt, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">l.c.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_291" name="note_291" + href="#noteref_291">291.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">F. J. Vonbun, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Beiträge zur + deutschen Mythologie</span></span> (Chur, 1862), p. 20; W. + Mannhardt, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">l.c.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_292" name="note_292" + href="#noteref_292">292.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ernst Meier, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Deutsche Sagen, + Sitten und Gebräuche aus Schwaben</span></span> (Stuttgart, 1852), + pp. 380 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>; Anton Birlinger, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Volksthümliches aus Schwaben</span></span> + (Freiburg im Breisgau, 1861-1862), ii. 56 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>, + 66 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>; <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Bavaria, Landes- und + Volkskunde des Königreichs Bayern</span></span> (Munich, + 1860-1867), ii. 2, pp. 838 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; F. Panzer, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Beitrag zur deutschen + Mythologie</span></span> (Munich, 1848-1855), i. 211, § 232; W. + Mannhardt, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">l.c.</span></span> One of the popular German + names for the first Sunday in Lent is White Sunday, which is not to + be confused with the first Sunday after Easter, which also goes by + the name of White Sunday (E. Meier, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. + cit.</span></span> p. 380; A. Birlinger, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. + cit.</span></span> ii. 56).</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_293" name="note_293" + href="#noteref_293">293.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">H. Gaidoz, <span class="tei tei-q">“Le + dieu gaulois du soleil et le symbolisme de la roue,”</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Revue + Archéologique</span></span>, iii. série, iv. (1884) pp. 139 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_294" name="note_294" + href="#noteref_294">294.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">August Witzschel, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Sagen, Sitten und + Gebräuche aus Thüringen</span></span> (Vienna, 1878), p. 189; F. + Panzer, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Beitrag zur deutschen Mythologie</span></span> + (Munich, 1848-1855), ii. 207; W. Mannhardt, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Der + Baumkultus</span></span>, pp. 500 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq</span></span>.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_295" name="note_295" + href="#noteref_295">295.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. Kolbe, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hessiche Volks-Sitten + und Gebräuche</span></span><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "vertical-align: super">2</span></span> (Marburg, 1888), p. + 36.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_296" name="note_296" + href="#noteref_296">296.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Adalbert Kuhn, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Die Herabkunft des + Feuers und des Göttertranks</span></span><span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="vertical-align: super">2</span></span> + (Gütersloh, 1886), p. 86, quoting Hocker, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Des Mosellandes + Geschichten, Sagen und Legenden</span></span> (Trier, 1852), pp. + 415 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span> Compare W. Mannhardt, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Der + Baumkultus</span></span>, p. 501; and below, pp. <a href="#Pg163" + class="tei tei-ref">163</a> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span> Thus it appears that the + ceremony of rolling the fiery wheel down hill was observed twice a + year at Konz, once on the first Sunday in Lent, and once at + Midsummer.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_297" name="note_297" + href="#noteref_297">297.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">H. Herzog, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Schweizerische + Volksfeste, Sitten und Gebräuche</span></span> (Aarau, 1884), pp. + 214-216; E. Hoffmann-Krayer, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Fruchtbarkeitsriten im schweizerischen + Volksbrauch,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Schweizerisches Archiv für + Volkskunde</span></span>, xi. (1907) pp. 247-249; <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">id.</span></span>, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Feste und + Bräuche des Schweizervolkes</span></span> (Zurich, 1913), pp. 135 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_298" name="note_298" + href="#noteref_298">298.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Theodor Vernaleken, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Mythen und Bräuche + des Volkes in Oesterreich</span></span> (Vienna, 1859), pp. 293 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; W. Mannhardt, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Der + Baumkultus</span></span>, p. 498. See <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Dying + God</span></span>, p. 250.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_299" name="note_299" + href="#noteref_299">299.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">J. H. Schmitz, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Sitten und Sagen, + Lieder, Sprüchwörter und Räthsel des Eifler Volkes</span></span> + (Treves, 1856-1858), i. 20; W. Mannhardt, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Der + Baumkultus</span></span>, p. 499.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_300" name="note_300" + href="#noteref_300">300.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">L. Strackerjan, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Aberglaube und Sagen + aus dem Herzogthum Oldenburg</span></span> (Oldenburg, 1867), ii. + 39, § 306; W. Mannhardt, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Der Baumkultus</span></span>, p. 498.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_301" name="note_301" + href="#noteref_301">301.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. Mannhardt, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Der + Baumkultus</span></span>, p. 499.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_302" name="note_302" + href="#noteref_302">302.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. Mannhardt, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. + cit.</span></span> pp. 498 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_303" name="note_303" + href="#noteref_303">303.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. Mannhardt, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. + cit.</span></span> p. 499.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_304" name="note_304" + href="#noteref_304">304.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Christian Schneller, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Märchen und Sagen aus + Wälschtirol</span></span> (Innsbruck, 1867), pp. 234 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; W. + Mannhardt, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">op. cit.</span></span> pp. 499 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_305" name="note_305" + href="#noteref_305">305.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">John Brand, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Popular Antiquities + of Great Britain</span></span> (London, 1882-1883), i. 157 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; W. Mannhardt, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Der + Baumkultus</span></span>, pp. 502-505; Karl Freiherr von + Leoprechting, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Aus dem Lechrain</span></span> (Munich, 1855), + pp. 172 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; Anton Birlinger, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Volksthümliches aus Schwaben</span></span> + (Freiburg im Breisgau, 1861-1862), i. 472 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; + Montanus, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Die deutschen Volksfeste, Volksbräuche und + deutscher Volksglaube</span></span> (Iserlohn, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">n.d.</span></span>), p. 26; F. Panzer, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Beitrag + zur deutschen Mythologie</span></span> (Munich, 1848-1855), ii. 241 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; Ernst Meier, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Deutsche Sagen, + Sitten und Gebräuche aus Schwaben</span></span> (Stuttgart, 1852), + pp. 139 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Bavaria, Landes- und + Volkskunde des Königreichs Bayern</span></span> (Munich, + 1860-1867), i. 371; A. Wuttke, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Der deutsche + Volksaberglaube</span></span><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "vertical-align: super">2</span></span> (Berlin, 1869), pp. 68 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, § 81; Ignaz V. Zingerle, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Sitten, + Bräuche und Meinungen des Tiroler Volkes</span></span><span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="vertical-align: super">2</span></span> + (Innsbruck, 1871), p. 149, §§ 1286-1289; W. Kolbe, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hessische + Volks-Sitten und Gebräuche</span></span><span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="vertical-align: super">2</span></span> + (Marburg, 1888), pp. 44 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>; <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">County Folk-lore, + Printed Extracts, Leicestershire and Rutland</span></span>, + collected by C. J. Billson (London, 1895), pp. 75 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; A. + Tiraboschi, <span class="tei tei-q">“Usi pasquali nel + Bergamasco,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Archivio per lo Studio delle Tradizione + Popolari</span></span>, i. (1892) pp. 442 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span> The + ecclesiastical custom of lighting the Paschal or Easter candle is + very fully described by Mr. H. J. Feasey, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ancient English Holy + Week Ceremonial</span></span> (London, 1897), pp. 179 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span> + These candles were sometimes of prodigious size; in the cathedrals + of Norwich and Durham, for example, they reached almost to the + roof, from which they had to be lighted. Often they went by the + name of the Judas Light or the Judas Candle; and sometimes small + waxen figures of Judas were hung on them. See H. J. Feasey, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. + cit.</span></span> pp. 193, 213 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span> As + to the ritual of the new fire at St. Peter's in Rome, see R. + Chambers, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">The Book of Days</span></span> (London and + Edinburgh, 1886), i. 421; and as to the early history of the rite + in the Catholic church, see Mgr. L. Duchesne, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Origines du Culte + Chrétien</span></span><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "vertical-align: super">3</span></span> (Paris, 1903), pp. + 250-257.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_306" name="note_306" + href="#noteref_306">306.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Bavaria, Landes- und Volkskunde des + Königreichs Bayern</span></span> (Munich, 1860-1867), i. 1002 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_307" name="note_307" + href="#noteref_307">307.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Gennaro Finamore, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Credenze, Usi e + Costumi Abruzzesi</span></span> (Palermo, 1890), pp. 122 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_308" name="note_308" + href="#noteref_308">308.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">G. Finamore, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. + cit.</span></span> pp. 123 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_309" name="note_309" + href="#noteref_309">309.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Vincenzo Dorsa, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">La Tradizione + Greco-Latina negli Usi e nelle Credenze Popolari della Calabria + Citeriore</span></span> (Cosenza, 1884), pp. 48 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_310" name="note_310" + href="#noteref_310">310.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Alois John, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Sitte, Brauch, und + Volksglaube im deutschen Westböhmen</span></span> (Prague, 1905), + pp. 62 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_311" name="note_311" + href="#noteref_311">311.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">K. Seifart, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Sagen, Märchen, + Schwänke und Gebräuche aus Stadt und Stift + Hildesheim</span></span><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "vertical-align: super">2</span></span> (Hildesheim, 1889), pp. 177 + sq., 179 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_312" name="note_312" + href="#noteref_312">312.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">M. Lexer, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Volksüberlieferungen aus dem Lesachthal in + Kärnten,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Zeitschrift für deutsche Mythologie und + Sittenkunde</span></span>, iii. (1855) p. 31.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_313" name="note_313" + href="#noteref_313">313.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">The Popish Kingdome or reigne of Antichrist, + written in Latin verse by Thomas Naogeorgus and Englyshed by + Barnabe Googe, 1570</span></span>, edited by R. C. Hope (London, + 1880), p. 52, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">recto</span></span>. The title of the original + poem was <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Regnum Papisticum</span></span>. The author, + Thomas Kirchmeyer (Naogeorgus, as he called himself), died in 1577. + The book is a satire on the abuses and superstitions of the + Catholic Church. Only one perfect copy of Googe's translation is + known to exist: it is in the University Library at Cambridge. See + Mr. R. C. Hope's introduction to his reprint of this rare work, pp. + xv. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span> The words, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Then Clappers ceasse, and belles are set againe at + libertée,”</span> refer to the custom in Catholic countries of + silencing the church bells for two days from noon on Maundy + Thursday to noon on Easter Saturday and substituting for their + music the harsh clatter of wooden rattles. See R. Chambers, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Book + of Days</span></span> (London and Edinburgh, 1886), i. 412 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span> According to another account + the church bells are silent from midnight on the Wednesday + preceding Maundy Thursday till matins on Easter Day. See W. Smith + and S. Cheetham, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Dictionary of Christian + Antiquities</span></span> (London, 1875-1880), ii. 1161, referring + to <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ordo + Roman</span></span>. i. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">u.s.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_314" name="note_314" + href="#noteref_314">314.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">R. Chambers, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Book of + Days</span></span> (London and Edinburgh, 1886), i. 421.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_315" name="note_315" + href="#noteref_315">315.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Miss Jessie L. Weston, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“The <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Scoppio del Carro</span></span> at + Florence,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Folk-lore</span></span>, xvi. (1905) pp. + 182-184; <span class="tei tei-q">“Lo Scoppio del Carro,”</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Resurrezione, Numero Unico del Sabato + Santo</span></span> (Florence, April, 1906), p. 1 (giving a picture + of the car with its pyramid of fire-works). The latter paper was + kindly sent to me from Florence by my friend Professor W. J. Lewis. + I have also received a letter on the subject from Signor Carlo + Placci, dated 4 (or 7) September, 1905, 1 Via Alfieri, + Firenze.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_316" name="note_316" + href="#noteref_316">316.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Frederick Starr, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Holy Week in Mexico,”</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Journal of + American Folk-lore</span></span>, xii. (1899) pp. 164 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; C. + Boyson Taylor, <span class="tei tei-q">“Easter in Many + Lands,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Everybody's Magazine</span></span>, New York, + 1903, p. 293. I have to thank Mr. S. S. Cohen, of 1525 Walnut + Street, Philadelphia, for sending me a cutting from the latter + magazine.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_317" name="note_317" + href="#noteref_317">317.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">K. von den Steinen, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Unter den + Naturvölkern Zentral-Brasiliens</span></span> (Berlin, 1894), pp. + 458 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; E. Montet, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Religion et Superstition dans l'Amérique du + Sud,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Revue de l'Histoire des + Religions</span></span>, xxxii. (1895) p. 145.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_318" name="note_318" + href="#noteref_318">318.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">J. J. von Tschudi, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Peru, Reiseskizzen + aus den Jahren 1838-1842</span></span> (St. Gallen, 1846), ii. 189 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_319" name="note_319" + href="#noteref_319">319.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">H. Candelier, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Rio-Hacha et les + Indiens Goajires</span></span> (Paris, 1893), p. 85.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_320" name="note_320" + href="#noteref_320">320.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Henry Maundrell, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“A Journey from Aleppo to Jerusalem at Easter, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 1697,”</span> in + Bohn's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Early Travellers in Palestine</span></span> + (London, 1848), pp. 462-465; Mgr. Auvergne, in <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Annales de la + Propagation de la Foi</span></span>, x. (1837) pp. 23 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; A. + P. Stanley, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Sinai and Palestine</span></span>, Second + Edition (London, 1856), pp. 460-465; E. Cortet, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Essai sur les Fêtes + Religieuses</span></span> (Paris, 1867), pp. 137-139; A. W. + Kinglake, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Eothen</span></span>, chapter xvi. pp. 158-163 + (Temple Classics edition); Father X. Abougit, S.J., <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Le feu du Saint-Sépulcre,”</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Les Missions + Catholiques</span></span>, viii. (1876) pp. 518 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; + Rev. C. T. Wilson, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Peasant Life in the Holy Land</span></span> + (London, 1906), pp. 45 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; P. Saint-yves, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Le Renouvellement du Feu Sacré,”</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Revue des Traditions + Populaires</span></span>, xxvii. (1912) pp. 449 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span> + The distribution of the new fire in the Church of the Holy + Sepulchre is the subject of a picture by Holman Hunt. From some + printed notes on the picture, with which Mrs. Holman Hunt was so + kind as to furnish me, it appears that the new fire is carried by + horsemen to Bethlehem and Jaffa, and that a Russian ship conveys it + from Jaffa to Odessa, whence it is distributed all over the + country.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_321" name="note_321" + href="#noteref_321">321.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Father X. Abougit, S.J., <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Le feu du Saint-Sépulcre,”</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Les Missions + Catholiques</span></span>, viii. (1876) pp. 165-168.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_322" name="note_322" + href="#noteref_322">322.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">I have described the ceremony as I + witnessed it at Athens, on April 13th, 1890. Compare <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Folk-lore</span></span>, i. (1890) p. 275. + Having been honoured, like other strangers, with a place on the + platform, I did not myself detect Lucifer at work among the + multitude below; I merely suspected his insidious presence.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_323" name="note_323" + href="#noteref_323">323.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. H. D. Rouse, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Folk-lore from the Southern Sporades,”</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Folk-lore</span></span>, x. (1899) p. + 178.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_324" name="note_324" + href="#noteref_324">324.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Mrs. A. E. Gardner was so kind as to + send me a photograph of a Theban Judas dangling from a gallows and + partially enveloped in smoke. The photograph was taken at Thebes + during the Easter celebration of 1891.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_325" name="note_325" + href="#noteref_325">325.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">G. F. Abbott, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Macedonian + Folk-lore</span></span> (Cambridge, 1903) p. 37.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_326" name="note_326" + href="#noteref_326">326.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Cirbied, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Mémoire sur le gouvernment et sur la religion des + anciens Arméniens,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Mémoires publiées par la Société Royaledes + Antiquaires de France</span></span>, ii. (1820) pp. 285-287; Manuk + Abeghian, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Der armenische Volksglaube</span></span> + (Leipsic, 1899), pp. 72-74. The ceremony is said to be merely a + continuation of an old heathen festival which was held at the + beginning of spring in honour of the fire-god Mihr. A bonfire was + made in a public place, and lamps kindled at it were kept burning + throughout the year in each of the fire-god's temples.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_327" name="note_327" + href="#noteref_327">327.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">The Magic Art and the Evolution of + Kings</span></span>, i. 32, ii. 243; <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Spirits of the Corn + and of the Wild</span></span>, ii. 65, 74, 75, 78, 136.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_328" name="note_328" + href="#noteref_328">328.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Garcilasso de la Vega, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Royal Commentaries of + the Yncas</span></span>, translated by (Sir) Clements R. Markham + (Hakluyt Society, London, 1869-1871), vol. ii. pp. 155-163. Compare + Juan de Velasco, <span class="tei tei-q">“Histoire du Royaume de + Quito,”</span> in H. Ternaux-Compans's <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Voyages, Relations et + Mémoires originaux pour servir à l'Histoire de la Découverte de + l'Amérique</span></span>, xviii. (Paris, 1840) p. 140.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_329" name="note_329" + href="#noteref_329">329.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">B. de Sahagun, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Histoire Générale des + Choses de la Nouvelle Espagne</span></span>, traduite par D. + Jourdanet et R. Simeon (Paris, 1880), bk. ii. chapters 18 and 37, + pp. 76, 161; Brasseur de Bourbourg, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Histoire des Nations + civilisées du Mexique et de l'Amérique-Centrale</span></span> + (Paris, 1857-1859), iii. 136.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_330" name="note_330" + href="#noteref_330">330.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Mrs. Matilda Coxe Stevenson, + <span class="tei tei-q">“The Zuñi Indians,”</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Twenty-third Annual + Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology</span></span> + (Washington, 1904), pp. 108-141, 148-162, especially pp. 108, 109, + 114 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, 120 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, + 130 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, 132, 148 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, + 157 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span> I have already described + these ceremonies in <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Totemism and Exogamy</span></span>, iii. 237 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span> Among the Hopi (Moqui) + Indians of Walpi, another pueblo village of this region, new fire + is ceremonially kindled by friction in November. See Jesse Walter + Fewkes, <span class="tei tei-q">“The Tusayan New Fire + Ceremony,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Proceedings of the Boston Society of Natural + History</span></span>, xxvi. 422-458; <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">id.</span></span>, + <span class="tei tei-q">“The Group of Tusayan Ceremonials called + <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Katcinas</span></span>,”</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Fifteenth Annual + Report of the Bureau of Ethnology</span></span> (Washington, 1897), + p. 263; <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">id.</span></span>, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Hopi <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Katcinas</span></span>,”</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Twenty-first Annual + Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology</span></span> + (Washington, 1903), p. 24.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_331" name="note_331" + href="#noteref_331">331.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Henry R. Schoolcraft, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Notes on the + Iroquois</span></span> (Albany, 1847), p. 137. Schoolcraft did not + know the date of the ceremony, but he conjectured that it fell at + the end of the Iroquois year, which was a lunar year of twelve or + thirteen months. He says: <span class="tei tei-q">“That the close + of the lunar series should have been the period of putting out the + fire, and the beginning of the next, the time of relumination, from + new fire, is so consonant to analogy in the tropical tribes, as to + be probable”</span> (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">op. cit.</span></span> p. 138).</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_332" name="note_332" + href="#noteref_332">332.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">C. F. Hall, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Life with the + Esquimaux</span></span> (London, 1864), ii. 323.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_333" name="note_333" + href="#noteref_333">333.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Franz Boas, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“The Eskimo of Baffin Land and Hudson Bay,”</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Bulletin + of the American Museum of Natural History</span></span>, xv. Part + i. (New York, 1901) p. 151.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_334" name="note_334" + href="#noteref_334">334.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">G. Nachtigal, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Sahărâ und + Sûdân</span></span>, iii. (Leipsic, 1889) p. 251.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_335" name="note_335" + href="#noteref_335">335.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Major C. Percival, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Tropical Africa, on the Border Line of Mohamedan + Civilization,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">The Geographical Journal</span></span>, xlii. + (1913) pp. 253 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_336" name="note_336" + href="#noteref_336">336.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Adrien Germain, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Note sur Zanzibar et la côte orientale de + l'Afrique,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Bulletin de la Société de + Géographie</span></span> (Paris), v. Série xvi. (1868) p. 557; + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Les + Missions Catholiques</span></span>, iii. (1870) p. 270; Charles + New, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Life, Wanderings, and Labours in Eastern + Africa</span></span> (London, 1873), p. 65; Jerome Becker, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">La Vie en + Afrique</span></span> (Paris and Brussels, 1887), ii. 36; O. + Baumann, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Usambara und seine + Nachbargebiete</span></span> (Berlin, 1891), pp. 55 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; C. + Velten, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Sitten und Gebräuche der Suaheli</span></span> + (Göttingen, 1903), pp. 342-344.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_337" name="note_337" + href="#noteref_337">337.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Duarte Barbosa, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Description of the + Coasts of East Africa and Malabar</span></span> (Hakluyt Society, + London, 1866), p. 8; <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">id.</span></span>, in <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Records of + South-Eastern Africa</span></span>, collected by G. McCall Theal, + vol. i. (1898) p. 96; Damião de Goes, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Chronicle of the Most Fortunate King Dom + Emanuel,”</span> in <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Records of South-Eastern Africa</span></span>, + collected by G. McCall Theal, vol. iii. (1899) pp. 130 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span> The + name Benametapa (more correctly <span class= + "tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">monomotapa</span></span>) appears to have been + the regular title of the paramount chief, which the Portuguese took + to be the name of the country. The people over whom he ruled seem + to have been the Bantu tribe of the Makalanga in the neighbourhood + of Sofala. See G. McCall Theal, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Records of + South-Eastern Africa</span></span>, vii. (1901) pp. 481-484. It is + to their custom of annually extinguishing and relighting the fire + that Montaigne refers in his essay (i. 22, vol. i. p. 140 of + Charpentier's edition), though he mentions no names.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_338" name="note_338" + href="#noteref_338">338.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Sir H. H. Johnson, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">British Central + Africa</span></span> (London, 1897), pp. 426, 439.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_339" name="note_339" + href="#noteref_339">339.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. H. R. Rivers, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The + Todas</span></span> (London, 1906), pp. 290-292.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_340" name="note_340" + href="#noteref_340">340.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Lieut. R. Stewart, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Notes on Northern Cachar,”</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Journal of the + Asiatic Society of Bengal</span></span>, xxiv. (1855) p. 612.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_341" name="note_341" + href="#noteref_341">341.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">A. Bastian, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Die Völker des + östlichen Asien</span></span>, ii. (Leipsic, 1866) pp. 49 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; Shway Yoe, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The + Burman</span></span> (London, 1882), ii. 325 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_342" name="note_342" + href="#noteref_342">342.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">G. Schlegel, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Uranographie + Chinoise</span></span> (The Hague and Leyden, 1875), pp. 139-143; + C. Puini, <span class="tei tei-q">“Il fuoco nella tradizione degli + antichi Cinesi,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Giornale della Società Asiatica + Italiana</span></span>, i. (1887) pp. 20-23; J. J. M. de Groot, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Les Fêtes + annuellement célébrées à Émoui (Amoy)</span></span> (Paris, 1886), + i. 208 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span> The notion that fire can be + worn out with age meets us also in Brahman ritual. See the + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Satapatha + Brahmana</span></span>, translated by Julius Eggeling, Part i. + (Oxford, 1882) p. 230 (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Sacred Books of the East</span></span>, vol. + xii.).</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_343" name="note_343" + href="#noteref_343">343.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. G. Aston, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Shinto, The Way of + the Gods</span></span> (London, 1905), pp. 258 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, + compare p. 193. The wands in question are sticks whittled near the + top into a mass of adherent shavings; they go by the name of + <span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style= + "font-style: italic">kedzurikake</span></span> (<span class= + "tei tei-q">“part-shaved”</span>), and resemble the sacred + <span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style= + "font-style: italic">inao</span></span> of the Aino. See W. G. + Aston, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">op. cit.</span></span> p. 191; and as to the + <span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style= + "font-style: italic">inao</span></span>, see <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Spirits of the Corn + and of the Wild</span></span>, ii. 185, with note 2.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_344" name="note_344" + href="#noteref_344">344.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ovid, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Fasti</span></span>, + iii. 82; Homer, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Iliad</span></span>, i. 590, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_345" name="note_345" + href="#noteref_345">345.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Philostratus, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Heroica</span></span>, xx. 24.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_346" name="note_346" + href="#noteref_346">346.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ovid, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Fasti</span></span>, + iii. 143 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; Macrobius, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Saturn.</span></span> + i. 12. 6.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_347" name="note_347" + href="#noteref_347">347.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Festus, ed. C. O. Müller (Leipsic, + 1839), p. 106, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">s.v.</span></span> <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Ignis.”</span> Plutarch describes a method of + rekindling the sacred fire by means of the sun's rays reflected + from a hollow mirror (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Numa</span></span>, 9); but he seems to be + referring to a Greek rather than to the Roman custom. The rule of + celibacy imposed on the Vestals, whose duty it was to relight the + sacred fire as well as to preserve it when it was once made, is + perhaps explained by a superstition current among French peasants + that if a girl can blow up a smouldering candle into a flame she is + a virgin, but that if she fails to do so, she is not. See Jules + Lecœur, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Esquisses du Bocage Normand</span></span> + (Condé-sur-Noireau, 1883-1887), ii. 27; B. Souché, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Croyances, Présages + et Traditions diverses</span></span> (Niort, 1880), p. 12. At least + it seems more likely that the rule sprang from a superstition of + this sort than from a simple calculation of expediency, as I + formerly suggested (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Journal of Philology</span></span>, xiv. + (1885) p. 158). Compare <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">The Magic Art and the Evolution of + Kings</span></span>, ii. 234 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_348" name="note_348" + href="#noteref_348">348.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Geoffrey Keating, D.D., <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The History of + Ireland, translated from the original Gaelic, and copiously + annotated</span></span>, by John O'Mahony (New York, 1857), p. 300, + with the translator's note. Compare (Sir) John Rhys, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Celtic + Heathendom</span></span> (London, 1888), pp. 514 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_349" name="note_349" + href="#noteref_349">349.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. R. S. Ralston, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Songs of the Russian + People</span></span>, Second Edition (London, 1872), pp. 254 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_350" name="note_350" + href="#noteref_350">350.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">A. Kuhn und W. Schwartz, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Norddeutsche Sagen, + Märchen und Gebräuche</span></span> (Leipsic, 1848), p. 373; A. + Kuhn, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Sagen, Gebräuche und Märchen aus + Westfalen</span></span> (Leipsic, 1859), ii. 134 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>; + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">id.</span></span>, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Märkische Sagen und + Märchen</span></span> (Berlin, 1843), pp. 312 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; J. + D. H. Temme, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Die Volkssagen der Altmark</span></span> + (Berlin, 1839), pp. 75 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; K. Lynker, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Deutsche Sagen und + Sitten in hessischen Gauen</span></span><span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="vertical-align: super">2</span></span> + (Cassel and Göttingen, 1860), p. 240; H. Pröhle, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Harzbilder</span></span> (Leipsic, 1855), p. + 63; R. Andree, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Braunschweiger Volkskunde</span></span> + (Brunswick, 1896), pp. 240-242; W. Kolbe, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hessische + Volks-Sitten und Gebräuche</span></span> (Marburg, 1888), pp. + 44-47; F. A. Reimann, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Deutsche Volksfeste</span></span> (Weimar, + 1839), p. 37; <span class="tei tei-q">“Sitten und Gebräuche in + Duderstadt,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Zeitschrift für deutsche Mythologie und + Sittenkunde</span></span>, ii. (1855) p. 107; K. Seifart, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Sagen, + Märchen, Schwänke und Gebräuche aus Stadt und Stift + Hildesheim</span></span><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "vertical-align: super">2</span></span> (Hildesheim, 1889), pp. + 177, 180; O. Hartung, <span class="tei tei-q">“Zur Volkskunde aus + Anhalt,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Zeitschrift des Vereins für + Volkskunde</span></span>, vii. (1897) p. 76.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_351" name="note_351" + href="#noteref_351">351.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">L. Strackerjan, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Aberglaube und Sagen + aus dem Herzogthum Oldenburg</span></span> (Oldenburg, 1867), ii. + pp. 43 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, § 313; W. Mannhardt, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Der + Baumkultus der Germanen und ihrer Nachbarstämme</span></span> + (Berlin, 1875), pp. 505 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_352" name="note_352" + href="#noteref_352">352.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">L. Strackerjan, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. + cit.</span></span> ii. p. 43, § 313.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_353" name="note_353" + href="#noteref_353">353.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">J. Grimm, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Deutsche + Mythologie</span></span>,<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "vertical-align: super">4</span></span> (Berlin, 1875-1878), i. + 512; W. Mannhardt, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Der Baumkultus der Germanen und ihrer + Nachbarstämme</span></span>, pp. 506 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_354" name="note_354" + href="#noteref_354">354.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">H. Pröhle, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Harzbilder</span></span> (Leipsic, 1855), p. + 63; <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">id.</span></span>, in <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Zeitschrift für + deutsche Mythologie und Sittenkunde</span></span>, i. (1853) p. 79; + A. Kuhn und W. Schwartz, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Norddeutsche Sagen, Märchen und + Gebräuche</span></span> (Leipsic, 1848), p. 373; W. Mannhardt, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Der + Baumkultus</span></span>, p. 507.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_355" name="note_355" + href="#noteref_355">355.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">A. Kuhn, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Märkische Sagen und + Märchen</span></span> (Berlin, 1843), pp. 312 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; W. + Mannhardt, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">l.c.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_356" name="note_356" + href="#noteref_356">356.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. Mannhardt, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Der + Baumkultus</span></span>, p. 508. Compare J. W. Wolf, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Beiträge zur + deutschen Mythologie</span></span> (Göttingen, 1852-1857), i. 74; + J. Grimm, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Deutsche Mythologie</span></span>,<span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="vertical-align: super">4</span></span> i. + 512. The two latter writers only state that before the fires were + kindled it was customary to hunt squirrels in the woods.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_357" name="note_357" + href="#noteref_357">357.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">A. Kuhn, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">l.c.</span></span>; + W. Mannhardt, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Der Baumkultus</span></span>, p. 508.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_358" name="note_358" + href="#noteref_358">358.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Bavaria, Landes- und Volkskunde des + Königreichs Bayern</span></span> (Munich, 1860-1867), iii. + 956.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_359" name="note_359" + href="#noteref_359">359.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See above, pp. <a href="#Pg116" class= + "tei tei-ref">116</a> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg119" class= + "tei tei-ref">119</a>.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_360" name="note_360" + href="#noteref_360">360.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">F. Panzer, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Beitrag zur deutschen + Mythologie</span></span> (Munich, 1848-1855), i. pp. 211 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, § 233; W. Mannhardt, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Der + Baumkultus</span></span>, pp. 507 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_361" name="note_361" + href="#noteref_361">361.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Bavaria, Landes- und Volkskunde des + Königreichs Bayern</span></span>, iii. 357.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_362" name="note_362" + href="#noteref_362">362.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">F. Panzer, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Beitrag zur deutschen + Mythologie</span></span> (Munich, 1848-1855), i. pp. 212 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, § 236.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_363" name="note_363" + href="#noteref_363">363.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">F. Panzer, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. + cit.</span></span> ii. pp. 78 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, §§ 114, 115. The customs + observed at these places and at Althenneberg are described together + by W. Mannhardt, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Der Baumkultus</span></span>, p. 505.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_364" name="note_364" + href="#noteref_364">364.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">A. Birlinger, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Volksthümliches aus + Schwaben</span></span> (Freiburg im Breisgau, 1861-1862), ii. p. + 82, § 106; W. Mannhardt, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Der Baumkultus</span></span>, p. 508.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_365" name="note_365" + href="#noteref_365">365.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Elard Hugo Meyer, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Badisches + Volksleben</span></span> (Strasburg, 1900), pp. 97 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_366" name="note_366" + href="#noteref_366">366.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">The Magic Art and the Evolution of + Kings</span></span>, ii. 349 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span> See further below, vol. ii. + pp. 298 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_367" name="note_367" + href="#noteref_367">367.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">J. W. Wolf, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Beiträge zur + deutschen Mythologie</span></span>, i. 75 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; W. + Mannhardt, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Der Baumkultus</span></span>, p. 506.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_368" name="note_368" + href="#noteref_368">368.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">L. Lloyd, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Peasant Life in + Sweden</span></span> (London, 1870), p. 228.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_369" name="note_369" + href="#noteref_369">369.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. Müller, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Beiträge zur + Volkskunde der Deutschen in Mähren</span></span> (Vienna and + Olmütz, 1893), pp. 321, 397 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span> In Wagstadt, a town of + Austrian Silesia, a boy in a red waistcoat used to play the part of + Judas on the Wednesday before Good Friday. He was chased from + before the church door by the other school children, who pursued + him through the streets with shouts and the noise of rattles and + clappers till they reached a certain suburb, where they always + caught and beat him because he had betrayed the Redeemer. See Anton + Peter, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Volksthümliches aus + österreichisch-Schlesien</span></span> (Troppau, 1865-1867), ii. + 282 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; Paul Drechsler, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Sitte, + Brauch und Volksglaube in Schlesien</span></span> (Leipsic, + 1903-1906), i. 77 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_370" name="note_370" + href="#noteref_370">370.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Scotland and Scotsmen in the Eighteenth + Century</span></span>, from the MSS. of John Ramsay, Esq., of + Ochtertyre, edited by Alexander Allardyce (Edinburgh and London, + 1888), ii. 439-445. As to the <span lang="gd" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="gd"><span style= + "font-style: italic">tein-eigin</span></span> or need-fire, see + below, pp. 269 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span> The etymology of the word + Beltane is uncertain; the popular derivation of the first part from + the Phoenician Baal is absurd. See, for example, John Graham + Dalyell, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">The Darker Superstitions of + Scotland</span></span> (Edinburgh, 1834), pp. 176 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>: + <span class="tei tei-q">“The recognition of the pagan divinity + Baal, or Bel, the Sun, is discovered through innumerable + etymological sources. In the records of Scottish history, down to + the sixteenth or seventeenth centuries, multiplied prohibitions + were issued from the fountains of ecclesiastical ordinances, + against kindling <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Bailfires</span></span>, of which the origin + cannot be mistaken. The festival of this divinity was commemorated + in Scotland until the latest date.”</span> Modern scholars are not + agreed as to the derivation of the name Beltane. See Rev. John + Gregorson Campbell, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Witchcraft and Second Sight in the Highlands + and Islands of Scotland</span></span> (Glasgow, 1902), pp. 268 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; J. A. MacCulloch, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The + Religion of the Ancient Celts</span></span> (Edinburgh, 1911), p. + 264.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_371" name="note_371" + href="#noteref_371">371.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-q">“<span lang= + "gd" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="gd"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Bal-tein</span></span> signifies the + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">fire of + Baal</span></em>. <span lang="gd" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang= + "gd"><span style="font-style: italic">Baal</span></span> or + <span lang="gd" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="gd"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Ball</span></span> is the only word in Gaelic + for <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">a + globe</span></em>. This festival was probably in honour of the sun, + whose return, in his apparent annual course, they celebrated, on + account of his having such a visible influence, by his genial + warmth, on the productions of the earth. That the Caledonians paid + a superstitious respect to the sun, as was the practice among many + other nations, is evident, not only by the sacrifice at Baltein, + but upon many other occasions. When a Highlander goes to bathe, or + to drink waters out of a consecrated fountain, he must always + approach by going round the place, <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">from east to west + on the south side</span></em>, in imitation of the apparent diurnal + motion of the sun. When the dead are laid in the earth, the grave + is approached by going round in the same manner. The bride is + conducted to her future spouse, in the presence of the minister, + and the glass goes round a company, in the course of the sun. This + is called, in Gaelic, going round the right, or the <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">lucky + way</span></em>. The opposite course is the wrong, or the + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">unlucky</span></em> way. And if a person's + meat or drink were to affect the wind-pipe, or come against his + breath, they instantly cry out <span lang="gd" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="gd"><span style= + "font-style: italic">deisheal!</span></span> which is an + ejaculation praying that it may go by the right way”</span> (Rev. + J. Robertson, in Sir John Sinclair's <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Statistical Account + of Scotland</span></span>, xi. 621 note). Compare J. G. Campbell, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Superstitions of the Highlands and Islands of + Scotland</span></span> (Glasgow, 1900), pp. 229 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>: + <span class="tei tei-q">“<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">The Right-hand Turn</span></span> (<span lang= + "gd" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="gd"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Deiseal</span></span>).—This was the most + important of all the observances. The rule is <span class= + "tei tei-q">‘<span lang="gd" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang= + "gd"><span style="font-style: italic">Deiseal</span></span> + (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">i.e.</span></span> the right-hand turn) for + everything,’</span> and consists in doing all things with a motion + corresponding to the course of the sun, or from left to right. This + is the manner in which screw-nails are driven, and is common with + many for no reason but its convenience. Old men in the Highlands + were very particular about it. The coffin was taken <span lang="gd" + class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="gd"><span style= + "font-style: italic">deiseal</span></span> about the grave, when + about to be lowered; boats were turned to sea according to it, and + drams are given to the present day to a company. When putting a + straw rope on a house or corn-stack, if the assistant went + <span lang="gd" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="gd"><span style= + "font-style: italic">tuaitheal</span></span> (<span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">i.e.</span></span> + against the course of the sun), the old man was ready to come down + and thrash him. On coming to a house the visitor should go round it + <span lang="gd" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="gd"><span style= + "font-style: italic">deiseal</span></span> to secure luck in the + object of his visit. After milking a cow the dairy-maid should + strike it <span lang="gd" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang= + "gd"><span style="font-style: italic">deiseal</span></span> with + the shackle, saying <span class="tei tei-q">‘out and home’</span> + (<span lang="gd" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="gd"><span style= + "font-style: italic">mach 'us dachaigh</span></span>). This secures + its safe return. The word is from <span lang="gd" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="gd"><span style= + "font-style: italic">deas</span></span>, right-hand, and + <span lang="gd" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="gd"><span style= + "font-style: italic">iul</span></span>, direction, and of itself + contains no allusion to the sun.”</span> Compare M. Martin, + <span class="tei tei-q">“Description of the Western Islands of + Scotland,”</span> in J. Pinkerton's <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Voyages and + Travels</span></span>, iii. 612 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>: + <span class="tei tei-q">“There was an ancient custom in the island + of Lewis, to make a fiery circle about the houses, corn, cattle, + etc., belonging to each particular family: a man carried fire in + his right hand, and went round, and it was called <span lang="gd" + class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="gd"><span style= + "font-style: italic">dessil</span></span>, from the right hand, + which in the ancient language is called <span lang="gd" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="gd"><span style= + "font-style: italic">dess</span></span>.... There is another way of + the <span lang="gd" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang= + "gd"><span style="font-style: italic">dessil</span></span>, or + carrying fire round about women before they are churched, after + child-bearing; and it is used likewise about children until they + are christened; both which are performed in the morning and at + night. This is only practised now by some of the ancient midwives: + I enquired their reason for this custom, which I told them was + altogether unlawful; this disobliged them mightily, insomuch that + they would give me no satisfaction. But others, that were of a more + agreeable temper, told me that fire-round was an effectual means to + preserve both the mother and the infant from the power of evil + spirits, who are ready at such times to do mischief, and sometimes + carry away the infant; and when they get them once in their + possession, return them poor meagre skeletons; and these infants + are said to have voracious appetites, constantly craving for meat. + In this case it was usual with those who believed that their + children were thus taken away, to dig a grave in the fields upon + quarter-day, and there to lay the fairy skeleton till next morning; + at which time the parents went to the place, where they doubted not + to find their own child instead of this skeleton. Some of the + poorer sort of people in these islands retain the custom of + performing these rounds sun-ways about the persons of their + benefactors three times, when they bless them, and wish good + success to all their enterprizes. Some are very careful when they + set out to sea that the boat be first rowed about sun-ways; and if + this be neglected, they are afraid their voyage may prove + unfortunate.”</span> Probably the superstition was based entirely + on the supposed luckiness of the right hand, which accordingly, in + making a circuit round an object, is kept towards the centre. As to + a supposed worship of the sun among the Scottish Highlanders, + compare J. G. Campbell, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Witchcraft and Second Sight in the Highlands + and Islands of Scotland</span></span>, p. 304: <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Both the sun (<span lang="gd" class="tei tei-foreign" + xml:lang="gd"><span style="font-style: italic">a + Ghrian</span></span>) and moon (<span lang="gd" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="gd"><span style="font-style: italic">a + Ghealach</span></span>) are feminine in Gaelic, and the names are + simply descriptive of their appearance. There is no trace of a + Sun-God or Moon-Goddess.”</span> As to the etymology of Beltane, + see above, p. <a href="#Pg149" class="tei tei-ref">149</a> + note.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_372" name="note_372" + href="#noteref_372">372.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Rev. James Robertson (Parish Minister + of Callander), in Sir John Sinclair's <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Statistical Account + of Scotland</span></span> (Edinburgh, 1791-1799), xi. 620 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_373" name="note_373" + href="#noteref_373">373.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Pennant's <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Tour in Scotland,”</span> in John Pinkerton's + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Voyages + and Travels</span></span> (London, 1808-1814), iii. 49.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_374" name="note_374" + href="#noteref_374">374.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Rev. Dr. Thomas Bisset, in Sir John + Sinclair's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Statistical Account of Scotland</span></span>, + v. 84.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_375" name="note_375" + href="#noteref_375">375.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Rev. Allan Stewart, in Sir John + Sinclair's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Statistical Account of Scotland</span></span>, + xv. 517 note.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_376" name="note_376" + href="#noteref_376">376.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Rev. Walter Gregor, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Notes on Beltane Cakes,”</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Folk-lore</span></span>, vi. (1895) pp. 2 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span> The Beltane cakes with the + nine knobs on them remind us of the cakes with twelve knobs which + the Athenians offered to Cronus and other deities (see <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The + Scapegoat</span></span>, p. 351). The King of the Bean on Twelfth + Night was chosen by means of a cake, which was broken in as many + pieces as there were persons present, and the person who received + the piece containing a bean or a coin became king. See J. Boemus, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Mores, + leges et ritus omnium gentium</span></span> (Lyons, 1541), p. 222; + John Brand, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Popular Antiquities of Great + Britain</span></span> (London, 1882-1883), i. 22 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The + Scapegoat</span></span>, pp. 313 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_377" name="note_377" + href="#noteref_377">377.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Shaw, in Pennant's <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Tour in Scotland,”</span> printed in J. Pinkerton's + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Voyages + and Travels</span></span>, iii. 136. The part of Scotland to which + Shaw's description applies is what he calls the province or country + of Murray, extending from the river Spey on the east to the river + Beauly on the west, and south-west to Loch Lochy.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_378" name="note_378" + href="#noteref_378">378.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Rev. Walter Gregor, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Notes on the + Folk-lore of the North-East of Scotland</span></span> (London, + 1881), p. 167.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_379" name="note_379" + href="#noteref_379">379.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">A. Goodrich-Freer, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“More Folk-lore from the Hebrides,”</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Folk-lore</span></span>, xiii. (1902) p. 41. + The St. Michael's cake (<span lang="gd" class="tei tei-foreign" + xml:lang="gd"><span style="font-style: italic">Strùthan na h'eill + Micheil</span></span>), referred to in the text, is described as + <span class="tei tei-q">“the size of a quern”</span> in + circumference. <span class="tei tei-q">“It is kneaded simply with + water, and marked across like a scone, dividing it into four equal + parts, and then placed in front of the fire resting on a quern. It + is not polished with dry meal as is usual in making a cake, but + when it is cooked a thin coating of eggs (four in number), mixed + with buttermilk, is spread first on one side, then on the other, + and it is put before the fire again. An earlier shape, still in + use, which tradition associates with the female sex, is that of a + triangle with the corners cut off. A <span lang="gd" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="gd"><span style= + "font-style: italic">strùthan</span></span> or <span lang="gd" + class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="gd"><span style= + "font-style: italic">strùdhan</span></span> (the word seems to be + used for no other kind of cake) is made for each member of the + household, including servants and herds. When harvest is late, an + early patch of corn is mown on purpose for the <span lang="gd" + class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="gd"><span style= + "font-style: italic">strùthan</span></span>”</span> (A. + Goodrich-Freer, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">op. cit.</span></span> pp. 44 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>).</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_380" name="note_380" + href="#noteref_380">380.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Marie Trevelyan, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Folk-lore and + Folk-stories of Wales</span></span> (London, 1909), pp. 22-24.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_381" name="note_381" + href="#noteref_381">381.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Jonathan Ceredig Davies, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Folk-lore of West and + Mid-Wales</span></span> (Aberystwyth, 1911), p. 76.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_382" name="note_382" + href="#noteref_382">382.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Joseph Train, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">An Historical and + Statistical Account of the Isle of Man</span></span> (Douglas, Isle + of Man, 1845), i. 314 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_383" name="note_383" + href="#noteref_383">383.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">(Sir) John Rhys, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Celtic Folk-lore, + Welsh and Manx</span></span> (Oxford, 1901), i. 309; <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">id.</span></span>, + <span class="tei tei-q">“The Coligny Calendar,”</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Proceedings of the + British Academy, 1909-1910</span></span>, pp. 261 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span> See + further <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">The Magic Art and the Evolution of + Kings</span></span>, ii. 53 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_384" name="note_384" + href="#noteref_384">384.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Professor Frank Granger, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Early Man,”</span> in <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Victoria History + of the County of Nottingham</span></span>, edited by William Page, + i. (London, 1906) pp. 186 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_385" name="note_385" + href="#noteref_385">385.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">(Sir) John Rhys, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Celtic Folk-lore, + Welsh and Manx</span></span> (Oxford, 1901), i. 310; <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">id.</span></span>, + <span class="tei tei-q">“Manx Folk-lore and Superstitions,”</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Folk-lore</span></span>, ii. (1891) pp. 303 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_386" name="note_386" + href="#noteref_386">386.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">P. W. Joyce, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">A Social History of + Ancient Ireland</span></span> (London, 1903), i. 290 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, + referring to Kuno Meyer, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Hibernia Minora</span></span>, p. 49 and + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Glossary</span></span>, 23.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_387" name="note_387" + href="#noteref_387">387.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">J. B. Bury, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Life of St. + Patrick</span></span> (London, 1905), pp. 104 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_388" name="note_388" + href="#noteref_388">388.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Above, p. <a href="#Pg147" class= + "tei tei-ref">147</a>.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_389" name="note_389" + href="#noteref_389">389.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Geoffrey Keating, D.D., <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The History of + Ireland</span></span>, translated by John O'Mahony (New York, + 1857), pp. 300 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_390" name="note_390" + href="#noteref_390">390.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">(Sir) John Rhys, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Manx Folk-lore and Superstition,”</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Folk-lore</span></span>, ii. (1891) p. 303; + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">id.</span></span>, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Celtic Folk-lore, + Welsh and Manx</span></span> (Oxford, 1901), i. 309. Compare P. W. + Joyce, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">A + Social History of Ancient Ireland</span></span> (London, 1903), i. + 291: <span class="tei tei-q">“The custom of driving cattle through + fires against disease on the eve of the 1st of May, and on the eve + of the 24th June (St. John's Day), continued in Ireland, as well as + in the Scottish Highlands, to a period within living + memory.”</span> In a footnote Mr. Joyce refers to Carmichael, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Carmina + Gadelica</span></span>, ii. 340, for Scotland, and adds, + <span class="tei tei-q">“I saw it done in Ireland.”</span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_391" name="note_391" + href="#noteref_391">391.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">L. Lloyd, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Peasant Life in + Sweden</span></span> (London, 1870), pp. 233 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_392" name="note_392" + href="#noteref_392">392.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Reinsberg - Düringsfeld, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Fest-Kalender aus + Böhmen</span></span> (Prague, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">n.d.</span></span>), pp. 211 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; Br. Jelínek, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Materialien zur Vorgeschichte und Volkskunde + Böhmens,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Mittheilungen der anthropologischen + Gesellschaft in Wien</span></span>, xxi. (1891) p. 13; Alois John, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Sitte, + Brauch, und Volksglaube im deutschen Westböhmen</span></span> + (Prague, 1905), p. 71.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_393" name="note_393" + href="#noteref_393">393.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">J. A. E. Köhler, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Volksbrauch, + Aberglauben, Sagen und andre alte Ueberlieferungen im + Voigtlande</span></span> (Leipsic, 1867), p. 373. The superstitions + relating to witches at this season are legion. For instance, in + Saxony and Thuringia any one who labours under a physical blemish + can easily rid himself of it by transferring it to the witches on + Walpurgis Night. He has only to go out to a cross-road, make three + crosses on the blemish, and say, <span class="tei tei-q">“In the + name of God the Father, the Son, and the Holy Ghost.”</span> Thus + the blemish, whatever it may be, is left behind him at the + cross-road, and when the witches sweep by on their way to the + Brocken, they must take it with them, and it sticks to them + henceforth. Moreover, three crosses chalked up on the doors of + houses and cattle-stalls on Walpurgis Night will effectually + prevent any of the infernal crew from entering and doing harm to + man or beast. See E. Sommer, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Sagen, Märchen und Gebräuche aus Sachsen und + Thüringen</span></span> (Halle, 1846), pp. 148 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Die + gestriegelte Rockenphilosophie</span></span> (Chemnitz, 1759), p. + 116.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_394" name="note_394" + href="#noteref_394">394.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The + Scapegoat</span></span>, pp. 158 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_395" name="note_395" + href="#noteref_395">395.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">As to the Midsummer Festival of Europe + in general see the evidence collected in the <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Specimen Calendarii Gentilis,”</span> appended to the + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Edda + Rhythmica seu Antiquior, vulgo Saemundina dicta</span></span>, Pars + iii. (Copenhagen, 1828) pp. 1086-1097.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_396" name="note_396" + href="#noteref_396">396.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">John Mitchell + Kemble, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">The Saxons in England</span></span>, New + Edition (London, 1876), i. 361 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, + quoting <span class="tei tei-q">“an ancient MS. written in + England, and now in the Harleian Collection, No. 2345, fol. + 50.”</span> The passage is quoted in part by J. Brand, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Popular + Antiquities of Great Britain</span></span> (London, 1882-1883), + i. 298 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, by R. T. Hampson, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Medii + Aevi Kalendarium</span></span> (London, 1841), i. 300, and by W. + Mannhardt, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Der Baumkultus</span></span>, p. 509. The + same explanations of the Midsummer fires and of the custom of + trundling a burning wheel on Midsummer Eve are given also by John + Beleth, a writer of the twelfth century. See his <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Rationale Divinorum + Officiorum</span></span> (appended to the <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Rationale Divinorum + Officiorum</span></span> of G. [W.] Durandus, Lyons, 1584), p. + 556 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">recto</span></span>: <span class= + "tei tei-q">“<span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang= + "la"><span style="font-style: italic">Solent porro hoc + tempore</span></span> [the Eve of St. John the Baptist] + <span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang= + "la"><span style="font-style: italic">ex veteri consuetudine + mortuorum animalium ossa comburi, quod hujusmodi habet originem. + Sunt enim animalia, quae dracones appellamus.... Haec inquam + animalia in aere volant, in aquis natant, in terra ambulant. Sed + quando in aere ad libidinem concitantur (quod fere fit) saepe + ipsum sperma vel in puteos, vel in aquas fluviales ejiciunt ex + quo lethalis sequitur annus. Adversus haec ergo hujusmodi + inventum est remedium, ut videlicet rogus ex ossibus + construeretur, et ita fumus hujusmodi animalia fugaret. Et quia + istud maxime hoc tempore fiebat, idemetiam modo ab omnibus + observatur.... Consuetum item est hac vigilia ardentes deferri + faculas quod Johannes fuerit ardens lucerna, et qui vias Domini + praeparaverit. Sed quod etiam rota vertatur hinc esse putant quia + in eum circulum tunc Sol descenderit ultra quem progredi nequit, + a quo cogitur paulatim descendere.</span></span>”</span> The + substance of the passage is repeated in other words by G. + Durandus (Wilh. Durantis), a writer of the thirteenth century, in + his <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Rationale Divinorum + Officiorum</span></span>, lib. vii. cap. 14 (p. 442 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">verso</span></span>, ed. Lyons, 1584). + Compare J. Grimm, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Deutsche + Mythologie</span></span>,<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "vertical-align: super">4</span></span> i. 516.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">With the + notion that the air is poisoned at midsummer we may compare the + popular belief that it is similarly infected at an eclipse. Thus + among the Esquimaux on the Lower Yukon river in Alaska + <span class="tei tei-q">“it is believed that a subtle essence or + unclean influence descends to the earth during an eclipse, and if + any of it is caught in utensils of any kind it will produce + sickness. As a result, immediately on the commencement of an + eclipse, every woman turns bottom side up all her pots, wooden + buckets, and dishes”</span> (E. W. Nelson, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“The Eskimo about Bering Strait,”</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Eighteenth Annual + Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology</span></span>, Part i. + (Washington, 1899) p. 431). Similar notions and practices prevail + among the peasantry of southern Germany. Thus the Swabian + peasants think that during an eclipse of the sun poison falls on + the earth; hence at such a time they will not sow, mow, gather + fruit or eat it, they bring the cattle into the stalls, and + refrain from business of every kind. If the eclipse lasts long, + the people get very anxious, set a burning candle on the + mantel-shelf of the stove, and pray to be delivered from the + danger. See Anton Birlinger, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Volksthümliches aus + Schwaben</span></span> (Freiburg im Breisgau, 1861-1862), i. 189. + Similarly Bavarian peasants imagine that water is poisoned during + a solar eclipse (F. Panzer, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Beitrag zur deutschen + Mythologie</span></span>, ii. 297); and Thuringian bumpkins cover + up the wells and bring the cattle home from pasture during an + eclipse either of the sun or of the moon; an eclipse is + particularly poisonous when it happens to fall on a Wednesday. + See August Witzschel, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Sagen, Sitten und Gebräuche aus + Thüringen</span></span> (Vienna, 1878), p. 287. As eclipses are + commonly supposed by the ignorant to be caused by a monster + attacking the sun or moon (E. B. Tylor, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Primitive + Culture</span></span>,<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "vertical-align: super">2</span></span> London, 1873, i. 328 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>), we may surmise, on the + analogy of the explanation given of the Midsummer fires, that the + unclean influence which is thought to descend on the earth at + such times is popularly attributed to seed discharged by the + monster or possibly by the sun or moon then in conjunction with + each other.</p> + </dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_397" name="note_397" + href="#noteref_397">397.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">The Popish Kingdome or reigne of Antichrist, + written in Latin verse by Thomas Naogeorgus and Englyshed by + Barnabe Googe, 1570</span></span>, edited by R. C. Hope (London, + 1880), p. 54 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">verso</span></span>. As to this work see + above, p. <a href="#Pg125" class="tei tei-ref">125</a> note 1.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_398" name="note_398" + href="#noteref_398">398.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">J. Boemus, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Mores, leges et ritus + omnium gentium</span></span> (Lyons, 1541), pp. 225 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_399" name="note_399" + href="#noteref_399">399.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Tessier, <span class="tei tei-q">“Sur + la fête annuelle de la roue flamboyante de la Saint-Jean, à + Basse-Kontz, arrondissement de Thionville,”</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Mémoires et + dissertations publiés par la Société Royale des Antiquaires de + France</span></span>, v. (1823) pp. 379-393. Tessier witnessed the + ceremony, 23rd June 1822 (not 1823, as is sometimes stated). His + account has been reproduced more or less fully by J. Grimm + (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Deutsche + Mythologie</span></span>,<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "vertical-align: super">4</span></span> i. 515 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>), + W. Mannhardt (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Der Baumkultus</span></span>, pp. 510 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>), and H. Gaidoz + (<span class="tei tei-q">“Le dieu gaulois du Soleil et le + symbolisme de la Roue,”</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Revue + Archéologique</span></span>, iii. Série, iv. (1884) pp. 24 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>).</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_400" name="note_400" + href="#noteref_400">400.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Bavaria, Landes- und Volkskunde des + Königreichs Bayern</span></span> (Munich, 1860-1867), i. 373 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; compare <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">id.</span></span>, + iii. 327 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span> As to the burning discs at + the spring festivals, see above, pp. <a href="#Pg116" class= + "tei tei-ref">116</a> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg119" class= + "tei tei-ref">119</a>, <a href="#Pg143" class= + "tei tei-ref">143</a>.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_401" name="note_401" + href="#noteref_401">401.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Op. cit.</span></span> ii. 260 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, + iii. 936, 956, iv. 2. p. 360.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_402" name="note_402" + href="#noteref_402">402.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Op. cit.</span></span> ii. 260.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_403" name="note_403" + href="#noteref_403">403.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Op. cit.</span></span> iv. 1. p. 242. We have + seen (p. <a href="#Pg163" class="tei tei-ref">163</a>) that in the + sixteenth century these customs and beliefs were common in Germany. + It is also a German superstition that a house which contains a + brand from the midsummer bonfire will not be struck by lightning + (J. W. Wolf, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Beiträge zur deutschen + Mythologie</span></span>, i. p. 217, § 185).</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_404" name="note_404" + href="#noteref_404">404.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">J. Boemus, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Mores, leges et ritus + omnium gentium</span></span> (Lyons, 1541), p. 226.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_405" name="note_405" + href="#noteref_405">405.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Karl Freiherr von Leoprechting, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Aus dem + Lechrain</span></span> (Munich, 1855), pp. 181 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>; + W. Mannhardt, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Der Baumkultus</span></span>, p. 510.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_406" name="note_406" + href="#noteref_406">406.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">A. Birlinger, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Volksthümliches aus + Schwaben</span></span> (Freiburg im Breisgau, 1861-1862), ii. pp. + 96 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>, § 128, pp. 103 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, § 129; <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">id.</span></span>, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Aus + Schwaben</span></span> (Wiesbaden, 1874), ii. 116-120; E. Meier, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Deutsche + Sagen, Sitten und Gebräuche aus Schwaben</span></span> (Stuttgart, + 1852), pp. 423 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>; W. Mannhardt, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Der + Baumkultus</span></span>, p. 510.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_407" name="note_407" + href="#noteref_407">407.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">F. Panzer, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Beitrag zur deutschen + Mythologie</span></span> (Munich, 1848-1855), i. pp. 215 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, § 242; <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">id.</span></span>, + ii. 549.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_408" name="note_408" + href="#noteref_408">408.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">A. Birlinger, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Volksthümliches aus + Schwaben</span></span> (Freiburg im Breisgau, 1861-1862), ii. + 99-101.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_409" name="note_409" + href="#noteref_409">409.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Elard Hugo Mayer, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Badisches + Volksleben</span></span> (Strasburg, 1900), pp. 103 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, + 225 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_410" name="note_410" + href="#noteref_410">410.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. von Schulenberg, in <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Verhandlungen der + Berliner Gesellschaft für Anthropologie, Ethnologie und + Urgeschichte, Jahrgang 1897</span></span>, pp. 494 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span> + (bound up with <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Zeitschrift für Ethnologie</span></span>, + xxix. 1897).</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_411" name="note_411" + href="#noteref_411">411.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">H. Gaidoz, <span class="tei tei-q">“Le + dieu Gaulois du Soleil et le symbolisme de la Roue,”</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Revue + Archéologique</span></span>, iii. Série, iv. (1884) pp. 29 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_412" name="note_412" + href="#noteref_412">412.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Bruno Stehle, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Volksglauben, Sitten und Gebräuche in + Lothringen,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Globus</span></span>, lix. (1891) pp. 378 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Die Sommerwendfeier im St. Amarinthale,”</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Der + Urquell</span></span>, N.F., i. (1897) pp. 181 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_413" name="note_413" + href="#noteref_413">413.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">J. H. Schmitz, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Sitten und Sagen, + Lieder, Sprüchwörter und Räthsel des Eifler Volkes</span></span> + (Treves, 1856-1858), i. 40 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span> According to one writer, the + garlands are composed of St. John's wort (Montanus, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Die deutschen + Volksfeste, Volksbräuche und deutscher Volksglaube</span></span>, + Iserlohn, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">n.d.</span></span>, p. 33). As to the + use of St. John's wort at Midsummer, see below, vol. ii. pp. 54 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_414" name="note_414" + href="#noteref_414">414.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">A. Kuhn und W. Schwartz, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Norddeutsche Sagen, + Märchen und Gebräuche</span></span> (Leipsic, 1848), p. 390.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_415" name="note_415" + href="#noteref_415">415.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Montanus, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Die deutschen + Volksfeste, Volksbräuche und deutscher Volksglaube</span></span> + (Iserlohn, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">n.d.</span></span>), pp. 33 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_416" name="note_416" + href="#noteref_416">416.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">C. L. Rochholz, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Deutscher Glaube und + Brauch</span></span> (Berlin, 1867), ii. 144 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_417" name="note_417" + href="#noteref_417">417.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Philo vom Walde, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Schlesien in Sage und + Brauch</span></span> (Berlin, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">n.d.</span></span>), p. 124; Paul + Drechsler, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Sitte, Brauch, und Volksglaube in + Schlesien</span></span> (Leipsic, 1903-1906), i. 136 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_418" name="note_418" + href="#noteref_418">418.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">J. Grimm, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Deutsche + Mythologie</span></span>,<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "vertical-align: super">4</span></span> i. 517 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_419" name="note_419" + href="#noteref_419">419.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">From + information supplied by Mr. Sigurd K. Heiberg, engineer, of + Bergen, Norway, who in his boyhood regularly collected fuel for + the fires. I have to thank Miss Anderson, of Barskimming, + Mauchline, Ayrshire, for kindly procuring the information for me + from Mr. Heiberg.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The + Blocksberg, where German as well as Norwegian witches gather for + their great Sabbaths on the Eve of May Day (Walpurgis Night) and + Midsummer Eve, is commonly identified with the Brocken, the + highest peak of the Harz mountains. But in Mecklenburg, + Pomerania, and probably elsewhere, villages have their own local + Blocksberg, which is generally a hill or open place in the + neighbourhood; a number of places in Pomerania go by the name of + the Blocksberg. See J. Grimm, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Deutsche + Mythologie</span></span>,<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "vertical-align: super">4</span></span> ii. 878 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; + Ulrich Jahn, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Hexenwesen und Zauberei in + Pommern</span></span> (Breslau, 1886), pp. 4 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">id.</span></span>, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Volkssagen aus + Pommern und Rügen</span></span> (Stettin, 1886), p. 329.</p> + </dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_420" name="note_420" + href="#noteref_420">420.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">L. Lloyd, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Peasant Life in + Sweden</span></span> (London, 1870), pp. 259, 265.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_421" name="note_421" + href="#noteref_421">421.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">L. Lloyd, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. + cit.</span></span> pp. 261 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span> These springs are called + <span class="tei tei-q">“sacrificial fonts”</span> (<span lang="sv" + class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="sv"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Offer källor</span></span>) and are + <span class="tei tei-q">“so named because in heathen times the + limbs of the slaughtered victim, whether man or beast, were here + washed prior to immolation”</span> (L. Lloyd, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. + cit.</span></span> p. 261).</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_422" name="note_422" + href="#noteref_422">422.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">E. Hoffmann-Krayer, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Feste und Bräuche des + Schweizervolkes</span></span> (Zurich, 1913), p. 164.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_423" name="note_423" + href="#noteref_423">423.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ignaz V. Zingerle, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Sitten, Bräuche und + Meinungen des Tiroler Volkes</span></span><span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="vertical-align: super">2</span></span> + (Innsbruck, 1871), ii. p. 159, § 1354.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_424" name="note_424" + href="#noteref_424">424.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">I. V. Zingerle, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. + cit.</span></span> p. 159, §§ 1353, 1355, 1356; W. Mannhardt, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Der + Baumkultus</span></span>, p. 513.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_425" name="note_425" + href="#noteref_425">425.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. Mannhardt, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">l.c.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_426" name="note_426" + href="#noteref_426">426.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">F. Panzer, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Beitrag zur deutschen + Mythologie</span></span> (Munich, 1848-1855), i. p. 210, § + 231.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_427" name="note_427" + href="#noteref_427">427.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Theodor Vernaleken, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Mythen und Bräuche + des Volkes in Oesterreich</span></span> (Vienna, 1859), pp. 307 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_428" name="note_428" + href="#noteref_428">428.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">J. Grimm, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Deutsche + Mythologie</span></span>,<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "vertical-align: super">4</span></span> i. 519; Theodor Vernaleken, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Mythen + und Bräuche des Volkes in Oesterreich</span></span> (Vienna, 1859), + p. 308; Joseph Virgil Grohmann, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Aberglauben und + Gebräuche aus Böhmen und Mähren</span></span> (Prague and Leipsic, + 1864), p. 80, § 636; Reinsberg-Düringsfeld, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Fest-Kalender aus + Böhmen</span></span> (Prague, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">n.d.</span></span>), pp. 306-311; Br. + Jelínek, <span class="tei tei-q">“Materialien zur Vorgeschichte und + Volkskunde Böhmens,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Mittheilungen der anthropologischen + Gesellschaft in Wien</span></span>, xxi. (1891) p. 13; Alois John, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Sitte, + Brauch und Volksglaube im deutschen Westböhmen</span></span> + (Prague, 1905), pp. 84-86.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_429" name="note_429" + href="#noteref_429">429.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Willibald Müller, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Beiträge zur + Volkskunde der Deutschen in Mähren</span></span> (Vienna and + Olmutz, 1893), pp. 263-265.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_430" name="note_430" + href="#noteref_430">430.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Anton Peter, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Volksthümliches aus + Österreichisch-Schlesien</span></span> (Troppau, 1865-1867), ii. + 287.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_431" name="note_431" + href="#noteref_431">431.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Th. Vernaleken, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Mythen und Bräuche + des Volkes in Oesterreich</span></span> (Vienna, 1859), pp. 308 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_432" name="note_432" + href="#noteref_432">432.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">The Dying God</span></span>, p. 262. Compare + M. Kowalewsky, in <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Folk-lore</span></span>, i. (1890) p. + 467.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_433" name="note_433" + href="#noteref_433">433.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. R. S. Ralston, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Songs of the Russian + People</span></span>, Second Edition (London, 1872), p. 240.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_434" name="note_434" + href="#noteref_434">434.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">J. Grimm, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Deutsche + Mythologie</span></span>,<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "vertical-align: super">4</span></span> i. 519; W. R. S. Ralston, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Songs of + the Russian People</span></span> (London, 1872), pp. 240, 391.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_435" name="note_435" + href="#noteref_435">435.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. R. S. Ralston, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. + cit.</span></span> p. 240.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_436" name="note_436" + href="#noteref_436">436.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. R. S. Ralston, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">l.c.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_437" name="note_437" + href="#noteref_437">437.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. J. A. von Tettau und J. D. H. + Temme, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Die Volkssagen Ostpreussens, Litthauens und + Westpreussens</span></span> (Berlin, 1837), p. 277.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_438" name="note_438" + href="#noteref_438">438.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">M. Töppen, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Aberglauben aus + Masuren</span></span><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "vertical-align: super">2</span></span> (Danzig, 1867), p. 71.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_439" name="note_439" + href="#noteref_439">439.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">F. S. Krauss, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Altslavische Feuergewinnung,”</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Globus</span></span>, + lix. (1891) p. 318.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_440" name="note_440" + href="#noteref_440">440.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">J. G. Kohl, Die <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">deutsch-russischen + Ostseeprovinzen</span></span> (Dresden and Leipsic, 1841), i. + 178-180, ii. 24 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span> Ligho was an old heathen + deity, whose joyous festival used to fall in spring.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_441" name="note_441" + href="#noteref_441">441.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ovid, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Fasti</span></span>, + vi. 775 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_442" name="note_442" + href="#noteref_442">442.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Friederich S. Krauss, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Sitte und Brauch der + Südslaven</span></span> (Vienna, 1885), pp. 176 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_443" name="note_443" + href="#noteref_443">443.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">J. Grimm, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Deutsche + Mythologie</span></span>,<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "vertical-align: super">4</span></span> i. 519.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_444" name="note_444" + href="#noteref_444">444.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">H. von Wlislocki, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Volksglaube und + religiöser Brauch der Magyar</span></span> (Münster i. W., 1893), + pp. 40-44.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_445" name="note_445" + href="#noteref_445">445.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">A. von Ipolyi, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Beiträge zur deutschen Mythologie aus Ungarn,”</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Zeitschrift für deutsche Mythologie und + Sittenkunde</span></span>, i. (1853) pp. 270 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_446" name="note_446" + href="#noteref_446">446.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">J.G. Kohl, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Die + deutsch-russischen Ostseeprovinzen</span></span>, ii. 268 sq.; F. + J. Wiedemann, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Aus dem inneren und äusseren Leben der + Ehsten</span></span> (St. Petersburg, 1876), p. 362. The word which + I have translated <span class="tei tei-q">“weeds”</span> is in + Esthonian <span lang="et" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang= + "et"><span style="font-style: italic">kaste-heinad</span></span>, + in German <span lang="de" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang= + "de"><span style="font-style: italic">Thaugras</span></span>. + Apparently it is the name of a special kind of weed.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_447" name="note_447" + href="#noteref_447">447.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Fr. Kreutzwald und H. Neus, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Mythische + und Magische Lieder der Ehsten</span></span> (St. Petersburg, + 1854), p. 62.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_448" name="note_448" + href="#noteref_448">448.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">J. B. Holzmayer, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Osiliana,”</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Verhandlungen der + gelehrten Estnischen Gesellschaft zu Dorpat</span></span>, vii. + (1872) pp. 62 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span> Wiedemann also observes that + the sports in which young couples engage in the woods on this + evening are not always decorous (<span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Aus dem inneren und + äusseren Leben der Ehsten</span></span>, p. 362).</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_449" name="note_449" + href="#noteref_449">449.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">J. G. Kohl, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Die + deutsch-russischen Ostseeprovinzen</span></span>, ii. 447 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_450" name="note_450" + href="#noteref_450">450.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">J. G. Georgi, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Beschreibung aller + Nationen des russischen Reichs</span></span> (St. Petersburg, + 1776), p. 36; August Freiherr von Haxthausen, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Studien über die + innere Zustände das Volksleben und insbesondere die ländlichen + Einrichtungen Russlands</span></span> (Hanover, 1847), i. 446 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_451" name="note_451" + href="#noteref_451">451.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Alfred de Nore, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Coutumes, Mythes et + Traditions des Provinces de France</span></span> (Paris and Lyons, + 1846), p. 19.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_452" name="note_452" + href="#noteref_452">452.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">It is notable that St. John is the + only saint whose birthday the Church celebrates with honours like + those which she accords to the nativity of Christ. Compare Edmond + Doutté, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Magie et Religion dans l'Afrique du + Nord</span></span> (Algiers, 1908), p. 571 note 1.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_453" name="note_453" + href="#noteref_453">453.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Bossuet, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Œuvres</span></span> + (Versailles, 1815-1819), vi. 276 (<span class= + "tei tei-q">“Catéchisme du diocèse de Meaux”</span>). His + description of the superstitions is, in his own words, as follows: + <span class="tei tei-q">“<span lang="fr" class="tei tei-foreign" + xml:lang="fr"><span style="font-style: italic">Danser à l'entour du + feu, jouer, faire des festins, chanter des chansons deshonnêtes, + jeter des herbes par-dessus le feu, en cueillir avant midi ou à + jeun, en porter sur soi, les conserver le long de l'année, garder + des tisons ou des charbons du feu, et autres + semblables.</span></span>”</span> This and other evidence of the + custom of kindling Midsummer bonfires in France is cited by Ch. + Cuissard in his tract <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Les Feux de la Saint-Jean</span></span> + (Orleans, 1884).</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_454" name="note_454" + href="#noteref_454">454.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ch. Cuissard, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Les Feux de la + Saint-Jean</span></span> (Orleans, 1884), pp. 40 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_455" name="note_455" + href="#noteref_455">455.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">A. Le Braz, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">La Légende de la Mort + en Basse-Bretagne</span></span> (Paris, 1893), p. 279. For an + explanation of the custom of throwing a pebble into the fire, see + below, p. <a href="#Pg240" class="tei tei-ref">240</a>.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_456" name="note_456" + href="#noteref_456">456.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">M. Quellien, quoted by Alexandre + Bertrand, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">La Religion des Gaulois</span></span> (Paris, + 1897), pp. 116 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_457" name="note_457" + href="#noteref_457">457.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Collin de Plancy, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Dictionnaire + Infernal</span></span> (Paris, 1825-1826), iii. 40; J. W. Wolf, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Beiträge + zur deutschen Mythologie</span></span> (Göttingen, 1852-1857), i. + p. 217, § 185; A. Breuil, <span class="tei tei-q">“Du Culte de St. + Jean Baptiste,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Mémoires de la Société des Antiquaires de + Picardie</span></span>, viii. (Amiens, 1845) pp. 189 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_458" name="note_458" + href="#noteref_458">458.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Eugène Cortet, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Essai sur les Fêtes + Religieuses</span></span> (Paris, 1867), p. 216; Ch. Cuissard, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Les Feux + de la Saint-Jean</span></span> (Orleans, 1884), p. 24.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_459" name="note_459" + href="#noteref_459">459.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Paul Sébillot, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Coutumes populaires + de la Haute-Bretagne</span></span> (Paris, 1886), pp. 192-195. In + Upper Brittany these bonfires are called <span lang="fr" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="fr"><span style= + "font-style: italic">rieux</span></span> or <span lang="fr" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="fr"><span style= + "font-style: italic">raviers</span></span>.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_460" name="note_460" + href="#noteref_460">460.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">A. de Nore, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Coutumes, Mythes et + Traditions des Provinces de France</span></span> (Paris and Lyons, + 1846), p. 219; E. Cortet, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Essai sur les Fêtes Religieuses</span></span>, + p. 216.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_461" name="note_461" + href="#noteref_461">461.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">A. de Nore, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Coutumes, Mythes et + Traditions des Provinces de France</span></span>, pp. 219, 228, + 231; E. Cortet, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">op. cit.</span></span> pp. 215 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_462" name="note_462" + href="#noteref_462">462.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">J. Lecœur, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Esquisses du Bocage + Normand</span></span> (Condé-sur-Noireau, 1883-1887), ii. + 219-224.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_463" name="note_463" + href="#noteref_463">463.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">This description is quoted by Madame + Clément (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Histoire des fêtes civiles et + religieuses</span></span>, etc., <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">de la Belgique + Méridionale</span></span>, Avesnes, 1846, pp. 394-396); F. + Liebrecht (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Des Gervasius von Tilbury Otia + Imperialia</span></span>, Hanover, 1856, pp. 209 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>); + and W. Mannhardt (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Antike Wald und Feldkulte</span></span>, + Berlin, 1877, pp. 323 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>) from the <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Magazin + pittoresque</span></span>, Paris, viii. (1840) pp. 287 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span> A + slightly condensed account is given, from the same source, by E. + Cortet (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Essai sur les Fêtes Religieuses</span></span>, + pp. 221 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>).</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_464" name="note_464" + href="#noteref_464">464.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Bazin, quoted by Breuil, in + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Mémoires + de la Société d'Antiquaires de Picardie</span></span>, viii. (1845) + p. 191 note.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_465" name="note_465" + href="#noteref_465">465.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Correspondents quoted by A. Bertrand, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">La + Religion des Gaulois</span></span> (Paris, 1897), pp. 118, + 406.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_466" name="note_466" + href="#noteref_466">466.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Correspondent quoted by A. Bertrand, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. + cit.</span></span> p. 407.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_467" name="note_467" + href="#noteref_467">467.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Felix Chapiseau, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Le Folk-lore de la + Beauce et du Perche</span></span> (Paris, 1902), i. 318-320. In + Perche the midsummer bonfires were called <span lang="fr" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="fr"><span style= + "font-style: italic">marolles</span></span>. As to the custom + formerly observed at Bullou, near Chateaudun, see a correspondent + quoted by A. Bertrand, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">La Religion des Gaulois</span></span> (Paris, + 1897), p. 117.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_468" name="note_468" + href="#noteref_468">468.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Albert Meyrac, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Traditions, Coutumes, + Légendes, et Contes des Ardennes</span></span> (Charleville, 1890), + pp. 88 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_469" name="note_469" + href="#noteref_469">469.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">L. F. Sauvé, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Le Folk-lore des + Hautes-Vosges</span></span> (Paris, 1889), p. 186.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_470" name="note_470" + href="#noteref_470">470.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Désiré Monnier, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Traditions populaires + comparées</span></span> (Paris, 1854), pp. 207 sqq.; E. Cortet, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Essai sur + les Fêtes Religieuses</span></span>, pp. 217 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_471" name="note_471" + href="#noteref_471">471.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Bérenger-Féraud, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Réminiscences + populaires de la Provence</span></span> (Paris, 1885), p. 142.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_472" name="note_472" + href="#noteref_472">472.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Charles Beauquier, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Les Mois en + Franche-Comté</span></span> (Paris, 1900), p. 89. The names of the + bonfires vary with the place; among them are <span lang="fr" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="fr"><span style= + "font-style: italic">failles</span></span>, <span lang="fr" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="fr"><span style= + "font-style: italic">bourdifailles</span></span>, <span lang="fr" + class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="fr"><span style= + "font-style: italic">bâs</span></span> or <span lang="fr" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="fr"><span style= + "font-style: italic">baux</span></span>, <span lang="fr" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="fr"><span style= + "font-style: italic">feulères</span></span> or <span lang="fr" + class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="fr"><span style= + "font-style: italic">folières</span></span>, and <span lang="fr" + class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="fr"><span style= + "font-style: italic">chavannes</span></span>.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_473" name="note_473" + href="#noteref_473">473.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">La Bresse Louhannaise</span></span>, Juin, + 1906, p. 207.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_474" name="note_474" + href="#noteref_474">474.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Laisnel de la Salle, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Croyances et Légendes + du Centre de la France</span></span> (Paris, 1875), i. 78 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span> The writer adopts the + absurd derivation of <span lang="fr" class="tei tei-foreign" + xml:lang="fr"><span style="font-style: italic">jônée</span></span> + from Janus. Needless to say that our old friend Baal, Bel, or Belus + figures prominently in this and many other accounts of the European + fire-festivals.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_475" name="note_475" + href="#noteref_475">475.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">A. de Nore, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Coutumes, Mythes et + Traditions des Provinces de France</span></span> (Paris and Lyons, + 1846), p. 150.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_476" name="note_476" + href="#noteref_476">476.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Correspondent, quoted by A. Bertrand, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">La + Religion des Gaulois</span></span> (Paris, 1897), p. 408.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_477" name="note_477" + href="#noteref_477">477.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Guerry, <span class="tei tei-q">“Sur + les usages et traditions du Poitou,”</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Mémoires et + dissertations publiés par la Société Royale des Antiquaires de + France</span></span>, viii. (1829) pp. 451 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_478" name="note_478" + href="#noteref_478">478.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Breuil, in <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Mémoires de la + Société des Antiquaires de Picardie</span></span>, viii. (1845) p. + 206; E. Cortet, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Essai sur les Fêtes Religieuses</span></span>, + p. 216; Laisnel de la Salle, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Croyances et Légendes du Centre de la + France</span></span>, i. 83; J. Lecœur, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Esquisses du Bocage + Normand</span></span>, ii. 225.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_479" name="note_479" + href="#noteref_479">479.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">H. Gaidoz, <span class="tei tei-q">“Le + dieu gaulois du soleil et le symbolisme de la roue,”</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Revue + Archéologique</span></span>, iii. Série, iv. (1884) p. 26, note + 3.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_480" name="note_480" + href="#noteref_480">480.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">L. Pineau, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Le Folk-lore du + Poitou</span></span> (Paris, 1892), pp. 499 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span> In + Périgord the ashes of the midsummer bonfire are searched for the + hair of the Virgin (E. Cortet, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Essai sur les Fêtes + Religieuses</span></span>, p. 219).</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_481" name="note_481" + href="#noteref_481">481.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">A. de Nore, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Coutumes Mythes et + Traditions des Provinces de France</span></span>, pp. 149 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; E. Cortet, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. + cit.</span></span> pp. 218 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_482" name="note_482" + href="#noteref_482">482.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Dupin, <span class="tei tei-q">“Notice + sur quelques fêtes et divertissemens populaires du département des + Deux-Sèvres,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Mémoires et Dissertations publiés par la + Société Royale des Antiquaires de France</span></span>, iv. (1823) + p. 110.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_483" name="note_483" + href="#noteref_483">483.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">J. L. M. Noguès, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Les mœurs d'autrefois + en Saintonge et en Aunis</span></span> (Saintes, 1891), pp. 72, 178 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_484" name="note_484" + href="#noteref_484">484.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">H. Gaidoz, <span class="tei tei-q">“Le + dieu soleil et le symbolisme de la roue,”</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Revue + Archéologique</span></span>, iii. Série, iv. (1884) p. 30.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_485" name="note_485" + href="#noteref_485">485.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ch. Cuissard, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Les Feux de la + Saint-Jean</span></span> (Orleans, 1884), pp. 22 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_486" name="note_486" + href="#noteref_486">486.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">A. de Nore, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Coutumes, Mythes et + Traditions des Provinces de France</span></span>, p. 127.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_487" name="note_487" + href="#noteref_487">487.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Aubin-Louis Millin, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Voyage dans les + Départemens du Midi de la France</span></span> (Paris, 1807-1811), + iii. 341 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_488" name="note_488" + href="#noteref_488">488.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Aubin-Louis Millin, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. + cit.</span></span> iii. 28.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_489" name="note_489" + href="#noteref_489">489.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">A. de Nore, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. + cit.</span></span> pp. 19 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; Bérenger-Féraud, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Reminiscences populaires de la + Provence</span></span> (Paris, 1885), pp. 135-141. As to the custom + at Toulon, see Poncy, quoted by Breuil, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Mémoires de la + Société des Antiquaires de Picardie</span></span>, viii. (1845) p. + 190 note. The custom of drenching people on this occasion with + water used to prevail in Toulon, as well as in Marseilles and other + towns in the south of France. The water was squirted from syringes, + poured on the heads of passers-by from windows, and so on. See + Breuil, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">op. cit.</span></span> pp. 237 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_490" name="note_490" + href="#noteref_490">490.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">A. de Nore, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. + cit.</span></span> pp. 20 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; E. Cortet, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. + cit.</span></span> pp. 218, 219 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_491" name="note_491" + href="#noteref_491">491.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Le Baron de Reinsberg-Düringsfeld, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Calendrier Belge</span></span> (Brussels, + 1861-1862), i. 416 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, 439.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_492" name="note_492" + href="#noteref_492">492.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Le Baron de Reinsberg-Düringsfeld, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. + cit.</span></span> i. 439-442.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_493" name="note_493" + href="#noteref_493">493.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Madame Clément, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Histoire des fêtes + civiles et religieuses</span></span>, etc., <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">du Département du + Nord</span></span> (Cambrai, 1836), p. 364; J. W. Wolf, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Beiträge + zur deutschen Mythologie</span></span> (Göttingen, 1852-1857), ii. + 392; W. Mannhardt, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Der Baumkultus</span></span>, p. 513.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_494" name="note_494" + href="#noteref_494">494.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">E. Monseur, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Folklore + Wallon</span></span> (Brussels, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">n.d.</span></span>), p. 130, §§ 1783, + 1786, 1787.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_495" name="note_495" + href="#noteref_495">495.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Joseph Strutt, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Sports and + Pastimes of the People of England</span></span>, New Edition, by W. + Hone (London, 1834), p. 359.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_496" name="note_496" + href="#noteref_496">496.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">John Stow, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">A Survay of + London</span></span>, edited by Henry Morley (London, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">n.d.</span></span>), pp. 126 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span> Stow's <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Survay</span></span> + was written in 1598.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_497" name="note_497" + href="#noteref_497">497.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">John Brand, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Popular Antiquities + of Great Britain</span></span> (London, 1882-1883), i. 338; T. F. + Thiselton Dyer, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">British Popular Customs</span></span> (London, + 1876), p. 331. Both writers refer to <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Status Scholae + Etonensis</span></span> (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 1560).</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_498" name="note_498" + href="#noteref_498">498.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">John Aubrey, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Remaines of + Gentilisme and Judaisme</span></span> (London, 1881), p. 26.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_499" name="note_499" + href="#noteref_499">499.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">J. Brand, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Popular Antiquities + of Great Britain</span></span> (London, 1882-1883), i. 300 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, 318, compare pp. 305, 306, + 308 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; W. Mannhardt, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Der + Baumkultus</span></span>, p. 512. Compare W. Hutchinson, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">View of + Northumberland</span></span>, vol. ii. (Newcastle, 1778), Appendix, + p. (15), under the head <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Midsummer”</span>:—<span class="tei tei-q">“It is + usual to raise fires on the tops of high hills and in the villages, + and sport and danse around them; this is of very remote antiquity, + and the first cause lost in the distance of time.”</span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_500" name="note_500" + href="#noteref_500">500.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Dr. Lyttelton, Bishop of Carlisle, + quoted by William Borlase, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Antiquities, Historical and Monumental, of the + County of Cornwall</span></span> (London, 1769), p. 135 note.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_501" name="note_501" + href="#noteref_501">501.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">County Folk-lore</span></span>, vol. iv. + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Northumberland</span></span>, collected by M. + C. Balfour (London, 1904), p. 76, quoting E. Mackenzie, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">An + Historical, Topographical, and Descriptive View of the County of + Northumberland</span></span>, Second Edition (Newcastle, 1825), i. + 217.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_502" name="note_502" + href="#noteref_502">502.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">County Folk-lore</span></span>, vol. iv. + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Northumberland</span></span>, collected by M. + C. Balfour, p. 75.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_503" name="note_503" + href="#noteref_503">503.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">County Folk-lore</span></span>, vol. iv. + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Northumberland</span></span>, collected by M. + C. Balfour, p. 75.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_504" name="note_504" + href="#noteref_504">504.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">The Denham Tracts</span></span>, edited by J. + Hardy (London, 1892-1895), ii. 342 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, + quoting <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Archæologia Aeliana</span></span>, N.S., viii. + 73, and the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Proceedings</span></span> of the Berwickshire + Naturalists' Club, vi. 242 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">County + Folk-lore</span></span>, vol. iv. <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Northumberland</span></span>, collected by M. + C. Balfour (London, 1904), pp. 75 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span> + Whalton is a village of Northumberland, not far from Morpeth.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_505" name="note_505" + href="#noteref_505">505.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">County Folk-lore</span></span>, vol. vi. + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">East + Riding of Yorkshire</span></span>, collected and edited by Mrs. + Gutch (London, 1912), p. 102.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_506" name="note_506" + href="#noteref_506">506.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">John Aubrey, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Remaines of + Gentilisme and Judaisme</span></span> (London, 1881), p. 96, + compare <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">id.</span></span>, p. 26.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_507" name="note_507" + href="#noteref_507">507.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">J. Brand, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Popular Antiquities + of Great Britain</span></span> (London, 1882-1883), i. 311.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_508" name="note_508" + href="#noteref_508">508.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">William Borlase, LL.D., <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Antiquities, + Historical and Monumental, of the County of Cornwall</span></span> + (London, 1769), pp. 135 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span> The Eve of St. Peter is June + 28th. Bonfires have been lit elsewhere on the Eve or the day of St. + Peter. See above, pp. <a href="#Pg194" class="tei tei-ref">194</a> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg196" class= + "tei tei-ref">196</a> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, and below, pp. <a href= + "#Pg199" class="tei tei-ref">199</a> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, + <a href="#Pg202" class="tei tei-ref">202</a>, <a href="#Pg207" + class="tei tei-ref">207</a>.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_509" name="note_509" + href="#noteref_509">509.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">J. Brand, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. + cit.</span></span> i. 318, 319; T. F. Thiselton Dyer, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">British Popular + Customs</span></span> (London, 1876), p. 315.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_510" name="note_510" + href="#noteref_510">510.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">William Bottrell, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Traditions and + Hearthside Stories of West Cornwall</span></span> (Penzance, 1870), + pp. 8 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, 55 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; + James Napier, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Folk-lore, or Superstitious Beliefs in the + West of Scotland</span></span> (Paisley, 1879), p. 173.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_511" name="note_511" + href="#noteref_511">511.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Richard Edmonds, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Land's End + District</span></span> (London, 1862), pp. 66 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; + Robert Hunt, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Popular Romances of the West of + England</span></span>, Third Edition (London, 1881), pp. 207 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_512" name="note_512" + href="#noteref_512">512.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Marie Trevelyan, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Folk-lore and + Folk-stories of Wales</span></span> (London, 1909), pp. 27 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span> Compare Jonathan Ceredig + Davies, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Folk-lore of West and Mid-Wales</span></span> + (Aberystwyth, 1911), p. 76.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_513" name="note_513" + href="#noteref_513">513.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">J. Brand, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Popular Antiquities + of Great Britain</span></span> (London, 1882-1883), i. 318.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_514" name="note_514" + href="#noteref_514">514.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Joseph Train, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Account of the Isle + of Man</span></span> (Douglas, Isle of Man, 1845), ii. 120.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_515" name="note_515" + href="#noteref_515">515.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Sir Henry Piers, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Description of the + County of Westmeath</span></span>, written in 1682, published by + (General) Charles Vallancey, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Collectanea de Rebus Hibernicis</span></span>, + i. (Dublin, 1786) pp. 123 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_516" name="note_516" + href="#noteref_516">516.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">J. Brand, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Popular Antiquities + of Great Britain</span></span> (London, 1882-1883), i. 303, quoting + the author of the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Survey of the South of Ireland</span></span>, + p. 232.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_517" name="note_517" + href="#noteref_517">517.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">J. Brand, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. + cit.</span></span> i. 305, quoting the author of the <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Comical Pilgrim's + Pilgrimage into Ireland</span></span> (1723), p. 92.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_518" name="note_518" + href="#noteref_518">518.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">The Gentleman's Magazine</span></span>, vol. + lxv. (London, 1795) pp. 124 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span> The writer dates the + festival on June 21st, which is probably a mistake.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_519" name="note_519" + href="#noteref_519">519.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">T. F. Thiselton Dyer, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">British Popular + Customs</span></span> (London, 1876), pp. 321 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, + quoting the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Liverpool Mercury</span></span> of June 29th, + 1867.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_520" name="note_520" + href="#noteref_520">520.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">L. L. Duncan, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Further Notes from County Leitrim,”</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Folk-lore</span></span>, v. (1894) p. + 193.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_521" name="note_521" + href="#noteref_521">521.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">A. C. Haddon, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“A Batch of Irish Folk-lore,”</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Folk-lore</span></span>, iv. (1893) pp. 351, + 359.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_522" name="note_522" + href="#noteref_522">522.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">G. H. Kinahan, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Notes on Irish Folk-lore,”</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Folk-lore + Record</span></span>, iv. (1881) p. 97.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_523" name="note_523" + href="#noteref_523">523.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Charlotte Elizabeth, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Personal + Recollections</span></span>, quoted by Rev. Alexander Hislop, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Two + Babylons</span></span> (Edinburgh, 1853), p. 53.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_524" name="note_524" + href="#noteref_524">524.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Lady Wilde, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ancient Legends, + Mystic Charms, and Superstitions of Ireland</span></span>, (London, + 1887), i. 214 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_525" name="note_525" + href="#noteref_525">525.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">T. F. Thiselton Dyer, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">British Popular + Customs</span></span> (London, 1876), pp. 322 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, + quoting the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Hibernian Magazine</span></span>, July 1817. + As to the worship of wells in ancient Ireland, see P. W. Joyce, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">A Social + History of Ancient Ireland</span></span> (London, 1903), i. 288 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, 366 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_526" name="note_526" + href="#noteref_526">526.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Rev. A. Johnstone, describing the + parish of Monquhitter in Perthshire, in Sir John Sinclair's + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Statistical Account of Scotland</span></span> + (Edinburgh, 1791-1799), xxi. 145. Mr. W. Warde Fowler writes that + in Scotland <span class="tei tei-q">“before the bonfires were + kindled on midsummer eve, the houses were decorated with foliage + brought from the woods”</span> (<span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Roman Festivals of + the Period of the Republic</span></span>, London, 1899, pp. 80 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>). For his authority he + refers to <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Chambers' Journal</span></span>, July, + 1842.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_527" name="note_527" + href="#noteref_527">527.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">John Ramsay, of Ochtertyre, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Scotland + and Scotsmen in the Eighteenth Century</span></span>, edited by A. + Allardyce (Edinburgh, 1888), ii. 436.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_528" name="note_528" + href="#noteref_528">528.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Rev. Mr. Shaw, Minister of Elgin, in + Pennant's <span class="tei tei-q">“Tour in Scotland,”</span> + printed in John Pinkerton's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Voyages and Travels</span></span> (London, + 1808-1814), iii. 136.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_529" name="note_529" + href="#noteref_529">529.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">A. Macdonald, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Midsummer Bonfires,”</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Folk-lore</span></span>, xv. (1904) pp. 105 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_530" name="note_530" + href="#noteref_530">530.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">From notes kindly furnished to me by + the Rev. J. C. Higgins, parish minister of Tarbolton. Mr. Higgins + adds that he knows of no superstition connected with the fire, and + no tradition of its origin. I visited the scene of the bonfire in + 1898, but, as Pausanias says (viii. 41. 6) in similar + circumstances, <span class="tei tei-q">“I did not happen to arrive + at the season of the festival.”</span> Indeed the snow was falling + thick as I trudged to the village through the beautiful woods of + <span class="tei tei-q">“the Castle o' Montgomery”</span> + immortalized by Burns. From a notice in <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The + Scotsman</span></span> of 26th June, 1906 (p. 8) it appears that + the old custom was observed as usual that year.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_531" name="note_531" + href="#noteref_531">531.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Thomas Moresinus, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Papatus seu + Depravatae Religionis Origo et Incrementum</span></span> + (Edinburgh, 1594), p. 56.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_532" name="note_532" + href="#noteref_532">532.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Rev. Dr. George Lawrie, in Sir John + Sinclair's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Statistical Account of Scotland</span></span>, + iii. (Edinburgh, 1792) p. 105.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_533" name="note_533" + href="#noteref_533">533.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Letter from Dr. Otero Acevado of + Madrid, published in <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Le Temps</span></span>, September 1898. An + extract from the newspaper was sent me, but without mention of the + day of the month when it appeared. The fires on St. John's Eve in + Spain are mentioned also by J. Brand, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Popular Antiquities + of Great Britain</span></span>, i. 317. Jacob Grimm inferred the + custom from a passage in a romance (<span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Deutsche + Mythologie</span></span>,<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "vertical-align: super">4</span></span> i. 518). The custom of + washing or bathing on the morning of St. John's Day is mentioned by + the Spanish historian Diego Duran, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Historia de las + Indias de Nueva España</span></span>, edited by J. F. Ramirez + (Mexico, 1867-1880), vol. ii. p. 293. To roll in the dew on the + morning of St. John's Day is a cure for diseases of the skin in + Normandy, Périgord, and the Abruzzi, as well as in Spain. See J. + Lecœur, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Esquisses du Bocage Normand</span></span>, ii. + 8; A. de Nore, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Coutumes, Mythes et Traditions des Provinces + de France</span></span>, p. 150; Gennaro Finamore, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Credenze, Usi e + Costumi Abruzzesi</span></span> (Palermo, 1890), p. 157.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_534" name="note_534" + href="#noteref_534">534.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">M. Longworth Dames and Mrs. E. + Seemann, <span class="tei tei-q">“Folklore of the Azores,”</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Folk-lore</span></span>, xiv. (1903) pp. 142 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; Theophilo Braga, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">O Povo + Portuguez nos seus Costumes, Crenças e Tradiçoes</span></span> + (Lisbon, 1885), ii. 304 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, 307 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_535" name="note_535" + href="#noteref_535">535.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See below, pp. <a href="#Pg234" class= + "tei tei-ref">234</a> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_536" name="note_536" + href="#noteref_536">536.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Angelo de Gubernatis, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Mythologie des + Plantes</span></span> (Paris, 1878-1882), i. 185 note 1.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_537" name="note_537" + href="#noteref_537">537.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Adonis, Attis, Osiris</span></span>, Second + Edition, pp. 202 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_538" name="note_538" + href="#noteref_538">538.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">G. Finamore, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Credenze, Usi e + Costumi Abruzzesi</span></span> (Palermo, 1890), pp. 154 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_539" name="note_539" + href="#noteref_539">539.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">G. Finamore, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Credenze, Usi e + Costumi Abruzzesi</span></span>, pp. 158-160. We may compare the + Provençal and Spanish customs of bathing and splashing water at + midsummer. See above, pp. <a href="#Pg193" class= + "tei tei-ref">193</a> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg208" class= + "tei tei-ref">208</a>.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_540" name="note_540" + href="#noteref_540">540.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Giuseppe Pitrè, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Spettacoli e Feste + Popolari Siciliane</span></span> (Palermo, 1881), pp. 246, 308 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">id.</span></span>, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Usi e + Costumi, Credenze e Pregiudizi del Popolo Siciliano</span></span> + (Palermo, 1889), pp. 146 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_541" name="note_541" + href="#noteref_541">541.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">J. Grimm, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Deutsche + Mythologie</span></span>,<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "vertical-align: super">4</span></span> i. 518.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_542" name="note_542" + href="#noteref_542">542.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">V. Busuttil, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Holiday Customs in + Malta, and Sports, Usages, Ceremonies, Omens, and Superstitions of + the Maltese People</span></span> (Malta, 1894), pp. 56 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span> + The extract was kindly sent to me by Mr. H. W. Underwood (letter + dated 14th November, 1902, Birbeck Bank Chambers, Southampton + Buildings, Chancery Lane, W.C.). See <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Folk-lore</span></span>, xiv. (1903) pp. 77 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_543" name="note_543" + href="#noteref_543">543.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. R. Paton, in <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Folk-lore</span></span>, ii. (1891) p. 128. + The custom was reported to me when I was in Greece in 1890 + (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Folk-lore</span></span>, i. (1890) p. + 520).</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_544" name="note_544" + href="#noteref_544">544.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">J. Grimm, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Deutsche + Mythologie</span></span>,<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "vertical-align: super">4</span></span> i. 519.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_545" name="note_545" + href="#noteref_545">545.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">G. Georgeakis et L. Pineau, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Le + Folk-lore de Lesbos</span></span> (Paris, 1894), pp. 308 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_546" name="note_546" + href="#noteref_546">546.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. R. Paton, in <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Folk-lore</span></span>, vi. (1895) p. 94. + From the stones cast into the fire omens may perhaps be drawn, as + in Scotland, Wales, and probably Brittany. See above, p. <a href= + "#Pg183" class="tei tei-ref">183</a>, and below, pp. <a href= + "#Pg230" class="tei tei-ref">230</a> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, + <a href="#Pg239" class="tei tei-ref">239</a>, <a href="#Pg240" + class="tei tei-ref">240</a>.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_547" name="note_547" + href="#noteref_547">547.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. H. D. Rouse, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Folklore from the Southern Sporades,”</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Folk-lore</span></span>, x. (1899) p. + 179.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_548" name="note_548" + href="#noteref_548">548.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Lucy M. J. Garnett, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Women of Turkey + and their Folk-lore, the Christian Women</span></span> (London, + 1890), p. 122; G. F. Abbott, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Macedonian Folk-lore</span></span> (Cambridge, + 1903), p. 57.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_549" name="note_549" + href="#noteref_549">549.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">J. G. von Hahn, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Albanesische + Studien</span></span> (Jena, 1854), i. 156.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_550" name="note_550" + href="#noteref_550">550.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">K. von den Steinen, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Unter den + Natur-Völkern Zentral-Brasiliens</span></span> (Berlin, 1894), p. + 561.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_551" name="note_551" + href="#noteref_551">551.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Alcide d'Orbigny, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Voyage dans + l'Amérique Méridionale</span></span>, ii. (Paris and Strasbourg, + 1839-1843), p. 420; D. Forbes, <span class="tei tei-q">“On the + Aymara Indians of Bolivia and Peru,”</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Journal of the + Ethnological Society of London</span></span>, ii. (1870) p. + 235.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_552" name="note_552" + href="#noteref_552">552.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Edmond Doutté, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Magie et Religion + dans l'Afrique du Nord</span></span> (Algiers, 1908), pp. 566 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span> For an older but briefer + notice of the Midsummer fires in North Africa, see Giuseppe + Ferraro, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Superstizioni, Usi e Proverbi + Monferrini</span></span> (Palermo, 1886), pp. 34 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>: + <span class="tei tei-q">“Also in Algeria, among the Mussalmans, and + in Morocco, as Alvise da Cadamosto reports in his <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Relazione dei viaggi + d'Africa</span></span>, which may be read in Ramusio, people used + to hold great festivities on St. John's Night; they kindled + everywhere huge fires of straw (the <span lang="la" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Palilia</span></span> of the Romans), in which + they threw incense and perfumes the whole night long in order to + invoke the divine blessing on the fruit-trees.”</span> See also + Budgett Meakin, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">The Moors</span></span> (London, 1902), p. + 394: <span class="tei tei-q">“The Berber festivals are mainly those + of Islam, though a few traces of their predecessors are observable. + Of these the most noteworthy is Midsummer or St. John's Day, still + celebrated in a special manner, and styled <span lang="ar" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ar"><span style="font-style: italic">El + 'Anṣarah</span></span>. In the Rîf it is celebrated by the lighting + of bonfires only, but in other parts there is a special dish + prepared of wheat, raisins, etc., resembling the frumenty consumed + at the New Year. It is worthy of remark that the Old Style + Gregorian calendar is maintained among them, with corruptions of + Latin names.”</span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_553" name="note_553" + href="#noteref_553">553.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Edward Westermarck, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Midsummer Customs in Morocco,”</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Folk-lore</span></span>, xvi. (1905) pp. + 28-30; <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">id.</span></span>, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ceremonies and + Beliefs connected with Agriculture, Certain Dates of the Solar + Year, and the Weather</span></span> (Helsingfors, 1913), pp. + 79-83.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_554" name="note_554" + href="#noteref_554">554.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">E. Westermarck, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Midsummer Customs in Morocco,”</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Folk-lore</span></span>, xvi. (1905) pp. 30 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">id.</span></span>, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Ceremonies and Beliefs connected with + Agriculture</span></span>, etc., pp. 83 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_555" name="note_555" + href="#noteref_555">555.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Edmond Doutté, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Magie et Religion + dans l'Afrique du Nord</span></span> (Algiers, 1908), pp. 567 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_556" name="note_556" + href="#noteref_556">556.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">E. Westermarck, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Midsummer Customs in Morocco,”</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Folk-lore</span></span>, xvi. (1905) pp. 31 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">id.</span></span>, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Ceremonies and Beliefs connected with + Agriculture</span></span>, etc., pp. 84-86.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_557" name="note_557" + href="#noteref_557">557.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See K. Vollers, in Dr. James + Hastings's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Encyclopaedia of Religion and + Ethics</span></span>, iii. (Edinburgh, 1910) <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">s.v.</span></span> + <span class="tei tei-q">“Calendar (Muslim),”</span> pp. 126 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span> However, L. Ideler held that + even before the time of Mohammed the Arab year was lunar and vague, + and that intercalation was only employed in order to fix the + pilgrimage month in autumn, which, on account of the milder weather + and the abundance of food, is the best time for pilgrims to go to + Mecca. See L. Ideler, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Handbuch der mathematischen und techischen + Chronologie</span></span> (Berlin, 1825-1826), ii. 495 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_558" name="note_558" + href="#noteref_558">558.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">E. Doutté, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Magie et Religion + dans l'Afrique du Nord</span></span>, pp. 496, 509, 532, 543, 569. + It is somewhat remarkable that the tenth, not the first, day of the + first month should be reckoned New Year's Day.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_559" name="note_559" + href="#noteref_559">559.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">E. Westermarck, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Midsummer Customs in Morocco,”</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Folk-lore</span></span>, xvi. (1905) pp. + 40-42.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_560" name="note_560" + href="#noteref_560">560.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">E. Doutté, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Magie et Religion + dans l'Afrique du Nord</span></span> (Algiers, 1908), pp. 541 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_561" name="note_561" + href="#noteref_561">561.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">E. Westermarck, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Midsummer Customs in Morocco,”</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Folk-lore</span></span>, xvi. (1905) p. 42; + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">id.</span></span>, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ceremonies and + Beliefs connected with Agriculture, Certain Dates of the Solar + Year, and the Weather in Morocco</span></span> (Helsingfors, 1913), + p. 101.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_562" name="note_562" + href="#noteref_562">562.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">E. Westermarck, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Midsummer Customs in Morocco,”</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Folk-lore</span></span>, xvi. (1905), pp. 42 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, 46 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">id.</span></span>, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ceremonies and + Beliefs connected with Agriculture, etc., in Morocco</span></span>, + pp. 99 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_563" name="note_563" + href="#noteref_563">563.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">G. F. Abbott, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Macedonian + Folk-lore</span></span> (Cambridge, 1903), pp. 60 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_564" name="note_564" + href="#noteref_564">564.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-q">“Narrative of + the Adventures of four Russian Sailors, who were cast in a storm + upon the uncultivated island of East Spitzbergen,”</span> + translated from the German of P. L. Le Roy, in John Pinkerton's + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Voyages + and Travels</span></span> (London, 1808-1814), i. 603. This passage + is quoted from the original by (Sir) Edward B. Tylor, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Researches into the + Early History of Mankind</span></span>, Third Edition (London, + 1878), pp. 259 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_565" name="note_565" + href="#noteref_565">565.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The + Scapegoat</span></span>, pp. 166 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_566" name="note_566" + href="#noteref_566">566.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">E. K. Chambers, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Mediaeval + Stage</span></span> (Oxford, 1903), i. 110 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_567" name="note_567" + href="#noteref_567">567.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">In Eastern Europe to this day the + great season for driving out the cattle to pasture for the first + time in spring is St. George's Day, the twenty-third of April, + which is not far removed from May Day. See <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Magic Art and the + Evolution of Kings</span></span>, ii. 324 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span> As + to the bisection of the Celtic year, see the old authority quoted + by P. W. Joyce, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">The Social History of Ancient + Ireland</span></span> (London, 1903), ii. 390: <span class= + "tei tei-q">“The whole year was [originally] divided into two + parts—Summer from 1st May to 1st November, and Winter from 1st + November to 1st May.”</span> On this subject compare (Sir) John + Rhys, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Celtic Heathendom</span></span> (London and + Edinburgh, 1888), pp. 460, 514 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>; + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">id.</span></span>, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Celtic Folk-lore, + Welsh and Manx</span></span> (Oxford, 1901), i. 315 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>; + J. A. MacCulloch, in Dr. James Hastings's <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Encyclopaedia of + Religion and Ethics</span></span>, iii. (Edinburgh, 1910) p. + 80.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_568" name="note_568" + href="#noteref_568">568.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See below, p. <a href="#Pg225" class= + "tei tei-ref">225</a>.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_569" name="note_569" + href="#noteref_569">569.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Above, pp. <a href="#Pg146" class= + "tei tei-ref">146</a> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>; <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Magic Art and the + Evolution of Kings</span></span>, ii. 59 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_570" name="note_570" + href="#noteref_570">570.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">(Sir) John Rhys, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Celtic Folk-lore, + Manx and Welsh</span></span> (Oxford, 1901), i. 316, 317 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; J. A. MacCulloch, in Dr. + James Hastings's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Encyclopaedia of Religion and + Ethics</span></span>, iii. (Edinburgh, 1910) <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">s.v.</span></span> + <span class="tei tei-q">“Calendar,”</span> p. 80, referring to + Kelly, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">English and Manx Dictionary</span></span> + (Douglas, 1866), <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">s.v.</span></span> <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Blein.”</span> Hogmanay is the popular Scotch name for + the last day of the year. See Dr. J. Jamieson, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Etymological + Dictionary of the Scottish Language</span></span>, New Edition + (Paisley, 1879-1882), ii. 602 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_571" name="note_571" + href="#noteref_571">571.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">(Sir) John Rhys, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Celtic Folk-lore, + Welsh and Manx</span></span>, i. 316 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_572" name="note_572" + href="#noteref_572">572.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Above, p. <a href="#Pg139" class= + "tei tei-ref">139</a>.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_573" name="note_573" + href="#noteref_573">573.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Adonis, Attis, + Osiris</span></span>, Second Edition, pp. 309-318. As I have there + pointed out, the Catholic Church succeeded in altering the date of + the festival by one day, but not in changing the character of the + festival. All Souls' Day is now the second instead of the first of + November. But we can hardly doubt that the Saints, who have taken + possession of the first of November, wrested it from the Souls of + the Dead, the original proprietors. After all, the Saints are only + one particular class of the Souls of the Dead; so that the change + which the Church effected, no doubt for the purpose of disguising + the heathen character of the festival, is less great than appears + at first sight.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_574" name="note_574" + href="#noteref_574">574.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">In Wales <span class="tei tei-q">“it + was firmly believed in former times that on All Hallows' Eve the + spirit of a departed person was to be seen at midnight on every + cross-road and on every stile”</span> (Marie Trevelyan, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Folk-lore + and Folk-stories of Wales</span></span>, London, 1909, p. + 254).</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_575" name="note_575" + href="#noteref_575">575.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">E. J. Guthrie, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Old Scottish + Customs</span></span> (London and Glasgow, 1885), p. 68.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_576" name="note_576" + href="#noteref_576">576.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">A. Goodrich-Freer, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“More Folk-lore from the Hebrides,”</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Folk-lore</span></span>, xiii. (1902) p. + 53.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_577" name="note_577" + href="#noteref_577">577.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">(Sir) John Rhys, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Celtic + Heathendom</span></span> (London and Edinburgh, 1888), p. 516.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_578" name="note_578" + href="#noteref_578">578.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">P. W. Joyce, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">A Social History of + Ancient Ireland</span></span> (London, 1903), i. 264 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, + ii. 556.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_579" name="note_579" + href="#noteref_579">579.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">(Sir) John Rhys, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Celtic + Heathendom</span></span>, p. 516.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_580" name="note_580" + href="#noteref_580">580.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Rev. John Gregorson Campbell, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Superstitions of the Highlands and Islands of + Scotland</span></span> (Glasgow, 1900), pp. 61 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_581" name="note_581" + href="#noteref_581">581.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ch. Rogers, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Social Life in + Scotland</span></span> (Edinburgh, 1884-1886), iii. 258-260.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_582" name="note_582" + href="#noteref_582">582.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Douglas Hyde, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Beside the Fire, a + Collection of Irish Gaelic Folk Stories</span></span> (London, + 1890), pp. 104, 105, 121-128.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_583" name="note_583" + href="#noteref_583">583.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">P. W. Joyce, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Social History of + Ancient Ireland</span></span>, i. 229.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_584" name="note_584" + href="#noteref_584">584.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Marie Trevelyan, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Folk-lore and + Folk-stories of Wales</span></span> (London, 1909), p. 254.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_585" name="note_585" + href="#noteref_585">585.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">(Sir) John Rhys, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Celtic + Heathendom</span></span>, pp. 514 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span> In + order to see the apparitions all you had to do was to run thrice + round the parish church and then peep through the key-hole of the + door. See Marie Trevelyan, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">op. cit.</span></span> p. 254; J. C. Davies, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Folk-lore + of West and Mid-Wales</span></span> (Aberystwyth, 1911), p. + 77.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_586" name="note_586" + href="#noteref_586">586.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Miss E. J. Guthrie, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Old Scottish + Customs</span></span> (London and Glasgow, 1885), p. 75.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_587" name="note_587" + href="#noteref_587">587.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Rev. John Gregorson Campbell, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Witchcraft and Second Sight in the Highlands + and Islands of Scotland</span></span> (Glasgow, 1902), p. 282.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_588" name="note_588" + href="#noteref_588">588.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Thomas Pennant, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Tour in Scotland, and Voyage to the Hebrides in + 1772,”</span> in John Pinkerton's <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Voyages and + Travels</span></span>, iii. (London, 1809) pp. 383 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span> In + quoting the passage I have corrected what seem to be two + misprints.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_589" name="note_589" + href="#noteref_589">589.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">John Ramsay, of Ochtertyre, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Scotland + and Scotsmen in the Eighteenth Century</span></span>, edited by + Alexander Allardyce (Edinburgh and London, 1888), ii. 437 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span> This account was written in + the eighteenth century.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_590" name="note_590" + href="#noteref_590">590.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Rev. James Robertson, Parish minister + of Callander, in Sir John Sinclair's <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Statistical Account + of Scotland</span></span>, xi. (Edinburgh, 1794), pp. 621 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_591" name="note_591" + href="#noteref_591">591.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Rev. Dr. Thomas Bisset, in Sir John + Sinclair's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Statistical Account of Scotland</span></span>, + v. (Edinburgh, 1793) pp. 84 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_592" name="note_592" + href="#noteref_592">592.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Miss E. J. Guthrie, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Old Scottish + Customs</span></span> (London and Glasgow, 1885), p. 67.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_593" name="note_593" + href="#noteref_593">593.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">James Napier, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Folk Lore, or + Superstitious Beliefs in the West of Scotland within this + Century</span></span> (Paisley, 1879), p. 179.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_594" name="note_594" + href="#noteref_594">594.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">J. G. Frazer, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Folk-lore at Balquhidder,”</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Folk-lore + Journal</span></span>, vi. (1888) p. 270.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_595" name="note_595" + href="#noteref_595">595.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Rev. Walter Gregor, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Notes on the + Folk-lore of the North-East of Scotland</span></span> (London, + 1881), pp. 167 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_596" name="note_596" + href="#noteref_596">596.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Rev. A. Johnstone, as to the parish of + Monquhitter, in Sir John Sinclair's <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Statistical Account + of Scotland</span></span>, xxi. (Edinburgh, 1799) pp. 145 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_597" name="note_597" + href="#noteref_597">597.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">A. Macdonald, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Some former Customs of the Royal Parish of Crathie, + Scotland,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Folk-lore</span></span>, xviii. (1907) p. 85. + The writer adds: <span class="tei tei-q">“In this way the + <span class="tei tei-q">‘faulds’</span> were purged of evil + spirits.”</span> But it does not appear whether this expresses the + belief of the people or only the interpretation of the writer.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_598" name="note_598" + href="#noteref_598">598.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Rev. John Gregorson Campbell, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Witchcraft and Second Sight in the Highlands + and Islands of Scotland</span></span> (Glasgow, 1902), pp. 282 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_599" name="note_599" + href="#noteref_599">599.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Robert Burns, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Hallowe'en</span></span>, with the poet's + note; Rev. Walter Gregor, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">op. cit.</span></span> p. 84; Miss E. J. + Guthrie, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">op. cit.</span></span> p. 69; Rev. J. G. + Campbell, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">op. cit.</span></span> p. 287.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_600" name="note_600" + href="#noteref_600">600.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">R. Burns, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">l.c.</span></span>; + Rev. Walter Gregor, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">l.c.</span></span>; Miss E. J. Guthrie, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. + cit.</span></span> pp. 70 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; Rev. J. G. Campbell, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. + cit.</span></span> p. 286.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_601" name="note_601" + href="#noteref_601">601.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">R. Burns, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">l.c.</span></span>; + Rev. W. Gregor, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">l.c.</span></span>; Miss E. J. Guthrie, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. + cit.</span></span> p. 73; Rev. J. G. Campbell, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. + cit.</span></span> p. 285; A. Goodrich-Freer, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“More Folklore from the Hebrides,”</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Folk-lore</span></span>, xiii. (1902) pp. 54 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_602" name="note_602" + href="#noteref_602">602.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">R. Burns, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">l.c.</span></span>; + Rev. W. Gregor, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">op. cit.</span></span> p. 85; Miss E. J. + Guthrie, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">op. cit.</span></span> p. 71; Rev. J. G. + Campbell, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">op. cit.</span></span> p. 285. According to + the last of these writers, the winnowing had to be done in the + devil's name.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_603" name="note_603" + href="#noteref_603">603.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">R. Burns, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">l.c.</span></span>; + Rev. W. Gregor, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">l.c.</span></span>; Miss E. J. Guthrie, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. + cit.</span></span> p. 72; Rev. J. G. Campbell, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. + cit.</span></span> p. 286; A. Goodrich-Freer, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“More Folklore from the Hebrides,”</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Folk-lore</span></span>, xiii. (1902) p. + 54.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_604" name="note_604" + href="#noteref_604">604.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Rev. J. G. Campbell, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. + cit.</span></span> p. 283.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_605" name="note_605" + href="#noteref_605">605.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Rev. J. G. Campbell, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. + cit.</span></span> pp. 283 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; A. Goodrich-Freer, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">l.c.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_606" name="note_606" + href="#noteref_606">606.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Rev. J. G. Campbell, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. + cit.</span></span> p. 284.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_607" name="note_607" + href="#noteref_607">607.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">R. Burns, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">l.c.</span></span>; + Rev. W. Gregor, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">op. cit.</span></span> p. 85; Miss E. J. + Guthrie, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">op. cit.</span></span> p. 70; Rev. J. G. + Campbell, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">op. cit.</span></span> p. 284. Where nuts were + not to be had, peas were substituted.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_608" name="note_608" + href="#noteref_608">608.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Rev. J. G. Campbell, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. + cit.</span></span> p. 284.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_609" name="note_609" + href="#noteref_609">609.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Rev. J. G. Campbell, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">l.c.</span></span> + According to my recollection of Hallowe'en customs observed in my + boyhood at Helensburgh, in Dumbartonshire, another way was to stir + the floating apples and then drop a fork on them as they bobbed + about in the water. Success consisted in pinning one of the apples + with the fork.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_610" name="note_610" + href="#noteref_610">610.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">R. Burns, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">l.c.</span></span>; + Rev. W. Gregor, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">op. cit.</span></span> pp. 85 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; + Miss E. J Guthrie, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">op. cit.</span></span> pp. 72 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; + Rev. J. G. Campbell, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">op. cit.</span></span> p. 287.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_611" name="note_611" + href="#noteref_611">611.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">R. Burns, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">l.c.</span></span>; + Rev. W. Gregor, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">op. cit.</span></span> p. 85; Miss E. J. + Guthrie, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">op. cit.</span></span> pp. 69 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; + Rev. J. G. Campbell, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">op. cit.</span></span> p. 285. It is the last + of these writers who gives what may be called the Trinitarian form + of the divination.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_612" name="note_612" + href="#noteref_612">612.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Miss E. J. Guthrie, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Old Scottish + Customs</span></span> (London and Glasgow, 1885), pp. 74 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_613" name="note_613" + href="#noteref_613">613.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">A. Goodrich-Freer, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“More Folk-lore from the Hebrides,”</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Folk-lore</span></span>, xiii. (1902) p. + 55.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_614" name="note_614" + href="#noteref_614">614.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Pennant's manuscript, quoted by J. + Brand, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Popular Antiquities of Great + Britain</span></span> (London, 1882-1883), i. 389 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_615" name="note_615" + href="#noteref_615">615.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Sir Richard Colt Hoare, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Itinerary of + Archbishop Baldwin through Wales</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic; font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> + <span style="font-style: italic">MCLXXXVIII. by Giraldus de + Barri</span></span> (London, 1806), ii. 315; J. Brand, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Popular + Antiquities</span></span>, i. 390. The passage quoted in the text + occurs in one of Hoare's notes on the Itinerary. The dipping for + apples, burning of nuts, and so forth, are mentioned also by Marie + Trevelyan, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Folk-lore and Folk-stories of + Wales</span></span> (London, 1909), pp. 253, 255.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_616" name="note_616" + href="#noteref_616">616.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">(Sir) John Rhys, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Celtic + Heathendom</span></span> (London and Edinburgh, 1888), pp. 515 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span> As to the Hallowe'en + bonfires in Wales compare J. C. Davies, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Folk-lore of West and + Mid-Wales</span></span> (Aberystwyth, 1911), p. 77.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_617" name="note_617" + href="#noteref_617">617.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See above, p. <a href="#Pg183" class= + "tei tei-ref">183</a>.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_618" name="note_618" + href="#noteref_618">618.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See above, p. <a href="#Pg231" class= + "tei tei-ref">231</a>.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_619" name="note_619" + href="#noteref_619">619.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Marie Trevelyan, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Folk-lore and + Folk-stories of Wales</span></span> (London, 1909), pp. 254 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_620" name="note_620" + href="#noteref_620">620.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">(General) Charles Vallancey, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Collectanea de Rebus Hibernicis</span></span>, + iii. (Dublin, 1786), pp. 459-461.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_621" name="note_621" + href="#noteref_621">621.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Miss A. Watson, quoted by A. C. + Haddon, <span class="tei tei-q">“A Batch of Irish + Folk-lore,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Folk-lore</span></span>, iv. (1893) pp. 361 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_622" name="note_622" + href="#noteref_622">622.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Leland L. Duncan, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Further Notes from County Leitrim,”</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Folk-lore</span></span>, v. (1894) pp. + 195-197.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_623" name="note_623" + href="#noteref_623">623.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">H. J. Byrne, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“All Hallows Eve and other Festivals in + Connaught,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Folk-lore</span></span>, xviii. (1907) pp. 437 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_624" name="note_624" + href="#noteref_624">624.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Joseph Train, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Historical and + Statistical Account of the Isle of Man</span></span> (Douglas, Isle + of Man, 1845), ii. 123; (Sir) John Rhys, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Celtic Folk-lore, + Welsh and Manx</span></span> (Oxford, 1901), i. 315 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_625" name="note_625" + href="#noteref_625">625.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">(Sir) John Rhys, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Celtic Folk-lore, + Welsh and Manx</span></span> (Oxford, 1901), i. 318-321.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_626" name="note_626" + href="#noteref_626">626.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">John Harland and T. T. Wilkinson, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Lancashire Folk-lore</span></span> (Manchester + and London, 1882), pp. 3 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_627" name="note_627" + href="#noteref_627">627.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">J. Harland and T. T. Wilkinson, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. + cit.</span></span> p. 140.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_628" name="note_628" + href="#noteref_628">628.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Annie Milner, in William Hone's + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Year + Book</span></span> (London, preface dated January, 1832), coll. + 1276-1279 (letter dated June, 1831); R. T. Hampson, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Medii Acvi + Kalendarium</span></span> (London, 1841), i. 365; T. F. Thiselton + Dyer, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">British Popular Customs</span></span> (London, + 1876), p. 395.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_629" name="note_629" + href="#noteref_629">629.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">County Folk-lore</span></span>, vol. iv. + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Northumberland</span></span>, collected by M. + C. Balfour (London, 1904), p. 78. Compare W. Henderson, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Notes on + the Folk-lore of the Northern Counties of England</span></span> + (London, 1879), pp. 96 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_630" name="note_630" + href="#noteref_630">630.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Baron Dupin, in <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Mémoires publiées par + la Société Royale des Antiquaires de France</span></span>, iv. + (1823) p. 108.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_631" name="note_631" + href="#noteref_631">631.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">The evidence for the solar origin of + Christmas is given in <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Adonis, Attis, Osiris</span></span>, Second + Edition, pp 254-256.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_632" name="note_632" + href="#noteref_632">632.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">For the various names (Yu-batch, + Yu-block, Yule-log, etc.) see Francis Grose, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Provincial + Glossary</span></span>, New Edition (London, 1811), p. 141; Joseph + Wright, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">The English Dialect Dictionary</span></span> + (London, 1898-1905), vi. 593, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">s.v.</span></span> <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Yule.”</span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_633" name="note_633" + href="#noteref_633">633.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-q">“I am pretty + confident that the Yule block will be found, in its first use, to + have been only a counterpart of the Midsummer fires, made within + doors because of the cold weather at this winter solstice, as those + in the hot season, at the summer one, are kindled in the open + air”</span> (John Brand, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Popular Antiquities of Great + Britain</span></span>, London, 1882-1883, i. 471). His opinion is + approved by W. Mannhardt (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Der Baumkultus der Germanen und ihrer + Nachbarstämme</span></span>, p. 236).</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_634" name="note_634" + href="#noteref_634">634.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-q">“<span lang= + "la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Et arborem in nativitate domini ad festivum + ignem suum adducendam esse dicebat</span></span>”</span> (quoted by + Jacob Grimm, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Deutsche Mythologie</span></span>,<span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="vertical-align: super">4</span></span> i. + 522).</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_635" name="note_635" + href="#noteref_635">635.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Montanus, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Die deutschen + Volksfeste, Volksbräuche und deutscher Volksglaube</span></span> + (Iserlohn, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">n.d.</span></span>), p. 12. The Sieg and + Lahn are two rivers of Central Germany, between Siegen and + Marburg.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_636" name="note_636" + href="#noteref_636">636.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">J. H. Schmitz, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Sitten und Sagen, + Lieder, Sprüchwörter und Räthsel des Eifler Volkes</span></span> + (Treves, 1856-1858), i. 4.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_637" name="note_637" + href="#noteref_637">637.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Adalbert Kuhn, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Sagen, Gebräuche und + Märchen aus Westfalen</span></span> (Leipsic, 1859), ii. § 319, pp. + 103 sq.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_638" name="note_638" + href="#noteref_638">638.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">A. Kuhn, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. + cit.</span></span> ii. § 523, p. 187.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_639" name="note_639" + href="#noteref_639">639.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">August Witzschel, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Sagen, Sitten und + Gebräuche aus Thüringen</span></span> (Vienna, 1878), p. 172.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_640" name="note_640" + href="#noteref_640">640.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">E. Hoffmann-Krayer, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Feste und Bräuche des + Schweizervolkes</span></span> (Zurich, 1913), pp. 108 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_641" name="note_641" + href="#noteref_641">641.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Le Baron de Reinsberg-Düringsfeld, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Calendrier Belge</span></span> (Brussels, + 1861-1862), ii. 326 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span> Compare J. W. Wolf, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Beiträge + zur deutschen Mythologie</span></span> (Göttingen, 1852-1858), i. + 117.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_642" name="note_642" + href="#noteref_642">642.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">J. B. Thiers, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Traité des + Superstitions</span></span><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "vertical-align: super">5</span></span> (Paris, 1741), i. 302 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; Eugène Cortet, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Essai sur les Fêtes + Religieuses</span></span> (Paris, 1867), pp. 266 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_643" name="note_643" + href="#noteref_643">643.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">J. B. Thiers, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Traité des + Superstitions</span></span> (Paris, 1679), p 323.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_644" name="note_644" + href="#noteref_644">644.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Aubin-Louis Millin, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Voyage dans les + Départements du Midi de la France</span></span> (Paris, 1807-1811), + iii. 336 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span> The fire so kindled was + called <span lang="fr" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang= + "fr"><span style="font-style: italic">caco + fuech</span></span>.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_645" name="note_645" + href="#noteref_645">645.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Alfred de Nore, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Coutumes, Mythes et + Traditions des Provinces de France</span></span> (Paris and Lyons, + 1846), pp. 151 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span> The three festivals during + which the Yule log is expected to burn are probably Christmas Day + (December 25th), St. Stephen's Day (December 26th), and St. John + the Evangelist's Day (December 27th). Compare J. L. M. Noguès, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Les Mœurs + d'autrefois en Saintonge et en Aunis</span></span> (Saintes, 1891), + pp. 45-47. According to the latter writer, in Saintonge it was the + mistress of the house who blessed the Yule log, sprinkling salt and + holy water on it; in Poitou it was the eldest male who officiated. + The log was called the <span lang="fr" class="tei tei-foreign" + xml:lang="fr"><span style="font-style: italic">cosse de + Nô</span></span>.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_646" name="note_646" + href="#noteref_646">646.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Laisnel de Salle, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Croyances et Légendes + du Centre de la France</span></span> (Paris, 1875), i. 1-3.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_647" name="note_647" + href="#noteref_647">647.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Jules Lecœur, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Esquisses du Bocage + Normand</span></span> (Condé-sur-Noireau, 1883-1887), ii. 291. The + author speaks of the custom as still practised in out-of-the-way + villages at the time when he wrote. The usage of preserving the + remains of the Yule-log (called <span lang="fr" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="fr"><span style= + "font-style: italic">tréfouet</span></span>) in Normandy is + mentioned also by M<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "vertical-align: super">elle</span></span> Amélie Bosquet, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">La + Nortnandie Romanesque et Merveilleuse</span></span> (Paris and + Rouen, 1845), p. 294.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_648" name="note_648" + href="#noteref_648">648.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">A. de Nore, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Coutumes, Mythes, et + Traditions des Provinces de France</span></span> (Paris and Lyons, + 1846), p. 256.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_649" name="note_649" + href="#noteref_649">649.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Paul Sébillot, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Coutumes populaires + de la Haute-Bretagne</span></span> (Paris, 1886), pp. 217 sq.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_650" name="note_650" + href="#noteref_650">650.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Albert Meyrac, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Traditions, Coutumes, + Légendes et Contes des Ardennes</span></span> (Charleville, 1890), + pp. 96 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_651" name="note_651" + href="#noteref_651">651.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See above, p. <a href="#Pg251" class= + "tei tei-ref">251</a>.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_652" name="note_652" + href="#noteref_652">652.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Lerouze, in <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Mémoires de + l'Academie Celtique</span></span>, iii. (1809) p. 441, quoted by J. + Brand, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Popular Antiquities of Great + Britain</span></span> (London, 1882-1883), i. 469 note.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_653" name="note_653" + href="#noteref_653">653.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">L. F. Sauvé, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Le Folk-lore des + Hautes-Vosges</span></span> (Paris, 1889), pp. 370 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_654" name="note_654" + href="#noteref_654">654.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Charles Beauquier, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Les Mois en + Franche-Comté</span></span> (Paris, 1900), p. 183.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_655" name="note_655" + href="#noteref_655">655.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">A. de Nore, Coutumes, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Mythes, et Traditions + des Provinces de France</span></span> (Paris and Lyons, 1846), pp. + 302 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_656" name="note_656" + href="#noteref_656">656.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">John Brand, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Popular Antiquities + of Great Britain</span></span> (London, 1882-1883), i. 467.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_657" name="note_657" + href="#noteref_657">657.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">J. Brand, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. + cit.</span></span> i. 455; <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">The Denham Tracts</span></span>, edited by Dr. + James Hardy (London, 1892-1895), ii. 25 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_658" name="note_658" + href="#noteref_658">658.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Herrick, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Hesperides</span></span>, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Ceremonies for Christmasse”</span>:</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class= + "tei tei-q">“<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Come, bring with a noise,</span><br /> + <span style="font-style: italic">My merrie merrie + boyes,</span><br /> + <span style="font-style: italic">The Christmas log to the firing; + ...</span><br /> + <span style="font-style: italic">With the last yeeres + brand</span><br /> + <span style="font-style: italic">Light the new + block.</span></span>”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">And, again, in + his verses, <span class="tei tei-q">“Ceremonies for Candlemasse + Day”</span>:</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class= + "tei tei-q">“<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Kindle the Christmas brand, and + then</span><br /> + <span style="font-style: italic">Till sunne-set let it + burne;</span><br /> + <span style="font-style: italic">Which quencht, then lay it up + agen,</span><br /> + <span style="font-style: italic">Till Christmas next + returne.</span><br /> + <span style="font-style: italic">Part must be kept, wherewith to + teend</span><br /> + <span style="font-style: italic">The Christmas log next + yeare;</span><br /> + <span style="font-style: italic">And where 'tis safely kept, the + fiend</span><br /> + <span style="font-style: italic">Can do no mischiefe + there.</span></span>”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">See + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The + Works of Robert Herrick</span></span> (Edinburgh, 1823), vol. ii. + pp. 91, 124. From these latter verses it seems that the Yule log + was replaced on the fire on Candlemas (the second of + February).</p> + </dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_659" name="note_659" + href="#noteref_659">659.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Miss C. S. Burne and Miss G. F. + Jackson, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Shropshire Folk-lore</span></span> (London, + 1883), p. 398 note 2. See also below, pp. <a href="#Pg257" class= + "tei tei-ref">257</a>, <a href="#Pg258" class= + "tei tei-ref">258</a>, as to the Lincolnshire, Herefordshire, and + Welsh practice.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_660" name="note_660" + href="#noteref_660">660.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Francis Grose, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Provincial + Glossary</span></span>, Second Edition (London, 1811), pp. 141 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; T. F. Thiselton Dyer, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">British + Popular Customs</span></span> (London, 1876), p. 466.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_661" name="note_661" + href="#noteref_661">661.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">County Folk-lore</span></span>, vol. iv. + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Northumberland</span></span>, collected by M. + C. Balfour and edited by Northcote W. Thomas (London, 1904), p. + 79.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_662" name="note_662" + href="#noteref_662">662.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">County Folk-lore</span></span>, vol. ii. + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">North + Riding of Yorkshire, York and the Ainsty</span></span>, collected + and edited by Mrs. Gutch (London, 1901), pp. 273, 274, 275 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_663" name="note_663" + href="#noteref_663">663.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">County Folk-lore</span></span>, vol. vi. + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">East + Riding of Yorkshire</span></span>, collected and edited by Mrs. + Gutch (London, 1912), pp. 23, 118, compare p. 114.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_664" name="note_664" + href="#noteref_664">664.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">John Aubrey, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Remaines of + Gentilisme and Judaisme</span></span> (London, 1881), p. 5.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_665" name="note_665" + href="#noteref_665">665.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">County Folk-lore</span></span>, vol. v. + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Lincolnshire</span></span>, collected by Mrs. + Gutch and Mabel Peacock (London, 1908), p. 219. Elsewhere in + Lincolnshire the Yule-log seems to have been called the Yule-clog + (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. + cit.</span></span> pp. 215, 216).</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_666" name="note_666" + href="#noteref_666">666.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Mrs. Samuel Chandler (Sarah Whateley), + quoted in <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">The Folk-lore Journal</span></span>, i. + (1883), pp. 351 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_667" name="note_667" + href="#noteref_667">667.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Miss C. S. Burne and Miss G. F. + Jackson, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Shropshire Folk-lore</span></span> (London, + 1883), pp. 397 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span> One of the informants of + these writers says (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">op. cit.</span></span> p. 399): <span class= + "tei tei-q">“In 1845 I was at the Vessons farmhouse, near the + Eastbridge Coppice (at the northern end of the Stiperstones). The + floor was of flags, an unusual thing in this part. Observing a sort + of roadway through the kitchen, and the flags much broken, I + enquired what caused it, and was told it was from the horses' hoofs + drawing in the <span class="tei tei-q">‘Christmas + Brund.’</span> ”</span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_668" name="note_668" + href="#noteref_668">668.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Mrs. Ella Mary Leather, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Folk-lore of + Herefordshire</span></span> (Hereford and London, 1912), p. 109. + Compare Miss C. S. Burne, <span class="tei tei-q">“Herefordshire + Notes,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">The Folk-lore Journal</span></span>, iv. + (1886) p. 167.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_669" name="note_669" + href="#noteref_669">669.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Marie Trevelyan, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Folk-lore and + Folk-stories of Wales</span></span> (London, 1909), p. 28.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_670" name="note_670" + href="#noteref_670">670.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-q">“In earlier + ages, and even so late as towards the middle of the nineteenth + century, the Servian village organisation and the Servian + agriculture had yet another distinguishing feature. The dangers + from wild beasts in old time, the want of security for life and + property during the Turkish rule, or rather misrule, the natural + difficulties of the agriculture, more especially the lack in + agricultural labourers, induced the Servian peasants not to leave + the parental house but to remain together on the family's property. + In the same yard, within the same fence, one could see around the + ancestral house a number of wooden huts which contained one or two + rooms, and were used as sleeping places for the sons, nephews and + grandsons and their wives. Men and women of three generations could + be often seen living in that way together, and working together the + land which was considered as common property of the whole family. + This expanded family, remaining with all its branches together, + and, so to say, under the same roof, working together, dividing the + fruits of their joint labours together, this family and an + agricultural association in one, was called <span lang="sr" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="sr"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Zadrooga</span></span> (The Association). This + combination of family and agricultural association has morally, + economically, socially, and politically rendered very important + services to the Servians. The headman or chief (called <span lang= + "sr" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="sr"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Stareshina</span></span>) of such family + association is generally the oldest male member of the family. He + is the administrator of the common property and director of work. + He is the executive chairman of the association. Generally he does + not give any order without having consulted all the grown-up male + members of the <span lang="sr" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang= + "sr"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Zadrooga</span></span>”</span> (Chedo + Mijatovich, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Servia and the Servians</span></span>, London, + 1908, pp. 237 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>). As to the + house-communities of the South Slavs see further Og. M. + Utiešenovič, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Die Hauskommunionen der + Südslaven</span></span> (Vienna, 1859); F. Demelié, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Le Droit Coutumier + des Slaves Méridionaux</span></span> (Paris, 1876), pp. 23 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>; F. S. Krauss, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Sitte und Brauch der + Südslaven</span></span> (Vienna, 1885), pp. 64 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span> + Since Servia, freed from Turkish oppression, has become a + well-regulated European state, with laws borrowed from the codes of + France and Germany, the old house-communities have been rapidly + disappearing (Chedo Mijatovich, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. + cit.</span></span> p. 240).</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_671" name="note_671" + href="#noteref_671">671.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Chedo Mijatovich, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Servia and the + Servians</span></span> (London, 1908), pp. 98-105.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_672" name="note_672" + href="#noteref_672">672.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Baron Rajacsich, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Das Leben, die Sitten + und Gebräuche der im Kaiserthume Oesterreich lebenden + Südslaven</span></span> (Vienna, 1873), pp. 122-128.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_673" name="note_673" + href="#noteref_673">673.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Baron Rajacsich, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Das Leben, die Sitten + und Gebräuche der im Kaiserthume Oesterreich lebenden + Südslaven</span></span> (Vienna, 1873), pp. 129-131. The Yule log + (<span lang="sr" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="sr"><span style= + "font-style: italic">badnyak</span></span>) is also known in + Bulgaria, where the women place it on the hearth on Christmas Eve. + See A. Strausz, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Die Bulgaren</span></span> (Leipsic, 1898), p. + 361.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_674" name="note_674" + href="#noteref_674">674.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">M. Edith Durham, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">High + Albania</span></span> (London, 1909), p. 129.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_675" name="note_675" + href="#noteref_675">675.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">R. F. Kaindl, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Die + Huzulen</span></span> (Vienna, 1894) p. 71.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_676" name="note_676" + href="#noteref_676">676.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See above, pp. <a href="#Pg248" class= + "tei tei-ref">248</a>, <a href="#Pg249" class= + "tei tei-ref">249</a>, <a href="#Pg250" class= + "tei tei-ref">250</a>, <a href="#Pg251" class= + "tei tei-ref">251</a>, <a href="#Pg252" class= + "tei tei-ref">252</a>, <a href="#Pg253" class= + "tei tei-ref">253</a>, <a href="#Pg254" class= + "tei tei-ref">254</a>, <a href="#Pg255" class= + "tei tei-ref">255</a>, <a href="#Pg256" class= + "tei tei-ref">256</a>, <a href="#Pg258" class= + "tei tei-ref">258</a>. Similarly at Candlemas people lighted + candles in the churches, then took them home and kept them, and + thought that by lighting them at any time they could keep off + thunder, storm, and tempest. See Barnabe Googe, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Popish + Kingdom</span></span> (reprinted London, 1880), p. 48 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">verso</span></span>.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_677" name="note_677" + href="#noteref_677">677.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See above, pp. <a href="#Pg248" class= + "tei tei-ref">248</a>, <a href="#Pg250" class= + "tei tei-ref">250</a>, <a href="#Pg251" class= + "tei tei-ref">251</a>, <a href="#Pg257" class= + "tei tei-ref">257</a>, <a href="#Pg258" class= + "tei tei-ref">258</a>, <a href="#Pg263" class= + "tei tei-ref">263</a>.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_678" name="note_678" + href="#noteref_678">678.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Magic Art and the + Evolution of Kings</span></span>, ii. 356 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_679" name="note_679" + href="#noteref_679">679.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See above, pp. <a href="#Pg248" class= + "tei tei-ref">248</a>, <a href="#Pg249" class= + "tei tei-ref">249</a>, <a href="#Pg250" class= + "tei tei-ref">250</a>, <a href="#Pg251" class= + "tei tei-ref">251</a>, <a href="#Pg264" class= + "tei tei-ref">264</a>.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_680" name="note_680" + href="#noteref_680">680.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">August Witzschel, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Sagen, Sitten und + Gebräuche aus Thüringen</span></span> (Vienna, 1878), pp. 171 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_681" name="note_681" + href="#noteref_681">681.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Jules Lecœur, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Esquisses du Bocage + Normand</span></span> (Condé-sur-Noireau, 1883-1887), ii. 289 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_682" name="note_682" + href="#noteref_682">682.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Joseph Train, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Historical and + Statistical Account of the Isle of Man</span></span> (Douglas, Isle + of Man, 1845), ii. 124, referring to Cregeen's <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Manx + Dictionary</span></span>, p. 67.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_683" name="note_683" + href="#noteref_683">683.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">R. Chambers, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Book of + Days</span></span> (London and Edinburgh, 1886), ii. 789-791, + quoting <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">The Banffshire Journal</span></span>; Miss C. + F. Gordon Cumming, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">In the Hebrides</span></span> (London, 1883), + p. 226; Miss E. J. Guthrie, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Old Scottish Customs</span></span> (London and + Glasgow, 1885), pp. 223-225; Ch. Rogers, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Social Life in + Scotland</span></span> (Edinburgh, 1884-1886), iii. 244 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Folk-lore + Journal</span></span>, vii. (1889) pp. 11-14, 46. Miss Gordon + Cumming and Miss Guthrie say that the burning of the Clavie took + place upon Yule Night; but this seems to be a mistake.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_684" name="note_684" + href="#noteref_684">684.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Caesar, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">De bello + Gallico</span></span>, vii. 23.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_685" name="note_685" + href="#noteref_685">685.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Hugh W. Young, F.S.A. Scot., + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Notes on + the Ramparts of Burghead as revealed by recent + Excavations</span></span> (Edinburgh, 1892), pp. 3 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>; + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Notes on + further Excavations at Burghead</span></span> (Edinburgh, 1893), + pp. 7 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span> These papers are reprinted + from the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Proceedings of the Society of Antiquaries of + Scotland</span></span>, vols. xxv., xxvii. Mr. Young concludes as + follows: <span class="tei tei-q">“It is proved that the fort at + Burghead was raised by a people skilled in engineering; who used + square-headed nails, axes and chisels of iron; who shot balista + stones over 20 lbs. in weight; and whose daily food was the + <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">bos + longifrons</span></span>. A people who made paved roads, and sunk + artesian wells, and used Roman beads and pins. The riddle of + Burghead should not now be very difficult to read”</span> + (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Notes on + further Excavations at Burghead</span></span>, pp. 14 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>). + For a loan of Mr. Young's pamphlets I am indebted to the kindness + of Sheriff-Substitute David J. Mackenzie of Kilmarnock.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_686" name="note_686" + href="#noteref_686">686.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Robert Cowie, M.A., M.D., <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Shetland, Descriptive + and Historical</span></span> (Aberdeen, 1871), pp. 127 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">County + Folk-lore</span></span>, vol. iii. <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Orkney and Shetland + Islands</span></span>, collected by G. F. Black and edited by + Northcote W. Thomas (London, 1903), pp. 203 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span> A + similar celebration, known as Up-helly-a', takes place at Lerwick + on the 29th of January, twenty-four days after Old Christmas. See + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The + Scapegoat</span></span>, pp. 167-169. Perhaps the popular festival + of Up-helly-a' has absorbed some of the features of the Christmas + Eve celebration.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_687" name="note_687" + href="#noteref_687">687.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Thomas Hyde, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Historia Religionis + veterum Persarum</span></span> (Oxford, 1700), pp. 255-257.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_688" name="note_688" + href="#noteref_688">688.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">On the need-fire see Jacob Grimm, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Deutsche + Mythologie</span></span>,<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "vertical-align: super">4</span></span> i. 501 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>; + J. W. Wolf, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Beiträge zur deutschen + Mythologie</span></span> (Göttingen and Leipsic, 1852-1857), i. 116 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, ii. 378 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>; + Adalbert Kuhn, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Die Herabkunft des Feuers und des + Göttertranks</span></span><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "vertical-align: super">2</span></span> (Gütersloh, 1886), pp. 41 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>; Walter K. Kelly, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Curiosities of Indo-European Tradition and + Folk-lore</span></span> (London, 1863), pp. 48 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>; + W. Mannhardt, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Der Baumkultus der Germanen und ihrer + Nachbarstämme</span></span> (Berlin, 1875), pp. 518 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>; + Charles Elton, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Origins of English History</span></span> + (London, 1882), pp. 293 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>; Ulrich Jahn, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Die deutschen + Opfergebräuche bei Ackerbau und Viehzucht</span></span> (Breslau, + 1884), pp. 26 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span> Grimm would derive the name + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">need</span></em>-fire (German, <span lang="de" + class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="de"><span style= + "font-style: italic">niedfyr</span></span>, <span lang="de" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="de"><span style= + "font-style: italic">nodfyr</span></span>, <span lang="de" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="de"><span style= + "font-style: italic">nodfeur</span></span>, <span lang="de" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="de"><span style= + "font-style: italic">nothfeur</span></span>) from <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">need</span></em> + (German, <span lang="de" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang= + "de"><span style="font-style: italic">noth</span></span>), + <span class="tei tei-q">“necessity,”</span> so that the phrase + need-fire would mean <span class="tei tei-q">“a forced + fire.”</span> This is the sense attached to it in Lindenbrog's + glossary on the capitularies, quoted by Grimm, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. + cit.</span></span> i. p. 502: <span class="tei tei-q">“<span lang= + "la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Eum ergo ignem</span></span> nodfeur + <span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style= + "font-style: italic">et nodfyr, quasi necessarium ignem + vocant.</span></span>”</span> C. L. Rochholz would connect + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">need</span></em> with a verb <span lang="de" + class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="de"><span style= + "font-style: italic">nieten</span></span> <span class= + "tei tei-q">“to churn,”</span> so that need-fire would mean + <span class="tei tei-q">“churned fire.”</span> See C. L. Rochholz, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Deutscher + Glaube und Brauch</span></span> (Berlin, 1867), ii. 149 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span> This interpretation is + confirmed by the name <span lang="de" class="tei tei-foreign" + xml:lang="de"><span style="font-style: italic">ankenmilch + bohren</span></span>, which is given to the need-fire in some parts + of Switzerland. See E. Hoffmann-Krayer, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Fruchtbarkeitsriten im schweizerischen + Volksbrauch,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Schweizerisches Archiv für + Volkskunde</span></span>, xi. (1907) p. 245.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_689" name="note_689" + href="#noteref_689">689.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-q">“<span lang= + "la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Illos sacrilegos ignes, quos</span></span> + niedfyr <span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang= + "la"><span style="font-style: italic">vocant</span></span>,”</span> + quoted by J. Grimm, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Deutsche Mythologie</span></span>,<span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="vertical-align: super">4</span></span> i. + 502; R. Andree, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Braunschweiger Volkskunde</span></span> + (Brunswick, 1896), p. 312.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_690" name="note_690" + href="#noteref_690">690.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Indiculus Superstitionum et + Paganiarum</span></span>, No. XV., <span class="tei tei-q">“De + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">igne + fricato de ligno</span></span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">i.e.</span></span> + nodfyr.”</span> A convenient edition of the <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Indiculus</span></span> has been published + with a commentary by H. A. Saupe (Leipsic, 1891). As to the date of + the work, see the editor's introduction, pp. 4 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_691" name="note_691" + href="#noteref_691">691.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Karl Lynker, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Deutsche Sagen und + Sitten in hessischen Gauen</span></span><span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="vertical-align: super">2</span></span> + (Cassel and Göttingen, 1860), pp. 252 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, + quoting a letter of the mayor (<span lang="de" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="de"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Schultheiss</span></span>) of Neustadt to the + mayor of Marburg dated 12th December 1605.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_692" name="note_692" + href="#noteref_692">692.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Bartholomäus Carrichter, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Der Teutschen + Speisskammer</span></span> (Strasburg, 1614), Fol. pag. 17 and 18, + quoted by C. L. Rochholz, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Deutscher Glaube und Brauch</span></span> + (Berlin, 1867), ii. 148 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_693" name="note_693" + href="#noteref_693">693.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Joh. Reiskius, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Untersuchung des + Notfeuers</span></span> (Frankfort and Leipsic, 1696), p. 51, + quoted by J. Grimm, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Deutsche Mythologie</span></span>,<span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="vertical-align: super">4</span></span> i. + 502 sq.; R. Andree, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Braunschweiger Volkskunde</span></span> + (Brunswick, 1896), p. 313.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_694" name="note_694" + href="#noteref_694">694.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">J. Grimm, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Deutsche + Mythologie</span></span>,<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "vertical-align: super">4</span></span> i. 503 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_695" name="note_695" + href="#noteref_695">695.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">J. Grimm, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. + cit.</span></span> i. 504.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_696" name="note_696" + href="#noteref_696">696.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Adalbert Kuhn, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Märkische Sagen und + Märchen</span></span> (Berlin, 1843), p. 369.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_697" name="note_697" + href="#noteref_697">697.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Karl Bartsch, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Sagen, Märchen und + Gebräuche aus Mecklenburg</span></span> (Vienna, 1879-1880), ii. + 149-151.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_698" name="note_698" + href="#noteref_698">698.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Carl und Theodor Colshorn, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Märchen + und Sagen</span></span> (Hanover, 1854), pp. 234-236, from the + description of an eye-witness.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_699" name="note_699" + href="#noteref_699">699.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Heinrich Pröhle, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Harzbilder, Sitten + und Gebräuche aus dem Harzgebirge</span></span> (Leipsic, 1855), + pp. 74 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span> The date of this need-fire + is not given; probably it was about the middle of the nineteenth + century.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_700" name="note_700" + href="#noteref_700">700.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">R. Andree, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Braunschweiger + Volkskunde</span></span> (Brunswick, 1896), pp. 313 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_701" name="note_701" + href="#noteref_701">701.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">R. Andree, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. + cit.</span></span> pp. 314 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_702" name="note_702" + href="#noteref_702">702.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Montanus, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Die deutschen + Volksfeste, Volksbräuche und deutscher Volksglaube</span></span> + (Iserlohn, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">n.d.</span></span>), p. 127.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_703" name="note_703" + href="#noteref_703">703.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Paul Drechsler, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Sitte, Brauch und + Volksglaube in Schlesien</span></span> (Leipsic, 1903-1906), ii. + 204.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_704" name="note_704" + href="#noteref_704">704.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Anton Peter, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Volksthümliches aus + Österreichisch - Schlesien</span></span> (Troppau, 1865-1867), ii. + 250.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_705" name="note_705" + href="#noteref_705">705.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Alois John, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Sitte, Brauch und + Volksglaube im deutschen Westböhmen</span></span> (Prague, 1905), + p. 209.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_706" name="note_706" + href="#noteref_706">706.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">C. L. Rochholz, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Deutscher Glaube und + Brauch</span></span> (Berlin, 1867), ii. 149.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_707" name="note_707" + href="#noteref_707">707.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">E. Hoffmann-Krayer, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Fruchtbarkeitsriten im schweizerischen + Volksbrauch,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Schweizerisches Archiv für + Volkskunde</span></span>, xi. (1907) pp. 244-246.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_708" name="note_708" + href="#noteref_708">708.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">E. Hoffmann-Krayer, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. + cit.</span></span> p. 246.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_709" name="note_709" + href="#noteref_709">709.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">J. Grimm, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Deutsche + Mythologie</span></span>,<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "vertical-align: super">4</span></span> i. 505.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_710" name="note_710" + href="#noteref_710">710.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-q">“Old-time + Survivals in remote Norwegian Dales,”</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Folk-lore</span></span>, xx. (1909) pp. 314, + 322 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span> This record of Norwegian + folk-lore is translated from a little work <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Sundalen og + Öksendalens Beskrivelse</span></span> written by Pastor Chr. + Glükstad and published at Christiania <span class= + "tei tei-q">“about twenty years ago.”</span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_711" name="note_711" + href="#noteref_711">711.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Prof. Vl. Titelbach, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Das heilige Feuer bei den Balkanslaven,”</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Internationales Archiv für + Ethnographie</span></span>, xiii. (1900) pp. 2 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span> We + have seen (above, p. <a href="#Pg220" class="tei tei-ref">220</a>) + that in Russia the need-fire is, or used to be, annually kindled on + the eighteenth of August. As to the need fire in Bulgaria see also + below, pp. <a href="#Pg284" class="tei tei-ref">284</a> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_712" name="note_712" + href="#noteref_712">712.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">F. S. Krauss, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Altslavische Feuergewinnung,”</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Globus</span></span>, + lix. (1891) p. 318, quoting P. Ljiebenov, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Baba + Ega</span></span> (Trnovo, 1887), p. 44.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_713" name="note_713" + href="#noteref_713">713.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">F. S. Krauss, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. + cit.</span></span> p. 319, quoting <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Wisla</span></span>, + vol. iv. pp. 1, 244 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_714" name="note_714" + href="#noteref_714">714.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">F. S. Krauss, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. + cit.</span></span> p. 318, quoting Oskar Kolberg, in <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Mazowsze</span></span>, vol. iv. p. 138.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_715" name="note_715" + href="#noteref_715">715.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">F. S. Krauss, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Slavische Feuerbohrer,”</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Globus</span></span>, + lix. (1891) p. 140. The evidence quoted by Dr. Krauss is that of + his father, who often told of his experience to his son.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_716" name="note_716" + href="#noteref_716">716.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Prof. Vl. Titelbach, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Das heilige Feuer bei den Balkanslaven,”</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Internationales Archiv für + Ethnographie</span></span>, xiii. (1900) p. 3.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_717" name="note_717" + href="#noteref_717">717.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See below, vol. ii. pp. 168 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_718" name="note_718" + href="#noteref_718">718.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Adolf Strausz, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Die + Bulgaren</span></span> (Leipsic, 1898), pp. 194-199.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_719" name="note_719" + href="#noteref_719">719.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Wissenschaftliche Mittheilungen aus Bosnien + und der Hercegovina</span></span>, redigirt von Moriz Hoernes, iii. + (Vienna, 1895) pp. 574 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_720" name="note_720" + href="#noteref_720">720.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-q">“<span lang= + "la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Pro fidei divinae integritate servanda recolat + lector quod, cum hoc anno in Laodonia pestis grassaretur in pecudes + armenti, quam vocant usitate Lungessouth, quidam bestiales, habitu + claustrales non animo, docebant idiotas patriae ignem confrictione + de lignis educere et simulachrum Priapi statuere, et per haec + bestiis succurrere</span></span>,”</span> quoted by J. M. Kemble, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The + Saxons in England</span></span> (London, 1849), i. 358 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; A. + Kuhn, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Die + Herabkunft des Feuers und des + Güttertranks</span></span><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "vertical-align: super">2</span></span> (Gütersloh, 1886), p. 43; + Ulrich Jahn, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Die deutschen Opfergebräuche bei Ackerbau und + Viehzucht</span></span> (Breslau, 1884) p. 31.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_721" name="note_721" + href="#noteref_721">721.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. G. M. Jones Barker, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Three Days of + Wensleydale</span></span> (London, 1854), pp. 90 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">County + Folk-lore</span></span>, vol. ii., <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">North Riding of + Yorkshire, York and the Ainsty</span></span>, collected and edited + by Mrs. Gutch (London, 1901), p. 181.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_722" name="note_722" + href="#noteref_722">722.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">The Denham Tracts, a Collection of Folklore by + Michael Aislabie Denham</span></span>, edited by Dr. James Hardy + (London, 1892-1895), ii. 50.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_723" name="note_723" + href="#noteref_723">723.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Harry Speight, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Tramps and Drives in + the Craven Highlands</span></span> (London, 1895), p. 162. Compare, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">id.</span></span>, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Craven and + North-West Yorkshire Highlands</span></span> (London, 1892), pp. + 206 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_724" name="note_724" + href="#noteref_724">724.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">J. M. Kemble, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Saxons in + England</span></span> (London, 1849), i. 361 note.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_725" name="note_725" + href="#noteref_725">725.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">E. Mackenzie, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">An Historical, + Topographical and Descriptive View of the County of + Northumberland</span></span>, Second Edition (Newcastle, 1825), i. + 218, quoted in <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">County Folk-lore</span></span>, vol. iv. + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Northumberland</span></span>, collected by M. + C. Balfour (London, 1904), p. 45. Compare J. T. Brockett, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Glossary + of North Country Words</span></span>, p. 147, quoted by Mrs. M. C. + Balfour, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">l.c.</span></span>: <span class= + "tei tei-q">“<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Need-fire</span></em> ... an ignition produced + by the friction of two pieces of dried wood. The vulgar opinion is, + that an angel strikes a tree, and that the fire is thereby + obtained. Need-fire, I am told, is still employed in the case of + cattle infected with the murrain. They were formerly driven through + the smoke of a fire made of straw, etc.”</span> The first edition + of Brockett's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Glossary</span></span> was published in + 1825.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_726" name="note_726" + href="#noteref_726">726.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. Henderson, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Notes on the + Folk-lore of the Northern Counties of England and the + Borders</span></span> (London, 1879), pp. 167 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span> + Compare <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">County Folk-lore</span></span>, vol. iv. + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Northumberland</span></span>, collected by M. + C. Balfour (London, 1904), p. 45. Stamfordham is in Northumberland. + The vicar's testimony seems to have referred to the first half of + the nineteenth century.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_727" name="note_727" + href="#noteref_727">727.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">M. Martin, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Description of the Western Islands of + Scotland,”</span> in J. Pinkerton's <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">General Collection of + Voyages and Travels</span></span>, iii. (London, 1809), p. 611. The + second edition of Martin's book, which Pinkerton reprints, was + published at London in 1716. For John Ramsay's account of the + need-fire, see above, pp. <a href="#Pg147" class= + "tei tei-ref">147</a> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_728" name="note_728" + href="#noteref_728">728.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">J. Grimm, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Deutsche + Mythologie</span></span>,<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "vertical-align: super">4</span></span> i. 506, referring to Miss + Austin as his authority.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_729" name="note_729" + href="#noteref_729">729.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">As to the custom of sacrificing one of + a plague-stricken herd or flock for the purpose of saving the rest, + see below, pp. <a href="#Pg300" class="tei tei-ref">300</a> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_730" name="note_730" + href="#noteref_730">730.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">John Jamieson, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Etymological + Dictionary of the Scottish Language</span></span>, New Edition, + revised by J. Longmuir and D. Donaldson, iii. (Paisley, 1880) pp. + 349 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, referring to <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Agr. Surv. Caithn., pp. 200, 201.”</span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_731" name="note_731" + href="#noteref_731">731.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">R. C. Maclagan, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Sacred Fire,”</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Folk-lore</span></span>, ix. (1898) pp. 280 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span> As to the fire-drill see + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Magic + Art and the Evolution of Kings</span></span>, ii. 207 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_732" name="note_732" + href="#noteref_732">732.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. Grant Stewart, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Popular + Superstitions and Festive Amusements of the Highlanders of + Scotland</span></span> (Edinburgh, 1823), pp. 214-216; Walter K. + Kelly, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Curiosities of Indo-European Tradition and + Folk-lore</span></span> (London, 1863), pp. 53 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_733" name="note_733" + href="#noteref_733">733.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Alexander Carmichael, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Carmina + Gadelica</span></span> (Edinburgh, 1900), ii. 340 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_734" name="note_734" + href="#noteref_734">734.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See above, pp. <a href="#Pg154" class= + "tei tei-ref">154</a>, <a href="#Pg156" class= + "tei tei-ref">156</a>, <a href="#Pg157" class= + "tei tei-ref">157</a>, <a href="#Pg159" class="tei tei-ref">159</a> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_735" name="note_735" + href="#noteref_735">735.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Census of India, 1911</span></span>, vol. xiv. + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Punjab</span></span>, Part i. <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Report</span></span>, + by Pandit Harikishan Kaul (Lahore, 1912), p. 302. So in the + north-east of Scotland <span class="tei tei-q">“those who were born + with their feet first possessed great power to heal all kinds of + sprains, lumbago, and rheumatism, either by rubbing the affected + part, or by trampling on it. The chief virtue lay in the feet. + Those who came into the world in this fashion often exercised their + power to their own profit.”</span> See Rev. Walter Gregor, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Notes on + the Folk-lore of the North-East of Scotland</span></span> (London, + 1881), pp. 45 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_736" name="note_736" + href="#noteref_736">736.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Rev. Walter Gregor, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Notes on the + Folk-lore of the North-East of Scotland</span></span> (London, + 1881), p. 186. The fumigation of the byres with juniper is a charm + against witchcraft. See J. G. Campbell, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Witchcraft and Second + Sight in the Highlands and Islands of Scotland</span></span> + (Glasgow, 1902), p. 11. The <span class= + "tei tei-q">“quarter-ill”</span> is a disease of cattle, which + affects the animals only in one limb or quarter. <span class= + "tei tei-q">“A very gross superstition is observed by some people + in Angus, as an antidote against this ill. A piece is cut out of + the thigh of one of the cattle that has died of it. This they hang + up within the chimney, in order to preserve the rest of the cattle + from being infected. It is believed that as long as it hangs there, + it will prevent the disease from approaching the place. It is + therefore carefully preserved; and in case of the family removing, + transported to the new farm, as one of their valuable effects. It + is handed down from one generation to another”</span> (J. Jamieson, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Etymological Dictionary of the Scottish + Language</span></span>, revised by J. Longmuir and D. Donaldson, + iii. 575, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">s.v.</span></span> <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Quarter-ill”</span>). See further Rev. W. Gregor, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. + cit.</span></span> pp. 186 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>: <span class= + "tei tei-q">“The fore-legs of one of the animals that had died were + cut off a little above the knee, and hung over the fire-place in + the kitchen. It was thought sufficient by some if they were placed + over the door of the byre, in the <span class="tei tei-q">‘crap o' + the wa'.’</span> Sometimes the heart and part of the liver and + lungs were cut out, and hung over the fireplace instead of the + fore-feet. Boiling them was at times substituted for hanging them + over the hearth.”</span> Compare W. Henderson, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Notes on the + Folk-lore of the Northern Counties of England and the + Borders</span></span> (London, 1879), p. 167: <span class= + "tei tei-q">“A curious aid to the rearing of cattle came lately to + the knowledge of Mr. George Walker, a gentleman of the city of + Durham. During an excursion of a few miles into the country, he + observed a sort of rigging attached to the chimney of a farmhouse + well known to him, and asked what it meant. The good wife told him + that they had experienced great difficulty that year in rearing + their calves; the poor little creatures all died off, so they had + taken the leg and thigh of one of the dead calves, and hung it in a + chimney by a rope, since which they had not lost another + calf.”</span> In the light of facts cited below (pp. <a href= + "#Pg315" class="tei tei-ref">315</a> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>) + we may conjecture that the intention of cutting off the legs or + cutting out the heart, liver, and lungs of the animals and hanging + them up or boiling them, is by means of homoeopathic magic to + inflict corresponding injuries on the witch who cast the fatal + spell on the cattle.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_737" name="note_737" + href="#noteref_737">737.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">The Mirror</span></span>, 24th June, 1826, + quoted by J. M. Kemble, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">The Saxons in England</span></span> (London, + 1849), i. 360 note 2.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_738" name="note_738" + href="#noteref_738">738.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Leland L. Duncan, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Fairy Beliefs and other Folklore Notes from County + Leitrim,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Folk-lore</span></span>, vii. (1896) pp. 181 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_739" name="note_739" + href="#noteref_739">739.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">(Sir) Edward B. Tylor, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Researches into the + Early History of Mankind</span></span>, Third Edition (London, + 1878), pp. 237 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>; <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Magic Art and the + Evolution of Kings</span></span>, ii. 207 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_740" name="note_740" + href="#noteref_740">740.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">For some examples of such extinctions, + see <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The + Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings</span></span>, ii. 261 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>, 267 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Spirits + of the Corn and of the Wild</span></span>, i. 311, ii. 73 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; and above, pp. <a href= + "#Pg124" class="tei tei-ref">124</a> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, + <a href="#Pg132" class="tei tei-ref">132-139</a>. The reasons for + extinguishing fires ceremonially appear to vary with the occasion. + Sometimes the motive seems to be a fear of burning or at least + singeing a ghost, who is hovering invisible in the air; sometimes + it is apparently an idea that a fire is old and tired with burning + so long, and that it must be relieved of the fatiguing duty by a + young and vigorous flame.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_741" name="note_741" + href="#noteref_741">741.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Above, pp. <a href="#Pg147" class= + "tei tei-ref">147</a>, <a href="#Pg154" class= + "tei tei-ref">154</a>. The same custom appears to have been + observed in Ireland. See above, p. <a href="#Pg158" class= + "tei tei-ref">158</a>.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_742" name="note_742" + href="#noteref_742">742.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">J. N. B. Hewitt, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“New Fire among the Iroquois,”</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The American + Anthropologist</span></span>, ii. (1889) p. 319.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_743" name="note_743" + href="#noteref_743">743.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">J. Grimm, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Deutsche + Mythologie</span></span>,<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "vertical-align: super">4</span></span> i. 507.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_744" name="note_744" + href="#noteref_744">744.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See above, p. <a href="#Pg290" class= + "tei tei-ref">290</a>.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_745" name="note_745" + href="#noteref_745">745.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">William Hone, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Every-day + Book</span></span> (London, preface dated 1827), i. coll. 853 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span> (June 24th), quoting + Hitchin's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">History of Cornwall</span></span>.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_746" name="note_746" + href="#noteref_746">746.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Hunt, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Romances and Drolls + of the West of England</span></span>, 1st series, p. 237, quoted by + W. Henderson, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Notes on the Folk-lore of the Northern + Counties of England and the Borders</span></span> (London, 1879), + p. 149. Compare J. G. Dalyell, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Darker + Superstitions of Scotland</span></span> (Edinburgh, 1834), p. 184: + <span class="tei tei-q">“Here also may be found a solution of that + recent expedient so ignorantly practised in the neighbouring + kingdom, where one having lost many of his herd by witchcraft, as + he concluded, burnt a living calf to break the spell and preserve + the remainder.”</span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_747" name="note_747" + href="#noteref_747">747.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Marie Trevelyan, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Folk-lore and + Folk-stories of Wales</span></span> (London, 1909), p. 23.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_748" name="note_748" + href="#noteref_748">748.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. Henderson, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. + cit.</span></span> pp. 148 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_749" name="note_749" + href="#noteref_749">749.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Rev. Walter Gregor, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Notes on the + Folk-lore of the North-East of Scotland</span></span> (London, + 1881), p. 186.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_750" name="note_750" + href="#noteref_750">750.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">R. N. Worth, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">History of + Devonshire</span></span>, Second Edition (London, 1886), p. 339. + The diabolical nature of the toad probably explains why people in + Herefordshire think that if you wear a toad's heart concealed about + your person you can steal to your heart's content without being + found out. A suspected thief was overheard boasting, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“They never catches <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">me</span></em>: and + they never ooll neither. I allus wears a toad's heart round my + neck, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">I</span></em> does.”</span> See Mrs. Ella M. + Leather, in <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Folk-lore</span></span>, xxiv. (1913) p. + 238.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_751" name="note_751" + href="#noteref_751">751.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Above, p. <a href="#Pg301" class= + "tei tei-ref">301</a>.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_752" name="note_752" + href="#noteref_752">752.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Robert Hunt, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Popular Romances of + the West of England</span></span>, Third Edition (London, 1881), p. + 320. The writer does not say where this took place; probably it was + in Cornwall or Devonshire.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_753" name="note_753" + href="#noteref_753">753.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Rev. Walter Gregor, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Notes on the + Folk-lore of the North-East of Scotland</span></span> (London, + 1881), p. 184.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_754" name="note_754" + href="#noteref_754">754.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">County Folk-lore, Printed Extracts, No. 2, + Suffolk</span></span>, collected and edited by the Lady Eveline + Camilla Gurdon (London, 1893), pp. 190 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, + quoting <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Some Materials for the History of + Wherstead</span></span> by F. Barham Zincke (Ipswich, 1887), p. + 168.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_755" name="note_755" + href="#noteref_755">755.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">County Folk-lore, Printed Extracts, No. 2, + Suffolk</span></span>, p. 191, referring to Murray's <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Handbook for Essex, + Suffolk</span></span>, etc., p. 109.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_756" name="note_756" + href="#noteref_756">756.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">(Sir) John Rhys, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Manx Folk-lore and Superstitions,”</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Folk-lore</span></span>, ii. (1891) pp. + 300-302; repeated in his <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Celtic Folk-lore, Welsh and Manx</span></span> + (Oxford, 1901), i. 306 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span> Sir John Rhys does not doubt + that the old woman saw, as she said, a live sheep being burnt on + old May-day; but he doubts whether it was done as a sacrifice. He + adds: <span class="tei tei-q">“I have failed to find anybody else + in Andreas or Bride, or indeed in the whole island, who will now + confess to having ever heard of the sheep sacrifice on old + May-day.”</span> However, the evidence I have adduced of a custom + of burnt sacrifice among English rustics tends to confirm the old + woman's statement, that the burning of the live sheep which she + witnessed was not an act of wanton cruelty but a sacrifice + performed for the public good.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_757" name="note_757" + href="#noteref_757">757.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">(Sir) John Rhys, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Manx Folk-lore and Superstitions,”</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Folk-lore</span></span>, ii. (1891) pp. 299 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">id.</span></span>, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Celtic + Folk-lore, Welsh and Manx</span></span> (Oxford, 1901), i. 304 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span> We have seen that by burning + the blood of a bewitched bullock a farmer expected to compel the + witch to appear. See above, p. <a href="#Pg303" class= + "tei tei-ref">303</a>.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_758" name="note_758" + href="#noteref_758">758.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Olaus Magnus, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Historia de Gentium + Septentrionalium Conditionibus</span></span>, lib xviii. cap. 47, + p. 713 (ed. Bâle, 1567).</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_759" name="note_759" + href="#noteref_759">759.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Collin de Plancy, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Dictionnaire + Infernal</span></span> (Paris, 1825-1826), iii. 473 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, + referring to Boguet.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_760" name="note_760" + href="#noteref_760">760.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Collin de Plancy, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. + cit.</span></span> iii. 473.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_761" name="note_761" + href="#noteref_761">761.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Felix Chapiseau, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Le Folk-lore de la + Beauce et du Perche</span></span> (Paris, 1902), i. 239 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span> The same story is told in + Upper Brittany. See Paul Sébillot, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Traditions et + Superstitions de la Haute-Bretagne</span></span> (Paris, 1882), i. + 292. It is a common belief that a man who has once been transformed + into a were-wolf must remain a were-wolf for seven years unless + blood is drawn from him in his animal shape, upon which he at once + recovers his human form and is delivered from the bondage and + misery of being a were-wolf. See F. Chapiseau, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. + cit.</span></span> i. 218-220; Amélie Bosquet, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">La Normandie + Romanesque et Merveilleuse</span></span> (Paris and Rouen, 1845), + p. 233. On belief in were-wolves in general, see W. Hertz, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Der + Werwolf</span></span> (Stuttgart, 1862); J. Grimm, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Deutsche + Mythologie</span></span>,<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "vertical-align: super">4</span></span> i. 915 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>; + (Sir) Edward B. Tylor, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Primitive Culture</span></span><span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="vertical-align: super">2</span></span> + (London, 1873), i. 308 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>; R. Andree, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ethnographische + Parallelen und Vergleiche</span></span> (Stuttgart, 1878), pp. + 62-80. In North Germany it is believed that a man can turn himself + into a wolf by girding himself with a strap made out of a wolf's + hide. Some say that the strap must have nine, others say twelve, + holes and a buckle; and that according to the number of the hole + through which the man inserts the tongue of the buckle will be the + length of time of his transformation. For example, if he puts the + tongue of the buckle through the first hole, he will be a wolf for + one hour; if he puts it through the second, he will be a wolf for + two days; and so on, up to the last hole, which entails a + transformation for a full year. But by putting off the girdle the + man can resume his human form. The time when were-wolves are most + about is the period of the Twelve Nights between Christmas and + Epiphany; hence cautious German farmers will not remove the dung + from the cattle-stalls at that season for fear of attracting the + were-wolves to the cattle. See Adalbert Kuhn, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Märkische Sagen und + Märchen</span></span> (Berlin, 1843), p. 375; Ulrich Jahn, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Volkssagen aus Pommern und Rügen</span></span> + (Stettin, 1886), pp. 384, 386, Nos. 491, 495. Down to the time of + Elizabeth it was reported that in the county of Tipperary certain + men were annually turned into wolves. See W. Camden, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Britain</span></span>, translated into English + by Philemon Holland (London, 1610), <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Ireland,”</span> p. 83.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_762" name="note_762" + href="#noteref_762">762.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">J. J. M. de Groot, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Religious System + of China</span></span>, v. (Leyden, 1907) P. 548.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_763" name="note_763" + href="#noteref_763">763.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">A. C. Kruijt, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“De weerwolf bij de Toradja's van + Midden-Celebes,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Tijdschrift voor Indische Taal- Land- en + Volkenkunde</span></span>, xli. (1899) pp. 548-551, 557-560.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_764" name="note_764" + href="#noteref_764">764.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">A. C. Kruijt, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. + cit.</span></span> pp. 552 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_765" name="note_765" + href="#noteref_765">765.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">A. C. Kruijt, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. + cit.</span></span> pp. 553. For more evidence of the belief in + were-wolves, or rather in were-animals of various sorts, + particularly were-tigers, in the East Indies, see J. J. M. de + Groot, <span class="tei tei-q">“De Weertijger in onze Kolonien en + op het oostaziatische Vasteland,”</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Bijdragen tot de + Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde van Nederlandsch-Indië</span></span>, + xlix. (1898) pp. 549-585; G. P. Rouffaer, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Matjan Gadoengan,”</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Bijdragen tot de + Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde van Nederlandsch-Indië</span></span>, l. + (1899) pp. 67-75; J. Knebel, <span class="tei tei-q">“De Weertijger + op Midden-Java, den Javaan naverteld,”</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Tijdschrift voor + Indische Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde</span></span>, xli. (1899) pp. + 568-587; L. M. F. Plate, <span class="tei tei-q">“Bijdrage tot de + kennis van de lykanthropie bij de Sasaksche bevolking in + Oost-Lombok,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Tijdschrift voor Indische Taal- Land- en + Volkenkunde</span></span>, liv. (1912) pp. 458-469; G. A. Wilken, + <span class="tei tei-q">“Het animisme bij de volken van den + Indischen Archipel,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Verspreide Geschriften</span></span> (The + Hague, 1912), iii. 25-30.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_766" name="note_766" + href="#noteref_766">766.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ernst Marno, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Reisen im Gebiete des + blauen und weissen Nil</span></span> (Vienna, 1874), pp. 239 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_767" name="note_767" + href="#noteref_767">767.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Petronius, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Sat.</span></span> 61 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span> + (pp. 40 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, ed. Fr. + Buecheler,<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "vertical-align: super">3</span></span> Berlin, 1882). The Latin + word for a were-wolf (<span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" + xml:lang="la"><span style= + "font-style: italic">versipellis</span></span>) is expressive: it + means literally <span class="tei tei-q">“skin-shifter,”</span> + and is equally appropriate whatever the particular animal may be + into which the wizard transforms himself. It is to be regretted + that we have no such general term in English.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The bright + moonlight which figures in some of these were-wolf stories is + perhaps not a mere embellishment of the tale but has its own + significance; for in some places it is believed that the + transformation of were-wolves into their bestial shape takes + place particularly at full moon. See A. de Nore, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Coutumes, Mythes et + Traditions des Provinces de France</span></span> (Paris and + Lyons, 1846), pp. 99, 157; J. L. M. Noguès, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Les Mœurs + d'autrefois en Saintonge et en Aunis</span></span> (Saintes, + 1891), p. 141.</p> + </dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_768" name="note_768" + href="#noteref_768">768.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">J. G. Campbell, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Witchcraft and Second + Sight in the Highlands and Islands of Scotland</span></span> + (Glasgow, 1902), p. 6: <span class="tei tei-q">“In carrying out + their unhallowed cantrips, witches assumed various shapes. They + became gulls, cormorants, ravens, rats, mice, black sheep, swelling + waves, whales, and very frequently cats and hares.”</span> To this + list of animals into which witches can turn themselves may be added + horses, dogs, wolves, foxes, pigs, owls, magpies, wild geese, + ducks, serpents, toads, lizards, flies, wasps, and butterflies. See + A. Wuttke, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Der deutsche + Volksaberglaube</span></span><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "vertical-align: super">2</span></span> (Berlin, 1869), p. 150 § + 217; L. Strackerjan, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Aberglaube und Sagen aus dem Herzogthum + Oldenburg</span></span> (Oldenburg, 1867), i. 327 § 220; Ulrich + Jahn, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Hexenwesen und Zauberei in + Pommern</span></span> (Breslau, 1886), p. 7. In his <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Topography of + Ireland</span></span> (chap. 19), a work completed in 1187 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span>, Giraldus Cambrensis + records that <span class="tei tei-q">“it has also been a frequent + complaint, from old times as well as in the present, that certain + hags in Wales, as well as in Ireland and Scotland, changed + themselves into the shape of hares, that, sucking teats under this + counterfeit form, they might stealthily rob other people's + milk.”</span> See <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">The Historical Works of Giraldus + Cambrensis</span></span>, revised and edited by Thomas Wright + (London, 1887), p. 83.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_769" name="note_769" + href="#noteref_769">769.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">The Folk-lore Journal</span></span>, iv. + (1886) p. 266; Collin de Plancy, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Dictionnaire + Infernal</span></span> (Paris, 1825-1826), iii. 475; J. L. M. + Noguès, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Les Mœurs d'autrefois en Saintonge et en + Aunis</span></span> (Saintes, 1891), p. 141. In Scotland the cut + was known as <span class="tei tei-q">“scoring above the + breath.”</span> It consisted of two incisions made crosswise on the + witch's forehead, and was <span class="tei tei-q">“confided in all + throughout Scotland as the most powerful counter-charm.”</span> See + Sir Walter Scott, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Letters on Demonology and + Witchcraft</span></span> (London, 1884), p. 272; J. G. Dalyell, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The + Darker Superstitions of Scotland</span></span> (Edinburgh, 1834), + pp. 531 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; M. M. Banks, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Scoring a Witch above the Breath,”</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Folk-lore</span></span>, xxiii. (1912) p. + 490.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_770" name="note_770" + href="#noteref_770">770.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">J. L. M. Noguès, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">l.c.</span></span>; + L. F. Sauvé, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Le Folk-lore des Hautes-Vosges</span></span> + (Paris, 1889), p. 187.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_771" name="note_771" + href="#noteref_771">771.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">M. Abeghian, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Der armenische + Volksglaube</span></span> (Leipsic, 1899), p. 117. The wolf-skin is + supposed to fall down from heaven and to return to heaven after + seven years, if the were-wolf has not been delivered from her + unhappy state in the meantime by the burning of the skin.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_772" name="note_772" + href="#noteref_772">772.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">J. G. Campbell, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Witchcraft and Second + Sight in the Highlands and Islands of Scotland</span></span> + (Glasgow, 1902), p. 8; compare A. Wuttke, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Der deutsche + Volksaberglaube</span></span><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "vertical-align: super">2</span></span> (Berlin, 1869), p. 150 § + 217. Some think that the sixpence should be crooked. See Rev. W. + Gregor, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Notes on the Folk-lore of the North-East of + Scotland</span></span> (London, 1881), pp. 71 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, + 128; <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">County Folk-lore</span></span>, vol. v. + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Lincolnshire</span></span>, collected by Mrs. + Gutch and Mabel Peacock (London, 1908), p. 75.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_773" name="note_773" + href="#noteref_773">773.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">J. G. Campbell, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. + cit.</span></span> p. 30.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_774" name="note_774" + href="#noteref_774">774.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">J. G. Campbell, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. + cit.</span></span> p. 33.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_775" name="note_775" + href="#noteref_775">775.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">(Sir) Edward B. Tylor, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Primitive + Culture</span></span><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "vertical-align: super">2</span></span> (London, 1873), i. + 314.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_776" name="note_776" + href="#noteref_776">776.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Joseph Glanvil, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Saducismus + Triumphatus or Full and Plain Evidence concerning Witches and + Apparitions</span></span> (London, 1681), Part ii. p. 205.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_777" name="note_777" + href="#noteref_777">777.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Rev. J. C. Atkinson, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Forty Years in a + Moorland Parish</span></span> (London, 1891), pp. 82-84.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_778" name="note_778" + href="#noteref_778">778.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">County Folk-lore</span></span>, vol. v. + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Lincolnshire</span></span>, collected by Mrs. + Gutch and Mabel Peacock (London, 1908), pp. 79, 80.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_779" name="note_779" + href="#noteref_779">779.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Leland L. Duncan, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Folk-lore Gleanings from County Leitrim,”</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Folk-lore</span></span>, iv. (1893) pp. 183 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_780" name="note_780" + href="#noteref_780">780.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">L. F. Sauvé, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Le Folk-lore des + Hautes-Vosges</span></span> (Paris, 1889), p. 176.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_781" name="note_781" + href="#noteref_781">781.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">L. F. Sauvé, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. + cit.</span></span> pp. 176 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_782" name="note_782" + href="#noteref_782">782.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ernst Meier, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Deutsche Sagen, + Sitten und Gebräuche aus Schwaben</span></span> (Stuttgart, 1852), + pp. 184 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, No. 203.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_783" name="note_783" + href="#noteref_783">783.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">E. Meier, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. + cit.</span></span> pp. 191 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, No. 215. A similar story of + the shoeing of a woman in the shape of a horse is reported from + Silesia. See R. Kühnau, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Schlesische Sagen</span></span> (Berlin, + 1910-1913), iii. pp. 27 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, No. 1380.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_784" name="note_784" + href="#noteref_784">784.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">R. Kühnau, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Schlesische + Sagen</span></span> (Berlin, 1910-1913), iii. pp. 23 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, + No. 1375. Compare <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">id.</span></span>, iii. pp. 28 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, + No. 1381.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_785" name="note_785" + href="#noteref_785">785.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See for example L. Strackerjan, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Aberglaube und Sagen aus dem Herzogthum + Oldenburg</span></span> (Oldenburg, 1867), i. pp. 328, 329, 334, + 339; W. von Schulenburg, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Wendische Volkssagen und Gebräuche aus dem + Spreewald</span></span> (Leipsic, 1880), pp. 164, 165 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; H. + Pröhle, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Harzsagen</span></span> (Leipsic, 1859), i. + 100 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span> The belief in such things is + said to be universal among the ignorant and superstitious in + Germany. See A. Wuttke, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Der deutsche + Volksaberglaube</span></span><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "vertical-align: super">2</span></span> (Berlin, 1869), p. 150, § + 217. In Wales, also, <span class="tei tei-q">“the possibility of + injuring or marking the witch in her assumed shape so deeply that + the bruise remained a mark on her in her natural form was a common + belief”</span> (J. Ceredig Davies, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Folk-lore of West and + Mid-Wales</span></span>, Aberystwyth, 1911, p. 243). For Welsh + stories of this sort, see J. Ceredig Davies, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">l.c.</span></span>; + Rev. Elias Owen, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Welsh Folk-lore</span></span> (Oswestry and + Wrexham, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">n.d.</span></span>, preface dated 1896), + pp. 228 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; M. Trevelyan, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Folk-lore and + Folk-stories of Wales</span></span> (London, 1909), p. 214.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_786" name="note_786" + href="#noteref_786">786.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">L. Strackerjan, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Aberglaube und Sagen + aus dem Herzogthum Oldenburg</span></span> (Oldenburg, 1867), i. p. + 361, § 239.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_787" name="note_787" + href="#noteref_787">787.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Marie Trevelyan, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Folk-lore and + Folk-stories of Wales</span></span> (London, 1909), p. 210.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_788" name="note_788" + href="#noteref_788">788.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">L. Strackerjan, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Aberglaube und Sagen + aus dem Herzogthum Oldenburg</span></span> (Oldenburg, 1867), i. p. + 358, § 238.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_789" name="note_789" + href="#noteref_789">789.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">L. Strackerjan, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. + cit.</span></span> i. p. 360, § 238e.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_790" name="note_790" + href="#noteref_790">790.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-q">“The + <span class="tei tei-q">‘Witch-burning’</span> at Clonmell,”</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Folk-lore</span></span>, vi. (1895) pp. + 373-384. The account there printed is based on the reports of the + judicial proceedings before the magistrates and the judge, which + were published in <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">The Irish Times</span></span> for March 26th, + 27th, and 28th, April 2nd, 3rd, 6th, and 8th, and July 6th, + 1895.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_791" name="note_791" + href="#noteref_791">791.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">John Graham Dalyell, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Darker + Superstitions of Scotland</span></span> (Edinburgh, 1834), p. 185. + In this passage <span class="tei tei-q">“quick”</span> is used in + the old sense of <span class="tei tei-q">“living,”</span> as in the + phrase <span class="tei tei-q">“the quick and the dead.”</span> + <span lang="gv" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="gv"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Nois</span></span> is <span class= + "tei tei-q">“nose,”</span> <span lang="gv" class="tei tei-foreign" + xml:lang="gv"><span style="font-style: italic">hoill</span></span> + is <span class="tei tei-q">“hole,”</span> <span lang="gv" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="gv"><span style= + "font-style: italic">quhilk</span></span> (<span lang="gv" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="gv"><span style= + "font-style: italic">whilk</span></span>) is <span class= + "tei tei-q">“which,”</span> and <span lang="gv" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="gv"><span style= + "font-style: italic">be</span></span> is <span class= + "tei tei-q">“by.”</span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_792" name="note_792" + href="#noteref_792">792.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">J. G. Dalyell, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. + cit.</span></span> p. 186. <span lang="gv" class="tei tei-foreign" + xml:lang="gv"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Bestiall</span></span> = animals; <span lang= + "gv" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="gv"><span style= + "font-style: italic">seik</span></span> = sick; <span lang="gv" + class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="gv"><span style= + "font-style: italic">calling</span></span> = driving; <span lang= + "gv" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="gv"><span style= + "font-style: italic">guidis</span></span> = cattle.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_793" name="note_793" + href="#noteref_793">793.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">John Ramsay, of Ochtertyre, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Scotland + and Scotsmen in the Eighteenth Century</span></span>, edited by + Alexander Allardyce (Edinburgh and London, 1888), ii. 446 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span> As to the custom of cutting + off the leg of a diseased animal and hanging it up in the house, + see above, p. <a href="#Pg296" class="tei tei-ref">296</a>, note + 1.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_794" name="note_794" + href="#noteref_794">794.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">(Sir) Arthur Mitchell, A.M., M.D., + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">On + Various Superstitions in the North-West Highlands and Islands of + Scotland</span></span> (Edinburgh, 1862), p. 12 (reprinted from the + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Proceedings of the Society of Antiquaries of + Scotland</span></span>, vol. iv.).</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_795" name="note_795" + href="#noteref_795">795.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">County Folk-lore</span></span>, vol. v. + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Lincolnshire</span></span>, collected by Mrs. + Gutch and Mabel Peacock (London, 1908), p. 75, quoting Rev. R. M. + Heanley, <span class="tei tei-q">“The Vikings: traces of their + Folklore in Marshland,”</span> a paper read before the Viking Club, + London, and printed in its <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Saga-Book</span></span>, vol. iii. Part i. + Jan. 1902. The wicken-tree is the mountain-ash or rowan tree, which + is a very efficient, or at all events a very popular protective + against witchcraft. See <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">County Folk-lore</span></span>, vol. v. + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Lincolnshire</span></span>, pp. 26 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, 98 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; + Mabel Peacock, <span class="tei tei-q">“The Folklore of + Lincolnshire,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Folk-lore</span></span>, xii. (1901) p. 175; + J. G. Campbell, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Witchcraft and Second Sight in the Highlands + and Islands of Scotland</span></span> (Glasgow, 1902), pp. 11 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; Rev. Walter Gregor, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Notes on + the Folk-lore of the North-East of Scotland</span></span> (London, + 1881), p. 188. See further <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">The Scapegoat</span></span>, pp. 266 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_796" name="note_796" + href="#noteref_796">796.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Above, pp. <a href="#Pg116" class= + "tei tei-ref">116</a> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg119" class= + "tei tei-ref">119</a>, <a href="#Pg143" class= + "tei tei-ref">143</a>, <a href="#Pg165" class= + "tei tei-ref">165</a>, <a href="#Pg166" class= + "tei tei-ref">166</a>, <a href="#Pg168" class="tei tei-ref">168</a> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg172" class= + "tei tei-ref">172</a>.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_797" name="note_797" + href="#noteref_797">797.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Above, pp. <a href="#Pg116" class= + "tei tei-ref">116</a>, <a href="#Pg117" class="tei tei-ref">117</a> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg119" class= + "tei tei-ref">119</a>, <a href="#Pg141" class= + "tei tei-ref">141</a>, <a href="#Pg143" class= + "tei tei-ref">143</a>, <a href="#Pg161" class= + "tei tei-ref">161</a>, <a href="#Pg162" class="tei tei-ref">162</a> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg163" class= + "tei tei-ref">163</a> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg166" class= + "tei tei-ref">166</a>, <a href="#Pg173" class= + "tei tei-ref">173</a>, <a href="#Pg191" class= + "tei tei-ref">191</a>, <a href="#Pg201" class= + "tei tei-ref">201</a>.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_798" name="note_798" + href="#noteref_798">798.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. Mannhardt, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Der Baumkultus der + Germanen und ihrer Nachbarstämme</span></span> (Berlin, 1875), pp. + 521 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_799" name="note_799" + href="#noteref_799">799.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">E. Westermarck, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Midsummer Customs in Morocco,”</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Folk-lore</span></span>, xvi. (1905) pp. 44 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>; <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">id.</span></span>, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The + Origin and Development of the Moral Ideas</span></span> (London, + 1906-1908), i. 56; <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">id.</span></span>, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ceremonies and + Beliefs connected with Agriculture, certain Dates of the Solar + Year, and the Weather in Morocco</span></span> (Helsingfors, 1913), + pp. 93-102.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_800" name="note_800" + href="#noteref_800">800.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">E. Mogk, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Sitten und Gebräuche im Kreislauf des Jahres,”</span> + in R. Wuttke's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Sächsische + Volkskunde</span></span><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "vertical-align: super">2</span></span> (Dresden, 1901), pp. 310 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_801" name="note_801" + href="#noteref_801">801.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">The Golden Bough</span></span>, Second Edition + (London, 1900), iii. 312: <span class="tei tei-q">“The custom of + leaping over the fire and driving cattle through it may be + intended, on the one hand, to secure for man and beast a share of + the vital energy of the sun, and, on the other hand, to purge them + of all evil influences; for to the primitive mind fire is the most + powerful of all purificatory agents”</span>; and again, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">id.</span></span> iii. 314: <span class= + "tei tei-q">“It is quite possible that in these customs the idea of + the quickening power of fire may be combined with the conception of + it as a purgative agent for the expulsion or destruction of evil + beings, such as witches and the vermin that destroy the fruits of + the earth. Certainly the fires are often interpreted in the latter + way by the persons who light them; and this purgative use of the + element comes out very prominently, as we have seen, in the general + expulsion of demons from towns and villages. But in the present + class of cases this aspect of fire may be secondary, if indeed it + is more than a later misinterpretation of the custom.”</span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_802" name="note_802" + href="#noteref_802">802.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">The Magic Art and the Evolution of + Kings</span></span>, i. 311 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_803" name="note_803" + href="#noteref_803">803.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Adonis, Attis, + Osiris</span></span>, Second Edition, pp. 254 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_804" name="note_804" + href="#noteref_804">804.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Manilius, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Astronom.</span></span> v. 206 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>:</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class= + "tei tei-q">“<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Cum vero in vastos surget Nemeaeus + hiatus,</span><br /> + <span style="font-style: italic">Exoriturque Canis, latratque + Canicula flammas</span><br /> + <span style="font-style: italic">Et rabit igne suo geminatque + incendia solis,</span><br /> + <span style="font-style: italic">Qua subdente facem terris + radiosque movente</span></span>,”</span> etc.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Pliny, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Naturalis Historia</span></span>, xviii. 269 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>: <span class= + "tei tei-q">“<span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang= + "la"><span style="font-style: italic">Exoritur dein post triduum + fere ubique confessum inter omnes sidus ingens quod canis ortum + vocamus, sole partem primam leonis ingresso. Hoc fit post + solstitium XXIII. die. Sentiunt id maria et terrae, multae vero + et ferae, ut suis locis diximus. Neque est minor ei veneratio + quam descriptis in deos stellis, accenditque solem et magnam + aestus obtinet causam.</span></span>”</span></p> + </dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_805" name="note_805" + href="#noteref_805">805.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Specimens of Bushman Folklore</span></span>, + collected by the late W. H. I. Bleek, Ph.D., and L. C. Lloyd + (London, 1911), pp. 339, 341. In quoting the passage I have omitted + the brackets which the editors print for the purpose of indicating + the words which are implied, but not expressed, in the original + Bushman text.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_806" name="note_806" + href="#noteref_806">806.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-q">“The sun is a + little warm, when this star appears in winter”</span> (Editors of + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Specimens + of Bushman Folklore</span></span>).</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_807" name="note_807" + href="#noteref_807">807.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-q">“With the + stick that he had held in the fire, moving it up and down + quickly”</span> (Editors).</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_808" name="note_808" + href="#noteref_808">808.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-q">“They take one + arm out of the kaross, thereby exposing one shoulder blade to the + sun”</span> (Editors).</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_809" name="note_809" + href="#noteref_809">809.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See above, pp. <a href="#Pg161" class= + "tei tei-ref">161</a>, <a href="#Pg162" class="tei tei-ref">162</a> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span> On the wheel as an emblem of + the sun, see J. Grimm, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Deutsche Mythologie</span></span>,<span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="vertical-align: super">4</span></span> + ii. 585; A. Kuhn, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Die Herabkunft des Feuers und des + Göttertranks</span></span><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "vertical-align: super">2</span></span> (Gütersloh, 1886), pp. 45 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>; H. Gaidoz, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Le dieu gaulois du soleil et le symbolisme de la + roue,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Revue Archéologique</span></span>, iii. Série, + iv. (1884) pp. 14 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>; William Simpson, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The + Buddhist Praying Wheel</span></span> (London, 1896), pp. 87 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span> It is a popular Armenian + idea that <span class="tei tei-q">“the body of the sun has the + shape of the wheel of a water-mill; it revolves and moves forward. + As drops of water sputter from the mill-wheel, so sunbeams shoot + out from the spokes of the sun-wheel”</span> (M. Abeghian, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Der + armenische Volksglaube</span></span>, Leipsic, 1899, p. 41). In the + old Mexican picture-books the usual representation of the sun is + <span class="tei tei-q">“a wheel, often brilliant with many + colours, the rays of which are so many blood-stained tongues, by + means of which the Sun receives his nourishment”</span> (E. J. + Payne, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">History of the New World called + America</span></span>, Oxford, 1892, i. 521).</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_810" name="note_810" + href="#noteref_810">810.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Above, p. <a href="#Pg169" class= + "tei tei-ref">169</a>.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_811" name="note_811" + href="#noteref_811">811.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ernst Meier, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Deutsche Sagen, + Sitten und Gebräuche aus Schwaben</span></span> (Stuttgart, 1852), + p. 225; F. Panzer, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Beitrag zur deutschen Mythologie</span></span> + (Munich, 1848-1855), ii. 240; Anton Birlinger, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Volksthümliches aus + Schwaben</span></span> (Freiburg im Breisgau, 1861-1862), ii. 57, + 97; W. Mannhardt, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Baumkultus</span></span>, p. 510.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_812" name="note_812" + href="#noteref_812">812.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Compare J. Grimm, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Deutsche + Mythologie</span></span>,<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "vertical-align: super">4</span></span> i. 521; J. W. Wolf, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Beiträge + zur deutschen Mythologie</span></span> (Göttingen und Leipsic, + 1852-1857), ii. 389; Adalbert Kuhn, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Die Herabkunft des + Feuers und des Göttertranks</span></span><span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="vertical-align: super">2</span></span> + (Gütersloh, 1886), pp. 41 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, 47; W. Mannhardt, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Baumkultus</span></span>, p. 521. Lindenbrog + in his Glossary on the Capitularies (quoted by J. Grimm, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Deutsche + Mythologie</span></span>,<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "vertical-align: super">4</span></span> i. 502) expressly says: + <span class="tei tei-q">“The rustics in many parts of Germany, + particularly on the festival of St. John the Baptist, wrench a + stake from a fence, wind a rope round it, and pull it to and fro + till it catches fire. This fire they carefully feed with straw and + dry sticks and scatter the ashes over the vegetable gardens, + foolishly and superstitiously imagining that in this way the + caterpillar can be kept off. They call such a fire <span lang="de" + class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="de"><span style= + "font-style: italic">nodfeur</span></span> or <span lang="de" + class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="de"><span style= + "font-style: italic">nodfyr</span></span>, that is to say + need-fire.”</span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_813" name="note_813" + href="#noteref_813">813.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Above, pp. <a href="#Pg144" class= + "tei tei-ref">144</a> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg147" class= + "tei tei-ref">147</a> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg155" class= + "tei tei-ref">155</a>, <a href="#Pg169" class="tei tei-ref">169</a> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg175" class= + "tei tei-ref">175</a>, <a href="#Pg177" class= + "tei tei-ref">177</a>, <a href="#Pg179" class= + "tei tei-ref">179</a>.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_814" name="note_814" + href="#noteref_814">814.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">J. Grimm, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Deutsche + Mythologie</span></span>,<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "vertical-align: super">4</span></span> i. 509; J. W. Wolf, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Beiträge + zur deutschen Mythologie</span></span>, i. 117; A. Kuhn, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Die + Herabkunft des Feuers</span></span>,<span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="vertical-align: super">2</span></span> + pp. 47 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; W. Mannhardt, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Baumkultus</span></span>, p. 521; W. E. Kelly, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Curiosities of Indo-European Tradition and + Folk-lore</span></span> (London, 1863), p. 49.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_815" name="note_815" + href="#noteref_815">815.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">A. Kuhn, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Die Herabkunft des + Feuers und des Göttertranks</span></span><span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="vertical-align: super">2</span></span> + (Gütersloh, 1886), p. 47.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_816" name="note_816" + href="#noteref_816">816.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Above, p. <a href="#Pg179" class= + "tei tei-ref">179</a>.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_817" name="note_817" + href="#noteref_817">817.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">F. Panzer, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Beitrag zur deutschen + Mythologie</span></span> (Munich, 1848-1855), ii. 240, § 443.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_818" name="note_818" + href="#noteref_818">818.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Above, p. <a href="#Pg177" class= + "tei tei-ref">177</a>.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_819" name="note_819" + href="#noteref_819">819.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Above, pp. <a href="#Pg187" class= + "tei tei-ref">187</a> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_820" name="note_820" + href="#noteref_820">820.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Above, pp. <a href="#Pg279" class= + "tei tei-ref">279</a> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_821" name="note_821" + href="#noteref_821">821.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Above, p. <a href="#Pg188" class= + "tei tei-ref">188</a>.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_822" name="note_822" + href="#noteref_822">822.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Above, p. <a href="#Pg159" class= + "tei tei-ref">159</a>.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_823" name="note_823" + href="#noteref_823">823.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Above, p. <a href="#Pg116" class= + "tei tei-ref">116</a>.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_824" name="note_824" + href="#noteref_824">824.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Above, p. <a href="#Pg201" class= + "tei tei-ref">201</a>.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_825" name="note_825" + href="#noteref_825">825.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">L. Decle, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Three Years in Savage + Africa</span></span> (London, 1898), pp. 160 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_826" name="note_826" + href="#noteref_826">826.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Rev. J. Shooter, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Kafirs of Natal + and the Zulu Country</span></span> (London, 1857), p. 18.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_827" name="note_827" + href="#noteref_827">827.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Above, pp. <a href="#Pg140" class= + "tei tei-ref">140</a>, <a href="#Pg142" class= + "tei tei-ref">142</a>.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_828" name="note_828" + href="#noteref_828">828.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Above, pp. <a href="#Pg119" class= + "tei tei-ref">119</a>, <a href="#Pg165" class= + "tei tei-ref">165</a>, <a href="#Pg166" class= + "tei tei-ref">166</a>, <a href="#Pg173" class= + "tei tei-ref">173</a>, <a href="#Pg203" class= + "tei tei-ref">203</a>.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_829" name="note_829" + href="#noteref_829">829.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Above, p. <a href="#Pg140" class= + "tei tei-ref">140</a>.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_830" name="note_830" + href="#noteref_830">830.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Above, p. <a href="#Pg121" class= + "tei tei-ref">121</a>.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_831" name="note_831" + href="#noteref_831">831.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Above, pp. <a href="#Pg141" class= + "tei tei-ref">141</a>, <a href="#Pg170" class= + "tei tei-ref">170</a>, <a href="#Pg190" class= + "tei tei-ref">190</a>, <a href="#Pg203" class= + "tei tei-ref">203</a>, <a href="#Pg248" class= + "tei tei-ref">248</a>, <a href="#Pg250" class= + "tei tei-ref">250</a>, <a href="#Pg264" class= + "tei tei-ref">264</a>.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_832" name="note_832" + href="#noteref_832">832.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Above, p. <a href="#Pg251" class= + "tei tei-ref">251</a>.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_833" name="note_833" + href="#noteref_833">833.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Above, pp. <a href="#Pg119" class= + "tei tei-ref">119</a>, <a href="#Pg165" class= + "tei tei-ref">165</a>, <a href="#Pg166" class= + "tei tei-ref">166</a>, <a href="#Pg168" class= + "tei tei-ref">168</a>, <a href="#Pg173" class= + "tei tei-ref">173</a>, <a href="#Pg174" class= + "tei tei-ref">174</a>.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_834" name="note_834" + href="#noteref_834">834.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Above, pp. <a href="#Pg118" class= + "tei tei-ref">118</a>, <a href="#Pg163" class="tei tei-ref">163</a> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_835" name="note_835" + href="#noteref_835">835.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Above, p. <a href="#Pg201" class= + "tei tei-ref">201</a>.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_836" name="note_836" + href="#noteref_836">836.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Above, p. <a href="#Pg203" class= + "tei tei-ref">203</a>.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_837" name="note_837" + href="#noteref_837">837.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Above, p. <a href="#Pg250" class= + "tei tei-ref">250</a>.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_838" name="note_838" + href="#noteref_838">838.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Above, pp. <a href="#Pg251" class= + "tei tei-ref">251</a>, <a href="#Pg262" class= + "tei tei-ref">262</a>, <a href="#Pg263" class= + "tei tei-ref">263</a>, <a href="#Pg264" class= + "tei tei-ref">264</a>.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_839" name="note_839" + href="#noteref_839">839.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Above, p. <a href="#Pg112" class= + "tei tei-ref">112</a>.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_840" name="note_840" + href="#noteref_840">840.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Above, p. <a href="#Pg141" class= + "tei tei-ref">141</a>.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_841" name="note_841" + href="#noteref_841">841.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Above, p. <a href="#Pg214" class= + "tei tei-ref">214</a>.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_842" name="note_842" + href="#noteref_842">842.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Above, p. <a href="#Pg204" class= + "tei tei-ref">204</a>.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_843" name="note_843" + href="#noteref_843">843.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Above, p. <a href="#Pg194" class= + "tei tei-ref">194</a>.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_844" name="note_844" + href="#noteref_844">844.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Above, pp. <a href="#Pg185" class= + "tei tei-ref">185</a>, <a href="#Pg189" class= + "tei tei-ref">189</a>; compare p. <a href="#Pg174" class= + "tei tei-ref">174</a>.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_845" name="note_845" + href="#noteref_845">845.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Above, p. <a href="#Pg166" class= + "tei tei-ref">166</a>.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_846" name="note_846" + href="#noteref_846">846.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Above, pp. <a href="#Pg249" class= + "tei tei-ref">249</a>, <a href="#Pg250" class= + "tei tei-ref">250</a>.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_847" name="note_847" + href="#noteref_847">847.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Above, pp. <a href="#Pg107" class= + "tei tei-ref">107</a>, <a href="#Pg109" class= + "tei tei-ref">109</a>, <a href="#Pg111" class= + "tei tei-ref">111</a>, <a href="#Pg119" class= + "tei tei-ref">119</a>; compare pp. <a href="#Pg116" class= + "tei tei-ref">116</a>, <a href="#Pg192" class= + "tei tei-ref">192</a>, <a href="#Pg193" class= + "tei tei-ref">193</a>.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_848" name="note_848" + href="#noteref_848">848.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Above, p. <a href="#Pg115" class= + "tei tei-ref">115</a>.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_849" name="note_849" + href="#noteref_849">849.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Above, p. <a href="#Pg180" class= + "tei tei-ref">180</a>.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_850" name="note_850" + href="#noteref_850">850.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Above, pp. <a href="#Pg113" class= + "tei tei-ref">113</a>, <a href="#Pg142" class= + "tei tei-ref">142</a>, <a href="#Pg170" class= + "tei tei-ref">170</a>, <a href="#Pg233" class= + "tei tei-ref">233</a>. The torches of Demeter, which figure so + largely in her myth and on her monuments, are perhaps to be + explained by this custom. See <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Spirits of the Corn and of the + Wild</span></span>, i. 57. W. Mannhardt thought (<span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Baumkultus</span></span>, p. 536) that the + torches in the modern European customs are imitations of lightning. + At some of their ceremonies the Indians of North-West America + imitate lightning by means of pitch-wood torches which are flashed + through the roof of the house. See J. G. Swan, quoted by Franz + Boas, <span class="tei tei-q">“The Social Organization and the + Secret Societies of the Kwakiutl Indians,”</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Report of the United + States National Museum for 1895</span></span> (Washington, 1897), + p. 639.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_851" name="note_851" + href="#noteref_851">851.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Above, p. <a href="#Pg203" class= + "tei tei-ref">203</a>.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_852" name="note_852" + href="#noteref_852">852.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Amélie Bosquet, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">La Normandie + Romanesque et Merveilleuse</span></span> (Paris and Rouen, 1845), + pp. 295 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; Jules Lecœur, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Esquisses du Bocage + Normand</span></span> (Condé-sur-Noireau, 1883-1887), ii. 126-129. + See <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The + Scapegoat</span></span>, pp. 316 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_853" name="note_853" + href="#noteref_853">853.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Br. Jelínek, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Materialen zur Vorgeschichte und Volkskunde + Böhmens,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Mittheilungen der anthropolog. Gesellschaft in + Wien</span></span>, xxi. (1891) p. 13 note.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_854" name="note_854" + href="#noteref_854">854.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Mrs. Bishop, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Korea and her + Neighbours</span></span> (London, 1898), ii. 56 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_855" name="note_855" + href="#noteref_855">855.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Above, pp. <a href="#Pg190" class= + "tei tei-ref">190</a> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_856" name="note_856" + href="#noteref_856">856.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Above, pp. <a href="#Pg178" class= + "tei tei-ref">178</a>, <a href="#Pg205" class= + "tei tei-ref">205</a>, <a href="#Pg206" class= + "tei tei-ref">206</a>.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_857" name="note_857" + href="#noteref_857">857.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Magic Art and the + Evolution of Kings</span></span>, i. 311 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_858" name="note_858" + href="#noteref_858">858.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Above, pp. <a href="#Pg108" class= + "tei tei-ref">108</a>, <a href="#Pg109" class= + "tei tei-ref">109</a>, <a href="#Pg116" class= + "tei tei-ref">116</a>, <a href="#Pg118" class="tei tei-ref">118</a> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg121" class= + "tei tei-ref">121</a>, <a href="#Pg148" class= + "tei tei-ref">148</a>, <a href="#Pg154" class= + "tei tei-ref">154</a>, <a href="#Pg156" class= + "tei tei-ref">156</a>, <a href="#Pg157" class= + "tei tei-ref">157</a>, <a href="#Pg159" class= + "tei tei-ref">159</a>, <a href="#Pg160" class= + "tei tei-ref">160</a>, <a href="#Pg170" class= + "tei tei-ref">170</a>, <a href="#Pg171" class= + "tei tei-ref">171</a>, <a href="#Pg174" class= + "tei tei-ref">174</a>, <a href="#Pg175" class= + "tei tei-ref">175</a>, <a href="#Pg176" class= + "tei tei-ref">176</a>, <a href="#Pg180" class= + "tei tei-ref">180</a>, <a href="#Pg183" class= + "tei tei-ref">183</a>, <a href="#Pg185" class= + "tei tei-ref">185</a>, <a href="#Pg188" class= + "tei tei-ref">188</a>, <a href="#Pg232" class="tei tei-ref">232</a> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg245" class= + "tei tei-ref">245</a>, <a href="#Pg252" class= + "tei tei-ref">252</a>, <a href="#Pg253" class= + "tei tei-ref">253</a>, <a href="#Pg280" class= + "tei tei-ref">280</a>, <a href="#Pg292" class= + "tei tei-ref">292</a>, <a href="#Pg293" class= + "tei tei-ref">293</a>, <a href="#Pg295" class= + "tei tei-ref">295</a>, <a href="#Pg297" class= + "tei tei-ref">297</a>. For more evidence of the use of fire to burn + or expel witches on certain days of the year, see <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The + Scapegoat</span></span>, pp. 158 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span> + Less often the fires are thought to burn or repel evil spirits and + vampyres. See above, pp. <a href="#Pg146" class= + "tei tei-ref">146</a>, <a href="#Pg170" class= + "tei tei-ref">170</a>, <a href="#Pg172" class= + "tei tei-ref">172</a>, <a href="#Pg202" class= + "tei tei-ref">202</a>, <a href="#Pg252" class= + "tei tei-ref">252</a>, <a href="#Pg282" class= + "tei tei-ref">282</a>, <a href="#Pg285" class= + "tei tei-ref">285</a>. Sometimes the purpose of the fires is to + drive away dragons (above, pp. <a href="#Pg161" class= + "tei tei-ref">161</a>, <a href="#Pg195" class= + "tei tei-ref">195</a>).</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_859" name="note_859" + href="#noteref_859">859.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Above, pp. <a href="#Pg107" class= + "tei tei-ref">107</a>, <a href="#Pg116" class= + "tei tei-ref">116</a>, <a href="#Pg118" class="tei tei-ref">118</a> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg159" class= + "tei tei-ref">159</a>.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_860" name="note_860" + href="#noteref_860">860.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-q">“In short, of + all the ills incident to the life of man, none are so formidable as + witchcraft, before the combined influence of which, to use the + language of an honest man who had himself severely suffered from + its effects, the great laird of Grant himself could not stand them + if they should fairly yoke upon him”</span> (W. Grant Stewart, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The + Popular Superstitions and Festive Amusements of the Highlanders of + Scotland</span></span>, Edinburgh, 1823, pp. 202 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>). + <span class="tei tei-q">“Every misfortune and calamity that took + place in the parish, such as ill-health, the death of friends, the + loss of stock, and the failure of crops; yea to such a length did + they carry their superstition, that even the inclemency of the + seasons, were attributed to the influence of certain old women who + were supposed to be in league, and had dealings with the Devil. + These the common people thought had the power and too often the + inclination to injure their property, and torment their + persons”</span> (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">County Folk-lore</span></span>, vol. v. + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Lincolnshire</span></span>, collected by Mrs. + Gutch and Mabel Peacock, London, 1908, p. 76). <span class= + "tei tei-q">“The county of Salop is no exception to the rule of + superstition. The late vicar of a parish on the Clee Hills, + startled to find that his parishioners still believed in + witchcraft, once proposed to preach a sermon against it, but he was + dissuaded from doing so by the parish schoolmaster, who assured him + that the belief was so deeply rooted in the people's minds that he + would be more likely to alienate them from the Church than to + weaken their faith in witchcraft”</span> (Miss C. F. Burne and Miss + G. F. Jackson, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Shropshire Folk-lore</span></span>, London, + 1883, p. 145). <span class="tei tei-q">“Wherever a man or any + living creature falls sick, or a misfortune of any kind happens, + without any natural cause being discoverable or rather lying on the + surface, there in all probability witchcraft is at work. The sudden + stiffness in the small of the back, which few people can account + for at the time, is therefore called a <span class= + "tei tei-q">‘witch-shot’</span> and is really ascribed to + witchcraft”</span> (L. Strackerjan, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Aberglaube und Sagen + aus dem Herzogthum Oldenburg</span></span>, Oldenburg, 1867, i. p. + 298, § 209). What Sir Walter Scott said less than a hundred years + ago is probably still true: <span class="tei tei-q">“The remains of + the superstition sometimes occur; there can be no doubt that the + vulgar are still addicted to the custom of scoring above the breath + (as it is termed), and other counter-spells, evincing that the + belief in witchcraft is only asleep, and might in remote corners be + again awakened to deeds of blood”</span> (<span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Letters on Demonology + and Witchcraft</span></span>, London, 1884, p. 272). Compare L. + Strackerjan, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">op. cit.</span></span> i. p. 340, § 221: + <span class="tei tei-q">“The great power, the malicious wickedness + of the witches, cause them to be feared and hated by everybody. The + hatred goes so far that still at the present day you may hear it + said right out that it is a pity burning has gone out of fashion, + for the evil crew deserve nothing else. Perhaps the hatred might + find vent yet more openly, if the fear were not so + great.”</span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_861" name="note_861" + href="#noteref_861">861.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">For some evidence, see <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Magic Art and the + Evolution of Kings</span></span>, ii. 52-55, 330 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span> It + is a popular belief, universally diffused in Germany, that + cattle-plagues are caused by witches (A. Wuttke, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Der deutsche + Volksaberglaube</span></span>,<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "vertical-align: super">2</span></span> Berlin, 1869, p. 149 § + 216). The Scotch Highlanders thought that a witch could destroy the + whole of a farmer's live stock by hiding a small bag, stuffed with + charms, in a cleft of the stable or byre (W. Grant Stewart, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The + Popular Superstitions and Festive Amusements of the Highlanders of + Scotland</span></span>, Edinburgh, 1823, pp. 201 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>).</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_862" name="note_862" + href="#noteref_862">862.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">The Magic Art and the Evolution of + Kings</span></span>, ii. 330 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_863" name="note_863" + href="#noteref_863">863.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Above, pp. <a href="#Pg282" class= + "tei tei-ref">282</a>, <a href="#Pg284" class="tei tei-ref">284</a> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_864" name="note_864" + href="#noteref_864">864.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Above, pp. <a href="#Pg118" class= + "tei tei-ref">118</a>, <a href="#Pg121" class= + "tei tei-ref">121</a>, <a href="#Pg144" class= + "tei tei-ref">144</a>, <a href="#Pg145" class= + "tei tei-ref">145</a>, <a href="#Pg176" class= + "tei tei-ref">176</a>.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_865" name="note_865" + href="#noteref_865">865.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Above, pp. <a href="#Pg121" class= + "tei tei-ref">121</a>, <a href="#Pg122" class= + "tei tei-ref">122</a>, <a href="#Pg124" class= + "tei tei-ref">124</a>, <a href="#Pg140" class="tei tei-ref">140</a> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg145" class= + "tei tei-ref">145</a>, <a href="#Pg146" class= + "tei tei-ref">146</a>, <a href="#Pg174" class= + "tei tei-ref">174</a>, <a href="#Pg176" class= + "tei tei-ref">176</a>, <a href="#Pg183" class= + "tei tei-ref">183</a>, <a href="#Pg184" class= + "tei tei-ref">184</a>, <a href="#Pg187" class= + "tei tei-ref">187</a>, <a href="#Pg188" class= + "tei tei-ref">188</a>, <a href="#Pg190" class= + "tei tei-ref">190</a>, <a href="#Pg191" class= + "tei tei-ref">191</a>, <a href="#Pg192" class= + "tei tei-ref">192</a>, <a href="#Pg249" class= + "tei tei-ref">249</a>, <a href="#Pg250" class= + "tei tei-ref">250</a>, <a href="#Pg252" class= + "tei tei-ref">252</a>, <a href="#Pg253" class= + "tei tei-ref">253</a>, <a href="#Pg254" class= + "tei tei-ref">254</a>, <a href="#Pg258" class= + "tei tei-ref">258</a>.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_866" name="note_866" + href="#noteref_866">866.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">J. Grimm, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Deutsche + Mythologie</span></span>,<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "vertical-align: super">4</span></span> ii. 908 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>; + J. V. Grohmann, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Aberglauben und. Gebräuche aus Böhmen und + Mähren</span></span> (Prague and Leipsic, 1864), p. 32 § 182; A. + Wuttke, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Der deutsche + Volksaberglaube</span></span><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "vertical-align: super">2</span></span> (Berlin, 1869), pp. 149 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, § 216; J. Ceredig Davies, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Folk-lore + of West and Mid-Wales</span></span> (Aberystwyth, 1911), p. 230; + Alois John, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Sitte, Brauch und Volksglaube im deutschen + Westböhmen</span></span> (Prague, 1905), p. 202.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_867" name="note_867" + href="#noteref_867">867.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Above, pp. <a href="#Pg108" class= + "tei tei-ref">108</a>, <a href="#Pg121" class= + "tei tei-ref">121</a>, <a href="#Pg140" class= + "tei tei-ref">140</a>, <a href="#Pg146" class= + "tei tei-ref">146</a>, <a href="#Pg165" class= + "tei tei-ref">165</a>, <a href="#Pg183" class= + "tei tei-ref">183</a>, <a href="#Pg188" class= + "tei tei-ref">188</a>, <a href="#Pg196" class= + "tei tei-ref">196</a>, <a href="#Pg250" class= + "tei tei-ref">250</a>, <a href="#Pg255" class= + "tei tei-ref">255</a>, <a href="#Pg256" class= + "tei tei-ref">256</a>, <a href="#Pg258" class= + "tei tei-ref">258</a>.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_868" name="note_868" + href="#noteref_868">868.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Above, pp. <a href="#Pg107" class= + "tei tei-ref">107</a>, <a href="#Pg195" class="tei tei-ref">195</a> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_869" name="note_869" + href="#noteref_869">869.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Above, pp. <a href="#Pg162" class= + "tei tei-ref">162</a>, <a href="#Pg163" class= + "tei tei-ref">163</a>, <a href="#Pg166" class= + "tei tei-ref">166</a>, <a href="#Pg171" class= + "tei tei-ref">171</a>, <a href="#Pg174" class= + "tei tei-ref">174</a>.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_870" name="note_870" + href="#noteref_870">870.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">A. Wuttke, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Der deutsche + Volksaberglaube</span></span><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "vertical-align: super">2</span></span> (Berlin, 1869), p. 351, § + 395.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_871" name="note_871" + href="#noteref_871">871.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Above, pp. <a href="#Pg165" class= + "tei tei-ref">165</a>, <a href="#Pg168" class= + "tei tei-ref">168</a>, <a href="#Pg189" class= + "tei tei-ref">189</a>, compare <a href="#Pg190" class= + "tei tei-ref">190</a>.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_872" name="note_872" + href="#noteref_872">872.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">A. Wuttke, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Der deutsche + Volksaberglaube</span></span><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "vertical-align: super">2</span></span> (Berlin, 1869), p. 351, § + 395; L. Strackerjan, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Aberglaube und Sagen aus dem Herzogthum + Oldenburg</span></span> (Oldenburg, 1867), i. p. 298, § 209. See + above, p. <a href="#Pg343" class="tei tei-ref">343</a> note.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_873" name="note_873" + href="#noteref_873">873.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">In the Ammerland, a district of + Oldenburg, you may sometimes see an old cart-wheel fixed over the + principal door or on the gable of a house; it serves as a charm + against witchcraft and is especially intended to protect the cattle + as they are driven out and in. See L. Strackerjan, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Aberglaube und Sagen + aus dem Herzogthum Oldenburg</span></span> (Oldenburg, 1867), i. p. + 357, § 236. Can this use of a wheel as a talisman against + witchcraft be derived from the practice of rolling fiery wheels + down hill for a similar purpose?</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_874" name="note_874" + href="#noteref_874">874.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">F. S. Krauss, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Volksglaube und + religiöser Brauch der Südslaven</span></span> (Münster i. W., + 1890), pp. 118 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_875" name="note_875" + href="#noteref_875">875.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">In German such spells are called + <span lang="de" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="de"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Nestelknüpfen</span></span>; in French, + <span lang="fr" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="fr"><span style= + "font-style: italic">nouer l'aiguilette</span></span>. See J. + Grimm, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Deutsche Mythologie</span></span>,<span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="vertical-align: super">4</span></span> + ii. 897, 983; A. Wuttke, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Der deutsche + Volksaberglaube</span></span><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "vertical-align: super">2</span></span> (Berlin, 1869), p. 252 § + 396; E. Doutté, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Magie et Religion dans l'Afrique du + Nord</span></span> (Algiers, 1908), pp. 87 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, + 294 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>; J.L.M. Noguès, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Les Mœurs + d'autrefois en Saintonge et en Aunis</span></span> (Saintes, 1891), + pp. 171 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + </dl> + </div> + <hr class="doublepage" /> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> + <div id="pgfooter" class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em"> + <pre class="pre tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> +***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE GOLDEN BOUGH: A STUDY IN MAGIC AND RELIGION (THIRD EDITION, VOL. 10 OF 12)*** +</pre> + <hr class="doublepage" /> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> + <a name="rightpageheader59" id="rightpageheader59"></a><a name= + "pgtoc60" id="pgtoc60"></a><a name="pdf61" id="pdf61"></a> + + <h1 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"> + <span style="font-size: 173%">Credits</span></h1> + + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <tbody> + <tr> + <th class="tei tei-label tei-label-gloss">June 27, + 2013 </th> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="tei tei-item tei-item-gloss"> + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list" + style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <tbody> + <tr class="tei tei-labelitem"> + <th class="tei tei-label"></th> + + <td class="tei tei-item">Project Gutenberg TEI + edition 1</td> + </tr> + + <tr class="tei tei-labelitem"> + <th class="tei tei-label"></th> + + <td class="tei tei-item"><span class= + "tei tei-respStmt"><span class= + "tei tei-name">Produced by David Edwards, David + King, and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team + at <http://www.pgdp.net/>. 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